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| author | nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org> | 2025-01-22 09:58:37 -0800 |
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| committer | nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org> | 2025-01-22 09:58:37 -0800 |
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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..2ae258e --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #66913 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/66913) diff --git a/old/66913-0.txt b/old/66913-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 311662e..0000000 --- a/old/66913-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,15163 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of Hildreth's "Japan as it was and is", Volume -I (of 2), by Richard Hildreth - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: Hildreth's "Japan as it was and is", Volume I (of 2) - A Handbook of Old Japan - -Author: Richard Hildreth - -Editor: Ernest W. Clement - -Contributor: W. M. Elliot Griffis - -Release Date: December 9, 2021 [eBook #66913] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -Produced by: MFR, Les Galloway and the Online Distributed Proofreading - Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from - images generously made available by The Internet Archive) - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HILDRETH'S "JAPAN AS IT WAS AND -IS", VOLUME I (OF 2) *** - - Transcriber’s Notes - -Obvious typographical errors have been silently corrected. Variations -in hyphenation have been standardised but all other spelling and -punctuation remains unchanged. - -Italics are represented thus _italic_, and superscripts thus y^{en}. - -On page 168, 2nd paragraph of Chapter XIX, refers to a Papal Bull -promulgated by Pope Clement VII in 1860. This has been corrected to -Pope Clement VIII who was pope when the Bull was promulgated in 1600. - -Volume II contains a complete index to both volumes. This has been copied into -this volume. - - - - - “JAPAN AS IT WAS AND IS” - - A HANDBOOK OF OLD JAPAN - - I - - - - - _Uniform with this Work_ - - - A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN. - -By ERNEST W. CLEMENT. With two maps and seventy-two illustrations from - photographs. _Sixth edition._ Price, $1.40 _net._ - - - A. C. MCCLURG & CO. - _Chicago_ - - -[Illustration: IMAGE OF DATE MASAMUNE] - - - - - HILDRETH’S - “JAPAN AS IT WAS AND IS” - - A HANDBOOK OF OLD JAPAN - - EDITED, WITH SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES, BY - - ERNEST W. CLEMENT - - AUTHOR OF “A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN,” ETC. - - INTRODUCTION BY - WM. ELLIOT GRIFFIS - - _With One Hundred Illustrations and Maps_ - - VOLUME I - - [Illustration: A·C·M^cCLURG - & CO] - - CHICAGO - A. C. McCLURG & CO. - 1906 - - - - - COPYRIGHT - A. C. MCCLURG & CO. - 1906 - - Published September 29, 1906 - - THE UNIVERSITY PRESS, CAMBRIDGE, U.S.A. - - - - - CONTENTS - - VOLUME I. - - - PAGE - - “ADVERTISEMENT” TO ORIGINAL EDITION. RICHARD HILDRETH xiii - EDITOR’S INTRODUCTION ERNEST W. CLEMENT xix - FOREWORD WM. ELLIOT GRIFFIS xxv - JAPANESE PRONUNCIATION xxxi - - - CHAPTER I - - Earliest European Knowledge of Japan—Japanese Histories—Marco - Polo’s Account of the Mongol or Tartar Invasion—Accounts - of the Same Event given by the Chinese and Japanese - Annalists—A. D. 1281 or 1283 1 - - - CHAPTER II - - Portuguese Empire in the East—Discovery of Japan—Galvano’s - Account of it—Fernam Mendez Pinto’s Account of his First - Visit to Japan, and Adventures there—Japanese Account of - the First Arrival of Portuguese—A. D. 1542-1545 11 - - - CHAPTER III - - Pinto’s Second Visit to Japan—Anjirō, or Paul of the Holy Faith—A. - D. 1547-1548 34 - - - CHAPTER IV - - Religious Faith Three Centuries ago—Zeal of the Portuguese - Conquerors—Antonio Galvano—Missionary Seminaries at - Ternate and Goa—Order of the Jesuits—Francis Xavier—His - Mission to India—His Mission to Japan—His Companion, - Cosme de Torres—The Philippine Islands—A. D. 1542-1550 40 - - - CHAPTER V - - Political and Religious Condition of Japan, as found by the - Portuguese—The Yakatas, or Kings, and their - Vassals—Revenues—Money—Distinction of Ranks—The Kubō-Sama—The - Dairi—Shintō—Buddhism—Judō—A. D. 1550 57 - - - CHAPTER VI - - Civilization of the Japanese—Animals—Agriculture—Arts—Houses - —Ships—Literature—Jurisprudence—Character of the Japanese—Their - Custom of cutting themselves open—A. D. 1550 75 - - - CHAPTER VII - - Preaching of Xavier—Pinto’s Third Visit to Japan—A. D. 1550-1551 81 - - - CHAPTER VIII - - Progress of the Missions under Fathers De Torres and Nugnes - Barreto—Mendez Pinto a Fourth Time in Japan—A. D. 1551-1557 87 - - - CHAPTER IX - - Louis Almeida—The Missionaries establish themselves at Miyako - [Kyōtō]—Louis Froez—Princes converted in Shimo—Rise - of Nobunaga—Prosperity of the Missions—Noble and Princely - Converts—Nagasaki built—Nobunaga makes himself Emperor—A. D. - 1557-1577 93 - - - CHAPTER X - - Father Valignani—State of the Missions—Conversion and Baptism - of the King of Bungo—Growth of Nagasaki—Embassy - to the Pope—Documents relating to this Embassy—A. D. 1577-1586 100 - - - CHAPTER XI - - Events meanwhile in Japan—Downfall of Nobunaga—Accession - of Hashiba, afterwards known as Kwambacudono, and, finally, - as Taikō-Sama—Edict against the Jesuits—Return of the - Ambassadors—A. D. 1582-1588 116 - - - CHAPTER XII - - Recapitulation—Extent of the Japanese Empire—Valignani - arrives at Nagasaki—Progress hitherto of the Catholic Faith—The - Emperor’s Projects against China—Valignani’s Visit to - the Emperor at Miyako—Ukondono—The returned Japanese - Ambassadors—Audience given to Valignani—The Viceroy’s - Letter—The Interpreter Rodriguez—A. D. 1588-1593 123 - - - CHAPTER XIII - - New Troubles of the Missionaries from their own Countrymen—The - Emperor claims Homage of the Governor of the Philippines—Mutual - Jealousies of the Portuguese and Spaniards—Spanish - Adventurers in Japan—The Emperor’s Suspicions - excited—His Reply to the Viceroy of Goa—A. D. 1591-1592 134 - - - CHAPTER XIV - - The Expedition against Corea—The Emperor associates his - Nephew—City of Fushimi—Correspondence of the Emperor - with the Governor of Manila—The Jesuits denounced by - the Spanish Envoys—Consequences thereof—Departure of - Valignani—A. D. 1592 140 - - - CHAPTER XV - - Progress of the Corean War—Success of the Japanese—Konishi - Settsu-no-Kami, Viceroy of Corea—Edict of the Emperor for disarming - the Converts in Shimo—Disgrace and Downfall of the - Royal Family of Bungo—Terazawa, Governor of Nagasaki—His - Conversion and Friendly Acts—A. D. 1592-1593 144 - - - CHAPTER XVI - - Jealousy on the Part of the Dominicans and Franciscans towards - Jesuits—This Jealousy coöperates with the Mercantile Jealousy - of the Spaniards at Manila—Franciscan Friars establish themselves - at Miyako, Ōsaka, and Nagasaki—Edicts against them—Deposition - and Death of the Emperor’s Nephew—A. D. 1593-1595 147 - - - CHAPTER XVII - - Great Earthquake—Mission from China—Arrival of a Spanish - Galleon—Friars on Board her—New Accusations on her Account - against the Jesuits—Connection of the Jesuits with the - Trade to Japan—Arrest of Missionaries and Converts—First - Martyrs—A. D. 1595-1597 151 - - - - - CHAPTER XVIII - - New Edict for the Deportation of the Jesuits—Its Partial Evasion—New - Correspondence between the Philippines and Japan—Taikō-Sama’s - Justification of his Recent Proceedings—New - Destruction of Churches in Shimo—Taikō-Sama’s Death—His - Preceding Efforts to secure his own Deification and the Succession - of his Infant Son, Hideyori—Regency—Iyeyasu, its - Head, with the Title of Daifu-Sama—A. D. 1597-1599 158 - - - CHAPTER XIX - - Evacuation of Corea—Return of the Converted Princes—Favorable - Disposition of Daifu-Sama—Third Visit of Father - Valignani—Civil War between Daifu-Sama and his Co-Regents—His - Triumph—Disgrace and Execution of Settsu-no-Kami—Daifu-Sama - takes the Title of Ōgosho-Sama and still - favors the Converts—Influx of Dominican and Franciscan - Friars—Flourishing Condition of the Church—Local - Persecutions—A. D. 1599-1609 162 - - - CHAPTER XX - - Attempt of the English and Dutch to discover a New Route to the - Far East—Voyages round the World—Attempted English - Voyage to Japan—English and Dutch Voyages to India—First - Dutch Voyage to Japan—Adams, the English Pilot—His - Adventures and Detention in Japan—A. D. 1513-1607 166 - - - CHAPTER XXI - - Spanish Friars in Japan—Extension of Japanese Trade—Progress - of the Dutch in the Eastern Seas—They open a Trade - with Japan—Emperor’s Letter—Shipwreck of Don Rodrigo - de Vivero on the Japanese Coast—His Reception, Observations, - and Departure—Destruction of a Portuguese Carac by - the Japanese—Another Dutch Ship arrives—Spex’s Charter—Embassies - from Macao and New Spain—Father Louis - Sotelo and his Projects—A. D. 1607-1618 179 - - - CHAPTER XXII - - Origin and Commencement of English Intercourse with Japan—Captain - Saris’ Voyage thither, and Travels and Observations - there—New Spanish Embassy from the Philippines—Commercial - Rivalry of the Dutch and English—Richard Cocks, - Head of the English Factory—A. D. 1611-1613 206 - - - CHAPTER XXIII - - Ecclesiastical Retrospect—New Persecution—Edict of Banishment - against the Missionaries—Civil War between Hideyori - and Ōgosho-Sama—Triumph of Ōgosho-Sama—His Death—Persecution - more Violent than ever—Mutual Rancor of the - Jesuits and the Friars—Progress of Martyrdom—The English - and Dutch—A. D. 1613-1620 227 - - - CHAPTER XXIV - - Collisions of the Dutch and English in the Eastern Seas—The - English retire from Japan—The Spaniards repelled—Progress - of the Persecution—Japanese Ports, except Hirado and - Nagasaki, closed to Foreigners—Charges in Europe against - the Jesuits—Fathers Sotelo and Collado—Torment of the - Fosse—Apostasies—The Portuguese confined to Deshima—Rebellion - of Shimabara—The Portuguese excluded—Ambassadors - put to Death—A. D. 1621-1640 236 - - - CHAPTER XXV - - Policy of the Dutch—Affair of Nuyts—Haganaar’s Visits to - Japan—Caron’s Account of Japan—Income of the Emperor - and the Nobles—Military Force—Social and Political Position - of the Nobles—Justice—Relation of the Dutch to the Persecution - of the Catholics—The Dutch removed from Hirado and - confined in Deshima—Attempts of the English, Portuguese, - and French at Intercourse with Japan—Final Extinction of - the Catholic Faith—A. D. 1620-1707 251 - - - CHAPTER XXVI - - Portuguese Trade to Japan—Dutch Trade—Silver, Gold, and - Copper the Chief Articles of Export—Export of Silver - prohibited—Chinese Trade—Its Increase after the Accession of - the Manchu Dynasty—Chinese Temples at Nagasaki—A - Buddhist Doctor from China—Edict on the Subject of Household - Worship—Restrictions on the Dutch Trade—Increase - in the Number of Chinese Visitors to - Nagasaki—Their Objects—Restrictions on the Chinese Trade—The - Chinese shut up in a Factory—Trade with Lew Chew - [Riūkiū]—A. D. 1542-1690 269 - - - CHAPTER XXVII - - Engelbert Kämpfer—His Visit to Japan—Deshima and its - Inhabitants as described by him—A. D. 1690 282 - - - CHAPTER XXVIII - - Particular Statement as to the Dutch Trade as it existed in - Kämpfer’s Time—Arrival of the Ships—Unlading—Passes—Imports—Company - and Private Goods—Kambans, or - Public Sales—Duties—Profits—Exports—Departure of - the Ships—Smuggling—Execution of Smugglers 316 - - - CHAPTER XXIX - - Nagasaki and its Vicinity as seen by Kämpfer—Imperial Governors—Their - Officers and Palaces—Municipal System—Street - Government—Mutual Responsibility—Administration - of Justice—Taxes—Government of other Towns—Adjacent - Country—The God Suwa and his Matsuri—A. D. 1690-1692 337 - - - CHAPTER XXX - - Kämpfer’s Two Journeys to Court—Preparations—Presents—Japanese - Attendants—Packing the Baggage and Riding on - Horseback—Japanese Love of Botany—Accoutrements—Road-Books—Norimono - and Kago—A. D. 1690-1692 366 - - - CHAPTER XXXI - - Highways—Rivers—Fords—Ferries—Bridges—Water Part - of the Journey—Coast and Islands—Frail Structure of - Japanese Vessels—Description of them—Buildings on the - Route—Proclamation Places—Places of Execution—Tera, - or Buddhist Temples—Miya, or Shintō Temples—Idols and - Amulets 380 - - INDEX - - - - - LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS - - VOLUME I. - - - PAGE - - Image of Date Masamune _Frontispiece_ - - The Invasion of the Mongol Tartars 2 - - Entrance to the Temple of Jimmu Tennō 8 - - Portrait of St. Francis Xavier, One of the Earliest Missionaries to - Japan 42 - - Image of Yoritomo 64 - - Ise Temple 68 - - A Shintō Priest 70 - - Pilgrims returning from a Temple 72 - - A Buddhist Sermon 74 - - Performance of Harakiri 78 - - The Kintai Bridge, Snō 90 - - Image of Oda Nobunaga 96 - - Painting of Taikō-Sama 124 - - The Expedition against Corea 140 - - Feudal Strongholds: Himeji Castle; Nagoya Castle 160 - - Image of Iyeyasu 164 - - Temple of Hideyoshi, Kyōtō 182 - - A Scene in the Palace Gardens, Kyōtō 196 - - Performers on the Koto and the Samisen 212 - - The Tomb of Iyeyasu, Nikkō 230 - - Facsimile of an Anti-Christian Edict 242 - - Dutch Candelabrum at Nikkō 256 - - Attack on Fort Zeelandia in Formosa 302 - - Nagasaki Harbor 312 - - Examination of a Prisoner by Torture 354 - - Festival with Mikoshi 358 - - Musical Instruments: Two Styles of Drums; A Flute-player 362 - - Transportation Methods: A Buddhist Priest in a Norimono; - Ancient Imperial Carriages; Lady in a Kago 366 - - A Bridge spanning the River Ōigawa; View of Fujikawa 378 - - The River Ōi 384 - - Japanese Craft: Sailboats; Rowboats; Junks 386 - - A Merchant Ship 390 - - A Dry-goods Shop 396 - - - MAPS - - Sketch Map of Old Japan 1 - - Map of Feudal Japan 272 - - - - - ADVERTISEMENT - - TO ORIGINAL EDITION - - -In collecting materials for a biography of the first explorers and -planters of New England and Virginia, I was carried to Japan, where I -happened to arrive (in the spirit) almost simultaneously with Commodore -Perry’s expedition. My interest thus roused in this secluded country -has produced this book, into which I have put the cream skimmed, or, -as I might say, in some cases, the juices laboriously expressed, from -a good many volumes, the greater part not very accessible nor very -inviting to the general reader, but still containing much that is -curious and entertaining, and, to most readers, new; which curiosities, -novelties, and palatable extracts, those who choose will thus be -enabled to enjoy without the labor that I have undergone in their -collection and arrangement—the former, indeed, a labor of love for my -own satisfaction; the latter, one of duty—not to say of necessity—for -the pleasure of the reading and book-buying public. - -Instead of attempting, as others have done, to cast into a systematic -shape observations of very different dates, I have preferred to -follow the historic method, and to let the reader see Japan with -the successive eyes of all those who have visited it, and who have -committed their observations and reflections to paper and print. The -number of these observers, it will be found, is very considerable; -while their characters, objects, and points of view, have been widely -different; and perhaps the reader may reach the same conclusion that I -have: that, with all that is said of the seclusion of Japan, there are -few countries of the East which we have the means of knowing better, or -so well. - -The complete history of the Portuguese, Spanish, and Dutch relations -with the Japanese is not to be found elsewhere in English; nor in any -language, in a single work; while in no other book have the English and -American relations been so fully treated. Many extraordinary characters -and adventures make their appearance on the scene, and the reader will -have no ground to complain at least of want of variety. - -How little the history of Japan and of its former relations with -Portugal and Holland are known—even in quarters where information on -the subject might be said to constitute an official duty—is apparent in -the following passage in a letter addressed from the State Department -at Washington to the Secretary of the Navy, in explanation of the -grounds, reasons, and objects, of our late mission to Japan, and -intended as instruction to the envoy: “Since the islands of Japan were -first visited by European nations, efforts have _constantly_ been made -by the various maritime powers to establish commercial intercourse with -a country whose large population and reputed wealth hold out great -temptations to mercantile enterprise. Portugal was the first to make -the attempt, and her example was followed by Holland, England, Spain, -and Russia, and finally by the United States. _All these attempts, -however, have thus far been unsuccessful_; the permission enjoyed for -a short period by the Portuguese, and that granted to Holland _to send -annually a single vessel_ to the port of Nagasaki, hardly deserving to -be considered exceptions to this remark.” - -From Kämpfer, whose name has become so identified with Japan, but into -whose folios few have the opportunity or courage to look, I have made -very liberal extracts. Few travellers have equalled him in picturesque -power. His descriptions have indeed the completeness, and finish, and, -at the same time, the naturalness, and absence of all affectation, -with much of the same quiet humor, characteristic of the best Dutch -pictures. I have preferred to introduce entire the work of such an -artist, rather than to run the risk of spoiling it by attempting -a paraphrase; only, as I had so many other volumes on hand, the -substance, or at least the spirit, of which was to be transferred to -mine, and as folios are no longer in fashion, I have found it necessary -in quoting him to retrench a little the superabundance of his words. -It is from his work also that the ornamental title-page[1] is copied, -stated by his editor to be after a style fashionable in Japan, where -dragons are held in great repute. Kämpfer says, that heads of these -imaginary animals are placed over the doors of houses all over the -East—among the Mahometans of Arabia and Persia, as well as in China and -Japan—to keep off, as the Mahometans say, the envious from disturbing -the peace of families. Perhaps the Japanese authors surround their -title-pages with them in hopes to frighten away the critics. - -The outline map,[2] copied principally from that given in the atlas -of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, contains, with -the observations annexed to it, and the note H[2] of the appendix, -about all that we know of the geography of Japan—all at least that -would interest the general reader. The contour of the coast is that -delineated in our sea-charts, and though probably not very correct, is -much more so than that of the Japanese maps; which, however large and -particular, are not much to be relied upon, at least in this respect. -The division into provinces of course rests upon Japanese authority. - -In giving Japanese names and words, I have aimed at a certain -uniformity; but, like all other writers on Japan, have failed to attain -it. The Portuguese missionaries, or at least their translators into -Latin, in representing Japanese names, employed _c_ with the force of -_k_ before the vowels _a_, _o_, and _u_, and with the force of _s_ -before _e_ and _i_; which same sound of _s_, in common with that of -_ts_, they sometimes represented by _x_. In the earlier part of the -book I have, in relation to several names known only, or chiefly, -through these writers, followed their usage; though generally, in the -representation of Japanese names and words, I have avoided the use of -these ambiguous letters, and have endeavored to conform to the method -of representing the Japanese syllables proposed by Siebold, and of -which an account is given in the Appendix.[2] - -The daguerreotype views and portraits taken by the artists attached -to Commodore Perry’s expedition, the publication of which may soon -be hoped for, will afford much more authentic pictures of the -externals of Japan than yet have appeared; and, from the limited stay -and opportunities of observation enjoyed by those attached to that -expedition, must constitute their chief contribution to our knowledge -of the Japanese empire. - - R. H. - - BOSTON, June 1st, 1855. - - - - - EDITOR’S INTRODUCTION - - -Hildreth’s “Japan as it Was and Is” was published in three editions,—in -1855, 1856, and 1861. In the last edition a new chapter was added -to bring the book down to that date. The value of the book, as a -compilation from all the important European writings on Old Japan, -has always been acknowledged, but has been somewhat diminished by the -various old-fashioned styles of transliteration, which rendered many -Japanese words difficult of recognition. Therefore the present writer, -more than ten years ago, conceived the idea of a revision of Hildreth’s -work, especially by harmonizing the spelling of Japanese words with -the modern system of Romanization, and by adding such other notes and -explanations as might be necessary. This he has been doing gradually, -as leisure afforded opportunity. In the meantime Mr. K. Murakawa, an -alumnus of the Imperial University, Tōkyō, has issued, in two small -limited editions, in 1902 and 1905, a reprint somewhat along that -line. But as his work was done with the needs of Japanese in view, it -does not entirely satisfy the needs of foreigners. The present writer -acknowledges his indebtedness to Mr. Murakawa in some points, but he -had done almost all his work before he saw the Japanese edition. He now -offers an edition which is not merely a reprint, but also a revision, -and is well illustrated. Of course the text of the original has been -followed as closely as possible, and yet not only additions, but also -excisions, have been made whenever necessary. For instance, some of -the footnotes and several of the long notes in the Appendix have -been omitted because they have become either wholly or comparatively -valueless. The writer’s additional notes are signed “Edr.,” and where -Mr. Murakawa’s notes have been used the initials “K. M.” are signed. - -Mr. Murakawa says that Hildreth’s book “contains many errors,” because -it was “written by an _author_ who was not in a position to avail -himself of the Japanese sources, at a _time_ when Japan was yet closed -against foreign intercourse, and at a _place_ far away from Japan.” -This statement is partly true but somewhat unjust, because it fails -to take into consideration the fact that Hildreth’s work is chiefly a -compilation, including lengthy quotations, from _authors_ who did avail -themselves as much as possible of Japanese sources, at the very _time_ -when they themselves were living in the very _place_, Japan itself. -But these writers were, of course, far from infallible and made errors -of fact or inference which Hildreth followed. And yet it is really -remarkable that, with so many limitations and hindrances, they gained -so good an insight into Japanese life. - -It goes without saying that the present editor has not attempted to -correct all the errors of details,—a task which would be as impossible -as unprofitable. He has corrected the most flagrant mistakes so far -as he has discovered them, but he may have overlooked errors needing -attention. He would here call special attention to a few mistakes which -were so frequent and so closely interwoven in the narrative as to -render correction impracticable. The word “Nippon,” which is really -the name of the whole country, is applied by the old writers to the -main island, the real name of which is Hondo. The word “Emperor” almost -always refers to the Shōgun, while the true Emperor is mentioned under -the name of “Dairi.” - -It is quite likely that the transliteration of Japanese words is not -absolutely uniform, even in this revision. There is still difference -of opinion among the best authorities on some points. But in this book -there is not so much variety as to be confusing. On this subject see -also the Introduction to the editor’s “Handbook of Modern Japan.” - -A word of explanation may be needed concerning some of the -illustrations of Japanese manners and customs. They are produced, of -course, from modern photographs; but as there has been comparatively -little change in those particulars, the illustrations practically -represent the olden times under consideration in this volume. - -The map in the original was so crude and inaccurate that it was not -worth reproducing; therefore an entirely new map has been prepared to -show Japan as it was during those days. In the map of Sakhalin a dotted -line shows also the present division of the island between Russia and -Japan, because it was the old one. - -The editor is under obligations to his friend, Dr. Wm. Elliot Griffis, -himself both an author and an authority on Japan and the Japanese, for -his Introduction to this volume. Dr. Griffis, in “The Mikado’s Empire,” -was the first to give in America a full account of the land and people -of Japan. - -The numerous references here and there and the bibliographical list in -the Appendix ought to add considerably to the value of this edition. -Many of the old books on Japan are out of print and difficult of -access, but even those are included for the sake of any who may be so -fortunate as to have access thereto. A few books ought without fail -to be read in connection with this revision, because they give more -accurate information than was possible in Hildreth’s day. These are -“The Mikado’s Empire,” by Griffis, Rein’s “Japan” and “The Industries -of Japan,” Brinkley’s eight encyclopædic volumes on Japan, and “History -of Japan during the Earlier Century of Foreign Intercourse (1542-1651)” -by Murdock and Yamagata. Frequent references have been made to the -valuable papers in the Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan, -which are easily accessible in whole or in parts. - -The bibliography is not complete, but contains the most important works -in English. More extensive and specific bibliographies may be found -in the editor’s “Handbook of Modern Japan,” Chamberlain’s “Things -Japanese,” and especially Wenckstern’s (revised) “Bibliography of -Japan.” Poole’s Index is also valuable. In the bibliography of this -edition of Hildreth it has not been practicable, in all cases, to -distinguish exactly between Old Japan and New Japan. There is still -so much of the old remaining in this transition period that some -writings of modern days may describe quite accurately conditions of -olden days. With the increased facilities of the present it is possible -to understand better the old conditions, especially as they were -stereotyped for several centuries. - -The original title of Hildreth’s work, “Japan as it Was and Is,” was -proper in 1855 and 1856, but it is rather unsuitable in its entirety -fifty years later. However, this revision of Hildreth, together with -the editor’s “Handbook of Modern Japan,” may not unwarrantably be -considered to cover _Japan as it Was and Is_. - - ERNEST WILSON CLEMENT. - - TŌKYŌ, July 1, 1906. - - - - - FOREWORD - - BY THE AUTHOR OF “THE MIKADO’S EMPIRE” - - -The first American teacher in Echizen (1870-1872) feels honored at the -request of the first American teacher in Mito (1887-1891) to write -for his revised and annotated edition of Hildreth’s “Japan” a few -words concerning the author and his book and his most recent editor’s -work. In the days of Townsend Harris and the premier Ii (1858), the -feudal lords of Mito and Echizen, besides being blood relatives, had -misunderstandings with the Yedo authorities, and, with unswerving -loyalty to the Emperor and the most patriotic of motives, were linked -together in strange experiences while manifesting a common desire to -promote their country’s good. - -After so long a time the pioneer American educator in Echizen salutes -his fellow-worker who has done so much to make known to us the -illustrious character of the lords of the house of Mito as patrons of -literature and their unwearied devotion to the Imperial and national -cause. I am sure that we are both proud of having been the servants of -the Japanese people in helping to bring to pass that vision of Japan’s -greatness, so tangible in A. D. 1906, to which Hildreth looked, yet -died without ever seeing. - -The personality of Richard Hildreth, the historian of the United States -and the unquailing opponent of African slavery in America, was one -of the very first that appealed to me when my own boyish literary -aspirations were first awakened. His intensely powerful novel, “Archy -Moore,” which had been published in 1837, reprinted in England and -again republished in the United States in 1852, under the title of “The -White Slave,” appeared just when Commodore Matthew C. Perry was making -his preparations to sail for Japan. Philadelphia was agog with interest -about the expedition, and many of her citizens were keenly interested, -among them my father, John L. Griffis, who, like my grandfather, -Captain John Griffis, had voyaged to the Philippines, China, and the -Far East. He had built a platform in his coalyard, which directly -adjoined the shiphouse and dock of the United States Navy Yard, wherein -was building the United States steam frigate “Susquehanna,” which later -in Japanese waters became the flagship of Commodore Perry. It is not -so many miles from the upper waters of this noble river of the three -States, New York, Pennsylvania, and Maryland, that this “foreword” is -written. - -As a little boy, on the morning of April 6, 1850, at 8.35 A.M., I -saw the graceful “Susquehanna” slide down the ways, float on the -Delaware, and, like a bird of calm, “sit brooding on the charmèd -wave.” I remember how, when sitting on my father’s knee, he put me -down suddenly to rise and call for “three cheers for the future of the -‘Susquehanna.’” We could not then foresee what a noble part the frigate -was to play in the annals of both peace and war. She bore the olive -branch to Japan and she unchained her thunders in the destruction of -slavery. - -Richard Hildreth of Massachusetts, author, journalist, economist, and -historian, was born in 1807. He graduated from Harvard College in 1826 -and studied law in Newburyport, entering upon practice in Boston. He -left the law for journalism, and, as an editor of the “Boston Atlas,” -lifted up the moral world. In 1834, in poor health, he went South and, -in order to get unbiassed ideas, lived on a slave plantation to study -the workings of the system of unpaid African labor. It was during this -time that he wrote his famous novel, “Archy Moore, The White Slave.” -Returning North he became, with pen and voice, the tireless opponent -of slavery. From 1840 to 1848 Hildreth lived in Demerara, British -Guiana, editing two newspapers, in which he advocated the system of -free instead of slave labor, writing there also his “Theory of Morals” -and his “Theory of Politics.” In the perspective of history we can now -note clearly that he was one of the potent forces in destroying human -slavery in America, and in helping, as an ex-Confederate officer, now -president of the first Woman’s College in the Southern States, told me -a few days ago, “to emancipate eleven million white men.” - -Hildreth’s “History of the United States,” though not of great literary -interest, is an amazingly honest picture of the real character of -the makers of the American Republic. He shows our fathers without -transfiguration of their virtues or disguise of their faults or errors. -How he came to write his book on Japan is told by him with sufficient -fulness in his own introduction. Those who know his book best are those -who appreciate it most. - -It was while we were fellow-workers in the Imperial University in -Tokio, from 1872 to 1874, that Mr. Edward H. House, who afterwards -found a grave in the land he loved, gave me the details of Hildreth’s -life and personality. Mr. House had been engaged with Mr. Hildreth on -the staff of the “New York Tribune” from the completion of “Japan as -it Was and Is” until the inauguration of Abraham Lincoln. Instead of -appointing Hildreth as Minister to Japan, Mr. Lincoln did but follow -the precedents of political succession, since Perry, Harris, Van -Valkenburg, and Depew (who declined) were all citizens of the Empire -State, and hence nominated the Hon. Robert H. Pruyn of Albany. It was -my own beloved professor in Rutgers College, Dr. David Murray, also -a native of New York State, later chief adviser to the Educational -Department in Japan, who in Tokio first loaned me a copy of Hildreth’s -valuable compilation, and I studied it with care. Notable among the -many benefits which made the volume a boon to foreign students was the -discovery, with its aid, in May, 1872, by Mr. James Walter of Yokohama, -of the tomb of Will Adams at Yokosuka (p. 139). - -Hildreth’s scarcely veiled satire on the ignorance of the Americans of -1852 concerning Japan in his “advertisement” is keen. None knew more -than he how steadily the Hollanders had maintained commercial relations -with the Japanese, had fertilized their minds for over two centuries, -and had finally paved the way for American success. - -In gratitude to Professor Clement for his unwearied researches and -for his work as editor in this new presentation of the perennially -interesting volume of Hildreth, in commendation of the publishers for -issuing this uniquely valuable work, and in the faith that in its new -dress “Japan as it Was and Is” will receive a warm welcome at the hands -of the American public, we raise our cheer at this hopeful launch on -the waters of literature. How the spirit of Hildreth must rejoice at -free America and free Japan, with slavery and feudalism gone forever -and the two nations in mutually beneficial rivalry for the uplifting of -mankind. - - WM. ELLIOT GRIFFIS. - - ITHACA, N. Y., July 15, 1906. - - - - - JAPANESE PRONUNCIATION - - - _a_ like _a_ in _father_ - _e_ ” _e_ ” _men_ - _i_ ” _i_ ” _pin_ - _o_ ” _o_ ” _pony_ - _u_ ” _oo_ ” _book_ - _ai_ as in _aisle_ - _ei_ ” _weigh_ - _au_ } - _ō_ } as _o_ in _bone_ - _ū_ as _oo_ in _moon_ - -_i_ in the middle of a word and _u_ in the middle or at the end of a -word are sometimes almost inaudible. - -The consonants are all sounded, as in English: _g_, however, has only -the hard sound, as in _give_, although the nasal _ng_ is often heard; -_ch_ and _s_ are always soft, as in _check_ and _sin_; and _z_ before -_u_ has the sound of _dz_. In the case of double consonants, each one -must be given its full sound. - -There are as many syllables as vowels. There is practically no accent; -but care must be taken to distinguish between _o_ and _ō_, _u_ and _ū_, -of which the second is more prolonged than the first. - -Be sure to avoid the flat sound of _a_, which is always pronounced -_ah_. - - -[Illustration: _The Japanese islands are studded by lofty volcanic -mountains, especially Nipon, which is traversed through its whole -length by a chain which forms the water shed of the island and the -highest peaks of which are covered with perpetual snow. There are seven -active volcanoes, three in Kiusiu and four in Nipon, besides four other -mountains sending out hot springs; along the coast there are several -burning islands, the rivers are numerous but short. The empire includes -eight great subdivisions, called Do, or Ways, viz.: 1. Saikaidō, west -sea way, nine provinces; 2. Nankaido, south sea way, six provinces; -3. Sanyodo, south mountain way, eight provinces; 4. Sanindo, north -mountain way, eight provinces; 5. Gokinaido, five provinces, imperial -domain; 6. Tōkaidō, east sea way, fifteen provinces; 7. Tosando, -east mountain way, eight provinces; 8. Hokurokudo, way of the north -districts, seven provinces. Tsu, Iki and Jezo are not included in this -arrangement._ - - -_NOTE_ - - _In the pronunciation of Japanese names and words, and in their - representation in European letters, an n is frequently added at the - end of a syllable; as, Nangasaki for Nagasaki, Fingo for Figo, etc._ - - - SKETCH MAP OF OLD JAPAN - -Adapted from map in original edition of Hildreth] - - - - - JAPAN - - AS IT WAS AND IS - - - - -CHAPTER I - - _Earliest European Knowledge of Japan—Japanese Histories—Marco Polo’s - Account of the Mongol or Tartar Invasion—Accounts of the same Event - given by the Chinese and Japanese Annalists, A. D. 1281 or 1283._ - - -The name JAPAN, pronounced in the country itself _Nippon_ or _Nihon_, -is of Chinese origin—in the Mandarin dialect _Jih-pun_, that is, -sun-source, or Eastern Country. - -The first account of Japan, or allusion to its existence, to be found -in any European writer, is contained in the “Oriental Travels” of the -Venetian, Marco Polo, first reduced to writing in the Latin tongue, -about A. D. 1298, while the author was detained a prisoner of war at -Genoa. Zipangu, Zipangri, Cyampagu, Cimpagu, as different editions -of his work have it, is his method of representing the Chinese -_Jih-pun-quo_, sun-source kingdom, or kingdom of the source of the sun. -The Japanese chronicles go back for many centuries previous; but these -chronicles seem to be little more than a bare list of names and dates, -with some legendary statements interwoven, of which the authority does -not appear very weighty, nor the historical value very considerable. - -Marco Polo resided for seventeen years (A. D. 1275-1292) at the court -of Kublai Khan (grandson of the celebrated Ghingis Khan,) and ruler, -from A. D. 1260 to A. D. 1294, over the most extensive empire which -the world has ever seen. This empire stretched across the breadth -of the old continent, from the Japanese, the Yellow, the Blue, and -the China Seas (embosoming the Caspian and the Black Seas), to the -Levant, the Archipelago, the river Dniester, and beyond it. Not content -with having added Anatolia and Russia to the western extremity of -this vast kingdom,—the Greek empire being reduced, at this moment, -to the vicinage of Constantinople and the western coasts of the -Archipelago,—Kublai Khan, after completing the conquest of Southern -China, sent an expedition against Japan; in which, however, the Mongols -were no more successful than they had been in their attempts, a few -years before, to penetrate through Hungary and Poland (which they -overran and ravaged, to the terror of all Europe) in Germany, whence -Teutonic valor repelled them. - -The accounts given by Marco Polo, and by the Chinese and Japanese -annalists, of this expedition, though somewhat contradictory as to the -details, agree well enough as to the general result. As Marco Polo’s -account is short, as well as curious, we insert it at length, from the -English translation of his travels by Marsden, subjoining to it the -statements which we have of the same event derived from Chinese and -Japanese sources. We may add that Columbus was greatly stimulated to -undertake his western voyages of discovery by the constant study of -Marco Polo’s travels, confidently expecting to reach by that route the -Cathay and Zipangu of that author—countries for which he sedulously -inquired throughout the Archipelago of the West Indies, and along the -southern and western shores of the Caribbean Sea. - -[Illustration: THE INVASION BY THE MONGOL TARTARS - From _Official History of Japan_] - -“Zipangu,” says Marco Polo, “is an island in the eastern ocean, -situated at the distance of about fifteen hundred miles[3] from the -mainland, or coast of Manji.[4] It is of considerable size; its -inhabitants have fair complexions, are well made, and are civilized -in their manners. Their religion is the worship of idols. They are -independent of every foreign power, and governed only by their own -kings. They have gold in the greatest abundance, its sources being -inexhaustible; but as the king does not allow of its being exported, -few merchants visit the country, nor is it frequented by much shipping -from other parts. To this circumstance we are to attribute the -extraordinary richness of the sovereign’s palace, according to what -we are told by those who have access to the place. The entire roof is -covered with a plating of gold, in the same manner as we cover houses, -or, more properly, churches, with lead. The ceilings of the halls are -of the same precious metal; many of the apartments have small tables -of pure gold, considerably thick; and the windows, also, have golden -ornaments. So vast, indeed, are the riches of the palace, that it is -impossible to convey an idea of them. In this island there are pearls, -also, in large quantities, of a pink color, round in shape, and of -great size, equal in value to white pearls, or even exceeding them. It -is customary with one part of the inhabitants to bury their dead, and -with another part to burn them. The former have a practice of putting -one of these pearls into the mouth of the corpse. There are also found -there a number of precious stones. - -“Of so great celebrity was the wealth of this island, that a desire -was excited in the breast of the grand Khan Kublai, now reigning, to -make the conquest of it, and to annex it to his dominions. In order -to effect this, he fitted out a numerous fleet, and embarked a large -body of troops under the command of two of his principal officers, one -of whom was named Abbacatan, and the other Vonsancin. The expedition -sailed from the ports of Zaitun and Kinsai,[5] and crossing the -intermediate sea, reached the island in safety; but, in consequence of -a jealousy that arose between the two commanders, one of whom treated -the plans of the other with contempt, and resisted the execution of his -orders, they were unable to gain possession of any city or fortified -place, with the exception of one only, which was carried by assault, -the garrison having refused to surrender. Directions were given for -putting the whole to the sword, and, in obedience thereto, the heads -of all were cut off except of eight persons, who, by the efficacy of a -diabolical charm, consisting of a jewel or amulet introduced into the -right arm, between the skin and the flesh, were rendered secure from -the effects of iron either to kill or to wound. Upon this discovery -being made, they were beaten with a heavy wooden club, and presently -died. - -“It happened, after some time, that a north wind began to blow with -great force, and the ships of the Tartars, which lay near the shore -of the island, were driven foul of each other. It was determined -thereupon, in a council of the officers on board, that they ought to -disengage themselves from the land; and accordingly, as soon as the -troops were disembarked, they stood out to sea. The gale, however, -increased to so violent a degree, that a number of the vessels -foundered. The people belonging to them, by floating upon pieces of the -wreck, saved themselves upon an island, about four miles from the coast -of Zipangu. The other ships, which, not being so near to the land, did -not suffer from the storm, and on which the two chiefs were embarked, -together with the principal officers, or those whose rank entitled -them to command a hundred thousand or ten thousand men, directed their -course homeward, and returned to the grand Khan. Those of the Tartars -who remained upon the island where they were wrecked, and who amounted -to about thirty thousand men, finding themselves without shipping, -abandoned by their leaders, and having neither arms nor provision, -expected nothing less than to become captives or to perish; especially -as the island afforded no habitations where they could take shelter -and refresh themselves. As soon as the gale ceased, and the sea became -smooth and calm, the people from the main island of Zipangu came over -with a large force, in numerous boats, in order to make prisoners of -these shipwrecked Tartars; and, having landed, proceeded in search of -them, but in a straggling, disorderly manner. The Tartars, on their -part, acted with prudent circumspection; and, being concealed from view -by some high land in the centre of the island, whilst the enemy were -hurrying in pursuit of them by one road, made a circuit of the coast by -another, which brought them to the place where the fleet of boats was -at anchor. Finding these all abandoned, but with their colors flying, -they instantly seized them; and, pushing off from the island, stood -for the principal city of Zipangu, into which, from the appearance of -the colors, they were suffered to enter unmolested. Here they found -few of the inhabitants besides women, whom they retained for their own -use, and drove out all others. When the king was apprised of what had -taken place, he was much afflicted, and immediately gave directions -for a strict blockade of the city, which was so effectual that not any -person was suffered to enter or to escape from it during six months -that the siege continued. At the expiration of this time, the Tartars, -despairing of succor, surrendered upon the condition of their lives -being spared. This event took place in the course of the year 1264.”[6] - -The above account Marco Polo no doubt derived from the Mongols, who -endeavored, as far as possible, to gloss over with romantic and -improbable incidents a repulse that could not be denied. The Chinese -annalists, who have no partiality for their Mongol conquerors, tell -a much less flattering story. According to their account, as given -by Père Amiot, in his “Mémoires concernant les Chinois,” the fleet -consisted of six hundred ships, fitted out in the provinces of -Kiang-nan, Fou-kien, Ho-nan, and Chan-tong. The army, sailing from -Corea, landed first on the island of Kuchi [?], whence they proceeded -to that of Tsushima, where they learned that the Japanese had long been -expecting them with a great army. On approaching the coast of Japan, -they encountered a furious tempest, which sunk their vessels; so that -of the whole army scarcely one or two in every ten persons escaped. - -In the “Histoire Général de la China,” compiled by Father Malela from -Chinese sources, the story is thus told: “The sixth month (1281) Alahan -set out on the expedition against Japan; but scarcely had he reached -the port of embarkation when he died. Atahai, appointed to succeed him, -did not arrive till the fleet had already set sail. In the latitude of -the isle of _Pinghou_ [Hirado], it encountered a violent tempest, by -which most of the vessels were driven on shore. The officers, selecting -those least damaged, themselves returned, leaving behind them in -that island more than a hundred thousand men. The soldiers, finding -themselves thus abandoned, chose a leader, and set themselves to work -to cut down trees to build new vessels, in which to escape. But the -Japanese, apprised of their shipwreck, made a descent upon the island -with a powerful army, and put them to the sword. They spared only ten -or twelve thousand Chinese soldiers, of whom they made slaves; and, of -the whole formidable invading army, hardly three persons returned to -China.” - -Father Gaubil, in his “Histoire de la Dynastie des Mongoux,” compiled -also from Chinese sources, states the number of Chinese and Corean -prisoners at eighty thousand, and of the Mongols who were slain at -thirty thousand. - -Kämpfer, in his elaborate work on Japan, gives the following as from -the Japanese chronicles, _Nippon Ōdaiki_, and _Nippon Ōkeizu_: “Go-Uda -succeeded his father in the year of Jimmu 1985, of Christ 1275.” -“In the ninth year of his reign, the Tartar general, Mōko, appeared -on the coasts of Japan, with a fleet of four thousand sail, and two -hundred and forty thousand men. The then reigning Tartarian emperor, -Lifsu [Kublai Khan], after he had conquered the empire of China, sent -this general to subdue also the empire of Japan. But this expedition -proved unsuccessful. The _Kami_, that is, the gods of the country, -and protectors of the Japanese empire, were so incensed at the insult -offered them by the Tartars, that, on the first day of the seventh -month, they excited a violent and dreadful storm, which destroyed all -this reputed invincible armada. Mōko himself perished in the waves, and -but few of his men escaped.” - -[Illustration: ENTRANCE TO THE TEMPLE OF JIMMU TENNŌ] - -Siebold, in his recently published “Archives of Japan,” gives the -following as the account of this invasion contained in the esteemed -Japanese chronicle, _Nikongi_:[7] “So soon as Kublai Khan had -ascended the Mogul throne, he turned his eyes upon distant Japan. -This nation, like _Kaou-le_ (one of the kingdoms of Corea), must -become tributary. Accordingly, in the year 1268,[8] he summoned the -ruler of Nippon to acknowledge his sovereignty. No notice was taken of -this summons, nor of others in 1271 and 1273, the Mongol envoys being -not admitted to an audience, but always dismissed by the governor of -Dazaifu. Hereupon a Mongol fleet, with a Corean contingent, appeared -off Tsushima [a small island half-way from Corea to Japan]. The Mikado -[ecclesiastical sovereign] appointed prayer days, but the Shōgun [the -temporal sovereign] had previously made along the coast every necessary -preparation for defence. The hostile army did not venture upon a -decisive attack. Its movements were governed neither by energy nor by -consistency; and after hovering about a while, without any apparent -definite purpose, the squadron disappeared from the Japanese seas, -merely committing some hostilities upon Kiūshiū at its departure.” - -A Japanese encyclopædia, of quite recent date, quoted in Siebold’s -work, besides giving Kublai Khan’s letter of summons, asserts that -the Mongol fleet was met and defeated, after which, other Mongol -envoys being sent to Japan, they were summoned into the presence of -the Shōgun, by whom a decree was promulgated that no Mongol should -land in Japan under pain of death. And it is even pretended that -under this decree the persons composing two subsequent missions sent -by Kublai Khan, in 1276 and 1279, were all put to death. This was -followed, according to the same authority, by the appearance of a new -Mongol-Corean fleet, in 1281, off the island of Hirado. This fleet -was destroyed by a hurricane. Those who escaped to the shore were -taken prisoners and executed, only three being saved to carry to -Kublai Khan the news of this disaster. All these additions, however, -to the story—the letter of Kublai Khan, the murder of the ambassadors, -and the double invasion—may safely enough be set down as Japanese -inventions.[9] - - - - -CHAPTER II - - _Portuguese Empire in the East—Discovery of Japan—Galvano’s Account - of it—Fernam Mendez Pinto’s Account of his First Visit to Japan, and - Adventures there—Japanese Account of the First Arrival of Portuguese, - A. D. 1542-1545._ - - -Vasco da Gama, by the route of the Cape of Good Hope, entered the -Indian Ocean in November, 1497, and, after coasting the African -continent as far north as Melinda, arrived in May, 1498, at Calicut, -on the Malabar or southwestern coast of the peninsula of Hindustan,—a -discovery speedily followed, on the part of the Portuguese, by -extensive Eastern explorations, mercantile enterprises, and conquests. -The trade of Europe with the East in silks, spices, and other luxuries, -chiefly carried on for two or three centuries preceding, so far as -related to their distribution through Europe, by the Venetians, aided -in the north by the Hanse towns, and, so far as the collection of the -articles of it throughout the East was concerned, by the Arabs (Cairo, -in Egypt, being the point of exchange), was soon transferred to the -Portuguese; and Lisbon, enriched by this transfer, which the Mahometan -traders and the Venetians struggled in vain to prevent, rose rapidly, -amid the decline of numerous rivals, to great commercial wealth and -prosperity, and the headship of European commerce. - -The Portuguese, from the necessity of the case, traded sword in hand; -and their intercourse with the nations of the East was much more -marked by the insolence of conquest, than by the complaisance of -traders. Goa, some three hundred miles to the north of Calicut, which -fell into their power in 1510, became a splendid city, the vice-royal -and archiepiscopal seat, whence were governed a multitude of widespread -dependencies. The rule of the Portuguese viceroy extended on the west -by Diu, Ormus, and Socotra (commanding the entrances into the Gulf of -Cambay, the Persian Gulf, and the Red Sea), along the east coast of -Africa by Melinda to Sofala, opposite the south part of Madagascar. -Malacca, near the extremity of the peninsula of Further India, occupied -in 1511, became the capital of their possessions and conquests in -the far East, and soon rose into a magnificent seat of empire and -commerce, second only to Goa. Among the most valuable dependencies of -Malacca were the Moluccas or Spice Islands. The islands of Sumatra, -Java, and Borneo,—in the occupation of which the Mahometans had -preceded them,—Celebes, Mindanao, and even New Guinea were coasted, and -commercial and political relations established, to a greater or less -degree, with the native chiefs. The coasts of Pegu, Siam, Cambodia, -and the southern parts of China, were visited as early as 1516; but -the usual insolence of the Portuguese, in attempting to establish a -fortified post not far from Canton, resulted in the imprisonment and -miserable death of an ambassador of theirs, then on his way to Pekin, -while it gave a new impulse to the suspicious policy of the Chinese, -which allowed no intercourse with foreigners, and even forbade the -Chinese junks to trade to foreign ports. In spite, however, of this -prohibition, numerous Chinese merchants, self-exiled from home, were -established in the principal trading marts of the southeastern seas; -and with their aid, and sometimes that of the corsairs, by whom the -coasts of China were then, as now, greatly infested, and by bribing -the mandarins, a sort of commerce, a cross between smuggling and -privateering, was carried on along the Chinese coast. The principal -marts of this commerce were Ningpo (known to the Portuguese as Liampo, -on the continent, opposite the isle of Chusan, in the suburbs of which -city the Portuguese managed to establish a trading settlement) and -Sancian, an island near the entrance of the bay of Canton, where the -Chinese merchants from Canton met the Portuguese traders, who, during -a few months in each year, sojourned there in temporary huts while the -trade was going on. Down, however, to the year 1542 nothing had yet -been heard of Japan, beyond Marco Polo’s mention and brief account of -it. - -The first visit of the Portuguese to Japan is ascribed to that year, -1542, by Antonio Galvano, in his little book, first published, after -his death, in 1557, containing a brief chronological recital of -discoveries by sea and land, from the flood to the year of grace -1555, particularly the recent ones of the Spanish and Portuguese, -in which Galvano had been an active participator, having greatly -distinguished himself as the Portuguese governor of the Moluccas. With -a disinterestedness as uncommon then as now, more intent upon the -public service than his own enrichment, after repeatedly refusing the -regency of the Moluccas tendered to him by the natives, and putting -into the public treasury the rich presents of spices which were made to -him, he had returned to Portugal, in 1540, a poor man; and so vain was -his reliance on the gratitude of the court that he was obliged to pass -the last seventeen years of his life as the inmate of a charitable -foundation, solacing his leisure by composing the history of exploits -in which he no longer participated. His account of the discovery of -Japan, which he must have obtained at second hand, as it happened after -he had left the Indies, is thus given in Hackluyt’s translation[10]: - -“In the year of our Lord 1542, one Diego de Freitas being in the realm -of Siam, and in the city of Dodra, as captain of a ship, there fled -from him three Portuguese in a junco (which is a kind of ship) towards -China. Their names were Antony de Moto, Francis Zimoro, and Antonio -Perota. Directing their course to the city of Liampo [Ningpo], standing -in 30° odd of latitude, there fell upon their stern such a storm, that -it set them off the land; and in a few days they saw an island towards -the east, standing in 32°, which they do name Japan, which seemeth to -be the isle of Zipangry whereof Paulus Venetus [Marco Polo] maketh -mention, and of the riches thereof. And this island of Japan hath gold, -silver, and other riches.” - -Upon the strength of this statement of Galvano’s, Maffei in his elegant -Latin “Indian History,” first printed in 1589, and whom subsequent -writers have generally followed, ascribes to the three Portuguese above -mentioned the honor of the discovery of Japan, though it was claimed, -he says, by several others. Of these others the only one known to -us is Fernam Mendez Pinto, who in his “Peregrinations in the East,” -first published in 1614, about thirty-six years after his death, seems -to represent himself and two companions as the original Portuguese -discoverers. - -Pinto’s veracity has been very sharply called in question[11]; but -the main facts of his residence in the East and early visits to Japan -are amply established by contemporary letters, written from Malacca -as early as 1564, and published at Rome as early as 1566, including -one from Pinto himself. In the introduction to his “Peregrinations” he -describes himself as the child of poor parents, born in the city of -old Montemayor, in Portugal, but placed in the year 1521, when he was -about ten or twelve years old,—he fixes the year by the breaking of the -escutcheons on the death of King Manuel, a ceremony which he witnessed, -and the oldest historical fact he could remember,—through the interest -of an uncle, in the service of a noble lady of Lisbon. Having been with -her for a year and a half, some catastrophe occurred—he does not tell -what—which led him to fly in terror for his life; and, finding himself -upon a pier, he embarked on a vessel just about to leave it. That -vessel was taken by French pirates, who threatened at first to sell -him and the other captives to the Moors of Barbary; but having taken -another richer prize, after much ill treatment they put him and several -others ashore on the Portuguese coast. After this he passed into the -service successively of two noblemen; but finding their pay very small, -he was prompted to embark to seek his fortune in the East, and, in -pursuit of that object, landed at Diu in 1537. - -It was by the daring and enterprise of just such adventurers as Pinto -that the Portuguese, who, up to this time, had few regular troops -in the East, had already acquired so extensive an empire there; just -as a similar set of Spanish adventurers had acquired, and still were -extending, a vast Spanish empire in America; the two nations, in their -circuit round the globe, meeting at the Moluccas, the possession of -which, though about this very time, as we shall see, contested by the -Spaniards, the Portuguese succeeded in maintaining, as indeed they had -been the first to visit and occupy them. - -The Turks at this time were the terror and dread of all the Christian -nations. In the West they had lately occupied Hungary, laid siege to -Vienna, and possessed themselves of all the fortresses hitherto held -by the Venetians in the Archipelago and the Morea. Having acquired -the superiority over Egypt by dethroning the Mameluke sultans, and -by the renunciation of the caliphs of Bagdad (long exiles in Egypt), -the headship of the Mahometan church, they were now carrying on, -with renewed energy, by way of the Red Sea, the perpetual war waged -in the East, as well as in the West, by the Mussulmans against the -infidels; and had, indeed, just before Pinto’s arrival at Diu, besieged -that city in great force. Going to cruise against these Mussulman -enemies, after various adventures and a visit to Abyssinia,—with -which secluded Christian or semi-Christian kingdom the Portuguese had -opened a communication,—Pinto was captured at the entrance of the Red -Sea, carried to Mocha, and there sold to a Greek renegado, and by -him to a Jew, from whom he was redeemed by the Portuguese governor -of Ormus, who furnished him with the means of reaching Goa. At this -centre of Portuguese enterprise and adventure Pinto entered into the -service of Dom Pedro de Faria, captain-general of Malacca. Perceiving -his superior intelligence and adroitness, Faria sent him on numerous -missions to the native princes of those parts, by intermeddling in -whose domestic affairs the Portuguese generally contrived to find a -foothold for themselves. Despatched on one of these missions, he was -shipwrecked, made a slave of, and sold to a Mussulman, who carried -him to Malacca, whence he was again sent on a new mission, provided -with money to redeem certain Portuguese captives, and taking with him -also a small sum, which he had borrowed at Malacca, to trade upon -for himself. While occupied with this mission, Pinto met, at Patana -[present Patany] (on the east shore of the Malay peninsula, and some -four hundred miles to the north of Malacca), with Antonio de Faria, a -kinsman of his patron’s, sent thither on a political mission, but who -had also improved the opportunity for trade, by borrowing at Malacca -twelve thousand crusados,[12] which he had invested in cloths. Finding -no market there for these goods, Faria was induced to despatch them -to Lugor, on the same coast, further north; and Pinto, with his small -adventure, was led by the hope of a profitable trade to embark in the -same vessel. He arrived safely near Lugor; but the vessel, while lying -in the river below that city, was boarded by a Saracen corsair. Pinto -with two others plunged into the water and escaped, wounded, to the -shore; and having succeeded in reaching Patana, he communicated to -Antonio de Faria information of their mutual loss. - -Overwhelmed by this news, and afraid to face his creditors at Malacca, -Faria, with the remnant of his fortune and the assistance of his -friends, fitted out a small cruiser, in which he embarked in May, -1540, with several Portuguese, and Pinto among the rest, nominally to -seek out the pirate who had robbed him, but in fact to recruit his -fortune as he might. After many adventures—the acquisition of great -wealth by numerous captures of richly laden corsairs and others, its -loss by shipwreck, the getting of a new vessel, the meeting with -the corsair who had robbed them at Lugor, the taking of his vessel, -another shipwreck, and the sack of a Chinese town, where some of their -shipwrecked companions were detained as prisoners—they put into Liampo -(Ningpo), finding on some islands at no great distance from that city, -and known as the Gates of Liampo, a Portuguese settlement of a thousand -houses, with six or seven churches, and with regular Portuguese -officers and laws—as much so, says Pinto, as if the place had been -situated between Lisbon and Santarem.[13] Here they met with a Chinese -corsair, who told them a marvellous story of the island of Calempui, -not far from Pekin, in which lay buried seventeen Chinese kings, and -whose tombs, guarded and watched over by priests, contained vast -treasures. Under the pilotage of this corsair, Faria set out in May, -1542, to rob these tombs. Pinto’s account of the voyage thither, and -of the tombs themselves, from which, terrified by the alarm that was -raised, they fled away, with their object only partially accomplished, -forms one of the most questionable, and at all events the most -distorted, portions of his narrative. - -Shortly after, they were shipwrecked again on the Chinese coast. Faria -with most of his countrymen were drowned; but Pinto with thirteen -others escaped to the shore, where they lived a while by begging, -but were presently taken up as vagabonds, harshly treated, sent to -Nankin, and there, on suspicion of being thieves, condemned to lose -their thumbs. They appealed from this sentence by the aid of certain -officers appointed to look after the poor, and were taken to Pekin, -where, after a residence of two months and a half, the charge of theft -was dismissed for want of proof, the prosecutors being obliged to pay -them damages; but still they were sent in confinement to the frontier -town of Quansi for eight months, there to work in the maintenance of -the great wall. From this imprisonment they were delivered by an inroad -of Tartars, who laid siege to Pekin, and to whom one of the Portuguese, -the party reduced by this time to nine, rendered essential military -service. Accompanying these invaders back to Tartary, they were sent, -except one, who remained behind, as attendants upon the train of an -ambassador to Cochin China, by whose procurement they were conveyed to -the island of Sancian, in hopes of finding a passage thence to Malacca. -But the Portuguese ships had departed five days before; and so they -proceeded on some leagues further to the island of Lampacau (the same -upon which the Portuguese town of Macao was not long afterwards built, -and already a resort for merchants and rovers). Here they found no -other resource except to enlist in the service of a Chinese corsair, -who arrived shortly after they did, with two ships, of which the crews -were mostly wounded, having just escaped, with the loss of many other -ships, from a recent engagement with a Chinese fleet off Chincheo, -a great city, about half-way from Canton to Ningpo. The Portuguese -had got into a quarrel among themselves, which they carried out, as -Pinto says, with true Portuguese obstinacy. Five of them embarked in -one of the corsair’s ships, and Pinto, with two companions, named -Diego Zeimoto and Christopher Borello, in the other. The five, with -the vessel in which they sailed, were soon after lost in a desperate -naval engagement, which lasted a whole day, with seven large corsair -junks, in which that vessel was burnt. The other, in which Pinto was, -escaped with the greatest difficulty, by favor of the breeze, which -freshened at night. This breeze changed soon into a gale, before which -the corsair ran for the Lew Chew islands (Riū-Kiū), with which he was -familiar; but being without a pilot, and the wind shifting to the -northeast, they had to beat against it for twenty-three days before -they made land. After running along the coast for some distance they -anchored off an island in seventy fathoms.[14] “Immediately,” says -Pinto, “two little skiffs put off the shore to meet us, in which were -six men, who, on coming on board, after having saluted us courteously, -asked us whence our junk came; and being answered that it came from -China, with merchandise to trade there, if permission should be -obtained, one of the six said to us that the Nantaquim (?), the lord -of that island, which was called Tanegashima, would willingly permit -us to trade if we would pay the duties customarily paid in Japan; -‘which,’said he, ‘is that great island which you see there over against -us.’” Whereupon the ship was piloted into a good harbor, on which -was situated a considerable town, and was soon surrounded with boats -bringing provisions to sell. - -In a short time they were visited by the Nantaquim (?) himself, -accompanied by many gentlemen and merchants, with chests of silver. As -he approached the ship, the first persons who attracted his attention -were Pinto and his companions. Perceiving how different they were in -complexion, features, and beard from the others, he eagerly inquired -who they were. “The corsair captain made answer to him,” says Pinto, -“that we were from a land called Malacca, to which many years before we -had gone from another very distant country, called Portugal; at which -the prince, greatly astonished, turning to those about him, said, ‘May -I die, if these be not the Chenchicogins,[15] of whom it is written in -our ancient books, that, flying on the tops of the waves, they will -subdue all the lands about them until they become masters of all the -countries in which God has placed the riches of the world! Wherefore -we should esteem it a great piece of good fortune if they come to -us with offers of friendship and good will.’[16]” And then calling -in the aid of a woman of Lew Chew, whom he employed as interpreter, -he proceeded to make very particular inquiries of the captain as to -where he had found these men, and why he had brought them thither. “To -whom,” says Pinto, “our captain replied, that without doubt we were -merchants and trusty people, whom, having found shipwrecked on the -island of Lampacau, he had received on board his junk, as it was his -custom to do by all whom he found in such case, having himself been -saved in the same way from the like disaster, to which all were liable -who ventured their lives and property against the impetuous fury of the -waves.” Satisfied with this answer, the prince came on board; not with -his whole retinue, though they were all eager for it, but with only a -select few. After examining the ship very curiously, he seated himself -under an awning, and asked the Portuguese many questions about their -country, and what they had seen in their travels. Highly delighted -with their answers and the new information they were able to give him, -he invited them to visit him on shore the next day, assuring them -that this curious information was the merchandise he most wished for, -and of which he never could have enough. The next morning he sent to -the junk a large boat loaded with grapes, pears, melons, and a great -variety of vegetables, for which the captain returned a present of -cloths and Chinese jewels. The next day, having first moored the ship -securely, the captain went on shore with samples of his goods, taking -with him the three Portuguese and ten or twelve of the best-looking of -the Chinese. Their reception was very gracious, and the prince having -called together the principal merchants, the samples were exhibited, -and a tariff of prices agreed upon. - -This matter arranged, the prince began to requestion the Portuguese; to -which inquiries Pinto, who acted as spokesman, made answers dictated, -as he confesses, less by strict regard to the truth than by his desire -to satisfy the prince’s appetite for wonders, and to magnify the -king and country of Portugal in his eyes. The prince wished to know -whether it were true, as the Chinese and Lew Chewans had told him, that -Portugal was larger and richer than China? Whether (a matter as to -which he seemed very certain) the king of Portugal had really conquered -the greater part of the world? And whether he actually had more than -two thousand houses full of gold and silver? All which questions Pinto -answered in the affirmative; though, as to the two thousand houses, he -confessed that he had never actually counted them—a thing by no means -easy in a kingdom so vast. - -Well pleased with his guests, the king caused the Portuguese to be -entertained, by a wealthy merchant, in a house near his own; and he -assigned also warehouses to the Chinese captain to facilitate his -trade, which proved so successful that a cargo, which had cost him in -China twenty-five hundred taels[17] of silver, brought him in twelve -times as much in Japan; thus reimbursing all the loss he had lately -suffered by the capture of his vessels. - -“Meanwhile we three Portuguese,” says Pinto, “as we had no merchandise -to occupy ourselves about, enjoyed our time in fishing, hunting, -and visiting the temples, where the priests, or bonzes, as they are -called, gave us a very good reception, the Japanese being naturally -well disposed and very conversable.” Diego Zeimoto went often forth to -shoot with an espingarda [a large hand-gun or musket], which he had -brought from Tartary, and in the use of which he was very dexterous. -One day, at a lake where were many kinds of birds, he killed at various -shots six-and-twenty ducks. Some Japanese, observing this new method -of shooting, which they had never seen before, reported it to the -prince, who was busy at the moment in observing the running of some -horses, which had been brought to him from a distance. Zeimoto, being -called, came into his presence, with the gun on his shoulder, and two -Chinamen loaded with the game; and as the thing was entirely novel in -this country, and as the Japanese knew nothing of the secret of the -powder, they all ascribed it to enchantment,—an astonishment which -Zeimoto increased by shooting on the spot a kite and two doves. The -prince caused Zeimoto to be mounted on a horse, himself sitting behind -him, and to be conducted through the town, followed by a great crowd, -preceded by a herald, who proclaimed him an adopted kinsman of the -prince, to be treated by all as such; and having taken him to his own -palace, he assigned him an apartment there next his own, doing many -favors also to the other Portuguese for his sake. Zeimoto responded by -making the prince a present of the gun, who sent him, in return, a -thousand taels of silver, beseeching him much to teach him how to make -the powder; with which request Zeimoto complied. The prince, greatly -delighted with his acquisition, caused other guns to be made like it; -“so that,” says Pinto, “when we left, which was in five months and -a half, there were more than six hundred; and when I visited Japan, -in 1556, as ambassador from the Portuguese viceroy, Don Alonzo de -Noronha, to the king of Bungo, the Japanese told me that in the city -of Fuchū [or Funni], the capital of that kingdom, there were more than -thirty thousand guns. And when I expressed my astonishment at this as -incredible, some very respectable merchants positively assured me that -in the whole land of Japan there were more than three hundred thousand, -and that they themselves, in six voyages to Lew Chew, had carried -thither five-and-twenty thousand. From which it may be known what this -nation is, and how naturally inclined to military exercises, in which -it delights itself more than any other of these distant nations yet -discovered.”[18] - -At the end of three-and-twenty days, a ship arrived from the kingdom -of Bungo, in which came many merchants, who, as soon as they had -landed, waited on the prince with presents, as was customary. Among -them was an old man, very well attended, and to whom all the rest paid -great respect. He made prostrations before the prince, presenting him -a letter, and a rich sword garnished with gold, and a box of fans, -which the prince received with great ceremony. The reading of this -letter seemed to disturb the prince, and, having sent the messengers -away to refresh themselves, he informed the Portuguese, through the -interpreter, that it came from the king of Bungo and Hakata, his -uncle, father-in-law, and liege lord, as he was also the superior of -several other principalities. This letter—which, as is usual with him -in such cases, Pinto, by a marvellous stretch of memory, undertakes to -give in precise words—declared that the writer had heard by persons -from Satsuma that the prince had in his city “three Chenchicogins -[_Tenjikujin_], from the end of the world, very like the Japanese, -clothed in silk and girded with swords; not like merchants, whose -business it is to trade, but like lovers of honor, seeking to gild -their names therewith, and who had given great information, affirming, -on their veracity, that there is another world, much larger than this -of ours, and peopled with men of various complexions”; and the letter -ended with begging that, by Hizen dono, his ambassador, the prince -would send back one of these men, the king promising to return him safe -and soon. It appeared from this letter, and from the explanations which -the prince added to it, that the king of Bungo was a severe sufferer -from a gouty affection and from fits of melancholy, from which he -hoped, by the aid of these foreigners, to obtain some diversion, if not -relief. The prince, anxious and bound as he was to oblige his relative -and superior, was yet unwilling to send Zeimoto, his adopted kinsman, -but one of the others he begged to consent to go; and when both -volunteered, he chose Pinto, as he seemed the more gay and cheerful -of the two, and so best fitted to divert the sick man’s melancholy; -whereas the solemn gravity of the other, though of great account in -more weighty matters, might, in the case of a sick man, rather tend -to increase his ennui. And so, with many compliments, to which, says -Pinto, the Japanese are much inclined, he was given in charge to the -ambassador, with many injunctions for his good treatment, having first, -however, received two hundred taels with which to equip himself. - -They departed in a sort of galley; and stopping in various places, -arrived in four or five days at Usuki, a fortress of the king of -Bungo,[19] seven leagues distant from his capital of Fuchū (present -Ōita), to which they proceeded by land. Arriving there in the middle -of the day (not a proper time to wait upon the king), the ambassador -took him to his own house, where they were joyfully met, and Pinto was -well entertained by the ambassador’s wife and two sons. Proceeding to -the palace on horseback, they were very graciously received by a son -of the king, some nine or ten years old, who came forth richly dressed -and with many attendants. After many ceremonies between the young -prince and the ambassador, they were taken to the king, who, though -sick abed, received the ambassador with many formalities. Presently -Pinto was introduced, and by some well-turned compliments made a -favorable impression, leading the courtiers to conclude—and so they -told the king—that he could not be a merchant, who had passed his life -in the low business of buying and selling, but rather some learned -bonze, or at least some brave corsair of the seas. In this opinion the -king coincided; and, being already somewhat relieved from his pains, -proceeded to question the stranger as to the cure of the gout, which he -suffered from, or at least some remedy for the total want of appetite -by which he was afflicted. Pinto professed himself no doctor, but -nevertheless undertook to cure the king by means of a sovereign herb -which he had brought with him from China (ginseng, probably); and this -drug he tried on the patient with such good effect that in thirty days -he was up and walking, which he had not done for two years before. -The next twenty days Pinto passed in answering an infinite number of -questions, many of them very frivolous, put to him by the king and -his courtiers, and in entertaining himself in observing their feasts, -worship, martial exercises, ships of war, fisheries, and hunting, to -which they were much given, and especially their hunting with hawks and -falcons, quite after the European fashion. - -A gun, which Pinto had taken with him, excited as much curiosity as it -had done at Tanegashima, especially on the part of a second son of the -king, named Arichandono (?), about seventeen or eighteen years old, -who was very pressing to be allowed to shoot it. This Pinto declined to -permit, as being dangerous for a person without experience; but, at the -intercession of the king, he appointed a time at which the experiment -should be made. The young prince, however, contrived beforehand to -get possession of the gun while Pinto was asleep, and having greatly -overloaded it, it burst, severely wounding his hand and greatly -disabling one of his thumbs. Hearing the explosion, and running out to -see what might be the matter, Pinto found the young prince abandoned -by his frightened companions, and lying on the ground bleeding and -insensible; and by the crowd who rushed in he was immediately accused -of having murdered the king’s son, hired to do so, as was suspected, by -the relations of two noblemen executed the day before as traitors. His -life seemed to be in the most imminent danger; he was so frightened as -not to be able to speak, and so beside himself that if they had killed -him he hardly thinks he would have known it; when, fortunately, the -young prince coming to, relieved him from all blame by telling how the -accident had happened. The prince’s wounds, however, seemed so severe, -that none of the bonzes called in dared to undertake the cure; and it -was recommended, as a last resource, to send to Hakata, seventy leagues -off, for another bonze, of great reputation, and ninety-two years old. -But the young prince, who declared that he should die while waiting, -preferred to entrust himself to the hands of Pinto, who, following the -methods which he had seen adopted by Portuguese surgeons in India, in -twenty days had the young prince able to walk about again; for which -he received so many presents that the cure was worth to him more than -fifteen hundred crusados. Information coming from Tanegashima that the -Chinese corsair was ready to sail, Pinto was sent back by the king in a -galley, manned by twenty rowers, commanded by a gentleman of the royal -household, and provided with abundant supplies. - -The corsair having taken him on board, they sailed for Liampo (Ningpo), -where they arrived in safety. The three survivors of Antonio de Faria’s -ship were received at that Portuguese settlement with the greatest -astonishment, and many congratulations for their return; and the -discovery they had made of the rich lands of Japan was celebrated by a -religious procession, high mass, and a sermon. - -These pious services over, all hastened with the greatest zeal and -contention to get the start of the rest in fitting out ships for this -new traffic, the Chinese taking advantage of this rivalry to put up -the prices of their goods to the highest rates. In fifteen days nine -junks, not half provided for the voyage, put to sea, Pinto himself -being on board one of them. Overtaken on their passage by a terrible -storm, seven of them foundered, with the loss of seven hundred men, -of whom a hundred and forty were Portuguese, and cargoes to the value -of three hundred thousand crusados. Two others, on board one of which -was Pinto, escaped, and arrived near the Lew Chew Islands; where, in -another storm, that in which Pinto was, lost sight of the other, nor -was it ever afterwards heard of. “Towards evening,” says Pinto, “the -wind coming east-northeast, the waves ran so boisterous, wild, and -high, that it was most frightful to see. Our captain, Gaspar de Melo, -an hidalgo and very brave, seeing that the junk had sprung a leak -in her poop, and that the water stood already nine palms deep on the -lower deck, ordered, with the advice of his officers, to cut away both -masts, as, with their weight and the rolling, the junk was opening very -fast. Yet, in spite of all care he could not prevent the mainmast from -carrying away with it fourteen men, among whom were five Portuguese, -crushed in the ruins,—a most mournful spectacle, which took away -from us survivors all the little spirits we had left. So we suffered -ourselves to be drifted along before the increasing tempest, which we -had no means to resist, until about sunset, when the junk began to open -at every seam. Then the captain and all of us, seeing the miserable -condition in which we were, betook ourselves for succor to an image of -our Lady, whom we besought with tears and groans to intercede for us -with her blessed Son to forgive our sins.” - -The night having passed in this manner, about dawn the junk struck -a shoal and went to pieces, most of the crew being drowned. A few, -however, escaped to the shore of what proved to be the Lew Chew -Islands, now first made known to the Portuguese. Here happened many -new dangers and adventures; but at last, by female aid, always a great -resource with Pinto, he found his way back in a Chinese junk to Liampo, -whence, after various other adventures, he again reached Malacca. - -To these Portuguese accounts of the European discovery of Japan may -be added the following, which Siebold gives as an extract from a -Japanese book of annals: “Under the Mikado Go-Nara and the Shōgun -Yoshiharu, in the twelfth year of the _Nengō_ [era] Tembun,[20] on -the twenty-second day of the eighth month [October, 1543], a strange -ship made the island Tanegashima, near Koura, in the remote province -Nishimura.[21] The crew, about two hundred in number, had a singular -appearance; their language was unintelligible, their native land -unknown. On board was a Chinese, named Gohow [Gobō], who understood -writing. From him it was gathered that this was a _nam-ban_ (Japanese -form of the Chinese _nan-man_), that is, ‘southern barbarian,’ship. -On the twenty-sixth this vessel was taken to Akuopi harbor on the -northwest side of the island, and Tokitaka, governor of Tanegashima, -instituted a strict investigation concerning her, the Japanese bonze, -Tsyn-sigu-zu, acting as interpreter by means of Chinese characters. -On board the _nam-ban_ ship were two commanders, Mura-synkya and -Krista-muta. They had fire-arms, and first made the Japanese acquainted -with shooting arms and the preparation of shooting powder.” It is added -that the Japanese have preserved portraits of these two distinguished -strangers[22]; but, if so, it is much to be feared that the likenesses -cannot be relied upon, as Fischer, one of the most recent writers on -Japan, and who has himself published the finest specimens which have -yet appeared of Japanese graphic art, says he never knew nor heard of a -tolerable Japanese portrait-painter; while Golownin declares that the -portraits taken of himself and his companions, prisoners on the island -of Matsumai, in 1812, to be forwarded to Yedo, bore not the least -resemblance to the originals.[23] - - - - -CHAPTER III - - _Pinto’s Second Visit to Japan_—_Anjirō, or Paul of the Holy - Faith_—_A. D. 1547-1548._ - - -After a great variety of haps and mishaps in Pegu, Siam, Java, and -elsewhere, Fernam Mendez Pinto represents himself as having embarked -a second time for Japan, in a ship commanded by George Alvarez, which -sailed from Malacca in the year 1547. In twenty-six days they made the -island of Tanegashima, nine leagues south of the mainland of Japan; and -on the fifth day afterwards reached Fuchū, in the kingdom of Bungo, a -hundred leagues to the north. The king and the inhabitants gave them a -very friendly reception; but very shortly after their arrival a civil -commotion broke out, in which the king was murdered with most of his -family and a number of Portuguese who were in his service; the city -being set on fire during the outbreak, and great numbers killed on both -sides. - -One of the king’s sons, who, when this event occurred, happened to be -at the fortress of Usuki, seven leagues distant, would have proceeded -at once to Fuchū but for the advice of his tutor, Hizen dono, the same -name borne by the ambassador of the king of Bungo, under whose guidance -Pinto, according to his former narrative, had first visited Fuchū. This -person advised the young prince first to collect a sufficient army; and -of the Japanese method of calling to arms Pinto gives the following -account: Every housekeeper, high and low, was required to keep by him -a conch-shell, which, under severe penalties, could be sounded on four -occasions only,—tumults, fire, thieves, and treason. To distinguish -what the alarm was for, the shell was sounded once for tumult, twice -for fire, three times for thieves, and four times for treason. So soon -as the alarm of treason was sounded, every householder who heard it was -obliged to repeat it. And upon the signal thus given, and which spread -from house to house and village to village, all were obliged to march -armed to the spot whence it came, the whole population of the district -being thus very soon collected. - -By this means, in the course of seven days, during three of which the -young prince lamented his murdered relatives at a convent of bonzes -in a grove near the city, after which he proceeded to confiscate the -estates of the rebels, Pinto collects for him an army,—he is generally -pretty liberal in such matters,—estimated at one hundred and thirty -thousand men, of whom seventeen thousand were cavalry. The multitude -thus collected breeding a famine, the prince marched upon Fuchū, where -he was received with great demonstrations of loyalty. But, before -repairing to the palace, he stopped at the temple where the body of his -father was lying, whose obsequies he celebrated with much pomp, the -observance lasting through two nights, with a great display of torches -and illuminations. The closing ceremony was the presentation to the son -of the bloody garments of the father, on which he swore that he would -show no mercy to the traitors, even though to save their lives they -might turn bonzes; but that, rather than allow them to escape, he would -destroy every convent or temple in which they might take refuge. - -On the fourth day, having been inaugurated as king, but with little -pomp, he marched with a still-increasing army against the rebels, -who, to the number of ten thousand, had entrenched themselves on a -neighboring hill, where, being surrounded by the royal forces, rather -than surrender, they were cut off to a man. - -The city of Fuchū was left almost in ruins by this civil war; and the -Portuguese, despairing of being able to find purchasers for their -goods, proceeded to the city of Hamanoichi [or Miyakonojō], ninety -leagues to the southward, on the bay of Kagoshima, where they remained -for two months and a half, unable to sell their cargo, as the market -was completely overstocked by Chinese merchandise, which had been -poured in such quantities into the Japanese ports as to be worth much -less than it was in China. Pinto and his company were entirely at a -loss what to do; but from this dilemma they were delivered, as Pinto -will have it, by the special providence of the Most High; for at the -new moon of December a terrible storm occurred, in which almost the -whole of these foreign traders were destroyed, to the incredible -number, as Pinto relates, of near two thousand vessels, including -twenty-six belonging to the Portuguese. Of the whole number, only -ten or a dozen escaped, among them that in which Pinto was, which -afterwards disposed of her lading to very good profit. So they got -ready to depart, well pleased to see themselves so rich, but sad -at having made their gains at the cost of so many lives, both of -countrymen and strangers. Three times, however, they were detained -by accidents, the last time barely escaping—by the help of the -Virgin Mary, as Pinto insists—being carried by the strong current -upon a dangerous reef; just at which moment they saw approaching the -shore, in great haste, two men on horseback, making signs to them -with a cloth. The preceding night four slaves, one of whom belonged -to Pinto, had escaped from the vessel; and, thinking to receive some -news of them, Pinto went in the boat with two companions. “Coming -to the shore,” he says, “where the two men on horseback awaited us, -one of them, who seemed the principal person, said to me, ‘Sir, as -the haste I am in admits of no delay, being in great fear of some -people who are in pursuit of me, I beg of you, for the love of God, -that, without suggesting doubts or weighing inconveniences, you will -receive me at once on board your ship.’At which words of his I was -so much embarrassed,” says Pinto, “as hardly to know what to do, and -the more so as I recollected having twice seen him in Hamanoichi, in -the company of some merchants of that city. Scarcely had I received -him and his companion into the boat, when fourteen men on horseback -made their appearance, approaching at full speed and crying out to me, -‘Give up that traitor, or we will kill you!’Others soon after came -up, both horsemen and on foot; whereupon I put off to the distance of -a good bow-shot, and inquired what they wanted. To which they made -answer, ‘If thou dost carry off that Japanese, know that a thousand -heads of fellows like thee shall pay the forfeit of it.’To all which,” -says Pinto, “I replied not a word, but, pulling to the ship, got on -board with the two Japanese, who were well received, and provided by -the captain and the other Portuguese with everything necessary for so -long a voyage.” The name of this fugitive was Anjirō, “an instrument -selected by the Lord,” so Pinto piously observes, “for his praise and -the exaltation of the holy faith.” - -In fourteen days the ship reached Chincheo, but found the mouth of the -river leading to it blockaded by a famous Chinese corsair with a great -fleet, to avoid whom they turned aside and sailed for Malacca. - -In this city Pinto met, apparently for the first time, with Master -Francis Xavier, general superior or provincial of the order of the -Jesuits in India, in all parts of which occupied by the Portuguese he -had already attained a high reputation for self-devotion, sanctity, -and miraculous power; and who was then at Malacca, on his return to -Goa, from a mission on which he had lately been to the Moluccas. “The -father,” says Pinto, “had received intelligence of our arrival, and -that we had brought with us the Japanese Anjirō. He came to visit -George Alvarez and myself in the house of one Cosmo Rodriguez, where we -lodged, and passed almost a whole day with us in curious inquiries (all -founded on his lively zeal for the honor of God) about the countries -we had visited; in the course of which I told him, not knowing that -he knew it already, that we had brought with us two Japanese, one of -whom appeared to be a man of consideration, well skilled in the laws -and religion of Japan. Whereupon he expressed great desire to see him; -in consequence of which we brought him to the hospital, where the -father lodged, who received him gladly and took him to India, whither -he was then on his way. Having arrived at Goa, Anjirō there became -a Christian, taking the name of Paulo de Santa Fe [Paul of the Holy -Faith], and in a short time learned to read and write Portuguese, and -mastered the whole Christian doctrine; so that the father only waited -for the monsoon to go to announce to the heathen of the isle of Japan, -Christ, the Son of the living God, nailed to the cross for our sins -(as he was accustomed to do), and to take this man with him as an -interpreter, as he afterwards did, and his companion also, who, as well -as himself, professed the Christian faith, and received from the father -the name of John.” - - - - -CHAPTER IV - - _Religious Faith Three Centuries ago—Zeal of the Portuguese - Conquerors—Antonio Galvano—Missionary Seminaries at Ternate and - Goa—Order of the Jesuits—Francis Xavier—His Mission to India—His - Mission to Japan—His Companion, Cosme de Torres—The Philippine - Islands—A. D. 1542-1550._ - - -Three centuries ago the religious faith of Europe was much more -energetic and active than at present. With all imaginative minds, even -those of the highest order, the popular belief had at that time all -the force of undoubted reality. Michael Angelo and Raphael embodied it -in marble and colors; and it is difficult to say which impulse was the -stronger with the Portuguese and Spanish adventurers of that age,—the -fierce thirst for gold and glory, which they felt as we feel it now, or -passionate desire for the propagation of their religious faith, such -indeed as is still talked about, and feebly exhibited in action, but in -which the great bulk of the community, especially the more cultivated -part of it, takes at present either no interest, or a very slight one. - -The Portuguese adventurers in the East, wherever they went, were -accompanied by friars, mostly Franciscans, and the building of -magnificent churches was one of the first things attended to. - -Of all these adventurers, few, if indeed a single one, have left so -respectable a character as Antonio Galvano, already mentioned, governor -of the Moluccas from 1536 to 1540, which islands, from a state of -violent hostility to the Portuguese, and rebellion against them, he -brought back to quiet and willing submission. Not less distinguished -for piety than for valor and disinterestedness, Galvano made every -effort to diffuse among the natives of the Oriental archipelago a -knowledge of the Catholic faith; and with that view he established at -Ternate, seat of the Portuguese government of the Moluccas, a seminary -for the education of boys of superior abilities, to be collected from -various nations, who, upon arriving at maturity, might preach the -gospel, each in his own country,—an institution which the Council of -Trent not long after warmly approved. - -By the efforts of Galvano and others a similar seminary, sometimes -called “Paul’s,” and sometimes “Of the Holy Faith,” had been erected at -Goa, lately made the seat of an Indian bishopric; and it was at this -seminary, endowed and enriched by the spoils of many heathen temples, -that the Japanese Anjirō was placed by Xavier for his education. The -name which he adopted at his baptism, Paul of the Holy Faith, was, as -it thus appears, taken from the seminary at which he had been educated. - -But the efforts hitherto made in India on behalf of the Catholic faith, -if earnest, had been desultory. The establishment of the order of -Jesuits in 1540 laid the foundation for a systematic attack upon the -religious systems of the East, and an attempt at a spiritual revolution -there, neither less vigorous nor less pertinacious than that which, -for the forty years preceding, had been carried on by the new-comers -from the West against political, commercial, and social institutions of -those countries. - -The leader in this enterprise was Francis Aspilcota, surnamed -Xavier, one of the seven associates of whom the infant Society of -Jesus, destined soon to become so powerful and so famous, originally -consisted. He was born in 1506, in Navarre, at the foot of the -Pyrenees, the youngest son of a noble and numerous family, of whom the -younger members, and he among the rest, bore the surname of Xavier. Not -inclining to the profession of arms embraced by the rest of the family, -after preliminary studies at home he went to Paris, and was first a -student at the College of St. Barbe, and afterwards, at the age of -twenty-two, professor of philosophy in that of Beauvais. It was in this -latter station that he first became acquainted with Ignatius Loyola, -who, fifteen years older than Xavier, had come to Paris to pursue, as -preparatory to a course of theology, those rudimentary studies which -had not been thought necessary for the military destination of his -earlier days. This remarkable Spaniard, whose military career had been -cut short by a wound which made him a cripple, had already been for -years a religious devotee; and having been from his youth thoroughly -impregnated with the current ideas of romantic chivalry, he was already -turning in his mind the formation of a new monastic order, which -should carry into religion the spirit of the romances. Xavier, with -whom he lived at Paris on intimate terms,—they slept, indeed, in the -same bed,—was one of Loyola’s first disciples; and on the day of the -Assumption, August 16, 1534, they two, with five others, of whom three -or four were still students, in a subterranean chapel of the church of -the abbey of Montmartre, united at a celebration of mass by Le Fèvre, -who was already a priest, and in the consecration of themselves by -a solemn vow to religious duties. This rudimentary order included, -along with Loyola and Xavier, three other Spaniards, Lainez, Salmaron, -and Boabdilla, Rodriguez, a Portuguese, and Le Fèvre, a Savoyard,—all -afterwards distinguished. A mission to Jerusalem, which Loyola had -already visited, was at that time their leading idea. - -[Illustration: ST. FRANCIS XAVIER -One of the Earliest Missionaries to Japan] - -Loyola then returned home, the others remaining at Paris; but with -an agreement to meet at Venice before the close of the year 1536, at -which meeting three more were added to their number. A scheme of the -order was subsequently drawn up, which, besides the vows of chastity -and poverty, and of absolute obedience, as to God, to a general of -the order, to be elected for life, included, instead of the mission -to Jerusalem, which the war with the Turks made impracticable, a vow -to go wherever the Pope might send them for the salvation of souls. -To procure the sanction of the Pope, Loyola, with Lainez and Le -Fèvre, spent several years at Rome. The scheme, having been referred -to a commission, was approved by Paul III., by a bull, bearing date -September 27, 1540, in which the name of “Clerks of the Society of -Jesus” was bestowed upon the order, which was limited, however, to -sixty members. Loyola was elected, early in 1541, the first general; -and by a subsequent bull of Julian III., dated March 15, 1543, the -society was allowed to increase its members indefinitely. Its object -was the maintenance of the absolute authority of the church as -personified in the Pope, not only by resisting the rebellion against -it, then lately set on foot by Luther in Germany, but by extending the -domination of the Pope into all parts of the world. To guard against -the corruptions of preceding orders, the members were not to accept -of any church preferment, except by the positive command of the Pope, -nor of any fees for religious services; nor could the houses of the -professed and the coadjutors (the two highest ranks of the order) have -any endowments, though the colleges and novitiates might. - -That which gave the Jesuits their first success was their introduction -of good works, acts of charity and humanity, a care for the salvation -of others as well as their own, into the first class of duties. -Instead of being bound, like the other Catholic orders, to a peculiar -garb and the stated repetition of formal prayers and ceremonies, they -wore the ordinary clerical dress, and their time was to be divided -between mental prayers and good works, of which the education of -youth, the direction of consciences, and the comfort and care of the -poor and sick, were the principal. In this latter service novices, or -probationers, who must be at least fourteen years of age, of sound -body, of good abilities and fair character, were to be tried for two -years. From the novitiate, after taking the vows, the neophytes passed -into the colleges, to which also were attached schools for lay pupils. -From the colleges they might be admitted coadjutors and professed, -which latter class must have studied theology for four years. These -two latter ranks were to live in professed houses, which, unlike the -colleges and novitiates, could have no property, but must be supported -by alms. The coadjutors were of two classes: those admitted to holy -orders, from which class the rectors of the colleges were appointed; -and the lay coadjutors, furnishing cooks, stewards, agents, and the -business men generally of the society. The professed and the coadjutors -must renounce all claim to hereditary succession, not for themselves -only, but for the society also. There were, however, a class of lay -coadjutors who simply took the vows, yet continued to enjoy their -property and lived in the world. - -What added to the efficiency of the order was its strict military -organization. It had nothing about it of the republican cast of the -other Catholic orders, in which rotation in office occurred, chapters -were frequent, and many points were decided by a majority of votes. The -general of the Jesuits, chosen for life by a select congregation, had -absolute authority, as had also, under him, each in his sphere, the -provincials, the vice-provincials, the superiors of professed houses, -and the rectors of colleges, all of whom the general might appoint -and remove at pleasure. The general received monthly reports from the -provincials and vice-provincials, quarterly ones from the superiors -of professed houses and rectors of colleges, and half-yearly ones -from every professed member. Every member was bound to report to his -immediate superior his own misconduct or that of any of his companions. - -John III, of Portugal, though very desirous of sending out a competent -supply of spiritual laborers to his dominions in the East, could hardly -find the means for it at home. There was but a single university—that -of Coimbra—in all Portugal, and that not much frequented. John, it is -true, had exerted himself in behalf of that institution, by inviting -professors not only from Spain, but from Germany and Italy; but as -yet the few Portuguese who devoted themselves to study sought their -education for the most part at Complutum or Salamanca, and some of them -at Paris. In this dearth of Portuguese laborers, having heard some -rumor of the new order of the Jesuits, John charged his ambassador at -Rome to request the founder, Ignatius, to send him for service in India -not less than six members of it. Loyola, who had other schemes on foot, -could spare only two, one of whom, Rodriguez, the original Portuguese -of the order, remained behind in Portugal to organize the society -there, where he established at Coimbra the first Jesuit college. -The other was Xavier, to whom, as a test of his obedience,—though, -the order being as yet not formally authorized, Loyola had no legal -authority over him,—the command for his departure was communicated only -the day beforehand, leaving him scarcely time before setting out upon -so distant a journey to say farewell to his friends, and to get the -rents mended in his tattered and threadbare cloak. He was indeed able -to get ready the easier, not having, like our modern missionaries, the -incumbrance or the comfort of a wife and children, and no baggage to -impede his movements beyond his prayer-book and the clothes on his back. - -Arriving at Lisbon, he waited on the king, but immediately upon -leaving the palace proceeded, as was his wont, to the public hospital, -devoting all his time, till the ships were ready, to the care and -consolation of the sick and dying. While here he received from the -Pope the appointment of apostolic nuncio for India, with full powers. -Of all the offers made to him of an outfit for the voyage he would for -a long time accept of nothing; but at last, lest he should seem too -obstinate, he consented to receive some coarse cloaks, to be used in -passing the Cape of Good Hope, one for himself, and one for each of -the two companions who were to accompany him; likewise a few books, of -which he understood there was a great scarcity in India. To the offer -pressed upon him of the service of a boy to attend to his daily wants -during the voyage, he replied, “While I have hands and feet of my own I -shall need no servant.” The matter being still urged, with the remark -that it was unfitting for a man in his position to be openly seen among -the crowd of sailors and passengers washing his clothes or cooking -his daily food, “You see,” he answered, “to what a pass this art of -preserving one’s dignity has brought the commonwealth of Christendom! -For my part, there is no office, however humble, which, provided there -be no sin in it, I cannot upon occasion perform.” This was a specimen -of his whole conduct throughout the voyage, which commenced April 7, -1541, giving rise to a remark of the captain of the fleet that it was -even harder to make Xavier accept anything than it was to get rid of -other men’s importunities. - -All this self-sacrifice, accompanied as it was by a most careful -attention to the wants of others, was not without its reward. It gave -Xavier—not to mention his subsequent canonization—an immense reputation -with his fellow-voyagers, and a great influence over them, which he -did not fail to exercise. Already, amid all this early austerity, -the principles of Jesuitism were fully developed. Xavier addressed -everybody, even the most notorious profligates, with mild familiarity, -no severity in his face, no harshness in his words. He even volunteered -himself as a sociable companion, and thus acquired an influence all -the greater because it was hardly perceived by those who submitted to -it, so that he was generally said by those who knew him best to have -accomplished much more by his familiar conversation than even by his -public preaching,—of the effects of which, however, very extraordinary -stories were told. - -He arrived at Goa in May, 1542, and, taking lodgings at a hospital, -entered at once with great zeal on the duties of his office as Pope’s -nuncio, provincial in India of the order of Jesuits, and apostolical -missionary, professing, however, entire submission to the bishop of -Goa. Passing through the streets, bell in hand, he called the children, -women, and servants to be catechised, and to help the memory and -catch the ear he put the catechism into rhyme. But it was not merely -to the Christian population that he confined his labors. He had to -encounter the scornful fanaticism of the Mahometans, who, setting out -from Arabia, had preceded the Portuguese by centuries in commercial -and military visits to the coasts of India and the eastern islands, -and who had in many places largely diffused their religion. He had to -meet the insolent bigotry of the twice-born Brahmins, who, through the -system of castes, held society fast bound, helpless and stationary, -in the fetters of an all-pervading superstition. Jewish scoffers were -also to be met. In fact, all sects seemed to be brought together in -southern India, including even an ancient form of Christianity, a -remnant of the followers of Zoroaster, from Persia, and in Ceylon, -Buddhists. After a year’s stay at Goa, Xavier proceeded to the southern -point of Hindustan, about Cape Comorin, the pearl-fishers of which -region had, for the sake of Portuguese protection, professed the -Christian religion, of which, however, they knew nothing but the name. -Having preached for a year or more in this district, he passed to the -neighboring territories of the Coromandel coast, where there already -existed the remains, before referred to, of an ancient Christianity, -originally propagated, it seems probable, by Nestorian missionaries -of the fifth or sixth century, but which the Portuguese insisted upon -ascribing to St. Thomas, the apostle, about whose life and labors in -the East a whole volume of fables was, between them and the native -Christians, speedily manufactured. - -Incapable of staying long in one place, from India Xavier soon -proceeded to Malacca, where he arrived towards the close of 1545, and -whence the next Spring he set out on a missionary journey through the -Moluccas. It was on his return from this last expedition that he first -met with the Japanese Anjirō, at Malacca,—as related, after Pinto, in -the preceding chapter,—with whom he arrived at Goa in March, 1548. The -Japanese were placed, as has been mentioned, in the seminary of St. -Paul; and so delighted was Xavier with their progress and fervor, as to -resolve to undertake, after visiting his churches at Cape Comorin, a -new mission to Japan. - -We have seen the account given by Pinto of the origin of the -acquaintance between Xavier and Anjirō. The biographers of the saint -and the Jesuit historians of the Japanese mission embellish this story -by the addition of several romantic particulars. Anjirō, they tell us, -had long been troubled with remorse of conscience, for which he could -find no remedy, and which he only aggravated in the attempt to cure -it by retiring for a time to a Japanese monastery of bonzes. Having -made the acquaintance of some of the earliest Portuguese adventurers -to Japan, he consulted them as to this malady, one of whom, by name -Alvares Vaz, having heard the fame of Xavier, strongly advised the -inquiring Japanese to seek his assistance. Anjirō was much inclined -to do so; but the danger and distance of the voyage deterred him, -till, having killed a man in a rencontre, the fear of arrest drove him -to embark on the first vessel he could find, which happened to be a -Portuguese ship bound for Malacca, and commanded by George Alvarez, a -great admirer of Xavier’s. The good example and edifying discourse of -this pious sea-captain brought Anjirō to the determination to become a -Catholic; but being disappointed in finding Xavier as he had expected, -or, according to other accounts, being refused baptism by the vicar -of the bishop of Goa resident at Malacca, he thought no more but of -returning home again, and with that object, not meeting with any ship -bound direct for Japan, he embarked for Chincheo, in China. Thence he -sailed for home; but a terrible storm drove him back to the port he -had left, reviving also his almost forgotten resolution to become a -Catholic, in which he was the more confirmed by happening to find in -the harbor his old Portuguese friend, Alvares Vaz, in command of a -ship on her way back to India. Yielding to the persuasions of this old -friend, Anjirō sailed in his ship for Malacca; and, on landing there, -the very first person whom he met was George Alvarez, who immediately -took him to Xavier. These accounts also give him two Japanese -servants, both of whom are stated to have accompanied him to Goa, and -to have been baptized, one by the name of John, the other by that of -Anthony. And this last part of the story is confirmed by a letter of -Xavier’s, dated July, 1549, and written from Malacca on his way to -Japan, in which letter he gives an interesting, and at the same time -characteristic, account of his converts, very much in substance, and -even in expression, like what we may read in the very latest missionary -reports. - -“No sooner,” he writes, “had they been cleansed by the waters of -baptism, than the divine goodness shed upon them such delight, and -brought them to such a sense of God’s beneficence towards them, -that through pious and spiritual joy they melted into tears. In all -the virtues they made such a progress as to afford us a pleasant -and useful subject of conversation. They also learned to read and -write, and diligently attended at the appointed seasons of prayer. -When inquired of by me what subject of contemplation affected them -most, they answered, the sufferings of our Lord; and, therefore, to -this contemplation they chiefly applied themselves. They studied -also the articles of faith, the means of redemption, and the other -Christian mysteries. To my frequent inquiries what religious rites -they found profited them the most, they always answered, confession -and communion; adding, also, that they did not see how any reasonable -man could hesitate to assent to and obey the requirements of Christian -discipline. Paul of the Holy Faith, one of the number, I once heard -bursting out, with sighs, into these exclamations: ‘O miserable -Japanese! who adore as deities the very things which God has made for -your service!’And when I asked him to what he referred, he answered, -‘Because they worship the sun and the moon, things made to serve those -who know the Lord Jesus; for to what other end are they made, except to -illuminate both day and night, in order that men may employ that light -in the worship and to the glory of God and his Son?’” - -He mentions, in the same letter, that the voyage to Japan was so -dangerous, that not more than two vessels out of three were expected -to arrive there in safety. He even seems to have had some temptations -to abandon the enterprise; but in spite of numerous obstacles put -in his way, as he will have it, by the great adversary of mankind, -he determined to persevere, especially as letters from Japan gave -encouraging information of the desire there for Christian instruction, -on the part of a prince of the country who had been much impressed -by the efficacy of the sign of the cross, as employed by certain -Portuguese merchants, in driving the evil spirits from a haunted house. - -Another letter of Xavier’s, written from Kagoshima, in Japan, and dated -in November, 1549, about three months after his arrival, gives an -account of his voyage thither. - -Taking with him the three Japanese, Cosme de Torres, a priest, and Jean -Fernandes, a brother of the society,—of which, besides several who had -joined it in India, some ten or twelve members had followed Xavier -from Portugal, and had been distributed in various services,—he sailed -in the ship of Chinese merchants, who had agreed with the Portuguese -commander at Malacca to carry him to Japan. As Pinto tells the story, -this merchant was a corsair, and so notorious a one as to go by the -name of the Robber. Xavier says nothing of that, but complains of the -levity and vacillation natural to barbarians, which made the captain -linger at the islands where he touched, at the risk of losing the -monsoon and being obliged to winter in China. Xavier was also greatly -shocked at the assiduous worship paid by the mariners to an idol which -they had on board, and before which they burnt candles and odoriferous -wood, seeking oracles from it as to the result of the voyage. “What -were our feelings, and what we suffered, you can well imagine,” he -exclaims, “at the thought that this demon should be consulted as to the -whole course of our journey.” - -After touching at Canton the Chinese captain, instead of sailing thence -to Japan, as he had promised, followed the coast north toward Chincheo; -but hearing, when he approached that port, that it was blockaded by a -corsair, he put off in self-defence for Japan, and arrived safe in the -port of Kagoshima. - -Anjirō, or Paul as he was now called, was well received by his -relations, and forty days were spent by Xavier in laborious application -to the rudiments of the language, and by Paul in translating into -Japanese the ten commandments, and other parts of the Christian faith, -which Xavier determined, so he writes, to have printed as soon as -possible, especially as most of the Japanese could read. Anjirō also -devoted himself to exhortations and arguments among his relations -and friends, and soon made converts of his wife and daughter, and -many besides, of both sexes. An interview was had with the king of -Satsuma,—in which province Kagoshima was situated,—and he presently -issued an edict allowing his subjects to embrace the new faith. This -beginning seemed promising; but Xavier already anticipated a violent -opposition so soon as his object came to be fully understood. He drew -consolation, however, from the spiritual benefits enjoyed by himself, -“since in these remote regions,” so he wrote, “amid the impious -worshippers of demons, so very far removed from almost every mortal -aid and consolation, we almost of necessity, as it were, forget and -lose ourselves in God, which hardly can happen in a Christian land, -where the love of parents and country, intimacies, friendship and -affinities, and helps at hand both for body and mind, intervene, as it -were, between man and God, to the forgetfulness of the latter.” And -what tended to confirm this spiritual state of mind was the entire -freedom in Japan “from those delights which elsewhere stimulate the -flesh and break down the strength of mind and body. The Japanese,” he -wrote, “rear no animals for food. Sometimes they eat fish;—they have a -moderate supply of rice and wheat; but they live, for the most part, -on vegetables and fruits; and yet they attain to such a good old age, -as clearly to show how little nature, elsewhere so insatiable, really -demands.” - -Anjirō himself wrote at the same time a short letter to the brethren at -Goa, but it adds nothing to the information contained in Xavier’s. - -The following account, which Cosme de Torres,[24] a Spaniard by birth, -Xavier’s principal assistant, and his successor at the head of the -mission, gives of himself in a letter written from Goa to the society -in Europe, just before setting out, shows, like other cases to be -mentioned hereafter, that it was by no means merely from the class -of students that the order of the Jesuits was at its commencement -recruited. - -Though always inclined, so Cosme writes, to religion, yet many things -and various desires for a long time distracted him. In the year 1538, -in search he knew not of what, he sailed from Spain to the Canaries, -whence he visited the West Indies and the continent of New Spain, -where he passed four years in the greatest abundance, and satiety -even, of this world’s goods. But desiring something greater and more -solid, in 1542 he embarked on board a fleet of six ships, fitted out by -Mendosa, the viceroy of New Spain, to explore and occupy the islands of -the Pacific, discovered by Magellan in 1521. Standing westward, on the -fifty-fifth day they fell in, so Cosme writes, with a numerous cluster -of very small, low islands, of which the inhabitants lived on fish -and the leaves of trees. Ten days after they saw a beautiful island, -covered with palms, but the wind prevented their landing. In another -ten or twelve days the ships reached the great island of Mindanao, two -hundred leagues in circumference, but with few inhabitants. Sailing -thence to the south they discovered a small island abounding in meat -and rice; but having, during half a year’s residence, lost four hundred -men in contests with the natives, who used poisoned arrows, they sailed -to the Moluccas, where they remained about two years, till it was -finally resolved, not having the means to get back to New Spain, to -apply to the Portuguese governor to forward them to Goa. At Amboina, -Cosme met with Xavier, whose conversation revived his religious -inclinations; and, proceeding to Goa, he was ordained a priest by the -bishop there, who placed him in charge of a cure. But he found no peace -of mind till he betook himself to the college of St. Paul (which seems -by this time to have passed into the hands of the Jesuits), being the -more confirmed in his resolution to join the order, by the return of -Xavier to Goa, whose invitation to accompany him to Japan he joyfully -accepted, and where he continued for twenty years to labor as a -missionary. - -Cosme, in his letter above quoted, says nothing of any hostile -collision of the Spanish ships, in which he reached the East, with the -Portuguese; but it appears, from Galvano’s account of this expedition, -that such collision did take place. He also gives, as the reason why -the Spaniards did not land on Mindanao, the opposition they experienced -from some of the princes of it, who, by his own recent efforts, had -been converted to Catholicism; and who, owing their obedience to -him, would by no means incur his displeasure by entertaining these -interloping Spaniards. - -One of the Spanish ships was sent back to New Spain with news of -their success thus far. This ship passed among the northern islands -of the group, which seem now first to have received the name of the -_Philippines_. Another fleet sailed from Seville, in the year 1544, to -coöperate with Rui Lopes; but none of the ships succeeded in passing -the Straits of Magellan, except one small bark, which ran up the coast -to Peru. The Spaniards made no further attempts in the East till the -expiration of ten years or more, when the Philippines were finally -colonized—an event not without its influence upon the affairs of Japan. - - - - -CHAPTER V - - _Political and Religious Condition of Japan, as found - by the Portuguese—The Yakatas, or Kings, and their - Vassals—Revenues—Money—Distinction of Ranks—The Kubō-Sama—The - Dairi—Shintō—Buddhism—Judō—A.D. 1550._ - - -Japan, as found by the Portuguese, embraced three large islands, -besides many smaller ones. Shimo (or Kiūshiū), the most southern and -western of the group, and the one with which the Portuguese first -became acquainted, is separated at the north, by a narrow strait, -from the much larger island of Nippon,[25] forming with its western -portion a right angle, within which the third and much smaller island -of Sikoku is included. These islands were found to be divided into -sixty-six separate governments or kingdoms, of which Nippon contained -fifty-three, Shimo (or Kiūshiū) nine, and Sikoku four—the numerous -smaller islands being reckoned as appurtenant to one or another of the -three larger ones. These kingdoms, grouped into eight, or rather nine, -larger divisions, and subdivided into principalities, of which, in all, -there were not less than six hundred, had originally (at least such was -the Japanese tradition) been provinces of a consolidated empire; but -by degrees and by dint of civil wars, by which the islands had been, -and still were, very much distracted, they had reached at the period -of the Portuguese discovery a state of almost complete independence. -Indeed, several of the kingdoms, like that of Hizen, in the west -part of Shimo, had still further disintegrated into independent -principalities. - -It still frequently happened, however, that several provinces were -united under one ruler; and such was especially the case with five -central provinces of Nippon, including the great cities of Miyako, -Ōsaka and Sakai, which five provinces formed the patrimony of a prince -who bore the title of Kubō-Sama—Sama meaning lord, and Kubō general -or commander. This title the Portuguese rendered into _Emperor_, -and it was almost precisely equivalent to the original sense of the -_Imperator_ of the Romans, though still more exactly corresponding to -Cromwell’s title of _Lord-general_. - -This Kubō or Shōgun, as he was otherwise called, was acknowledged by -all the other princes as in some respect their superior and head. The -other rulers of provinces bore the title of Shugo, or Yakata, which -the Portuguese rendered by the term _King_. Reserving to themselves, -as their personal domain, a good half of the whole extent of their -territories, these chiefs divided the rest among certain great vassals, -called Tono, Kunishū, or Kunidaimiō, who were bound to military service -in proportion to the extent of the lands which they held; which lands, -after reserving a portion for their private domain, these nobles -distributed in their turn to other inferior lords, called Yoriki, who -held of them upon similar conditions of military service, and who had -still beneath them, upon the same footing, a class of military vassals -and tenants, called Dōshin, and corresponding to the men-at-arms of the -feudal times of Europe. The actual cultivators of the lands—as had -also been, and still to a considerable extent was, the case in feudal -Europe—were in the condition of serfs. - -Thus it happened, that, as in feudal Europe, so in Japan, great armies -might be very suddenly raised; and war being the chief employment of -the superior classes, and the only occupation, that of the priesthood -excepted, esteemed honorable, the whole country was in a constant state -of turbulence and commotion. - -All the classes above enumerated except the last enjoyed the highly -prized honor of wearing two swords. One sword was worn by certain -inferior officials; but merchants, traders, and artisans, were -confounded, as to this matter, with the peasants, not being permitted -to wear any. The revenue of the princes and other proprietors was, and -still is, reckoned in _koku_ of rice, each of three sacks or bales, -each bale containing (according to Titsingh) thirty-three and one-third -gantings [_shō_],—the universal Japanese measure for all articles, -liquid or dry,—and weighing from eighty-two to eighty-three katties, or -somewhat more than a hundred of our pounds.[26] Ten thousand koku make -a mankoku, in which the revenues of the great princes are reckoned. -The distinction of rank was very strictly observed, being even -ingrained into the language. Inferiors being seated on their heels, -according to the Japanese fashion, testified their respect for their -superiors by laying the palms of their hands on the floor, and bending -their bodies so low that their foreheads almost touched the ground, -in which position they remained for some seconds. This is called the -_kitō_. The superior responded by laying the palms of his hands upon -his knees, and nodding or bowing, more or less low, according to the -rank of the other party. - -As to everything that required powers of analysis, or the capacity -of taking general views, the Portuguese missionaries were but poor -observers; yet they could not but perceive in the Dairi the surviving -shadow, and indeed, in the earlier days of the missions, something more -than a mere shadow, of a still more ancient form of government, in -which the civil and ecclesiastical authority had both been united under -one head. - -The Dairi,[27] Ō, or Mikado, as he was otherwise designated, had -for his residence the northeast quarter of Miyako (a great city not -far from the centre of Nippon, but nearest the southern shore). This -quarter was of vast extent, surrounded by a wall, with a ditch and -rampart, by which it was separated from the rest of the city. In the -midst of this fortified place, in a vast palace, easily distinguished -from a distance by the height of its tower, the Dairi dwelt, with his -empress or chief wife; his other eleven wives had adjoining palaces -in a circle around, outside of which were the dwellings of his -chamberlains and other officers. These Dairi claimed to be descended -from Jimmu, who, it was said, had, A. D. 660, introduced civilization -into Japan, and first established a regular government, and commencing -with whom, the Japanese annals show a regular series of Dairi, who are -represented as having been for many ages the sole lords and imperial -rulers of Japan, till at length they had been insensibly set aside, as -to the actual exercise of authority, by the Kubō-Sama, or commanders -of the armies. Yet these gradually eclipsed and finally superseded -emperors—equivalents of the “idle kings” of the Carlovingian race of -France, or to the present nominal sovereign of the British empire—were, -and still are, treated (as Queen Victoria is) with all the ceremonial -of substantial power, and even with the respect and reverence due to -the spiritual head of the national church, descended from a race of -divinities, and destined at death to pass by a regular apotheosis into -the list of the national gods. - -All the revenue drawn from the city of Miyako and its dependencies was -appropriated to their support, to which the Kubō-Sama added a further -sum from his treasury. He himself treated the Dairi with as much -ceremonious respect and semi-worship as the British prime minister -bestows upon the British queen. He paid an annual visit to the court -of the Dairi in great state, and, withal, the carriage of an inferior; -but took care to maintain a garrison at Miyako, or its neighborhood, -sufficient to repress any attempt on the part of the Dairi or his -partisans to reëstablish the old order of things,—an idea which, when -the islands first became known to the Portuguese, seems not yet to have -been entirely abandoned. - -We may trace a still further resemblance between the position of the -Dairi of Japan and the Queen of England, in the circumstance that all -public acts are dated by the years of his reign, and that all titles of -honor nominally emanate from him, though of course obliged, as to this -matter, to follow the suggestions of the Kubō-Sama. Even the Kubō-Sama -himself condescends, like a British prime minister, to accept such -decorations at the hands of the Dairi, affecting to feel extremely -honored and flattered at titles which had been, in fact, dictated by -himself. - -The whole court of the Dairi, and all the inhabitants of the quarter of -Miyako in which he dwelt, consisted of persons who plumed themselves -upon the idea of being, like the Dairi himself, descended from -Tenshō-daijin, the first of the demigods, and who in consequence looked -down, like the Indian Brahmins, upon all the rest of the nation as an -inferior race, distinguishing themselves as Kuge, and all the rest -of the nation as Gege. These Kuge, who may be conjectured to have -once formed a class resembling the old Roman patricians, all wore a -particular dress, by which was indicated, not only their character -as members of that order, but, by the length of their sashes, -the particular rank which they held in it; a distinction the more -necessary, since, as generally happens with these aristocracies of -birth, many of the members were in a state of poverty, and obliged to -support themselves by various handicrafts.[28] - -Of the magnificence of the court of the Dairi, and of the ceremonials -of it, the missionaries reported many stories, chiefly, of course, on -the credit of hearsay. It was said that the Dairi was never allowed -to breathe the common air, nor his foot to touch the ground; that he -never wore the same garment twice, nor ate a second time from the same -dishes, which, after each meal, were carefully broken,—for, should any -other person attempt to dine from them, he would infallibly perish -by an inflammation of the throat. Nor could any one who attempted to -wear the Dairi’s cast-off garments, without his permission, escape a -similar punishment. The Dairi, as we are told, was, in ancient times, -obliged to seat himself every morning on his throne, with the crown -on his head, and there to hold himself immovable for several hours -like a statue. This immobility, it was imagined, was an augury of the -tranquillity of the empire; and if he happened to move ever so little, -or even to turn his eyes, war, famine, fire, or pestilence was expected -soon to afflict the unhappy province toward which he had squinted. But -as the country was thus kept in a state of perpetual agitation, the -happy substitute was finally hit upon of placing the crown upon the -throne without the Dairi—a more fixed immobility being thus assured; -and, as Kämpfer dryly observes, one doubtless producing much the same -good effects. - -At the time of the arrival of Xavier in Japan the throne of the Dairi -was filled by Go-Nara, the hundred and sixth, according to the Japanese -chronicles, in the order of succession; while the throne of the -Kubō-Sama was occupied by Yoshiharu, who was succeeded the next year by -his son Yoshiteru, the twenty-fourth of these officers, according to -the Japanese, since their assumption of sovereign power in the person -of Yoritomo, A. D. 1185. - -The Japanese annals, which are scarcely more than a chronological -table of successions, cast little light upon the causes and progress -of this revolution;[29] but, from the analogy of similar cases, we -may conjecture that it was occasioned, at least in part, by the -introduction into Japan, and the spread there, of a new religion, -gradually superseding, to a great extent, the old system, of which the -Dairi was the head. - -[Illustration: IMAGE OF YORITOMO - From _Official History of Japan_] - -One might have expected from the Portuguese missionaries a pretty -exact account of the various creeds and sects of Japan, or, at least, -of the two leading religions, between which the great bulk of the -people were divided; instead of which they confound perpetually the -ministers of the two religions under the common name of bonzes, -taking very little pains to distinguish between the two systems, -both of which they regarded as equally false and pernicious. Their -attention, indeed, seems to have been principally fixed on the new -religion, that of Buddha, or Ho, of which the adherents were by far -the most numerous, and the hierarchy the most compact and formidable, -presenting, in its organization and practices (with, however, on some -points a very different set of doctrines), a most singular counterpart -to the Catholic Church,—a similarity which the missionaries could -only explain by the theory of a diabolical imitation; and which some -subsequent Catholic writers have been inclined to ascribe, upon very -unsatisfactory grounds, to the ancient labors of Armenian and Nestorian -missionaries, being extremely unwilling to admit what seems, however, -very probable, if not, indeed, certain,—little attention has as yet -been given to this interesting inquiry,—that some leading ideas of -the Catholic Church have been derived from Buddhist sources, whose -missionaries, while penetrating, as we know they did, to the East, -and converting entire nations, may well be supposed not to have been -without their influence also on the West. - -Notwithstanding, however, the general prevalence, at the time when -Japan first became known to Europeans, of the doctrine of Buddha,—of -which there would seem to have been quite a number of distinct -observances, not unlike the different orders of monks and friars in the -Catholic Church,—it appears, as well from the memoirs of the Jesuit -missionaries, as from more exact and subsequent observations made by -residents in the Dutch service, that there also existed another and -more ancient religious system, with which the person and authority of -the Dairi had been and still were closely identified. This system[30] -was known as the religion of _Shintō_, or of the _Kami_,—a name given -not only to the seven mythological personages, or celestial gods, -who compose the first Japanese dynasty, and to the five demigods, or -terrestrial gods, who compose the second (two dynasties which, as in -the similar mythology of the Egyptians and Hindus, were imagined to -have extended through immense and incomprehensible ages preceding the -era of Jimmu), but including also the whole series of the Dairi, who -traced their descent from the first of the demigods, and who, though -regarded during their lives as mere men, yet at their deaths underwent, -as in the case of the Roman Cæsars, a regular apotheosis, by which they -were added to the number of the Kami, or Shin,—words both of which -had the same signification, namely, inhabitants of heaven.[31] A like -apotheosis was also extended to all who had seemed to deserve it by -their sanctity, their miracles, or their great benefactions. - -The Kami of the first dynasty, the seven superior gods, being regarded -as too elevated above the earth to concern themselves in what is -passing on it, the chief object of the worship of the adherents of this -ancient system was the goddess Tenshō-daijin,[32] already mentioned as -the first of the demigods, and the supposed progenitor of the Dairi, -and of the whole order of the Kuge. Of this Tenshō-daijin, and of her -heroic and miraculous deeds, a vast many fables were in circulation. -Even those who had quitted the ancient religion to embrace the new -sects paid a sort of worship to the pretended mother of the Japanese -nation; and there was not a considerable city in the empire in which -there was not a temple to her honor. On the other hand, the religion -of the Kami, by its doctrine of the apotheosis of all great saints -and great heroes, gave, like the old pagan religions, a hospitable -reception to all new gods, so that even the rival demigod, Buddha, came -to be regarded by many as identical with Tenshō-daijin,—a circumstance -which will serve to explain the great intermixture of religious ideas -found in Japan, and the alleged fact, very remarkable, if true, that, -till after the arrival of the Portuguese missionaries, religious -persecution had never been known there. - -Each of these numerous demigods was supposed by the adherents of the -religion of Shintō to preside over a special paradise of his own; -this one in the air, that one at the bottom of the sea, one in the -moon and another in the sun, and so on; and each devotee, choosing -his god according to the paradise that pleased him best, spared no -pains to gain admission into it. For what St. Paul had said of the -Athenians, might, according to the missionaries, be applied with equal -truth to the Japanese,—they were excessively superstitious, and this -superstition had so multiplied temples, that there was scarcely a city -in which, counting all the smaller chapels, the number did not seem at -least equal to that of the most pious Catholic countries. - -The temples of the Shintō religion, called _Miya_, were and are—for in -this respect no change has taken place—ordinarily built upon eminences, -in retired spots, at a distance from bustle and business, surrounded -by groves and approached by a great avenue having a gate of stone or -wood, and bearing a tablet or door-plate of a foot and a half square, -which announces, in gilded letters, the name of the Kami to whom the -temple is consecrated. These exterior appendages would seem to foretell -a considerable structure; but within there is usually found only a -wretched little building of wood, half hid among trees and shrubbery, -about eighteen feet in length, breadth, and height, all its dimensions -being equal, and with only a single grated window, through which the -interior may be seen, empty, or containing merely a mirror of polished -metal, set in a frame of braided straw, or hung about with fringes of -white paper. Just within the entrance of the enclosure stands a basin -of water, by washing in which the worshippers may purify themselves. -Beside the temple is a great chest for the reception of alms, partly -by which, and partly by an allowance from the Dairi, the guardians of -the temples are supported, while at the gate hangs a gong, on which -the visitant announces his arrival. Most of these temples have also -an antechamber, in which sit those who have the charge, clothed in -rich garments. There are commonly also in the enclosure a number of -little chapels, or miniature temples, portable so as to be carried in -religious processions. All of these temples are built after one model, -the famous one of _Ise_, near the centre of the island of Nippon, and -which within the enclosure is equally humble with all the rest. - -[Illustration: ISE TEMPLE] - -The worship consists in prayers and prostrations. Works of religious -merit are, casting a contribution into the alms-chest, and avoiding or -expiating the impurities supposed to be the consequence of being -touched by blood, of eating of the flesh of any quadruped except -the deer, and to a less extent even that of any bird, of killing -any animal, of coming in contact with a dead person, or even, among -the more scrupulous, of seeing, hearing of, or speaking of any such -impurities. To these may be added, as works of religious merit, the -celebration of festivals, of which there are two principal ones in each -month, being the first and fifteenth day of it, besides five greater -ones distributed through the year, and lasting, some of them, for -several days, in which concerts, spectacles, and theatrical exhibitions -form a leading part. We must add the going on pilgrimages, to which, -indeed, all the religious of Japan are greatly addicted. The pilgrimage -esteemed by the adherents of Shintō as the most meritorious, and which -all are bound to make once a year, or, at least, once in their life, -is that of _Ise_, the name of a central province on the south coast -of Nippon, in which Tenshō-daijin was reported to have been born and -to have died, and which contains a Miya, exceedingly venerated, and -already mentioned as the model after which all the others are built. - -Though it is not at all easy to distinguish what, either of ceremony -or doctrine, was peculiar or original in the system of Shintō,[33] yet -in general that system seems to have been much less austere than the -rival doctrine of Buddha, which teaches that sorrow is inseparable from -existence, the only escape from it being in annihilation. The adherents -of Shintō were, on the other hand, much more disposed to look upon the -bright side of things, turning their religious festivals into holidays, -and regarding people in sorrow and distress as unfit for the worship of -the gods, whose felicity ought not to be disturbed by the sight of pain -and misery. And this, perhaps, was one of the causes that enabled the -religion of Buddha, which addresses itself more to the sorrowing hearts -of which the world is so full, to obtain that predominance of which the -Portuguese missionaries found it in possession. - -[Illustration: A SHINTŌ PRIEST] - -Of this religion of Buddha, by no means peculiar to Japan, but -prevailing through the whole of central and southeastern Asia, and -having probably more adherents than any other religious creed, it is -not necessary here to speak at any length. A much more correct idea -of it is to be obtained from the recorded observations of our modern -missionaries, and from the elaborate investigations of Abel Rémusat, -and several other learned Orientalists, who have shed a flood of -light upon this interesting subject, than can be gathered from the -letters of the Portuguese missionaries, whose comprehension of the -Buddhist doctrine was, on many important points, especially as to the -cardinal one of annihilation, exceedingly confused, contradictory, -and erroneous; and, indeed, the same confusion and error exists in -almost all European travellers in the East, down to a very recent -period. Suffice it to say, that in the austerities and contempt for -the world and its pleasures, practised and professed by the bonzes -of the Buddhists, even Xavier and his brother Jesuits found their -match; while, in the hierarchy into which those bonzes were arranged; -the foreign language, imperfectly known even to themselves, of their -sacred books and their liturgy, and which recent investigations -have detected to be, with the bonzes of China and Japan, not Pali -alone, but also pure Sanscrit; their doctrine of celibacy; the -establishment of monasteries and nunneries; their orders of begging -devotees; their exterior of purity and self-denial, but supposed -secret licentiousness;[34] their fasts; their garbs; the tinkling -of bells; the sign of the cross; the rosaries on which they counted -their prayers; the large number of persons of noble birth who entered -upon the clerical life; their manner of preaching; their religious -processions; their pilgrimages; the size, splendor, and magnificence -of their temples, known as Tera, the roofs supported by tall pillars -of cedar; the altar within, and the lamps and incense burning there; -the right of asylum possessed by the Tera; and even the practice of -confession, prayers for the dead, and the sale of merit;—in all these -respects, this system presented a complete counterpart at least to -the show and forms and priestly devices of that very scheme of Roman -Catholic worship which Xavier and his brother missionaries sought to -introduce into Japan. The only striking difference was in the images, -often of gigantic size, to be found in the Tera, but which, after -all, were no more than a set-off against the pictures of the Catholic -churches. - -At the head of the Buddhist hierarchy was a high priest called _Shaku_, -resident at Miyako, and having much the same spiritual prerogative with -the Pope of Rome, including the canonization of saints. With him rested -the consecration of the _Jūji_, corresponding to the bishops, or rather -to the abbots, of the Catholic Church—all the Buddhist clergy being, -in the language of Rome, regulars (similar, that is, to the monks and -friars), and living together in monasteries of which the Jūji were -the heads. These Jūji, however, could not enter upon their offices, -to which great revenues were attached, except by the consent of the -temporal authorities, which took care to limit the interference of the -Shaku and the Jūji strictly to spiritual matters.[35] - -[Illustration: PILGRIMS RETURNING FROM A TEMPLE] - -There was this further resemblance also to the regular orders of the -Romish church, that the Buddhist clergy were divided into a number of -observances, hardly less hostile to each other than the Dominicans to -the Franciscans, or both to the Jesuits. But as the church and state -were kept in Japan perfectly distinct,—as now in the United States,—and -as the bonzes possessed no direct temporal power, there was no appeal -to the secular arm, no civil punishments for heresy, and no religious -vows perpetually binding, all being at liberty, so far as the civil law -was concerned, to enter or leave the monasteries at pleasure. It was -also another result of this separation of state and church—as here in -the United States—that there was only needed a Jo Smith, a man hardy -or self-deceived enough to pretend to inspiration, to set up a new -observance; an occurrence by which the theology of Japan had become -from time to time more and more diversified. - -There were also, besides the more regular clergy, enthusiasts, or -impostors, religious vagabonds who lived by beggary, and by pretending -to drive away evil spirits, to find things lost, to discover robbers, -to determine guilt or innocence of accused parties, to interpret -dreams, to predict the future, to cure desperate maladies, and other -similar feats, which they performed chiefly through the medium, not -of a table, but of a child, into whom they pretended to make a spirit -enter, able to answer all their questions. Such, in particular, were -the Yamabushi, or mountain priests, an order of the religion of Shintō. - -Yet, exceedingly superstitious as the Japanese were, there was not -wanting among them a sect of Rationalists, the natural result of -freedom of opinion, who regarded all these practices and doctrines, -and all the various creeds of the country, with secret incredulity, -and even contempt. These Rationalists, known as Jiudōshiu, and their -doctrine as Judō, and found chiefly among the upper classes, looked up -to the Chinese Confucius as their master and teacher. They treated the -system of Buddha with open hostility, as mere imposture and falsehood; -but, in order to avoid the odium of being destitute of all religion, -conformed, at least so far as external observances were concerned, to -the old national system of Shintō.[36] - -[Illustration: A BUDDHIST SERMON] - - - - -CHAPTER VI - - _Civilization of the - Japanese—Animals—Agriculture—Arts—Houses—Ships—Literature—Jurisprudence - —Character of the Japanese—Their Custom of cutting themselves - open—A. D. 1550._ - - -The doctrine of the transmigration of souls, one of the most -distinguishing tenets of the Buddhist faith, had not failed to confirm -the Japanese in a distaste for animal food, which had originated, -perhaps, from the small number of animals natives of that insular -country [_sic_],—an abstinence, indeed, which even the ancient religion -of Shintō had countenanced by denouncing as impure the act of killing -any animal, or being sprinkled with the slightest drop of blood. Of -domestic tame animals, the Japanese possessed from time immemorial -the horse, the ox, the buffalo, the dog, and the cat; but none of -these were ever used as food. The Portuguese introduced the deer and -the goat; but the Japanese, not eating their flesh nor understanding -the art of working up their wool or hair, took no pains to multiply -them. The Chinese introduced the hog; but the eating of that animal -was confined to them and to other foreigners. The deer, the hare, and -the wild boar were eaten by some sects, and some wild birds by the -poorer classes. The fox was hunted for its skin, the hair of which -was employed for the pencil used in painting and writing. The animal -itself, owing to its roguery, was believed to be the residence of -particularly wicked souls—an idea confirmed by many strange stories -in common circulation. The tortoise and the crane were regarded in -some sort as sacred animals, never to be killed nor injured. Whales -of a small species were taken, then as now, near the coast, and were -used as food, as were many other kinds of fish, the produce of the sea -and rivers. Shell-fish and certain seaweeds were also eaten in large -quantities. - -The soil of Japan, being of volcanic origin, was in some places -very fertile; but in many parts there were rugged and inaccessible -mountains, the sides of which, not admitting the use of the plough, -were built up in terraces cultivated by hand. Agriculture formed -the chief occupation of the inhabitants, and they had carried it to -considerable perfection, well understanding the use of composite -manures. The chief crops were rice, which was the great article of -food; barley, for the horses and cattle; wheat, used principally for -vermicelli; and several kinds of peas and beans. They cultivated, also, -a number of seeds, from which oils were expressed; likewise cotton, -hemp, the white mulberry for the feeding of silkworms (silk being the -stuff most in use), and the paper mulberry for the manufacture of -paper. To these may be added the camphor-tree, which grew, however, -only in the southwestern parts of Shimo, the _Rhus vernix_, which -produces the celebrated Japanese varnish, and the tea-plant, spoken -of by one of the early Portuguese missionaries as “a certain herb -called Cha, of which they put as much as a walnut shell may contain -into a dish of porcelain, and drink it with hot water.” From rice they -produced by fermentation an intoxicating drink, called _sake_, which -served them in the place of wine, and which was consumed in large -quantities. A yeast, or rather vinegar, produced from this liquor, was -largely employed in the pickling of vegetables. Their most useful woods -were the bamboo, the fir of several species, and the cedar. - -They understood in perfection the arts of weaving silks and of moulding -porcelain, and excelled in gilding, engraving, and especially in -the use of lacquer or varnish. They also were able to manufacture -sword-blades of excellent temper. - -As in other Eastern countries, the greater nobles exhibited an extreme -magnificence; but trade and the arts were held in low esteem, and the -mass of the people were excessively poor. Their buildings, though -they had some few solid structures of stone, were principally light -erections of wood, to avoid the effects of frequent earthquakes; but -this and the varnish employed exposed them to conflagrations, which, in -the towns, were very frequent and destructive. These towns consisted, -for the most part, of very cheap structures (like most of those -throughout the East), so that cities were built and destroyed with -equal ease and celerity. - -Their commerce was limited almost entirely to the interchange of -domestic products, a vast number of vessels, of rather feeble -structure, being employed in navigating the coasts of the islands, -which abounded with deep bays and excellent harbors. - -Of the sciences, whether mathematical, mixed, or purely physical, they -knew but little. They had, however, a considerable number of books -treating of religion, medicine, and their history and traditions. -The young were instructed in eloquence, poetry, and a rude sort of -painting and music, and they had a great fondness for theatrical -representations, in which they decidedly excelled. Their writing, -in which they greatly studied brevity, was in columns, as with the -Chinese, from the top to the bottom of the page, for which they gave -this reason: that writing ought to be a true representation of men’s -thoughts, and that men naturally stood erect. These columns read from -right to left. They employed, besides the Chinese ideographic signs, -a syllabic alphabet of their own, though in many works the Chinese -characters were freely introduced.[37] - -Jurisprudence, as in most Eastern countries, was a very simple affair. -The laws were very few. Heads of families exercised great power over -their households. Most private disputes were settled by arbitration; -but where this failed, and in all criminal cases, a decision was made -on the spot by a magistrate, from whom there was seldom any appeal. -The sentences were generally executed at once, and often with very -great severity. Whether from their temperament, or their belief in the -doctrines of transmigration and annihilation, it was observed that the -Japanese met death with more courage than was common in Europe. It was, -indeed, a point of honor, in many cases, to inflict it on themselves, -which they did in a horrid manner, by cutting open their bowels by -two gashes in the shape of a cross. The criminal who thus anticipated -execution secured thereby the public sympathy and applause, saving his -property from confiscation, and his family from death; and, upon the -death of superiors or masters, the same fate was often, as a mark of -personal devotion and attachment, self-inflicted; and sometimes, also, -in consequence of a disgrace or affront, to escape or revenge which -no other means appeared.[38] The missionaries especially noted in the -Japanese a pride, a self-respect, a haughty magnanimity, a sense of -personal honor, very uncommon in the East, but natural characteristics -enough of a people who had never been conquered by invaders from -abroad; while the great vicissitudes to which they were exposed—all -vassals generally sharing the fate of their superiors—made them look -upon the goods and evils of fortune in a very philosophical spirit. - -[Illustration: PERFORMANCE OF HARAKIRI] - -Such was the condition in which Japan was found when it first became -known to Europe through the letters and relations of Xavier and the -other Portuguese missionaries, his successors. - - - - -CHAPTER VII - -_Preaching of Xavier—Pinto’s Third Visit to Japan—A. D. 1550-51._ - - -It is not our purpose to trace minutely the progress and fluctuating -fortunes of the Jesuit missionaries; nor, indeed, would it always -be easy to extract the exact truth from relations into which the -marvellous so largely enters. Xavier’s letters throw very little -light on the subsequent history of his mission, which mainly depends -upon accounts derived from an inquisition into the particulars of -the apostle’s ministry and miracles in the East, ordered to be made -shortly after his death by John III., of Portugal, and which resulted -in a large collection of duly attested depositions, containing -many marvellous statements, most of them purporting to come from -eye-witnesses, from which source the Jesuit historians of the Eastern -missions and the biographers of the saint have drawn most of their -materials. - -If we are to believe them, Xavier was not only always victorious in his -disputes with bonzes; he went even so far, shortly after his arrival in -Japan, as to raise the dead—a miracle which furnished Poussin with a -subject for a celebrated picture. Xavier, we are told, had been charged -in India with a similar interference with the laws of nature; it is -true he attempted to explain it away, as, perhaps, he would have done -this Japanese miracle; but that denial the historian Maffei thinks, -instead of disproving the miracle, only proves the modest humility of -Xavier. - -Though at first well received, as we have seen, by the king of Satsuma, -and though, in the course of near a year he remained there, the -immediate family and many of the relations of Anjirō were persuaded -to be baptized, yet the remonstrances of the bonzes, followed by the -transfer of the Portuguese trade, for the sake of a better harbor, -from Kagoshima to Hirado, caused the king of Satsuma to issue an edict -forbidding his subjects, under pain of death, to renounce the worship -of their national gods. In consequence of this edict, Xavier departed -for Hirado, which island, off the west coast of Shimo, having separated -from the kingdom of Hizen, had become independent under a prince of its -own. Anjirō was left behind, but soon afterwards was obliged to fly to -China, where, as Pinto informs us, he was killed by robbers. - -At Hirado, in consequence of the representations of the Portuguese -merchants, Xavier was well received; but, desirous to see the chief -city of Japan, leaving Torres behind, he set out with Fernandez and two -Japanese converts on a visit to Miyako. - -Proceeding by water, he touched first at Hakata, a considerable town on -the northwest coast of Shimo, and capital of the kingdom of Chikuzen, -and then at Yamaguchi, at that time a large city, capital of Nagato, -the most western kingdom or province of the great island of Nippon, -separated at this point from Shimo by a narrow strait. - -The populace of Yamaguchi, ridiculing Xavier’s mean appearance as -contrasted with his pretensions, drove him out of the city with curses -and stones. Winter had now set in, and the cold was severe. The coast -was infested by pirates, and the interior by robbers, which obliged -the saint to travel as servant to some merchants, who, themselves on -horseback, required him, though on foot, and loaded with a heavy box -of theirs, to keep up with them at full gallop. This, however, seems a -little exaggerated, as Japanese travellers on horseback never exceed a -walk; while the box which Xavier carried is represented by the earlier -writers as containing the sacred vessels for the sacrifice of the mass. - -Arriving thus at Miyako in rather sad plight, Xavier found that capital -almost ruined by civil wars, and on the eve of becoming the field of a -new battle. He could obtain no audience, as he had hoped, either of the -Kubō-Sama or of the Shaku, nor any hearing except from the populace, so -that he judged it best to return again to Hirado. - -There are two means of working upon the imagination, both of which are -employed by turns alike by the Romish and by the Buddhist clergy. One -is by showing a contempt not merely for elegances, but even for common -comforts and ordinary decencies: the other, by pomp, show, and display. -Xavier, on his way to Miyako, entered the city of Yamaguchi barefoot -and meanly clad, and had, as we have stated, been hooted and stoned -by the populace. He now returned thither again from Hirado handsomely -clothed, and taking with him certain presents and recommendatory -letters from the Portuguese viceroy of the Indies and the governor of -Malacca, addressed to the Japanese princes, but of which as yet he had -made no use. Demanding an audience of the king, he was received with -respect, and soon obtained leave to preach, and an unoccupied house -of the bonzes to live in. Here, being soon surrounded by crowds, he -renewed, say his biographers, the miracle of tongues, not only in -preaching fluently in Japanese and in Chinese to the numerous merchants -of that nation who traded there, but in being able by a single answer -to satisfy a multitude of confused questions which the eager crowd -simultaneously put to him. Such was his success that, in less than two -months, five hundred persons, most of them of consideration, received -baptism; and, though the king soon began to grow less favorable, the -converts increased, during less than a year that he remained there, to -three thousand. - -The seed thus planted, Xavier resolved to return to the Indies for -a fresh supply of laborers; and, having heard of the arrival of a -Portuguese vessel at Fuchū, in the kingdom of Bungo, leaving De Torres -and Fernandez at Yamaguchi, he proceeded to Fuchū for the purpose of -embarking. - -Among the merchants in this ship was Fernam Mendez Pinto, now in Japan -for the third time, and who gives at some length the occurrences that -took place after Xavier’s arrival at Fuchū, where he was received with -great respect by the Portuguese, of whom more than thirty went out on -horseback to meet him. - -The young king, whose name was Kiuan,[39] had already obtained, -through intercourse with Portuguese merchants, some knowledge of their -religion. He invited Xavier to an audience, to which the Portuguese -merchants accompanied him with so grand a display as somewhat to shock -the modesty of the saint, but which strongly impressed in his favor -the people of Bungo, to whom he had been represented by the bonzes -as so miserable a vagabond as to disgust the very vermin with which -he was covered. The young king received him very graciously; and he -preached and disputed with such success as greatly to alarm the bonzes, -who vainly attempted to excite a popular commotion against him as an -enchanter, through whose mouth a demon spoke, and a cannibal, who fed -on dead bodies which he dug up in the night. - -Finally, after conquering, in a long dispute before the king of -Bungo, the ablest and most celebrated champion of the bonzes,[40] and -converting several of the order to the faith, Xavier embarked for -Goa on the 20th of September, 1551, attended by two of his Japanese -converts. Of those one died at Goa. The other, named Bernard, proceeded -to Europe, and, after a visit to Rome, returned to Portugal, and, -having entered the Society of Jesus, closed his life at the Jesuit -college of Coimbra, a foundation endowed by John III for the support of -a hundred pupils, to be prepared as missionaries to the East. - -At Yamaguchi, after Xavier’s departure, the bonzes, enemies of -Catholicity, were more successful. An insurrection which they raised -so alarmed the king, that he shut himself up in his palace, set it -on fire, and, having slain his only son with his own hand, ended by -cutting himself open. The missionaries, however, were saved by an -unconverted princess, who even induced certain bonzes to shelter them; -and a brother of the king of Bungo having been elected king of Nagato, -the Catholics, not one of whom, we are told, had been killed in the -insurrection, were soon on a better footing than ever.[41] - - - - -CHAPTER VIII - - _Progress of the Missions under Fathers De Torres and Nugnes - Barreto—Mendez Pinto a Fourth Time in Japan—A. D. 1551-1557._ - - -The apostle of the Indies returned no more to Japan. He died in -December, 1552, at the age of forty-six, on his way to China, at the -island of Sancian, a little way from Macao, partly, it would seem, -through vexation at having been disappointed, by the jealousy and -obstinacy of the governor of Malacca, in a more direct mission to that -empire, on which he had set his heart, and for which he had made every -arrangement. - -But already, before leaving for China, he had despatched from Malacca -three new missionaries to Japan, Balthaza Gago, a priest, and two -brothers, Peter d’Alcaceva and Edward de Sylva, who landed at -Kagoshima, in August, 1552, whence they proceeded to Bungo, where, -as well as at Yamaguchi, a site had been granted for a residence -and a church. Father de Torres, now at the head of the mission, in -a sort of general assembly of the faithful, to which the principal -converts were admitted, regulated the policy of the infant church. -To meet the objection of the bonzes, that the new converts had left -their old religions to escape the usual contributions of alms, it was -resolved to establish hospitals for the sick and poor, as well pagan -as converted,—and the more so as poverty in Japan was regarded as -peculiarly despicable, and the poor as condemned by the gods. To suit -the taste of the Japanese for spectacles, an impressive burial service -was agreed upon. - -Great attention, according to the policy of the Catholic Church, -and especially of the Jesuits, was bestowed on the education of the -young. Not to be outdone by the bonzes, the missionaries practised -great austerities; regular whipping of themselves in church by all the -converts made a stated part of their religious exercises; but what most -contributed to the spread of the new faith was, so we are told, the -exceeding zeal, self-denial, and disinterestedness of the new converts, -including among the number several bonzes of the old religions, some of -whom were made Jesuits, and even ordained priests, and who soon gave -examples of sublime piety, which even the missionaries themselves found -it difficult to imitate. - -Meanwhile, Peter d’Alcaceva, one of the newly arrived Jesuits, having -been sent back to Goa for further aid, on his way to that capital found -at Malacca the body of Xavier, preserved in quicklime, and also on -its way to Goa, whither he attended it. At Goa he encountered Fernam -Mendez Pinto, who, having amassed great wealth in the Indies, was -about to return to Portugal. Preliminary to this voyage Pinto made a -general confession to Father Nugnes Barreto, the vice-provincial of the -Jesuits; after which, falling upon the subject of Xavier, whose dead -body lying at Goa was reported to work numerous miracles, he related -to his confessor many wonderful stories of the prodigies which he -himself had witnessed while with Xavier at Bungo. Passing thence to -the zeal and merits of the Japanese converts, he strongly urged Nugnes -to proceed thither to take Xavier’s place, even offering himself to -go as his companion, and to devote the whole of his fortune (except -two thousand crowns to be sent to some poor relations in Portugal), -partly to the founding of a seminary at Yamaguchi, whence the faith -might be diffused through the whole of Japan, and partly in purchasing -magnificent presents for the princes of the country, which he thought -would be a good means of securing their favor for the new religion. - -Pinto was accordingly appointed ambassador from the Portuguese viceroy -to the king of Bungo, and Nugnes sailed for Malacca in his company, -taking with him Father Gaspard Vilela, four brothers, not yet priests, -and five young orphans from the Seminary of the Holy Faith, to act as -catechists. Before setting out, Nugnes and his brother Jesuits renewed -their vows, according to a rule of the order, which required such a -renewal once every six months. Pinto was present at this ceremony, -and his excitable temperament was so wrought upon by it, that, seized -with a sudden impulse, he insisted upon himself repeating the vows, -with an additional one to consecrate his person and his goods to the -Japanese mission. As he was the viceroy’s ambassador, it was resolved -that he should not adopt the Jesuit habit till after he had fulfilled -his mission—a delay which proved a lucky thing for Pinto, whose zeal -speedily began to evaporate. He served, indeed, for some time in the -hospitals of Malacca, where they arrived in June, 1554, and where, by -the sickness of Nugnes and other accidents, they were detained upwards -of a year; and, according to the letters of Nugnes, he gave great -edification, the people admiring to see so rich a man, and one lately -so fond of display and good living, clothed in rags and begging alms -from door to door, having given up all his wealth that he might the -better obey the Lord. - -Sailing from Malacca, Nugnes and his company, after perils from -pirates, were driven by storms first to Sancian, and then to Macao, -whence, in the spring of 1556, Nugnes proceeded to Canton, where he -made many unavailing efforts for the introduction of Catholicism into -China. Meanwhile, he received letters from Goa, urging his return, -enclosing one from Loyola himself, disapproving of such long voyages by -the vice-provincials of the order; but he was still induced to Japan by -a pressing letter from the prince of Hirado, who hoped by this means -to attract the Portuguese trade from Bungo to that port. He sailed -accordingly for Hirado, but was compelled by stress of weather to find -a harbor in Bungo. - -Meanwhile, the parts of Japan occupied by the missionaries had -been the seats of serious commotions. The king of Bungo had indeed -confirmed his power by suppressing an insurrection; but his brother, -the king of Nagato, had been driven from his throne and defeated and -slain by Mōri Motonari, a relative of the late king; and during this -civil war the city of Yamaguchi had been sacked and burnt, and the -missionaries obliged to flee for their lives to Bungo. There, too, -a new insurrection had been attempted, but again without success; -though the king still kept himself shut up in a fortress at a distance -from his capital. He returned, however, to receive Nugnes, which he -did very graciously, but resisted, on grounds of expediency, all -his exhortations to make an open profession of Catholicism. Thus -disappointed, Nugnes, after sending Gago to establish himself at -Hirado, thought it best to return to Goa. - -[Illustration: THE KINTAI BRIDGE, SNŌ] - -On arriving in Japan, the zeal of Pinto had speedily declined, and -he had begun to sigh for his liberty. Perhaps he was alarmed at the -appearance of Cosme de Torres, who, from being plump and portly, had, -under the thin diet of the country, and the labors of the mission, -grown to be exceedingly lean and haggard. At all events, it was -found impossible to revive his fervor, and, as the Jesuits wanted no -unwilling members, it was decided to release him from his vows. He -returned with Nugnes to Goa, whence, not long after, he sailed for -Lisbon. In his book he relates his last visit to Japan, but with no -mention of his having joined the Jesuits,—of which our knowledge is -drawn from the published letters of the missionaries, including one -dated in 1554, and written by Pinto himself, from the college at -Malacca, addressed to the scholars of the college of Coimbra, and -giving a sketch of his travels in the East. - -Having arrived at Lisbon, September 22, 1558, he delivered to the -queen regent a commendatory letter from the viceroy of Goa, and had -the honor to explain to her what his long experience suggested as of -most utility for the affairs of Portugal in the East, not forgetting -also some private application for himself. The queen referred him to -the minister, who gave him high hopes; but at the end of four or five -years of tedious solicitation, which became more insupportable than -all his past fatigues, he concluded to content himself with the little -fortune which he had brought from India, and for which he was indebted -to nobody but himself. Yet he piously and loyally concludes that, if -he had been no better rewarded for twenty-one years’ services, during -which he had been thirteen times a slave, and seventeen times sold, -it could only be attributed to the divine justice, which disposes of -all things for the best, and rather to his own sins than to any want -of royal discernment. He died about 1580, leaving his narrative behind -him, which was not printed till 1614, and which was written, as he -says at the beginning of it, in his old age, that he might leave it -a memorial and heritage to his children to excite their confidence -in the aid of Heaven by the example of his own sufferings and -deliverances.[42] - - - - -CHAPTER IX - - _Louis Almeida—The Missionaries establish themselves at - Miyako (Kyōto)—Louis Froez—Princes converted in Shimo—Rise - of Nobunaga—Prosperity of the Missions—Noble and Princely - Converts—Nagasaki built—Nobunaga makes himself Emperor—A. D. - 1557-1577_. - - -The loss of Pinto and Nugnes, and even that of Father Gago, who, three -or four years later, after a very zealous career as a missionary, grew -weary of the work, and obtained permission to return to Goa, was more -than made up for by the accession of William and Ruys Pereyra, two -of the catechists brought by Nugnes, and whom, before his departure, -he admitted into the order, and especially by that of Louis Almeida, -who had arrived in Japan as surgeon to a trading vessel, and who, -after amassing a large fortune, gave it all to pious uses,—of which a -hospital for abandoned infants was one,—and, joining the Jesuits, soon -became distinguished for his zeal and assiduity as a missionary. - -The extension which, in the fluctuating condition of affairs, shortly -afterwards took place of the dominions of the king of Bungo over -the greater part of the island of Shimo, was very favorable to the -new religion. The prince of Hirado was obliged to pay him tribute, -and, notwithstanding the double-faced policy of that prince, the new -doctrine continued to spread in his territories, where some of the -members of the ruling family became converts. A new church was planted -at Hakata, and the old original one at Kagoshima was reëstablished. -Presently the new faith gained a footing also in the kingdoms of Arima -and Gotō, which, as well as Hirado, had been dissevered from the -ancient province of Hizen. The lord of Shimabara (afterwards famous -as the last stronghold of the Catholics) invited the missionaries -to his city. The king of Arima was also very friendly; he gave -the missionaries an establishment, first at Yokoseura, and, after -that city had been burned by the bonzes, at a port of his called -Kuchinotsu, on the southern coast of the southwestern peninsula of -Shimo. The prince of Ōmura, a dependency of Arima, and the prince of -the island of Tanegashima, the same at which Pinto had first landed, -then a dependency of Hirado, were both among the converts, and -exceedingly zealous to induce their subjects to follow their example; -and, notwithstanding the hostility of the bonzes, the frequent wars -between the princes, and repeated internal commotions, by which the -missionaries were often in danger, the new religion continued to spread -in all parts of Shimo, and in fact to be carried by native converts to -many parts of Nippon, which no missionary had yet reached. Meanwhile, -new establishments also had been gained on the island of Nippon, in -addition to that at Yamaguchi, at its western extremity. The fame of -the missionaries had induced an old Jūji, or superior of a Buddhist -monastery near Miyako (Kyōto), to send to Yamaguchi to ask information -about the new religion. Father Vilela was despatched, in 1559, for -his instruction, and though the Jūji died before the arrival of the -missionary, his successor and many of the bonzes listened with respect -to the words of Vilela. As none, however, were willing to receive -baptism, he departed for Miyako, where he found means to approach -Yoshiteru, the Kubō-Sama, and to obtain from him permission to preach. -Having secured the favor of Miyoshi, the emperor’s principal minister, -and presently that of Matsunaga, the chief judge, he converted many -bonzes and nobles, and built up a large and flourishing church. - -An attack upon the emperor by Mōri Motonari, king of Nagato, who -forced the city of Miyako, and set it on fire, detained Vilela for -a while in the neighboring town of Sakai, the most commercial place -in Japan, which seems, at that time, to have been a free city, as it -were, with an independent government of its own; and there also a -church was planted. But the emperor soon reëstablished his affairs; -and although, from the hostility of Mōri, the church at Yamaguchi was -very much depressed, everything went on well at Miyako, where Vilela -was joined, in 1565, by Louis Almeida, and by a young missionary, Louis -Froez, lately arrived from Malacca. Of their journey from Kuchinotsu to -Miyako we have a detailed account in a long and very interesting letter -of Almeida’s. His visit to Miyako was only temporary. Froez remained -there, and from him we have a long series of letters, historical and -descriptive, as well as religious, which, for a period of thirty years -following, throw great light on the history and internal condition of -Japan. - -At this time the entire empire, since and at present so stable, was -the scene of constant revolutions. Very shortly after Froez’s arrival -Miyoshi and Matsunaga conspired against their patron (_i. e._ the -Shōgun Yoshiteru), dethroned him, and drove him to cut himself open, -as did great numbers of his relatives and partisans. These nobles, -hitherto favorable to the missionaries, now published an edict against -them, probably to secure the favor of the bonzes; and Vilela and -Froez were thus again driven to take refuge at Sakai, where they had -a few converts. But the believers at Miyako stood firm, and a new -revolution soon occurred, headed by a noble called Wada Iga-no-kami, -and by Nobunaga (Oda Nobunaga), king of Owari,—which province adjoined -the emperor’s special territory on the east, a prince whose military -prowess had already made him from a petty noble the master of eighteen -provinces in the eastern part of Nippon. - -In 1566 Wada and Nobunaga proclaimed as emperor a brother of the late -one—a bonze who had escaped from the rebels. Miyako was regained, -and the new emperor established there A. D. 1567. All real authority -remained, however, with Nobunaga, who showed himself very hostile to -the Buddhist bonzes, they having generally taken the side of the late -rebels. He even destroyed many of their temples, using the idols which -they contained as materials for a new palace. He easily granted to -Wada, who was himself a sort of half convert, the reëstablishment of -the missionaries at Miyako, which was soon confirmed by an imperial -edict, issued in 1568; and, in spite of an attempt at interference on -the part of the Dairi, the new religion, under the protection of Wada, -who was appointed governor of Miyako, soon reached a very flourishing -condition. - -[Illustration: IMAGE OF ODA NOBUNAGA - From Dening’s _New Life of Toyotomi Hideyoshi_] - -To this prosperity at Miyako a strong contrast was, however, -presented by the state of things at Yamaguchi, whence the missionaries -were expelled by the king of Nagato, though the church there was still -kept alive by the zeal and constancy of some of the converts. In the -island of Shimo the new religion continued to spread. Indeed, the -baptized prince of Ōmura, not content with hacking idols to pieces, and -refusing to join in the old national festivals, wished also to prohibit -all the old ceremonies, and to compel his subjects to adopt the new -ones,—an excess of zeal which, by displaying the intolerant spirit of -the new sect, fostered a union of all the old ones against it, such as -at last occasioned its destruction. - -This prince had allowed certain Portuguese merchants to establish -themselves at Nagasaki, then a mere fishing village, but having a -capacious harbor, the port of Japan nearest to China and the Indies, -at the head of a deep bay, opening to the west. Presently he built -a church there, and, A. D. 1568, invited the missionaries to make -it their headquarters, with a promise that no religion but theirs -should be allowed. This invitation was accepted; many converts flocked -thither, and Nagasaki soon became a considerable city. Fathers de -Torres and Vilela both died in 1570,[43] worn out with years and -labors, the latter being succeeded as head of the mission by Father -Cabral, sent out from Goa as vice-provincial of the order, and -accompanied by Father Gnecchi, who soon became an efficient laborer. - -Meanwhile, an insurrection in the imperial provinces, on the part of -the old rebels, which it cost the life of Wada to suppress, so provoked -Nobunaga that he wreaked his vengeance anew upon the bonzes (who had -again aided the insurgents), by destroying a great number of their -monasteries on the famous mountain of Japan (Hieizan), and putting -the inmates to death. This occurrence took place A. D. 1571, as the -missionaries remarked, on the day of St. Michael, whom Xavier had -named the patron saint of Japan. Cabral, the vice-provincial, having -made a visit to Miyako, was very graciously received by Nobunaga. -Shortly after the titular Kubō-Sama made a vain attempt to regain -the exercise of authority. The defeated prince was still left in -possession of his title, but Nobunaga was thenceforth regarded as, -in fact, himself the emperor. This was in 1573. In 1576 the church -received new and important accessions in Shimo. The king of Bungo, -though from the beginning favorable to the missionaries, had, from -reasons of policy, and through the influence of his wife, who was very -hostile to the new religion, declined baptism; none of the courtiers -had submitted to it, and the converts in that kingdom had consisted as -yet of an inferior class. But the second son of the king having taken -the resolution to be baptized, in spite of the violent opposition of -the queen, his mother,—who had great influence over Yoshimune, the -king’s eldest son, associated, according to a usual Japanese custom, -in the government,—his example was followed by many persons of rank in -the kingdom of Bungo, and even by the neighboring king of Arima, who -died, however, shortly after, leaving his kingdom to an unbelieving -successor.[44] - - - - -CHAPTER X - - _Father Valignani—State of the Missions—Conversion and Baptism of - the King of Bungo—Growth of Nagasaki—Embassy to the Pope—Documents - relating to this Embassy—A. D. 1577-1586._ - - -Such was the state of things on the arrival, at the beginning of -1577, of Father Alexander Valignani, visitor-general of the Jesuit -establishments in the East, and who in that capacity came to inspect -the missions of Japan. He found there, in addition to a large number of -native catechists, fifty-nine professed Jesuits (including twelve who -had arrived but a short time before), of whom twenty-six were native -Japanese; but, as only twenty-three of the whole number were ordained -priests, it was found very difficult to meet the demand for ministers -qualified to baptize and to administer the other sacraments. Hence -the visitor was the more convinced of the necessity of establishing a -novitiate of the order (a project already started by Father Cabral, the -vice-provincial), and seminaries for the education of the children of -the converts designed for the priesthood, especially those of superior -rank; and in his letter to the general of the order and to the Pope, he -recommended the appointment of a bishop, so that ordination might be -had without the necessity of going to Malacca. He also settled, at a -general assembly of the missionaries, who met him at Kuchinotsu, many -points of discipline, and especially a difficult and much disputed -question as to the wearing of silk garments, which, as being the stuff -in use by all persons of consideration in Japan, some of the Jesuits -wished to wear. The ground taken was that it would only be a new -application of the policy, which had been agreed upon, of conforming -as far as innocently might be to the customs of the country. This -argument, however, had not satisfied Father Cabral; he had prohibited -the wearing of silk, which the rule of the order did not allow; and -that decision was now confirmed by the visitor. - -There were, however, other points upon which the vice-provincial and -the visitor did not so well agree. Of Cabral, Charlevoix draws the -following character, one for which many originals might be found: -“He was a holy professor, a great missionary, a vigilant and amiable -superior; but he was one of those excellent persons who imagine -themselves more clear-headed than other men, and who, in consequence, -ask counsel of nobody but themselves; or rather, who believe themselves -inspired, when they have once prayed to be so, regarding as decrees -of Heaven, expressed by their mouth, all the resolutions which they -have taken at the foot of the cross, where the last thing to be laid -down is one’s own judgment.” Cabral had taken up the idea that persons -of such vigorous understanding as the Japanese must be duly held in -check; and the whole twenty-six of them received, up to this time, -into the company, and almost all of whom aspired to the priesthood, he -strictly limited to such studies as would suffice to qualify them for -the subordinate parts of divine service. This policy Valignani did not -approve; but when he sought to alter it, he encountered such opposition -from Father Cabral, to be obliged to send him off to Goa, appointing -Father Gaspard Cuello in his place. - -Shortly after the arrival of Valignani, the church gained a new and -distinguished accession in Kiuan,[45] king of Bungo, who, having -repudiated his old pagan wife, to whom the Catholics gave the name of -Jezebel, married a new one, and was baptized with all his household, -taking the name of Francis, according to the custom of the missionaries -in giving European names to their converts. There were even strong -hopes of gaining over his eldest son and colleague, Yoshimune, when -a war broke out with the king of Satsuma for the possession of the -intervening kingdom of Hyūga, which resulted in the loss of all -Kiuan’s conquests, and his reduction to his original province of -Bungo, which also he was in danger of losing,—a change by no means -favorable to the missionaries. Kuchinotsu was ruined in this war; and -the spectacle of the vicissitudes to which everything in Japan was -exposed induced Valignani to urge upon the Portuguese merchants and -residents to fortify Nagasaki. This was done in 1579, and that port -became thenceforward almost the sole one resorted to by the Portuguese. -The converted king of Gotō having died, the guardian of his infant son -showed himself hostile to the missionaries; but this circumstance was -an advantage to Nagasaki, which received many fugitives from these -islands. - -The new king of Arima being brought, by the labors of the visitor, to -a better disposition, was baptized, and became one of the most zealous -of the converts. Both the emperor Nobunaga and his three sons still -continued very well disposed to the missionaries, allowing Father -Gnecchi, who was a favorite with him, to establish a house, a church, -and a seminary at Azuchiyama, his local capital, which he had greatly -beautified, and between which and Miyako he had caused a highway to -be built, at great expense and with immense labor. His evident design -to make his authority absolute had indeed led to a league against -him, which, however, proved of no avail, this attempt at resistance -resulting in the subjection of all the kings of the western half of -Nippon, except Mōri of Nagato. The good service which the missionaries -rendered, in persuading the Christian princes, and the Christian -vassals of the unconverted ones, to submit to the emperor, as their -superior lord, caused Valignani to be very graciously received, both at -Miyako and also at Azuchiyama. - -On the visitor’s return to Shimo, the converted kings of Bungo and -Arima, and the prince of Ōmura, determined to send ambassadors to be -the bearers of their submission to the Pope. For this purpose two young -nobles were selected, scarcely sixteen years of age: one, prince of -Hyūga, the son of a niece of the king of Bungo, the other, prince of -Arima, cousin of the king of Arima, and nephew of the prince of Ōmura. -They were attended by two counsellors somewhat older than themselves, -by Father Diego de Mesquita, as their preceptor, and interpreter, and -by a Japanese Jesuit, named George Loyola, and, in company with Father -Valignani, they sailed from Nagasaki February 20, 1582, in a Portuguese -ship bound for Macao, now the headquarters of the Portuguese trade to -Japan. They arrived at Macao after a very stormy and dangerous passage -of seventeen days; but the season of sailing for Malacca being past, -they had to wait there six months. When at length they did sail, -they encountered very violent storms; but at last, after twenty-nine -days’ passage (January 27, 1583), they reached Malacca, passing, as -they entered the harbor, the wreck of another richly laden Portuguese -vessel, which had sailed from Macao in their company. After resting at -Malacca eight days, they embarked for Goa, which third voyage proved -not less trying than the two others. Delayed by calms, they ran short -of provisions and water, and by the ignorance of the pilot were near -being run ashore on the island of Ceylon. They disembarked at length at -Travancore, at the southeastern extremity of the peninsula of India, -whence they proceeded by land to the neighboring port of Cochin. Here, -owing to the unfavorable monsoon, they had to wait six months before -they could sail for Goa, at which capital of Portuguese India they -arrived in September. The viceroy of the Indies received them with -great hospitality, and furnished them with a good ship, in which they -had a favorable passage round the Cape of Good Hope, arriving at Lisbon -August 10, 1584. - -Four years before, Portugal had passed under the rule of Philip II, of -Spain, who had thus united on his single head the crowns of both the -East and the West Indies; and to him these ambassadors were charged -with a friendly message. The viceroy of Portugal received them at -Lisbon with every attention. At Madrid they were received by Philip II -himself with the greatest marks of distinction. Having traversed Spain, -they embarked at Alicante, but were driven by a storm into the island -of Majorca, thereby escaping an Algerine fleet and a Turkish squadron, -both of which were cruising in that neighborhood. Sailing thence they -landed at Leghorn, where Pierro de’ Medici, brother of the grand duke -of Tuscany, was waiting to attend them. They spent the carnival at -Pisa, and thence by Florence proceeded towards Rome. - -Aquiviva, general of the Jesuits (the fourth successor of Loyola), -was very pressing with the Pope for a reception without display; but -Gregory XIII (the same to whom we owe the reform of the calendar) had -determined in consistory that the honor of the church and of the holy -see required a different course. The ambassadors were met at Viterbo -by the Pope’s light horse, and were escorted into the city by a long -cavalcade of Roman nobles. The whole of the corso up to Jesus, the -church and house of the Jesuits, where the ambassadors were to lodge, -was crowded with people, who greeted their arrival with deafening -shouts. As they alighted from their carriage, they were received -by Father Aquiviva, attended by all the Jesuits then at Rome, who -conducted them to the church, where _Te Deum_ was chanted. - -The next day a magnificent procession was formed to escort them to the -Vatican. It was headed by the light horse, followed by the Pope’s Swiss -guard, the officers of the cardinals, the carriages of the ambassadors -of Spain, France, Venice, and the Roman princes, the whole Roman -nobility on horseback, the pages and officers of the ambassadors, with -trumpets and cymbals, the chamberlains of the Pope, and the officers of -the palace, all in red robes. Then followed the Japanese on horseback, -in their national dress,[46] three silken gowns of a light fabric, -one over the other, of a white ground, splendidly embroidered with -fruits, leaves, and birds. In their girdles they wore the two swords, -symbols of Japanese gentility. Their heads, shaven, except the hair -round the ears and neck, which was gathered into a cue bent upwards, -had no covering. Their features were hardly less divergent from the -European standard than their dress, yet their whole expression, air, -and manner, modest and amiable, but with a conscious sentiment of -nobility, was such as impressed the bystanders very favorably. The -prince of Hyūga came first, between two archbishops. The prince of -Arima followed, between two bishops. Of their counsellors, one was kept -away by sickness, the other followed between two nobles, and after him -Father de Mesquita, the interpreter, also on horseback. A great number -of richly dressed courtiers closed the procession. The crowds, which -filled the streets and the windows, looked on in almost breathless -silence. As the ambassadors crossed the bridge of St. Angelo, all -the cannon of the castle were fired, to which those of the Vatican -responded, at which signal all the bands struck up, and continued to -play till the hall of audience was reached. - -The ambassadors approached the foot of the papal throne, each with the -letter of his prince in his hand. Prostrating themselves at the Pope’s -feet, they declared in Japanese, in a voice loud and distinct, that -they had come from the extremities of the earth to acknowledge in the -person of the Pope the vicar of Jesus Christ, and to render obedience -to him in the name of the princes of whom they were the envoys, and -also for themselves. The Father de Mesquita expressed in Latin what -they had said; but the appearance of the young men themselves, who -had essayed so many dangers and fatigues to come to pay their homage -to the holy see, was more expressive than any words; and it drew tears -and sobs from the greater part of the audience. The Pope himself, -greatly agitated, hastened to raise them up, kissed their foreheads, -and embraced them many times, dropping tears upon them. They were then -conducted to an alcove, while the secretary of the consistory read -the letters from the Japanese princes, which Father de Mesquita had -translated into Italian, and of which the following may serve as a -specimen: - - - “LETTER OF THE KING OF BUNGO, - - “_To him who ought to be adored and who holds the place of the King of - Heaven, the great and most holy Pope_. - - “Full of confidence in the grace of the supreme and almighty God, - I write, with all possible submission, to your Holiness. The Lord, - who governs heaven and earth, who holds under his empire the sun and - all the celestial host, has made his light to shine upon one who was - plunged in ignorance and buried in deep darkness. It is more than - thirty years since this sovereign Master of nature, displaying all the - treasures of his pity in favor of the inhabitants of these countries, - sent thither the fathers of the Company of Jesus, who have sowed - the seed of the divine Word in these kingdoms of Japan; and he has - pleased, in his infinite bounty, to cause a part of it to fall into my - heart: singular mercy, for which I think myself indebted, most holy - Father of all the faithful, as well to the prayers and merits of your - Holiness as to those of many others. If the wars which I have had to - sustain, my old age, and my infirmities had not prevented me, I should - myself have visited the holy places where you dwell, to render in - person the obedience which I owe you. I would have devotedly kissed - the feet of your Holiness, I would have placed them on my head, and - would have besought you to make with your sacred hand the august - sign of the cross on my heart. Constrained, by the reasons I have - mentioned, to deprive myself of a consolation so sweet, I did design - to send in my place Jerome, son of the king of Fiunga [Hyūga], and - my grandson; but as he was too far distant from my court, and as the - father-visitor could not delay his departure, I have substituted for - him Mancio, his cousin and my great-nephew. - - “I shall be infinitely obliged if your Holiness, holding upon earth - the place of God himself, shall continue to shed your favor upon me, - upon all Christians, and especially upon this little portion of the - flock committed to your care. I have received from the hand of the - father-visitor the reliquary with which your Holiness honored me, - and I have placed it on my head with much respect. I have no words - in which to express the gratitude with which I am penetrated for a - gift so precious. I will add no more, as the father-visitor and my - ambassador will more fully inform your Holiness as to all that regards - my person and my realm. I truly adore you, most holy Father, and I - write this to you trembling with respectful fear. The 11th day of - January, in the year of our Lord 1582. - - “FRANCIS, King of Bungo, - “prostrate at the foot of your Holiness.” - -The reading of this and of the other letters, translated into Italian, -was followed by a “Discourse on Obedience,” pronounced, in the name of -the princes and the ambassadors, by Father Gaspard Gonzales, a model of -rhetorical elegance and comprehensive brevity—whatever may be thought -of its ethical or theological doctrines—which some of the long-winded -speakers of the present day, both lay and clerical, would do well to -imitate. We give, as a specimen, a passage from the beginning: - - “Nature has separated Japan from the countries in which we now are, - by such an extent of land and sea, that, before the present age, - there were very few persons who had any knowledge of it; and even now - there are those who find it difficult to believe the accounts of it - which we give. It is certain, nevertheless, most holy Father, that - there are several Japanese islands, of a vast extent, and in these - islands numerous fine cities, the inhabitants of which have a keen - understanding, noble and courageous hearts, and obliging dispositions, - politeness of manners, and inclinations disposed towards that which - is good. Those who have known them have decidedly preferred them to - all the other people of Asia, and it is only their lack of the true - religion which prevents them from competing with the nations of Europe. - - “For some years past this religion has been preached to them, under - the authority of the holy see, by apostolical missionaries. Its - commencements were small, as in the case of the primitive church; but - God having given his blessing to this evangelical seed, it took root - in the hearts of the nobles, and of late, under the pontificate of - your Holiness, it has been received by the greatest lords, the princes - and kings of Japan. This, most holy Father, ought to console you, for - many reasons; but principally because, laboring as you do with an - indefatigable zeal and vigor to reëstablish a religion, shaken and - almost destroyed by the new heresies here in Europe, you see it take - root and make great progress in the most distant country of the world. - - “Hitherto your Holiness has heard, and with great pleasure, of the - abundant fruits borne by this vine newly planted, with so much labor, - at the extremities of the earth. Now you may see, touch, taste them, - in this august assembly, and impart of them to all the faithful. - What joy ought not all Christians to feel, and especially the Roman - people, at seeing the ambassadors of such great princes come from - the ends of the earth to prostrate themselves at the feet of your - Holiness, through a pure motive of religion,—a thing which has never - happened in any age! What satisfaction for them to see the most - generous and valiant kings of the East, conquered by the arms of the - faith and by the preaching of the gospel, submitting themselves to the - empire of Jesus Christ, and, as they cannot, from their avocations, - come in person to take the oath of obedience and fidelity to the holy - see, acquitting themselves of this duty by ambassadors so nearly - related to them, and whom they so tenderly love!” - -In the following passage the orator alludes more at length to the -revolt in Europe against the authority of the Pope, which Philip II, no -less than the Pope, was at this moment vigorously laboring to put down, -by the recent introduction of the Jesuits into the Netherlands, where -the Protestant rebels had been suppressed, by war against Holland, by -aiding the French leaguers, by countenancing the retrograde movement -then in rapid progress in Germany, and by preparing to carry out -against Elizabeth of England the sentence of deposition which the Pope -had fulminated against her. - - “O immortal God! What a stroke of thine arm! What an effect of thy - grace! In places so distant from the holy see, where the name of - Jesus had never been heard, nor his gospel ever preached, as soon - as the true faith shed there the first rays of the truth, men of - temperaments quite different from ours, kings illustrious by their - nobility, redoubtable for their power, happy in the abundance of their - possessions, conquerors and warriors signalized by their victories, - acknowledge the greatness and dignity of the Roman church, and hold - it a great honor to kiss the feet of the church’s head by the lips - of persons infinitely dear to them; all this happens while we see - men at our very gate blind and impious enough to wish to cut off - with a parricidal hand the head of the mystic body of Jesus Christ, - and to call in doubt, to their own ruin, the authority of the holy - see, established by Jesus Christ himself, confirmed by the course - of so many ages, defended by the writings of so many holy doctors, - recognized and approved by so many councils! - - “But it is not proper that I should give way to grief, or trouble the - joys of this day by the recollection of our miseries!” - -To this address, on behalf of the Japanese princes and their -ambassadors, Monseigneur Antony Bocapaduli replied in Latin, in the -Pope’s name, as follows: - - “His Holiness commands me, most noble lords, to say to you that - Dom Francis, king of Bungo, Dom Protais, king of Arima, and Dom - Barthelemi, prince of Ōmura, have acted like wise and religious - princes in sending you from the extremities of Asia to acknowledge - the power with which God’s bounty hath clothed him on the earth, - since there is but one faith, one church universal, and but a single - chief and supreme pastor, whose authority extends to all parts of the - earth where there are Christians, which pastor and only head is the - bishop of Rome, the successor of St. Peter. He is charmed to see that - they believe firmly and profess aloud this truth, with all the other - articles that compose the Catholic faith. He gives ceaseless thanks - to the divine goodness which has wrought these marvels; and this joy - appears to him so much the more legitimate, as it has its foundation - in the zeal by which he is animated for the glory of the Almighty, and - the salvation of souls which the incarnate Word has purchased with his - blood. This is why this venerable pontiff and all the sacred college - of the cardinals of the Roman church receive, with a truly paternal - affection, the protestation which you make to the vicar of Jesus - Christ of faith, filial devotion, and obedience, on the part of the - princes whom you represent. His Holiness earnestly desires and prays - to God that all the kings and princes of Japan, and all those who - rule in other parts of the world, may imitate so good an example, may - renounce their idols and all their errors, may adore in spirit and in - truth the sovereign Lord who has created this universe, and his only - son, Jesus Christ, whom he has sent into the world; since it is in - this knowledge and this faith that eternal life consists.” - -The reply finished, the ambassadors were conducted around to the foot -of the throne, and again kissed the feet of the Pope; after which the -cardinals, drawing near, embraced them, and put to them many questions -as to their travels and the rarities of their country: questions to -which they replied with so much sense and acuteness as to cause no -little admiration. - -At length the Pope rose, exclaiming, _Nunc dimittis servum tuum, -Domine_ (which might by a pious Catholic be taken as a prophecy of -his approaching death). The two chief ambassadors, who were of the -blood royal, were directed to lift up the train of his robes,—an -honor monopolized, as far as the princes of Europe were concerned, -by the ambassador of the emperor. The holy father having been thus -conducted to his apartment, the cardinal St. Sixtus, his nephew, the -cardinal Guastavillani, and the duke of Sora entertained the Japanese -at a magnificent dinner. A private audience followed, in which the -ambassadors delivered the presents they had brought, and the Pope -announced that he had endowed the proposed new seminary at Fuchū with -an annual dotation of four thousand Roman crowns. - -Gregory XIII died a few days after;[47] but his successor, Sixtus V, -who, as cardinal of Monte Alto, had taken greatly to the Japanese, was -not less favorable to them as Pope. They assisted, among the other -ambassadors of kings, at his coronation, bearing the canopy and holding -the basin for his Holiness to wash in when he said mass. They had the -same honors when the pontiff was enthroned at Saint John Lateran. The -holy father afterwards invited them to visit his country-house, where -they were splendidly entertained and regaled on his behalf by his -steward and four-and-twenty prelates. - -Finally, on the eve of the Ascension, in the presence of all the Roman -nobility, they were dubbed knights of the gilded spurs. The Pope -himself girded on their swords, while the spurs of the two princes -were buckled on by the ambassadors of France and Venice, and those of -the two others by the Marquis Altemps; after which the Pope placed -about their necks chains of gold, to which his medal was attached, -and kissed and embraced them. The next day his Holiness said mass in -person, and they communicated from his hand. He dismissed them with -briefs, addressed to their princes, of which the following may serve as -a sample: - - - “BRIEF OF POPE SIXTUS V TO THE KING OF ARIMA - - “_Noble prince and our well-beloved son, salvation and apostolical - benediction._ - - “Our well-beloved son Dom Michael, your ambassador to this court, - delivered to Pope Gregory XIII, our predecessor, of holy and happy - memory, now, as we must presume, in glory, the letters with which your - majesty had charged him; and after these letters had been publicly - read, he rendered to that pontiff the obedience due to the vicar of - Jesus Christ, and which all Catholic kings are accustomed to render - to him. This was done in presence of all the cardinals of the holy - church, then assembled at Rome, of which number we were. A greater - concourse of persons of all conditions, and a greater public joy, had - never been seen. Shortly after, it having pleased God to charge us, - without our having in the least merited it, with the government of - His church, we have also received with entirely paternal tenderness - the same duties of obedience which Dom Michael has renewed to us, in - the name of your majesty; whereupon we have thought proper to add - you to the number of our very dear children, the Catholic kings of - the holy church. We have seen, with much joy and satisfaction, the - testimonies of your piety and religion; and, to give you the means of - increasing these in your heart, we have sent you, by your before-named - ambassador, inclosed in a cross of gold, a piece of the cross to which - was nailed Jesus Christ, King of kings and eternal Priest, who, by - the effusion of his blood, has made us also kings and priests of the - living God. We send you, also, a sword and hat, which we have blessed, - such as it is the custom of the Roman pontiff to send to all the - Catholic kings, and we pray the Lord to be the support of your majesty - in all your enterprises. According to the usage in the courts of the - kings of Europe, the sword and hat should be received at the end of - a mass, to which we shall attach a plenary indulgence for all sins - for the benefit of all who may assist thereat, and who, after having - confessed themselves, shall pray for the tranquillity of the Catholic - church, the salvation of the Christian princes, and the extirpation of - heresies—provided they have a true confidence in the divine mercy, in - the power which has been given to the holy apostles Peter and Paul, - and in that with which we are clothed. Given at Rome, at St. Peter’s, - under the seal of the fisherman,” etc. - -From Rome, escorted out of the city with all honors, the ambassadors -went by way of Loretto, where they paid their devotions, to Venice, -and thence to Milan and Genoa, at which latter place they embarked -for Barcelona. They declined, as they had been so long from home, a -pressing invitation from Henry III to visit France, and, after a new -audience with Philip II, they hastened to sail from Lisbon on their -return voyage, embarking April 13, 1586.[48] - - - - -CHAPTER XI - - _Events meanwhile in Japan—Downfall of Nobunaga—Accession of Hashiba, - afterwards known as Kwambacudono, and, finally, as Taikōsama—Edict - against the Jesuits—Return of the Ambassadors—A. D. 1582-1588._ - - -While the ambassadors were on their way to Europe, great changes had -taken place in the Japanese islands. A few months after they had sailed -from Nagasaki, Akechi Mitsuhide, a favorite general of Nobunaga’s, -had marched from Miyako to join Hashiba Hideyoshi, another favorite -general, employed in prosecuting the war against Nagato. The stern -severity of Nobunaga had rendered him very unpopular, of which Akechi -took advantage to turn about and attack him, left as he was at Miyako -almost without troops. Nobunaga, thus betrayed and surprised, having -no other resource, set fire to his palace, and perished in it, June -15, 1580, with his eldest son. His second son, overwhelmed by this -disaster, went mad, and in that condition set fire to his father’s -patrimonial palace at Azuchiyama, thus kindling a conflagration which -consumed almost the entire city, including a splendid temple, which -Nobunaga had lately erected there, and in which, suspending all other -worship by edict, he had required divine honors to be paid to a stone -graven with his arms[49] and other devices. To the missionaries, who -had all along counted upon making a convert of Nobunaga, this step -had caused no less horror than surprise; and they found in it a ready -explanation of the sudden ruin which had overtaken himself and his -family, especially as his eldest son had been the first to pay the -required worship. - -Akechi now aspired to succeed the master he had betrayed and -overthrown; but he was defeated by Ukondono [Kōyama Ukon], another -general, a nephew of the Wada, who had played so conspicuous a part in -previous revolutions, and a convert to the Catholic faith, who united -with Hashiba to revenge their master’s death, the latter marching upon -Miyako in the name of the late emperor’s third son, whom he proclaimed -as Kubō-Sama, reserving, however, to himself all real authority; and -thus again was Japan, as during part of Nobunaga’s reign, furnished -with two “idle kings,”—a Dairi and a titular Kubō-Sama,—while the real -power was in the hands of a third party. - -Hashiba’s own very humble birth made him the more willing to begin, at -first, with ruling in the name of another. Originally he was but a mere -private soldier, who, having attracted the attention of Nobunaga, as -well by his wit and drollery as by his courage and sagacity, had been -gradually raised by him to the highest commands. This founder of the -Japanese imperial authority, as it now exists, is described as having -been short, but quite fat, and exceedingly strong, with six fingers on -each hand, and something frightful in his face, his eyes protruding in -a strange manner. It was he who completed what Nobunaga had begun, and -who first gave to Japan, at least in modern times, a real and effective -emperor, ruling supreme over the whole territory. - -The son of Nobunaga, being restless under the humiliation to which he -was reduced, was deprived of his place as Kubō-Sama, and obliged to be -satisfied with the island of Shikoku, the smaller of the three larger -Japanese islands which his father had assigned him as an appanage, -while Hashiba declared himself the guardian of an infant child of -Nobunaga’s eldest son, whom he set up as titular Kubō-Sama. - -He showed at first the same favor to the Catholics as his predecessor -had done, and the more so as Ukondono, his confederate against the -rebel Akechi, was himself a convert, as were others of his great -vassals and principal officers of his court and army. - -As the son of Nobunaga could not keep quiet, he was presently stripped -of all authority, though his life was spared, and Hashiba, assuming -to himself the high title of Kwambakudono, strengthened himself still -further by marrying a daughter of the Dairi. - -Desirous to outdo his predecessor in everything, he converted Ōsaka, -which had, till lately subdued by Nobunaga, been under the rule of a -bonze, into a great city, and he built in its neighborhood a great -stone castle. To this city, made his capital, the Jesuit seminary, -originally established in the now ruined Azuchiyama, was removed, -another being also set up in the neighboring city of Sakai. The king -of Nagato was even induced to allow the reintroduction of missionaries -into his territories. The king of Bungo having appealed to Hashiba for -aid against his neighbors, the converted general Kodera Yoshitaka, the -chief commander of his cavalry, whom he sent to Shimo, not only rescued -the young king, Yoshimune, from his enemies, the kings of Chikuzen and -Satsuma, who had taken his capital and ravaged his territories, but -succeeded also in bringing up to the point of baptism that fickle and -inconstant prince, who had long been a great trial to the missionaries, -as well as to his pious father Civan, who, having given up to him the -reins of government, had been treated thenceforth with very little -respect. The result of this interference also was to reduce the whole -of Shimo to the power of the emperor, who now reigned supreme over -Shimo, Sikoku, and all the western part of Nippon, though still obliged -to pay a certain deference and respect to the pretensions and power of -the local kings and princes, whom, however, he required to be frequent -attendants on his court, and to leave their wives and children there as -hostages, and whose authority and consequence he sought by all means to -diminish. - -Peace thus reëstablished, everything seemed to favor the spread of -Catholicity, when, all of a sudden, and in the most unexpected manner, -in the month of July, 1587, the emperor signed an order for the -banishment of the missionaries; and because Ukondono would not renounce -his religion (at least such was the ostensible cause), stripped him at -once of his place and his property. Father Cuello, the vice-provincial, -was ordered to assemble all the missionaries at Hirado; and, in -obedience to his order, they collected there to the number of about -one hundred and twenty, only Father Gnecchi remaining concealed at -Ōsaka, and one brother in Bungo. But when the emperor commanded them -to embark on board a Portuguese vessel about to sail, they resolved -not to obey. A few indeed went on board and sailed for China; but the -greater part remained, a message being sent to the emperor that the -vessel could not carry the others; to which he responded by ordering -all the churches in Miyako, Ōsaka, and Sakai to be destroyed. The -converted princes, however, in general, stood firm, except Yoshimune, -king of Bungo; and even the unconverted ones are said to have protested -against the emperor’s edict as in violation of the freedom of religious -opinion heretofore allowed. The missionaries, in disguise, were -distributed through the territories of their adherents. The emperor’s -grand admiral, Konishi Settsu-no-Kami, who was viceroy of Shimo, -though himself a convert, still kept the confidence of the emperor, as -did also Kodera, the chief commander of his cavalry. The Portuguese -merchants were admitted as before. After a little while the emperor -seemed disposed to wink at the conduct of the converted princes, and -the missionaries soon began to conceive hopes that, by caution on -their part, the work of conversion might still go on, the stimulus of -a prohibition not very strictly enforced, more than supplying all the -benefits hitherto derived from the _éclat_ of imperial favor. - -Some difficulty about obtaining recruits for the imperial seraglio, -especially from the province of Hizen, celebrated for its handsome -women, but in which the converts were numerous, was said to have -provoked the emperor, in a fit of drunken fury, to put forth so -suddenly his edict of persecution. But, in fact, his policy brooked -no power but his own. He did not fancy a religion which taught his -subjects to look up with implicit reverence to a distant and foreign -potentate; nor probably was his hostility to the Jesuits much different -in substance from that sentiment which had caused Henry VIII, of -England, fifty years earlier, to break with the holy see—a breach also -ascribed by the Catholics to amorous passion. - -But the cautious and artful emperor, who, however he might give way to -sudden fits of violence and caprice, was a perfect master of all the -arts of dissimulation, knowing, as well as Bonaparte, if not better, -how to wait till the pear was ripe, was not yet wholly prepared to -break with the converted kings and nobles, whom he found, perhaps, as -well as the humbler converts, more attached to their faith than he -had supposed. There were too many inflammable materials in his yet -unconsolidated empire for him to run the risk of provoking a rebellion; -and, besides, there still remained to be subdued eight independent -provinces in the east and north of Nippon, including a kingdom of five -provinces, in which were situated the great cities of Suruga and Yedo. - -The conquest of this kingdom was speedily achieved, partly by arts and -partly by arms. A new palace was erected for the Dairi, in place of -the old one, which had been burnt during the late troubles at Miyako. -A splendid temple had also been built near that city, in which it was -suspected that the emperor intended to cause himself to be worshipped, -as his predecessor had done; when, in August, 1588, Father Valignani, -appointed ambassador to the emperor and kings of Japan, from the -Portuguese viceroy of Goa, arrived at Macao, on his way to Nagasaki, -having in his company the returning ambassadors to the Pope, who had -touched at Goa on their way home, and who had stopped there a whole -year before proceeding for Japan.[50] - - - - -CHAPTER XII - - _Recapitulation—Extent of the Japanese Empire—Valignani arrives - at Nagasaki—Progress hitherto of the Catholic Faith—The Emperor’s - Projects against China—Valignani’s Visit to the Emperor at - Miyako—Ukondono—The returned Japanese Ambassadors—Audience given - to Valignani—The Viceroy’s Letter—The Interpreter Rodriguez—A. D. - 1588-1593._ - - -The Japanese islands had been found by Xavier and his successors -divided into numerous principalities, which, though they acknowledged -a nominal subordination to one imperial head, were substantially -independent, and engaged in perpetual wars with each other. The -superior abilities of two successive military usurpers,—Nobunaga, -who ruled from 1567 to 1582, and Hashiba Hideyoshi, who took first -the title of Kwambacudono, and subsequently that of Taikō-Sama—had -consolidated these numerous states into a real empire, embracing then -as now the three principal islands of Nippon, Shimo (or Kiūshiū), and -Shikoku, with many smaller ones, and some claims also of authority over -parts, at least, of the large northerly island of Matsumaye, or Yezo, -the latter the aboriginal name. - -Among the dependencies, at present, of the Japanese empire, are -reckoned at the north, besides this island, the southern half of the -large island or peninsula of Sakhalin, called by the Japanese Oku Yezo -(upper Jeso), or, as Siebold says, Karafuto, and the three smaller -Kurile islands, Kunajiri, Etoropu, and Uruppu, numbered on the Russian -charts as the 20th, 19th, and 18th Kurile islands, and the two latter -called by the Dutch _State’s Island_ and _Company’s Island_. On the -south, the Lew Chew Islands form, or did form (for the Japanese seem -lately to have renounced their claim of sovereignty), a dependency -of the kingdom of Satsuma. But all these are of comparatively recent -acquisition, subsequent to the accession of Hashiba. It is said, -indeed, on Japanese authority, that Yezo was first invaded in 1443 by -the Japanese family of Matsumae; but it is apparent from missionary -letters that in 1620 it was a recent settlement. The Japanese annals -date the conquest of the Lew Chew Islands from the year 1610; and, -according to Golownin, the Japanese settlements on Sakhalin have been -subsequent to the voyage of La Perouse in 1782. - -Of Nippon, at least equal in extent to Great Britain, and with a -population nearer, it would seem, to that of Great Britain now -than to what that island could boast in the reign of Elizabeth, -the missionaries were as yet acquainted only with the southwestern -part—their establishments being confined to the kingdom of Nagato, at -its western extremity, where it is separated from Shimo by a narrow -strait, and to the great cities of Miyako, Ōsaka, and Sakai, situated -towards the middle of the southern coast. Many princes, nobles, and -large landed proprietors had fallen under the influence of the Jesuits, -and had professed the new faith; but it does not appear that either in -Nippon or in the adjoining island of Shikoku (about equal in extent -to Sicily) any considerable progress had been made in converting the -rural population. It was in the island of Shimo, the westernmost in -situation and the second in size (two-thirds as large as Ireland), that -the new religion had taken the firmest root. The kingdom of Bungo, -indeed almost the whole of the eastern portion of that island, was -thoroughly indoctrinated with the new faith; and such was still more -the case with the kingdom of Arima and the principality of Ōmura, -embracing that great southwestern peninsula itself, divided into three -smaller peninsulas by two deep bays, one opening to the south and the -other to the west, at the head of the latter of which is situated the -city of Nagasaki. - -[Illustration: PAINTING OF TAIKŌ SAMA] - -Founded in 1579 by converts to the new faith, and made the centre of -the Portuguese trade to Japan, as well as of the Jesuit missions, -Nagasaki had grown up with great rapidity; nor was any other worship -practised in it except that of the new religion. It had become the -largest and most important town in Shimo; and, since the recent -subjection of that island to the imperial authority, according to the -new policy of weakening the local princes, the emperor had assumed the -appointment of its governor,—Nagasaki being placed, along with Miyako, -Ōsaka, and Sakai in the list of imperial towns. - -At the date of the edict, so unexpectedly issued in 1587, for the -banishment of the Jesuits, there were in Japan three hundred members -of the company, a novitiate, a college, two preparatory seminaries for -the education of young nobles designed for the church, two hundred -and fifty churches, and a number of converts, amounting, probably, to -between two and three hundred thousand, though the estimate of the -Jesuits was much larger. Notwithstanding the apostasy of Yoshimune, -the young king of Bungo (whose father, Civan, had died just before the -emperor’s edict had appeared), the numerous converts in that kingdom -remained firm in the faith. That zealous Catholic, the prince of -Ōmura, had also lately deceased; but the young prince, his only son -and successor, who had been educated by the Jesuits, was hardly less -zealous than his father had been. The king of Arima also continued -steady in the faith. It was this king who, along with the deceased king -of Bungo and the deceased prince of Ōmura, had sent the ambassadors -to the Pope, of whose visit to Europe an account has been given in a -preceding chapter, and whom the last chapter left at Macao, on their -return to Japan, in company with Father Valignani, who had been deputed -by the viceroy of Goa as his ambassador to the emperor. - -It was at Macao that Valignani and his companions learned the news of -the edict for the banishment of the Jesuits. It was said at Macao that -the emperor was a good deal mollified, and seemed inclined to wink -at the general disregard of his edict; yet as Valignani was himself -a Jesuit, and had once already visited Japan in that character, he -did not judge it best to proceed to Japan till he had first obtained -express permission to do so. On the representations of the Christian -princes, who put forward Valignani’s character as ambassdor, the -emperor readily consented to receive him; and, accompanied by the -returning Japanese envoys and some twenty Jesuits, he landed at -Nagasaki, in June, 1590, where he was received with great affection -by the converted princes of Shimo, and by Father Gomez, who, on the -death of Cuello, had succeeded to the post of vice-provincial. The -emperor, in the late redistribution of the kingdoms of that island, -had liberally provided for Konishi Settsu-no-kami, the grand admiral, -and for Kodera, his general of horse, both of whom, notwithstanding -their continued adhesion to the new faith, still retained his favor. -To Konishi he had given the kingdom of Higo, and to Kodera that of -Buzen, so that almost the whole of the island of Shimo was now ruled -by converted princes. Even the changeable Yoshimune, not finding his -apostasy so advantageous as he had expected, soon sought and presently -obtained a reconciliation to the church. The king of Hirado was not -friendly, but he was kept in check by the number of converts among -his subjects, especially by a very zealous converted wife, a sister -of the prince of Ōmura—whom he complained of as having more influence -over his kingdom than himself,—and also by his fear of driving off the -Portuguese merchants, who still occasionally visited his island. - -Notwithstanding the emperor’s edict of expulsion, there still remained -in Japan a hundred and forty Jesuits, including those lately brought -by Valignani. The seminary of nobles at Ōsaka had been broken up, most -of the pupils retiring with their teachers; but the other seminary -in the kingdom of Arima was still maintained, being, for greater -security, removed to a retired spot surrounded with wood. The college -and novitiate, for similar reasons, were transferred to the island -of Amakusa. Besides these, the Jesuits had twenty other houses of -residence. Those districts in which the missionaries had no settled -establishments they supplied by frequent journeys, which they made -secretly, and generally in disguise, being assisted also by a great -number of adroit and zealous native catechists, who not only maintained -the fervor of the old converts, but daily added new ones to the number. -This employment of catechist was held in great honor in the church of -Japan. None were admitted into it except persons of approved virtue, -generally young men of family and promise, devoted by their parents -from their infancy to a service upon which they entered for life, -being ordained with much ceremony, and wearing a garb similar to that -of the missionaries with whom they lived in community, observing the -same rules. Conversions still continued to be made among the upper -as well as among the lower classes, and the numerous adherents to -the new faith, or favorers of it, in the court and household of the -emperor, including even the empress, carefully watched and reported -to the missionaries every word or hint dropped by him, from which his -disposition and intentions might be conjectured. - -At this moment the emperor’s thoughts seemed a good deal withdrawn from -domestic affairs, being engrossed by a war, which he had determined to -commence by invading Corea, a dependency of the Chinese empire, and the -part of the continent of Asia nearest to Japan. For this purpose he was -constructing a fleet at a port of Shimo, on the strait of Corea. Not -long after Valignani’s arrival at Nagasaki, leave was obtained for him -to visit the emperor’s court at Miyako; but his friends there advised -that, instead of ecclesiastics, his retinue should be composed as much -as possible of Portuguese merchants. The merchants at Nagasaki entered -zealously into the affair, and not less than twenty-seven of them -accompanied Valignani, in the style of great lords, sparing no expense -to give magnificence to the ambassador’s train. He took with him also -four priests, some young Japanese Jesuits not yet ordained, and the -four returned youthful ambassadors. These ambassadors had learned to -sing in the European style, and chanted church music tolerably well. -They also had with them a great show of maps, globes, clocks, watches, -and other European curiosities, which attracted much attention. Their -description of what they had seen and heard made a deep impression -upon the princes and nobles, who flocked from all quarters to see them. -And there was ample leisure for this, as the approach of the ambassador -to Miyako was delayed for more than two months by the death of the -emperor’s only son. - -In this interval Valignani had the pleasure of a visit from the -disgraced Ukondono, whose face he was rejoiced to see lighted up with -an air of content rarely seen among those on whom the favors of fortune -are most prodigally showered. He protested that the happiest day in -his life was that on which he had lost everything for Jesus Christ. He -communicated to Father Valignani a design he had formed of quitting -the world altogether, and consecrating himself entirety to the service -of God; but besides that he had a wife and a numerous family, whom his -retreat would have left without resource, the father considered that -he was much younger than the emperor; that if reëstablished in his -offices and his possessions, he might render much greater services to -the church by remaining in the world than by quitting it, and on that -ground he advised Ukondono not to withdraw from that station in life in -which Providence had placed him. - -At last the emperor consented to admit Valignani to an audience, but -only on condition that he should say nothing about religion or the -revocation of the edict against the Jesuits. Through the care of -Kodera, to whom that business had been entrusted, the embassy was -received at Miyako with all honor, and was able to make a display -which strongly impressed the inhabitants, and even the emperor in its -favor. On the day of audience, Gon-dainagon Hidetsugu, the emperor’s -nephew and presumptive heir, attended by a great number of lords, -met the ambassador, and conducted him to the hall of audience. This -hall, which opened upon a magnificent balcony, before which spread a -parterre of great beauty, consisted of five several divisions, rising, -like steps, one above the other. The first served as an antechamber, or -hall of waiting, for the gentlemen in attendance. In the two next were -assembled the lords of the court and the great officers of the empire, -arranged in order, according to their rank. In the fourth, there were -only two persons, a priest who held the first dignity in the household -of the Dairi, and the chief counsellor of that same dignitary; by the -side of whom Gon-dainagon also took his place, after introducing the -ambassador to the fifth and highest apartment, in which the emperor was -seated alone, on his heels, in the Japanese fashion upon an elevated -throne, approached by steps on all sides. Father Valignani was preceded -by one of the Portuguese gentlemen of his suite, bearing the letter of -the Indies, written in gilded letters upon fine vellum, with a golden -seal attached to it, the whole enclosed in a little box beautifully -wrought. That letter was as follows: - - -LETTER OF THE VICEROY OF GOA TO THE EMPEROR OF JAPAN. - - “MOST SERENE EMPEROR: Though the great space that separates us has - not hitherto allowed me much communication with your majesty, yet - fame and the religious men who labor in your empire to make known - the law of the true God to your subjects, have informed me of the - great deeds done by you, and of the victories which have made you - the greatest monarch who has reigned in Japan for ages; and I have - therefore thought it my duty to congratulate your majesty on the happy - successes with which the God of heaven has favored you. The same - religious men, who are, for the most part, natural-born subjects of - the great prince whom the Indies obey, and who go through the earth - with a truly heroical courage to teach men to know and to adore the - Author of nature, have also informed me of the distinguished favors - with which your majesty has uniformly honored them, and have begged me - to convey to you their thanks, which I willingly do, conjointly with - my own; and that, indeed, is the particular object of this embassy, - with which I have charged the Father Alexander Valignani, who has the - honor to be already known to you. After rendering to your majesty - his humblest thanks for your past favors, he will supplicate you, in - my name, to vouchsafe to continue them; and I dare to assure your - majesty that subjects for your favors cannot be found who will merit - them better. Favors to them I shall esteem as favors to me, and shall - take every opportunity to acknowledge them as such. I have charged my - ambassador to present you with two Arabian genets, with their housings - and harness, two swords, and two guns of a new fashion, two webs of - tapestry embroidered with gold, and two complete suits of wrought - steel armor, a dagger, which serves also as a pistol, and a tent for - country excursions. - - “At Goa, this year of Redemption, 1587. - - DOM EDWARD DE MENESEZ.”[51] - -The presents seemed greatly to please the emperor, by whom they were -carefully examined. A signal being given, Valignani was led up the -steps of the throne to the emperor’s feet, whom, on bended knee, he -saluted, after the European fashion, by kissing his hand,—a privilege -to which all the members of his suite were admitted in succession, the -ambassador being meanwhile seated in the third compartment among the -grandees of the court. Tea was then served to the emperor in a gilded -cup, which, after sipping from it a little, he sent to the ambassador, -who, at the same time, received, by way of present, a hundred silver -platters and four silk dresses. Presents were also distributed among -the members of his suite. The emperor then retired, first directing his -nephew to entertain the ambassador at dinner, which he did, but with -more of ceremony than good cheer. The guests consisted of three members -of the imperial family and eight other great lords, all eating, each -from his own little table or salver, in profound silence, many persons -of inferior rank standing about them. The ambassador’s suite were -entertained at the same time in a separate apartment. - -After dinner the emperor again made his appearance in undress, and, -seating himself beside Father Valignani, conversed with him for some -time. He also conversed freely with the four returned Japanese, and -seemed much pleased at hearing them sing and play in the European -fashion. He made great offers to one of them; but they had all made up -their minds to enter the company of the Jesuits, which, in spite of a -good deal of opposition on the part of their friends and relations, -they presently did.[52] Passing into the hall where the ambassador’s -suite had dined, the emperor addressed them with great familiarity, -and they improved the opportunity to complain of some oppressions, on -the part of the collector of the port of Nagasaki, which he promised -should be redressed.[53] In the evening, Rodriguez, a young Portuguese -Jesuit, who acted as one of Valignani’s interpreters, was sent for -to show the emperor how to wind up a clock which the ambassador had -presented to him. The emperor seemed much pleased with Rodriguez’s -conversation, detaining him till late at night. On dismissing him he -bade him say to Father Valignani that he was at liberty to remain at -Miyako or wherever he pleased, till an answer to the viceroy’s letter -was prepared, but that he must take care that the ecclesiastics who -accompanied him comported themselves with discretion, so as not to -drive him into striking disagreeable blows. Not long after Rodriguez -was selected as the emperor’s interpreter, in which capacity he became -attached to the court, and, by his access to the emperor and influence -with him, had opportunities of rendering essential service to his -order. - - - - -CHAPTER XIII - - _New Troubles of the Missionaries from their own Countrymen—The - Emperor claims Homage of the Governor of the Philippines—Mutual - Jealousies of the Portuguese and Spaniards—Spanish Adventurers in - Japan—The Emperor’s Suspicions excited—His Reply to the Viceroy of - Goa.—A. D. 1591-1592._ - - -Valignani’s gracious reception greatly raised the hopes of the Japanese -converts. But much annoyance was soon experienced from two pagan -lords, who had been appointed joint governors of Nagasaki. Nor was it -pagan hostility alone which the Jesuits had to dread. Enemies even -more dangerous were found among their own countrymen in Japan, many -of whom had ceased to exhibit that zeal for the faith, at first so -universal. The irregular conduct of certain Portuguese merchants, in -frequenting ports where there were no missionaries, and where they -could freely follow their own devices, had greatly troubled the Jesuit -fathers. A Japanese adventurer, by name Harada Kiyemon, having gone -to the Philippines to trade, had taken it into his head to suggest to -the emperor of Japan to require the Spanish governor of those islands -to acknowledge him as sovereign. This idea, conveyed to the emperor -through a Japanese courtier with whom Harada was intimate, was eagerly -caught at by a prince rendered vain by the elevation to which he had -attained, and whose head was filled with schemes for still further -extending his empire. He wrote an imperious letter to the governor -of the Philippines, demanding his homage, and despatched it by the -hand of Harada, who applied to Father Valignani, to write to the -Jesuits at Manila, and to the Spanish governor, in furtherance of this -project. Valignani refused to write any such letters, alleging as an -ostensible reason, that he had no acquaintance with the governor of -the Philippines, nor authority over the Jesuits of Manila; and, in -consequence of this refusal, Harada did not venture to carry the letter -himself, but sent it by another hand. Valignani wrote, however, by a -simultaneous opportunity, to the Jesuits of Manila, informing them of -this affair, suggesting its delicate character, and the expediency, -while due care was had of the honor of the Spanish crown, of not giving -to the emperor of Japan any pretence for renewing his persecution of -the missionaries. - -Notwithstanding the union of the crowns of Spain and Portugal upon the -head of Philip II, a very fierce jealousy and hatred continued to exist -between the two nations; and this feeling was particularly violent at -Manila, which city, founded in 1572, was almost contemporaneous in -its origin with Nagasaki, and whose merchants looked very enviously -at the monopoly of the trade to Japan secured to the Portuguese, -and to the city of Macao, by the terms of the union between the two -crowns.[54] This express exclusion of all Spanish merchants from Japan -had been indeed already broken through, in at least two instances, by -the arrival of one Jean de Solis from Peru, by way of Macao, and of -another Spanish merchant from the Philippines, both of whom, after -various adventures, and receiving aid and services from the Jesuit -missionaries, had reached Nagasaki. Solis soon after proceeded to -Satsuma on the southern coast of Shimo, where he commenced building -a vessel in which to trade to China and thence to Peru,—a project in -which he was presently joined by the other Spaniard. But to carry out -this scheme it became necessary for Solis to get back a sum of money -which he had been compelled to deposit in the hands of the Portuguese, -at Nagasaki, as security for certain debts which he had contracted at -Macao; and because Father Valignani would not help them in this matter, -the two Spaniards threatened to give information to the emperor of the -large number of Jesuits still in Japan, in violation of his edict, and -to denounce the princes who gave them shelter. - -The emperor, meanwhile, had been a good deal soured and his suspicions -excited by some suggestions, thrown out by the enemies of the Jesuits, -that Valignani was no real ambassador, that being a mere pretence -to secure his entry into Japan. Means, indeed, had been found to -quiet him upon this head, to which the representations of Rodriguez -greatly contributed; but the answer which he caused to be prepared -to the viceroy’s letter, took so high a tone, and was so filled with -invectives against the missionaries, that Valignani was unwilling to be -the bearer of it. - -Finally, by the persuasions of the governor of Miyako, an idolater, but -favorable to the new religion, the emperor was induced to modify his -letter; and he even adopted a crafty suggestion of Rodriguez that the -Jesuits whom Valignani had brought with him should remain at Nagasaki -as hostages, till the authenticity of his mission was placed beyond -question. The letter, as finally modified, a frank exposition of -Taikō’s policy, was in the following terms: - - -TAIKŌ-SAMA TO THE VICEROY OF GOA. - - “MOST ILLUSTRIOUS LORD: I received with pleasure the letter which you - wrote me, and in reading it seemed to realize that great distance - between us of which you speak. Japan contains more than sixty realms - or principalities, which have been for a long time agitated by - troubles and civil wars, growing out of the refusal of the princes - to render to their sovereign lord the obedience which they owe him. - The sight of so many evils sensibly afflicted me from my earliest - age, and I resolved in my mind a remedy for them; and with that view - I laboriously applied myself to the acquisition of three virtues - the most necessary for so great an undertaking. In the first place, - I studied affability, so as to gain all hearts. Next I strove to - accustom myself to judge soundly of all things, and to comport myself - at all times with prudence and discretion. In the third place, I have - omitted no occasion of inspiring a high idea of my valor. Thus have - I succeeded in subjecting all Japan to my authority, which I govern - with a mildness equal to the courage displayed in subduing it. I have - especially caused the effects of my tenderness to be felt by the - laborers who cultivate the earth. All my severity is reserved for - those who deviate from the paths of virtue. Nothing is more tranquil - than Japan at this moment, and it is this tranquillity which makes - it strong. This vast monarchy is like a firmly fixed rock; all the - efforts of its enemies cannot shake it. So, not only am I at peace at - home, but even very distant countries send to render me the obedience - which is my due. I expect soon to conquer China, and as I have no - doubt of succeeding in it, I hope we shall soon be much nearer to each - other, and that the communication between us will not be so difficult. - - “As to what regards religion, Japan is the realm of the Kami, that - is, of Shin, the beginning of all things; and the good order of the - government depends upon the exact observance of the ancient laws of - which the Kami are the authors. They cannot be departed from without - overturning the subordination which ought to exist, of subjects to - their sovereign, wives to their husbands, children to their parents, - vassals to their lords, and servants to their masters. These laws are - necessary to maintain good order within and tranquillity without. - The fathers, called the Company, have come to these islands to teach - another religion; but as that of the Kami is too deeply rooted to - be eradicated, this new law can only serve to introduce into Japan - a diversity of worship very prejudicial to the state. It is on that - account that, by an imperial edict, I have forbidden these strange - doctors to continue to preach their doctrine. I have even ordered - them to leave Japan, and I am determined not to allow anybody to come - thither to retail new opinions. But I still desire that commerce, as - between you and me, may continue on its old footing. I shall keep the - way open to you both by sea and land, by freeing the one from pirates - and the other from robbers. The Portuguese may trade with my subjects - in all security, and I shall take care that nobody harms them. All the - presents mentioned in your letter have been faithfully delivered; and - I send you in return some rarities of this country, of which a list is - annexed. For other matters I refer you to your ambassador, and will - therefore say no more. Dated the 25th year of the era Tenshō, and the - 25th of the 7th month.”[55] - -It would seem from this letter and from what we know of the actual -policy adopted by Taikō-Sama and his predecessor Nobunaga that, in -seeking to reëstablish the imperial authority on its old traditional -basis, they had aimed also at reëdifying the old national religion. -Nobunaga had treated the Buddhist bonzes with very great severity; and, -though the policy of Taikō was less bloody, they do not appear to have -enjoyed any share of his favor; and it is to be observed that in his -letter he speaks exclusively of the religion of the Kami as the creed -proper to Japan. The assurances on the subject of commerce seemed the -more necessary on account of a dispute which had arisen between the -governors of Nagasaki and the commander of the annual Portuguese ship, -which, however, on appeal to the emperor, had been settled against -the governors. The presents that accompanied this letter were two -suits of Japanese armor, not so strong as the armor of Europe, but -very handsome, a kind of esponton or halbert, enclosed in a scabbard -of gold, and a sabre and poniard of the highest temper, and richly -ornamented. - - - - -CHAPTER XIV - - _The Expedition against Corea—The Emperor associates his Nephew—City - of Fushimi—Correspondence of the Emperor with the Governor of - Manila—The Jesuits denounced by the Spanish Envoys—Consequences - thereof—Departure of Valignani—A. D. 1592._ - - -Meanwhile, an army of eighty thousand men,[56] divided into four -corps, had been raised for the war against Corea; and not to leave the -country without a head, should the emperor choose himself to lead the -invading forces, he took his nephew [Hidetsugu by name] as an associate -in the empire, resigning to him the title of Kwambacudono, while he -assumed for himself that of Taikō-Sama, the title by which this most -illustrious of the Japanese emperors is commonly known. - -Though much engaged in this foreign enterprise, he still found time to -lay the foundations of the new city of Fushimi, which he designed to -make his capital, but the nearness of which to Miyako ultimately placed -it in the position of a sort of suburb to that ancient city. - -The first division of the invading army, which at length set sail, -was led by the grand admiral, king of Higo [Konishi Yukinaga], whose -troops, as well as those of the second division, led by the son of -Kodera, the king of Buzen [Kuroda Nagamasa], were drawn from the -island of Shimo, and were composed almost entirely, officers as well -as men, of Catholic converts. And, indeed, the suspicion soon began to -be entertained that Corea had been invaded, not so much to add new -provinces to the Taikō-Sama’s empire, as to keep the converted princes -employed away from home. - -[Illustration: THE EXPEDITION AGAINST COREA - _From Official History of Japan_] - - While the emperor, to look after and to second the invasions, -hastened to Shimo, where his presence caused no little alarm to the -missionaries, the grand admiral was already making rapid progress. -Having taken two places by assault, all the others, as far as the -capital, opened their gates. To save their capital, the Coreans fought -and lost a pitched battle. A second victory, on the part of the grand -admiral, drove the Corean king to seek refuge in China, while the -capital opened its gates to the triumphant Japanese.[57] - -But the joy of the missionaries at the success of an army led by one of -their adherents, and so largely composed of converts, was not a little -damped by a side blow from another and an unexpected quarter. So -anxious was the Spanish governor of Manila to improve every chance for -opening a trade with Japan, that, in spite of the imperious character -of the emperor’s letter, he sent an answer to it by a Spanish gentleman -named Liano, in which, indeed, he evaded its demands by suggesting -that the mean quality of the person who had brought it, and his not -having heard anything on the subject from the Jesuits at Nagasaki, had -led him to suspect its authenticity. Liano, accompanied by a Dominican -friar, landed in Satsuma, where he met with Solis, the Spaniard from -Peru, still busy with his ship-building enterprise, and in no very good -humor with the Portuguese and the Jesuits. To confer with Harada, the -envoys proceeded to Nagasaki, which city they left again without any -communication with the Portuguese merchants, or the missionaries; and, -accompanied by Harada, and his Japanese friend, Hasegawa, they hastened -to the northern coast of Shimo, where the emperor then was. Hasegawa -and Harada translated so ill the letter of the governor of Manila, -as to make it express something of a disposition to comply with the -emperor’s pretensions, who thereupon wrote a second letter, declaring -the other to be genuine, and renewing the demand which it had contained -of submission and homage. The envoys, without fully understanding its -contents, consented to receive this letter; and in the hope that, if -the Portuguese were driven away, the commerce of Japan might fall into -the hands of the Spaniards of Manila, they proceeded to suggest heavy -complaints against the Portuguese at Nagasaki, whom they not only -charged as guilty of great harshness in support of their commercial -monopoly, but also with protecting the Jesuits, great numbers of whom, -in spite of the emperor’s edicts, still continued to be sheltered in -that city and its neighborhood. The emperor either was, or had affected -to be, ignorant of the extent to which his edicts had been disregarded. -This information put him into a great rage; and he issued instant -orders for the destruction of the splendid church at Nagasaki, hitherto -untouched, and also of the house of the Jesuits, who had now no place -of residence left there except the hospital of Misericordia. But these -wicked Spaniards did not long go unpunished. Solis, on his way back -to Satsuma, perished by shipwreck, as did the Spanish envoys on their -return voyage to Manila. It was stated, too, that the emperor’s mother -died at Miyako, at the very moment of his signing the order for the -destruction of the church,—judgments so striking as to become, so we -are told by the missionaries, the occasion of many conversions. - -Such was the state of affairs when Father Valignani, leaving Japan for -the second time, sailed for Macao in October, 1592. - - - - -CHAPTER XV - - _Progress of the Corean War—Success of the Japanese—Konishi - Settsu-no-kami, Viceroy of Corea—Edict of the Emperor for disarming - the Converts in Shimo—Disgrace and Downfall of the Royal Family of - Bungo—Terazawa, Governor of Nagasaki—His Conversion and Friendly - Acts—A. D. 1592-1593._ - - -Though the emperor did not himself pass into Corea, he sent thither -such reinforcements as to raise his army there to the number of -two hundred thousand men. But the Coreans having abandoned their -cities and fled to inaccessible places, burning everything, even to -provisions which they could not carry away (thus setting an example -long afterwards followed by the Russians on a similar occasion), this -great force was soon reduced to extremities, by which its numbers were -rapidly diminished. The Chinese also came to the assistance of the -Coreans; and the grand admiral, with forces so reduced as to be greatly -inferior in numbers, was obliged to encounter these new enemies in -several desperate engagements. Compelled at last to retreat, he fell -back upon a garrison which he had left to keep up his communications -with the coast, the command of which he had entrusted to Yoshimune, -king of Bungo. But that feeble prince, in a moment of terror, had -abandoned his post; and, the grand admiral’s communications thus cut -off, nothing but his distinguished firmness and courage saved his army -from total destruction. After a drawn battle under the walls of the -Corean capital, terms of peace were agreed upon, according to which -five of the eight provinces of Corea were assigned to the Japanese; and -the commerce between China and Japan, which by the act of the former -had for some time been broken off, was again renewed.[58] - -The admiral was named viceroy of Corea, and the converted princes were -still detained there at the head of their troops. The missionaries, -thus separated from their protectors, were filled with new alarms by -an order of the emperor for disarming all their converts in Shimo. The -king of Bungo, as a punishment for his cowardice, was stripped of his -estates; and in the end he and his family, reduced to absolute poverty, -were obliged to retire to Nagasaki, and to live there on the charity -of the Jesuits. His territories were assigned to pagan lords, and the -converted inhabitants soon felt the consequences of the change. Indeed, -throughout Shimo the converts suffered greatly by the absence of their -princes, of whom several died about this time. But, in general, the -Catholics stood firm; and several of the Jesuit fathers having made -their way to Corea, new converts were made in the ranks of the army. - -The missionaries also found a new friend in Terazawa, a young man -appointed governor of Nagasaki, and who, not long after, was secretly -baptized. He represented to the emperor that, if the Portuguese -merchants were still to be admitted to trade at Nagasaki, they ought to -be allowed some priests, since it was the influence and authority of -the priests that kept the merchants in order, settled their quarrels, -and obliged them to strict justice in their commercial transactions; -and, upon the strength of these plausible representations, Terazawa -obtained leave for the Jesuits to rebuild their house and church -at Nagasaki. Father Gnecchi, also, in consideration of his age and -infirmities, was allowed to remain at Miyako, though without any -church, or permission to celebrate divine service openly. - - - - -CHAPTER XVI - - _Jealousy on the Part of the Dominicans and Franciscans towards - Jesuits—This Jealousy coöperates with the Mercantile Jealousy of the - Spaniards at Manila—Franciscan Friars establish themselves at Miyako, - Ōsaka, and Nagasaki—Edicts against them—Deposition and Death of the - Emperor’s Nephew—A. D. 1593-1595._ - - -It was not alone against the emperor’s hostility and the mercantile -envy of the Spanish that the Jesuits had to contend. The rapid rise -and great successes of the Company of Jesus had excited against them -not only the dread and deadly hatred of the Protestants (which might -naturally enough have been expected), but feelings also of envy and -jealousy, scarcely less hostile, and by no means very scrupulous, -on the part of their monastic brethren of the Catholic church,—the -Dominicans, and especially the numerous bodies of Franciscans, who had -attempted, by various reforms and modifications, to revive and purify -that ancient order so as to make it equal to compete with the Jesuits. - -A brief of Pope Gregory XIII, dated in 1585, had forbidden, under pain -of the greater excommunication, any but Jesuits to proceed to Japan -with the view of exercising any ecclesiastical function there; and -this bull was not less disagreeable to the Dominicans and Franciscans, -than the Portuguese monopoly of the Japanese trade was to the Spanish -merchants. At Manila these feelings of dissatisfaction, both mercantile -and ecclesiastical, combined in a common focus, giving rise to the -most injurious and unfounded reports, which were even embodied in -print, of extensive apostasies among the Japanese converts, and of -the great jeopardy into which Catholicism had been brought by the -misconduct of the Jesuits, who, at this moment, were out of favor in -Spain. - -The same Harada, already mentioned, having gone in person to Manila, -inflamed the zeal of some Franciscans whom he found there, by -representing that it was to the Jesuit missionaries personally, and not -to their religion, that the emperor was opposed. The Spanish governor, -not having received the emperor’s answer to his former letter, was -induced, in the hope of opening the door to commercial intercourse, to -write a new one; and four Franciscans attached themselves to the bearer -of it, eagerly seizing upon this opportunity to gain admission into -Japan. - -When the emperor found that these new deputies had not brought the -submission which he had demanded, at first he was very angry, but -was finally persuaded to allow them to travel through the empire in -order to see and to report its greatness. The Franciscans were even -suffered to build or buy a house at Miyako, to which they presently -added a church; and, being joined by others of their order, a convent -was established at Ōsaka. Two of them having gone to Nagasaki, took -possession of a church in the environs of that city, which had remained -closed since the commencement of the persecution; and here, as well as -in the other two cities, they performed their religious functions with -an ostentation and publicity which greatly alarmed the Jesuits, whom -the Franciscans accused of an unworthy timidity. - -The Jesuits, under these circumstances, thought proper to call the -attention of these new-comers to the bull of Gregory XIII, above -referred to, prohibiting the entry into Japan of any ecclesiastics -except those of the Company of Jesus; to which the Franciscans replied, -that they had entered Japan not as ecclesiastics, but as envoys from -the governor of Manila; and that being there without any violation of -the bull, nobody had any right to prevent them from exercising their -ecclesiastical functions,—a piece of casuistry which not even a Jesuit -could have outdone. Very soon, however, the governor of Nagasaki -closed the church of the Franciscans, and, before long, an edict -appeared threatening the punishment of death to all who frequented -the convent and church at Miyako,—procedures which the Franciscans -were uncharitable enough to ascribe to the intrigues of the Jesuits. -It seems probable, however, that decisive steps would still earlier -have been taken against these over-zealous Franciscans, had not the -emperor’s attention been engrossed by other more pressing matters. He -had conceived a jealousy against his nephew and colleague, whom, by -slow and cautious steps, he stripped of all his authority, sending him -at length to a monastery of bonzes, where he soon received an order to -cut himself open. The thirty-one wives of the deposed prince, with all -their children, were publicly beheaded, and all his closest adherents -shared his disgrace, and many of them his tragical fate.[59] An -infant son, by name Hideyori, borne to the emperor from his new wife -[Yodo-gimi by name], and to whom he desired to secure the succession, -was the innocent cause of these cruelties. No sooner was the nephew -out of the way than that infant received from the Dairi the title of -Kwambacudono. - - - - -CHAPTER XVII - - _Great Earthquake—Mission from China—Arrival of a Spanish - Galleon—Friars on Board her—New Accusations on her Account against the - Jesuits—Connection of the Jesuits with the Trade to Japan—Arrest of - Missionaries and Converts—First Martyrs—A. D. 1595-1597._ - - -The emperor, now at the height of his power and glory, was making -great preparations to receive an embassy from China, when Japan was -visited by a frightful earthquake, which almost ruined his new city of -Fushimi. The sea rose to an extraordinary height, especially in the -strait between Nippon and Shikoku, attended with a terrible destruction -of life and property. Nor did the mission from China at all answer the -expectation of the emperor, since the ambassadors demanded nothing less -than the entire evacuation of Corea,—a demand which speedily led to a -renewal of the war. - -In 1596, a richly laden Spanish galleon, from the Philippines, disabled -and driven by adverse winds to the coast of Japan, was induced, partly -by persuasions and partly by a show of force, to enter a harbor on -the south coast of Shikoku, where she was immediately seized by the -local authorities as forfeited. The commander of the vessel sent two -of his officers to Miyako to solicit a remission of this forfeiture, -which mission was charged to have nothing to do with the Jesuits, but -to consult only with the Franciscans established in that city. It had, -however, no success. The prize seemed to the emperor too valuable to -be given up. Driven at length by extremity to seek the aid of the -Jesuits, the ship’s company, after being for some time supported by -their charity, were shipped off by their assistance to Manila, all -except four Augustine friars, a Dominican and two Franciscans, who -remained in Japan as missionaries. But, instead of getting any thanks -from the inhabitants of Manila, the Jesuits were accused of having by -their intrigues caused the forfeiture of the ship and her cargo.[60] - -A narrative of the affair, written by a monk, and full of charges -against the Jesuits, was printed there, and sent to Spanish America, -whence it was carried to Europe, and widely diffused by the enemies of -the order, being soon followed by violent memorials to the same effect, -addressed to the Pope and the king of Spain. These charges, however, -did not remain unanswered, a reply to them being published at Acapulco, -signed by a number of Japanese who traded thither,[61] and by several -Spaniards and Portuguese who had been in Japan. - -It was the Manila pamphlet above referred to which first brought -against the Jesuits the charges, ultimately so damaging to the order, -of an uncanonical connection with commerce. The account of this trade, -so far as Japan was concerned, as given by the Jesuits themselves, is -as follows. The revenues of the mission had consisted at first only -of the charities of some individuals, aided by a sum of five hundred -ducats, paid yearly at Macao by the king of Portugal—a donation doubled -in 1574, to facilitate the foundation of a college. Some considerable -amounts had been received at different times from the wealthier native -converts; but almost the whole of these sums had been expended in the -founding and support of hospitals and other charities. For several -years the chief resource of the fathers for their own support had been -the proceeds of a fund of four thousand ducats, which Louis Almeida, -on entering the order in 1556, and devoting himself to the Japanese -mission, as mentioned in a former chapter, had set aside for that -purpose out of his own private fortune, all the rest of which he had -bestowed in the founding of hospitals. This fund had been entrusted by -Almeida to certain Portuguese merchants to trade upon for the benefit -of the Jesuits. But, though this trust had been faithfully executed, -the proceeds of it had been quite too small to support the increasing -number of the missionaries. Some small pensions, allowed them by the -Popes Gregory XIII and Sixtus V, failed to make up the deficiency; and, -at length, it was agreed by the commercial company at Macao, by whom -the annual Portuguese carac was fitted out for Japan, and by means of -which the chief trade between Japan and the Portuguese was now carried -on, that out of the sixteen hundred packages of silks, which formed -a part of her cargo, fifty (afterwards increased to eighty) packages -should be shipped on account of the Jesuits,—an arrangement to which -the viceroy of the Indies assented. For this business two commercial -agencies were maintained by the Jesuits,—one at Macao, the other at -Nagasaki. The enemies of the Jesuits insisted that they sent to Japan -yearly goods to the value of a hundred and sixty thousand ducats, on -which their profits were sixty thousand. This was probably exaggerated; -yet, when Charlevoix pretends that the whole annual Portuguese trade -and profits did not amount to those sums, his statement is refuted as -well by other known facts as by the vastly larger value of the cargoes -of such of the annual caracs as some years later fell into the hands of -the Dutch. - -While the unlucky affair of the forfeited Spanish galleon caused Europe -to resound with accusations against the Jesuits, in Japan itself it -had results more speedily and more fatal. The Spanish pilot, finding -that entreaties did not succeed, had attempted to make an impression -upon those who had seized the ship by expatiating on the power of the -king of Spain, the extent of whose dominions in Europe, Asia, Africa, -and America, he exhibited on a map of the world. To the inquiry how -such an extent of dominion had been obtained, the pilot replied that -nothing was easier; that the king began by sending missionaries into -the countries he wished to conquer, who, as soon as they had converted -a part of the inhabitants, were followed by troops, which troops, being -joined by the converts, easily succeeded in subduing the country. This -statement, it is said, was immediately reported to the emperor, who -no sooner heard it than he ordered guards to be placed at the doors -of the Franciscan converts at Miyako and Ōsaka, at which latter city, -since the earthquake, the emperor had made his residence. Guards were -also placed at the houses of the Jesuits; but in that at Ōsaka there -was only one young priest with two proselytes, and in that at Miyako -only the aged Father Gnecchi, who soon, through the dexterity of some -of his friends, was conveyed out of it unobserved by the guards. There -were taken in the convents of the Franciscans three priests, a clerk, -and two lay brothers, one of them a Spanish creole of Mexico, the other -a Portuguese creole of the East Indies. A list was also ordered to be -taken of the persons who frequented the Franciscan churches at Miyako -and Ōsaka. A great many names were originally placed on it, but the -governor of Miyako, desirous to limit as much as possible the number of -victims, finally struck off all but fifteen, who also were put under -arrest. - -On the 3d of January, 1597, these twenty-four prisoners were taken to -a public square in Miyako, where each of them had the tip of his left -ear cut off, after which they were placed in carriages and paraded -through the streets. A similar ceremony soon after took place in Sakai -and Ōsaka, whence the prisoners were sent to Nagasaki to be executed. -At all the towns and cities on the way they were made a spectacle of, -as if to terrify those of the same faith. But they exhibited, we are -told, great fervor and firmness, making many new converts and inspiring -many old ones with the desire of martyrdom. On the way their number -was increased to twenty-six by the addition of two others who had -greatly busied themselves in ministering to the wants of the prisoners, -and who, upon being asked if they were Catholics, replied that they -detested the gods of Japan. - -Fortunately for himself, Terazawa, the secretly converted governor -of Nagasaki, had been ordered to Corea, his place being supplied by -a pagan brother of his, by whom an edict was issued threatening with -death all who should embrace the foreign religion. At the same time -he intimated to the Jesuits that he should allow no Japanese to enter -their church in that city, nor themselves to traverse the country, as -they had done, preaching and baptizing. He exhibited, however, every -disposition to be as indulgent as possible in the execution of his -orders; for though the prisoners were denied the privilege of hearing -mass, they were permitted on their way to the place of execution to -stop at the hermitage of St. Lazarus, where the Jesuits confessed to -Father Rodriguez and another of their order, who met them there, and -the Franciscans to each other. - -The place of execution was not that made use of for ordinary -malefactors, but a hill bordering on the sea, one of those by which -the city of Nagasaki is surrounded, and thenceforth known among the -converts as the _Holy Mountain_, or _Mount of Martyrs_, to which -name it gained still further claim by becoming the scene of many -subsequent executions, continuing also, as long as the new religion -lasted in Japan, a place of pilgrimage for its adherents. The prisoners -were followed to this hill by an excited crowd, who, with tears and -benedictions, besought their prayers. They were put to death by -crucifixion, which, however, according to the Japanese method, is -not a lingering punishment. The sufferer is bound, not nailed, to the -cross, and his body is immediately pierced by a lance, or sometimes by -two lances, thrust in at the sides, and coming out at the shoulders. - -The earth, wet with the martyr’s precious blood, was sedulously -gathered up by the bystanders, and, in spite of the care with which the -bodies were guarded, those of the three Jesuits were conveyed away to -Macao; or, at least, bodies alleged to be the same were preserved in -the churches there with great veneration as relics. Many miracles were -alleged to have attended and followed the death of these martyrs, as to -which duly authenticated affidavits may be found recorded in the great -collection of Bolandus, affording grounds for the canonization of these -twenty-six Japanese proto-martyrs, decreed, thirty years after, by Pope -Urban VIII. - - - - -CHAPTER XVIII - - _New Edict for the Deportation of the Jesuits—Its Partial Evasion—New - Correspondence between the Philippines and Japan—Taikō-Sama’s - Justification of his Recent Proceedings—New Destruction of - Churches in Shimo—Taikō-Sama’s Death—His Preceding Efforts to - secure his own Deification and the Succession of his Infant Son - Hideyori—Regency—Iyeyasu, its Head, with the Title of Daifu-Sama—A. D. - 1597-1599._ - - -Even a more serious blow than the execution of the first martyrs, -which seems rather to have warmed than to have cooled the zeal of the -converted Japanese, was an order from the emperor to the governor of -Nagasaki to collect all the missionaries, and to ship them off to -China, except only his interpreter, Rodriguez, and two or three other -Jesuits, who might be permitted to remain at Nagasaki for the benefit -of the Portuguese traders. - -There were still in Japan as many as a hundred and twenty-five members -of the Company, of whom forty-six were priests. To blind the emperor -by an apparent submission to his will, it was agreed that the newly -arrived bishop of Japan (the fourth appointed to this diocese, but the -first who had arrived there) should depart in the same vessel in which -he had come, especially as he might improve his absence to represent to -the viceroy of the Indies the pressing necessities of his diocese. The -novitiate, the college in the island of Amakusa,[62] and the seminary -for young nobles hitherto kept on foot in Arima, were all given up, -and most of the fathers connected with them set out for Nagasaki. Of -the whole number, however, there remained behind eight in the island -of Amakusa, twelve in Arima and Ōmura, four in Bungo, and as many more -in Hirado and Gotō, while two others passed into Corea; but it was -understood that these priests thus left behind, while ministering to -the faithful, should avoid doing anything that might draw attention -upon them. - -The aged Father Gnecchi, with two priests and five or six other -Jesuits, remained at Miyako, Father Matthew de Couros being appointed -to fill the place of Father Louis Froez, lately deceased, in the -office of sending to Rome memoirs for the history of Japan. With these -exceptions all the rest of the Jesuits assembled at Nagasaki, making -a show of getting ready to depart. Indeed, the poop of a Portuguese -vessel, which sailed shortly after, appeared to be full of them; but -most of these seeming Jesuits were only Portuguese merchants, dressed -for the occasion in the habit of the order; while, to account for the -staying behind of any who might happen to be detected in the provinces, -it was given out that some had been left because the vessel was not -large enough to take all. - -Soon after the departure of this vessel, a Spanish gentleman arrived -from Manila with presents and a letter to the emperor from a new -governor of the Philippines, remonstrating, though in measured terms, -against the confiscation of the “San Philip” and the execution of -the Spanish ecclesiastics, several of whom had entered Japan in the -character of envoys from his predecessor. The letter requested the -bodies of those martyrs, and, for the future, safety and kind treatment -to all Spanish vessels driven accidentally to Japan. Taikō-Sama, in -reply, justified his proceedings against the missionaries, not only -because they had disregarded his repeated orders to leave Japan, but -because, insinuating their creed into the minds of his subjects, they -designed finally to get possession of the country as the Spaniards had -done of Manila. His excuse for the confiscation of the “San Philip” was -that she had attempted to enter a port of Japan in violation of law. -He refused to give up any part of her cargo, but offered to restore a -number of slaves which had belonged to her, at the same time expressing -a willingness to consent to a regulated trade with the Spaniards, -provided they would promise to bring no priests. - -A report that the emperor was about to visit Nagasaki led to the -destruction in the adjoining provinces of not less than a hundred -and thirty-seven churches and of many houses which had belonged to -the Jesuits; and, to appease the authorities, a new embarkation of -missionaries became necessary, limited, however, by reason of the -smallness of the vessel, to eleven persons. - -[Illustration: FEUDAL STRONGHOLDS: HIMEJI CASTLE; NAGOYA CASTLE] - -In the midst of these alarms news arrived that the emperor had been -seized with a sudden and violent sickness, apparently a dysentery, -which, after two months’ struggles against it, brought him to his end. -He died in September, 1598, at the age of sixty-four, retaining his -absolute authority to the last. During his latter years two thoughts -seem principally to have engrossed him,—the securing divine honors -to himself, and the transmission of his authority to his infant -son, Hideyori, not yet above three or four years old. With the first -object in view, though really (at least, so the missionaries concluded) -without any religion at all, he had rebuilt, in a magnificent manner, -many temples and Buddhist monasteries destroyed by Nobunaga, by -himself, or by the accidents of war. He also had erected, in a new -quarter which he had added to Miyako, a splendid temple, which he -caused to be consecrated to himself in the character of the new -Hachiman, that being the title of a Kami celebrated for his conquests, -and regarded as the god of war. - -To secure the succession of his infant son, the expiring emperor -established, on his death-bed, a council of regency, composed of nine -persons, at the head of which he placed Tokugawa Iyeyasu, king of -the Bandō, which, besides the five provinces of the Kwantō, in which -were the great cities of Suruga and Yedo, embraced, also, three other -kingdoms. Iyeyasu had been king of Mikawa, a more westerly province, -which he had lost by adhering to the fortunes of the third son of -Nobunaga, he being allied to that family by marriage. But afterwards, -by some means, he had recovered the favor of Taikō-Sama, who had even -bestowed upon him the newly conquered Bandō, and who, the better to -secure his fidelity, had caused his infant son and destined successor -to be married to a young granddaughter of Iyeyasu. - -The strong castle of Ōsaka had been chosen by Taikō-Sama as the -residence of his son during his minority, and there he dwelt with his -baby wife, in charge of his mother, while the administration of affairs -passed into the hands of Iyeyasu, who, as head of the regency, governed -with the title of Daifu-Sama. - - - - -CHAPTER XIX - - _Evacuation of Corea—Return of the Converted Princes—Favorable - Disposition of Daifu-Sama—Third Visit of Father Valignani—Civil - War between Daifu-Sama and his Co-regents—His Triumph—Disgrace and - Execution of Settsu-no-Kami—Daifu-Sama takes the Title of Ōgosho-Sama - and still favors the Converts—Influx of Dominican and Franciscan - Friars—Flourishing Condition of the Church—Local Persecutions—A. D. - 1599-1609._ - - -The first act of the regency was to put an end to the war in Corea. -That country was abandoned,[63] and the return of so many converted -princes greatly strengthened the lately suffering church. Father -Rodriguez had always been on good terms with Daifu-Sama, with whom he -had become acquainted at the court of the late emperor. This head of -the regency was even thought to be well disposed to the new religion, -and the converted princes, in conjunction with Father Valignani, -who, just before the death of Taikō-Sama, had reached Japan for the -third time, in company with a new bishop, proceeded gradually and -unostentatiously to re-establish the missionaries, to rebuild the -churches, and to set up again the college and seminaries, till soon -the Catholic faith seemed to be replaced on almost as firm a basis as -ever. For a time, indeed, things were thrown into confusion by a civil -war which soon broke out between Daifu-Sama and his co-regents. Some of -the Catholic princes lost their provinces as adherents of the defeated -party, and among the rest, that distinguished pillar of the church, -Konishi Settsu-no-Kami, the grand admiral, king of Higo and conqueror -of Corea, who, for his share in this business, perished by the hand -of the executioner,—his religious opinions not allowing him to adopt -the Japanese alternative of cutting himself open. But the victorious -regent, who presently took the title of Ōgosho-Sama, and with it the -entire imperial authority (though the boy, Hideyori, still enjoyed the -title of Kubō-Sama), showed himself so far favorable to the Jesuits -(to the headship of whom Father Francis Pazio had lately succeeded -as vice-provincial) as to permit their reëstablishment at Nagasaki, -Miyako, and Ōsaka. Yet an edict of his, restraining the missionaries -to their ancient seats, and forbidding the accession of new converts, -though little regarded, showed the necessity of caution. - -Pope Clement VIII, having promulgated a bull in December, 1600, by -which all the mendicant orders were allowed to go as missionaries -to Japan, provided they proceeded by way of Portugal, and not by -the Philippines, Dominican and Franciscan friars took advantage of -this favorable disposition of the emperor to enter that empire, the -Franciscans reoccupying their old station at Miyako, and setting up a -new one at Yedo, where the Jesuits had never been. This was the seat -of the emperor’s son, whom, according to the Japanese custom, he had -associated with him in the empire. He himself had his residence at -Suruga, no great distance to the west. The young Hideyori, the titular -Kubō-Sama, still dwelt in the castle of Ōsaka, Miyako being given up -exclusively to the Dairi, or ecclesiastical emperor. The prohibition to -pass from the Philippines to Japan was little regarded. As there was -no civil arm to enforce it, the friars laughed at the excommunication -denounced by the Pope’s bull. The Jesuits, on the other hand, did not -submit to this invasion without loud complaints. - -In the Tenza, or five provinces[64] nearest to Miyako, and including, -also, the cities of Sakai and Ōsaka, the ancient imperial domain, the -adherents of the new religion were seldom molested, and the governor -of Miyako even built a magnificent church for the Jesuits in the upper -city, in addition to one which they already possessed in the lower -city. An observatory at Ōsaka had gained additional credit for their -religion by displaying their scientific knowledge. A seminary for -nobles was reopened at Nagasaki, and, by the special zeal of Father -Gnecchi, hospitals for lepers, which had been from the first a favorite -charity, were set up at Ōsaka and in several other cities. By the favor -of particular princes, Jesuit missionaries even penetrated into the -more remote and hitherto unvisited provinces. Persecution, however, -still went on within the jurisdiction of several of the local rulers, -especially in the island of Shimo; and some of the converted princes, -having apostatized, became themselves persecutors. But the bishop, -having made a journey to Miyako in 1606, was very favorably received -by the Kubō-Sama,—a circumstance not without its influence in all the -local courts. - -Such was the state of things in Japan when the hold of the Portuguese -and the Jesuits upon that country, already shaken by the consolidation -of the empire under one head, and by the intrusion of Dominican and -Franciscan friars and Spanish merchants and negotiators, encountered -a still more alarming disturbance from the appearance of the Dutch flag -in the eastern seas.[65] - -[Illustration: IMAGE OF IYEYASU - From _Official History of Japan_] - - - - -CHAPTER XX - - _Attempt of the English and Dutch to discover a New Route to the Far - East—Voyages round the World—Attempted English Voyage to Japan—English - and Dutch Voyages to India—First Dutch Voyage to Japan—Adams, the - English Pilot—His Adventures and Detention in Japan[66]—A. D. - 1513-1607._ - - -For a full century subsequent to the discovery of the passage to India -by the Cape of Good Hope, the commerce of the Indian seas, so far as -Europe was concerned, remained almost a complete monopoly in the hands -of the Portuguese. The ancient Venetian commerce with India, by the Red -Sea, had been speedily brought to an end, while the trade carried on -overland, by way of Aleppo and the Persian Gulf, was mainly controlled -by the Portuguese, who held possession of Ormus, through which it -mostly passed. Nor did the Spanish discovery of another passage to -India, by the Straits of Magellan, and the lodgment which the Spaniards -made about the year 1570, in the Philippine Islands, very materially -interfere with the Portuguese monopoly. The passage by the Straits -of Magellan was seldom or never attempted, the Spanish trade being -confined to two annual ships between Acapulco and Manila. - -It was the desire to share in this East India commerce (which made -Lisbon the wealthiest and most populous city of Europe) that led to -so many attempts to discover a northeastern, a northwestern, and even -a northern passage to India (directly over the pole), not only as -shorter, but as avoiding any collision with the Portuguese and Spanish, -who did not hesitate to maintain by force their respective exclusive -claims to the passages by the Cape of Good Hope and the Straits of -Magellan. These attempts were at first confined to the English, -beginning with that made by Sebastian Cabot, on his third and last -voyage from England. The Dutch and Belgians were long content to buy -Indian merchandise at Lisbon, which they resold in the north of Europe; -but after the union of the Spanish and Portuguese dominions, in 1580, -and the seizure, which soon followed, of the Dutch ships at Lisbon, -and their exclusion from any trade with Portugal, the Dutch began to -entertain, even more ardently than the English, the desire of a direct -commerce with the far East. Drake, in his voyage round the world -(1577-80), outward by the Straits of Magellan and homeward by the Cape -of Good Hope, a track in which he was speedily followed by Cavendish -(1586-88), led the way to the Indian seas; but the failure of Cavendish -in a second attempt to pass the Straits of Magellan, and the capture, -A. D. 1594, by Spanish-American cruisers in the Pacific, of Sir Richard -Hawkins, a son of the famous Sir John Hawkins, who had attempted a -voyage to Japan by the same route, served to keep up the terrors of -that passage. - -Meanwhile, Captain Lancaster, as early as 1592, accomplished the first -English voyage to India by the Cape of Good Hope. After a rather -disastrous voyage, he returned in 1594, having been greatly delayed by -his ignorance of the monsoons. A second expedition, destined for China, -sailed in 1596, but perished miserably at sea. It is to the Dutch that -the credit mainly belongs of first breaking in upon the Portuguese and -Spanish monopoly of Indian commerce.[67] - -Among other Dutch ship captains and merchants who had been thrown into -prison at Lisbon was Cornelius Houtman, who improved that opportunity -to acquire, by conversation with Portuguese seamen, a knowledge of -the Indian seas; and it was by his persuasion that the merchants of -Amsterdam, associating as an East India Company, fitted out, in 1595, -eight vessels,—four to renew the experiment of a northeastern passage, -and four to proceed to India by the Cape of Good Hope. The voyage of -the first four, under the direction of Hugh Linschooten,[67] who had -lately returned from Goa, where he had resided six years in the service -of the archbishop, resulted in the discovery of Nova Zembla, beyond -which neither this expedition nor two subsequent ones were able to -proceed. The four other ships, under the charge of Houtman, reached -the west coast of Java, and in spite of the arts and opposition of the -Portuguese, whom they found established at Bantam, in that island, they -opened a trade with the natives, not without an occasional intermixture -of hostilities, in which they lost more than half their numbers, -besides being obliged to abandon and burn one of their vessels. The -other three ships returned to Holland in 1598. This voyage had not -been profitable; yet the actual commencement of the long-desired -Indian traffic greatly stimulated the hopes of the merchants, and that -same year not less than four distinct India squadrons were fitted -out,—one of two vessels, under Houtman; another, under Jacques Mahay, -of five vessels, known as Verhagen’s fleet, from the chief promoter -of the enterprise; a third, of three vessels, under Oliver Noort; and -a fourth, of not less than eight vessels, set forth by a new East -India association, including not only the merchants of Amsterdam, but -those of the other cities of the province of Holland, rudiment of the -afterwards so celebrated DUTCH EAST INDIA COMPANY. The first and last -of these expeditions proceeded by the Cape of Good Hope. The other two -were to attempt the passage by the Straits of Magellan. - -The Dutch merchants were at this time much richer than those of -England, and for these enterprises of theirs to India they obtained -the assistance of quite a number of adventurous Englishmen. Houtman -had an English pilot named Davis; Noort carried, in the same capacity, -Thomas Melis, who had made the voyage round the world with Cavendish. -The fleet of Mahay had two English pilots, William Adams and Timothy -Shotten, with the former of whom, as being the first Englishman who -ever reached Japan, and long a resident there, our narrative has -chiefly to do. - -Born, according to his own account, on the banks of the Medway, between -Rochester and Chatham, Adams, at the age of twelve, had commenced a -seafaring life, apprentice to Master Nicholas Diggins, of Limehouse, -near London, whom he served for twelve years. He acted afterward as -master and pilot in her Majesty’s (Queen Elizabeth’s) ships. Then for -eleven or twelve years he was employed by the worshipful company of the -Barbary merchants. The Dutch traffic with India beginning, desirous, as -he tells us, “to make a little experience of the small knowledge which -God had given him,” he was induced to enter that service. - -Mahay’s squadron, in which Adams sailed as chief pilot, consisted of -the “Hope,” of two hundred and fifty tons and one hundred and thirty -men, the “Faith,” of one hundred and fifty tons and one hundred and -nine men, the “Charity,” of one hundred and sixty tons and one hundred -and ten men, the “Fidelity,” of one hundred tons and eighty-six men, -and the “Good News,” of seventy-five tons and fifty-six men; but these -names of good omen did not save these small and overcrowded vessels -from a succession of disasters, too common in the maritime enterprises -of those days. They left the Texel the 24th of June, and on the 21st of -August reached the Cape Verde Islands, where they remained twenty-one -days to refresh the men, of whom many were sick with scurvy, including -Mahay, their chief commander, who died soon after they had recommenced -their voyage. Encountering contrary winds and heavy rains, they were -forced to the coast of Guinea, and landed on Cape Gonsalves, just south -of the line. The sick were set on shore, and soon after a French sailor -came aboard, who promised to do them all favor with the negro king. The -country could furnish very few supplies; and as the sick recovered from -the scurvy, those hitherto well began to suffer from fever. - -In this state of distress they set sail for the coast of Brazil; but -falling in soon after with the island of Annabon, in the Gulf of -Guinea, they landed, took the town, which contained eighty houses, and -obtained a supply of oxen, and of oranges and other fruits; but still -the men continued to die, of whom they buried more than thirty on this -island. - -Two months were thus spent on the African coast. The ships, setting -sail again about the middle of November, were greatly delayed by one -of the vessels losing her mainmast, and it was five months before they -reached the Straits of Magellan, the crews during most of that time on -short allowance, and driven to such extremity as to eat the calf-skins -with which the ropes were covered. - -Having entered the straits the beginning of April, 1599, they obtained -a good supply of penguins for food; but the commander stopping to wood -and water, they were overtaken by the winter then just setting in, -during which they lost more than a hundred men by cold and hunger, and -were thus detained—though, according to Adams, there were many times -when they might have gone through—till the 24th of September, when at -last they entered the South Sea. - -A few days after, they encountered a violent storm, by which the ships -were separated. Captain Wert, with the “Faith” and “Fidelity,” was -driven back into the straits, where he fell in with Oliver Noort, who -had left Holland a few days after the Verhagen fleet, had followed in -the same track, had encountered many of the same difficulties, but who, -more fortunate, not only passed the strait, but succeeded in completing -the fourth circumnavigation of the globe,—a feat accomplished before -his voyage only by the ships of Magellan, Drake, and Cavendish. As -Noort was unable to afford him any aid, Wert abandoned the enterprise, -and returned with his two ships to Holland. - -The other three ships steered separately for the coast of Chili, where -a rendezvous, in the latitude of forty-six degrees, had been appointed. -The “Charity,” in which Adams was, on reaching the place of rendezvous -found some Indian inhabitants, who at first furnished sheep in -exchange for bells and knives, with which they seemed well satisfied, -but who shortly after disappeared, probably through Spanish influence. -Having waited twenty-eight days, and hearing nothing of her consorts, -the “Charity” ran by Valdivia to the island of Mocha, and thence toward -the neighboring island of Santa Maria. Seeing on the mainland near by -a number of people, boats were sent for a parley; but the people would -suffer none to land from the boats, at which they shot a multitude of -arrows. “Nevertheless,” says Adams, “having no victuals in our ship, -and hoping to find refreshing, we forcibly landed some seven-and-twenty -or thirty of our men, and drove the wild people from the water-side, -having the most of our men hurt with their arrows. Having landed, we -made signs of friendship, and in the end came to parley, with signs -that our desire was to have victuals for iron, silver, and cloth, -which we showed them. Whereupon they gave our folks wine, with batatas -(sweet potatoes) and other fruits, and bade them, by signs and tokens, -to go aboard, and the next day to come again, and they would bring us -victuals.” - -The next day, after a council, in which it was resolved not to land -more than two or three men at once, the captain approached the shore -with all the force he had. Great numbers of people were seen, who made -signs for the boats to land; and in the end, as the people would not -come near the boats, twenty-three men landed with muskets, and marched -up toward four or five houses; but before they had gone the distance -of a musket-shot they found themselves in an ambush, and the whole, -including Thomas Adams, a brother of William, the chief pilot, were -slain or taken. “So our boats waited long,” says Adams, “to see if any -of them would come again; but seeing no hope to recover them, our boats -returned, with this sorrowful news, that all our men that landed were -slain, which was a lamentable thing to hear, for we had scarce so many -men left as could wind up our anchor.” - -After waiting a day longer, they went over to the neighboring island -of Santa Maria, where they found the “Hope,” which had just arrived, -but in as great distress as themselves, having, at the island of Mocha, -the day before the “Charity” had passed there, lost their commander -and twenty-seven men in an attempt to land to obtain provisions. Some -provisions were finally got by detaining two Spaniards, who came to -visit the ships, and requiring them to pay a ransom in sheep and oxen. -It was proposed to burn one of the ships, as there were not men enough -for both; but the new captains, of whom the one in command of the -“Charity” was named Quackernack, could not agree which of the ships to -burn. - -At length, the men being somewhat refreshed, a council was called -to consider what should be done to make the voyage as profitable as -possible to the merchants. It was stated by one of the sailors, who had -been to Japan in a Portuguese ship, that woollen cloth, of which they -had much on board, was good merchandise there; and considering that -the Moluccas, and most parts of the East Indies, were not countries in -which woollen cloths would be likely to be very acceptable; hearing -also from the people on shore that Spanish cruisers were after -them,—by whom, in fact, their third vessel was captured, news of -their intentions and force having been sent from Spain to Peru about -the time of their departure from Holland,—it was finally resolved -to stand away for Japan. Leaving the coast of Chili on the 27th of -November, and standing northwesterly across the equator for three or -four months, they had the trade-wind and pleasant weather. In their way -they encountered a group of islands somewhere about sixteen degrees of -north latitude (perhaps the Sandwich Islands), to which eight of their -men ran off with the pinnace, and were eaten, as was supposed, by the -islanders, who, by the report of one who was taken, were cannibals. - -In the latitude of twenty-seven degrees north, the vessels, -encountering variable winds and stormy weather, were separated. The -“Hope” was never more heard of; the “Charity” still kept on her course, -though with many of her men sick and others dead, when, on the 11th of -April, being then in great misery, with only four or five men out of a -company of four-and-twenty able to walk, and as many more to creep on -their knees, the whole expecting shortly to die, at last they made the -hoped-for land, which proved to be the eastern coast of Shimo. They -were immediately boarded by numerous boats, which they had no force to -resist; but the boatmen offered no injury beyond stealing what they -could conveniently lay their hands on. This, however, was put a stop -to the next day by the governor of the neighboring district, who sent -soldiers on board to protect the cargo, and who treated the crew with -great kindness, furnishing them with all necessary refreshments, and -giving them a house on shore for their sick, of whom nine finally died. - -For some days the only conversation was by signs; but before long a -Portuguese Jesuit, with some other Portuguese, arrived from Nagasaki, -on the opposite western coast of the island. - -The Dutch now had an interpreter; but, what with religious and what -with national antipathies, little was to be hoped from a Jesuit and -a Portuguese. In fact, the Portuguese accused them of being pirates, -and two of their own company, in hopes to get control of the cargo, -turned traitors, and plotted with the Portuguese. After nine days the -emperor [Iyeyasu] sent five galleys, in which Adams, attended by one -of the sailors, was conveyed to Ōsaka, distant about eighty leagues. -Here he found the emperor, “in a wonderful costly house, gilded with -gold in abundance,” who, in several interviews, treated him with great -kindness, and was very inquisitive as to his country and the cause of -his coming. Adams replied that the English were a people who had long -sought out the East Indies, desiring friendship, in the way of trade, -with all kings and potentates, and having in their country divers -commodities which might be exchanged to mutual advantage. The emperor -then inquired if the people of Adams’ country had no wars. He answered -that they had with the Spanish and Portuguese, but were at peace with -all other nations. He also inquired as to Adams’ religious opinions, -and the way in which he got to Japan; but when Adams, by way of answer, -exhibited a chart of the world, and pointed out the passage through the -Straits of Magellan, he showed plain signs of incredulity. - -Notwithstanding this friendly reception, Adams was ordered back to -prison, where he was kept for nine-and-thirty days, expecting, though -well treated, to be crucified, which he learned was the customary mode -of execution in that country. - -In fact, as he afterwards discovered, the Portuguese were employing -this interval in poisoning the minds of the natives against these -new-comers, whom they represented as thieves and common sea-robbers, -whom it was necessary to put to death to prevent any more of their -freebooting countrymen from coming, to the ruin of the Japanese trade. -But at length the emperor gave this answer: that, as these strangers -had as yet done no damage to him nor to any of his people, it would be -against reason and justice to put them to death; and, sending again -for Adams, after another long conversation and numerous inquiries, -he set him at liberty, and gave him leave to visit the ship and his -companions, of whom, in the interval, he had heard nothing. He found -them close by, the ship having in the interval been brought to Sakai, -within seven or eight miles of Ōsaka. The men had suffered nothing, but -the ship had been completely stripped, her whole company being thus -left with only the clothes on their backs. The emperor, indeed, ordered -restitution; but the plundered articles were so dispersed and concealed -that nothing could be recovered, except fifty thousand rials in silver -(five thousand dollars), which had formed a part of the cargo, and -which was given up to the officers as a fund for their support and that -of the men. Afterward the ship was taken still eastward to a port near -Yedo. All means were used to get her clear, with leave to depart, in -which suit a considerable part of the money was spent; till, at the -end of two years, the men refusing any longer to obey Adams and the -master, the remaining money was, “for quietness’ sake,” divided, and -each was left to shift for himself. The emperor, however, added an -allowance to each man of two pounds of rice a day, besides an annual -pension in money amounting to about twenty-four dollars. In Adams’ case -this pension was afterward raised to one hundred and forty dollars, -as a reward for having built two ships for the emperor on the European -model. Adams’ knowledge of mathematics also proved serviceable to him, -and he was soon in such favor as to be able, according to his own -account, to return good for evil to several of his former maligners. -The emperor acknowledged his services, and endeavored to content him -by giving him “a living like unto a lordship in England, with eighty -or ninety husbandmen as his servants and slaves”; but he still pined -for home, and importuned for leave to depart, desiring, as he says, “to -see his poor wife and children, according to conscience and nature.” -This suit he again renewed, upon hearing from some Japanese traders -that Dutch merchants had established themselves at Acheen in Sumatra, -and Patania on the east coast of Malacca. He promised to bring both -the Dutch and English to trade in Japan; but all he could obtain was -leave for the Dutch captain and another Dutchman to depart. This they -presently did, for Patania, in a Japanese junk, furnished by the king -or prince of Hirado, whence they proceeded to Jor, at the southern -end of the peninsula of Malacca, where they found a Dutch fleet of -nine sail. In this fleet the Dutch captain obtained an appointment as -master, but was soon after killed in a sea-fight with the Portuguese, -with whom the Dutch were, by this time, vigorously and successfully -contending for the mastership of the eastern seas.[68] - - - - -CHAPTER XXI - - _Spanish Friars in Japan—Extension of Japanese Trade—Progress of the - Dutch in the Eastern Seas—They open a Trade with Japan—Emperor’s - Letter—Shipwreck of Don Rodrigo de Vivero on the Japanese - Coast—His Reception, Observations, and Departure—Destruction of a - Portuguese Carac by the Japanese—Another Dutch Ship arrives—Spex’s - Charter—Embassies from Macao and New Spain—Father Louis Sotelo and his - Projects—A. D. 1607-1618._ - - -The Dutch and English, though they had not yet reached Japan, were -already, especially the Dutch, making great progress in the Indian -seas; but it was not by them alone that the Portuguese monopoly of -Japanese commerce and Japanese conversion was threatened. - -Taking advantage of the bull of Clement VII, already referred to, a -multitude of Spanish friars from Manila poured into Japan, whose first -and chief business it was, according to the Jesuit letter-writers -and historians, to declaim with vehemence against the conduct of -the fathers of the company, whom they represented as altogether too -circumspect, reserved, and timid in the publication of the gospel. The -fanaticism of these Spanish friars was excessive, in illustration of -which the Jesuit historians relate, with malicious satisfaction, the -following story: One of them, in a dispute with one of the shipwrecked -Hollanders of Adams’ company (perhaps with Adams himself), to sustain -the authority of the Catholic church, appealed to its miraculous -power, and when this obstinate Dutch heretic questioned the reality -of any such power, and challenged an exhibition of it, the fanatical -missionary undertook to convince him by walking himself on the sea. A -day was appointed for the miracle. The Spaniard prepared himself by -confession, prayer, and fasting. A crowd of Japanese assembled to see -it, and the friar, after a confident exhortation to the multitude, -stepped, crucifix in hand, into the water, certain of being buoyed up -by faith and providence. But he was soon floundering over his head, -and was only saved from drowning by some boats sent to his assistance; -nor did this experiment add much either to the faith of the Dutchman -or to the docility of the Japanese. About this same time, also, the -institution of parish priests was introduced; but this, like the -admission of friars, led only to new disputes and collisions. - -The merchants of Manila, no less than the monks, still looked with -longing eyes in the direction of Japan, anxious to share in its -commerce; and Don Rodrigo de Vivero, upon his accession to that -government, by way of conciliation discharged from confinement and sent -home some two hundred Japanese, whom he found imprisoned there, either -by way of retaliation for the confiscation of the “San Philip” and the -execution of the Spanish missionaries, or for some other cause. - -Besides these European rivals, a dangerous competition in the way -of trade seems to have been threatened on the part of the Japanese -themselves, who appear to have been much more adventurous at this time, -whether in point of navigation or the visiting of foreign countries, -than the present jealous policy of their government permits. Japanese -vessels frequented Manila for the purchase of rich China silks, which -formed the chief article of export from Macao to Japan, the policy of -China and the relations of Japan towards her not allowing a direct -trade. Japanese vessels appeared even in the Pacific Spanish-American -ports. It is to this period that the Japanese ascribe the conquest by -the king of Satsuma of the Lew Chew Islands; and Macao, Siam, and Annam -are enumerated, on Japanese authority, as additional places to which -Japanese vessels traded.[69] - -The Portuguese seem, on the other hand, to have had little left of that -courage and spirit by which their forefathers of the preceding century -had been so distinguished. The Dutch cruisers in the East Indies proved -a great annoyance to them. In 1603 they blockaded Goa, and the same -year Hemkirk took the carac of Macao, a prize of fourteen hundred tons, -and valued, with her cargo, at several millions of florins. When the -Dutch, under Matelief, attacked Malacca, in 1606, the Portuguese were -greatly indebted to a small body of Japanese, who formed a part of the -garrison, for their success in repelling the assault. On the other -hand, in 1608 a large number of Japanese, obliged to winter at Macao, -got into collision with the Portuguese authorities of that city, who -suspected them of a design to seize the place, and who, in consequence, -put a number of them to death. During this and the two preceding years -the annual Portuguese carac had been prevented from sailing from Macao -by fear of Dutch cruisers; and, with the effect of this interruption -of intercourse and of the bad feeling produced by the collision at -Macao, still other circumstances coöperated to endanger the Portuguese -ascendency. - -The first was the arrival at Hirado, in July, 1609, of the Dutch -vessel, the “Red Lion,” attended by the yacht “Griffon.” They belonged -to the fleet of Verhœven, who had left Holland December 12, 1607, with -thirteen ships (of which several were of a thousand tons burden), -nineteen hundred men, and three hundred and seventy-seven pieces of -artillery. The Portuguese fleet, which sailed about the same time -from Lisbon, to take out a new viceroy to Goa, was composed of eight -great caracs and six galleons. This fleet was scattered by a storm -off the Canaries, and one of the galleons, mounting ten cannon, and -with one hundred and eighty men, fell into Verhœven’s hands. He had -previously made an unsuccessful attack on Mozambique; but had taken, -however, in the harbor a carac, mounting thirty-four guns and loaded -with merchandise. Off Goa another carac was burned by the Portuguese, -to prevent its falling into the hands of the Dutch, who proceeded to -Calicut, where a treaty of alliance against the Portuguese was entered -into with the king. The Dutch then proceeded by Cochin to Johor, on the -peninsula of Malacca (whence the two ships were despatched to Japan) -and finally to Bantam and the Moluccas, where the Dutch expected that a -truce with Spain, announced by a ship late from Holland, would enable -them to devote all their strength to guard against the English, who -were also aiming at an establishment in those islands. - -[Illustration: TEMPLE OF HIDEYOSHI, KYŌTŌ] - -The ships detached from Johor, equally equipped for trading and for -fighting, as were all the Indiamen of that period, having missed, by -being a few days too late, the carac of Macao, proceeded to carry out -their instructions for opening a commercial intercourse with Japan. -They were very kindly received at Hirado, whence they sent a -deputation to the emperor’s court, with presents, in the name of the -Stadtholder, and were successful in obtaining leave to establish a -factory at Hirado, for the supply of which with goods the Dutch were to -send a ship or two yearly. The “Red Lion,” arriving in the Texel, July, -1610, carried back the following letter: - -THE EMPEROR OF JAPAN TO THE KING OF HOLLAND. - - “I, emperor and king of Japan, wish to the king of Holland [prince of - Orange] who hath sent from so far countries to visit me, greeting. - - “I rejoice greatly in your writing and sending unto me, and wish that - our countries were nearer the one to the other, whereby we might - continue and increase the friendship begun betwixt us, through your - presence, whom I imagine in earnest to see; in respect I am unknown - unto your majesty, and that your love towards me is manifested through - your liberality in honoring me with four presents, whereof, though I - had no need, yet, coming in your name, I received them in great worth, - and hold them in good esteem. - - “And further, whereas the Hollanders, your majesty’s subjects, desire - to trade with their shipping in my country (which is of little value - and small), and to traffic with my subjects, and desire to have - their abiding near unto my court, whereby in person I might help and - assist them, which cannot be as now, through the inconvenience of the - country; yet, notwithstanding, I will not neglect, as already I have - been, to be careful of them, and to give in charge to all my governors - and subjects that, in what places and havens, in what port soever they - shall arrive, they shall show them all favor and friendships to their - persons, ships, and merchandise; wherein your majesty or your subjects - need not to doubt or fear aught to the contrary. For they may come as - freely as if they came into your majesty’s own havens and countries, - and so may remain in my country to trade. And the friendship begun - between me and my subjects with you shall never be impaired on my - behalf, but augmented and increased. - - “I am partly ashamed that your majesty (whose name and renown - through your valorous deeds is spread through the whole world) - should cause your subjects to come from so far countries into a - country so unfitting as this is, to visit me, and to offer unto me - such friendships as I have not deserved. But considering that your - affection hath been the cause thereof, I could not but friendly - entertain your subjects, and yield to their requests, whereof this - shall serve for a testimony; that they in all places, countries, and - islands under mine obedience, may trade, and traffic, and build houses - serviceable and needful for their trade and merchandises, where they - may trade without any hindrance at their pleasure, as well in time to - come as for the present, so that no man shall do them any wrong. And I - will maintain and defend them as mine own subjects. - - “I promise, likewise, that the persons whom I understand shall be left - here, shall now and at all times be held as recommended unto me, and - in all things to favor them, whereby your majesty shall find us as - your friends and neighbors. - - “For other matters passed between me and your majesty’s servants, - which would be too long here to repeat, I refer myself unto them.”[70] - -The Dutch were greatly indebted for their success to Matsuura Hōin, -king of Hirado, who interested himself greatly in the establishment of -a Dutch factory in his island. In fact, it had been at his expense -that the two Dutchmen, shipmates of Adams, had some years before been -sent to Patania upon their promise to induce their countrymen to open -a trade to Japan. In addition to this outlay, which had amounted to -fifteen hundred taels, he had furnished the Dutch belonging to the two -recently arrived vessels with a galley manned with fifty-six rowers, -for their visit to court, of which they had the use for two months; and -he had, besides, accommodated them by purchasing all their pepper and -silk, the latter article at a considerable loss to himself. - -Some time previous to the arrival of these Dutch ships, in the autumn -of 1608, Don Rodrigo de Vivero, the late governor of Manila, returning -to New Spain in the galleon the “St. Francis,” was wrecked on the -southeast coast of Nippon.[71] At first it was not known what land it -was, but a Japanese Catholic on board soon recognized it. The crew, -who had escaped to the shore, proceeded to a neighboring village, -the people of which evinced much compassion for them, the women even -shedding tears. They gave them clothing and food (consisting of rice, -pulse, and a little fish), and sent word to the Tono, or lord of the -district, who issued orders that they should be well treated, but not -suffered to remove. - -They were soon visited by the Tono, who came in great pomp, preceded -by three hundred men; some bearing banners, others armed with lances, -matchlocks, and halberts. He saluted Don Rodrigo with much politeness, -by a motion of his head and hand, and placed him on his left, that -being considered the place of honor among the Japanese, because the -swords are worn on that side. He made Don Rodrigo several presents, -and took upon himself the subsistence of the party, allowing two -Spanish officers to proceed to the emperor’s court, to communicate to -him and to his son and, according to the Japanese custom, colleague, -the details of the case. - -Yedo, where the emperor’s son resided, was about forty leagues distant, -and Suruga, where the emperor held his court, still forty leagues -further. The messengers returned in twenty-four days, with an officer -of the prince, charged with a message of condolence from the emperor, -and leave to visit their courts. All the property that could be saved -from the wreck was given up to the Spaniards. - -The first place on their route was a town of ten or twelve thousand -inhabitants. The Tono took Don Rodrigo to his castle, situated on -a height, and surrounded by a ditch fifty feet deep, passed by a -drawbridge. The gates were of iron; the walls of solid masonry, -eighteen feet high, and the same in thickness. Near the first gate -stood a hundred musketeers, and between that and the second gate, which -opened through a second wall, were houses, gardens, orchards, and -rice-fields. The dwelling rooms were of wood, exquisitely finished and -adorned with a profusion of gold, silver, varnish, etc. - -All the way to Yedo the density of the population greatly surprised -the Spaniards, who were everywhere well lodged and entertained. They -entered that city amid such a crowd, that the officers of police had to -force a way for them,—and yet the streets were very broad. Such crowds -collected about the house which the prince had ordered to be prepared -for them, that they had no rest; till at last a guard was placed about -it, and a tablet set up, prohibiting the populace from molesting them. -Of the city Rodrigo gives this description: “Yedo contains seven -hundred thousand inhabitants, and is traversed by a considerable river -which is navigable by vessels of moderate size. By this river, which -divides in the interior into several branches, the inhabitants are -supplied with provisions and necessaries, which are so cheap that a man -may live comfortably for a rial (five cents) a day. The Japanese do not -make much wheaten bread, though what they do make is excellent. The -streets and squares of Yedo are very handsome, clean, and well kept. -The houses are of wood, and mostly of two stories. The exterior is less -imposing than with us, but they are far handsomer and more comfortable -within. Towards the street the houses have covered galleries, and each -street is occupied by persons of the same calling; carpenters in one, -jewellers in another, tailors in another, including many trades unknown -in Europe. The merchants and traders dwell together in the same way. -Provisions also are sold in places appointed for each sort. I observed -a market where game was sold; there was a great supply of rabbits, -hares, wild boars, deer, and other animals which I never saw before. -The Japanese rarely eat any flesh but that of game, which they hunt. -The fish market, very extensive and extremely neat and clean, affords -a great variety of fish, sea and river, fresh and salt; and there were -large tubs containing live fish. Adjoining the inns are places where -they let and sell horses, and these places are so numerous, that the -traveller, who, according to custom, changes his horse every league, -is only embarrassed where to choose. The nobles and great men inhabit -a distant part of the city, and their quarter is distinguished by the -armorial ornaments, sculptured, painted, or gilt, placed over the doors -of the houses,—a privilege to which the Japanese nobles attach great -value. The political authority is vested in a governor, who is chief of -the magistracy, civil and military. In each street resides a magistrate -who takes cognizance, in the first instance, of all cases, civil and -criminal, submitting the more difficult to the governor. The streets -are closed at each end by a gate, which is shut at nightfall. At each -gate is placed a guard of soldiers, with sentinels at intervals; so -that, if a crime is committed, notice is conveyed instantly to each -end of the street, and, the gates being closed, it rarely happens that -the offender escapes. This description is applicable to all the other -cities in the kingdom.” - -After an interval of two days, the prince sent his secretary, whose -name was Honda Kōzuke-no-Suke, to invite Don Rodrigo to visit him. -The palace he describes as enclosed by a wall of immense blocks of -freestone, put together without cement, with embrasures, at equal -distances, well furnished with artillery. At the foot of this wall -was a deep wet ditch, crossed by a drawbridge of a peculiar and very -ingenious construction. Don Rodrigo passed through two ranks of -musketeers, about one thousand in number, to the second wall, distant -from the first three hundred paces. At the gate four hundred lancers -and pikemen were stationed. A third wall, about twelve feet high, was -guarded by three hundred halberdiers. Within was the palace, with the -royal stables on one side, containing three hundred horses, and on -the other an arsenal with arms for one hundred thousand men. Rodrigo -affirms that from the entrance to the palace were more than twenty -thousand men, not assembled for the occasion, but constantly employed -and paid for the daily service of the court. - -The first apartment of the palace was entirely covered with rich -ornaments, carpets, stuffs, velvet, and gold. The walls were hung with -pictures representing hunting subjects. Each apartment exceeded the -preceding in splendor, till the further one was reached, in which the -prince was seated on a superb carpet of crimson velvet, embroidered -with gold, placed upon a kind of platform, raised two steps, in the -centre of the apartment. He wore three dresses, one over the other, -the exterior one green and yellow; in his girdle were his longer and -shorter swords. His hair was tied up with ribbons of different colors, -and his head had no other ornament. He was about thirty-five years of -age; of a brown complexion, a pleasing figure, and good height. Don -Rodrigo was conducted to a seat on the left hand of the prince, who -conversed with him on a variety of indifferent subjects. - -Four days after, the travellers set off for Suruga, on a visit to the -emperor. The road is thus described: “On whatsoever side the traveller -turns his eyes, he perceives a concourse of people passing to and fro, -as in the most populous cities of Europe. The roads are lined on both -sides with superb pine-trees, which keep off the sun. The distances -are marked by little eminences planted with two trees.” In the hundred -leagues between Suruga and Miyako, several towns were passed, estimated -to contain one hundred thousand inhabitants, and a village occurred at -every quarter of a league. Rodrigo declares himself so delighted with -Japan, that, “if he could have prevailed upon himself to renounce his -God and his king, he should have preferred that country to his own.” - -He estimated Suruga to contain from five to six hundred thousand -inhabitants. The climate was more agreeable than that of Yedo, but the -city not so handsome. As at Yedo, a convenient residence was provided -for him, which the crowd besieged as they had done there. The emperor -sent a secretary to compliment him on his arrival, with a present of -rich dresses, and in about a week he had his presentation. He was -conveyed in an elegant litter to the palace, which was a fortress -like that at Yedo. On the whole, there was less display than at the -prince’s court, but more marks of power and fear. The interview with -the emperor is thus described: “I followed the minister, who conducted -me into the presence of the sovereign, whom I saluted. He was in a kind -of square box, not very large, but astonishingly rich. It was placed -two steps above the floor, and surrounded at four paces’ distance by a -gold lattice-work, six feet high, in which were small doors, by which -the emperor’s attendants went in and out, as they were called from the -crowd, prostrate on their hands and knees around the lattice.[72] The -monarch was encircled by nearly twenty grandees, ministers or principal -courtiers, in long silk mantles, and trousers of the same material, -so long that they entirely concealed the feet. The emperor was seated -on a kind of stool, of blue satin, worked with stars and half-moons -of silver. In his girdle he wore a sword, and had his hair tied up -with ribbons of different colors, but had no other head-dress. His age -appeared to be about sixty.[73] He was of the middle stature, and of -a very full person. His countenance was venerable and gracious; his -complexion not near so brown as that of the prince.” - -As if to magnify the emperor, Don Rodrigo was detained during the -introduction of a Tono of high rank, who brought presents in gold, -silver, and silk, worth twenty thousand ducats. At a hundred paces -from the throne he prostrated himself with his face to the floor, -and remained in this posture for several minutes in perfect silence, -neither the emperor nor either of the ministers vouchsafing a word. -He then retired with his suite, consisting of three thousand persons. -After other exhibitions of the same sort, Don Rodrigo, having been -directed to make what requests he would, was conducted by two ministers -to a third apartment, whence other great officers escorted him out of -the palace with all ceremony. - -Afterwards he was entertained by Kōzukedono, the prime minister, at -a magnificent collation, the host pledging his health in exquisite -Japanese wine [_sake_?] by placing the glass upon his head.[74] The -Spaniard presented at this time a memorandum of his requests translated -into Japanese. They were three: first, that the royal protection might -be granted to Christian priests of different orders who then resided -in the empire, and that they might not be molested in the free use -and disposal of their houses and churches; secondly, that amity might -continue between the emperor and the king of Spain; and, lastly, that, -as an evidence of that friendship, the emperor would not permit the -Dutch (whose arrival has already been mentioned) to reside in his -territories, but would drive them out—since, besides being enemies of -Spain, they were little better than pirates and sea-rovers. - -The minister, the next day, after another collation, reported the -emperor’s answer, who had remarked, with admiration, that Don Rodrigo, -though destitute, had asked nothing for himself, but had regarded only -the interests of his religion and his king. The two first requests were -granted. As to the expulsion of the Hollanders, that, the emperor said, -“will be difficult this year, as they have my royal word for permission -to sojourn in Japan; but I am obliged to Don Rodrigo for letting me -know what characters they are.” The emperor offered the shipwrecked -Spaniard one of the ships of European model, which the pilot Adams had -built for him, in which to proceed to New Spain; and he begged him to -request King Philip to send to Japan fifty miners, as he understood -those of New Spain to be very skilful, whereas those of Japan did not -obtain from the ore half the silver it was capable of yielding. - -Don Rodrigo soon after set out for Shimo, where he was to take ship. -From Suruga to Miyako, estimated at one hundred leagues, the country -was mostly level and very fertile. Several considerable rivers were -crossed in large ferry-boats by means of a cable stretched from bank -to bank. Provisions were very cheap. His idea of the population of the -country grew more and more exaggerated. He insists that he did not -pass a town of less population than one hundred and fifty thousand; -and Miyako, which he considers the largest city in the world, he sets -down at one million five hundred thousand.[75] Situated upon a highly -cultivated plain, its walls were ten leagues in circuit, as Don -Rodrigo ascertained by riding round them on horseback. It took him an -entire day. He enters into a number of details about the Dairi and -his court. He was powerless, and lived in splendid poverty. The court -of the governor of Miyako, who had six vice-governors under him, was -scarcely less splendid than that of the emperor. He told Don Rodrigo -that this city contained five thousand temples and more than fifty -thousand public women. He showed him a temple, the largest building he -had seen in Japan, containing statues of all the gods, and another in -which was an immense bronze statue, the size of which filled him with -astonishment. “I ordered,” he says, “one of my people to measure the -thumb of the right hand; but, although he was a person of the ordinary -size, he could not quite encircle it with both arms. But the size -of the statue is not its only merit; the feet, hands, mouth, eyes, -forehead, and other features are as perfect and expressive as the most -accomplished painter could make a portrait. When I first visited this -temple it was unfinished; more than one hundred thousand men were daily -employed upon it. The devil could not suggest to the emperor a surer -expedient to get rid of this immense wealth.”[76] - -The temple and tomb of Taikō-Sama, raised since his death to the rank -of the gods, is thus described by Rodrigo, who deplores the dedication -of such an edifice to one whose “soul is in hell for all eternity.” -The entrance was by an avenue paved with jasper four hundred feet by -three hundred. On each side, at equal distances, were posts of jasper, -on which were placed lamps lighted at night. At the end of this passage -was the peristyle of the temple, ascended by several steps, and having -on the right a monastery of priests. The principal gate was encrusted -with jasper and overlaid with gold and silver ornaments skilfully -wrought. The nave of the temple was supported by lofty columns. There -was a choir, as in European cathedrals, with seats and a grating -all round. Male and female choristers chanted the prayers, much as -in Catholic churches, and the surplices put Rodrigo in mind of the -prebends of Toledo. The church was filled with silent devotees. Four of -the priests accosted him, and seem to have put him to great uneasiness -by conducting him to the altar of their “infamous relics,” surrounded -with an infinite number of lamps. After raising five or six curtains, -covering as many gratings, first of iron, then of silver, and the last -one of gold, a kind of chest was exposed, in which were contained the -ashes of Taikō-Sama. Within this enclosure none but the chief priests -could enter. All the Japanese prostrated themselves. - -Hastening to quit “this accursed spot,” Rodrigo was accompanied by the -priests to their gardens, exceeding, he says, those of Aranjuez. - -Of the religion of Japan he makes the following observation: “The -Japanese, like us, use holy, or rather unholy, water, and chaplets -consecrated to their false gods, Shaka [Buddha] and Nido [Amida], -which are not the only ones that they worship, for there are no less -than thirty-five different sects or religions in Japan. Some deny -the immortality of the soul, others adore divers gods, and others -yet the elements. All are tolerated. The bonzes of all the sects -having concurred in a request to the emperor that he would expel our -monks, the prince, troubled with their importunities, inquired how -many different religions there were in Japan. ‘Thirty-five,’was the -reply. ‘Well,’said he, ‘where thirty-five sects can be tolerated, -we can easily bear with thirty-six;—leave the strangers in peace.’” -He estimates the Christians at three hundred thousand,—a much more -probable number than the eighteen hundred thousand at which they were -reckoned by the missionaries,[77] whose reckoning was the same now that -it had been ten years before. - -From Miyako Don Rodrigo proceeded to Fushimi, adjoining, where -he embarked for Ōsaka, ten leagues down a river, as large as the -Guadalquivir at Seville, and full of vessels. Ōsaka, built close to the -sea, he reckons to contain one million inhabitants. Here he embarked -in a junk for Nagasaki. Not finding his vessel in proper repair, he -accepted an invitation from the emperor to return to Suruga, where he -renewed his endeavors to persuade that prince to expel the Dutch, but -without effect. At last, with presents and despatches for the king of -Spain, he set sail August 1, 1610, after a stay in Japan of nearly two -years.[78] - -Meanwhile an event occurred of which Rodrigo makes no mention, but -for which the Portuguese were inclined to hold him responsible, no -less than the Dutch. The annual carac from Macao had arrived, as we -have seen, in the autumn of 1609, after an interval of three years, -commanded, as it happened, by the very same person who had been chief -magistrate there on occasion of the late seizure and execution of -certain Japanese. The emperor, strengthened, as it was thought, by -the expectation of Dutch and Spanish trade, encouraged the prince of -Arima to revenge the death of his subjects who had perished at Macao; -and when the carac was ready to sail on her return voyage she was -attacked by a fleet of Japanese boats. They were two or three times -repulsed, but, taking the carac at a disadvantage, becalmed and drifted -into a narrow passage, they succeeded in setting her on fire, and in -destroying her with all her crew. - -Both the Dutch factors who had been left in Japan, and the king of -that island, Hōin-Sama, who had exerted himself greatly for the -establishment of Dutch commerce, were not a little annoyed at the -non-appearance of any Dutch vessels at Hirado during the year 1610. -The Dutch in the East Indies had, indeed, at this moment other things -to attend to. Verhœven, after his return to the Moluccas, had been -entrapped and treacherously slain at Banda, by the natives of that -island, along with many of his principal officers. This, however, -did not prevent the Dutch from soon after making a treaty with these -islanders, by which they obtained the sole right of purchasing their -nutmegs and mace, and which they followed up by the establishment -of not less than seven forts in the Molucca Islands, and by vigorous, -though as yet unsuccessful, attempts to drive away the Spaniards who -had come to the aid of the Portuguese. - -[Illustration: A SCENE IN THE PALACE GARDENS, KYŌTŌ] - -The Moluccas thus occupied, Admiral Wittert, who had succeeded to the -command of the Dutch fleet, sailed with part of the ships for Manila; -for though the truce between Spain and Holland was known, it had not -been proclaimed in the East Indies, and was not regarded by either -party. Here, unfortunately, Wittert suffered himself to be surprised by -a much superior Spanish force, and though he fought with the greatest -courage till he fell, his own ship and two others were taken, and -another blown up, two only making their escape. - -Immediately upon the arrival of the “Red Lion” in Holland, a number -of ships had been fitted out for Japan; but the first to arrive was a -small yacht, called the “Brach,” in July, 1611, with only a trifling -cargo of cloths, silks, pepper, ivory, and lead. Presently a government -officer came on board to demand a manifest of the cargo to be sent -to the emperor; but this the Dutch did not like to submit to, as the -Portuguese were free from it, and especially as the present cargo was -so trifling. These demands being renewed, finally, though somewhat -perplexed by the small means they had of making presents, they resolved -upon a new mission to the emperor’s court. The king of Hirado advised -them also to extend their visit to the hereditary prince at Yedo, and -not to omit paying their respects to Hideyori at Ōsaka, son of the -late emperor, and who might yet mount the throne. The king of Hirado -furnished a galley, in addition to one belonging to the factories, and -two commissioners, of whom the principal was Jacob Spex, set out for -Suruga, July 17, with an interpreter and a Japanese gentleman as a -guide or conductor[79]. - -The 6th of August they reached Ōsaka, defended by a fine castle, in -which dwelt Hideyori, now eighteen years of age. He had always been -kept secluded, but enjoyed a large revenue, and had many adherents, by -whom, as the Dutch learned, the hope of placing him on the throne was -zealously entertained. - -Arriving at Miyako, they learned that a Portuguese embassy had passed -through it four days preceding. They were deputies from Macao, who had -landed at Kagoshima, in a small vessel, and had gone with rich presents -to the emperor to solicit a renewal of trade and indemnification for -the vessels destroyed at Nagasaki two years before. Accompanied by a -large number of trumpeters and other musicians, they marched, with -great pomp, to the sound of the instruments, the whole of them, even -their black slaves, clothed in velvet of a uniform color. The governor -of Miyako, to whom they had made rich presents, had furnished them with -eighty-eight horses, which they had equipped at their own expense. - -Nor was this governor (the same apparently who had entertained Don -Rodrigo) less bountiful to the Dutch. He furnished them with horses, -a passport, and letters to the chief of the emperor’s council, but -refused their presents, not being accustomed, he said, to take anything -from strangers. When they pressed him, he still refused to accept -anything now, but promised, if they had anything left at their return, -to allow them to remember him,—a piece of disinterestedness by which -the economical Dutch were greatly charmed. - -Just before reaching Suruga they encountered Adams, the English pilot, -to whom they had written, and who, upon arriving at Suruga, hastened to -Kōzukeno-Suke, the same secretary of the emperor seen by Don Rodrigo, -but whom the Dutch call president of the council, to solicit for them a -speedy audience. While waiting for it, they learned that the Portuguese -ambassadors had not been very successful; nor had a Spanish embassy, -which had just arrived from New Spain, with thanks to the emperor for -his courtesies to Don Rodrigo. The presents of this ambassador were -very splendid; but his carriage was so haughty as to displease the -Japanese. He demanded leave for the Spaniards to build ships, for which -the forests and workmen of Japan afforded greater facilities than -either Manila or New Spain, and to explore the coasts, the Spaniards’ -ignorance of which had cost them the loss of some valuable vessels. -This was agreed to; but the emperor declined the request for the -expulsion of the Dutch, saying that he had nothing to do with these -European quarrels. Adams was present at these interviews; nor did he -fail by his representations to excite the suspicions of the emperor -against the Spaniards. - -Gotō Shōzaburō, the emperor’s treasurer, freely told the Dutch that the -Spaniards and Portuguese had represented him as coming to Japan rather -as privateersmen than as traders, and that, as might be seen by the -smallness of their present cargo, their chief resource for trade was -in the prizes they took. But Adams entered with great zeal into their -defence, insisting upon their honesty and fairness as the qualities -which had given them such success in trade, referring to the recent -truce with Spain as showing that plunder was not their object, and -excusing the smallness of the present venture by the lack, as yet, of -any regular treaty. - -These representations were not without their effect. Kōzukeno-Suke -received the Dutch very graciously, approved the requests which they -made on the subject of trade, and promised to lay them before the -emperor pending their visit to Yedo, for which he furnished them with -vessels, horses, and guides. With much persuasion he was at last -induced to accept a present, which the Dutch regarded as a special -favor, as he had positively declined any from the Portuguese and -Spaniards. Before their departure, they were admitted to an audience -from the emperor, who inquired of them how many soldiers they had in -the Moluccas[80]; whether they traded to Borneo; whether it were true -that the best camphor came from that island; what odoriferous woods the -Dutch had in their country; and other similar questions, to which they -replied through their interpreter. After they had taken their leave, -Kōzukedono and Gotō Shōzaburō reconducted them out of the hall, at the -same time felicitating them on their favorable audience. It was very -unusual, they said, for the emperor to make himself so familiar; he did -not bestow such a favor even on the greatest lords of the empire, who -brought him presents of the value of ten, twenty, and thirty thousand -taels; nor had he said a single word to the Portuguese and Spanish -ambassadors. To Adams, who was called back to the royal apartments, -the emperor expressed himself greatly delighted with the presents, as -showing that the Dutch were “past masters” in arts as well as in arms. - -The Dutchmen, having caused their propositions to be written out in -Japanese, placed them in the hands of Kōzukedono, and on the 18th -they were furnished with an order for ten horses, and a letter to the -hereditary prince at Yedo. Adams, who was in as great favor at this -court as at Suruga, lodged them in a house of his own, and undertook to -give notice of their arrival to Sadono-Kami, president of the prince’s -council and father of Kōzukedono, who sent an officer in return to make -his compliments to the Dutchmen. - -They made him a visit the next day, with a present, which, as a great -favor, he condescended to accept. He inquired of them particularly the -cause of the war which had lasted so long between the Spaniards and -the Dutch, and the history of the negotiations which had brought about -the recent truce. The Dutch did not conceal the small extent of their -country, and the Japanese minister expressed great astonishment that -so feeble a state should have resisted with such success so powerful a -king. Finally, he treated them to a collation of fruit. Though very old -and infirm, he conducted them to the passage, and promised to accompany -them the next day to the palace. Admitted to the imperial palace, the -prince thanked them for the journey they had undertaken to see him; -but when (pretending orders from Holland to that effect) they besought -his favor and protection, he dismissed them with a nod. An officer, -however, conducted them over the palace, and the prince sent them some -presents, though not very magnificent ones. They themselves made many -presents, principally cloth and glass bottles, to many lords of the -court, among whom they found, in high favor, a brother of the young -king of Hirado. - -From Yedo they proceeded to a port eighteen leagues distant (probably -Uraga), where Adams had another house, and where they found the Spanish -ship which had brought the ambassador from New Spain. The ambassador -himself was also there. He sent them a very civil message, to which -they responded with equal civility. Pressing invitations for a visit -passed between them, but neither party would be the first to call on -the other. By some Flemings, however, attached to the ambassador’s -suite, they were assured that the ambassador had no authority to demand -the exclusion of the Dutch, which he had done on his own authority. The -embassy, they said, had been fitted out at an expense of fifty thousand -dollars. - -Upon their return to Suruga, October 1, Adams brought them the patent -which the emperor had granted for their commerce, and which, being -translated, proved to be in the following words: - - “All Dutch ships that come into my empire of Japan, whatever place - or port they put into, we do hereby expressly command all and every - one of our subjects not to molest the same in any way, nor to be a - hindrance to them; but, on the contrary, to show them all manner of - help, favor, and assistance. Every one shall beware to maintain the - friendship in assurance of which we have been pleased to give our - imperial word to these people; and every one shall take care that our - commands and promises be inviolably kept. - - “Dated (according to the Japanese calendar equivalent to) August 30, - 1611.”[81] - -The Dutch were very much troubled to find that the clause guaranteeing -freedom from the visits of inspectors and guards, and interference -with their trade by the government, which had been the great object of -their mission, was omitted. They made representations on the subject to -Kōzukeno-Suke, who advised them not to press it. But as they conceived -it of the greatest importance, they drew up a Japanese memorial, which -Adams presented to the emperor and the request of which Kōzukedono -seconded with such effect that the emperor ordered an edict granting -the wishes of the Dutch to be drawn up, which he immediately proceeded -to sign. Such is the statement of Spex’s narrative; but no such -document appears to be preserved in the archives of the Dutch factory, -the short one already given being everywhere cited and relied upon as -the charter of the Dutch trade to Japan, without any mention anywhere -else of any such supplement to it. - -The return of the Dutchmen, by way of Miyako, to Hirado, does not -offer anything remarkable, except their meeting at Sakai (whither they -went to learn the price of goods and the course of trade there), with -Melichor von Santvoort, one of the Dutchmen who had reached Japan at -the same time with Adams. After selecting factors to stay behind, -ordering the erection of warehouses, and making such presents as their -small means admitted to their Japanese friends, their vessel set sail -on her return the 28th of September. - -The Dutch, as we have seen, had been greatly assisted by Adams. The -Spanish envoy, in his negotiations, relied chiefly, as Don Rodrigo had -done before him, on the advice and assistance of Father Louis Sotelo, -a Franciscan friar of noble descent[82], established at Miyako, who -entered with great zeal into the project of a regular trade between -Japan and Mexico. But the old jealousy which the Japanese had long -entertained of the Spaniards soon broke out afresh. Some soundings made -along the coast by the vessel which brought out the Spanish ambassador -were looked upon with great suspicion and jealousy, which Adams is said -to have aggravated. Sotelo, despairing of success with the emperor, -though at first he had seemed to favor his projects, subsequently -proposed the same scheme to Date Masamune, who ruled over a part, or -the whole, of the kingdom of Ōshū, or Mutsu, in the north of Japan, -hitherto almost unknown, but to which a few missionaries had lately -made their way. The prince of Ōshū adopted Sotelo’s project with zeal, -affecting also quite a leaning towards the new faith, and, at Sotelo’s -suggestion, he sent an ambassador to the Pope and the king of Spain[83]. - -After many disappointments, Sotelo with this ambassador set sail at -length for New Spain, about the end of the year 1613, in a vessel -belonging to Masamune; and, by way of the city of Mexico, proceeded -to Seville and Madrid, where they arrived in October, 1614. Thence -they proceeded to Rome, and had an audience of the Pope, November 30, -1615, by whom Sotelo was nominated bishop for the north and east parts -of Japan, and his legate for the whole of it[84]. Having reached New -Spain on his return, he found in the port of Acapulco a Japanese -vessel belonging to Masamune, which, having disposed of a cargo of -Japanese goods, took on freight for Manila a part of the suite of a new -Spanish governor of the Philippines, intending to purchase at Manila -a cargo of Chinese silks. But the Council of the Indies, under the -influence of the Jesuits, and on the plea that the nomination of all -Eastern bishops belonged to the king, opposed Sotelo’s consecration; -and the merchants of Manila, alarmed at the rivalry of New Spain for -the Japanese trade, made such representations that, on his arrival -there, his papers were seized, and he himself was sent back to the -superiors of his order in New Mexico. - -But long before the occurrence of these events—in fact, previous to the -departure of Sotelo from Japan—the Catholic faith there had received -a blow from which it never recovered, and which brought it to speedy -ruin. - - - - -CHAPTER XXII - - _Origin and Commencement of English Intercourse with Japan—Captain - Saris’ Voyage thither, and Travels and Observations there—New Spanish - Embassy from the Philippines—Commercial Rivalry of the Dutch and - English—Richard Cocks, Head of the English Factory—A. D. 1611-1613._ - - -The pilot, Adams, having heard from Spex that certain English merchants -had established themselves in the island of Java, he wrote to them, -under date of October 22, 1611, giving an account of himself, and -enclosing a letter to his wife, which he besought these unknown -countrymen of his to convey to his friends at Limehouse or in Kent, -so that his wife, “in a manner a widow,” and his fatherless children, -might hear of him, and he of them, before his death. “You shall -understand,” wrote Adams, “that the Hollanders have here an Indies of -money, so that they need not to bring silver out of Holland to the -East Indies, for in Japan there is much gold and silver to serve their -turn in other places where need requireth.” He enumerated as vendible -in Japan for ready money, raw silk, damask, black taffetas, black and -red cloth of the best kinds, lead, etc. To a somewhat exaggerated, and -otherwise not very correct account of the extent and the geography -of the Japanese dominions, he added the following description of -the inhabitants: “The people of this island of Japan are good of -nature, courteous above measure, and valiant in war. Their justice is -severely executed, and without partiality, upon transgressors. They -are governed in great civility. I think no land in the world better -governed by civil policy. The people are very superstitious in their -religion, and are of diverse opinions. There are many Jesuit and -Franciscan friars in this land, and they have converted many to be -Christians, and have many churches in the island.” - -This letter, which was given in charge to the master’s mate of the -Dutch vessel, must have reached the English East India Company’s -factory at Bantam, in Java, previous to the first of June, 1612, for on -that day an answer to it was despatched by the “Globe,” which had just -arrived from England, and which, sailing from Bantam to Patania, met -there the same master’s mate who had brought Adams’ letter, and who, -being just about to return to Japan in a Dutch pinnace, promised to -deliver the answer. - -Already, however, independently of Adams’ letter, a project had been -started in England for opening a trade with Japan, founded upon a -knowledge of Adams’ being there, derived from the crew of the Dutch -ship, the “Red Lion.” The “Globe,” which left England January 5, -1611, carried letters to Adams to that effect, and she was followed -in April by the “Clove,” the “Thomas,” and the “Hector,” under the -command of Captain John Saris, an old adventurer in the East, and a -former resident of Bantam, with letters from the king of England to the -emperor of Japan[85]. - -After touching, trading, negotiating and fighting, at Socotra, Mocha, -and other ports of the Red Sea, Saris arrived at Bantam in October, -1612. Soon after his arrival the letter of Adams was re-read in -presence of the assembled merchants; and doubtless it encouraged Saris -in his project of visiting Japan. Having taken in seven hundred sacks -of pepper, in addition to the broadcloths, gunpowder, and other goods -brought from England, Saris sailed on the 14th of January, 1618, in the -“Clove,” his crew consisting of seventy-four English, one Spaniard, -one Japanese, to serve as an interpreter, he speaking also the Malay -language, which Captain Saris understood, and five Swarts, probably -Malays. - -Passing in sight of the south coast of Celebes, Saris touched at -several of the ports in the group of the Moluccas, occupied at that -time, some of them by Dutch and others by Spanish factories,—the -Spaniards from Manila having come to the rescue of the Portuguese, whom -the Dutch had driven out. Regarding all new comers (if of any other -nation than their own) with scarcely less suspicion and hostility than -they did each other, and both of them joining to oppress and plunder -the unhappy natives, “who were wrought upon,” so Saris says, “to spoil -one another in civil war,” the Dutch and Spaniards, secure in strong -forts, sat by and looked on, “prepared to take the bone from him that -would wrest it from his fellow.” The Dutch fort at Buchian had a -garrison of thirty Dutch soldiers, and eleven Dutch women, “able to -withstand the fury of the Spaniard, or other nation whatsoever, being -of a very lusty, large breed.” - -The Dutch commander would not allow the natives to trade with the -English, even to the extent of a single _katty_ of cloves, threatening -with death those who did so, and claiming all the Spice Islands held by -them as “their country, conquered by the sword they having, with much -loss of blood and money, delivered the inhabitants from the tyranny of -the Portuguese, and having made a perpetual contract with them for the -purchase of all their spices at a fixed rate,” in the case of cloves -at about eight cents the pound. This claim of exclusive right of trade -Captain Saris declined to acknowledge; at the same time he professed -his readiness to give the Dutch, “as neighbors and brethren in Christ,” -a preference in purchasing any part of his cargo of which they might -happen to stand in need. - -The English and Dutch had been ready enough to join together in -breaking up the Portuguese and Spanish monopoly, and in forcing a trade -in the Indian seas; but it was already apparent that the Dutch East -India Company, which in the amount of capital at its command very far -surpassed the English Company, was bent on establishing a monopoly -of its own, not less close than that formerly maintained by the -Portuguese. The Spaniards, on the other hand, professed friendship, and -made some offers of trade; but Captain Saris, suspecting treachery, did -not choose to trust them. - -On the 14th of April, he left the Moluccas, and stood on his course -for Japan. On the 10th of June, having been in sight of land for a day -or two, his ships were boarded by four great fishing-boats, fitted -with both sails and oars, from whose crews they learned that they were -off the harbor of Nagasaki. In fact, one of these boats belonged to -the Portuguese, and was manned by “new Christians,” who had mistaken -the ships of Captain Saris for the annual Portuguese carac. Finding -their mistake, no entreaty could prevail upon them to stay; but two of -the other boats, for thirty dollars each in money, and rice for food, -agreed to pilot the ship to Hirado, by the pilot’s reckoning some -thirty leagues to the north, and the boatmen coming on board began to -assist in working the vessel, showing themselves not less handy than -the English sailors. - -No sooner had the ship anchored off Hirado, than she was visited by the -king or hereditary governor of that island, by name Hōin Sama,—the same -who had shown so much favor to the Dutch,—upward of seventy years old, -attended by his nephew or grandchild, a young man of two-and-twenty, -who governed under him. They came with forty boats or galleys, with -from ten to fifteen oars a side; but on approaching the vessel, all -fell back, except the two which carried the princes, who came on board -unattended, except by a single person each. They were bareheaded and -barelegged, wearing shoes, but no stockings; the fore-part of their -heads shaven to the crown, and their hair behind, which was very long, -gathered up into a knot. They were clad in shirts and breeches, over -which was a silk gown girt to them, with two swords of the country at -their side, one half a yard in length, the other half as long. Their -manner of salutation was to put off their shoes, and then stooping, -with their right hand in their left, and both against their knees, to -approach with small sidling steps, slightly moving their hands at the -same time, and crying _Augh! Augh!_ - -Captain Saris conducted them to his cabin, where he had a banquet -spread, and a concert of music, with which they seemed much delighted. -The old king received with much joy a letter from the king of England, -but put off reading it till “_Ange_” (or, according to Adams’ way -of writing it, Angin [Anjin[86]]) should come —that word being the -Japanese for pilot, and the name by which Adams was known, to whom, -then at Yedo, letters were sent the same night, as also to the emperor. - -As soon as the king had gone on shore, all his principal people, -attended by a multitude of soldiers, entered the ship, each man of -consequence bringing a present of venison, wild boar, large and fat -wild fowl, fruits, fish, etc.; but as the crowd proved troublesome, -King Hōin sent an officer on board to keep order and prevent mischief. -The next day came some threescore great boats or galleys, very well -manned, which towed the vessel into the harbor, of which the entrance -was narrow and dangerous. Here they anchored in five fathoms, so close -to the shore that they could talk with the people in the houses, -saluting the town with nine pieces of ordnance—a compliment which -the inhabitants were unable to return, having no cannon, only pieces -for small shot. The ship was speedily surrounded with boats full of -people, who seemed much to admire her head and stern, and the decks -were so crowded with men, women, and children, that it was impossible -to move about. The captain took several of the better sort of women -into his cabin, where a picture of Venus and Cupid “did hang somewhat -wantonly, set out in a large frame, which, mistaking it for the Virgin -and her Son, some of those women kneeled to and worshipped with great -devotion,” at the same time whispering in a low tone, that they might -not be overheard by their companions, that they were _Christianos_; -by which it was understood that they were converts of the Portuguese -Jesuits. - -Soon after, King Hōin came again on board, and brought with him four -women of his family. They were barelegged, except that a pair of -half-buskins were bound by a silk ribbon about their insteps, and were -clad in a number of silk gowns, one skirt over another, bound about -their waists by a girdle, their hair very black and long, and tied in -a comely knot on the crown of the head, no part of which was shaven, -like the men’s. They had good faces, hands, and feet, clear-skinned and -white, but wanting color; which, however, they supplied by art. They -were low in stature and very fat, courteous in behavior, of which they -well understood the ceremonials according to the Japanese fashion. At -first they seemed a little bashful; but the king “willing them to be -frolic,” and all other company being excluded except Captain Saris and -the interpreter, they sang several songs, playing on an instrument much -like a guitar, but with four strings only, which they fingered very -nimbly with the left hand, holding in the other a piece of ivory, with -which they touched the strings, playing and singing by book, the tunes -being noted on lines and spaces, much the same as European music. - -Not long after, desirous to be “frolic,” the king brought on board a -company of female actors—such as were common in Japan, little better, -it would seem, than slaves and courtesans, being under the control of a -master, who carried them from place to place, selling their favors, and -“exhibiting comedies of war, love, and such like, with several shifts -of apparel for the better grace of the matter acted.” - -[Illustration: PERFORMERS ON THE KOTO AND THE SAMISEN] - -It appeared, however, on a subsequent occasion, on which several of -the English were present, that, besides these professional actors, the -king and his principal courtiers were accustomed, on certain great -festivals, at which the whole country was present, to present a -play, of which the matter was the valiant deeds of their ancestors, -from the beginning of their kingdom or commonwealth, intermixed, -however, with much mirth, “to give the common people content.” On that -occasion they had as musical instruments, to assist their voices, -little tabors or stringed instruments, small in the middle and large at -both ends, like an hour-glass; also fifes; but though they kept exact -time, the whole performance was very harsh to English ears. - -While waiting for Adams, who presently arrived, after being seventeen -days on his way, a house on shore for a factory was hired, furnished -with mats, according to the custom of the country, for a rent of about -ninety-five dollars for six months. Not long after, leaving Mr. Richard -Cocks in charge of the factory and the trade, Captain Saris set out on -a visit to the emperor, attended by Adams and seventeen persons of his -own company, including several mercantile gentlemen, a tailor, a cook, -the surgeon’s mate, the Japanese interpreter, the coxswain, and one -sailor. He was liberally furnished by old King Hōin with a conductor -for the journey, a large galley, of twenty-five oars a side, manned -with sixty men, and also with a hundred taels in Japanese money (equal -to one hundred and twenty-five dollars), to pay his expenses, which, -however, Captain Saris directed Cocks to place to King Hōin’s credit as -so much money lent. - -The galley being handsomely fitted up with waist-cloths and ensigns, -they coasted along the western and northern shores of the great island -of Shimo (or Kiūshiū), off the northwest coast of which the small -island of Hirado lay. As they coasted along, they passed a number of -handsome towns. Hakata, distant two days’ rowing from Hirado, had -a very strong castle of freestone, with a wide and deep ditch and -drawbridge, kept in good repair, but without cannon or garrison. -Here, finding the current too strong, they stopped to dine. The town -seemed as large as London within the walls, very well built, with -straight streets. As they landed, they had experience, repeated almost -wherever they went, of that antipathy to foreigners, so characteristic -a trait of the country; for the boys, children, and worser sort of -idle people, would gather about them, crying out _Coré, Coré, Cocoré, -Waré_[87], taunting them by these words as Coreans with false hearts, -whooping, hallowing, and making such a noise, that the English could -hardly hear each other speak, and even in some places throwing stones -at them—all which went on without any interference on the part of the -public officers. In general, however, the police was very strict, and -punishments very prompt and bloody. Saris saw several executions in -the streets, after which, every passer-by was allowed to try his sword -on the dead bodies, which thus are chopped into small pieces, and left -for the birds of prey to devour. All along the coast they noticed many -families living in boats upon the water, as in Holland, the women being -very expert fishers, not only with lines and nets, but by diving, which -gave them, however, blood-shot eyes. - -Coasting through the Strait of Shimonoseki, and the channel which -separates Nippon from the two more southern islands, on the twentieth -day after leaving Hirado they reached the entrance of a river, a -short distance up which lay the town of Ōsaka, which, however, they -could only reach in a small boat. This town, which seemed as large -as Hakata, had many handsome timber bridges across a river as wide as -the Thames at London. It had, also, a great and very strong castle of -freestone, in which, as they were told, the son of the late emperor, -left an infant at his father’s decease, was kept a close prisoner. Some -nine miles from Ōsaka, on the other side of the river, lay the town -of Sakai, not so large, but accessible to ships, and a place of great -trade. - -Leaving their galley at Ōsaka, Captain Saris and his company passed in -boats up a river or canal, one day’s journey, to Fushimi, where they -found a garrison of three thousand soldiers, maintained by the emperor -to keep in subjection Ōsaka and the still larger neighboring city of -Miyako [Kyōto]. The garrison being changed at that time, the old troops -marching out, and new ones marching in, a good opportunity was afforded -to see their array. They were armed with a species of fire-arms, pikes, -swords, and targets, bows and arrows, and _wakizashi_, described as -like a Welsh hook. They marched five abreast, with an officer to every -ten files, without colors or musical instruments, in regiments of from -a hundred and fifty to five hundred men, of which one followed the -other at the distance of a league or two, and were met for two or three -days on the road. Captain Saris was very favorably impressed with the -discipline and martial bearing of these troops. The captain-general, -whom they met in the rear, marched in very great state, hunting and -hawking all the way, the hawks being managed exactly after the European -fashion. The horses were of middle size, small-headed, and very full of -mettle. - -At Fushimi, Captain Saris and his company quitted their bark, and were -furnished each man with a horse to travel overland to Suruga, where -the emperor held his court. For Captain Saris a palanquin was also -provided, with bearers to carry it, two at a time, six in number where -the way was level, but increased to ten when it became hilly. A spare -horse was led beside the palanquin for him to ride when he pleased, -and, according to the custom of the country with persons of importance, -a slave was appointed to run before him, bearing a pike. - -Thus they travelled, at the rate of some forty-five miles a day, over -a highway for the most part very level, but in some places cut through -mountains; the distances being marked, in divisions of about three -miles, by two little hillocks on each side of the way, planted at the -top with a fair pine-tree, “trimmed round in fashion of an arbor.” -This road, which was full of travellers, led by a succession of farms, -country-houses, villages, and great towns. It passed many fresh rivers -by ferries, and near many _hotoke_[88], or temples, situated in groves, -“the most pleasantest places for delight in the whole country.” - -Every town and village was well furnished with taverns, where meals -could be had at a moment’s warning. Here, too, lodgings were obtained, -and horses and men for the palanquin were taken up by the director of -the journey, like post-horses in England. The general food was observed -to be rice. The people ate also fish, wild fowl of various kinds, -fresh and salted, and various picked herbs and roots. They ploughed -with horses and oxen, as in Europe, and raised good red wheat. Besides -_sake_, made from rice, they drank with their food warm water[89]. - -The entrance of the travellers into Suruga, where the emperor held -his court, and which they reached on the seventh day, was not very -savory, as they were obliged to pass several crosses, with the dead -and decaying bodies of the malefactors still nailed to them. This city -they judged to be as large as London with all the suburbs[90]. The -handicraftsmen dwelt in the outskirts of the town, so as not to disturb -with their pounding and hammering the richer and more leisurely sort. - -After a day or two spent in preparations, Saris, accompanied by the -merchants and others, went in his palanquin to the palace, bearing -his presents, according to the custom of the country, on little -tables, or rather salvers, of a sweet-smelling wood. Having entered -the castle, he passed three drawbridges, each with its guard, and, -ascending a handsome stone staircase, he was met by two grave, comely -men, Kōzuke-no-Suke, the emperor’s secretary, and Hyōgo-no-Kami, the -admiral, who led him into a matted antechamber. Here they all sat down -on the mats, but the two officers soon rose again, and took him into -the presence-chamber, to bestow due reverence on the emperor’s empty -chair of state. It was about five feet high, the sides and back richly -ornamented with cloth of gold, but without any canopy. The presents -given in the name of the king, and others by Captain Saris in his own -name (as the custom of the country required), were arranged about this -room. - -After waiting a little while longer in the antechamber, it was -announced that the emperor had come, when the officers motioned Saris -into the room, but without entering themselves. Approaching the -emperor, he presented, with English compliments (on his knee, it may be -presumed), the king’s letter, which the emperor took and raised toward -his forehead, telling the interpreter to bid them welcome after their -wearisome journey, and that in a day or two his answer would be ready. -He invited them in the mean time to visit his son, who resided at Yedo. - -The country between Suruga and Yedo, which were two days’ journey -apart, was found to be well inhabited. They saw many temples on the -way, one of which contained a gigantic image of Buddha[91], made of -copper, hollow within, but of very substantial thickness. It was, as -they guessed, twenty-two feet high, in likeness of a man kneeling on -the ground, and seated on his heels, clothed in a gown, his arms of -wonderful size, and the whole body in proportion. The echo of the -shouts of some of the company, who went into the body of it, was very -loud. Some of the English left their names written upon it, as they saw -was customary. - -Yedo was found to be a city much larger than Suruga, and with much -handsomer buildings, making a very glorious appearance as they -approached, the ridge tiles and corner tiles, and the posts of the -doors, being richly gilded and varnished. There were, however, no glass -windows, but window-shutters instead, opening in leaves, and handsomely -painted. - -From Yedo, where our travellers were received much as they had been -at Suruga, they proceeded some forty miles, by boats, to Uraga, -an excellent harbor on the sea-side, whence, in eight days, they -coasted round a projecting point of land back to Suruga, where they -received the emperor’s answer to the king’s letter, also an engrossed -and official copy of certain privileges of trade, a draught of which -they had furnished to the emperor’s secretary, and which, having been -condensed as much as possible, to suit the Japanese taste for brevity, -and thus reduced from fourteen articles to eight, were expressed in the -following terms[92]: - - “1. _Imprimis._ We give free license to the subjects of the king of - Great Britain, namely, Sir Thomas Smith, governor, and the company - of the East India merchants and adventurers, forever, safely to come - into any of the ports of our empire of Japan, with their ships and - merchandises, without any hindrance to them or their goods, and to - abide, buy, sell and barter, according to their own manner, with all - nations: to tarry here as long as they think good, and to depart at - their pleasures. - - “2. _Item._ We grant unto them freedom of custom for all such - merchandises as either now they have brought or hereafter they shall - bring into our kingdoms, or shall from hence transport to any foreign - part; and do authorize those ships that hereafter shall arrive and - come from England, to proceed to present sale of their commodities, - without further coming or sending up to our court. - - “3. _Item._ If any of their ships shall happen to be in danger of - shipwreck, we will our subjects not only to assist them, but that such - part of ship and goods as shall be saved be returned to their captain - or cape-merchant[93], or their assigns: and that they shall or may - build one house or more for themselves, in any part of our empire - where they shall think fittest, and at their departure to make sale - thereof at their pleasure. - - “4. _Item._ If any of the English, merchants or other, shall depart - this life within our dominions, the goods of the deceased shall remain - at the dispose of the cape-merchant: and all offenses committed by - them shall be punished by the said cape-merchant, according to his - discretion; our laws to take no hold of their persons or goods. - - “5. _Item._ We will that ye our subjects, trading with them for any - of their commodities, pay them for the same according to agreement, - without delay, or return of their wares again unto them. - - “6. _Item._ For such commodities as they have now brought, or shall - hereafter bring fitting for our service and proper use, we will - that no arrest be made thereof, but that the price be made with the - cape-merchant, according as they may sell to others, and present - payment upon the delivery of the goods. - - “7. _Item._ If, in discovery of other countries for trade, and return - of their ships, they should need men or victuals, we will that ye our - subjects furnish them for their money as their need shall require. - - “8. And that, without further passport, they shall and may set out - upon the discovery of Yezo[94], or any other part in and about our - empire[95].” - -The letter from the emperor to the king of England did not differ very -materially from that to the prince of Orange, already given. [See -Appendix, Note 1.] - -In the original draught of the Privileges, there had been an additional -article, to the effect that, as the Chinese had refused to trade with -the English, in case the English should capture any Chinese ships, they -might be allowed the privilege of selling such prizes in the Japanese -ports; but this article, upon consideration, the emperor refused to -grant. - -While these documents were under consideration, a Spanish ambassador -from the Philippines had arrived at Suruga with the request that -such Portuguese and Spaniards as were in the emperor’s territories -without authority from the king of Spain might be delivered up to be -transported to the Philippines—a request occasioned by the great want -of men to defend the Spanish posts in the Moluccas against the Dutch, -who were then preparing to make an absolute conquest of the whole of -those islands. But to this demand the emperor replied that his country -was a free country, and nobody should be forced out of it; but if the -ambassador could persuade any of his countrymen to go, they should -not be prevented; whereupon the ambassador departed, not a little -discontented. - -The day after receiving the emperor’s letter and the Privileges, being -the 9th of October, Captain Saris and his company set out by land for -Miyako, where the presents were to be delivered to him, over the same -road by which they had travelled from Ōsaka to Suruga; but, owing to -the heavy rains and the rising of the river, their progress was much -delayed. - -Miyako they found to be the greatest and most commercial city of Japan. -Here, too, was the largest hotoke, or temple, in the whole country, -built of freestone, begun by the late emperor, and just finished by -the present one, as long, they estimated, as the part of St. Paul’s, -in London, westerly from the choir, being as high-arched, and borne -upon pillars like that[96]. This temple was attended upon by a great -many bonzes or priests, who thus obtained their living, being supported -by the produce of an altar, on which the worshippers offered rice and -small pieces of money, and near which was a colossal copper image, like -that already described, but much larger, reaching to the very arch of -the temple, which itself stood on the top of a hill, having an avenue -of approach on either side of fifty stone pillars, ten paces apart, on -each of which was suspended a lantern, lighted every night[97]. - -Here, also, the Jesuits had a very stately college, in which many of -them reside, both Portuguese and natives, and in which many children -were trained up in the Christian religion according to the Romish -church. In this city alone there were not less than five or six -thousand professing Christians[98]. - -But already that persecution was commenced which ended in the -banishment of the Jesuits from Japan, and, indeed, in the exclusion of -all Europeans, with a slight exception in favor of the Dutch. Following -up an edict of the previous year, against the Franciscans, the emperor -had issued a proclamation, about a month before Captain Saris’ arrival -at Suruga, that no church should stand, nor mass be sung, within ten -leagues of his court, upon pain of death. - -Having at length received the emperor’s presents for the king of -England, being ten byōbu [screen] or “large pictures to hang a chamber -with,” they proceeded the same day to Fushimi and the next to Ōsaka, -where they reëmbarked in the galley which had been waiting for them, -and returned to Hirado, having spent just three months on the tour. - -Captain Saris found that, during his absence, seven of his crew had -run away to Nagasaki, where they had complained to the Portuguese of -having been used more like dogs than men. Others, seduced by drink -and women, and sailor boarding-house keepers,—just the same in Japan -as elsewhere,—had committed great irregularities, quarrelling with -the natives and among themselves, even to wounding, and maiming, and -death. What with these troubles, added to a “_tuffon_,” [typhoon]—a -violent storm,—which did a good deal of damage (though the ship rode it -out with five anchors down), and alarms of conflagration, founded on -oracles of the bonzes, and numerous festivals and entertainments, at -which Cocks had been called upon to assist,—one of which was a great -feast, lasting three days and three nights, to which the Japanese -invited their dead kindred, banqueting and making merry all night at -their graves[99],—but little progress had been made in trade. The cargo -consisted largely of broadcloths, which the Dutch had been selling, -before the English came, at seventeen dollars the yard. Captain Saris -wished to arrange with them to keep up the price, but the head of -their factory immediately sent off to the principal places of sale -large quantities, which he disposed of at very low prices, in order to -spoil the market. The natives, also, were the more backward to buy, -because they saw that the English, though very forward to recommend -their cloth, did not much wear it themselves, the officers being -clothed in silks, and the men in fustians. So the goods were left in -charge of the factory, which was appointed to consist of eight English, -including Cocks and Adams (who was taken into the service of the East -India Company on a salary of one hundred pounds a year), three Japanese -interpreters, and two servants, with charge, against the coming of the -next ships, to search all the neighboring coasts to see what trade -might be had with any of them. - -The matter arranged, and having supplied the place of those of his crew -who had died or deserted, by fifteen Japanese, and paid up a good many -boarding-house and liquor-shop claims against his men, to be deducted -out of their wages, Captain Saris sailed on the 5th of December for -Bantam, where he arrived the 3d of January, 1614. Having taken in a -cargo of pepper, he sailed for home on the 13th of February, anchored -off the Cape of Good Hope on the 16th of May, and, on the 27th of -September, arrived at Plymouth, having in the preceding six weeks -experienced worse weather and encountered more danger than in the whole -voyage beside[100]. - - - - -CHAPTER XXIII - - _Ecclesiastical Retrospect—New Persecution—Edict of Banishment against - the Missionaries—Civil War between Hideyori and Ōgosho-Sama—Triumph of - Ōgosho-Sama—His death—Persecution more Violent than ever—Mutual Rancor - of the Jesuits and the Friars—Progress of Martyrdom—The English and - Dutch, A. D. 1613-1620._ - - -Between the edict of Taikō-Sama against the Catholics, and those the -issue of which by Ōgosho-Sama is briefly alluded to in the preceding -chapter, sixteen years had elapsed, during the whole of which time the -missionaries and the Catholic Japanese had been kept in a state of -painful uncertainty. - -It is true that the new emperor had greatly relaxed from the hostility -of his predecessor, and seemed at times decidedly favorable. In many -parts of Japan the Catholic worship was carried on as openly as ever. -Many new laborers, both Jesuits and other, had come into the field, -and conversion still continued to be made among persons of the highest -rank. There was scarcely any part of the empire in which converts were -not to be found, and the missionaries occasionally penetrated into the -most remote provinces. The general of the Jesuits had been encouraged -to raise Japan to the dignity of a province, of which China and the -neighboring regions had been made a part, and of which Father Valentine -Carvilho was made provincial. Japan had also a resident bishop, or at -least coadjutor, in the person of Father Louis Serqueyra, himself taken -from the order of the Jesuits; and under the bishop, as we have seen, -were a few secular clergy. By a brief of Pope Paul V., just published -in Japan, that empire had been opened to the members of all the -religious orders of the church, with liberty to proceed thither by way -of Manila as well as of Macao. - -Yet, during these sixteen years, the Catholics of the different -subordinate kingdoms had been more or less exposed to persecution, -especially in the island of Shimo, where they were most numerous, and -which, from being mainly ruled by converted princes, was now chiefly -governed by apostates or infidels; nor could the favor of the emperor -be at any time certainly relied upon. - -The new Dutch and English visitors were prompted no less by religious -than by mercantile jealousies and hatreds to do all they could to -diminish the credit of the Catholic missionaries; and it is by no -means improbable that, as the Portuguese asserted, their suggestions -had considerable weight in producing the new persecuting edicts of -Ōgosho-Sama. Indeed, they had only to confirm the truth of what the -Portuguese and Spanish said of each other to excite in the minds of the -Japanese rulers the gravest distrust as to the designs of the priests -of both nations. - -The edicts already mentioned were followed by another, about the -beginning of the year 1614, of which the substance was that all priests -and missionaries of the Catholic faith should forthwith depart the -empire, that all their houses and churches should be destroyed, and -that all the Japanese converts should renounce the foreign faith. - -There were in Japan when this edict was issued about a hundred and -thirty Jesuits, in possession of some fifty schools, colleges, and -convents, or houses of residence, also some thirty friars of the three -orders of St. Augustin, St. Dominic and St. Francis, besides a few -secular ecclesiastics, or parish priests. Most of them were shipped -off at once. Some found means to return in disguise; but the new -persecution speedily assumed a character far more alarming than any -of the former ones. Severe measures were now taken against the native -converts. Those who refused to renounce their faith were stripped of -their property, those of the most illustrious rank, among whom was -Ukondono [Kōyama Ukon], being shipped off to Manila and Macao, and -others sent into a frightful sort of Siberian banishment among the -mountains of Northern Japan, now first described in the letters of -some of the missionaries who found their way thither to console and -strengthen these exiles. Many, also, were put to death, most of whom -exhibited in the midst of torments all the firmness of the national -character. - -The violence of this persecution was interrupted for a moment by an -attempt on the part of Hideyori now grown to man’s estate, to recover -his father’s authority—a rebellion in which many of the converts joined -in hopes of gaining something by the change. - -On the 10th of December, 1614, Cocks, the English resident at Hirado, -wrote to Saris that, since his departure, the emperor had banished all -Jesuits, priests, friars, and nuns out of Japan, and had pulled down -and burned all their churches and monasteries, shipping them away, -some for Macao and others for Manila; that old King Hōin was dead, on -which occasion three of his servants had cut themselves open to bear -him company, according to a common Japanese fashion of expressing -attachment and gratitude; that a civil war had broken out between -the emperor and his imprisoned son-in-law; and that all Ōsaka, except -the castle, where the rebels were entrenched and besieged, had been -burned to the ground. Yedo had also suffered exceedingly by a terrible -“tuffon” or hurricane, which the Christians ascribed to the judgment -of God, and the pagan Japanese to the conjurations of the Jesuits. -Sayer, another of the English Company, wrote, December 5, 1615, that -the emperor had got the victory, with the loss—doubtless exaggerated—of -four hundred thousand men on both sides. - -The death of Ōgosho-Sama,[101] in 1616, left his son Shōgun-Sama -sole emperor. He continued to reside at Yedo, which, thenceforth, -became the capital. He diligently followed up the policy of his three -predecessors,—that of weakening the particular kings and princes so -as to reduce them to political insignificance; nor does it appear -that, from that time to this, the empire, formerly so turbulent, has -ever been disturbed by civil wars, or internal commotions. He also -began that system of foreign policy since pushed to such extremes. The -English, by a new version of their privileges,[102] were restricted to -the single port of Hirado, while the new emperor positively refused to -receive a present from the viceroy of New Spain, or to see the persons -who brought it. - -[Illustration: THE TOMB OF IYEYASU, NIKKŌ] - -At the commencement of the new reign, there were yet concealed within -the empire thirty-three Jesuits, sixteen friars of the three orders, -and seven secular priests, who still continued to minister to the -faithful with the aid of a great number of native catechists. Seven -Jesuits and all the friars but one were in Nagasaki and its environs. -Of the other Jesuits, several resided in the other imperial cities -where they still found protectors, while the rest travelled from -place to place, as their services were needed. Those at Nagasaki were -disguised as Portuguese merchants, who were still allowed full liberty -to trade; while those in the provinces adopted the shaven crowns and -long robes, the ordinary guise of the native bonzes. After a while -some of them even ventured to resume the habits of their order, and -to preach in public; but this only drew out from the emperor a new -and more formal and precise edict. It was accompanied with terrible -menaces, such as frightened into apostasy many converts who had -hitherto stood out, and even drove some of them, in order to secure -favor for themselves, to betray the missionaries, who knew no longer -whom to trust. - -The missionaries sent home lamentable accounts of their own sufferings -and those of their converts, and all Catholic Europe resounded with -lamentations over this sudden destruction of what had long been -considered one of the most flourishing and encouraging provinces of -missionary labor, not unmingled, however, with exultations over the -courage and firmness of the martyrs.[103] - -Such, indeed, was the zeal for martyrdom on the part of the Japanese, -in which they were encouraged by the friars, and which the Jesuits -strove in vain to keep within some reasonable limits, as to lead -to many acts of imprudence, by which the individual was glorified, -but the church damnified. Henceforth, the missionary letters, which -still found their way to Rome, though in diminishing numbers and -with decreasing regularity, contain little but horrible accounts of -tortures and martyrdoms, mingled, indeed, with abundant exultations -over the firmness and even the jubilant spirit with which the victims -met their fate, now by crucifixion, now by the axe, and now by fire. -Infinite were the prayers, the austerities, the fasts, the penitential -exercises, to which the converts resorted in hopes to appease the wrath -of Heaven. Even infants at the breast were made to bear their share in -them, being allowed to nurse but once a day, in the hope that God would -be moved by the cries of these innocents to grant peace to his church. -But, though many miraculous things are told of the martyrs, many of -them, it is said, distinctly pronouncing the name of Jesus and Mary -after their heads were cut off, the persecution continued to rage with -unabated fury. - -While the persecution of the Catholics was thus fiercely pursued in -Japan, the Dutch, not in those islands only, but throughout the eastern -seas, were zealously pushing their mercantile enterprises; and in -Japan, as elsewhere, they got decidedly the advantage of the English, -their companions and rivals, in these inroads upon the Portuguese and -Spaniards. - -The English at Hirado brought junks and attempted a trade with Siam, -where they already had a factory, one of their first establishments -in the East; and with Cochin China and Corea; but without much -advantage. In 1616, two small vessels arrived from England, one of -which was employed in trading between Japan and Java. The operations -of the Dutch were on a much larger scale. Not content with driving the -Spaniards from the Moluccas, they threatened the Philippines, and -sent to blockade Manila a fleet, which had several engagements with -the Spaniards. Five great Dutch ships arrived at Hirado in 1616, of -which one of nine hundred tons sailed for Bantam, fully laden with raw -silk and other rich China stuffs; and another, of eight hundred tons, -for the Moluccas, with money and provisions. Several others remained -on the coast to watch the Spanish and Portuguese traders, and to carry -on a piratical war against the Chinese junks, of which they captured, -in 1616, according to Cocks’ letters, not less than twenty or thirty, -pretending to be English vessels, and thus greatly damaging the English -name and the chance of a trade with China.[104] - -On a visit to Miyako, in 1620, Cocks, as appears by his letters, saw -fifty-five Japanese martyred, because they would not renounce the -Christian faith; among them little children of five or six years old, -burned in their mother’s arms, and crying to Jesus to receive their -souls. Sixteen others had been put to death for the same cause at -Nagasaki, five of whom were burned, and the rest beheaded, cut in -pieces, and cast into the sea in sacks; but the priests had secretly -fished up their bodies and preserved them for relics. There were many -more in prison, expecting hourly to die; for, as Cocks wrote, very few -turned pagans. - -Nagasaki had been from its foundation a Catholic city. Hitherto, -notwithstanding former edicts for their destruction, one or two -churches and monasteries had escaped; but, in 1621, all that were -left, including the hospital of Misericordia, were destroyed. The very -graves and sepulchres, so Cocks wrote, had been dug up: and, as if to -root out all memory of Christianity, heathen temples were built on -their sites. - -One of the Jesuits wrote home that there was not now any question as -to the number of Jesuit residences in Japan, but only as to the number -of prisons. Even those who had not yet fallen into the hands of the -persecutors had only caves and holes in the rocks for their dwellings, -in which they suffered more than in the darkest dungeons. - -It is not necessary to give implicit credit to all which the -contemporary letters and memoirs related, and which the Catholic -historians and martyrologists have repeated, of the ferocity of the -persecutors, the heroism of the sufferers, and especially of the -miracles said to be wrought by their relics. Yet there can be no -question, either of the fury of the persecution, or of the lofty spirit -of martyrdom in which it was unavailingly met. Catholicism lingered on -for a few years longer in Japan, yet it must be considered as having -already received its death-blow in that same year in which a few -Puritan pilgrims landed at Plymouth, to plant the obscure seeds of a -new and still growing Protestant empire. - - - - -CHAPTER XXIV - - _Collisions of the Dutch and English in the Eastern Seas—The - English retire from Japan—The Spaniards repelled—Progress of the - Persecution—Japanese Ports, except Hirado and Nagasaki, closed to - Foreigners—Charges in Europe against the Jesuits—Fathers Sotelo and - Collado—Torment of the Fosse—Apostasies—The Portuguese confined to - Deshima—Rebellion of Shimabara—The Portuguese excluded—Ambassadors put - to Death—A. D. 1621-1640._ - - -Already the relation of the Dutch and English in the East had assumed -the character of open hostility. A letter from Cocks, of March 10, -1620,[105] complains that the Hollanders, having seven ships, great and -small, in the harbor of Hirado, had, with sound of trumpet, proclaimed -open war against the English, both by sea and land, to take their -ships and goods, and kill their persons as mortal enemies; that they -had seized his boat, fired at his barks, and had beset the door of his -factory,—a hundred Dutchmen to one Englishman,—and would have entered -and cut all their throats but for the interference of the Japanese: all -because Cocks had refused to give up six Englishmen who had escaped -from two English ships[106] which the Dutch had captured, and whom -they claimed to have back, representing them to the Japanese as their -“slaves.” - -To sustain the English interest in the eastern seas, the English East -India Company, by great efforts, had fitted out, in 1617, the largest -expedition yet sent from England to the East Indies. It consisted of -the “Royal James,” of one thousand tons; the “Royal Anne,” of nine -hundred; the “Gift,” of eight hundred; the “Bull,” of four hundred; and -the “Bee,” of one hundred and fifty tons; and sailed from London under -the command of Martin Pring, who, twelve years before, following up the -discoveries of Gosnold, had entered and explored—the first Englishman -to do so—Penobscot bay and river, on the coast of what had since begun -to be known as New England. Pring sailed first for Surat, where the -Company had a factory, and where he assisted the native prince against -the Portuguese, with whom he was at war. On the 17th of June, 1618, he -arrived at Bantam, whence he proceeded, in September, to Jacatra, a -city of the natives, the site of the present Batavia. There he received -news that the Dutch in the Moluccas, not content with driving out the -Spaniards, had attacked the English also, making prisoners of the -merchants, whom they had treated with great harshness. News had also -reached England of these Dutch outrages, and to make head against them, -the Company, not long after Pring’s departure, despatched Sir Thomas -Dale—also well known to readers of American history as high-marshal of -the colony of Virginia, one of its first legislators, and for three or -four years its deputy governor—with a fleet of six large ships, with -five of which he joined Pring in November, 1618, in the Bay of Bantam, -assuming the command of the whole, including others which he found -there. - -Both fleets were in a very leaky condition, and after some skirmishing -with the Dutch, and the capture of a richly laden Dutch ship from -Japan, the English sailed for the coast of Coromandel, to refit and -to obtain provision, which could not be had on the coast of Java. -Having arrived at Musilapatam, Dale died there August 9, 1619. Toward -the end of the year, Pring, who succeeded in the command, returned -again towards the Straits of Sunda, and on the 25th of January, 1620, -met, off the coast of Sumatra, three English ships of a new fleet, -from which he learned that four others of the squadron to which they -belonged had been surprised while at anchor off the coast of Java, and -taken by the Dutch; that another had been wrecked in the Straits of -Sunda; and that the Dutch were in pursuit of two others, with every -prospect of taking them. - -As the Dutch at Jacatra were three times as strong as the three -squadrons now united under Pring, and as three of his largest ships -were very leaky, and the whole fleet short of provisions, it was -resolved to send part of the vessels to a place at the north end of -Sumatra, in hopes to meet with the Company’s ships on their way with -rice from Surat, while Pring himself, with his leaky vessels, should -proceed to Japan,—reported to be a good place for repairs as well as -for obtaining provisions. Just at this time the happy news arrived, -brought by two vessels despatched for that purpose from Europe, of an -arrangement of the pending dispute, and of the union of the Dutch and -English East India Companies into one body. - -Shortly after this welcome information, Pring sailed for Japan with -two of his leaky vessels, having made an arrangement to be followed in -a month by a united fleet of five English and five Dutch ships. These -ships were intended partly, indeed, for trade, but their principal -object appears to have been attacks upon Manila and Macao. - -All these vessels, the “Unicorn” excepted, arrived safely at Hirado. -She was stranded on the coast of China, and her crew were the first -Englishmen known to have landed there. A joint embassy was sent to -the emperor with presents, which, notwithstanding the privileges of -trade, were expected from every vessel that came. Having completed his -repairs, and leaving the other vessels behind him, Pring sailed on the -7th of December, 1620, in the “Royal James,” for Jacatra, carrying with -him the news of the death of Adams, who, having remained in the service -of the Company, had never again visited England.[107] - -The arrangement with the Dutch was but of short duration. Fresh -quarrels broke out. In 1623 occurred the famous massacre of Amboyna, -followed by the expulsion of the English from the Spice Islands; and -about the same time the Company abandoned the trade to Japan, after -having lost forty thousand pounds in the adventure.[108] This massacre -of Amboyna consisted in the execution, by the Dutch, of ten or twelve -factors of the English East India Company, on the charge of having -conspired with some thirty Japanese residents to seize the Dutch fort. -One of these Japanese having put some questions to a Dutch sentinel -about the strength of the fort, he and others of his countrymen were -arrested on suspicion, and by torture were compelled to accuse the -English, who were then tortured in their turn into accusing each other. -The residence of these Japanese at Amboyna is a proof, in addition to -those already mentioned, of the adventurous spirit of the Japanese of -that day, who had indeed a reputation for desperate daring, such as -might give some color to the suspicions of the Dutch.[109] - -Meanwhile the persecution continued as violently as ever. In the year -1622 fourteen Jesuits were burnt at the stake, including Spinola, a -missionary of illustrious birth, who had been twenty years in Japan. -Two friars were also burnt, who had been found on board a Japanese -vessel from the Philippines, captured in 1620, by one of the English -ships, the Elizabeth, employed in the blockade of Macao, and by her -commander carried to Hirado. The master and crew of the Japanese vessel -and many other native converts were executed at the same time. The -Spaniards were suspected of smuggling in missionaries, and were wholly -forbidden the islands. As a greater security against this danger, by an -edict, issued in 1624,[110]—shortly previous to which there had been -a very severe inquisition in Yedo and its neighborhood for concealed -priests,—all the ports of Japan were closed against foreigners, except -Hirado and Nagasaki, of which Hirado remained open to the Dutch and -English, Nagasaki to the Portuguese, and both to the Chinese. At the -same time was introduced the custom of requiring an exact muster roll, -and making a strict inspection of the crews of all foreign vessels. -By the same edict all the subjects of the Catholic king, whether -Portuguese or Spaniards, were banished the country, however long they -might have been settled there, and even though they might have families -by Japanese wives. - -What aggravated the misfortunes of the Japanese church, and greatly -diminished the dignity of its fall, was the still hot jealousy and -mutual hatred of the Jesuits and of the friars, inflamed rather than -quenched by all this common danger and suffering. The bishop of Japan -having died (it was said of grief, at the peril of his flock) just -as the persecution broke out, a most unseemly quarrel arose, which -was carried on for several years with great virulence, as to the -administration of the bishopric. It was claimed, on the one hand, by -Father Corvailho, the provincial of the Jesuits, under an authority -from the Pope; and, on the other, by Father Pierre Baptiste, a -Franciscan, as vicar-general of the archbishop of Manila, to whose -jurisdiction it was pretended the bishopric of Japan appertained. This -quarrel about the administration of the bishopric was finally settled -by the Pope in favor of the Jesuits. - -[Illustration: FACSIMILE OF AN ANTI-CHRISTIAN EDICT] - -The Jesuit seminaries in Japan being broken up, they had organized one -at Macao for the education of Japanese ecclesiastics; but the severe -penalties denounced against all priests coming into Japan, and against -all, whether natives or foreigners, who should shelter them after -their arrival, made the existence of the church and the celebration of -divine service every day more precarious. From year to year it grew -more and more difficult for new missionaries to get landed, great as -was the zeal for that service. Of those who did land, the greater part -were immediately seized and put to death. Large rewards were offered to -any person who would betray or take a missionary. Those already in the -country lived in hourly danger of arrest, forced to conceal themselves -in cellars, holes and caverns and the huts of lepers, exposing to -tortures and death all who might bring them food, or in any way assist -in concealing them. The greatness of their sufferings does not depend -merely upon the testimony of their own letters. Roger Gysbert, a Dutch -Protestant and a resident in Japan, between the years 1622 and 1629, -wrote an affecting narrative of it, and the general fact is strongly -stated in Caron’s account of Japan, written a few years later. - -Gysbert, in his narrative[111], relates the martyrdom of more than -five hundred persons; but there was a still larger amount of suffering -which terminated not in martyrdom, but in recantation. The Japanese -officers seldom exhibited any personal malice against the Catholics. -Their sole object was the extinction of that faith. They made it a -study to deny the crown of martyrdom so enthusiastically sought, -and by a series of protracted and ingenious tortures to force a -renunciation. For this purpose the prisoners were sprinkled with water -from the boiling sulphur springs, not far from Nagasaki, and exposed to -breathe their stifling odor. The modesty of the women was barbarously -assailed, and numerous means of protracted torture were resorted to, -such as in general proved sooner or later successful. Other means -were employed still more efficacious. All natives engaged in foreign -trade were required to give in an exact statement of their property, -which, unless the proprietors would conform to the national faith, -was declared forfeited. It was even forbidden that European merchants -should lodge in the houses of any who were or had been Catholics. At -Hirado and Nagasaki all heads of families were obliged to swear, in -the presence of an idol, that there were no Catholics in their houses, -and, according to the Japanese usage, to sign this declaration with -their blood. From Melchior Santvoort, an old Dutchman, one of the -companions of Adams in the first Dutch voyage to Japan, and a resident -at Nagasaki, the authorities were indeed satisfied to take instead a -declaration that he was a Hollander,—a circumstance which gave occasion -to the scandal at which Kämpfer is so indignant, that the Hollanders -were accustomed to report themselves to the Japanese authorities as not -Christians, but Dutchmen. All who refused to conform to the national -worship were deprived of their employments, and driven out to live as -they could among the barren mountains. The seafaring people had been -mostly Catholics, but no Catholic was henceforth to be permitted to -sail on board any ship. So successful were these means, that although -when Gysbert first visited Nagasaki, in 1626, it was said to contain -forty thousand native Christians, when he left it, in 1629, there was -not one who admitted himself to be such. - -In the midst of these martyrdoms the Jesuits were called upon to suffer -still severer torments, in new attacks upon their policy and conduct in -Japan, published throughout Europe. Father Collado, a Dominican, for -some time resident at Nagasaki, who returned to Europe in 1622, was -known to have gone home charged with accusations against the Jesuits; -by way of answer to which a memorial was transmitted, prepared by the -provincial Father Pacheco, who, four years after, himself suffered -martyrdom at the stake. Nor was Collado their only assailant. Among -those arrested in 1622 was Father Sotelo, that same enterprising -Franciscan of whom already we have had occasion to make mention. -Insisting upon his character of legate from the Pope, he had disobeyed -the orders of his superiors, had sailed from New Spain to Manila, -and had contrived to get a passage thence to Nagasaki, in a Chinese -vessel, under the character of a merchant. But the captain detected and -betrayed him; he was immediately arrested and thrown into prison, and -in 1624 was put to death. - -In 1628 there was published at Madrid what purported to be a letter -from Sotelo to Pope Urban VIII, written in Latin, dated just before his -martyrdom, and containing, under the form of a narrative of his own -proceedings, a violent attack upon the Jesuits, and their conduct in -Japan. Not liking to be thus attacked as it were by a martyr from his -grave, they denied its authenticity. A memorial of Collado, printed -in 1633, reiterated the same charges, to most of which it must be -admitted that the replies made on behalf of the Jesuits are entirely -satisfactory[112]. - -Finding that the means as yet employed had little effect upon the -missionaries and their native assistants, a new and more effectual, -because more protracted, torture was resorted to, known in the -relations of the missionaries as the _Torment of the Fosse_. A hole was -dug in the ground, over which a gallows was erected. From this gallows -the sufferer, swathed in bandages, was suspended by his feet, being -lowered for half his length, head downward, into the hole, which was -then closed by two boards which fitted together around the victim so -as to exclude the light and air. One hand was bound behind the back, -the other was left loose, with which to make the prescribed signal of -recantation and renunciation of the foreign creed; in which case the -sufferer was at once released. - -This was a most terrible trial, indeed. The victim suffered under a -continual sense of suffocation, the blood burst from the mouth, nose -and ears, with a twitching of the nerves and muscles, attended by the -most intolerable pains. Yet the sufferer, it was said, lived sometimes -for nine or ten days. The year 1633, in which this punishment was first -introduced, the second year of a new emperor, son of Shōgun Sama[113], -proved more fatal than any previous one to the new religion. In the -month of August of that year forty-two persons were burnt alive in -various parts of Japan, eleven decapitated, and sixteen suspended in -the fosse. The Dutchman Hagenaar, who was at Hirado in 1634, states, -in his printed voyages, that during the time of his visit thirty-seven -persons lost their lives at that place on the charge of being -Catholics. Five of these perished by the torment of the fosse, others -were beheaded, others cut to pieces, and others burnt. - -What at last struck the deepest horror to the souls of the few -surviving Jesuits, and was greatly improved in Europe to the damage of -the Company, by its enemies, was the apostasy of Father Christopher -Ferreyra, a Portuguese, an old missionary, the provincial of the -order, and the administrator of the bishopric. He was taken in 1633 -at Nagasaki, and being suspended in the fosse, after five hours he -gave the fatal signal of renunciation. After having been kept some -time in prison, and given what information he could for the detection -of those of his late brethren still concealed in Japan, he was set -at liberty; and, having assumed the Japanese dress and a Japanese -name, he lived for several years at Nagasaki. He had been compelled -to marry a Japanese woman, who was very rich, being the widow of a -Chinese goldsmith, who had been executed for some offence; but the -Jesuits comforted themselves with the idea that the marriage was never -consummated; and they even got up a report that in his old age this -renegade brother recovered his courage, and having, on his death-bed, -confessed himself a Christian, was immediately hurried off to perish a -martyr by that very torment of the fosse, the terror of which had first -made and had so long kept him an apostate. But for this fine story -there seems to have been no foundation except the wishes and hopes of -those who circulated it. - -As a further security against the surreptitious introduction of -missionaries, the policy was adopted, in 1635, of confining the -Portuguese sailors and merchants to the little artificial island of -Deshima, in the harbor of Nagasaki, a spot but just large enough to -hold the necessary residences and warehouses. Shortly after the issue -of this edict, the people of the kingdom of Arima, all of them still -Catholic except the king and the nobility, seeing no other hope, -broke out into open revolt. They were headed by a descendant of their -ancient kings, and mustering, it is said, to the number of thirty-seven -thousand, took possession of the fortress of Shimabara, situated about -due east from Nagasaki, on the gulf of the same name. Here they were -besieged; and the place being taken in 1638, those who held it were cut -off to a man. - -The Portuguese were accused of having encouraged this revolt; in -consequence of which an edict was issued, in 1638, not only banishing -all the Portuguese, but forbidding also any Japanese to go out of the -country. That edict, as given by Kämpfer, was as follows: - - “No Japanese ship or boat whatever, nor any native of Japan, shall - presume to go out of the country: who acts contrary to this shall die, - and the ship with the crew and goods aboard shall be sequestered till - further order. - - “All Japanese who return from abroad shall be put to death. - - “Whoever discovers a priest shall have a reward of 400 to 500 _shuets_ - of silver, and for every Christian in proportion[114]. - - “All persons who propagate the doctrine of the Christians, or bear - this scandalous name, shall be imprisoned in the _Ombra_, or common - jail of the town. - - “The whole race of the Portuguese, with their mothers, nurses, and - whatever belongs to them, shall be banished to Macao. - - “Whoever presumes to bring a letter from abroad, or to return after - he hath been banished, shall die with all his family; also whoever - presumes to intercede for them shall be put to death. - - “No nobleman nor any soldier shall be suffered to purchase anything of - a foreigner.” - -The Portuguese ships of 1639 were sent back with a copy of this edict, -without being suffered to discharge their cargoes. The corporation -of the city of Macao, greatly alarmed at the loss of a lucrative -traffic, on which their prosperity mainly depended, sent deputies -to solicit some modification of this edict. But the only reply made -by the emperor was to cause these deputies themselves, with their -attendants, to the number of sixty-one persons, to be seized and put -to death, as violators of the very edict against which they had been -sent to remonstrate. Thirteen only, of the lowest rank, were sent -back to Macao, August, 1640, with this account of the fate of their -company[115]. - - - - -CHAPTER XXV - - _Policy of the Dutch—Affair of Nuyts—Haganaar’s Visits to - Japan—Caron’s Account of Japan—Income of the Emperor and the - Nobles—Military Force—Social and Political Position of the - Nobles—Justice—Relation of the Dutch to the Persecution of - the Catholics—The Dutch removed from Hirado and confined in - Deshima—Attempts of the English, Portuguese, and French at Intercourse - with Japan—Final Extinction of the Catholic Faith—A. D. 1620-1707._ - - -Throughout the whole of the long and cruel persecution of the -Catholics, the Dutch had striven by extreme subserviency to recommend -themselves to the favor of the Japanese, in hopes of exclusively -engrossing a trade which appears at this time to have been more -extensive and more lucrative than at any former period. The Japanese, -however, seem not to have been insensible to the advantages of -competition; and, so long as the Portuguese commerce continued, they -extended to the vessels of that nation a certain protection against the -Dutch, and even preference over them. The danger from Dutch cruisers -appears to have caused the substitution, for the single great carac -of Macao, of a number of smaller vessels; nor were the Dutch, however -urgent their solicitations, allowed to leave Hirado till such a number -of days after the departure of the Portuguese from Nagasaki as would -prevent all danger of collision. - -Yet, however cringing the general policy of the Dutch East India -Company, their trade, through the folly of a single individual, was -near being exposed to a violent interruption. In the year 1626, Conrad -Kramer, the head of the Dutch factory, was extremely well received on -his visit to Yedo, and was allowed to be present at Miyako during the -visit of the emperor to the Dairi,—an occasion which drew together an -immense concourse, and which, according to the account that Kramer has -left of it, was attended with vast confusion[116]. The annual visit to -Yedo was made the next year by Peter de Nuyts, who gave himself out as -ambassador from the king of Holland, and at first was treated as such; -but the Japanese having discovered that he had no commission except -from the council of Batavia, sent him away in disgrace. - -Shortly after, Nuyts was appointed governor of Formosa. The Dutch, -following in the footsteps of some Japanese adventurers, had formed -an establishment on that island, about the year 1620, with a view to -a smuggling trade with China; and, by erecting a fort at the mouth of -the harbor, had speedily obtained the exclusive control of it. Not -long after Nuyts’ appointment as governor, there arrived two Japanese -vessels, on a voyage to China. They merely touched at Formosa for -water, but Nuyts, to gratify the spite he had conceived against the -Japanese nation, contrived to detain them so long that they missed -the monsoon; and having required them, as the sole condition on which -he would allow their entrance, to give up their sails and rudders, -upon one pretence and another, he refused to return them, till at -length the patience of the Japanese was entirely exhausted. They -numbered five hundred men; and at last, all their reiterated and -urgent applications for leave to depart being refused, they attacked -the governor by surprise, overpowered his household, and made him -prisoner; nor did the garrison of the neighboring fort dare to fire -upon them for fear of killing their own people. Thus the brave Japanese -extorted liberty to depart and indemnity for their losses, to which -the Dutch assented, notwithstanding their superior force, for fear of -reprisals in Japan. These, however, they did not avoid, for, as soon -as the Japanese reached home, the emperor put under sequestration nine -vessels with their cargoes, then at Hirado, belonging to the Dutch -East India Company, and forbade any further trade with their agents. -Things remained in this state for three years, the Japanese, however, -receiving as usual Dutch vessels which came from Batavia, under the -assumed character of belonging not to the East India Company, but to -private merchants. At last it was resolved to seek an accommodation by -surrendering up Nuyts to the mercy of the Japanese, which was done in -1634. - -Having obtained his unconditional surrender, they treated him with -great clemency; for, though detained in custody, he was not kept a -close prisoner; and, in return for this concession, the Company’s -ships were released and their trade reëstablished. The liberation of -Nuyts was granted two years afterwards as a mark of the emperor’s -satisfaction, with a splendid chandelier among the annual presents of -the Company, and which was used as an ornament for the temple-mausoleum -of the emperors of the race of Gongen-Sama [at Nikkō], completed about -that time. - -In the solicitation for the release of Nuyts both Haganaar and Caron -were employed, to each of whom we are indebted for some curious memoirs -of the state of Japan in their time. Haganaar made three visits -thither. The first included the last four months of 1634. The second -extended from September, 1635, to November, 1636; during which he made -a visit to Yedo, and was at the head of the factory. The third was -limited to three months in the autumn of 1637. Of each of these visits -he has given brief notes in his printed travels[117], besides adding -some observations of his own to Caron’s account of Japan. Hirado, which -he describes as a town of thirty-six streets, had grown up suddenly, -in consequence of the Dutch trade,—a single street producing more -revenue to the lord than the whole town formerly had done; yet there -were hardly any merchants in the place, except those who lodged at the -factory, and who were drawn thither from all parts by the Dutch trade. - -During Haganaar’s second visit, the Dutch were called sharply to -account for having presumed to sell their silk at a higher rate than -that asked by the Portuguese, and a price was prescribed, which they -were not to exceed. Being deputed to visit Yedo, on the business of -Nuyts’ release, Haganaar proceeded thither by sea, and took lodgings -at the house of a Japanese bonze, who was the usual host of the Dutch. -The agency of the lord of Hirado and of his secretary was employed with -several of the imperial counsellors, but owing, as it would seem, to -a deficiency of presents, without success. Caron arranged this matter -more successfully the next year. From Yedo to Ōsaka Haganaar travelled -by land, and from Ōsaka by water to Hirado, where, during his absence, -thirteen or fourteen persons had suffered death because they belonged -to Catholic families. He notes that the Japanese whale fishery for the -season of 1636 resulted in the capture of two hundred and seventy-four -whales; which, however, were much smaller and less fat than the -Greenland whales, and were taken more for food than oil. Shortly after -his return to Hirado, news came of an order from court that all the -Portuguese half-castes—that is, descendants of Portuguese by Japanese -women—should be shipped off with their wives and children to Macao. - -Returning to Japan a third time, in 1637,—in the seventh Dutch ship -which arrived that year,—Haganaar heard that Admiral Weddell was at -Nagasaki with four richly laden English ships. They had been refused -entrance into Macao, and had come thence to Japan, but could not obtain -permission to trade, nor even to land. Six Portuguese galliots had also -arrived from Macao with full cargoes of rich silks, which were sold, -however, at little profit. Yet they were reported to have carried back, -in return, two thousand six hundred chests of silver, or more than -three millions of dollars. - -To relieve the necessities of the Dutch governor of Formosa, who was -engaged in hostilities with the natives, and had been obliged to borrow -of Chinese traders, at the rate of three per cent a month, Haganaar was -despatched thither with four ships and four hundred and fifty chests of -silver, of which two hundred had been borrowed at Miyako of Japanese -capitalists, at twenty-four per cent per annum. The following year he -returned to Holland, where he soon after printed his voyages, and along -with them the answers made by Francis Caron to a series of questions -which had been submitted to him by the director of the Company, and -which throw not a little light upon the condition of Japan at this time. - -Caron, born in Holland of French parents, had originally gone to Japan -quite young, Kämpfer says, as cook of a Dutch ship. Bad treatment -caused him to quit the ship in Japan, where he was presently taken -into the service of the Dutch factory, and taught reading, writing, -and accounts. He gave evidence of remarkable abilities, and rose in -time to the head of the establishment. He spoke the language fluently, -had married a Japanese wife, and from the liberty of intercourse then -allowed, and his long residence in the country, enjoyed means of -information which no European has since possessed. - -In describing the political state of Japan, Caron gives the names, -residences, and revenues of thirty-two princes, that is, rulers of one -or more provinces (spoken of in the earlier relations as kings), of -whom the prince of Kaga, who was also ruler of two other provinces, -had a revenue of one hundred and nineteen mankoku, and the others -revenues varying from seventy to eighteen mankoku. He adds the mimes, -residences, and incomes of one hundred and seven other lords, twenty of -whom had revenues of from fifteen to seven mankoku, and the others of -from six to two mankoku. Another list contains the names of forty-one -lords, with revenues of from one to two mankoku; and in a fourth list -he enumerates sixteen lords attached to the imperial court, of whom the -first four had from fifteen to nine mankoku, and the others from six -to one mankoku. The total revenues of these one hundred and ninety-six -great nobles amounted to nineteen thousand three hundred and forty-five -mankoku, exclusive of nine thousand mankoku of imperial revenue, of -which four thousand were employed in the maintenance of the court, -and the remainder in the support of the imperial guard, all of whom -were nobles, many of them children of the concubines of the emperors -and great princes, and excluded on that account from the prospect of -succession[118]. Thus the total annual revenues of the great landed -proprietors of Japan amounted to twenty-eight million three hundred and -forty-five thousand koku of rice, equal to about ninety million cwt., -or one hundred and thirty-three million five hundred thousand bushels; -nor is it probable that in this respect there has been much change from -that time to this[119]. Caron gives as the current value of the koku, -or, as he calls it, cokien, ten guilders (or four dollars), which would -make the mankoku equal to one hundred thousand florins (forty thousand -dollars), or what the Dutch called a ton of gold. The prince of -Satsuma, who was lord also of four other provinces, is put down in the -above lists at sixty-four mankoku, the prince of Hizen at thirty-six, -and the lord of Hirado at six[120]. - -[Illustration: DUTCH CANDELABRUM AT NIKKŌ] - -These revenues arose in part from mines of gold, silver, copper, -iron, tin, and lead, from timber, hemp, cotton, and silk, and from -fisheries; but chiefly from the rice and other crops. There were no -taxes or duties in Japan, except ground rents for lands and houses, -payable in produce or money and in personal services. All these nobles -had residences at Yedo, in the precinct of the imperial palace, in -which their children resided as hostages for their fidelity. For -each thousand koku of revenue these lords furnished on demand twenty -foot-soldiers and two horsemen, and maintained them during the -campaign, exclusive of the necessary servants and camp followers. The -whole of their quotas, or of the feudal militia of Japan, thus amounted -to three hundred and sixty-eight thousand foot and thirty-eight -thousand eight hundred horse, in addition to a standing army of one -hundred thousand foot and twenty thousand horse, maintained by the -emperor from his own revenues, as garrisons and guards. The princes, -however, prided themselves on keeping up many more troops than their -regular quotas. To every five men there was an officer. Five of these -sections composed a platoon, which had its commander. Two platoons made -a company, which had its captain. Five of these companies, of fifty -privates and thirteen officers, composed a battalion of two hundred and -fifty rank and file, with its special officer; and ten battalions, a -division of two thousand five hundred men. The civil division was much -the same. Every five houses had an inspector, who kept a register of -all births and deaths, and every street its magistrate and watch. - -Though the revenues of the nobles were great, their expenses were -still more so. They were obliged to pass six months at the imperial -court; those of the northern and eastern provinces during one half the -year, those of the southern and western provinces during the other -half. They travelled in great state, some of them with not less than -four or five thousand men in their suite, and, on their arrival and -departure, gave great entertainments. The prince of Hirado, though one -of the lesser class, was always attended in his journeys by at least -three hundred men, and entertained in his two houses at Yedo more than -a thousand persons. What with their households, the clothing of their -followers, their women, of whom they entertained a great number, their -children,—the prince of Mito, the emperor’s uncle, had fifty-four -boys, and daughters still more numerous,—presents and festivals, their -expenses generally exceeded their incomes; and, besides, they were -often required to furnish workmen, at the demand of the emperor, for -building new castles, temples, or anything he might undertake. The -honor of a visit from the emperor was very highly esteemed. He seldom -paid more than one to the same house. No expense was spared, and years -were spent in preparations, which often ruined those who enjoyed this -honor. The visit made by the emperor to the Dairi at Miyako, once in -seven years, was a still more magnificent affair. - -The emperor maintained on the estate of each noble a secretary, in -fact a spy, sent nominally to assist and advise him in the management -of his affairs. Those selected for this service were generally persons -educated at court, and of known fidelity, who, before their departure, -signed with their blood a promise to keep the emperor fully informed of -the affairs and actions of the prince to whom they were sent. - -The marriages of the nobles were arranged by the emperor. The wife -thus given was entitled to great respect. Her sons alone succeeded to -the lordship, which, in case she had none, was generally transferred -to some other family. The children by the numerous concubines of the -nobles had no share in the inheritance, and were often reduced to -beggary. Besides concubines, free indulgence was allowed with the -courtesans maintained by the lords of each district for public use. The -lawful wives lived in splendid seclusion, attended by troops of female -servants. Of women’s rights the Japanese nobles had no very high idea. -Not only the strictest chastity was expected from them, but entire -devotion to their husbands, and abstinence from any intermeddling with -business or politics; the Japanese opinion being—in which Caron seems -fully to coincide—that women are only made for the pleasure of the -men and to bring up children. The children, though treated with great -indulgence, were exceedingly respectful to their parents. - -The emperor had in every city and village officers for the -administration of justice; but every householder had the right to -dispense punishments in his own family. Justice was very strict and -severe, especially in cases of theft; and for crimes against the state -the punishment extended to the whole family of the offender. The -nobles and military, in case they were convicted of crimes, enjoyed -the privilege of cutting themselves open. Merchants and mechanics were -held in mean esteem,—the former as cheats and tricksters, the latter as -public servants. The cultivators were little better than slaves. - -The account which Caron gives of domestic manners corresponds -sufficiently well with the more extended observations to be quoted -hereafter from subsequent observers. He did not regard the Japanese -as very devout. The persecution against the Catholics he describes -as equal to anything in ecclesiastical history. He particularly -admired the steadiness and constancy of many young children of ten or -twelve years. All the inhabitants were required once a year to sign -a declaration that they were good Japanese, and that the Catholic -religion was false. The Catholics had amounted to four hundred -thousand; and their number was still considerable[121]. - - * * * * * - -The Dutch had all along stimulated the Japanese against the Portuguese. -All missionaries bound for Japan, found on board of Portuguese and -Spanish prizes taken in the neighboring seas, had been delivered into -the hands of the Japanese authorities. The Dutch had even assisted -at the siege of Shimabara, for which they had furnished a train of -artillery, conducted thither by Kockebecker, the head, at that time, of -the Dutch factory. But they were far from realizing all the advantages -which they had expected from the expulsion of their rivals. They, too, -had excited suspicions by replacing their dilapidated wooden factory at -Hirado by a strong stone warehouse, which had something of the aspect -of a fortress. In spite of their submissiveness in pulling down[122] -this erection, their establishment at that place was suddenly closed, -and in 1641 the Dutch factors were transferred to Nagasaki, where they -were shut up in the same little artificial island of Deshima, which had -been constructed to be the prison-house of the Portuguese. And to this -narrow island they have ever since been confined, with the exception -of some occasional visits to Nagasaki and its environs, and an annual -journey, by the chief officers of the factory, to pay their homage to -the emperor at Yedo,—a ceremony which seems to have been coeval with -the first arrival of the Dutch. Hitherto the Portuguese and the Dutch -also had freely intermarried with the Japanese; but this intimacy now -came wholly to an end, and even the Dutch were thenceforth regarded -rather as prisoners than as friends. - -What contributed to increase this jealousy of the Dutch was the peace -between Holland and the Portuguese, which followed the assumption of -the crown of Portugal by the house of Braganza, and the separation of -Portugal from Spain, in the year 1640. - -Evidence of this very soon appeared. In the year 1643 the Dutch sent -two ships from Batavia, the “Castricoom” and the “Breskens,” to -explore the yet little-known northern coast of Japan, the island of -Yezo, and the adjacent continent, and especially to search out certain -fabled islands of gold and silver, whence the Japanese were said to -derive large supplies of those metals. These vessels, when off Yedo, -were separated in a storm, and the “Breskens,” in need of supplies, -touched at a fishing village in about forty degrees of north latitude. -The lord of the village, and a principal person of the neighboring -district, visited the ship with great show of friendship, and having -enticed the captain, Shaëp, and his chief officers on shore, made -them prisoners, bound them, and sent them off to Nambu, near by. They -were permitted to communicate with the ship, and to obtain their -baggage, but at first were treated with much rigor on suspicion of -being Spaniards or Portuguese. It being found, however, that they paid -no respect to the sign of the cross or to pictures of the Virgin, it -was concluded that they were Hollanders, and they were treated with -less severity. At Nambu they were splendidly entertained, and in their -twenty days’ journey thence to Yedo, in which they passed through a -hundred well-built villages, they had nothing to complain of except -the inconvenience of the crowds that flocked to see them. In every -village they saw rewards posted up for the discovery of Christians. -Not being willing to reveal the true object of their voyage, they -stated themselves to have been driven to the north in an attempt to -reach Nagasaki. It was plain, however, that their story about having -come from Batavia, and being in the service of the East India Company, -was not believed. It was suspected that they had come from Macao or -Manila for the purpose of landing missionaries, and they were subjected -in consequence to numerous fatiguing cross-examinations, in which a -bonze assisted, who spoke Spanish, Portuguese, English, and Flemish, -and whom they conjectured to be some apostate European. What increased -the suspicions of Japanese was, that five Jesuits from Manila had -recently, in an attempt to reach Japan, been arrested at the Lew Chew -Islands, and sent thence to Yedo. The Dutchmen were confronted with -these Jesuits, to their great alarm. They also feared, if the true -object of the voyage came out, being exposed to punishment not only for -undertaking unauthorized explorations, but for falsehood in concealing -and misrepresenting their object; but when the Japanese had learned -from Nagasaki that two Dutch ships had been sent on a voyage for the -exploration of Tartary, of which the factors represented theirs as -probably one, they excused their silence on that subject on the ground -of not having been properly understood and interpreted. The factors at -Nagasaki had been not less careful than themselves to say nothing about -the search for mines. - -New interpreters were brought from Nagasaki, among them another -apostate, whom there are grounds for supposing was the ex-provincial -Ferreyra, between whom and the Jesuit prisoners they witnessed a bitter -scene of mutual reproaches. A great many rigorous cross-examinations -followed. The Dutchmen were required to sign a paper by which all -the Company’s property was pledged for their reappearance before -the imperial tribunals at any time that it might be discovered that -they had landed missionaries. Their having discharged some pieces of -artillery from the ship was insisted upon as a crime; also their ship -having sailed off without waiting for them. The recent peace between -Holland and Portugal was pointedly alluded to, and even the search -for mines seems to have been suspected. The appearance of a ship on -the east coast of Japan, which proved to be the “Castricoom,” some of -whose people who landed were seized and sent to Yedo, gave rise to many -new interrogations. Elserak, the director, at length arrived, and, -after a separate examination, was confronted with them and signed the -paper above described, when the Dutch were finally released, after an -imprisonment of upwards of four months[123]. - -The “Castricoom,” more successful, discovered the Kurile Islands, -Yetorofu and Uruppu, to which were given the names of _State’s Islands_ -and _Company’s Islands_, and made some explorations of the east coast -of Yezo, and of Sakhalin, taken to be a part of it. The information -thus obtained, together with the two relations of Father de Angelis, -written in 1616 and 1621, was all that was known of these regions till -the explorations of Broughton and La Perouse, towards the close of the -last century. Golownin’s adventures and experience there, as related in -a subsequent chapter, bear a very remarkable and curious resemblance -to those of Captain Schaëp and his companions. Their release was -acknowledged in a solemn embassy from the Company,—that of Frisius. -About the same time, in 1647, a Portuguese embassy arrived in Japan, -in hopes, since the separation from Spain, of reviving the ancient -commercial intercourse; but, though the ambassador was treated with -respect, his request was peremptorily declined. - -A new emperor, a minor, having succeeded in 1651, the Dutch Company -sent Waganaar to congratulate him. Among other presents he brought -a Casuar, a strange bird of the ostrich kind, from Banda, but the -officers at Nagasaki would not suffer it to be forwarded. During this -visit there happened a terrible fire at Yedo, by which two-thirds of -that city were laid in ruins. Some violent disputes having arisen, -and the Japanese having gone so far as to take away the rudders of the -Dutch ships, Waganaar went on a second embassy to Yedo, in 1659[124]. - -The establishment of the French East India Company by Colbert led to -some projects for a French trade with Japan, especially as Caron in -some disgust had quitted the Dutch service, and enlisted into that of -France. A letter from Louis XIV to the emperor of Japan, dated in 1666, -was prepared, and instructions for Caron, who was to be the bearer of -it; but the project does not appear to have been prosecuted[125]. [See -Appendix, Note 1.] - -In 1673, the English East India Company made an attempt at the -renewal of the trade with Japan, by despatching a ship thither. The -Japanese, through the medium of the Dutch, kept themselves informed, -as they still do, of the affairs of Europe; and the first question -put to the new-comers was, how long since the English king (Charles -II) had married a daughter of the king of Portugal. Though otherwise -courteously enough received and entertained, the vessel was not allowed -to sell her cargo. This refusal of intercourse the English ascribed to -Dutch jealousy; but it probably was a step, as will be seen in the next -chapter, to which the Japanese did not need any urging.[126] - -Though the Catholics of Japan were effectually cut off from all -intercourse with Europe, the Catholic faith still lingered for a good -while in those parts of Shimo in which it had taken the deepest root. -So late as 1690, there were, according to Kämpfer, fifty persons, -men, women, and children (of whom three had been arrested in 1683), -imprisoned at Nagasaki for life, or until they should renounce the -Catholic faith and conform to the religious usages of the country. -These were peasants who knew little more of the faith which they -professed except the name of the Saviour and the Virgin Mary, which, -indeed, according to the Dutch accounts, was all that the greater part -of the Japanese converts had ever known. - -To land in Japan, to strengthen and comfort the faithful there, or at -least to secure the crown of martyrdom in the attempt, long continued -an attractive enterprise to the more romantic spirits among the -religious orders of the Catholic church. Most of those who undertook -this adventure were known to have been seized and executed soon after -landing. The last effort of this sort appears to have been made in -1707. From that time, and notwithstanding the great revival, within -fifty or sixty years past, of the missionary spirit, Japan has remained -even less attempted by missionary than by mercantile enterprise. - - - - -CHAPTER XXVI - - _Portuguese Trade to Japan—Dutch Trade—Silver, Gold, and Copper the - Chief Articles of Export—Export of Silver prohibited—Chinese Trade—Its - Increase after the Accession of the Manchu Dynasty—Chinese Temples - at Nagasaki—A Buddhist Doctor from China—Edict on the Subject of - Household Worship—Restrictions on the Dutch Trade—Increase in the - Number of Chinese Visitors to Nagasaki—Their Objects—Restrictions on - the Chinese Trade—The Chinese shut up in a Factory—Trade with Lew Chew - [Riūkiū]—A. D. 1542-1690._ - - -Of the real value and extent of the trade which for some ninety years -the Portuguese carried on with Japan, and which was brought to a final -close in the year 1638, we have no means of forming any very exact -estimate. When we read in writers of two or three centuries ago glowing -accounts of immense commercial profits, we must also recollect that, -compared with the commerce of the present day, the trade upon which -these great profits were made was exceedingly limited in amount. - -For more than half of the above period of ninety years the intercourse -of the Portuguese with Japan seems to have been reduced, or nearly -so, to a single annual ship, known as the great carac of Macao, sent -annually from that city, and laden chiefly with China silks, every -Portuguese citizen of Macao having the right, if he chose to exercise -it, of putting on board a certain number of packages, as did also the -Society of Jesus, which had a college and a commercial agency in that -city. Of this traffic the following account is given by Ralph Fitch, -an intelligent Englishman, who was in Malacca in the year 1588[127]: -“When the Portuguese go from Macao in China to Japan, they carry much -white silk, gold, musk, and porcelains, and they bring from thence -nothing but silver. They have a great carac, which goeth thither -every year, and she bringeth from thence every year about six hundred -thousand crusados (not far from as many dollars); and all this silver -of Japan, and two hundred thousand crusados more in silver, which they -bring yearly out of India, they employ to their advantage in China; and -they bring from thence gold, musk, silk, porcelains, and many other -things very costly and gilded.”[128] - -If we allow to the Portuguese an annual average export of half a -million of dollars, that will make in ninety years forty-five millions -of dollars of silver carried away by the Portuguese; for, according to -all accounts, they brought away nothing else. - -Though the Spaniards were never allowed to trade to Japan, at one -period, as we have seen, a considerable number of Japanese junks -frequented Manila for the purchase of Chinese goods; but this trade was -brought to an end in 1624, in consequence of the facilities which it -afforded for the introduction of Catholic priests into Japan. - -[Illustration: MAP OF FEUDAL JAPAN] - -The Dutch trade began in 1609. We have seen that in a short time it -gained a very considerable extent; and it increased, as the trading -establishment which the Dutch gradually obtained in India and Persia, -and that on the island of Formosa, whence they had access to China, -furnishing them with a supply of rich silks, the great article of -import into Japan. As the Portuguese trade was carried on from Macao, -so the Dutch trade was carried on, not from Holland, but from Batavia. -The year preceding the shutting up of the Dutch in Deshima is stated -to have been the most profitable of any. The previous average sales -in Japan had been about sixty tons of gold; but that year the Dutch -had imported and disposed of goods to the value of eighty tons of gold -(that is, three million two hundred thousand dollars, a Dutch ton of -gold being one hundred thousand florins, or forty thousand dollars). -Among the exports were fourteen hundred chests of silver, each chest -containing one thousand taels, or near two million dollars in silver -alone[129]. About this time, however, owing to the comparative -exhaustion of the silver, or the comparative increase of gold, that -metal became a leading, as, indeed, it seems to have been before a -considerable article of export with the Dutch. The gold koban, the -national coin of the Japanese, weighed at this time forty-seven -kanderins, that is, two hundred and seventy-four grains troy, which is -sixteen grains more than our present eagle. But, if superior in weight, -the koban was inferior in fineness, containing of pure gold only two -hundred and twenty-four grains, whereas the eagle contains two hundred -and thirty-two grains. It passed in Japan and was purchased by the -Dutch for six taels or less in silver, which enabled them to dispose -of it to good advantage on the coast of Coromandel, where the relative -value of gold was much higher. In the two years, 1670, 1671, more than -one hundred thousand koban were exported, at a profit of a million -florins; and down to that time the Dutch sent annually to Japan five -or six ships a year. In 1644, the export of copper began, and went on -gradually increasing. In 1671, an edict was issued, prohibiting the -further export of silver; but this gave no concern to the Dutch, who -had already ceased to export it. Its principal operation was against -the Chinese, who at this time carried on a great trade to Japan. - -Of the early commercial relations of China and Japan our knowledge is -very limited. As the Japanese at an early era, according to their own -annals (constructed, it is probable, by Buddhist priests), as early as -A. D. 600, had received from China Buddhist missionaries, and through -them the language, graphic characters, science, etc., of the Chinese, -it would seem probable that some commercial intercourse must have early -existed between these two nations. If so, however, the threatened -Mongol invasion, towards the end of the thirteenth century, would have -been likely to have interrupted it. The native Chinese dynasty, which -succeeded after the expulsion of the Mongols, was exceedingly jealous -of all strangers and hostile to intercourse with them. No foreign trade -was allowed, and every Chinese who left his country incurred a sentence -of perpetual banishment. It is true that the Chinese colonists, that -had emigrated, perhaps on the invasion of the Mongols, and had settled -in the neighboring maritime countries (as others did afterwards on the -invasion of the present Manchu dynasty), still contrived to keep up -some intercourse with China, while they carried on a vigorous trade -with the adjacent islands and countries; but, at the time of the -Portuguese discovery, no such trade would seem to have existed with -Japan. - -The Manchu dynasty (the same now reigning), which mounted the throne -in 1644, was much less hostile to foreigners; and under their rule -the Chinese trade to Japan appears to have rapidly increased. This -was partly by vessels direct from China, and partly by the commercial -enterprise of the Chinese fugitives who possessed themselves of -Formosa, from which, in 1662, they drove out the Dutch, or who had -settled elsewhere on the islands and coasts of southeastern Asia. - -“They come over,” says Kämpfer, “when and with what numbers of people, -junks, and goods they pleased. So extensive and advantageous a liberty -could not but be very pleasing to them, and put them upon thoughts of -a surer establishment, in order to which, and for the free exercise of -their religion, they built three temples at Nagasaki, according to the -three chief languages spoken by them (those of the northern, middle, -and southern provinces), each to be attended by priests of their own -nation, to be sent over from China.”[130] - -These temples, called, each in the special dialect of its frequenters, -“Temples of Riches,”—the god which the Chinese chiefly worship,—are -described by Kämpfer, from his own observation, as remarkable for their -handsome structure and the number of monks or Buddhist clergy attached -to them. As soon as any Chinese ships arrived in the harbor, the crews -immediately took on shore the idols which formed a part of the ship’s -outfit, and placed them in some small chapels, built for that purpose, -near by the large temples, or convents as in fact they rather were. -This was done with uncommon respect and particular ceremonies, playing -upon cymbals and beating of drums, which same ceremonies were repeated -when, upon the departure of the junks, the idols were carried on board -again. - -Encouraged by this favorable reception of his countrymen, Ingen, who -was at that time at the head of the Buddhist priesthood of China, -claiming to be the twenty-eighth in succession from the founder of -the Chinese Buddhist patriarchate, surrendered to a successor his -high dignity at home, and in the year 1653 came over to Japan, there -to establish a sort of caliphate or archiepiscopal see, as Kämpfer -expresses it, of the particular branch or sect of the Buddhist faith -to which he belonged. “The princes and lords of several provinces came -to compliment him, clad in their _kamishimo_,[131] or garments of -ceremony. The emperor offered him for his residence a mountain in the -neighborhood of the holy city of Miyako, which he called _Ōbaku_, the -name of his former papal residence in China. An incident which happened -soon after his arrival contributed very much to forward his designs, -and raised an uncommon respect for his person, and a great opinion -of his holiness. After a very great drought, the country people, his -neighbors, desired him to say a _kitō_, or extraordinary solemn prayer, -in order to obtain rain. He answered that it was not in his power -to make rain, and that he could not assure them that his kitō would -obtain it. However, at their pressing instances, he promised to do his -utmost. Accordingly, he went up to the top of the mountain and made -his kitō. The next day there fell such profuse showers as even to wash -away the smaller bridges in the city of Miyako, which made both the -city and country believe that his kitō had been rather too strong. His -companions, who came over with him from China, had likewise very great -respect paid them, as more immediate partakers of his glory; so that -even a cook, who came over with this learned and sanctified company, -was raised to the dignity of superior of one of the three convents -of Nagasaki, where, by his sublime understanding and reputed great -knowledge, he obtained,” and in Kämpfer’s time still held, “the name -and repute of a _Godō_, that is, a person blessed with divine and most -acute understanding, whom they suppose to be able to find out by his -_Satori_, or Enthusiastic Speculations, such mysterious truths as are -far beyond the reach of common knowledge.” - -What tended to favor Ingen’s design was an edict lately issued by the -emperor, aimed at the few remaining Catholics, and also at the sect -of the _Judō_, or Moralists, requiring everybody to belong to some -sect of the recognized religions of Japan, and to have a _Zushi_ in -their houses,—that is, a corner or altar consecrated to some idol. -Nevertheless, in spite of his favorable reception and eminent learning -and sanctity, Ingen failed to gain the submission of the various -Buddhist sects in Japan; nor was his spiritual headship acknowledged, -except by the three Chinese convents. - - * * * * * - -Though the prohibition of the export of silver, mentioned as having -taken place in 1671, did not affect the Dutch, the very next year the -Japanese commenced a system of measures which, within a quarter of a -century, reduced the Dutch commerce to the very narrow limit at which -it has ever since remained. The first step was to raise the value of -the koban to six tael eight maas of silver; nor was this by any means -the worst of it. The Dutch were no longer allowed to sell to the native -merchants. The government appointed appraisers, who set a certain value -on the goods, much less than the old prices, at which valuation the -Dutch must sell, or else take the goods away. Anything which the goods -sold for to the Japanese merchants, over the appraisement, went into -the town treasury of Nagasaki.[132] These appraisements grew lower and -lower every year, till at last the Dutch, threatening, if things went -on in this way, to abandon the trade altogether, petitioned the emperor -to be restored to their ancient privileges, assured to them by the -concession of Gongen-Sama [Iyeyasu]. After waiting three years, they -got a gracious answer. The appraisements were abolished, but at the -same time, in 1685, an order was suddenly issued, limiting the amount -which the Dutch might sell in any one year to the value of a hundred -thousand taels, or in Dutch money to ten tons and a half of gold, -equal to four hundred and twenty thousand dollars. All the goods of any -one year’s importation, remaining after that amount had been realized, -were to lie over till the next annual sale. At the same time, the -annual export of copper was limited to twenty-five thousand piculs; and -so matters stood at the time of Kämpfer’s visit. - -The Chinese trade had meanwhile gone on increasing “to that degree”—we -quote again from Kämpfer—“as to make the suspicious and circumspect -Japanese extremely jealous of them. In the years 1683 and 1684 there -arrived at Nagasaki, in each year, at least two hundred junks, every -junk with not less than fifty people on board, making for each year -more than ten thousand Chinese visitors.” Nor was it trade alone that -drew the Chinese thither. In China, the women, except those of servile -condition, are kept in perfect seclusion. No man sees even the woman he -is to marry till she has actually become his wife; and courtesanship -is strictly forbidden and punished. The case, as we have seen, is -widely different in Japan, and numerous young and wealthy Chinese -were attracted to Nagasaki, “purely for their pleasure,” as Kämpfer -observes, “and to spend some part of their money with Japanese wenches, -which proved very beneficial to that town,”—truly a very mercantile -view of the matter! - -“Not only did this increasing number of Chinese visitors excite -jealousy, but what still more aroused the suspicion of the Japanese -was, that the Jesuits, having gained the favor of the then reigning -monarch of China, (the celebrated Kanghi), with the liberty of -preaching and propagating their religion in all parts of the empire, -some tracts and books, which the Jesuit fathers had found the means -to print in China, in Chinese characters, were brought over to Japan -among other Chinese books, and sold privately, which made the Japanese -apprehensive that by this means the Catholic religion, which had been -exterminated with so much trouble and the loss of so many thousand -persons, might be revived again in the country.” And they even -suspected that the importers of these books, if not actual converts, -were at least favorers of the Catholic doctrine. - -These reasons combined to produce, in 1684, at the same time with the -restrictions placed upon the Dutch, an edict, by which the Chinese were -limited to an annual importation, double the value of that allowed the -Dutch; namely, six hundred thousand taels, equivalent to eight hundred -and forty thousand dollars, the annual number of junks not to exceed -seventy, of which a specific number was assigned to each province and -colony, and each to bring not more than thirty persons. Chinese books -were, at the same time, subjected to a censorship, two censors being -appointed, one for theological, the other for historical and scientific -works, none to be imported without their approval. - -This was followed up, in the year 1688, by another order, by which the -Chinese were, like the Dutch, shut up in a sort of prison, for which, -like the Dutch, they were compelled to pay a heavy rent. The site -chosen for this spot was a garden, pleasantly situated, just outside of -the town, on the side of the harbor opposite Deshima. It was covered -with several rows of small houses, each row having a common roof, and -the whole was surrounded with a ditch and a strong palisade, from which -the only exit was through well-guarded double gates[133]. Even here -the Chinese had no permanent residence, like the Dutch. They arrived in -detachments, twenty junks in spring, thirty in summer, and twenty in -autumn; and, after selling their goods, went away, leaving the houses -empty. - -Besides the trade with the Dutch and the Chinese, the Lew Chew Islands -[Riūkiū] were also permitted to carry on a particular trade with the -province of Satsuma, the prince of which they acknowledged as in some -respects their sovereign. The import and sale of their goods was -limited to the annual amount of one hundred and twenty-five thousand -taels, though, in Kämpfer’s time, a much larger amount was smuggled in, -large quantities of Chinese goods being thus introduced. - - - - -CHAPTER XXVII - - _Engelbert Kämpfer—His Visit to Japan—Deshima and its Inhabitants as - described by him—A. D. 1690._ - - -Engelbert Kämpfer was the first scientific and systematic observer who -visited Japan. Of those who have since followed him, but one or two -had either his zeal, his assiduity, or his qualifications, and it is -to him that we remain indebted for no inconsiderable part of what we -yet know of that country, especially of its natural history, and its -social, religious, and political institutions. Subsequent visitors, -correcting him in some few particulars, have generally confirmed him. -The Japanese, according to the most recent observations, appear to have -changed very little since his time. - -Kämpfer was born September, 1651, in the northwest of Germany, in -the county of Lippe, at Lemgow, a small town of which his father was -minister. He was early destined for the profession of physic, and, -after the best school education his father could give him, spent three -years at the university of Cracow, in Poland, and four years more at -that of Koningsburg, in Prussia. Thence he passed to Sweden, where, -inspired with a desire of seeing foreign countries, he obtained the -place of secretary to an embassy about to be sent to the king of -Persia. That country he reached by way of Moscow, Astracan, and the -Caspian Sea, arriving at Ispahan in 1684. During his residence there, -he employed himself chiefly in researches into the natural history of -the country; and for the sake of continuing those researches, when the -embassy was the next year about to return home, he obtained, through -the recommendation of the Swedish ambassador, the place of chief -surgeon to the Dutch East India Company’s fleet, then cruising in the -Persian Gulf. “It agreed best with my inclination,” so he says in the -preface to his work on Japan, “to undertake a further journey, and I -chose rather to lead the restless and troublesome life of a traveller, -than by coming home to subject myself to a share in that train of -calamities my native country was then involved in. Therefore, I took -my leave of the ambassador and his retinue (who did me the honor to -attend me a mile out of Ispahan) with a firm resolution to spend some -years longer in seeing other Eastern courts, countries, and nations. -I was never used to receive large supplies of money from home. ’T was -by my own industry I had till then supported myself, and the very same -means maintained me afterwards, as long as I stayed abroad, and enabled -me to serve the Dutch East India Company, though in a less honorable -employment. - -“This offspring of Japhet enjoys, more than any other European nation, -the blessing of Noah to live in the tents of Shem, and to have Canaan -for their servant. God hath so blessed their valor and conduct, that -they have enlarged their trade, conquests and possessions, throughout -Asia, to the very extremities of the East, and there hath never been -wanting among them a succession of prudent and able men, who have -promoted their interests and welfare to the utmost of their capacity. -But to come to the point. It was by the gracious leave, and under the -protection of this honorable Company, that I have often obtained my end -in the Indies, and have had the satisfaction at last to see the remote -empire of Japan, and the court of its powerful monarch.” - -Kämpfer remained at Gamroon, on the Persian Gulf, for near three years, -employing his leisure in scientific researches. Leaving that unhealthy -station in June, 1688, he proceeded in the fleet along the coasts of -Persia and India to Ceylon, and thence by Sumatra to Batavia, where -he arrived in September, 1689. Having obtained the appointment of -physician to the factory in Japan, he left Batavia in May, 1690, and -having touched at Siam, of which he has given an account in his book, -on the 22d of September, about noon, he came in sight of the high -mountainous country about Nagasaki. As soon as the land was seen, all -on board were required, as the usage was, to give up their prayer-books -and other books of divinity, as also all the European money they had -about them, to the captain, who, having taken a memorandum of them, -packed away all these surrendered articles in an old cask, to be -hid away from the Japanese, but to be surrendered to the owners on -leaving Japan. At sunset, Nagasaki was six or seven leagues distant. -At midnight they reached the entrance of the bay, in which they found -fifty fathoms of water. This entrance was full of rocks and islands, -which obliged them to wait till morning; and then, being becalmed, they -fired cannon to notify their arrival. These were heard at the Dutch -factory, six miles distant, and in the afternoon four small vessels -came out with some persons from the factory, accompanied by swarms of -Japanese officers, clerks and soldiers, and the chief interpreter, who, -on boarding the ship, demanded all writings and letters, in the hands -of whomsoever they might be. They soon left, and the ship followed -slowly, making her way by kedging, till by ten at night she dropped -anchor within half a league of the city. The next morning she was towed -in still further by a fleet of Japanese boats. - -The harbor was found to be well protected, and completely enclosed by -rocks, islands and mountains, on the tops of which were guard-houses, -from which those on the look-out, by means of their spy-glasses, -detected the ship shortly after she had made the land, and had given -notice of her arrival to the authorities. Along the shore several -bastions were seen, with palisades painted red, but no cannon; and on -the hills several fortifications, screened by cloths, so as to prevent -what was in them from being visible. - -Having dropped anchor within three hundred yards of the island of -Deshima, they were again boarded by two Japanese officers, with -a host of attendants, who made a careful examination of all on -board, according to a list given them, writing down their names and -business. Five or six of the number were then subjected to a strict -cross-examination as to all the particulars of the voyage. It so -happened that the steward had died, the day before their arrival, of a -fit of apoplexy, consequent upon his being denied any more arrack, or -brandy—apart from his drinking, an able man, and, as Kämpfer tells us, -the son of a noted divine at the Hague, but who, by early indulgence, -had fallen into debaucheries and a dissolute life. Many questions were -asked about the dead man, and his breast and other parts of the corpse -were carefully examined to see if there were any cross or other mark of -the popish religion upon it. After much urging, the Japanese consented -to the immediate removal of the body; but none of the ship’s company -were allowed to attend, or to see what was done with it. - -As soon as this roll-calling and examination were over, Japanese -soldiers and revenue officers were put into every corner, and the ship -was, as it were, completely taken out of the hands of the Dutch. For -that day only, they were left in possession of the boats to look after -the anchor; but all their arms and gunpowder were taken away. “In -short,” says Kämpfer, “had I not been beforehand acquainted with their -usual proceedings, I could not have helped thinking that we had got -into a hostile country, and had been taken for spies.” That evening was -received from the factory a supply of fowls, eggs, fish, shell-fish, -turnips, radishes [daikon],—which, as Kämpfer afterwards observed, were -largely cultivated, and formed a great part of the food of the country -people,—onions, fresh ginger, pumpkins, watermelons, white bread, and a -barrel of sake, or Japanese rice-beer. - -On the twenty-ninth the officers of the factory came on board, and -calling the ship’s company together, read to them the orders of the -Dutch East India Company, and of the governor of Nagasaki, to the -effect that every one was to behave soberly and discreetly with respect -to the natives and to the laws and customs of the country. A paper -containing these orders, written in Dutch, was, according to the -Japanese custom, left on board for everybody to read. No one, except -the captain of the ship and the director, or head officer (in Dutch, -_Opperhoofd_), of the factory, could leave the ship for Deshima, or -return on board again, without a written passport, in the one case -granted by the Japanese officers on board, in the other by those upon -the island. On the twenty-sixth Kämpfer took his goods and landed for -his two years’ residence on the island. It was his object to get all -the knowledge he possibly could of the present state and past history -of Japan; but in this he encountered many difficulties. The Japanese -officers, with whom the Dutch came in contact, were all bound by an -oath, renewed every year, not to talk with the Dutch, nor to make any -disclosures to them, respecting the domestic affairs of the country, -its religion, or its politics; and not only that, they were also bound -by oath to watch and report each other—which fear of being informed -against was indeed their chief dread and restraint. “Naturally the -Japanese were,” in Kämpfer’s opinion, “their pride of warlike humor -being set aside, as civil, as polite and curious a nation as any in the -world, naturally inclined to commerce and familiarity with foreigners, -and desirous to excess to be informed of their histories, arts and -sciences. But,” he adds, “as we are only merchants, whom they place -in the lowest class of mankind, and as the narrow inspection we are -kept under must naturally lead them to some jealousy and mistrust, so -there is no other way to gain their friendship, and to win them over -to our interest, but a willingness to comply with their desire, a -liberality to please their avaricious inclinations, and a submissive -conduct to flatter their vanity. ’Twas by this means I worked myself -into such a friendship and familiarity with my interpreters, and the -officers of our island, who daily came over to us, as I believe none -before me could boast of, ever since we have been put under such narrow -regulations. Liberally assisting them as I did with my advice and -medicines, with what information I was able to give them in astronomy -and mathematics, and with a cordial and plentiful supply of European -liquors, I could also in my turn freely put to them what questions I -pleased about the affairs of their country, whether relating to the -government in civil or ecclesiastical affairs, to the customs of the -natives, to the natural and political history; and there was none that -ever refused to give me all the information he could, when we were -alone, even of things which they are strictly charged to keep secret. -The private informations thus procured from those who came to visit me -were of great use to me in collecting materials for my intended history -of this country; but yet they fell far short of being altogether -satisfactory, and I should not, perhaps, have been able to compass that -design, if I had not by good luck met with other opportunities, and -in particular the assistance of a discreet young man, by whose means -I was richly supplied with whatever information I wanted concerning -the affairs of Japan. He was about twenty-four years of age, well -versed in the Chinese and Japanese languages, and very desirous of -improving himself. Upon my arrival, he was appointed to wait upon me -as my servant, and at the same time to be by me instructed in physic -and surgery. The Otona, who is the chief officer of our island (of -Deshima), having been attended by him under my inspection in a serious -illness, suffered him to continue in my service during the whole time -of my abode in the country, which was two years, and to attend me in -our two journeys to court, consequently four times, almost from one end -of the empire to the other—a favor seldom granted to young men of his -age, and never for so long a time. As I could not well have obtained -my end without giving him a competent knowledge of the Dutch language, -I instructed him therein with so much success that in a year’s time -he could write and read it better than any of our interpreters. I -also gave him all the information I could in anatomy and physic, and -further allowed him a handsome yearly salary to the best of my ability. -In return I employed him to procure me as ample accounts as possible -of the then state and condition of the country, its government, the -imperial court, the religions established in the empire, the history of -former ages, and remarkable daily occurrences. There was not a book I -desired to see on these and other subjects, which he did not bring to -me, and explain to me out of it whatever I wanted to know. And because -he was obliged, in several things, to inquire, or to borrow, or to -buy of other people, I never dismissed him without providing him with -money for such purposes, besides his yearly allowance. So expensive, so -difficult a thing is it to foreigners, ever since the shutting up of -the Japanese empire, to procure any information about it.” - -After two years thus spent, Kämpfer left Japan in November, 1692, and -reached Amsterdam, by way of Batavia, the October following, bringing -with him a very rare collection of Japanese books, maps, coins, etc. It -had been his intention immediately on his return to prepare his notes -and memoirs for publication; but being appointed physician to the count -of Lippe, his native prince, and speedily obtaining a large private -practice, and assuming also the responsibility and cares of a family, -this purpose was long delayed. His “Amoenitates Exoticae,” notes of his -eastern travels, did not appear till 1712, and he died in 1716, leaving -his “History of Japan” still unpublished. It first appeared in 1727, -translated from the German into English, and published in two folios, -with numerous engravings[134], under the patronage of Sir Hans Sloane -and the Royal Society. There was prefixed to it by the translator, Dr. -I. G. Scheuchzer, a valuable introduction, containing a catalogue of -works upon Japan which Charlevoix, in the similar catalogue at the end -of his History of Japan, has mainly copied; as was done also by his -publishers, as to most of Kämpfer’s engravings. - -Kämpfer’s work is divided into five books[135]. The first book -contains, first, a general and particular geographical description -of the empire, derived mainly from Japanese writers; second, a -disquisition on the origin of the Japanese,—whom Kämpfer thinks, from -the evidence as well of language as of character, not to be a Chinese -colony, nor even to belong to the same stock; third, the stories, -evidently mythical, which the Japanese give of their own origin; and -fourth, an account of the climate of Japan, its minerals and metals, -plants, animals, reptiles, fish and shells. - -The second book devoted to the political state of Japan contains, -first, their mythological history; second, the annals of the Dairi, -with a description of their court and residence; and third, a list -of the Kubō-Sama. This part of the work, at least the annals, is -sufficiently dry; but it contains the substance of all that the -Japanese know or believe as to the chronology of their own history. - -The third book describes the religious state of Japan, giving an -analytical view of the different creeds prevailing there, such as -throws great light upon the confused and mixed up view taken in the -letters of the Jesuit missionaries. - -The fourth book treats of foreign relations and trade. The rise and -fall of the Portuguese missions, although the most interesting portion -of the history of Japan, is very slightly touched upon, as it seems to -have been no part of Kämpfer’s plan to revamp old materials, but to -collect new ones. - -The fifth book, and much the largest, is devoted, to his two journeys -from Nagasaki to Yedo and back—those journeys having furnished him with -the principal opportunity he enjoyed of seeing Japan as it was. - -“The place where the Dutch live,” says Kämpfer, “is called Deshima, -that is, the Fore Island, the island situated before the town; also, -Deshimamachi, or the Fore Island Street, it being reckoned as one of -the streets of Nagasaki. It has been raised from the bottom, which -is rocky and sandy, lying bare at low water. The foundation is of -freestone, and it rises about half a fathom above high water mark. In -shape it nearly resembles a fan without a handle, being of an oblong -square figure, the two longer sides segments of a circle. It is joined -to the town by a small stone bridge, a few paces long, at the end of -which is a guard-house, where there are soldiers constantly upon duty. -On the north, or seaward side, are two strong gates, never opened but -for lading and unlading the Dutch ships. The island is enclosed with -pretty high deal boards, covered with small roofs, on the top of which -is planted a double row of pikes, like a Cheval de Frise but the whole -very weak, and unable to hold out against any force. - -“Some few paces off, in the water, are thirteen posts, standing at -proper distances, with small wooden tablets at the top, upon which is -written, in large Japanese characters, an order from the governors, -strictly forbidding all boats or vessels, under severe penalties, to -come within these posts, or to approach the island. - -“Just by the bridge, towards the town, is a place where they put up the -imperial mandates and proclamations, and the orders of the governors. - -“Besides this, the Otona, or chief officer of the street, chiefly -at the time of the sale, causes orders of his own, much to the same -purpose with those of the governors, to be put up on the other side of -the bridge, just by the entry into the island[136]. - -“By my own measuring I found the breadth to be eighty-two common -paces, and the longest side two hundred and thirty-six. The surface is -commonly estimated at a stadium (about three acres). There is a narrow -walk to go round along the deal boards which enclose it. The houses -are on both sides of a broad street that runs across the island. These -houses, and the whole island, were built at the expense of some of -the inhabitants of Nagasaki, to whom, or their heirs, the Dutch pay a -yearly rent of six thousand five hundred taels—a price far beyond the -real value. The houses, built of wood, and very sorry and poor, are -two stories high, the lower stories serving as warehouses, and the -uppermost to live in. - -“The other buildings are three guard-houses, one at each end and one -in the middle of the island, and a place by the entrance, where are -kept all the necessary instruments to extinguish fires. Water for the -kitchen and for common use, which is a separate charge in addition -to the rent, comes from the river which runs through the town, being -brought over in pipes made of bamboos, into a reservoir within the -island. - -“Behind the street is a convenient house for the sale of goods, and -two warehouses, strong enough to hold out against fire, built by the -Company at their own expense; also, a large kitchen; a house for the -deputies of the governors of Nagasaki, who have the regulation of the -trade; a house for the interpreters, made use of only at the time of -the sale; a kitchen and pleasure-garden; a place to wash linen and -other things; some small private gardens, and a bath. The Otona, or -chief officer of the street, has also a house and garden of his own. - -“Such,” says Kämpfer, “is the state of island,” and such it continues -to the present time, “to that small compass of which the Dutch have -been confined by the Japanese; and as things now stand, we must be -so far satisfied with it, there being no hopes that we shall ever -be better accommodated or allowed more liberty by so jealous and -circumspect a nation. - -“Our ships, which put into this harbor once a year, after they have -been thoroughly visited by the Japanese, and proper lists taken of -all the goods on board, have leave to put their men on shore on this -island to refresh them, and to keep them there so long as they lie in -the harbor, commonly two or three months. After they have left, the -director of our trade remains in the island, with a small number of -people, about seven, or more if he thinks proper. - -“Thus we live all the year round little better than prisoners, -confined within the compass of a small island, under the perpetual and -narrow inspection of our keepers. ’Tis true, indeed, we are now and -then allowed a small escape, an indulgence which, without flattering -ourselves, we can by no means suppose to be an effect of their love -and friendship, for as much as it is never granted to us, unless it -be to pay our respects to some great men, or for some other business, -necessary on our side and advantageous for the natives. Nor doth the -coming out, even upon these occasions, give us any greater liberty than -we enjoy on our island, as will appear, first, by the great expenses of -our journeys and visits, great or small, and by the number of guards -and inspectors who constantly attend us, as if we were traitors and -professed enemies of the empire. - -“After the departure of our ships, the director of our trade, or -resident of the Dutch East India Company, sets out with a numerous -retinue on his journey to court, to pay his respects to the emperor, -and to make the usual yearly presents. This journey must be made once -a year, not only by the Dutch, but, also, by all the lords and princes -of the empire, as being the emperor’s vassals; and our own embassy -is looked upon at court as an homage paid by the Dutch nation to the -emperor of Japan, as their sovereign lord. Upon the journey we are not -allowed any more liberty than even close prisoners could reasonably -claim. We are not suffered to speak to anybody, not even (except by -special leave) to the domestics and servants of the inns we lodge at. -As soon as we come to an inn, we are without delay carried up stairs, -if possible, or into the back apartments, which have no other view but -into the yard, which, for a still greater security, and to prevent any -thoughts of escape, is immediately shut and nailed up. Our retinue, -which, by special command from the governors of Nagasaki, guards, -attends, and assists us in our journey, is composed of the interpreters -and cooks of our island, and of a good number of soldiers, servants, -bailiffs, porters, and people, to look after our horses and baggage, -which must be conveyed on horseback. All these people, though never so -needless, must be maintained at the Company’s expense[137]. - -“Before our departure from Yedo, and again upon our return, our -director, with one of his Company, goes to make a visit to the -governors of Nagasaki, at their palace, to return them thanks for their -protection, and to entreat its continuance. Nor can even this visit be -made without a numerous train of guards, soldiers, and bailiffs. - -“Another visit, and with the like numerous attendants, is made to the -governors by the director of our factory, upon the first day of the -eighth month, when it is usual to make them a present. - -“The few Dutchmen who remain at Deshima, after the departure of our -ships, are permitted, once or twice a year, to take a walk into -the adjacent country, and in particular to view the temples about -Nagasaki. This liberty is oftener granted to physicians and surgeons, -under pretence of going to search for medicinal plants. However, this -pleasure-walk falls very expensive to us, for it must be made in -company of the Otona, of our ordinary interpreters, and other officers -in our service, who are handsomely treated by us at dinner in one of -the temples of the Ikkoshiu sect; and we must on this occasion, and -that with seeming satisfaction, see our purses strongly squeezed for -the most common civilities shown us by the priests of the temple. - -“The festival of Suwa, the patron and protector of Nagasaki, falling -just upon the time when our ships lie in the harbor, our people are -permitted to view this solemnity from a scaffold, built at our own -expense, our presence being not only thought honorable to their -saint, but, what they value still more, advantageous to many of his -worshippers. It may be easily imagined that our train and guards are -not lessened upon such an occasion. On the contrary, we are examined -and searched four times before we come to the place where the solemnity -is performed, and again afterwards counted over several times with -all possible accuracy, when we go up and when we come down from the -scaffold, as if it were possible for some of us to slip out between -their fingers. Our slaves, also, are admitted to this solemnity, as -black Dutchmen[138]. - -“Another day is set apart for viewing five large boats, which must be -constantly kept, at the expense of the Dutch East India Company, for -the lading and unlading of our ships. This is again done with the same -numerous retinue, which we afterwards entertain at dinner at one of the -neighboring temples. - -“When one of our ships hath been discovered to steer towards the -harbor, some of the Dutchmen left at Deshima are sent to meet her, in -order to get a preliminary information of her cargo and condition. The -Company for this purpose constantly keeps two barges in readiness, -large enough to take on board our usual numerous attendants, which, -together with the commissioners for victualling, attending in their -own barge, with a good provision of victuals and refreshments, must be -treated in the neighboring small island, Iwō-ga-shima, the whole again -at the Company’s expense. - -“These are the days allowed us for our recreation, if it may be -called a recreation to be led about, like prisoners, under the narrow -inspection of so many attentive eyes; for, as to the several officers -concerned in the management of our island and trade, and permitted -on that account to converse with us, no sincere friendship, good -understanding, or familiarity, can be by any means expected of them; -for, before they are admitted into our service, they must oblige -themselves, by a solemn oath, to deny us all manner of communication, -credit, or friendship, any ways tending to support or promote our -interest. - -“The person who takes this oath prays the vengeance of the supreme -gods of the heavens and the chief magistrates of the country upon him, -his family, his domestics, his friends and near relatives, in case he -doth not sincerely fulfil and satisfy to all and every article, as -they are read and specified to him after the form of the oath, which, -together with these articles, must be signed by him, and sealed with -his seal[139], dipped in black ink, pouring, for a still stronger -confirmation, some drops of his own blood upon it, which he fetches -by pricking one of his fingers behind the nail. This must be repeated -twice a year, at least: first, about the beginning of the year, at the -time when they perform the solemn act of theirs of trampling upon the -image of our blessed Saviour, pendent from the cross, of the Virgin -Mary, and of other holy persons, as a public and unquestionable proof -that they forever renounce the Christian religion[140]; and again, -after the arrival of our ships in the harbor, in order to remind -them of the solemn obligation they lay under, and to renew their -hatred towards us. The persons who are to attend us in our journey -to court must, immediately after their departure, take a third oath, -promising that they will have a strict hand and watchful eye over us -and our conduct all along the road, and that they will not show us any -particular acts of friendship, or enter into any kind of familiarity -with us. - -“This oath, however, though never so terrible and binding, would be but -little regarded by this nation, were it not for the severe punishment -put by the civil magistrate upon the least transgression thereof,—a -crime that is not to be expiated but by shedding the very same blood -the oath hath been confirmed by. - -“Thus much I cannot forbear owning, in justice to the natives, that, -even amidst all the troubles and hardships we are exposed to in this -country, we have at least this comfort, that we are treated by our -numerous guardians and overseers with apparent civility, with caresses, -compliments, presents of victuals, and other marks of deference, so -far as it is not inconsistent with their reasons of state. But this, -their gentle and reasonable behavior on our behalf, is owing more to -the custom of the country, and to the innate civility and good manners -of the natives, than to any particular esteem they have for us, or any -favor they are willing to show us. - -“No Japanese, who seems to have any regard or friendship for the Dutch, -is looked upon as an honest man and true lover of his country. This -maxim is grounded upon the principle that it is absolutely contrary -to the interests of the country, against the pleasure of their -sovereign,—nay, by virtue of the oath they have taken, even against the -supreme will of the gods, and the dictates of their conscience,—to show -any favor to foreigners. Nay, they pursue this false reasoning still -further, and pretend that a friend of foreigners must of necessity -be an enemy to his country, and a rebel to his sovereign; for, they -say, if the country should happen to be attacked or invaded by these -foreigners, the laws and ties of friendship would oblige him to stand -by them, and, consequently, to become a traitor to his country and -sovereign. - -“Hence, to overreach a Dutchman; to ask extravagant prices of him; -to cheat and defraud him (so much as they think will not prove -prejudicial to their reputation, which they have a very tender regard -for); to lessen the liberties and advantages of the Dutch; to propose -new projects for making their servitude and condition still worse, -and the like, are looked upon as good, handsome, and lawful things in -themselves, and unquestionable proofs of a good patriot. - -“If anybody steals anything of the Dutch, and it be found upon him -(which the kuri[141], or porters, we employ at the time of our sale are -very dexterous at), there is seldom any other punishment inflicted upon -him but restitution of the stolen goods, and a few lashes from soldiers -upon duty at our gate. Sometimes he is banished from the island for a -short time, or, if the crime be very notorious, from the town, though -that is done but seldom. But the penalty inflicted upon smugglers is -no less than an unavoidable death, either by beheading or the cross, -according to the nature of the crime, and the degree of guilt. - -“The lading and unlading of our ships, and other business of this kind, -must not be done by our own people, but by the natives, who are well -paid for their work, whilst our people stand idle, and have nothing to -do but to look at them. But this is not the only grievance, for they -always hire at least twice as many people as there is occasion for, -and, if they work but one hour, we must, nevertheless, pay them a whole -day’s wages. - -“All the people who have anything to do for or with us, though never so -numerous, and mere meddlers, must be maintained by us, either directly -by appointed salaries, or indirectly by the money which the governors -of the town detain from the price of our commodities. - -“No Dutchman can send a letter out of the country, unless the contents -be first entered into a register-book kept for this purpose, and a -copy of it left with the governors. As to letters from abroad, all -the public ones must be sent directly to the governors, before they -are opened. As to the private ones, there are ways and means secretly -to convey them to us, which the government connives at, though it be -contrary to law. - -“No Japanese is permitted to send any letters or presents to their -relatives abroad (there being still some left from former marriages -with the Dutch), or to receive any from them, unless they be first -carried to the governors, to be by them opened, and left entirely at -their disposal. - -“Formerly, when a Dutchman died at Nagasaki, his body, deemed unworthy -of their ground, was thrown into the sea, somewhere without the harbor. -But, of late, an empty spot of waste ground was assigned us, and leave -given us decently to bury our dead there. - -“It is an easy matter for anybody, whether native or foreigner, to make -his claims upon the Dutch; but we find it very difficult to obtain -justice from others. In the first case, the government is always -willing to give the complaining party damages, without so much as -considering whether the claim be upon the whole Company, or some of its -officers and servants, and whether it be just to make the former suffer -for the misdemeanors of the latter. But, if we have any complaint to -make, we generally meet with so many difficulties and tedious delays as -would deter anybody from pressing even the most righteous cause. One -instance out of many will be sufficient. The famous Chinese pirate, -_Koxinga_ [Kokusenya], having made himself master of the island of -Formosa, and of our fortress, Tayouan or Zelandia thereon, we took an -opportunity, by way of reprisals, to attack a large junk of his, bound -for that island, with about three hundred men on board, and to disable -her with our fire, so that, although she drove for about thirteen days -after the attack, yet not above nine of the whole company saved their -lives. Upon this, heavy complaints were made by the Chinese to the -government of Nagasaki, and with so good an effect that the same year -twenty-seven thousand taels damages were assigned to them out of our -treasury. Some time after, about the year 1672, one of our ships having -unfortunately stranded upon the coast of Formosa, the ship’s company -was barbarously murdered, and the whole cargo taken possession of by -the Chinese subjects of _Koxinga_; whereupon we made our complaints, -before the very same court, against this act of hostility, but with so -little success that, far from having any damages assigned us, we could -not obtain the restitution of so much as one farthing[142]. - -“The chief and most extensive company or corporation of the officers -of our island, is that of the Interpreters, or, in the literal sense, -_through-mouths_. Those of the first order, called _true Interpreters_, -are eight in number. By virtue of their office they are obliged to -assist and attend us whenever there is occasion; and so far, indeed, -they execute their duty with great preciseness, that we can scarce ever -one moment get rid of their importunate presence; for as they are made -answerable for our conduct, so they spare no pains nor trouble to have -a watchful eye over us. - -[Illustration: ATTACK ON FORT ZEELANDIA IN FORMOSA - _From Verwaerloosde Formosa_] - -“Four of these are high interpreters, of whom one is Nemban, signifying -a yearly guardian, or person appointed to report upon another. This -officer is only annual, and to him all petitions and complaints, and -whatever else relates to us and to our commerce, must be delivered, and -by him, with the consent of his brethren, to the commanding governor or -his deputy. He hath the greatest share in the management of our island, -in the direction of our trade, and in all our affairs in general. The -four other interpreters, though of the same order, are called inferior -interpreters. They have not near the authority of the first four, whom -they are to assist in the performance of their duties. They, too, have -a Nemban, or president of their own, who is a sort of deputy to the -chief Nemban. Both Nembans attend us in our journey to the court, their -year of office terminating with their return. - -“They are paid by fees and presents (to buy their favor), and by -profits on the hire of laborers for the Company, and horses for the -journey to court. The whole income of a chief interpreter may amount to -three thousand taels and upwards, and that of an inferior interpreter -is seldom less than one thousand five hundred taels; and yet, with -all this income, they live but sparingly, because they must maintain -out of this money numerous families, and sometimes poor relations, -whom, according to the innate pride of this nation, they won’t suffer -to appear necessitous. Some part, also, of their revenue is spent in -presents to the governors of Nagasaki and their deputies. - -“Next to the chief interpreters, must be mentioned the _learning -interpreters_, or _apprentices_. They are never less than eight, -but sometimes more, all sons to the chief interpreters, by birth or -adoption. They come over to us every day, in order to learn the Dutch -and Portuguese languages, as well as the art and mystery of dealing -with foreigners. They are employed as spies upon several occasions, as -also to inspect the lading and unlading of our ships, to search the -sailors, and such others as go on board or leave the vessels. They -also examine the goods imported, and exported, and are allowed for -these services a salary of forty taels a year, besides a share in the -boarding wages and other perquisites. - -“After these come the _house interpreters_, employed by private -Dutchmen within their own houses. They have nothing to do on our -island, unless it be at the time of our yearly fair, or sale, when, -after having taken a solemn oath to avoid all communication, intimacy, -and familiarity with us, they are by the Otona admitted into our -service. From two to six are assigned to every Dutchman, during the -whole time of our fair, nominally as interpreters, but in fact as spies -to watch his actions; for there is scarce one in ten of them that -understands a Dutch word, excepting some few who have been servants to -the Dutch formerly. - -“There are upwards of a hundred of these house interpreters, who all -stand under the command of the chief interpreters, and particularly the -Nemban, or president for the time being. Their salaries, an uncertain -sum, taken out of the taxes laid upon the Dutch trade, are supposed, -one year with another, to amount about six thousand taels, which they -divide among themselves, according to their rank and office, and as -it is computed that the twelve chiefs among them get at furthest two -hundred taels apiece, the rest must take up with half that money, and -sometimes with less. This company of interpreters have four treasurers -and two clerks to keep their cash and an account of what is paid in and -out. - -“Two fundamental maxims they go upon: to do what lies in their power, -insensibly to increase the yearly expenses of the Dutch, to the -advantage of their countrymen, as becomes true patriots; to conceal -as much as possible all the tricks and cheats they perpetually play -us, lest the natives should come to know them. Both these ends they -endeavor to obtain by confining us still more and more, looking upon -this as the surest means to keep us ignorant of the language of the -country, and to prevent all conversation and familiarity with the -natives. If there be any of our people that hath made any considerable -progress in the Japanese language, they are sure, under some pretext -or other, to obtain an order from the governors to expel him from the -country. - -“The only thing wherein the captains, as they are here called, or -directors of our trade (a province the Japanese will suffer them to -have very little to do with), can be useful to the Company and show -their zeal for their master’s service, is to act contrary to these -principles, and to find out ways and means civilly to refuse what new -requests are from time to time made to them. For if any one of these -demands be granted but once, or any new charge, though never so small, -be suffered to be laid upon us, they make it a precedent forever after. -And herein they particularly endeavor to deceive new directors, who -never have been in the country before, and whom they suppose to be -not fully apprised of their ways of proceeding. On this account they -will often, on the first year of their presence help them to a very -profitable trade, knowing, in case their demands be not admitted, how -to balance it the next with a more chargeable and less profitable one. - -“The officer next in rank to the president of the interpreters, -and having jurisdiction over everybody on the island except the -interpreters, is the Otona, or magistrate of the street. He has the -inspection of our trade, and of the yearly sale of our goods, jointly -with the company of interpreters. He keeps a particular list of those -of our goods that belong to private persons, keeps those goods in his -custody, and gives orders when and how they are to be disposed of. He -takes care that our street, houses and other buildings, be kept in good -repair, and likewise, as much as lies in his power, that they be not -injured by thieves, fire, or other accidents. He protects our servants, -cooks, daily laborers, and all persons who are within his jurisdiction, -composes the difference arising between them, admits and swears them -into their respective employments, and dismisses them as he pleases. He -gives passports and tickets to come to Deshima, nobody being permitted -to enter this island without them. He is obliged, by virtue of his -office and by the oath he hath taken, narrowly to examine into the -conduct, life and behavior, not only of our servants and officers, but -also of ourselves, and to keep us to a strict obedience to the imperial -orders, though he is very cautious of laying any commands upon us of -his own sole authority, knowing that we would refuse to obey them. - -“However, he hath so much power over us that in case any considerable -crime be committed, or any disregard shown to the imperial orders, by -any one of us, he can arrest him, and lay him in irons, of which there -are many and almost daily instances. - -“Our present Otona, Yoshikawa Gibuyemon, as on one side he worked -himself into no small esteem and favor with the government by his great -severity in the execution of his office, but chiefly by having betrayed -us and our interest in a late affair[143], so much is he, on the other -side, hated by us. I will not take upon me to examine what reasons -he hath to allege for his conduct in that affair, though I have been -credibly informed he had very good ones. Thus far I must do justice -to his character, and own that he shows a great deal of prudence in -his conduct, that he is no ways given to covetousness or falsehood, -as, also, that he is an enemy to ignorance and brutality, and so well -versed in the moral doctrine of Kōshi (or Confucius), and in the -history, laws, and religion of his country, that he hath been desired -to write the history of the province of Hizen. - -“The Otona has under him a Nichigyōshi, or messenger, whose business -it is daily to examine into the condition and safety of the locks at -the water-gates, to look into the state of our warehouses and other -buildings, and to give his master notice of what he finds out of -repair; also several clerks, who are to make lists of all the movable -goods belonging to private persons, which may be disposed of, to seal -them up in the Otona’s name, and to take them into safe custody. - -“The Otona hath the same salary allowed him by the Dutch East India -Company as the chief interpreter, and the same share in the money -detained by the order of the government from the price of our goods, -besides several other advantages, as, for instance, his salary as -Otona of another street in the town, many presents and gratifications -made him by the proprietors of our island, and a considerable part -of the yearly rents we pay for the same, he having already purchased -about a third of our houses. His greatest profits arise from the Dutch -goods bought up for him at a cheap rate in other people’s names, and -afterwards sold by him for much more than their prime cost. - -“Next to the Otona are our twenty-four landlords, or proprietors of our -island. They visit us but seldom, except at the time of our sale, when -they make their appearance daily, to look after the condition of our -houses, to be present and lend a helping hand in making a list of all -our commodities, household goods, and other things, and, what is more, -to have a watchful eye over us, their tenants, and to examine into -our behavior and conduct, as being, by virtue of the laws and customs -of the country, answerable for the same, and, in case of accidents -and misdemeanors, sentenced to bear a share either in the loss or -punishment. - -“Next come the five secretaries of the island, a sort of deputies to -the chief interpreters. Their business is to keep an account of the -presents made by the Dutch, of their ordinary expenses, the expenses -of their journey to court, and other things of this kind, which are -thought beneath the dignity of the chief interpreters. Nay, they -themselves being not always willing to despatch their business in -person, keep also their deputies. The Company allows a constant salary -only to two, and these are to attend us in our journey to court. The -others are rewarded by handsome gratuities at the time of our sale. - -“The inspectors of our kuri[144], or workmen, consist of fifteen -persons. One of the fifteen is quartermaster, who must be present in -person to encourage and look after them when there is any work to -be done. The whole company is to take care that we be not robbed by -these kulis, they being very dexterous at it, whenever a favorable -opportunity occurs. For this reason our East India Company allows them -a constant salary. - -“The kulis, who are employed in lading and unlading of our ships, are -people unknown to us, and taken out of the town. All we know of them -is, that we must pay them well for their trouble. In order to make it -beneficial to the whole town, the Otona of each street keeps a list of -what people in his street are willing or able to serve as kulis, that -in their turn they may be sent over to Deshima. - -“The _treasury officers_ are a company of thirty-six persons, superior -and inferior, who receive the money for the goods we have disposed of, -change it into kobans of gold, and deliver them to our interpreters, -who count them before us. These treasurers retain one per cent, for -their trouble, and fifteen per cent or more for the benefit of the -town, according to the yearly value of the koban, which varies from -fifty-five to fifty-nine mas in silver, besides which, the director of -this Company receives a hundred taels a year salary from the Dutch, and -the rest of the number fifty taels. - -“Our commissioners for victualling are a company of about seventeen -house-keepers of Nagasaki with their families. Their business is to -provide our island with victuals, drink, household goods, and what else -we want, or have leave to buy, of this kind. Nobody but the members of -this corporation is permitted to sell us any victuals or goods, though -they exact so much upon us that they make us pay at least twice or -thrice as much as things are sold for at the market. They also furnish -our people, on demand, with courtesans; and, truly, our young sailors, -unacquainted as they commonly are with the virtue of temperance, are -not ashamed to spend five rix dollars for one night’s pleasure, and -with such wenches, too, as a native of Nagasaki might have for two -or three mas, they being none of the best and handsomest; nor do the -masters of the women get more than a tael. The rest is laid up in the -cash of this Company for their own private use, or, as they pretend, to -hire proper servants to conduct the damsels over to our island. - -“The officers of the kitchen consist of three cooks, who serve by -turns, each a month, of two grooms of the kitchen, an apprentice or -two, who are generally the cook’s own sons, likely to succeed their -fathers in time, lastly of some laborers to carry water. This is the -reason that our table is so very expensive, since the best part of the -year, the time of our sale only excepted, there are actually more cooks -than people to provide victuals for. And yet we have strict commands -from the governors of the town, not in the least to alter this number, -nor to get our victuals dressed by our own people. We are obliged to -allow one hundred and fifty taels a year to the first, one hundred and -thirty to the second, and one hundred to the third. There are, besides, -some other people who now and then do some little service in and for -our kitchen, such as a man to look after our cattle,—though but very -few in number, and of very little use to us, the males being generally -secretly poisoned, or their legs broken in the night, to prevent -their multiplying too much, which, ’tis apprehended would turn to the -disadvantage of the commissioners of victualling,—a gardener and some -other menial servants. This being looked upon by the meaner sort of -people at Nagasaki as a perquisite, which every one is glad to have a -share of in his turn, these servants are relieved once a month, and -others sent in their stead, to do their business, out of every street -of Nagasaki. But the chief reason why they relieve them so often is -because they apprehend a longer stay might make them too familiar with -us, and perhaps too favorable for our interest. - -“The Dutch, out of a particular favor, are permitted to have some -young boys to wait upon them in the daytime. They are entered in the -Otona’s book in quality of messengers. They are commonly sons of the -inferior interpreters and other officers of our island, who, by this -opportunity of learning the Dutch language, qualify themselves in time -to succeed their fathers. However, care is taken that they stay in our -service only so long as they are looked upon as simple, and ignorant of -the state and interest of their country, or else so long as the Otona -pleases to give them leave; but never without sufficient security, -given upon oath, by a respectable inhabitant of Nagasaki, who obliges -himself to be answerable for their misbehavior. Thus much must be owned -in justice to these young boys, that more readiness to do what they are -commanded, and a greater fidelity in the custody of the goods they are -entrusted with by their masters, is hardly to be met with in any other -nation. - -“Some tradesmen and artificers of several companies in Nagasaki, are -also permitted to come over to our island, when sent for, provided they -have leave of the governors, which must be obtained every time they are -wanted. - -“The guards employed to watch us are two within the island, and three -without. Six of the poorer inhabitants of Nagasaki, furnished by turns -from all the streets, and relieved once a month, have their appropriate -stations within the island, whence they go over to one another all -night, and indicate, according to the custom of the country, both their -vigilance and the hours, by beating two wooden cylinders, one against -the other. They are also to watch thieves, accidents of fire, and the -like. - -“During the sale, another guard, on purpose to watch accidents of fire, -is kept by our Otona, his clerks, our landlords, the officers of our -exchequer, and the cooks. In their first round they knock at every -door, to ask whether there be no Japanese hid within, and to recommend -to the occupants to take care of the fire. The Otona must be present at -least once in the night, when, according to the custom of the country, -his fire-staff, hung about with iron rings, as the badge of his -authority, is carried rattling after him. The Dutch also keep, at the -same time, a watch of their own people, to take care that their masters -be not robbed by their Japanese guards. - -[Illustration: NAGASAKI HARBOR] - -“The _Ship and Harbor Guard_, appointed to have a general inspection -over all foreigners, Chinese as well as Dutch, goes the round of the -harbor all night, particularly about our island. The _Spy Guard_ -watches from the mountains back of the town the approach of foreign -ships. The _Gate Guard_ keeps the gate towards the town, that being the -only passage in and out. It is mounted daily by five persons, their -servants not computed. At the time of the sale of our goods there are -never less than ten, but sometimes twelve or more, and to these, its -regular members, are added at that time two persons from the ship -and harbor guard, two from the spy guard, four furnished by the town of -Nagasaki, four by the silk merchants, and two on the part of the two -chief magistrates or burgomasters of the lower town of Nagasaki, one of -whom keeps the journal of the guard, wherein (for the information of -the governors of the town, who, at least once a month, call for this -record and look it over) is entered what passes from hour to hour, and -what persons and things go in or out. Yet, without express orders from -the governors, or leave given by the Otona, nothing is suffered to -pass through but what is sent in by those appointed to provide us with -necessaries and unprohibited goods. For a still greater security, three -sworn searchers are added to this guard, one or two of whom attend -constantly hard by the gate, to search whoever goes in or out. Nor is -anybody exempted from being searched but the governors, their deputies -or commissioners, with their retinues, and our ordinary interpreters -and their sons, who are entered as apprentices. - -“Such a variety of people of different ranks and characters being to do -duty upon one guard, it obliges on the one side everybody to discharge -their duty to the utmost of their power, and on the other it puts the -government out of all apprehensions of their plotting or conspiring -together; for, in fact, they are not only to watch us, and the people -who have business with us, and, on this account, go in and out of our -island, but each other also. Among the things which stand by, or are -hung upon the walls of the guard-house, are irons to put on criminals, -ropes to bind them, heavy staffs to beat them, and a particular sort of -an instrument, a kind of hook or rake, which they make use of to catch -thieves and deserters, and which is commonly carried about at their -public execution. - -“All these people, although they maintain themselves and their families -entirely by what they get by us and our service, yet from their conduct -one would think them to be our sworn enemies, always intent to do us -what mischief they can, and so much the more to be feared, as their -hatred and enmity is hid under the specious color of friendship, -deference, and good-will. - -“Considering that there are so very few Dutchmen left in the island, -one would imagine that the Japanese had no reason to be uneasy, or -anyways apprehensive of our conduct. Surely such a small number of -people, and those, too, deprived of arms and ammunition (the very first -thing which the Japanese take into their custody upon the arrival of -our ships), would never take it into their heads to make any attempt -against the peace and tranquillity of the empire. As to smuggling, -they have too well prevented any attempts of that kind, by taking -not only an exact inventory of all our goods and commodities, but by -locking them up under their own locks and seals. Even the cloth and -stuffs which are brought over for our own use must be delivered into -the custody of the Otona, till one of their own tailors, sworn for this -purpose, cuts them, allowing each of us just so much as will make him -a good suit. But what they have still less reason to be apprehensive -of, is the subversion of their pagan doctrine and religion, so little -conspicuous are the principles of Christianity in our lives and -actions. Nevertheless, so many guards, corporations, societies, with -their numerous attendants, all upon oath, and themselves jealous and -mistrustful one of another, are set to guard and narrowly to watch us, -as if we were the greatest malefactors, traitors, spies—in a word, -the worst and most dangerous set of people; or, to make use of a very -significant expression of the Japanese, as if we were, what I think we -really are, Hitodichi, that is, the emperor’s hostages.” - -It is to be observed that in different parts of his book Kämpfer -appears in two distinct characters. Sometimes he seems to be the mere -surgeon of the Dutch factory, fully sharing and giving voice to all the -feelings and prejudices of that establishment, bringing before us, in -a very lively manner, the angry Dutch factors grumbling over the new -restrictions lately put upon the Dutch trade, and especially the new -precaution against smuggling. Elsewhere he shows himself perfectly able -to enter into all the views and feelings of the Japanese; and however -angry he may occasionally get at the obstacles encountered by himself, -especially on the part of the old chief interpreter, in his efforts to -obtain a full knowledge of Japanese affairs, he had evidently conceived -a strong liking for the Japanese people, and never fails to do them -justice, whether as individuals or as a nation. He composed, indeed, a -formal dissertation, originally published in his “Amœnitates,” in which -he enters into an elaborate defence of the policy of the Japanese in -their jealous exclusion of foreigners; nor can any one who calls to -mind the consequences of that intercourse to the natives of Eastern -Asia and America, and especially the history of the late Anglo-Chinese -opium war, deny the plausibility at least of the argument. - - - - -CHAPTER XXVIII - - _Particular Statement as to the Dutch Trade as it existed in Kämpfer’s - Time—Arrival of the Ships—Unlading—Passes—Imports—Company and Private - Goods—Kambans, or Public Sales—Duties—Profits—Exports—Departure of the - Ships—Smuggling—Execution of Smugglers._ - - -“The Dutch ships,” says Kämpfer, “are expected some time in September, -towards the latter end of the southwest monsoon, that being the only -time proper for this navigation.[145] As soon as the spy guards with -their glasses discover a ship steering towards the harbor, and send -notice of her approach to the governors of Nagasaki, three persons of -our factory are sent with the usual attendance to meet her about two -miles without the harbor, and to deliver to the captain the necessary -instructions, from the director of our trade, with regard to his -behavior. - -“The interpreter and the deputies of the governors demand forthwith the -list of the cargo and crew, as also the letters on board, which are -carried to Nagasaki, where the governors first examine and then deliver -them to our director. - -“The ship follows as soon as possible, and, having entered the harbor, -salutes both imperial guards with all her guns, and casts anchor -opposite to the town, about a musket-shot from our island. If the wind -be contrary, rowing-boats (kept for this purpose by the common people -of the town) are sent at our expense, but not at our desire, to tow her -in by force. In still weather they send about ten of these boats; if it -be stormy, and the wind contrary, they increase the number to fifty, -and sometimes to a hundred—so many as they think necessary—that is, at -least twice the number there is occasion for. - -“When the ship has entered the harbor, two guard-boats, with a good -number of soldiers, are put one on each side of her, and continued, -being mounted with fresh troops every day, till she leaves. As soon -as the ship drops anchor, great numbers of officers come on board -to demand our guns, cutlasses, swords and other arms, as also the -gunpowder packed up in barrels, which are taken into their custody, and -kept in a store-house, built for this purpose, till her departure. They -attempted, also, in former times, to take out the rudder, but, having -found it impracticable, they now leave it in. - -“The next day after her arrival, the commissioners of the governor -come on board, with their usual attendance of soldiers, interpreters, -and subordinate officers, to make an exact review, in presence of our -director, of all the people on board, according to the list which hath -been given them, and wherein is set down every one’s name, age, birth, -place of residence, and office, examining them from top to toe. Many -questions are asked, as to those who died on the voyage, when and of -what distemper they died. Even now and then a dead monkey or parrot may -occasion a strict inquiry to be made after the cause and manner of -their death, and they are so scrupulous that they will not give their -verdict, without sitting upon the body itself, and carefully examining -it. - -“After this, the orders of our director, and likewise of the governors -of Nagasaki, relating to our behavior with regard to the natives, are -read in Low Dutch, and afterwards, for every one’s inspection, stuck up -in several places on board the ship, and at Deshima. The same rules are -observed with all our ships, of which there are two, three, or four, -sent from Batavia to Japan every year, according to the quantity of -copper they have occasion for; one of which goes first to Siam, to make -up part of her cargo with the commodities of that country. Formerly, -when the Dutch as yet enjoyed a free trade, they sent seldom less than -six or seven ships, and sometimes more. - -“The review being over, they proceed to unlade the ships, during which, -several of the governors’ officers, a chief interpreter, a deputy -interpreter, and an apprentice, besides several clerks and inferior -officers, remain on board, taking possession of every corner, to see -that nothing be carried away privately. The water gates of our island, -through which the cargo is to be brought in, are opened in presence of -the _karō_, that is, high commissioners of the governors, and their -retinue. So long as the gates are kept open, the karō, with their -deputies and other assistants, stay in a room built for this purpose, -not far off. The whole body of interpreters, as also our landlords, -clerks, and other officers of our island, give their attendance, and -also their assistance, at that time. They fall to work with three -hundred or more kuri, or workmen—always at least twice the number there -is occasion for. The unlading of every ship ought to be performed -in two days, but notwithstanding the number of men they employ, they -generally make a three days’ work of it, in order to make it so much -the more beneficial to the town. - -“The goods are brought from the ship in boats, kept for this purpose -only, at the Company’s expense. Being brought within the water gates, -they are laid before the commissioners, who set them down in writing, -count them, compare them with the list that hath been given in (opening -a bale or two of each sort, picked out from among the rest), and -then order them to be locked up, under their seal, in the Company’s -warehouse, until the day of sale. The trunks belonging to private -persons are set down at the entry of the island, and there opened and -examined. If the owner doth not forthwith appear with the key, they -proceed, without any further ceremony, to open them with axes. All -vendible goods are taken out and locked up under their seals. Some -other things, also, which they do not approve of, as, for instance, -arms, stuff, and cloth wrought with gold and silver, as also all -contraband goods, are taken into custody by the Otona, who returns them -to the owner upon his departure. - -“No European, nor any other foreign money, and, in general, nothing -that hath the figure of a cross, saint, or beads, upon it, is suffered -to pass. If any such thing should be found upon any of our people, it -would occasion such a confusion and fright among the Japanese as if -the whole empire had been betrayed. I have already taken notice that, -upon our drawing near the harbor, every one is obliged to deliver his -prayer-books, and other books of divinity, as also all European money, -to the captain, who packs them all up in an old cask, and hides them. - -“Those who are newly arrived must suffer themselves, in going in or -coming out of our island, to be searched, whether or no they have any -contraband goods about them. Every one who wishes to go on board, -whether it be for his own private business, or in the Company’s -service, is obliged to take out a pass-board from the commissioners at -the water gates, and, in like manner, when he returns on shore, he must -take out another from those on the ship. - -“At night, when the commissioners sent on board the ship return with -their retinue to Nagasaki, the cabin is sealed up in their presence, -and all the Dutchmen accurately counted over, to see that there be none -wanting, which would occasion a very great confusion. During my stay -in Japan it happened that a common sailor unfortunately was drowned in -the night, nobody perceiving his falling into the water. At the review -made the next morning (for it is constantly made every morning and -night) the fellow was missed. This unlucky accident suddenly stopped -all proceedings, and the fear lest it should be a Roman Catholic -priest, who had made his escape into the country, occasioned such a -consternation among the Japanese, that all the officers ran about, -scratching their heads, and behaving as if they had lost their senses, -and some of the soldiers in the guard-ships were already preparing to -rip themselves open, when at last the unlucky fellow’s body being taken -up from the bottom of the harbor put an end to their fears. - -“At all other times, that for lading and unlading our ships excepted, -the water gates are shut, by which means all communication is cut off -between those that stay on board and those that remain on shore. The -ship’s cargo having been placed in the warehouses, the goods lie there -till they are pleased, in two or three days of sale, which they call -_Kamban_, to sell them. What remains unsold is carried back to the -warehouses, and kept there against the next year’s sale. - -“The following goods are imported by us: raw silk, from China, Tonquin, -Bengal, and Persia; all sorts of silks, woollen, and other stuffs -(provided they be not wrought with gold and silver); Brazil wood; -buffalo, and other hides; raw skins, wax, and buffalo horns from Siam; -tanned hides from Persia, Bengal, and other places, but none from Spain -and Manila, under pain of incurring their utmost displeasure; pepper; -sugar, in powder and candied; cloves; nutmegs; camphor, from Borneo -and Sumatra; quicksilver; cinnabar; saffron; lead; saltpetre; borax; -alum; musk; gum benzoin; gum lac; rosmal, or _storax liquida_; catechu, -commonly called Terra Japonica; fustic; corals; amber; right antimony -(which they use to color their china ware); looking-glasses, which -they cut up to make spy-glasses, magnifying glasses, and spectacles, -out of them. Other things of less note are snakewood; mangoes, and -other unripe East India fruits, pickled with Turkish pepper, garlic, -and vinegar; black lead and red pencils; sublimate of mercury (but no -calomel); fine files; needles; spectacles; large drinking-glasses of -the finest sort; counterfeit corals; strange birds, and other foreign -curiosities, both natural and artificial. Some of these are often sold -in private, by sailors and others, without being produced upon the -_Kamban_, and in this case the Dutch make no scruple to get as much for -them beyond their real value as possibly they can. - -“Of all the imported goods, raw silk is the best liked, though it -yields the least profit of any. All sorts of stuffs and cloths yield -a considerable and sure profit, and should there be never so much -imported, the consumption in so populous a country would be still -greater. Brazil wood and hides are also to be disposed of to very good -advantage. The most profitable commodities are sugar, catechu, storax -liquida, camphor of Borneo (which they covet above all other sorts), -looking-glasses, etc., but only when they have occasion for them, and -when the Chinese have imported in small quantities. Corals and amber -are two of the most valuable commodities in these eastern parts; but -Japan hath been so thoroughly provided by smugglers, that at present -there is scarce fifty per cent to be got upon them, whereas formerly we -could sell them, ten, nay, a hundred times dearer. The price of these -things, and of all natural and artificial curiosities, varies very -much, according to the number and disposition of the buyers, who may be -sure to get cent per cent clear profit by them, at what price soever -they buy them. - -“The yearly sum to the value of which the Dutch are permitted to sell -goods imported by them is, by Japanese reckoning, three hundred chests -of silver, each of a thousand taels, or in gold fifty thousand kobans; -the highest value of the koban, as current in Japan, being sixty mas, -or six taels. But the Japanese having obliged the Dutch East India -Company to accept payment in gold kobans, each reckoned at sixty-eight -mas, the sales of the Company, though made to the amount of three -hundred thousand taels in silver, produced only forty-four thousand one -hundred and eighteen kobans.” - -A chance was thus afforded, as Kämpfer expresses it “to make the -officers concerned in carrying on the Dutch trade some amends for their -trouble and hard usage, by allowing them to dispose of goods on their -own private account,” to the value of five thousand six hundred and -eighty-two kobans, equivalent, at the reckoning of fifty-eight mas, to -forty thousand taels, thus making up the fifty thousand kobans, to the -amount of which the annual sale of Dutch goods was limited; and as this -arrangement for private trade had been made by the Japanese, the East -India Company did not venture to interfere with it. - -At the head of these officers stands the Director, or, as he is called -by the Japanese, Captain of the Dutch (_Hollanda Capitan_), who has -the command, inspection, and care of the trade. The same person is -the head of the embassy sent to court once every year; and, according -to the custom of the country, he must be relieved after the year is -expired. The ships from Batavia bring over his successor, with some few -merchants and clerks, to assist during the sale, after which, the old -director goes on board, to return to Batavia. The privilege of private -trade was, in Kämpfer’s time, divided as follows: The acting director -could sell to the extent of ten thousand taels; the new director to the -extent of seven thousand; his deputy, or the next person after him, to -the extent of six thousand. The captains of the ships, the merchants, -clerks, &c., shared the remainder, as they happened to be in favor with -the chief managers, and the Japanese interpreters. - -“The day of the _Kamban_ (as they call our sale), which must be -determined by the court, drawing near, a list of all the goods is hung -up at the gates without our island, written in very large characters, -that everybody may read it at a due distance. Meanwhile, the -government signifies to the several Otonas of the town, and these to -the merchants, who are come hither from diverse parts of the empire, -what duty per cent will be laid for the benefit of the inhabitants of -Nagasaki, upon each description of our goods, in order to enable them -to determine what price they can afford to offer. The day before the -_Kamban_, papers are put up at all the gates of the streets, to invite -the merchants to make their appearance the next morning at Deshima, -where, for their further information, they find before every house -a list of the goods laid up in it. As the direction of our trade is -entirely in the hands of the government of Nagasaki, so, particularly, -the _Kamban_ cannot be held but in presence of two Stewards of the -governors, authorized by them to assist at it. The chief officers of -our island must likewise be present. The first interpreter presides, -and directs everything, while our own triumvirs—I mean the two -directors, the old and new—and the deputy director, have little or -nothing to say. - -“All persons who must be present at the sale having met together, our -directors order samples of all our goods to be exposed to view, and -then give a signal with a _gum-gum_, a sort of flat bell, not unlike a -basin, for the merchants to come in. The house where the sale is kept -is a very neat building, built at the Company’s expense, and is then, -by removing the shutters, laid open towards the street for people to -look in. There is a small gallery round it, and it is divided within -into several partitions, very commodiously contrived for this act. - -“The sale itself is performed in the following manner. Only one sort -of goods is put up at a time. Those who have a mind to buy them give -in some tickets, each signed by feigned names, and signifying how much -they intend to give for a piece, or a katti, of the article on sale. I -took notice that every merchant gives in several tickets. This is done -in order to see how matters are like to go, and to keep to a less price -in case he repents of the greater, for which purpose they are signed -only by feigned names; and, because of the great number and subdivision -of the small coin, it seldom happens that two tickets exactly agree. -After all the bidders have given in their tickets, our directors -proceed to open and assort them. They are then delivered to the -presiding chief interpreter, who reads them aloud, one after another, -beginning with the highest. He asks after the bidder three times, and, -if there is no answer made, he lays that ticket aside and takes the -next to it. So he goes on, taking always a less, till the bidder cries -out, ‘Here I am,’and then draws near to sign the note, and to put -his true name to it with black ink, which the Japanese always carry -about them. The goods first put up being sold, they proceed to others, -which they sell in the same manner; and so they go on till the sum -determined by the emperor hath been raised, which is commonly done in -two or three, seldom in four, days of sale. The day after each _Kamban_ -the goods are delivered to the buyer, and carried off. A company of -merchants of the five imperial cities have obtained the monopoly for -buying and selling raw silks, of which they would fain oblige us to -make up at least one-third of our cargoes. - -“The duty or custom levied upon goods has been introduced at Nagasaki, -merely with an intent to take off part of the vast profits which -foreigners get upon their commodities, and to assign them for the use -and maintenance of the poorer inhabitants of the town, among whom -it is distributed in proportion to the trouble they must be at, on -account of the public offices they must serve by turns. They commonly -receive in this distribution from three to fifteen taels each. The -duty laid upon the goods belonging to the Company is fifteen per cent, -producing forty-five thousand taels. The goods belonging to private -persons, which are commonly sold at the end of the _Kamban_, pay much -more—no less than sixty-five per cent upon goods sold by the piece, and -sixty-seven per cent on goods sold by weight. Rating each sort at half -the whole amount, and the whole produce is twenty-seven thousand taels. -The reason they give for the difference in the rate of duty is, because -private goods are brought over in the Company’s ships, at the Company’s -expense, and, consequently, deserve less profit. The Chinese, for the -like reason,—that is, because they are not at the expense of such long -and hazardous voyages as the Dutch, but are nearer at hand,—pay a -duty of sixty per cent for all their goods, which brings in a sum of -three hundred and sixty thousand taels duty. If to this be added the -yearly rent for our houses and factories, which is five thousand five -hundred and eighty taels, and that of the Chinese factory, which is -sixteen thousand taels, it makes up in all a sum of four hundred and -fifty-three thousand five hundred and eighty taels (upwards of half a -million of dollars) which the foreign commerce produces annually to the -magistrates and inhabitants of Nagasaki. - -“The profits our goods produce may be computed to amount, one year with -another, to sixty per cent, though, if all the charges and expenses of -our sale be taken into consideration, we cannot well get above forty -or forty-five per cent clear gain. Considering so small a profit, it -would scarcely be worth the Company’s while to continue this branch of -our trade any longer, were it not that the goods we export from thence, -and particularly the refined copper, yield much the same profit, so -that the whole profit may be computed to amount to eighty or ninety per -cent. - -“The goods belonging to private persons being brought over and sold -without any expense to the owner, the gain therefrom, notwithstanding -the great duty laid upon them, is no ways inferior to that of the -Company. The two chief directors have the greater share of it. They -cannot hold their offices longer than three years, and that not -successively, being obliged, after they have served one year, to return -with the homeward-bound ships to Batavia, whence they are sent back -again, either by the next ships, or two years after. If the directors -stand upon good terms with the chief interpreter, and have found -ways and means to secure his favor, by making him large presents at -the Company’s expense, he can contrive things so that some of their -goods be put up and sold upon the first or second _Kamban_, among -the Company’s goods, and so, by reason of the small duty, produce -sixty-five to seventy per cent profit. This, too, may be done without -any prejudice to the Company; for, in casting up the sums paid in for -goods, these articles are slipped over. If they have any goods beyond -the amount they are legally entitled to, chiefly red coral, amber, and -the like, it is an easy matter to dispose of them in private, by the -assistance of the officers of the island, who will generally themselves -take them off their hands. The Otona himself is very often concerned in -such bargains, they being very advantageous. Formerly, we could sell -them by a deputy to the persons who came over to our island at the -time of our _Kamban_, and that way was far the most profitable for us. -But one of our directors, in 1686, played his cards so awkwardly that -ten Japanese were beheaded for smuggling, and he himself banished the -country forever. - -“The residing director, who goes also as ambassador to the emperor’s -court, hath, besides, another very considerable advantage, in that -such presents as the governors of Nagasaki desire to be made to the -emperor, not to be found in the Company’s warehouses, and therefore -to be bought, can be furnished by him out of his own stock, if it so -happens that he hath them, in which case he takes all the profit to -himself, without doing any prejudice to the Company. Nay, they might -possibly go still further in pursuit of their own private advantages, -were it not that they endeavor to pass for men of conscience and -honor, or, at least, aim to appear fearful lest they should be thought -too notoriously to injure both the confidence and interest of their -masters. I do not pretend hereby to charge them with any indirect -practices as to the annual expenses, though perhaps even those are -sometimes run up to an unnecessary height; nor is it in the least my -intention to detract from the reputation and character of probity of -so many worthy gentlemen, who have filled this station with honor, and -discharged their duty with the utmost faithfulness to their masters. -Thus much I can say without exaggeration, that the directorship of the -Dutch trade in Japan is a place which the possessor would not easily -part with for thirty thousand guilders (twelve thousand dollars). -’Tis true, it would be a great disadvantage to the director, and -considerably lessen his profits, if he hath not a good cash in hand to -provide himself, before his departure from Batavia, with a sufficient -stock of goods, but must take them upon credit, and upon his return -share the profits with his creditors. Besides, he must not presume -to leave Batavia, much less to return thither, without valuable -consideration to his benefactors, unless he intends to be excused -for the future the honor of any such employment. The goods he brings -back to Batavia are silk gowns, which he receives as presents from -the emperor and his ministers, and whereof he makes presents again to -his friends and patrons, victuals, china ware, lackered or japanned -things, and other manufactures of the country, which he can dispose -of at Batavia at fifty per cent profits; and besides some kobans in -gold; though if he have any left it is much more profitable to buy -ambergris,[146] or refined copper, and to send the latter, if possible, -on board the Company’s ships to Malacca. I say if possible, because -there are strict orders from the Company against it. - -“But it is time at last to send our ships on their return. To make up -their cargoes we buy from twelve thousand to twenty thousand piculs of -refined copper, cast in small cylinders, a span long and an inch thick, -each picul packed in a fir box. We buy, likewise a small quantity of -coarse copper, delivered to us in broad flattish round cakes, and -sometimes we take in some hundred piculs or chests of copper kasies -or farthings, but not unless they be asked for at Tonquin and other -places. All the copper is sold to us by a company of united merchants, -who, by virtue of a privilege from the emperor, have the sole refining -and selling of it to foreigners. - -“The other part of our cargo is made up of Japanese camphor, from six -thousand to twelve thousand, and sometimes more, pounds a year, packed -up in wooden barrels; of some hundred bales of china ware packed up -in straw; of a box or two of gold thread, of an hundred rolls to the -box; of all sorts of japanned cabinet-boxes, chests of drawers, and the -like, all of the very best workmanship we can meet with; of umbrellas, -screens, and several other manufactures, made of canes, wood, buffalo -and other horns, hard skins of fishes, which they work with uncommon -neatness and dexterity, stone, copper, gold and _Sowas_ (?), which is -an artificial metal, composed of copper, silver and gold, and esteemed -at least equal in value to silver. To these may be added paper made -transparent with oil and varnish; paper printed and colored with false -gold and silver for hanging of rooms; rice, the best to be had in Asia; -sake, a strong liquor brewed from rice; soy, a sort of pickle, fit to -be eat at table with roasted meat; pickled fruits packed in barrels; -indented tobacco; tea and marmalades; besides some thousand kobans of -gold in specie. The exportation of the following articles is strictly -forbidden. All prints, pictures, goods or stuffs, bearing the emperor’s -coat of arms. Pictures and representations, printed and others, of -soldiers and military people, of any person belonging to the court of -the Dairi, or of Japanese ships; maps of the empire or any part of it; -plans of towns, castles, temples, and the like; all sorts of silk, -cotton, and hempen stuffs; all sorts of arms, including those made in -Japan after European patterns; carpenters’ knives; silver. - -“Our ships cannot be laden, nor set sail, till special leave has been -given, and the day of their departure determined by the court. When -they are laden, all our private goods and what else we have to bring on -board, must be again narrowly searched. For this purpose, two of our -landlords, two apprentices of the interpreters, and two clerks, with -some kuri, or workmen, about two or three days before the departure of -the ships, call upon every one in his room, as well those who stay at -Deshima as those who are to return, and who, during the time of sale, -have been lodged in our empty houses. These people visit every corner, -and examine all our things piece by piece, taking an exact memorandum -of what they find; then they bind them together with straw ropes, and -put their seals to them, along with a list of what the parcel contains, -for the information of the gate-guard, who would else open them again. -All contraband goods are seized at this search. Should any of these be -found upon any Dutchman, the possessor would be at least banished the -country for life, and the interpreters and servants appointed for his -service and all other suspected persons would be put to the rack, till -the seller and all his accomplices were discovered, by whose blood only -is such crime to be expiated. Of this we had a late instance in the -imperial steward’s own secretary, who, having endeavored to send over -some scymitar blades to China, was executed for it, with his only son, -not above eight years old. Upon my own departure, although my things, -for good reasons, were visited but slightly, and over a bottle, yet -they seized upon an old Japanese razor and a few other things, just -because they happened to see them. - -“The day determined for the departure of our ships drawing near, they -proceed to lade their cargoes one after another. Last of all, the arms -and powder are brought on board, followed by the ship’s company, who -must again pass in review according to the list which was given in upon -ship’s arrival. The ship being ready, she must weigh her anchors that -instant and retire two leagues off the town towards the entrance of -the harbor, where she rides till the other ships are laden in the same -manner. When all the homeward-bound ships are joined, they proceed on -their voyage and after they have gotten to the main sea, to a pretty -considerable distance from the harbor, the Japanese ship-guard, which -never quitted them from their first arrival till then, leave them and -return home. If the wind proves contrary to the ship’s going out, a -good number of Japanese rowing boats, fastened to a rope, tow them out -by force one after another. For the emperor’s orders must be executed -in spite of wind and weather, should even afterwards all the ships run -the hazard of being wrecked. - -“All these several strict orders and regulations of the Japanese have -been made chiefly with an intent to prevent smuggling. The penalty -put upon this crime is death without hope of reprieve; but it extends -only to the person convicted and his accomplices, and not to their -families, as the punishment of some other crimes does. And yet the -Japanese are so addicted to it, that, according to computation, no less -than three hundred persons have been executed in six or seven years’ -time for smuggling with the Chinese, whose departing junks they follow -to the main sea, and buy of them at a low price what goods they could -not dispose of at their sale at Nagasaki. But these unhappy wretches -are almost as frequently caught by the Japanese boats particularly -appointed for that purpose, and delivered up to justice at Nagasaki, -which constantly proves severe and unmerciful enough.” - -Not long after Kämpfer’s arrival in Japan, eleven smugglers were -caught in one boat, and brought to Nagasaki, where they were executed -a few days after. On the 28th of December, 1691, twenty-three persons -suffered death for smuggling, ten of whom were beheaded, and the others -crucified. Among the latter were five who, upon being taken, made away -with themselves, to avoid the shame of an unavoidable public execution; -but their bodies were nevertheless preserved in salt, on purpose to be -afterwards fixed to the cross. During Kämpfer’s stay in Japan, which -was not above two years, upwards of fifty smugglers lost their lives. - -“Though there are not many instances of people executed for smuggling -with the Dutch, yet such a case occurred in 1691, when,” says Kämpfer, -“two Japanese were executed on our island for having smuggled from -a Dutchman one pound of camphor of Borneo, which was found upon the -buyer just as he endeavored to carry it off from our island. Early in -the morning on the day of execution the acting governor of Nagasaki -sent notice by the Otona to our director to keep himself with the rest -of the Dutchmen in readiness to see the criminals executed. About -an hour after came over the numerous flocks of our interpreters, -landlords, cooks and all the train of Deshima, with the sheriffs and -other officers of justice, in all to the number of at least two hundred -people. Before the company was carried a pike with a tablet, whereupon -the crime for which the criminals were to suffer was specified in large -characters. Then followed the two criminals, surrounded with bailiffs. -The first was the buyer, a young man of twenty-three years of age, -very meanly clad, upon whom the camphor was found. The second was a -well-looking man, well clad, about forty years of age, who suffered -only for having lent the other, formerly a servant of his, the money to -buy it with. - -“One of the bailiffs carried an instrument upright, formed like a -rake, but with iron hooks instead of teeth, proper to be made use of -if any of the malefactors should attempt to make his escape, because -it easily catches hold of one’s clothes. Another carried another -instrument proper to cut, to stab, and to pin one fast to a wall. Then -followed two officers of the governor’s court, with their retinues, -as commissioners to preside at this act, and at some distance came -two clerks. In this order they marched across our island to the place -designed for this execution. - -“We Dutchmen, only seven in number (our ship being already gone), -resolved not to come near. But our director advised us to go, as he had -heard that on our refusal we would be compelled by force. I followed -this advice, and went without delay to see the execution done. I found -the two criminals in the middle of the place, one behind the other, -kneeling, their shoulders uncovered, and their hands tied to their -backs. Each had his executioner standing by him, the one a tanner (for -tanners in this country do the office of executioners), the other his -best friend and comrade, whom he earnestly desired, as the custom is -in this country, by doing him this piece of service, to confirm the -friendship he had always had for him. At about twenty paces from the -criminals sat the two commissioners upon one bench, and the two clerks -upon another. A third was left empty for our director, who, however, -did not appear. The rest of the people stood promiscuously where they -pleased. I myself crowded with my Japanese servant as near one of the -malefactors as possibly we could. While they were waiting for the rest -of the Dutchmen I overheard a very extraordinary discourse between the -two criminals; for as the elderly man was grumbling between his teeth -his Kwannongyō, or short prayer to the hundred-hand idol Kwannon, the -other, to whom I stood nearest, rebuked him for it. ‘Fy!’said he. ‘For -shame, to appear thus frightened out of your wits!’‘Ah, ah!’ says the -other, ‘I only pray a little.’‘You have had time enough to pray,’ -replied the first; ‘it serves no purpose now, but to expose yourself -and to show the Dutch what a coward you are!’and this discourse so -wrought upon the other that he actually left off praying. - -“The minute that the Dutch were all assembled at the place of -execution, a signal was given, and that instant both executioners -cut off each his criminal’s head, with a short scymitar, in such a -manner that their bodies fell forward to the ground. The bodies were -wrapped up, each in a coarse rush mat, and both their heads together -in a third, and so carried away from Deshima to the ordinary place of -execution, a field not far from Nagasaki, where, it was said, young -people tried their strength and the sharpness of their scymitars upon -the dead bodies, by hacking them into small pieces. Both heads were -fixed upon a pole, according to custom, and exposed to view for seven -days. The execution being over, the company marched off from Deshima -without any order. Our director went to meet the two commissioners, and -afterwards the two clerks upon the street, as they were returning home, -thanked them for the trouble they had been at on this occasion, and -invited them to his house to smoke a pipe; but he had nothing in return -for this kind invitation but a sharp reprimand, with an admonition to -take care of his people, that no more such accidents should happen for -the future. This was the first time criminal blood was shed upon our -island.” - -The proceedings at the Chinese sales, and the articles imported and -exported by them, were according to Kämpfer, much the same as in the -case of the Dutch, except that they were not allowed to take away any -money, but merchandise only. - - - - -CHAPTER XXIX - - _Nagasaki and its Vicinity as seen by Kämpfer—Imperial Governors—Their - Officers and Palaces—Municipal System—Street Government—Mutual - Responsibility—Administration of Justice—Taxes—Government of other - Towns—Adjacent Country—The God Suwa and his Matsuri—A. D. 1690-1692._ - - -Kämpfer describes Nagasaki as situated upon an indifferent and barren -soil, amid rocks and steep hills or mountains. The harbor, which has -its head at the north of the city, where it is narrow and shallow with -a sandy bottom, soon grows broader and deeper. When about half a mile -broad and five or six fathoms deep, it turns to the southwest, and so -runs on between high land and mountains for about a mile (narrowing -again to a quarter of a mile in breadth), till it reaches an island or -rather mountain surrounded by water, which the Dutch call Pappenburg. -This, properly speaking, is the entrance of the harbor, and here -vessels lie at anchor to watch a favorable opportunity of getting -out, which would be easily done in two hours were it not for the many -banks, shoals, and cliffs, which make the passage equally difficult and -dangerous. - -“There are seldom less than fifty Japanese ships in this harbor, -besides some hundred fishing-vessels and small boats. Of foreign ships -there are seldom, some few months of the winter excepted, less than -thirty, most of which are Chinese junks. The Dutch ships never stay -longer than three months in autumn; very seldom so long. The anchorage -is about a musket-shot from the town, where ships ride at anchor upon -the soft clay, with about six fathom at high tide, and four and a half -at low water. - -“The town—situated where the harbor is broadest, and where, from the -change in its direction, it forms a nearly semi-circular shore—has the -shape of a half-moon, somewhat inclining to a triangle. Built along -the shore in a narrow valley, formed by the opening of the neighboring -mountains, it is about three quarters of a mile long and nearly as -broad, the chief and broadest street running nearly that distance -up the valley. The mountains which encompass it are not very high, -but steep, green to their tops, and of a very agreeable aspect. Just -behind the city, in going up the mountains, are many stately temples, -beautifully adorned with fine gardens and terrace-walks. Higher up -are innumerable burying-places. In the distance appear other high -mountains, fruitful and well-cultivated. In short, the whole situation -affords to the eye a most delicious and romantic view[147].” - -The town is open, as are most other towns in Japan, without either -castle, walls, or fortifications. Some bastions are built along the -harbor, as it were for defence, but they have no cannon. About two -miles from the town, seaward, just beyond the anchorage, are two -guard-houses, opposite each other, and enclosed by palisades. They are -held each by about seven hundred men, including those who do duty in -the harbor guard-boats. - -“Three fresh-water rivers come down from the neighboring mountains, and -run through the town. For the greater part of the year they have scarce -water enough to irrigate some rice-fields and to drive a few mills, -though in rainy weather they are apt to increase so as to wash away -whole houses. They are crossed by thirty-five bridges, great and small, -twenty of stone and fifteen of wood, very simple in their structure, -being made more for strength than show. - -“The city is divided into two parts. _Uchimachi_ (the inner town) -consists of twenty-six _Chō_, or streets, all very irregular, as if -built in the infancy of the city; _Sotomachi_ (or the outer town) -contains sixty-one streets, so that there are eighty-seven in all. - -“The streets of Nagasaki and other towns in Japan have borrowed their -name, _Chō_, from that of a Japanese measure of sixty fathoms (three -hundred and sixty feet); but, though generally short, they are not all -precisely of that length. These streets or divisions of streets, seldom -containing more than sixty or less than thirty houses, have gates at -each end, which are always closed at night, and often in the day, when -there is the least occasion for it. The streets of Nagasaki are neither -straight nor broad, but crooked, dirty, and narrow, leading some up and -others down hill, on account of the irregularity of the ground upon -which the town is built. Some of the steepest have staircases of stone. -They are full stocked with inhabitants, as many as ever they will hold. - -“The houses of the common people are mean, sorry buildings, small -and low, seldom above one story high. If there be two stories, the -uppermost is so low that it scarce deserves the name. The roof is -covered with shavings of fir wood [shingles?] fastened by other pieces -of wood laid across. Indeed, the whole structure is of wood, as are -most buildings throughout the empire. The walls within are wainscoted -and hung with painted and variously-colored paper[148]. The floor is -covered with mats wove of a considerable thickness, which they take -care to keep exceedingly clean and neat. The rooms are separated from -each other by movable paper screens. Seats and chairs they have none, -and only some few household goods, chiefly such as are absolutely -necessary for daily use in the kitchen and at meals. Behind every house -is a back yard, which, though never so small, yet contains always some -curious and beautiful plants, kept with a great deal of care. - -“The houses of eminent merchants and of other rich people, are of a -far better structure, commonly two stories high, and built after the -Chinese manner, with a large court-yard before them and a garden behind. - -“The palaces of the two resident governors take in a large spot of -ground, standing something higher than the rest of the town. The -buildings are very neat and handsome, and all uniform; strong gates and -well guarded lead into the court about which they are arranged. - -“Besides the governors’ palaces there are some twenty other houses in -Nagasaki belonging to the principal nobility of the island of Kiūshiū, -always occupied by some of their vassals, who take care of them, and in -which the owners lodge when they come to town. - -“The handsomest buildings belonging to townspeople are two streets -all occupied by courtesans. The girls in these establishments, which -abound throughout Japan, are purchased of their parents when very -young. The price varies in proportion to their beauty and the number of -years agreed for, which is, generally speaking, ten or twenty, more -or less. They are very commodiously lodged in handsome apartments, and -great care is taken to teach them to dance, sing, play upon musical -instruments, to write letters, and in all other respects to make them -as agreeable as possible. The older ones instruct the young ones, and -these in their turn serve the older ones as their waiting-maids. Those -who make considerable improvement, and for their beauty and agreeable -behavior are oftener sent for, to the great advantage of their masters, -are also better accommodated in clothes and lodging, all at the expense -of their lovers, who must pay so much the dearer for their favors. -The price paid to their landlord or master is from one _mas_ to two -_ichibu_ (twelve and a half cents to four dollars), for a night, -beyond which they are forbid to ask under severe penalties. One of the -sorriest must watch the house over night in a small room near the door, -free to all comers upon the payment of one mas. Others are sentenced to -keep the watch by way of punishment for their misbehavior. - -“After having served their time, if they are married, they pass among -the common people for honest women, the guilt of their past lives -being by no means laid to their charge, but to that of their parents -and relations who sold them in their infancy for so scandalous a way -of getting a livelihood, before they were able to choose a more honest -one. Besides, as they are generally well bred, that makes it less -difficult for them to get husbands. The keepers of these houses, on the -contrary, though possessed of never so plentiful estates, are forever -denied admittance into honest company.” - -Kämpfer enumerates of public buildings three large wooden ship-houses, -in which are kept three imperial junks or men-of-war, equipped and -ready for launching; a powder-magazine on a hill opposite the town, and -a city prison. There are also sixty-two temples, within and without the -town—five for the worship of the _Kami_, or ancient national gods of -Japan, seven of the Yamabushi, or mountain priests, and fifty _Tera_, -temples of four different Buddhist sects or observances, including -the three temples erected by the Chinese, as mentioned in a previous -chapter. - -“These temples are sacred not only to devotion and worship, but serve -also for recreation and diversion, being for this purpose curiously -adorned with pleasant gardens, elegant walks, and fine apartments, and -by much the best buildings of the town. The Buddhist temples are not -so much to be commended for their largeness or splendor as for their -pleasant and agreeable situations, being moreover adorned within with -fine raised altars, gilt images as big as life, lackered columns, gates -and pillars, the whole very neat and pretty rather than magnificent. - -“Those who attend the service of the Kami temples, though not collected -into monasteries, like the Buddhist clergy, but secular and married -persons, yet assume to themselves a far higher degree of holiness and -respect than they think the common bulk of secular persons deserve. -They live with their families in houses built for them in the descent -of the mountains. Their way of life, as well as their common dress -at home and abroad, is no ways different from that of the other -inhabitants, except that they do not shave their heads, but let their -hair grow, and tie it together behind. When they go to the temple they -dress in an ecclesiastical habit, with various head-dresses, according -to every one’s office and quality. They maintain themselves by the -alms and offerings given them by those who come to worship in their -temples, or at their appearance in solemn processions. - -“The ecclesiastics of the Buddhist religion have no processions nor -other public solemnities, like the Shintō clergy. They always keep -within the district of their convent, where they mind little else but -their prayers in the temple at certain stated hours. Their maintenance -arises from the fees given them for prayers to be said in their -temples, or at funerals for the relief of departed souls, as also from -voluntary and charitable contributions.” - -The gardens in and about the city and the neighboring villages -abundantly furnish it with all sorts of fruits, vegetables and roots, -with firewood, and also with some venison and poultry; but the domestic -supply of rice is insufficient, and that capital article has to be -imported from the neighboring provinces. The harbor and neighboring -coast yield plenty of fish and crabs. The rivers that run through -the town provide it with clear and sweet water, “very fit,” says -Kämpfer, “for daily drink; the sake, or rice beer, as it is brewed in -Japan, being too strong, and that in particular made at Nagasaki of a -disagreeable taste[149].” - -Except articles made of gold, silver and _Sawaas_ (?),—a mixture of -gold, silver, and copper,—for the foreign trade, manufactures at -Nagasaki are not so good as in other parts of the empire; and yet -everything is sold dearer, chiefly to foreigners. - -The inhabitants are mostly merchants, shop-keepers, tradesmen, -handicraftsmen, artificers, brewers, besides the numerous retinue of -the governors, and the people employed in the Dutch and Chinese trade, -by which, in fact, the town is mainly supported. There are many poor -people and beggars, most of them religious mendicants. - -“The town,” says Kämpfer, “is never without a great deal of noise. -In the day, victuals and other merchandise are cried up and down -the streets. Day-laborers and the seamen in the harbor encourage -one another to work with a certain sound. In the night the watchmen -and soldiers upon duty, both in the streets and harbor, show their -vigilance, and at the same time indicate the hours of the night, by -beating two pieces of wood against each other. The Chinese contribute -their share chiefly in the evening, when they burn some pieces of gilt -paper, and throw them into the sea, as an offering to their idol, or -when they carry their idol about its temple; both which they do with -beating of drums and cymbals. But all this is little compared with -the clamor and bawling of the priests and the relations of dying or -dead persons, who, either in the house where the corpse lies, or else -upon certain days sacred to the deceased’s memory, sing a _Namida_ -[Namu-amida-butsu], that is, a prayer, to their god _Amida_[150], -with a loud voice, for the relief of his soul. The like is done by -certain fraternities or societies of devout neighbors, friends, or -relations, who meet by turns in their houses, every day, in the morning -or evening, in order to sing the Namida by way of precaution for the -future relief of their own souls.” - -Nagasaki, down to the year 1688, had, like the other imperial cities, -two governors, commanding by turns; the one not in the immediate -exercise of authority being resident meanwhile at Yedo. In 1688, the -policy was adopted of having three governors; two to be always resident -at Nagasaki, to watch each other, and presiding alternately for two -months, while the third was to come in each alternate year from Yedo to -relieve the senior resident[151]. The resident governors leave their -families at Yedo as hostages for their good behavior, and, during the -time of their absence from court, are strictly prohibited, so it is -stated, to admit any woman within their palaces. The establishments -of these imperial governors, as described by Kämpfer, may probably be -taken as a specimen of the ordinary way of life with the higher order -of Japanese officials. Their salary did not exceed fifteen hundred -or two thousand _koku_ of rice (in money, the price of the article -being very variable, from seven thousand to ten thousand taels); but -the perquisites were so considerable that in a few years they might -get vast estates, did not the presents which must be made to the -emperor and the grandees of the court consume the greater part of -their profits. Out of their allowance they were obliged to maintain -an extensive retinue,—two _Karō_, or stewards of the household, ten -_Yoriki_, all noblemen of good families, who acted both as civil and -military officers, and thirty _Dōshin_, likewise military and civil -officers, but of inferior rank. - -The business of the _Yoriki_ was to assist the governor with their -advice, if required, and to execute his commands, either as military -officers or as magistrates. They had, besides their food and a new -suit annually, an allowance of one hundred taels a year; but this -hardly sufficed to enable them to keep the servants necessary to their -dignity, such as a pike-bearer, a keeper of their great sword, and a -shoe or slipper bearer, and much less to maintain a family. The Dōshin -were a sort of assistants to the Yoriki. They served as guards, and did -duty on board ship, especially in the guard-boats, either as commanding -officers or as privates. Sometimes they did the office of bailiffs or -constables, and put people under arrest, for which purpose they always -carried a halter about them. Their yearly allowance, beside their -board, did not exceed fifty taels, out of which they must maintain each -a servant.[152] The governors had still other domestics, of inferior -rank, to dress and undress them, to introduce visitors, and to bring -messages, besides numerous menial servants. - -At the entrance of their palaces, within the court-yard, a guard was -kept of four or five Dōshin. No domestic could leave the house without -taking from its place in the guard-room a square wooden tablet, which -he hung up again on his return, so that it could be known at a glance -how many and who were absent. Within the great door or main entrance -into the house, another guard was kept by some of the Yoriki, one of -whom had charge of a book, in which he entered, as the custom is at the -houses of persons of rank, the names of all who go in or out, for the -information of the master of the house, who sometimes at night examines -the entries. - -The governor’s equipage and attendance when going abroad consisted of -a led horse, a Norimono, in which he was carried, by the side of which -walked four of the gentlemen of his bedchamber, and behind it two -pike-bearers, followed by a train of Karō, Yoriki, and Dōshin, with -their own servants and attendants. - -Kämpfer thus describes the persons who held the office of governors -of Nagasaki at his arrival in Japan—“_Kawaguchi Settsu-no-Kami_ is -a handsome, well-shaped man, about fifty years of age, cunning and -malicious, and a great enemy of the Dutch (who ascribed to him the -authorship of the new arrangement for their trade), an unjust and -severe judge, but an agreeable, liberal and happy courtier, with an -income from his private estates of four thousand seven hundred koku. -_Yamaoka Tsushima-no-Kami_ had formerly been a high constable, and had -been rewarded with his present office for his services in clearing Yedo -of thieves and pickpockets. He had a private revenue of two thousand -koku. He is about sixty, short, sincere, humble, and very charitable -to the poor, but with so much of his old profession about him, that he -often orders his domestics to be put to death without mercy for very -trifling faults. _Miyagi Tonomo_, also about sixty, is a man of great -generosity and many good qualities, with a private estate of four -thousand koku of yearly revenue.” - -To watch the governors, an imperial officer, called _Daikwan_, was -appointed to reside at Nagasaki, and a like service was required of all -the chief lords of the island of Shimo. - -To secure the harbor and town these same lords were bound to march -with their vassals at the first alarm. The princes of the provinces -of Hizen and Chikuzen were obliged to furnish alternately, each for a -year, the guard at the entrance of the harbor, which was independent of -the governors. The inhabitants of the water-side streets of Nagasaki -supplied the _Funaban_ or ship-guard with its guard-boats to watch -foreign ships in the harbor. There was another fleet of boats employed -ordinarily in whale-fishing but whose business it also was to see all -foreign vessels well off the coast, to guard against and to arrest -smugglers, and to prevent any foreign vessels from touching elsewhere -than at Nagasaki. Finally, there was the spy-guard, stationed on the -top of neighboring mountains, to look out for the approach of foreign -vessels; and on one of these hills was a beacon, which, being fired, -served, in connection with other similar beacons, to telegraph alarms -to Yedo. - -Next in rank to the governors were four mayors or burgomasters, whose -office, like most others, had become hereditary, and two deputy-mayors, -principally for the affairs of the new town. They would seem to have -once been the actual chief magistrates, but their authority had been -greatly eclipsed by that of the imperial governors. There were also -four other officers annually appointed to solicit the interests of the -town’s people at the court of the governors, and to keep them informed -of the daily proceedings of the mayors, for which purpose they had a -small room at the governor’s palace, where they were always in waiting. - -There was no town-house nor other public place of assembly. When the -magistrates met on business, it was at the presiding mayor’s house. -Besides the various bodies of interpreters and others, connected with -the foreign trade, there was a particular corporation of constables and -bailiffs, consisting of about thirty families, who lived in a street by -themselves. Their office was reputed military and noble, and they had -the privilege of wearing two swords,—a privilege which the mayors and -mercantile people did not possess. - -The tanners, obliged to act also as public executioners, were held in -execration, yet they also wore two swords. They lived in a separate -village near the place of execution, placed as everywhere in Japan at -the west end of the town. - -But the most remarkable thing in the municipal government of Nagasaki -(and the same thing extended to all the other Japanese towns) was -the system of street government, mentioned in the narratives of Don -Rodrigo, Caron, and others, but which Kämpfer more particularly -describes. - -The house-owners of every street were arranged in companies, or -corporations, of five _Goningumi_, or sometimes a few more, each street -having from ten to fifteen such companies. None but house-owners were -admitted into these corporations; mere occupants were looked upon as -dependants on their landlords with no voice in the affairs of the -street, nor right to claim any share in the public money, though -they paid high rents. Each street company had one of its number for -a head, who was responsible for the conduct of his four companions, -and obliged, in certain cases at least, to share the punishment of -their crimes. The members of these corporations chose from among -themselves an _Otona_, or chief magistrate of the street. The choice -was by ballot, and the name of the person having the greatest number -was presented to the governor, with a humble petition that he might be -appointed to the office, of which the salary in Nagasaki was a ten-fold -share of the annual distribution to the inhabitants, derived from the -duties on the foreign trade. - -[Illustration: DIAL OF OLD CLOCK.] - -The duty of the Otona was to give the necessary orders in case of fire; -to have the oversight of the watch; to keep a register of the deaths, -births, marriages, arrivals, departures, &c.; to arrest criminals, -and to punish those of smaller magnitude; to compose, if he could, -all disputes among the people of his street; and generally to be -personally answerable for their good behavior. He had for assistants -three lieutenants, the heads of the corporations of house-owners, -a secretary, a treasurer, and a messenger. A guard was kept every -night, of three or more house-owners, while the street was paced by -two sentinels, walking from each gate till they met, and then back. -The hours were regularly in the daytime struck on a bell hung for -that purpose on the ascent of the mountains, and during the night the -street-watch indicated them by beating two sticks together[153]. - -The street officers were held responsible for the offences of the -house-owners; the house-owners for the offences of their lodgers, -domestics, and families; masters for servants; children for parents, -each corporation for its individual members; neighbors for each -other[154]. It was naturally a part of this system that no new -inhabitant was admitted into any street, except by consent of all the -house-owners in it, which thus became necessary to every purchase and -sale of a house. - -Every year, a list was made out by the street officers of all the -inhabitants in each street, with their religion, shortly after which -came the ceremony of _Yebumi_[155], or _figure-treading_—that is, -trampling upon the crucifix, an image of the Virgin Mary, and other -saints—a ceremony which appears to be observed, at least at Nagasaki, -down even to the present day. The images used in Kämpfer’s time were -about a foot long, cast in brass, and kept in a particular box for -that purpose. The ceremony took place in the presence of the street -officers. Each house was entered by turns, two messengers carrying the -box. The images were laid upon the bare floor, and, the list of the -household being called over, they were required, one by one, to tread -upon them. Young children, not yet able to walk, were held in their -mothers’ arms, so as to touch the images with their feet. It has been -asserted that the Dutch were obliged to submit to this ceremony; but -the fact was not so. - -To prevent smuggling, whenever the foreign ships or junks set sail the -street gates of Nagasaki were shut, and kept closed till the ships were -out of the harbor, strict searches being made, at uncertain times, on -which occasions every inhabitant of the street was obliged to report -himself. The same thing took place when criminals were searched for, -or other investigations, sometimes very frivolous ones, were made. On -these and other occasions of alarm, no one could go from one street -into another, except with a written pass, and attended by an officer; -nor could an inhabitant of Nagasaki at any time leave the city without -a similar pass and an undertaking on the part of his neighbors for his -return within a specified time. - -Accused persons were often made to confess by torture. Capital -punishments were either by beheading or crucifixion. Other -punishments—and this class was often inflicted for the misdemeanors of -others—were imprisonment, for longer or shorter periods, banishment -to certain desolate spots, and islands, and forfeiture of property -and office. Punishments were prompt and severe; yet great regard was -had to the nature of the offence, the condition of the person who -committed it, and the share of guilt to be reasonably laid to the -charge of his superiors, relations, or neighbors. The practice of -making young children suffer with their parents was possibly intended -as much in mercy to them as to aggravate the punishment of the real -offenders[156]. It is by this same motive of humanity, that the -Japanese justify their practice of exposing such infants as they have -not the means or inclination to support and educate. - -Persons sentenced to death could not be executed without a warrant -signed by the council of state at Yedo, which must likewise be -consulted in all affairs of moment, provided they admit of the delay -necessary to send a courier and receive an answer. This, however, did -not prevent the governors of Nagasaki, and other high officers, from -liberally exercising the right of life and death in the case of their -own immediate servants and retainers. All servants, indeed, were so -far at the disposal of their masters, that, if they were accidentally -killed while undergoing punishment, the master was not answerable. Yet, -in general, as in China, homicide, even in self-defence or undesigned, -must be expiated by the blood of the offender, and even his neighbors -were, in many cases, held to a certain extent responsible. - -[Illustration: EXAMINATION OF A PRISONER BY TORTURE] - -“Some will observe,” says Kämpfer, “that the Japanese are wanting in -a competent knowledge of the law. I could heartily wish, for my part, -that we Europeans knew as little of it as they, since there is such -an abuse made of a science highly useful in itself, that innocence, -instead of being relieved, is often still more oppressed. There is a -much shorter way to obtain justice in Japan, and, indeed, all over -the East;—no necessity for being at law for many years together, no -occasion for so many writings, answers, briefs, and the like. The -case is, without delay, laid before the proper court of judicature, the -parties heard, the witnesses examined, the circumstances considered, -and judgment given without loss of time. Nor is there any delay to be -apprehended from appealing, since no superior court hath the power to -mitigate the sentence pronounced in another, though inferior. And, -although it cannot be denied but that this short way of proceeding is -liable to some errors and mistakes in particular cases, yet I dare -affirm that in the main it would be found abundantly less detrimental -to the parties concerned than the tedious and expensive law-suits in -Europe.” - -Certain yearly contributions, under the name of free gifts, were -paid by all the house-owners and office-holders of Nagasaki, partly -as perquisites to the governor and other officers, and partly for -municipal purposes. So far as the house-owners were concerned, it -amounted to a regular tax, levied according to the size of the lots; -but this sort of levy was said to be unknown in other cities of the -empire, and at Nagasaki was much more than made up for by the surplus -share of the house-owners in the duty levied on the foreign trade, -which, after paying all particular services and municipal expenses, -was divided among them. The only other tax was an imperial ground-rent -on the house-lots—four mas (fifty cents), in the old town, and six mas -(seventy-five cents) in the upper town, for every _ken_ (very nearly -six English feet) of frontage, where the depth was not more than -fifteen ken. On every lot exceeding that depth the tax was double. -This is stated by Kämpfer to be the only town tax levied throughout -the empire, whether in the towns of the imperial domain, or in those -belonging to particular lords, and the city of Miyako, by a particular -privilege, was exempt even from this. - -A municipal police, similar to that of Nagasaki, was established in -all the other towns, boroughs, and villages, with this difference -only, that the magistrates, though invested with the same power, were, -perhaps, known by different names, and that their administration was, -in general, much less strict than at Nagasaki. - -The adjacent country was under the control of an imperial steward (the -same forming a part of the imperial domains), who collected the rent, -forming, with the house-tax, the entire imperial revenue. This rent -amounted to four parts in ten of the crop; whereas inferior landlords -exacted six parts in ten. Grain was delivered in kind; garden grounds, -orchards and woods, paid a compensation in money. - -We may close this account of Nagasaki with a description of the -_Matsuri_, or public spectacle exhibited on the birthday of the god -_Suwa_, the patron of the city, one of the occasions on which the Dutch -were permitted to leave the island of _Deshima_, for the purpose of -witnessing the spectacle. This festival was, and still is, celebrated -at the expense of ten or eleven streets uniting each year for that -purpose; so that every street is called upon thus to contribute once in -seven or eight years, except that in which the courtesans reside, which -must pay every year. The celebration consists in processions, plays, -dances, etc., and as something new must always be got up, at least in -the way of dress, it is attended with heavy expense. - -The temple of _Suwa_, according to Kämpfer’s description, stands not -far from the town, upon the mountain _Tutla_ (?). A fine staircase, -of two hundred stone steps, leads up to it. The temple court, somewhat -lower than the Miya itself, extends down the declivity of the mountain. -At the entry of this court, next the gate, is a long, open room, or -gallery, where plays are acted, for the diversion both of _Suwa_ and -his worshippers. This room is curiously adorned with many pictures -and carved images, placed there by devout worshippers in fulfilment -of vows made in some moment of exigency. Further off stand some small -chapels of wood, clean and neat, but without ornaments. In the same -court stand the temples of _Morisaki Gongen_, and _Sumiyoshi_, each of -whom has also his _Mikoshi_, or small eight-angular shrine, curiously -adorned, and hanging in beautiful polls, wherein their images or relics -are carried about upon festivals. Kämpfer also observed, in the same -enclosure, another small chapel, built in honor of the god and lord of -thousand legs, hung about with numbers of his clients, that is, with -legs of all sorts and sizes, given by his worshippers. - -There are several festivals sacred to _Suwa_, of which the chief is on -the seventh, eighth, and ninth days of the ninth month[157]. On the -eighth the god is diverted in his temple, at the expense of rich and -devout people, with a musical concert, performed by boys beating upon -drums and bells—the very same music made use of to appease the supreme -kami _Tenshō Daijin_, when, out of disdain and anger, she hid herself -in a cavern, and thereby deprived the world of light and sunshine[158]. - -The great festival of the ninth consists of processions through the -principal streets, and spectacles exhibited in a temporary building of -bamboo, with a thatched roof, open towards the square on which it is -erected. “The whole building,” says Kämpfer, “scarcely deserves to be -compared to one of our barns, it is so mean and simple, for it must be -purposely built according to the sorry architecture of their indigent -ancestors.” A tall fir is planted on each side of the front of this -temple, and three sides of the square are built round with benches and -scaffolds for the convenience of spectators. - -[Illustration: FESTIVAL WITH MIKOSHI] - -“Everything being ready, the Shintō clergy of the city appear in -a body, with a splendid retinue, bringing over in procession the -_Mikoshi_ of their great _Suwa_, as, also, to keep him company, that of -_Sumiyoshi_. _Morisaki Gongen_ is left at home, as there is no instance -in the history of his life and actions from which it could be inferred -that he delighted in walking and travelling. - -“The Shintō clergy, upon this occasion, style themselves -_Ōtomo_(?)—that is, the _high great retinue_—which pompous title -notwithstanding, the alms-chest is one of the principal things they -carry in the procession, and, indeed,” says Kämpfer, “to very good -purpose, for there is such a multitude of things thrown among them by -the crowds of superstitious spectators, as if they had a mind out of -mere charity to stone them. - -“When they come to the place of exhibition, the ecclesiastics seat -themselves, according to their quality, which appears in good measure -by their dress, upon three benches, built for them before the front -of the temple. The two superiors take the uppermost bench, clad in -black, with a particular head ornament, and a short staff, as a badge -of their authority. Four others, next in rank, sit upon the second -bench, dressed in white ecclesiastical gowns, with a black lackered -cap, something different from that worn by their superiors. The main -body takes possession of the third and lowermost bench, sitting -promiscuously, and all clad in white gowns, with a black lackered cap, -somewhat like those of the Jesuits. The servants and porters appointed -to carry the holy utensils of the temple, and other people who have -anything to do at this solemnity, stand next to the ecclesiastics, -bareheaded. - -“On the other side of the square, opposite to the ecclesiastics, sit -the deputies of the governors, under a tent, upon a fine mat, somewhat -raised from the ground. For magnificence’ sake, and out of respect for -this holy act, they have twenty pikes of state planted before them in -the ground. - -“The public spectacles on these occasions are a sort of plays, acted -by eight, twelve, or more persons. The subject is taken out of the -history of their gods and heroes. Their remarkable adventures, heroic -actions, and sometimes their love intrigues, put in verse, are sung -by dancing actors, whilst others play upon musical instruments. If -the subject be thought too grave and moving, there is now and then a -comic actor jumps out unawares upon the stage, to divert the audience -with his gestures and merry discourse in prose. Some of their other -plays are composed only of ballets, or dances, like the performance -of the mimic actors on the Roman stage. For the dancers do not speak, -but endeavor to express the contents of the story they are about to -represent, as naturally as possible, both by their dress and by their -gestures and actions, regulated according to the sound of musical -instruments. The chief subjects of the play, such as fountains, -bridges, gates, houses, gardens, trees, mountains, animals, and the -like, are also represented, some as big as the life, and all in general -contrived so as to be removed at pleasure, like the scenes of our -European plays[159]. - -“The actors are commonly girls, taken out of the courtesans’ houses, -and boys from those streets at whose expense the solemnity is -performed. They are all magnificently clad, in variously colored -silken gowns, suitable to the characters they are to present; and it -must be owned that, generally speaking, they act their part with an -assurance and becoming dexterity, not to be exceeded, nay, scarce to be -paralleled, by the best European actors. - -“The streets which bear the expense make their appearance in the -following order: First of all is carried a rich canopy, or else -an umbrella, made of silk, being the palladium of the street. Over -it, in the middle, is placed a shield, whereupon is writ, in large -characters, the name of the street. Next to the canopy follow the -musicians, masked, and in proper liveries. The music is both vocal -and instrumental. The instruments are chiefly flutes of different -sorts, and small drums; now and then a large drum, cymbals and bells, -are brought in among the rest. The instrumental music is so poor -and lamentable that it seems much easier to satisfy their gods than -to please a musical ear. Nor is the vocal part much preferable to -the instrumental, for although they keep time tolerably, and sing -according to some notes, yet they do it in so very slow a manner that -the music seems to be rather calculated to regulate their action, and -the motions of their body in their ballets and dances, wherein they -are very ingenious and dexterous, and little inferior to our European -dancers, excepting only that they seem to want a little more action and -swiftness in their feet. - -“The musicians are followed by the necessary machines and the whole -apparatus for the ensuing representations, the largest being carried -by laboring people, the lesser—as benches, staffs, flowers, and the -like—by the children of the inhabitants, neatly clad. Next follow -the actors themselves, and after them all the inhabitants of the -street in a body in their holiday clothes and garments of ceremony. -To make the appearance so much the greater the procession is closed -by a considerable number of people who carry stools and other things, -walking two and two. - -[Illustration: MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS: TWO STYLES OF DRUMS; A -FLUTE-PLAYER] - -“The dances and shows of each street commonly last about three quarters -of an hour, and being over, the company marches off in the same order -they came in, to make way for the appearance and shows of another -street, which is again followed by another, and so on. All the streets -strive to outdo each other in a magnificent retinue and surprising -scenes. The processions and shows begin early in the morning, and the -whole ends about noon.” - -The following were among the presentations by the different streets at -the _matsuri_ at which Kämpfer was present. - -1. “Eight young girls, clad in colored gowns, interwove with large -white flowers, with broad hats, as if to defend them from the heat of -the sun, with fans and flowers in their hands, dancing by turns. They -were from time to time relieved by a couple of old women dancing in -another dress. - -2. “A garden, with fine flowers on each side of the place where the -act was performed, a thatched house in the middle, out of which jumped -eight young girls, dressed in white and red, dancing, with fans, canes, -and flower-baskets. They were relieved by a very good actress, who -danced by herself. - -3. “Eight triumphal chariots, with oxen before them, of different -colors, the whole very naturally represented, and drawn by young boys, -well clad. Upon them stood a _Tsubaki_ [camellia] tree, in flower; -a mountain, covered with trees; a thicket of bamboos, with a tiger -lurking; a load of straw, with an entire tree, with its root and -branches; a whale, under a rock, half covered with water. Last of all, -another mountain appeared, with a real boy, magnificently clad, who -stood at the top, under an apricot-tree in full blossom. This mountain -was again drawn by boys. - -4. “Some dancers, acting between six flower-beds, which, and a green -tree, were drawn upon the place by boys. Nine other boys, in the same -dress, and armed each with two swords and a musket; a peasant, dancing. - -5. “A mountain, carried upon men’s shoulders; a fountain, with a walk -round it; a large cask, and a house, were severally set upon the place. -Then two giants, masked, with prodigious great heads representing some -Indian deities, began a dance. They were met soon after by a third, of -a still more monstrous size, who came forth out of the mountain, armed -with a great broadsword. He was followed by seven Chinese, jumping out -of the same mountain, though to all appearance quite small, and dancing -about in company with the giants. After some time spent in dances, the -great monstrous giant beat the cask to pieces, out of which came a -young boy, very handsomely clad, who, after a fine long speech, which -he delivered in a very graceful manner, danced with the giant alone. -Meanwhile, three monkeys, with roe’s heads, crept out of the fountain, -and, jumping on the walk round it, performed a dance, mimicking that of -the giant and boy. This done, every one returned to his place, and so -the scene ended. - -6. “The pompous retinue of a prince, travelling with his son, very -naturally represented by boys. - -7. “Several huge machines, accurately resembling, both in size and -color, the things they were to represent, but made of a thin substance, -so that one man could easily carry one upon his back. But, besides this -load on the back, every one of these men had a very large drum hanging -before him, which some others played upon with bells. After this manner -they crossed the stage, dancing, though not very high, because of -their load. The things which they carried were, a well, with all the -implements for extinguishing fires; a large church-bell, with the -timber work belonging to it, and a dragon wound round it for ornament’s -sake; a mountain, covered with snow, and shaped like a dragon, with an -eagle on the top; a brass gun, weighing twenty-four pounds, with all -the tackle belonging to it; a heavy load of traveller’s trunks, packed -up in twelve straw balls, according to the country fashion; a whale in -a dish; several shell fish and fruits, as big as the life, carried each -by one person.” - - - - -CHAPTER XXX - - _Kämpfer’s Two Journeys to Court—Preparations—Presents—Japanese - Attendants—Packing the Baggage and Riding on Horseback—Japanese Love - of Botany—Accoutrements—Road-Books—Norimono and Kago—A. D. 1690-1692._ - - -Mention has already been made of the custom established in Japan, that -all the governors of imperial cities and of provinces, and, indeed, -all the _Daimiō_ and _Shōmiō_—that is, nobles of the first and second -rank—should, once a year, make a journey to court; those of the first -rank to pay their respects and make presents to the emperor in person, -and those of the second rank to salute his chief ministers, assembled -in council. - -In this respect the director of the Dutch trade is placed on the -same footing with the superior nobility, and his journey to court, -accompanied by a physician, a secretary or two, and a flock of Japanese -attendants of various ranks, affords the Dutch the only opportunity -they have of knowing anything by their own personal observation, beyond -the vicinage of Nagasaki. - -[Illustration: TRANSPORTATION METHODS: A BUDDHIST PRIEST IN A NORIMONO; -ANCIENT IMPERIAL CARRIAGES; LADY IN A KAGO] - -Kämpfer made this journey twice—the first time in 1691, and again in -1692—and, notwithstanding the strict surveillance under which the Dutch -are kept, his observations were highly curious. Besides a journal of -his daily route, he gives a general summary of all that he observed, -containing a great deal of curious information, the most interesting -part of which is copied in this and the following chapters, nearly in -his own words: - -“The first thing to be done, is to look out proper presents for his -imperial majesty, for his privy councillors, and some other great -officers at Yedo, Miyako, and Ōsaka, the whole amounting, as near -as possible, to a certain sum, to assort them, and particularly to -assign to whom they are to be delivered. Afterwards they must be put -up into leather bags, which are carefully wrapped up in mats, in order -to preserve them from all accidents in so long a journey; and, for a -further security, several seals are affixed to them. - -“It is the business of the governors of Nagasaki to judge and determine -what might prove acceptable to the court. They take out of the goods -laid up in our warehouse what they think proper, and give instructions -to the departing director about such things as should be sent over from -Batavia the next year. Sometimes some of their own goods they have -been presented with by the Chinese are put in among these presents, -because by this means they can dispose of them to the best advantage, -either by obliging us to buy them at an excessive and their own price, -or by exchanging them for other goods. Now and then some uncommon -curiosities, either of nature or art, are brought over from Europe, and -other parts of the world, on purpose to be presented to the emperor; -but it often happens that they are not approved of by these rigid -censors. Thus, for instance, there were brought over, in my time, two -brass fire-engines of the newest invention, but the governors did not -think them proper to be presented to the emperor, and so returned -them to us, after they had first seen them tried, and taken a pattern -of them.[160] Another time the bird Casuar[161] was sent over from -Batavia, but likewise disliked and denied the honor of appearing before -the emperor, because they heard he was good for nothing but to devour a -large quantity of victuals. - -“These presents are placed on board a barge, three or four weeks before -our departure, and sent by water to _Shimonoseki_, a small town at the -southwestern extremity of the great island of Nippon, where they wait -our arrival by land. Formerly our ambassador, with his whole retinue, -embarked at the same time, whereby we saved a great deal of trouble -and expense we must now be at in travelling by land; but a violent -storm having once put the whole company into eminent danger, and the -voyage having been often, by reason of the contrary winds, too long -and tedious, the emperor has ordered that for the future we should go -by land. The presents for the imperial court, and other heavy baggage, -being sent before us, the rest of the time till our departure is -spent in preparations for our journey, as if we designed some great -expedition into a remote part of the world. - -“The first and most essential part consists in nominating, and giving -proper instructions to, the several officers, and the whole retinue -that is to go with us to court. The governors appoint one of their -Yoriki, to be _Bugiō_, that is, head and commander-in-chief. He is to -represent the authority of his masters, as a badge whereof he hath a -pike carried after him. A Dōshin is ordered to assist him in quality -of his deputy. Both the Yoriki and Dōshin are taken from among the -domestics of one of the governors, who stays that year at Nagasaki. -To these are added two beadles, who, as well as the Dōshin, carry, by -virtue of their office, a halter about them, to arrest and secure, at -command or wink from the Yoriki, any person guilty or suspected of any -misdemeanor. All these persons are looked upon as military men, and as -such have the privilege of wearing two swords;—all persons that are not -either noblemen by birth, or in some military employment, being by a -late imperial edict denied this privilege. - -“I have already stated that our interpreters are divided into two -companies, the upper consisting of the eight chief interpreters, and -the inferior including all the rest. The _Nemban,_ or president for -the time being, of each of these companies is appointed to attend us -in this journey. To these is now added a third, as an apprentice, whom -they take along with them to qualify him for the succession. All the -chief officers, and all other persons that are able to do it, take some -servants along with them, partly to wait upon them, partly for state. -The _Bugiō_ and the principal interpreter take as many as they please, -the other officers, each two or three, as they are able, or as their -office requires. The Dutch captain, or ambassador, may take three, and -every Dutchman of his retinue is allowed one. The interpreters commonly -recommend their favorites to us, and the more ignorant they are of the -Dutch language, the better it answers their intention. - -“I omit to mention some other persons, who, by order or by special -leave of the governors and interpreters, make the journey in company -with us, and at our expense, too, though otherwise they have no manner -of business upon our account. - -“All these future companions of our voyage have leave to make us -some friendly visits at Deshima, in order to get beforehand a little -acquainted with us. There are many among them who would willingly be -more free and open, were it not for the solemn oath they must all take -before their departure, but much more for the fear of being betrayed -by others, since, by virtue of the same oath, they are obliged all and -every one of them to have a strict and watchful eye, not only over -the Dutch, but also over the conduct of each other, particularly with -regard to the Dutch. - -“Another branch of preparations for our journey is the hiring of horses -and porters. This is the chief interpreter’s business, as keeper of -our purse, who is also appointed to take care that whatever is wanted -during the whole journey be provided for. ’Tis he, likewise, that gives -orders to keep everything in readiness to march the minute the Bugiō is -pleased to set out. - -“Two days before our departure every one must deliver his cloak, bag, -and portmantle, to proper people, to be bound up;—this not after -our European manner, but after a particular one of their own, which -deserves to be here described. - -“A plain wooden saddle, not unlike the pack-saddles of the Swedish -post-horses, is girded on the horse with a breast-leather and crupper. -Two latchets are laid upon the saddle, which hang down on both sides -of the horse, in order to their being conveniently tied about two -portmantles, which are put on each side in a due balance; for when -once tied together, they are barely laid on the horse’s back, without -any other thong or latchet to tie them faster. However, to fasten them -in some measure, a small, long box, or trunk, called by the Japanese -_Atotsuke_, is laid over both portmantles upon the horse’s back, and -tied fast to the saddle with thongs; and over the whole is spread the -traveller’s covering and bedding, which are tied fast to the _Atotsuke_ -and side trunks. The cavity between the two trunks, filled up with -some soft stuff, is the traveller’s seat, where he sits, as it were, -upon a flat table, commodiously enough, either cross-legged or with -his legs extended hanging down by the horse’s neck, as he finds it -most convenient. Particular care must be taken to sit in the middle, -and not to lean too much on either side, which would either make the -horse fall, or else the side trunks and rider. In going up and down -hills the footmen and stable grooms hold the two side trunks fast, for -fear of such an accident. The traveller mounts the horse, and alights -again, not on one side, as we Europeans do, but by the horse’s breast, -which is very troublesome for stiff legs. The horses are unsaddled and -unladen in an instant; for having taken the bed-clothes away, which -they do first of all, they need but untie a latchet or two, which they -are very dexterous at, and the whole baggage falls down at once. The -latchets, thongs, and girths, made use of for these several purposes, -are broad and strong, made of cotton, and withal very neatly worked, -with small, oblong, cylindrical pieces of wood at both ends, which are -of great use to strain the latchets, and to tie things hard. - -“The saddle is made of wood, very plain, with a cushion underneath and -a caparison behind, lying upon the horse’s back, with the traveller’s -mark, or arms, stitched upon it. Another piece of coarse cloth hangs -down on each side as a safeguard to the horse, to keep him from being -daubed with dirt. These two pieces are tied together loosely under the -horse’s belly. His head is covered with a net-work of small but strong -strings, to defend it, and particularly the eyes, from flies, which are -very troublesome. The neck, breast, and other parts are hung with small -bells. - -“The side portmantles, which are filled only with light stuff, and -sometimes only with straw, are a sort of square trunk, made of stiff -horse leather, mostly four feet long, a foot and a half broad, and as -many deep. The cover is made somewhat larger, and so deep as to cover -the lower part down to the bottom. Though they hold out rain very well, -yet for a greater security, they are wrapt up in mats, with strong -ropes tied about them; for which reason, and because it requires some -time to pack them up, they are seldom unpacked till you are come to -the journey’s end, and the things which are the most wanted upon the -road are kept in the _Atotsuke_. This is a small, thin trunk or case, -about four feet and a half in length, nine inches broad, and as many -deep. It contains one single drawer, much of the same length, breadth -and depth. It hath a little door or opening on one side, which can -be locked up, and by which you can come conveniently at the drawer, -without untying the _Atotsuke_. What things are daily wanted upon the -road must be kept in this trunk. It serves likewise to fasten the two -portmantles, or side trunks, which would otherwise require a stick. It -is made of thick, strong, gray paper, and, further to secure it against -all accidents of a long journey, strings are tied about it in form of a -net, very neatly. - -“To complete our traveller’s equipage, some other things are requisite, -which are commonly tied to the portmantles. Such are, 1. A string with -_Zeni_, a brass money with a hole in the middle, they being more -proper to buy what necessaries are wanted on the road than silver -money, which must be weighed. People that travel on horseback tie -this string behind them to one of the sashes of their seats. Foot -travellers carry it in a basket upon their back[162]. 2. A lantern, -of varnished and folded paper, with the possessor’s arms painted upon -its middle. This is carried before travellers by their footmen, upon -their shoulder, in travelling by night. It is tied behind one of the -portmantles, put up in a net or bag, which again hath the possessor’s -arms, or marks, printed upon it, as have in general the clothes and all -other movables travellers of all ranks and qualities carry along with -them upon their journeys. 3. A brush made of horse’s hairs, or black -cock feathers, to dust your seat and clothes. It is put behind your -seat, on one side, more for show than use. 4. A water-pail, which is -put on the other side of the seat, opposite to the brush, or anywhere -else. 5. Shoes, or slippers, for horses and footmen. These are twisted -of straw, with ropes likewise of straw, hanging down from them, whereby -they are tied about the horse’s feet, instead of our European iron -horse-shoes, which are not used in this country. They are soon worn -out in stony, slippery roads, and must be often changed for new ones. -For this purpose, the men that look after the horses always carry a -competent stock along with them, tied to the portmanteaus, though they -are to be met with in every village, and are offered for sale by poor -children begging the road. - -“I must beg leave to observe that, besides the several things hitherto -mentioned, which travellers usually carry along with them in their -journeys, I had for my own private use a very large Javan box, which I -had brought with me from Batavia. In this box I privately kept a large -mariner’s compass, in order to measure the directions of the roads, -mountains, and coasts; but open and exposed to everybody’s view, was -an inkhorn; and I usually filled it with plants, flowers, and branches -of trees, which I figured and described (nay, under this pretext -whatever occurred to me remarkable). Doing this, as I did it free and -unhindered, to everybody’s knowledge, I should be wrongly accused to -have done anything which might have proved disadvantageous to the -Company’s trade in this country, or to have thereby thrown any ill -suspicion upon our conduct from so jealous and circumspect a nation. -Nay, far from it, I must own that, from the very first day of our -setting out, till our return to Nagasaki, all the Japanese companions -of our journey, and particularly the Bugiō or commander-in-chief, -were extremely forward to communicate to me what uncommon plants they -met with, together with their names, characters, and uses, which they -diligently inquired into among the natives. The Japanese, a very -reasonable and sensible people, and themselves great lovers of plants, -look upon botany as a study both useful and innocent, which, pursuant -to the very dictates of reason and the law of nature, ought to be -encouraged by everybody. Thus much I know, by my own experience, that -of all the nations I saw and conversed with in my long and tedious -travels, those the least favored botanical learning who ought to have -encouraged it most. Upon my return to Nagasaki, _Tōnemon_, secretary -and chief counsellor to the governors, being at Deshima, sent for me, -and made me, by the chief interpreter, the following compliment: That -he had heard with great pleasure from our late Bugiō, how agreeably -I had spent my time, and what diversion I had taken upon our journey -in that excellent and most commendable study of botany, whereof he, -_Tōnemon_, himself was a great lover and encourager. But I must -confess, likewise, that at the beginning of our journey I took what -pains and tried what means I could to procure the friendship and -assistance of my fellow-travellers, obliging some with a submissive -humble conduct and ready assistance, as to physic and physical advice, -others with secret rewards for the very meanest services and favors. - -“A traveller must not forget to provide himself with a cloak, against -rainy weather, made of double-varnished oiled paper, and withal so very -large and wide that it covers and shelters at once man, horse, and -baggage. It seems the Japanese have learned the use of it, together -with the name _Kappa_, from the Portuguese. - -“To keep off the heat of the sun, travellers must be provided with a -large hat, which is made of split bamboos or straw, very neatly and -artfully twisted, in form of an extended sombrero, or umbrella. It is -tied under the chin with broad silk bands, lined with cotton. It is -transparent and exceedingly light, and yet, if once wet, will let no -rain come through. Not only the men wear such hats upon their journeys, -but also the women in cities and villages, at all times, and in all -weathers, and it gives them no disagreeable look. - -“The Japanese upon their journeys wear very wide breeches, tapering -towards the end, to cover the legs, and slit on both sides to put -in the ends of their large, long gowns, which would otherwise be -troublesome in walking or riding. Some wear a short coat or cloak over -the breeches. Some, instead of stockings, tie a broad ribbon around -their legs. Ordinary servants, chiefly Norimono-men and pike-bearers, -wear no breeches, and, for expedition’s sake, tuck their gowns quite up -to their belt, exposing their naked bodies, which they say they have no -reason at all to be ashamed of. - -“The Japanese of both sexes never go abroad without fans, as we -Europeans seldom do without gloves[163]. Upon their journeys they make -use of a fan which hath the roads printed upon it, and tells them how -many miles they are to travel, what inns they are to go to, and what -price victuals are at. Some, instead of such a fan, make use of a -road-book, which are offered them for sale by numbers of poor children, -begging along the road. The Dutch are not permitted, at least publicly, -to buy any of these fans, or road-books. - -“A Japanese on horseback, tucked up after this fashion, makes a very -comical figure at a distance; for, besides that they are generally -short and thick, their large hat, wide breeches and cloaks, together -with their sitting cross-legged, make them appear broader than long. -Upon the road they ride one by one. Merchants have their horses, -with the heavy baggage packed up in two or three trunks or bales, -led before them. They follow, sitting on horseback, after the manner -above described. As to the bridle, the traveller hath nothing to do -with that, the horse being led by one of his footmen, who walks at the -horse’s right side, next by the head, and together with his companions -sings some merry song or other, to divert themselves, and to animate -their horses. - -“The Japanese look upon our European way of sitting on horseback, -and holding the bridle one’s self, as warlike and properly becoming -a soldier. For this very reason they seldom or never use it in their -journeys. It is more frequent among people of quality in cities, where -they go a visiting one another. But even then the rider (who makes but -a sorry appearance when sitting after our manner) holds the bridle -merely for form, the horse being still led by one, and sometimes by -two, footmen, who walk on each side of the head, holding it by the bit. -Their saddles come nearer our German saddles than those of any Asiatic -nation. The stirrup-leathers are very short. A broad round leather -hangs down on both sides, after the fashion of the Tartars, to defend -the legs. The stirrup is made of iron, or Sowaas (?), very thick and -heavy,—not unlike the sole of a foot, and open on one side, for the -rider to get his foot loose with ease, in case of a fall,—commonly of -an exceeding neat workmanship, and inlaid with silver. The reins are -not of leather, as ours, but silk, and fastened to the bit. - -“Besides going on horseback, there is another more stately and -expensive way of travelling in this country, and that is to be carried -in _Norimono_, and _Kago_, or particular sorts of chairs or litters. -The same is usual likewise in cities. People of quality are carried -about after this manner for state, others for ease and convenience. -There is a wide difference between the litters men of quality go in, -and those of ordinary people. The former are sumptuous and magnificent, -according to every one’s rank and riches. The latter are plain and -simple. The former are commonly called Norimono, the latter Kago. The -vulgar (in all nations master of the language) have called them by two -different names, though, in fact, they are but one thing. Norimono -signifies, properly speaking, a thing to sit in; Kago, a basket. Both -sorts rise through such a variety of degrees, from the lowest to the -highest, from the plainest to the most curious, that a fine Kago is -scarce to be distinguished from a plain and simple Norimono, but by -its pole. The pole of a Kago is plain, massy, all of one piece, and -smaller than that of a Norimono, which is large, curiously adorned and -hollow. The pole of a Norimono is made up of four thin boards, neatly -joined together, in form of a wide arch, and much lighter than it -appears to be. Princes and great lords show their rank and nobility, -amongst other things, particularly by the length and largeness of the -poles of their Norimono. People who fancy themselves to be of greater -quality than they really are, are apt now and then to get the poles of -their Norimono or Kago much larger than they ought to have been. But -then, also, they are liable to be obliged by the magistrates, if they -come to know of it, to reduce them to their former size, with a severe -reprimand, if not a considerable punishment, into the bargain. This -regulation, however, doth not concern the women, for they may, if they -please, make use of larger poles than their own and their husbands’ -quality would entitle them to.” - -The Norimono itself is a small room, of an oblong square figure, big -enough for one person conveniently to sit or lie in, curiously woven -of fine, thin, split bamboos, sometimes japanned and finely painted, -with a small folding-door on each side, sometimes a small window before -and behind. Sometimes it is fitted up for the conveniency of sleeping -in it. It has at top a roof, which in rainy weather has a covering -of varnished paper. It is carried by two, four, eight, or more men, -according to the quality of the person in it, who (if he be a prince -or lord of a province) carry the pole on the palms of their hands; -otherwise, they lay it upon their shoulders. All these Norimono-men -are clad in the same livery, with the coat of arms or mark of their -masters. They are every now and then relieved by others, who in the -mean time walk by the Norimono’s side. - -[Illustration: A BRIDGE SPANNING THE RIVER ŌIGAWA; VIEW OF FUJIKAWA] - -“The Kago are not near so fine nor so well attended. They are much -of the same figure, but smaller, with a solid, square or sometimes -a round, pole, which is either fastened to the upper part of the -roof, or put through it underneath. The Kago commonly made use of for -travelling, chiefly for carrying people over mountains, are very poor -and plain, and so small, that one cannot sit in them without very great -inconveniency, bowing the head and laying the legs across. They are -not unlike a basket with a round bottom, and a flat roof, which one -reaches with his head. In such Kago we are carried over the rocks and -mountains, which are not easily to be passed on horseback. Three men -are appointed for every Kago, who, indeed, for the heaviness of their -burden, have enough to do.” - - - - -CHAPTER XXXI - - _Highways—Rivers—Fords—Ferries—Bridges—Water Part of the Journey—Coast - and Islands—Frail Structure of Japanese Vessels—Description - of them—Buildings on the Route—Proclamation Places—Places of - Execution—Tera, or Buddhist Temples—Miya, or Shintō Temples—Idols and - Amulets._ - - -“The empire of Japan,” says Kämpfer, “is divided into seven great -tracts,[164] every one of which is bounded by a highway, and, as these -tracts are subdivided into provinces, so there are particular ways -leading to and from every one of these provinces, all ending in the -great highways, as small rivers lose themselves in great ones. These -highways are so broad that two companies, though never so great, can, -without hindrance, pass by one another. That company which, according -to their way of speaking, goes up, that is, to Miyako, takes the left -side of the way, and that which comes from Miyako the right. All the -highways are divided into measured miles, which are all marked, and -begin from the great bridge at Yedo as the common centre. This bridge -is by way of preëminence, called _Nihombashi_, that is, the bridge of -Japan. By this means, a traveller, in whatever part of the empire he -be, may know at any time how many Japanese miles it is from thence to -Yedo. The miles are marked by two small hills thrown up, one on each -side of the way, opposite each other, and planted at the top with -one or more trees. At the end of every tract, province, or smaller -district, a wooden or stone pillar is set up in the highway, with -characters upon it, showing what provinces or lands they are which -here bound upon each other, and to whom they belong. Like pillars are -erected at the entry of the sideways which turn off from the great -highway, showing what province or dominion they lead to, and the -distance in leagues to the next remarkable place. The natives, as -they improve every inch of ground, plant firs and cypress-trees in -rows along the roads over the ridges of hills, mountains, and other -barren places. No firs or cypress can be cut down without leave of the -magistrate of the place, and they must always plant young ones instead -of those they cut down. - -“In our journey to court we pass along two of these chief highways, -and go by water from one to the other, so that our whole journey is -divided into three parts. We set out from Nagasaki to go by land across -the island Kiūshiū to the town of Kokura, where we arrive in five -days. From Kokura we pass the straits in small boats to Shimonoseki, a -convenient and secure harbor, about two leagues off, where we find our -barge, with the baggage, riding at anchor and waiting our arrival. The -road from Nagasaki to Kokura is called by the Japanese _Saikaidō_, that -is, the west sea way.[165] At Shimonoseki we go on board our barge for -Hyōgo, where we arrive in eight days, more or less, according to the -wind. Ōsaka, a city very famous for the extent of its commerce and the -wealth of its inhabitants, lies about thirteen Japanese water-leagues -from Hiōgo, which, on account of the shallowness of the water, we make -in small boats, leaving our barge at Hiōgo till our return. From Ōsaka -we go again by land, over the great island Nippon, as far as Yedo, the -emperor’s residence, where we arrive in about fourteen days or more. -The road from Ōsaka to Yedo is by the Japanese called Tōkaidō, that -is, the east sea or coast way. We stay at Yedo about twenty days, or -upwards; and having had an audience of his imperial majesty, and paid -our respects to some of his chief ministers and favorites, we return -to Nagasaki the same way, completing our whole journey in about three -months’ time.[166] - -“In most parts of Saikaidō, and everywhere upon Tōkaidō, between the -towns and villages, there is a straight row of firs planted on each -side of the road, which by their agreeable shade make the journey both -pleasant and convenient. The ground is kept clean and neat, convenient -ditches and outlets are contrived to carry off the rain-water, and -strong dikes are cast up to keep off that which comes down from higher -places. This makes the road at all times good and pleasant, unless it -be then raining and the ground slimy. The neighboring villages must -jointly keep them in repair, and sweep and clean them every day. -People of great quality cause the road to be swept with brooms, just -before they pass it; and there lie heaps of sand in readiness, at due -distances (brought thither some days before), to spread over the road, -in order to dry it, in case it should rain upon their arrival. The -lords of the several provinces, and the princes of the imperial blood, -in their journeys, find, at every two or three leagues’ distance, huts -of green-leaved branches erected for them, with a private apartment, -where they may step in for their pleasures or necessities. The -inspectors for repairing the highway are at no great trouble to get -people to clean them, for whatever makes the roads nasty is of some use -to the neighboring country people, so that they rather strive who shall -first carry it away. The pine-nuts, branches, and leaves, which fall -down daily from the firs, are gathered for fuel to supply the want of -wood, which is very scarce in some places. Nor doth horses’ dung lie -long upon the ground, but is soon taken up by poor country children, -and serves to manure the fields. For the same reason care is taken that -the filth of travellers be not lost, and there are in several places, -near country people’s houses, or in their fields, houses of office -built for them. Old shoes of horses and men, which are thrown away as -useless, are gathered in the same houses, burnt to ashes, and added to -the mixture. Supplies of this composition are kept in large tubs or -tuns, buried even with the ground in their villages and fields, and, -being not covered, afford full as ungrateful and putrid a smell of -radishes (which is the common food of country people) to tender noses, -as the neatness and beauty of the road is agreeable to the eyes. - -“In several parts of the country the roads go over hills and mountains, -which are sometimes so steep and high, that travellers are necessitated -to get themselves carried over them in kago, such as I have described -in the preceding chapter, because they cannot, without great difficulty -and danger, pass them on horseback. But even this part of the road, -which may be called bad in comparison to others, is green and pleasant, -for the abundance of springs of clear water, and green bushes, and -this all the year round, but particularly in the spring, when the -flower-bearing trees and shrubs being then in their full blossom, prove -an additional beauty, affording to the eye a curious view, and filling -the nose with agreeable scent. - -“Several of the rivers we are to cross over, chiefly upon Tōkaidō, -run with so impetuous a rapidity towards the sea that they will bear -no bridge nor boat, and this by reason partly of the neighboring -snow-mountains, where they arise, partly of the frequent great rains, -which swell them to such a degree as to make them overflow their banks. -These must be forded. Men, horses, and baggage, are delivered up to -the care of certain people, bred up to this business, who are well -acquainted with the bed of the river, and the places which are the most -proper for fording. These people, as they are made answerable for their -passenger’s lives, and all accidents that might befall them in the -passage, exert all their strength, care, and dexterity, to support them -with their arms against the impetuosity of the river, and the stones -rolling down from the mountains where the rivers arise. Norimono are -carried over by the same people. - -[Illustration: THE RIVER ŌI - From _Official History of Japan_] - -“The chief of these rivers is the formidable _Ōigawa_, which separates -the two provinces Tōtōmi and Suruga. The passage of this river is what -all travellers are apprehensive of, not only for its uncommon rapidity -and swiftness, but because sometimes, chiefly after rains, it swells so -high that they are necessitated to stay several days on either bank, -till the fall of the water makes it passable, or till they will venture -the passage, and desire to be set over at their own peril. The rivers -_Fuji-jedagawa_ and _Abegawa_, in the last mentioned province, are of -the like nature, but not so much dreaded. - -“There are many other shallows and rapid rivers, but because they are -not near so broad nor impetuous as those above mentioned, passengers -are ferried over them in boats, which are built after a particular -fashion proper for such a passage, with flat, thin bottoms, which will -give way, so that if they run aground, or upon some great stone, they -may easily, and without any danger, slide over it and get off again. -The chief of these are the river _Tenriū_, in the province Tōtōmi; -_Fujigawa_, in the province Suruga; _Benriū_, in the province Musashi, -and _Asukagawa_, which is particularly remarkable, for that its bed -continually alters, for which reason inconstant people are compared to -it in proverb. - -“Strong, broad bridges are laid over all other rivers which do not run -with so much rapidity, nor alter their beds. These bridges are built of -cedar, and kept in constant repair, so that they look at all times as -if they had been but lately finished. They are railed on both sides. -As one may travel all over Japan without paying any taxes or customs, -so likewise they know nothing of any money to be paid by way of a toll -for the repair of highways and bridges. Only in some places the custom -is, in winter-time to give the bridge-keeper, who is to look after the -bridge, a zeni for his trouble. - -“That part of our journey to court made by water is along the coasts -of the great island Nippon, which we have on our left, steering our -course so as to continue always in sight of land, and not above one -or two leagues off it at farthest, that in case of a storm arising it -may be in our power forthwith to put into some harbor. Coming out of -the straits of Shimonoseki, we continue for some time in sight of the -southeastern coasts of Kiūshiū. Having left these coasts, we come in -sight of those of the island Shikoku. We then make the island Awaji, -and steering between this island and the main land of the province -Izumi, we put into the harbor of Ōsaka, and so end that part of our -journey to court which must be made by sea. All these coasts are very -much frequented, not only by the princes and lords of the empire, with -their retinues, travelling to and from court, but likewise by the -merchants of the country, going from one province to another to buy and -sell, so that one may chance on some days to see upwards of a hundred -ships under sail. The coasts hereabouts are rocky and mountainous; but -many of the mountains are cultivated to their very tops; they are well -inhabited and stocked with villages, castles, and small towns. There -are very good harbors in several places, where ships put in at night -to lie at anchor, commonly upon good clean ground, in four to eight -fathoms. - -[Illustration: JAPANESE CRAFT: SAILBOATS: ROWBOATS: JUNKS] - -“In this voyage we pass innumerable small islands, particularly in the -straits between Shikoku and Nippon. They are all mountainous, and for -the most part barren and uncultivated rocks. Some few have a tolerable -good soil and sweet water. These are inhabited, and the mountains, -though never so steep, cultivated up to their tops. These mountains -(as also those of the main land of Nippon) have several rows of firs -planted for ornament’s sake along their ridges at top, which makes -them look at a distance as if they were fringed, and affords a very -curious prospect. There is hardly an island, of the inhabited ones, -but what hath a convenient harbor, with good anchoring ground, where -ships may lie safe. All Japanese pilots know this very well, and will -sometimes come to an anchor upon very slight pretences. Nor, indeed, -are they much to be blamed for an over-carefulness, or too great a -circumspection, which some would be apt to call fear and cowardice. -Their ships are not built strong enough to bear the shocks and tossings -of huge raging waves. The deck is so loose that it will let the water -run through, unless the mast hath been taken down and the ship covered, -partly with mats, partly with sails. The stem is laid quite open, and, -if the sea runs high, the waves will beat in on all sides. In short, -the whole structure is so weak that, a storm approaching, unless anchor -be forthwith cast, the sails taken in, and the mast let down, it is in -danger every moment to be shattered to pieces. - -“All the ships and boats we met with on our voyage by sea were built of -fir or cedar, both which grow in great plenty in the country. They are -of a different structure, according to the purposes and the waters for -which they are built. The pleasure-boats, made use of only for going up -and down rivers, or to cross small bays, are widely different in their -structure, according to the possessor’s fancy. Commonly they are built -for rowing. The first and lowermost deck is flat and low; another, more -lofty, with open windows, stands upon it, and this may be divided, -like their houses, by folding screens, as they please, into several -apartments. Several parts are curiously adorned with variety of flags -and other ornaments. - -“The merchant-ships which venture out at sea, though not very far from -the coasts, and serve for the transport of men and goods from one -island or province to another, deserve a more accurate description. -They are commonly eighty-four feet long and twenty-four broad, built -for sailing as well as rowing. They run tapering from the middle -towards the stern, and both ends of the keel stand out of the water -considerably. The body of the ship is not built bulging, as our -European ones; but that part which stands below the surface of the -water runs almost in a straight line towards the keel. The stern is -broad and flat, with a wide opening in the middle for the easier -management of the rudder, which reaches down almost to the bottom of -the ship, and lays open all the inside to the eye. The deck, somewhat -raised towards the stern, consists only of deal boards laid loose, -without anything to fasten them together. It rises but little above the -surface of the water, when the ship hath its full lading, and is almost -covered with a sort of a cabin, full a man’s height, only a small part -of it towards the stern being left empty to lay up the anchor and -other tackle. This cabin jets beyond the ship about two feet on each -side; and there are sliding-windows round it, which may be opened or -shut, as occasion requires. In the furthermost parts are the cabins, -or rooms for passengers, separate from each other by folding screens -and doors, with floors covered with fine neat mats. The furthermost -cabin is always reckoned the best and for this reason assigned to the -chief passenger. The roof, or upper deck, is flatfish, and made of -neat boards curiously joined together. In rainy weather the mast is -let down upon the upper deck, and the sail extended over it, affording -to the sailors and the people employed in the ship’s service shelter -and a place to sleep at night. Sometimes, and the better to defend -the upper deck, it is covered with common straw mats, which for this -purpose lie there at hand. The ship hath but one sail, made of hemp, -and very large. She hath also but one mast, standing up about a fathom -beyond her middle towards the stern. This mast, which is of the same -length with the ship, is hoisted up by pulleys, and again, when the -ship comes to an anchor, let down upon deck. The anchors are of iron, -and cables twisted of straw, and stronger than one would imagine. Ships -of this burden have commonly thirty or forty hands apiece to row them -if the wind fails. The watermen’s benches are towards the stern. They -row according to the air of a song, or other noise, which serves at -the same time to direct and regulate their work and to encourage the -rowers. They do not row after our European manner, extending their -oars straight forwards, and cutting just the surface of the water, -but let them fall down into the water almost perpendicularly, and -then lift them up again. This way of rowing not only answers all the -ends of the other, but is done with less trouble. The benches of the -rowers are raised considerably above the surface of the water. Their -oars are, besides, made in a particular manner, calculated for this -way of rowing, being not straight like our European oars, but somewhat -bent, with a movable joint in the middle, which, yielding to the -violent pressure of the water, facilitates the taking them up. The -ship’s timbers and planks are fastened together with hooks and bands -of copper. The stern is adorned with a knot of fringes made of thin, -long, black strings. Men of quality in their voyages have their cabin -hung all about with cloth, whereupon is stitched their coats of arms. -Their pike of state, as the badge of their authority, is put up upon -the stern on one side of the rudder. On the other side there is a -weather-flag for the use of the pilot. In small ships, as soon as they -come to an anchor, the rudder is hoisted up, and one end of it extended -to the shore, so that one may pass through the opening of the stern, as -through a back door, and walking over the rudder, as over a bridge, get -ashore. Thus much of the ships. I proceed now to other structures and -buildings travellers meet with in their journeys by land. - -[Illustration: A MERCHANT SHIP - From _Official History of Japan_] - -“It may be observed, in general, that the buildings of this country, -ecclesiastical or civil, public or private, being commonly low and of -wood, are by no means to be compared to ours in Europe, neither in -largeness nor magnificence. The houses of private persons never exceed -six ken, or thirty-six feet in height. Nay, ’tis but seldom they build -their houses so high, unless they design them also for warehouses. -Even the palaces of the Dairi, the secular monarch, and of the princes -and lords, are not above one story high. And although there be many -common houses, chiefly in towns, of two stories, yet the upper story, -if it deserves that name, is generally very low, unfit to be inhabited, -and good for little else but to lay up some of the least necessary -household goods, it being often without a ceiling or any other cover -but the bare roof. The reason of their building their houses so low, -is the frequency of earthquakes, which prove much more fatal to -lofty and massy buildings of stone, than to low and small houses of -wood. But if the houses of the Japanese be not so large, lofty, or so -substantially built as ours, they are on the other hand greatly to -be admired for their uncommon neatness and cleanliness, and curious -furniture. I could not help taking notice that the furniture and the -several ornaments of their apartments make a far more graceful and -handsome appearance in rooms of a small compass, than they would do -in large, lofty halls. They have none, or but few, partition walls to -divide their rooms from each other, but instead of them make use of -folding screens, made of colored or gilt paper, and laid into wooden -frames, which they can put up or remove whenever they please, and by -this means enlarge their rooms or make them narrower, as it best suits -their fancy or convenience. The floors are somewhat raised above the -level of the street, and are all made of boards, neatly covered with -fine mats[167], the borders whereof are curiously fringed, embroidered, -or otherwise neatly adorned. All mats are of the same size in all parts -of the empire, to wit, a ken, or six feet long[168], and half a ken -broad. All the lower part of the house, the staircase leading up to -the second story, if there be any, the doors, windows[169], posts and -passages, are curiously painted and varnished. The ceilings are neatly -covered with gilt or silver colored paper, embellished with flowers, -and the screens in several rooms curiously painted. In short, there is -not one corner in the whole house but looks handsome and pretty, and -this the rather since all their furniture may be bought at an easy rate. - -“I must not forget to mention, that it is very healthful to live in -these houses, and that in this particular they are far beyond ours in -Europe, because of their being built all of cedar wood or fir; and -because the windows are generally contrived so that upon opening them, -and removing the screens which separate the rooms, a free passage is -left for the air through the whole house. - -“I took notice that the roof, which is covered with planks[170], or -shingles of wood, rests upon thick, strong, heavy beams, as large -as they can get them, and that the second story is generally built -stronger and more substantial than the first. This they do by reason of -the frequent earthquakes which happen in this country, because, they -observe, that in case of a violent shock, the pressure of the upper -part of the house upon the lower, which is built much lighter, keeps -the whole from being overthrown. - -“The castles of the Japanese nobility are built, either on great -rivers, or upon hills and rising grounds. They take in a vast deal -of room, and consist commonly of three different fortresses, or -enclosures, which cover and defend, or, if possible, encompass one -another. Each enclosure is surrounded and defended by a clean, deep -ditch, and a thick, strong wall, built of stone or earth, with strong -gates. Guns they have none. The principal and innermost castle or -enclosure is called the _Honmaru_, that is, the true or chief castle. -It is the residence of the prince or lord who is in possession of it, -and as such it is distinguished from the others by a square, large, -white tower, three or four stories high, with a small roof encompassing -each story like a crown or garland. In the second enclosure, called -_Ni-no-maru_, that is, the second castle, are lodged the gentlemen of -the prince’s bedchamber, his stewards, secretaries, and other chief -officers, who are to give a constant attendance about his person. The -empty spaces are cultivated, and turned either into gardens or sown -with rice. The third and outwardmost enclosure is called _Sotogamaye_, -that is, the outwardmost defence; as, also, _Sannomaru_, that is, -the third castle. It is the abode of a numerous train of soldiers, -courtiers, domestics, and other people, everybody being permitted to -come into it. The white walls, bastions, gates, each of which hath two -or more stories built over it, and above all the beautiful tower of the -innermost castle, are extremely pleasant to behold at a distance. There -is commonly a place without the castle designed for a rendezvous and -review of troops. Hence it appears, that, considering wars are carried -on in this country without the use of great guns, these castles are -well enough defended, and of sufficient strength to hold out a long -siege. The proprietors are bound to take particular care that they be -kept in constant repair. However, if there be any part thereof going -to ruin, the same cannot be rebuilt without the knowledge and express -leave of the emperor. Much less doth the emperor suffer new ones to be -built in any part of his dominions. The castles where the prince or -lords reside are commonly seated at the extremity of some large town, -which encompasses them in the form of a half-moon[171]. - -“Most of the towns are very populous and well built. The streets are -generally speaking regular, running straight forward, and crossing -each other at right angles, as if they had been laid out at one time, -and according to one general ground-plot. The towns are not surrounded -with walls and ditches. The two chief gates, where people go in and -out, are no better than the ordinary gates which stand at the end of -every street, and are shut at night. Sometimes there is part of a wall -built contiguous to them on each side, merely for ornament’s sake. In -larger towns, where some prince resides, these two gates are a little -handsomer, and kept in better repair, and there is commonly a strong -guard mounted, all out of respect for the residing prince. The rest of -the town generally lies open to the fields, and is but seldom enclosed -even with a common hedge or ditch. In our journey to court I counted -thirty-three towns and residences of princes of the empire, some -whereof we passed through, but saw others only at a distance. Common -towns and large villages or boroughs, on our road, I computed at from -seventy-seven to eighty or upwards[172]. - -“I could not help admiring the great number of shops we met with -in all the cities, towns, and villages; whole streets being scarce -anything else but continued rows of shops on both sides, and I own, -for my part, that I could not well conceive how the whole country is -able to furnish customers enough, only to make the proprietors get a -livelihood, much less to enrich them. - -“The villages along the highways in the great island Nippon, have among -their inhabitants but few farmers, the far greater part being made up -by people who resort there to get their livelihood either by selling -some odd things to travellers, or by servile daily labor. Most of these -villages consist only of one long street, bordering on each side of -the highway, which is sometimes extended to such a length as almost to -reach the next village. - -“The houses of country people and husbandmen consist of four low walls -covered with a thatched or shingled roof. In the back part of the -house the floor is somewhat raised above the level of the street, and -there it is they place the hearth; the rest is covered with neat mats. -Behind the street door hang rows of coarse ropes made of straw, not -to hinder people from coming in or going out, but to serve instead of -a lattice-window to prevent such as are without from looking in and -observing what passes within doors. As to household goods they have -but few. Many children and great poverty is generally what they are -possessed of; and yet with some small provision of rice, plants, and -roots, they live content and happy. - -“Passing through cities and villages and other inhabited places, we -always found, upon one of the chief public streets, a small place, -encompassed with grates, for the supreme will, as the usual way of -speaking is in this country, that is, for the imperial orders and -proclamations. The lord or governor of every province publishes them -in his own name for the instruction of passengers. They are written, -article by article, in large, fair characters, upon a square table -of a foot or two in length, standing upon a post at least twelve -feet high. We saw several of these tables, as we travelled along, of -different dates and upon different subjects. The chief, largest, and -oldest contain the edict against the Roman Catholic religion, setting -forth also proper orders relating to the image-trampling inquisition, -and specifying what reward is to be given to any person or persons -that discover a Christian or a priest. The lords or governors of -provinces put up their own orders and edicts in the same place. -This is the reason why there are sometimes so many standing behind -or near one another, that it is scarce possible to see and to read -them all. Sometimes, also, they have pieces of money, in gold or -silver, stuck or nailed to them, to be given as a reward to any one -who discovers any fact, person, or criminal therein mentioned. These -grated proclamation-cases are commonly placed, in great cities, just at -the entrance, and in villages and hamlets in the middle of the chief -streets, where there is the most passing. Along the road there are some -other orders and instructions for passengers put up in the like manner, -but upon lower posts. These come from the sheriffs, surveyors of the -roads, and other inferior officers, and although the things therein -ordered or intimated be generally very trifling, yet they may involve a -transgressor or negligent observer in great troubles and expense. - -“Another remarkable thing we met with, as we travelled along, were the -places of public execution, easily known by crosses, posts, and other -remains of former executions. They commonly lie without the cities -or villages, on the west side. - -[Illustration: A DRY-GOODS SHOP] - -“In this heathen country fewer capital crimes are tried before the -courts of justice, and less criminal blood shed by the hands of public -executioners, than perhaps in any part of Christendom. So powerfully -works the fear of an inevitable, shameful death upon the minds of a -nation, otherwise so stubborn as the Japanese, and so regardless of -their lives, that nothing else but such strictness would be able to -keep them within due bounds. ’Tis true, indeed, Nagasaki cannot boast -of that scarcity of executions; for besides that this place hath been -in a manner consecrated to cruelty and blood, by being made the common -butchery of many thousand Japanese Christians, there have not been -since wanting frequent executions, particularly of those people who, -contrary to the severe imperial edict, cannot leave off carrying on a -smuggling trade with foreigners, and who alone perhaps of the whole -nation seem to be more pleased with this unlawful gain, than frightened -by the shameful punishment which they must inevitably suffer if caught -in the fact or betrayed to the governors. - -“Of all the religious buildings to be seen in this country, the Tera, -that is, the Buddhist temples, with the adjoining convents, are, -doubtless, the most remarkable, as being far superior to all others, -by their stately height, curious roofs, and numberless other beautiful -ornaments. Such as are built within cities or villages, stand commonly -on rising grounds and in the most conspicuous places. Others, which are -without, are built on the ascent of hills and mountains. All are most -sweetly seated,—a curious view of the adjacent country, a spring or -rivulet of clear water, and the neighborhood of a wood, with pleasant -walks, being necessary for the spots on which these holy structures are -to be built. - -“All these temples are built of the best cedars and firs, and adorned -within with many carved images. In the middle of the temple stands -a fine altar, with one or more gilt idols upon it, and a beautiful -candlestick, with sweet-scented candles burning before it. The whole -temple is so neatly and curiously adorned, that one would fancy himself -transported into a Roman Catholic church, did not the monstrous shape -of the idols, which are therein worshipped, evince the contrary. -The whole empire is full of these temples, and their priests are -without number. Only in and about Miyako they count three thousand -eight hundred and ninety-three temples, and thirty-seven thousand and -ninety-three Shukke, or priests, to attend them. - -“The sanctity of the Miya, or temples sacred to the gods of old -worshipped in the country, requires also that they should be built -in some lofty place, or, at least, at some distance from unclean, -common grounds. I have elsewhere observed that they are attended only -by secular persons[173]. A neat broad walk turns in from the highway -towards these temples. At the beginning of the walk is a stately and -magnificent gate, built either of stone or of wood, with a square -table, about a foot and a half high, on which the name of the god -to whom the temple is consecrated is written or engraved in golden -characters. - -“Of this magnificent entry one may justly say, _Parturiunt Montes_; -for if you come to the end of the walk, which is sometimes several -hundred paces long, instead of a pompous, magnificent building, you -find nothing but a low, mean structure of wood, often all hid amidst -trees and bushes, with one single grated window to look into it, and -within either all empty, or adorned only with a looking-glass of metal, -placed in the middle, and hung about with some bundles of straw, or -cut white paper, tied to a long string, in form of fringes, as a mark -of the purity and sanctity of the place. The most magnificent gates -stand before the temples of _Tenshō daijin_, of _Hachiman_, and of -that _Kami_, or god, whom particular places choose to worship as their -tutelar deity, who takes a more particular care to protect and defend -them[174]. - -“Other religious objects travellers meet with along the roads are the -Hotoke, or foreign idols, chiefly those of _Amida_ and _Jizō_, as also -other monstrous images and idols, which we found upon the highways in -several places, at the turning in of sideways, near bridges, convents, -temples, and other buildings. They are set up partly as an ornament -to the place, partly to remind travellers of the devotion and worship -due to the gods. For this same purpose, drawings of these idols -printed upon entire or half sheets of paper, are pasted upon the -gates of cities and villages, upon wooden posts, near bridges, upon -the proclamation-cases above described, and in several other places -upon the highway, which stand the most exposed to the traveller’s view. -Travellers, however, are not obliged to fall down before them, or to -pay them any other mark of worship and respect than they are otherwise -willing to do. - -“On the doors and houses of ordinary people (for men of quality seldom -suffer to have theirs thus disfigured) there is commonly pasted a sorry -picture of one of their Lares, or house gods, printed upon a half -sheet of paper. The most common is the black-horned _Gion_, otherwise -called _Gozutennō_,—that is, according to the literal signification -of the Chinese characters for this name, _the ox-headed prince of -heaven_,—whom they believe to have the power of keeping the family -from distempers, and other unlucky accidents, particularly from the -small-pox, which proves fatal to great numbers of their children. -Others fancy they thrive extremely well, and live happy, under the -protection of a countryman of Yezo, whose monstrous, frightful picture -they paste upon their doors, being hairy all over his body, and -carrying a large sword with both hands, which they believe he makes use -of to keep off, and, as it were, to parry, all sorts of distempers and -misfortunes endeavoring to get into the house. - -“On the fronts of new and pretty houses I have sometimes seen dragons’ -or devils’ heads, painted with a wide open mouth, large teeth, and -fiery eyes. The Chinese and other Indian nations—nay, even the -Mahometans in Arabia and Persia—have the same placed over the doors -of their houses, by the frightful aspect of this monstrous figure to -keep off, as the latter say, the envious from disturbing the peace of -families. - -“Often, also, they put a branch of the _Hanashikimi_, or anise-tree, -over their doors, which is, in like manner, believed to bring good -luck into their houses; or else liverwort, which they fancy hath -the particular virtue to keep off evil spirits; or some other -plants or branches of trees. In villages they often place their -indulgence-boxes[175], which they bring back from their pilgrimage to -Ise, over their doors, thinking, also, by this means to bring happiness -and prosperity upon their houses. Others paste long strips of paper to -their doors, which the adherents of the several religious sects and -convents are presented with by their clergy, for some small gratuity. -There are odd, unknown characters, and divers forms of prayers, writ -upon these papers, which the superstitious firmly believe to have -the infallible virtue of conjuring and keeping off all manner of -misfortunes. Many more amulets of the like nature are pasted to their -doors, against the plague, distempers, and particular misfortunes. -There is, also, one against poverty.” - - -END OF VOL. I. - -INDEX - - - Abegawa, River, i., 385. - - Acorns, Edible, ii., 142. - - _Acorus_, ii., 124. - - Actors, i., 212, 360-365; ii., 160, 161. - - Acupuncture, ii., 145, 202. - - Adams, ——, ii., 345. - - Adams, Captain Robert, i., 240. - - Adams, Thomas, i., 172. - - Adams, William, i., 169-179, 192, 199-204, 206, 207, 210, 211, 213, - 224, 225, 239, 240. - - Ainslie, Dr., ii., 208. - - “Ainu and their Folk-lore, The,” ii., 345. - - “Ainu of Japan, The,” ii., 345. - - Akechi Mitsuhide, i., 116, 117. - - _Alcea rosea_, ii., 124. - - Alcock, ——, ii., 345. - - Almeida, Louis, i., 93, 95, 96, 153, 165. - - Alphabets in use, i., 78; ii., 164. - - Alvarez, George, i., 38, 50. - - Ambassadors to the Pope, i., 103-115, 121, 122, 126, 128, 132. - - Ambergris, i., 329. - - Amboyna, Massacre of, i., 240, 241; ii., 355. - - “America in the East,” ii., 273. - - “American anchorage,” ii., 291. - - American relations with Japan. _See_ United States’ relations with Japan. - - Amida, the god and his idols, i., 399; ii., 49, 65. - - Amiot, Père, i., 7. - - “Amœnitates Exoticae,” i., 289, 315. - - _Amomum miōga_, ii., 124. - - _Anas galericulata_, ii., 135. - - Ancestor worship, ii., 188. - - Anderson, W., ii., 345. - - Angelis, Jerome de, i., 220, 265. - - Animals and birds eaten for food, i., 54, 75, 187; ii., 135; - those not eaten, ii., 253. - - Anise-tree, i., 401; ii., 126. - - Anjirō, i., 38, 39, 41, 49-54, 82, 359. - - “Annales des Voyages,” ii., 349. - - “Annals des Dairi,” ii., 89. - - “Annals des Empereurs du Japon,” i., 257, 391; ii., 108, 165. - - “Annals of the Dairi,” i., 357. - - Apples, ii., 140. - - Arai, ii., 65, 70. - - Arai Hakuseki, ii., 112. - - _Aratame_, ii., 65. - - Architecture, domestic, i., 77, 187, 218, 339, 340, 390-392, 395; ii., - 52, 63, 79, 129-131, 306, 318-322. - - “Archives of Japan,” i., 8. - - _Argonaut_, English ship, ii., 191. - - Arima, King of, i., 98, 102, 126. - - Armies and soldiery, i., 59, 215, 258. - - Armor, i., 139. - - Arms, or mark, upon clothing, etc., i., 116, 188, 371, 373; ii., 17, - 18, 285, 322. - - _Artemisia_, ii., 146. - _See also_ Wormwood. - - “Arts and Crafts of Old Japan,” ii., 345. - - _Arum dracontium_ and _esculentum_, ii., 142. - - Asakawa, ——, ii., 345. - - “Asiatic Journal,” i., 195; ii., 46, 72, 108, 254, 352. - - Aston, W. G., i., 8, 145; ii., 199, 206, 345. - - Astronomers, ii., 143, 201, 223, 251. - - Asukagawa, River, i., 385. - - “Atlas Japonensis,” i., 266. - - _Atotsuke_, i., 370, 372. - - Atsuta (Miya), ii., 69. - - Audiences with emperor and princes, i., 175, 189-191, 217; ii., 55, - 56, 60-62, 85-104, 149-153, 331-334. - - Audsley, ——, and Bowes, ——, ii., 345. - - Austerities practised by both bonzes and Jesuits, i., 71, 88. - - Autographs of travellers, i., 218. - - Awa, Provinces of, ii., 283. - - Azuchiyama, i., 103, 116. - - - Bacon, Miss, ii., 344. - - Baggage, i., 370-377. - - Baker, Edmund, i., 177. - - Baptiste, Father Pierre, i., 242. - - Barley, i., 76. - - Batchelor, John, ii., 345. - - Baths, ii., 9, 52, 134. - - Batoli, Father Daniel, i., 115. - - Bedding, ii., 5, 133, 156. - - Beechey, Captain, ii., 282. - - Beer, ii., 207. - - Beggars, ii., 23-28, 58. - - Bell in Miyako temple, ii., 105, 108. - - Benriū, River, i., 385. - - Bent, Lieut., ii., 302. - - Bettelheim, Rev. B. J., ii., 266, 267. - - Biddle, Commodore, ii., 261-265. - - Bidinger, Mr., ii., 300. - - _Bikuni_ (nuns), ii., 23, 24. - - Binding of prisoners, ii., 214, 270. - - Bird, Miss, ii., 344. - - Birds eaten for food, ii., 135. - - Biscanio, Sebastian, i., 270. - - Biwa, Lake, ii., 63, 67. - - Black, ——, ii., 345. - - Blindness, ii., 29. - - Blomhoff, Herr, ii., 245, 247. - - Blomhoff, Mme., ii., 245. - - _Blossom_, English ship, ii., 282. - - Bonin Islands, ii., 282, 292. - - Books, i., 77; ii., 118, 123, 224. - - Bōshū (Awa) Province, ii., 283. - - “Botanical Magazine” (Curtis), ii., 125. - - Botany, i., 374, 375; ii., 123, 157, 162, 253. - - Bowes, ——, and Audsley, ——, ii., 345. - - Bowmen, ii., 149. - - Bramhall, Mrs., ii., 344. - - _Brassica orientalis_, ii., 124, 137. - - _Breskens_, Dutch ship (1643), i., 262-264. - - Bridges, i., 385; ii., 50, 51, 57, 58, 67, 78, 329. - - Brixiano, Father Organtino, i., 149. - - Broadcloth, English, i., 224. - - Broughton, Captain, i., 265; ii., 191. - - Brown, Mr., ii., 302. - - Buddha, The great, ii., 108. - - Buddhism, i., 65, 70-74, 139, 275-277, 342, 343; ii., 28, 65. - - Buddhist clergy, i., 72-74, 275-277, 342, 343; ii., 65. - - Buddhist temples (_Tera_), i., 71, 275, 342, 397, 398; ii., 65, 304. - - _Buke_ (military nobility), i., 63. - - _Buku_, ii., 187. - - Bullocks, ii., 317. - _See also_ Oxen. - - Bungo, Kingdom of, i., 25-29, 34-36, 84-86, 93, 98, 102, 118-120, - 124, 125, 145. - - Burger, Dr., ii., 252. - - Burial service, Jesuit, i., 88. - - Burrows, Silas E., ii., 312-314. - - Burying-grounds, ii., 123, 296, 307, 316. - - “Bushido—The Soul of Japan,” ii., 344. - - Cabot, Sebastian, i., 167. - - Cabral, Father, i., 97, 98, 100-101. - - _Cactus ficus_, ii., 159. - - _Caladium_, ii., 142. - - Calendar, Japanese, i., 32, 357. - - California, ii., 276, 278. - - Call to arms, i., 34, 35. - - Cambodia River, ii., 354. - - _Camellia sasankwa_, ii., 125. - - Campbell, ——, i., 302; ii., 345. - - Campbell, Archibald, ii., 203. - - Camphor-tree, i., 76; ii., 46, 125, 250. - - Candles, ii., 38, 39. - - Canvas batteries, ii., 257. - - “Capital of the Tycoon, The,” ii., 345. - - _Capsicum_, ii., 124. - - “Captive of Love, A,” ii., 345. - - “Captivity in Japan,” i., 33. - - Carac of Macao, Cargo of, i., 153, 154, 269, 270. - - Card games, ii., 224. - - Caron, Francis, i., 224, 240, 243, 253-257, 260, 261, 266, 267, 273, - 343, 352, 368, 373; ii., 16, 30, 46, 65, 135, 355, 365, 366. - - Carvilho, Father Valentine, i., 227, 242. - - Cassa, Heer, ii., 207, 209. - - Castles, i., 186, 392-394; ii., 48, 54, 58, 63, 69, 80-83, 86-88. - - _Castricoom_, Dutch ship (1643), i., 262, 264, 265. - - Casuar, rare Batavian bird, i., 265, 368; ii., 53. - - Catechists, Native, i., 100, 127, 128, 231. - - Catholic Church in the East, i., 40, 41, 45-47, 65, 205, 235, 261, - 267, 277, 396. - _See also_ Missionaries _and_ Xavier, Francis. - - Cats, ii., 138, 253. - - Cavendish, Thomas, i., 167, 271. - - Cecille, Admiral, ii., 265. - - Cedar-trees, ii., 141. - - _Celastrus alatus_, ii., 124. - - Cevicos, Don Jean, i., 245, 246. - - Chamberlain, ——, ii., 345. - - Chaplin-Ayrton, Mrs., ii., 344. - - Charlevoix, Father, i., 20, 85, 101, 115, 154, 232, 246, 265, 290. - - Charms against evil spirits, ii., 323. - - Cherry-trees, ii., 10, 140. - - “Child Life in Japan,” ii., 344. - - Children, i., 259, 260, 353; ii., 41, 73, 121, 135, 211. - - China trade, i., 12, 270, 273-275, 277-281; ii., 111, 275, 276. - - “Chinese Repository,” ii., 254, 255, 258, 284. - - “Chiushingura, the Loyal League,” ii., 345. - - Chronicles, Japanese, i., 1, 64. - - _Citrus tripoliata_, ii., 142. - - Civility of Japanese, i., 287; ii., 34, 41. - - “Classical Poetry of the Japanese,” ii., 345. - - Clement, Ernest W., i., 78; ii., 343, 357, 360. - - _Cleopatra_, French frigate, ii., 265. - - Climate, ii., 162. - - Clocks, ii., 126, 251. - - Coal, ii., 311, 312. - - Cocks, Richard, i., 213, 223-225, 229, 234, 236, 239, 240; ii., 121, - 122. - - Coimbra (Portugal) University, i., 45; - Jesuit college, i., 46, 85. - - Coins and currency, i., 59, 60, 257, 272, 273, 277, 278, 322, 372; - ii., 109-111, 309-311, 337. - - “Coins of Japan, The,” ii., 310. - - Colbert, ——, i., 266, 368; ii., 355, 364. - - Colds and catarrh, ii., 134. - - Colewort, ii., 124. - - Colic, Treatment of, ii., 145. - - Collado, Father, i., 244-246. - - _Columbus_, American ship, ii., 261-265, 283. - - Company of Jesus. - _See_ Order of Jesuits _and_ Missionaries, Jesuit. - - Company’s Island, i., 124, 265. - - Compliments, i., 27. - - Concubines and courtesans, i., 260, 279, 292, 310, 340, 341, 356; - ii., 23, 30, 120, 121, 175, 249. - - Conder, ——, ii., 7. - - Contee, Mr., ii., 284. - - “Contributions towards a Knowledge of the Japanese Empire,” ii., 247. - - Converts, native, i., 84, 85, 88, 94-98, 100, 102, 103, 118-121, - 124-129, 134, 140, 141, 145, 155-158, 162-164, 195, 207, 211, 222, - 227-234, 243-248, 267, 268. - _See also_ Missionaries. - - Cook-shops, ii., 12, 13. - - Cooper, Captain, ii., 260, 261. - - Copper, i., 329; ii., 159, 202, 203. - - Corean expedition, i., 128, 140, 141, 144, 145, 151, 162; ii., 108. - - Corvailho, Father. - _Same as_ Carvilho, Father Valentine. - - Couros, Father Matthew de, i., 159. - - Cows, ii., 137. - - Craftsmen segregate, i., 187, 217. - - Credit on accounts, ii., 127. - - Crucifixion, i., 156. - - _Crusado_, i., 17. - - Cuello, Father Gaspard, i., 102, 119, 126. - - _Cupressus japonica_, ii., 141. - - _Cyprus_, English brig, ii., 254. - - - Daguerreotypes, ii., 302. - - Daibutsu Temple, ii., 106. - - Daifu-Sama. - _See_ Iyeyasu. - - _Daikoku_, i., 359. - - Dairi, or Mikado, i., 60-66; ii., 166, 167. - - Dale, Sir Thomas, i., 237, 238. - - Date Masamune, i., 204. - - Davidson, J. W., i., 302; ii., 345. - - Davis, pilot of Dutch vessel, i., 169, 177; ii., 353, 354. - - Dee-yee-no-skee, Japanese seaman, ii., 312-314. - - De Jancigny, ——, ii., 254, 274, 277, 310. - - Dening, ——, i., 150. - - Deshima, Island of, i., 248, 262, 291-294; ii., 117. - - Devereux, Captain, ii., 194. - - _Diana_, Russian sloop, ii., 212, 226-243, 324. - - “Diary of Richard Cocks,” i., 226, 267. - - Dick, Stewart, ii., 345. - - Dickins, ——, ii., 345. - - Dickson, ——, ii., 345. - - Dictionary, Japanese-Dutch, ii., 210. - - _Dioscorea Japonica_, ii., 124. - - Distance, Measures of, i., 382, 391; ii., 89. - - Dixon, ——, ii., 345. - - Doeff, Heer Hendrick, ii., 194-212, 245. - - Dogs, ii., 138, 253. - - _Dolichos polystachos_, ii., 159. - - _Dolichos soia_, ii., 159. - - Dominicans in Japanese missions. - _See_ Missionaries, Catholic, other than Jesuit. - - Dosha powder, ii., 147. - - Dōshin, or imperial soldiers, i., 257, 346; ii., 223. - - Drake, Sir Francis, i., 167; ii., 351. - - Draughts, Game of, ii., 224, 225. - - Dress, i., 105, 210-212, 276, 375, 376; ii., 55, 56, 58, 143, 154-156, - 248, 285, 331, 332. - - Dress, ease of adjustment, ii., 9, 133, 156. - - Dresser, ——, ii., 345. - - Drinking, i., 343; ii., 39, 226. - - Dutch East India Company, i., 169, 209, 238, 251-253, 261, 272, - 283-336, 366; ii., 31-41, 101, 109-111, 114-120, 122, 123, 126-129, - 136, 139, 193-209, 245, 246. - _See also_ Dutch in Japan. - - Dutch in Japan, i., 165, 167-175, 177, 179, 181-185, 191, 192, - 195-204, 206-209, 220, 221, 223, 228, 233-238, 240, 241, 251-256, - 261-267, 271-273, 277-281, 284-301; ii., 274, 275, 325. - _See also_ Dutch East India Company. - - _Dyosperos kaki_, ii., 159. - - - “Early Institutional Life of Japan,” ii., 345. - - “Early Study of Dutch in Japan, The,” ii., 210. - - Earthquakes, i., 77, 151, 391, 392; ii., 50, 85, 143, 173, 324. - - _Eclipse_, American ship, ii., 203. - - Eclipses, ii., 143, 223. - - Edicts, i., 395, 396. - - _Edmund_, English whaler, ii., 273. - - Education, i., 77, 88. - - Elephant, ii., 209, 223. - - Elgin, Lord, ii., 335. - - _Eliza_, American ship, ii., 193, 194. - - Elserak, Dutch director, i., 264. - - Embassy to Washington, ii., 335-339. - - Emperor, Castle of, ii., 80-83, 86-91, 148-153. - - Emperors, Chronology of, ii., 158, 166, 360, 361. - - Empress, ii., 91. - - English East India Company, i., 178, 219, 220, 225, 236-241, 267. - _See also_ English in the East. - - English in the East, i., 167, 169, 175, 178, 179, 207-209, 219-221, - 228, 230, 233-240, 278; ii., 246, 259, 260, 272, 273, 323, 324, 335. - _See also_ English East India Company. - - Enoshima, Island of, ii., 74. - - “Essay on the Commerce of Japan,” ii., 274. - - Everett, Hon. Edward, ii., 280. - - “Evolution of the Japanese, The,” ii., 344. - - “Examiner” (London), ii., 259. - - Executions and tortures, i., 156, 214, 246, 247, 333-335, 349, 353, - 354, 396; ii., 75. - - Eye diseases, ii., 29, 123. - - - Fans, i., 376. - - Farming class, ii., 159. - - “Fauna Japonica,” ii., 253. - - Feith, M., ii., 157. - - Fernandes, Jean, i., 52. - - Ferreyra, Father Christopher, i., 247, 248, 264. - - Ferry-boats, i., 385. - - Festivals, i., 69, 223, 224, 356-365; ii., 188, 189, 225, 226. - - “Feudal and Modern Japan,” ii., 344. - - _Figara peperita_, ii., 124. - - Figure-treading, Ceremony of, i., 298, 352, 396; ii., 128, 271. - - Fillmore, President, ii., 276-281. - - Firearms, i., 24, 25, 33; ii., 149, 224, 346-348. - - Fire-extinguishers, i., 367; ii., 52, 79, 303. - - Fire-flies, ii., 158. - - Firemen, ii., 76, 79, 200. - - Fires, i., 77; ii., 70, 71, 78, 79, 143, 173, 200, 303, 321. - - Fir-trees, ii., 141. - - Fischer, ——, i., 33. - - _Fiscus pumila_ and _erecta_, ii., 124. - - Fishermen, i., 214; ii., 213. - - Fisscher, Herr, ii., 210, 247-250. - - Fitch, Ralph, i., 269, 270; ii., 351, 352. - - “Flora Japonica” (Siebold and Zaccarini), ii., 253. - - “Flora Japonica” (Thunberg), ii., 162. - - Floris, ——, ii., 354. - - Flower-arrangements, ii., 7. - - Flute, ii., 315. - - Food, i., 54, 75, 76, 187, 216, 286, 343; ii., 12, 13, 38, 75, 98, 99, - 102-104, 126, 127, 140, 159, 215, 217, 220, 317, 318, 333, 334. - - Foot-coverings, ii., 142. - - Fords, i., 384, 385. - - Foreigners, Antipathy to, i., 214. - - Forestry regulations, i., 381. - - Formosa, i., 252-255, 262, 271, 274, 302; ii., 355. - - “Formosa under the Dutch,” i., 302; ii., 345. - - Fowls, Domestic, ii., 138. - - Foxes, i., 75; ii., 42, 43. - - Franciscans in Japanese missions. - _See_ Missionaries, Catholic, other than Jesuit. - - _Franklin_, American ship, ii., 194. - - “Free Press” (Serampore), ii., 265. - - French East India Company, i., 266. - - French in Japanese affairs, i., 266; ii., 265, 335. - - Frisius, of the Dutch East India Company, i., 265, 266. - - Froez, Father Louis, i., 95, 96, 131, 133, 141, 159, 165, 266; ii., 38. - - “Frog-in-a-well” policy, ii., 170, 171, 193. - - “From Far Formosa,” ii., 345. - - Fruits, ii., 140, 159. - - Fuchū, i., 25, 27, 35, 36. - - _Fucus saccharinus_, ii., 140. - - Fujigawa, River, i., 385; ii., 72. - - Fuji-jedagawa, River, i., 385. - - Fuji-no-Yama, ii., 72, 141, 286, 328. - - Funeral customs, ii., 183-189. - - Furniture and interiors, i., 340, 391, 392; ii., 4-8, 52, 55, 62, 130, - 131, 133, 303, 330. - - Fushimi, i., 140, 151, 215; ii., 58. - - - Gago, Balthaza, i., 87, 90, 93. - - Galvano, Antonio, i., 13, 14, 40, 41, 56. - - _Gardenia Florida_, ii., 142. - - Gardens, i., 194; ii., 10-12, 52, 82, 322. - - Gate Guard, Nagasaki, i., 312. - - “Gate of the two kings,” ii., 108. - - Gaubil, Father, i., 8. - - _Gege_ (plebeians), i., 62. - - Geisenger, Captain, 266. - - “Genji Monogatari,” ii., 345. - - Gin, ii., 206. - - Ginseng, ii., 118. - - “Glimpse at the Art of Japan, A,” ii., 345. - - “Glimpses of Unfamiliar Japan,” ii., 344. - - _Globe_, English ship, ii., 354. - - Globius (Takaro Sampei), ii., 201, 222, 223, 239, 248. - - Glyn, Commander, ii., 266-269, 271. - - Gnecchi, Father, i., 97, 103, 119, 146, 155, 159, 164. - - Goa, i., 12, 38, 41, 48; ii., 350-353. - - Godō, i., 277. - - _Goede Frouw_, Dutch ship, ii., 206. - - Go-kirai (The Tenza), i., 164. - - Golownin, Vassili, i., 21, 22, 33, 59, 66, 124, 162, 221, 265; ii., - 140, 159, 200, 208, 212-244, 246. - - Gomez, Father, i., 126. - - Gongen-Sama (Iyeyasu, _which see_), i., 230. - - Gordon, Captain, ii., 246. - - Goseman, ——, ii., 205. - - Gotō Shōzaburō, treasurer to Emperor Hashiba, i., 199, 200. - - Governors of Nagasaki, i., 347. - - Gowns presented to Company, ii., 104, 154; - to U. S. Consul, ii., 333. - - Griffis, William Elliot, i., 74; ii., 273, 324, 344. - - Gros, Baron, ii., 335. - - Grote, George, i., 275. - - Gruy, ——, ii., 345. - - “Guitar” (samisen), ii., 315. - - Gulick, Sidney, ii., 344. - - Gusman, Father Luys de, i., 115, 131. - - Gutzlaff, Mr., ii., 255. - - Gysbert (or Guysbert), Roger, i., 243, 244, 352, 354. - - - Hackluyt’s translations, i., 14, 122, 150, 152, 165, 177, 178, 270; - ii., 350, 351. - - Hagenaar, ——, i., 247, 253-255, 261, 343; ii., 355. - - Hagendorp, Heer, ii., 196. - - Hair, Manner of wearing, ii., 147, 148. - - Hakata, Island of Shimo, i., 82, 213, 214. - - Hakodate, Island of Matsumae, i., 221; ii., 191, 213, 216, 305, 306. - - Hakone pass, ii., 65, 73, 141, 328. - - Hamamatsu, ii., 70. - - Hamilton, Dr., ii., 316. - - _Hanashikimi_ (anise-tree), i., 401. - _See also_ Shikimi. - - “Handbook of Modern Japan, A,” i., 78; ii., 343, 357, 360. - - Handkerchiefs, ii., 155. - - Harada Kiyemon, i., 134, 135, 142, 148. - - Hara-kiri, i., 78, 79, 229, 260. - - Harbors, i., 386, 387. - - “Harper’s Magazine,” i., 166. - - Harris, Mrs., ii., 345. - - Harris, Townsend, ii., 325-335. - - Hartman, S., ii., 345. - - Hartshorne, Miss, ii., 344. - - Hashiba (Taikō-Sama), i., 117-121, 123, 124, 126-144, 147-151, 155, - 158-161, 193; ii., 54, 167. - - Hatch, Arthur, i., 240. - - Hawkins, Sir Richard and Sir John, i., 167. - - Hay’s (John) translations, i., 115, 132, 150, 165, 205. - - Healthfulness of houses, i., 392. - - Hearn, Lafcadio, ii., 344. - - Heating of houses, ii., 5, 6, 120, 131, 303, 321. - - Hecr, ——, ii., 346. - - Heine, Mr., ii., 302. - - Hemmi, Adams’s estate, i., 225, 240. - - Hemp, ii., 124. - - Heusken, Mr., ii., 328, 332. - - _Hibiscus manihot_, ii., 132. - - Hidetsugu (Kwambacudono), i., 140, 149. - - Hideyori, son of Taikō-Sama, i., 150, 161, 163, 197, 198, 229. - - “Hideyoshi’s Invasion of Korea,” i., 145. - - Hieizan, Mountain of, i., 98; ii., 67. - - Highways, i., 189, 216, 380-384; ii., 15, 16, 33, 123, 328, 329. - - Higo, Castle of, ii., 54. - - Hildreth, Richard, i., 10; ii., 364. - - Hiōgo, ii., 334. - - Hirado, i., 254, 261. - - Hirado, Prince of, i., 177, 184, 185, 196, 197, 210, 213. - - “His Pilgrimes” (or “His Pilgrimage”), i., 177, 178, 220, 225, 232; - ii., 354. - - “Hist. Gen. des Voyages,” i., 198. - - “Histoire de la Dynastie des Mongoux,” i., 8. - - “Histoire du Japon,” i., 20, 115, 246. - - “Histoire Général de la China,” i., 7. - - “Histoire Mythologique,” i., 357. - - “Historia de la Compagnia de Gesu,” i., 115. - - “History of Greece,” i., 275. - - “History of Japan” (Adams), ii., 345. - - “History of Japan” (Charlevoix), i., 290. - - “History of Japan” (Kämpfer), i., 289-291. - - “History of Japanese Literature,” ii., 345. - - “History of Java,” i., 272; ii., 110-112. - - “History of Plants,” ii., 125. - - “History of the Empire of Japan,” ii., 346. - - “History of the English Factory at Hirado,” i., 226. - - “History of the United States,” ii., 364. - - Hizen, Province of, i., 82, 120. - - Hoffman, assistant to Siebold, i., 8. - - Hōin-Sama. - _See_ Hirado, Prince of. - - Homicide, Punishment for, i., 354. - - “Honda the Samurai,” ii., 344. - - Horseback-riding, i., 370-377. - - Horse-shoes, i., 373. - - Horses, i., 215; ii., 138, 317. - - _Hotei_, i., 359. - - _Hotoke_, or idols, i., 399. - - Houtman, Cornelius, i., 168, 169, 177; ii., 353. - - Huish, ——, ii., 345. - - Hyōgo, Province Settsu, ii., 49. - - - “Ideals of the East, The,” ii., 345. - - Idols, i., 193, 399, 400; ii., 45, 106-108. - _See also_ Temples. - - “Illustrations of Japan,” i., 79; ii., 81, 147, 168, 174. - - Image-trampling. - _See_ Figure-treading. - - Imhoff, author of Dutch memoir, i., 272; ii., 110. - - _Imi_, ii., 186, 187. - - Incomes of princes, i., 240, 256-259. - - “Indian History,” i., 14. - - Indulgence-boxes, i., 401. - - Ingen, Buddhist priest, i., 275-277. - - Inns, i., 187, 216; ii., 2-13, 29, 36-41, 328. - - “Intercourse between the United States and Japan, The,” ii., 273. - - Interest, ii., 127. - - Interpreters, i., 302-306, 369, 370; ii., 34, 117, 164. - - Ise Temple, i., 68, 69; ii., 20, 21, 69. - - “Island of Formosa, The,” i., 302; ii., 345. - - Iyeyasu (Tokugawa Iyeyasu), i., 161-163, 175-177, 190-193, 200, 201, - 218-223, 230. - - Izu, Cape, ii., 283, 328. - - - Jacatra (Batavia), i., 237; ii., 354. - - Jancigny. - _See_ De Jancigny. - - “Japan” (De Jancigny), ii., 254, 277. - - “Japan” (Dickson), ii., 345. - - “Japan” (Reed), ii., 345. - - “Japan—An Interpretation,” ii., 344. - - “Japan and her People,” ii., 344. - - “Japan and its Art,” ii., 345. - - “Japan in Art and Industry,” ii., 345. - - “Japan in History, Folk-lore, and Art,” ii., 344. - - “Japan, its Architecture, Art, and Art Manufactures,” ii., 345. - - “Japan: presented in Sketches of the Manners and Customs of that - Realm, especially of the Town of Nagasaki,” ii., 249. - - Japan Society, London, i., 8. - - “Japanese Armour,” ii., 149. - - “Japanese Art,” ii., 345. - - “Japanese Boy, A,” ii., 344. - - “Japanese Calendars,” i., 352. - - “Japanese Costume,” ii., 154. - - “Japanese Education,” ii., 345. - - “Japanese Fairy World” (Griffis), ii., 344. - - “Japanese Fairy World, The” (Ozaki), ii., 344. - - “Japanese Fans,” i., 376. - - “Japanese Funeral Rites,” ii., 183. - - “Japanese Girls and Women,” ii., 344. - - “Japanese Heraldry,” i., 117. - - “Japanese Homes,” ii., 344. - - Japanese in America, i., 152. - - “Japanese Life in Town and Country,” ii., 344. - - “Japanese Plays,” ii., 345. - - “Japanese Rituals,” i., 66. - - Jarves, J. J., ii., 345. - - Jesuits. - _See_ Order of Jesuits. - - Jewels, ii., 332. - - Jizō, Idol of, i., 399; ii., 45. - - Jodogawa, River, ii., 50. - - Johannis Botanicus, ii., 201. - - Jones, Sir William, ii., 164. - - Jontoux, Father, ii., 118. - - “Journal of Commerce” (New York), ii., 293. - - Jūdo, i., 74, 277. - - _Jugulans nigra_, ii., 144. - - _Junrei_, ii., 22. - - - _Kago_, i., 377-379. - - Kahei, Takataya, ii., 228-243. - - Kakegawa, ii., 70. - - Kamakura image of Buddha, i., 218. - - Kamakura, Island of, ii., 74. - - _Kamban_, i., 323-325. - - Kamel, George Joseph, ii., 125. - - _Kami_, i., 66. - _See also_ Shintō. - - Kämpfer’s account of Japan, i., 8, 27, 32, 59, 64, 66, 196, 202, 225, - 240, 244, 249, 256, 257, 267, 272, 274-401; ii., 1-109, 118, 125, - 146, 159, 169, 250, 254, 300. - - Kanagawa, ii., 74, 293, 300, 303, 334. - - _Kanrin-maru_, Japanese steamer, ii., 336. - - “Keramic Art of Japan,” ii., 345. - - Kinosita, Yetaro, ii., 345. - - Kitchin, ——, ii., 345. - - _Kitō_, i., 60, 276; ii., 167. - - Kiūshiū. - _See_ Shimo. - - Klaproth, Heinrich, i., 32, 69, 181, 257, 357, 359, 391; ii., 46, 62, - 67, 72, 89, 108, 112, 165, 199. - - Knapp, A. M., ii., 344. - - Knox, Dr., ii., 112. - - Knox, G. W., ii., 344. - - Kōbō, saint and sage, ii., 147. - - Kochebecker, of the Dutch East India Company, i., 261. - - “Kojiki,” i., 359; ii., 346. - - “Kokoro,” ii., 344. - - _Koku_, i., 240. - - Kokura, capital of Buzen, ii., 48. - - Konishi Settsu-no-Kami, i., 163. - - Kōshi (Confucius), ii., 68. - - Koxinga, Chinese pirate, i., 302. - - Koya, near Miyako, i., 292. - - Kōzukeno-Suke, secretary to Emperor Hashiba, i., 199, 200. - - Kramer, Conrad, i., 252. - - Krusenstern, Captain, ii., 196, 197. - - Kublai Khan, i., 2, 4, 8-10. - - Kubō-Sama, i., 58, 61, 62, 64. - - Kuchiki Samon, ii., 163. - - Kuchinotsu, i., 94, 102. - - _Kuge_ (patricians), i., 62, 66; ii., 21. - - Kuno, Fortress of, ii., 71. - - _Kuri_, i., 300, 308. - - Kurile Islands, i., 123, 221, 265; ii., 190, 212, 213. - - Kurume, Castle of, ii., 47. - - Kuwana, Province of Owari, ii., 69. - - Kwambacudono, i., 118, 123, 140, 149, 150. - - Kwannon Temple, ii., 107. - - Kyōto (Miyako, _which see_), i., 215. - - - _Ladoga_, American whaler, ii., 266, 269. - - _Lady Pierce_, American ship, ii., 312-314. - - _Lady Rowena_, ii., 258. - - Lampacau Island, i., 19. - - Lancaster, Captain, i., 167, 177. - - “Land of the Morning, The,” ii., 345. - - Langsdorff, Attaché, ii., 197. - - Lanterns, i., 373; ii., 329. - - La Perouse, Voyage of, i., 124, 221, 265; ii., 190. - - La Salle, ii., 364. - - Lattices, ii., 91. - - _Lawrence_, American whaler, ii., 265. - - Laws, i., 78, 206, 260, 354; ii., 161, 162, 245. - - Laxman, Lieut., ii., 191, 192, 196, 219. - - Lay, ——, ii., 183. - - Leeds, ——, ii., 351, 352. - - Lepers, i., 164. - - “Letters Written by the English Residents in Japan, 1611-1623,” - i., 178, 207, 219. - - Lew Chew Islands, i., 31, 124, 181, 281; ii., 312, 355. - - Liano, Spanish gentleman, i., 142. - - Linschooten, Hugh, i., 168. - - Liverwort used as charm, i., 401. - - “Log of a Japanese Journey,” ii., 345. - - Lowell, P., ii., 344. - - Loyola, Ignatius, i., 42, 43, 90. - - “L’univers, ou Histoire et Description de tout les Peuples,” ii., 254. - - - Macartney, Lord, ii., 164. - - Mackay, ——, ii., 345. - - Maclay, A. C., ii., 345. - - Maffei, ——, i., 14, 81, 165. - - Mahay, Jacques, i., 169, 170. - - Maize, ii., 317. - - Makino Bingo-no-Kami, ii., 84. - - Malela, Father, i., 7. - - _Malva Mauritiana_, ii., 124. - - _Mamori_, ii., 179. - - Manchu dynasty, i., 274. - - _Manjū_, a cake, ii., 13, 98. - - _Mankoku_, i., 240. - - Manners, ii., 174. - _See also_ Civility of Japanese. - - “Manners and Customs of the Japanese in the Nineteenth Century,” - ii., 254. - - Manufactures, i., 77; - of Miyako, ii., 63, 64; - of Suruga, ii., 71. - - Manuscript history, ii., 168. - - Maple-trees, ii., 141. - - Maps, ii., 157, 251, 252. - - Marco Polo, i., 1-6, 13. - - _Mariner_, English ship, ii., 272, 273. - - “Marriage Ceremonies,” ii., 170, 172. - - Marriages, i., 259; ii., 174-183, 225. - - Marsden, ——, translator, i., 2, 4, 6. - - Matheson, Commander, ii., 272, 273. - - Mats, Floor, i., 391; ii., 5, 52, 89, 91, 131, 152. - - Matsumae, ii., 220, 226. - - Matsumae Island. - _See_ Matsumaye Island. - - Matsumaye (Yezo or Matsumae) Island, i., 123, 124, 220, 221, 262-265; - ii., 222. - - _Matsuri_ (public spectacle at Nagasaki), i., 296, 356-365. - - Matsuura Hoin. - _See_ Hirado, Prince of. - - “Matthew Galbraith Perry,” ii., 324. - - May, Henry, i., 178. - - McClatchie, ——, ii., 345. - - McCoy, American seaman, ii., 270, 271. - - McDonald, Ranald, American seaman, ii., 271, 272. - - Meals, ii., 39, 133. - - Measures and weights, i., 23, 59, 249, 272. - - Medhurst, Mr., ii., 210. - - Medicine and surgery, i., 26, 28, 77; ii., 68, 93, 94, 118, 122, - 145-147. - - _Melea azedarach_, ii., 125. - - Melis, Thomas, i., 169. - - “Memoir on the Trade of Japan, and the Causes of its Decline,” - i., 272; ii., 110. - - “Mémoires concernant les Chinois,” i., 7. - - “Memoirs of the Shōguns” (or Djoguns), i., 98; ii., 168. - - “Memorable Embassies of the Dutch to the Emperors of Japan,” i., 266, - 272; ii., 88. - - “Memorials of the Empire of Japan,” i., 225. - - _Mentha piperita_, ii., 124. - - _Mercator_, American whaler, ii., 260, 261. - - Merchant class, ii., 139, 174, 243, 244. - - Merchant marine of Japan, i., 180, 181. - _See also_ Trade. - - Mermaids, ii., 53. - - _Mespillus japonica_, ii., 159. - - Messengers, ii., 2. - - Meylan, G. F., ii., 248-250. - - Mimitsuka Chapel, ii., 108. - - Mindanao, Island of, i., 55, 56. - - Mines, ii., 111, 112, 250. - - “Mirror of Yedo,” i., 257. - - Mirrors, ii., 133. - - _Miseratsie_, or wall adornments, ii., 4, 6-8. - - Missionaries, Catholic, other than Jesuit, i., 147-149, 151, 152, - 155-160, 163, 164, 179, 223, 228-232, 241-248, 268. - - Missionaries, Jesuit, i., 38-41, 45-56, 60, 63-65, 67, 70-72, 81-91, - 93-98, 100-103, 116-121, 124-136, 138, 142, 143, 145-149, 151-160, - 162-164, 175, 179, 205, 222, 227-234, 241-248, 263, 264, 268, 269, - 279, 280; ii., 169, 259. - - Missionaries, Protestant, i., 147; ii., 255, 259, 266. - - _Mississippi_, American frigate, ii., 281, 282, 287, 291, 314, 315. - - Mitford, A. B. F., ii., 344. - - “Mito Yashiki,” ii., 345. - - Mitsukuri, Dr., ii., 210. - - Miya (Atsuta), ii., 69. - - _Miya_ (Shintō temples), i., 67-69, 398, 399; ii., 302. - - Miyako, i., 61, 83, 96, 97, 155, 161, 163, 164, 192, 222; ii., 58, - 62-66, 104-108, 140. - - Mongols, i., 2, 6-10. - - “Moniteur des Indes,” ii., 274. - - Monsoons, i., 316. - - Moor, Captain, ii., 228, 229, 236. - - Mōri Motonari, i., 90, 95, 103. - - _Morrison_, American brig, ii., 255-258, 284. - - Morse, E. S., ii., 344. - - _Morus papyrifira_, ii., 132. - - Mossman, ——, ii., 345. - - Mountain priests, i., 74; ii., 23-25, 72. - - Mountains, i., 386, 387; ii., 134, 255. - - Mourning, ii., 178, 185-187. - - Moxa, ii., 126, 145, 146. - - Mulberry-trees, i., 76; ii., 132. - - Munro, ——, ii., 310. - - Murakami, N., i., 226. - - Murakawn, K., i., 178. - - Murray, D., ii., 158, 344. - - Murray, Lieut., ii., 302. - - Mushrooms, ii., 159. - - Music and musicians, i., 212, 213, 357, 362; ii., 28, 315. - - - Nabores, Hieronymo de, i., 270. - - Nagasaki, i., 97, 102, 125, 128, 143, 145, 156-160, 164, 234, 235, - 244, 275, 284, 285, 291-294, 337-353, 355-365, 397. - - _Naibun_, ii., 241. - - _Namida_ (Sanscrit prayer), i., 344; ii., 27, 73. - - “Narrative of a Japanese, The,” ii., 346. - - Natural history researches, ii., 251-253. - - Nettles, ii., 124. - - “New Japan,” ii., 345. - - “New Life of Toyotomi Hideyoshi,” i., 150. - - New Moon ceremonies, ii., 316. - - New Year’s Day (European), ii., 126. - - New Year’s Day (Japanese), i., 357; ii., 127, 225, 226. - - “New York Times,” ii., 310. - - “New York Tribune,” ii., 301, 316. - - Newbury, John, ii., 351, 352. - - _Niagara_, U. S. frigate, ii., 337. - - Nicholson, Lieut., ii., 302. - - _Nihombashi_, or great bridge at Yedo, i., 380; ii., 78, 200. - - Nikkō Temple, i., 230, 253. - - Ningpo, i., 13. - - Ni-ō-mon, “gate of the two kings,” ii., 108. - - Nippon, i., 1, 27, 57, 124. - - “Nippon Ōdai Ichiran,” ii., 165. - - “Nippon, or Archives for the Description of Japan,” ii., 254. - - Nitobe, I. O., ii., 273, 344. - - Nobles, i., 240, 256-260; ii., 70, 81, 149-153. - - Nobunaga (Oda Nobunaga), i., 96-98, 102, 103, 116, 117, 139. - - Noises of the town, i., 344; ii., 189. - - Noort, Oliver, i., 169, 171. - - _Norimono_, i., 347, 377-379; ii., 327. - - _Noshi_, ii., 177. - - “Notes on the Intercourse between Japan and Siam in the Seventeenth - Century,” ii., 354. - - “Notices et Extraits des Manuscrits,” ii., 165. - - “Noto, an Unexplored Corner of Japan,” ii., 344. - - “Nouveau Journal Asiatique,” i., 181; ii., 112. - - “Nouveau Mélanges Asiatique,” ii., 146, 165. - - Nugnes Barreto, Father, i., 88-90. - - Nuyts, Peter de, i., 252-254; ii., 355. - - - Oaks, ii., 142. - - Oars, i., 389. - - Ōbaku, papal residence of Ingen, i., 276. - - Odawara, ii., 73. - - Official life at Nagasaki, i., 345-350. - - Ōgosho-Sama, i., 163. - _See also_ Iyeyasu. - - _Oharai_, or indulgence, ii., 21. - - Ōigawa, River, i., 384, 385; ii., 71. - - Ōita, i., 27. - - Okakara, ——, ii., 345. - - Okasaki, ii., 69. - - Ōmura, town and bay, ii., 45. - - Opium war, ii., 259. - - Order of Jesuits, i., 41-46, 54. - _See_ Missionaries, Jesuit. - - Orfanel, Father Fray Jacinto, i., 246. - - Oriental Translation Fund, ii., 165. - - “Oriental Travels,” Marco Polo, i., 1-6. - - “Origin of Spanish and Portuguese Rivalry in Japan, The,” i., 135. - - “Origin of the Riches of Japan,” ii., 112. - - _Oryris japonica_, ii., 142. - - Ōsaka, i., 118, 127, 155, 161, 164, 175, 195, 214, 215, 230, 382; - ii., 49-54, 324, 334. - - Ōshima, Island of, ii., 305. - - Ōtsu, town and lake, ii., 63, 67. - - Outcast Japanese, i., 249; ii., 192, 258. - - Oxen, ii., 59, 137. - - Ozaki, Miss, ii., 344. - - - Pacheco, Father, i., 245. - - Pack-horses and travellers’ equipment, i., 370-377. - - Palaces, i., 188, 189, 340; ii., 80. - _See also_ Castles _and_ Emperor, Castle of. - - Palanquins, i., 216. - - Paper, ii., 132, 133. - - Paper-hangings, i.,340, 392; ii., 52. - - Parish priests, i., 180, 229. - - Parker, Dr., ii., 255. - - “Parli, the Last of the Missionaries,” ii., 345. - - “Past and Present of Japanese Commerce, The,” ii., 345. - - Paul of the Holy Faith. - _See_ Anjirō. - - Pazio, Father Francis, i., 163. - - Pearls, ii., 45, 46. - - Pears, ii., 140. - - Peel’s Island, ii., 282. - - Pellew, Captain, ii., 204, 205. - - “Peregrinations in the East,” i., 14, 15; ii., 348-350. - - Perry, Commodore, ii., 238, 276-324. - - Persecution of Catholic missionaries, i., 119, 120, 125, 126, - 155-160, 164, 205, 222, 227-234, 240-251, 261. - - _Phaeton_, English frigate, ii., 204, 205, 208. - - _Phascolus_, ii., 124, 159. - - _Philadelphia_, U. S. steamer, ii., 336. - - Philippine Islands, i., 56, 134, 135, 152, 166. - - Physicians, i., 28, 29; ii., 68, 93, 94, 103, 144-147, 157, 172, 250. - - “Pictorial Arts of Japan, The,” ii., 345. - - Pilgrimages, i., 69; ii., 20-22, 69. - - Pillows, ii., 5, 133. - - Pilotage rates, ii., 311. - - Pilots, i., 387. - - Pinkerton’s collection, i., 261, 267. - - Pinto, Fernam Mendez, i., 14-31, 34-38, 49, 52, 84, 88, 89, 91, 92; - ii., 112, 348-350. - - _Pinus abies_, ii., 144. - - _Pinus silvestris_, ii., 142. - - _Pisum sativum_, ii., 124. - - Plane-trees, ii., 82. - - Ploughing, i., 216. - - _Plymouth_, American sloop, ii., 282. - - Police protection, i., 188, 214, 349-353, 356. - - _Pologonum_, ii., 124. - - Population, i., 186, 190, 192, 195, 257; ii., 53, 57, 65, 74. - - Portraits, i., 33. - - Portuguese in the East, i., 11-34, 36-41, 45, 48, 49, 57, 58, 64, - 71, 84, 90, 91, 102, 103, 120, 127, 134-136, 138, 139, 142, 145, - 147, 153, 154, 158, 159, 164, 166, 167, 174-176, 179, 181, 182, - 196-199, 208, 209, 221, 228, 248-251, 255, 261-265, 269-271, 278. - - Post-houses, ii., 1, 2. - - Potatoes, ii., 124, 317. - - Poverty, i., 77, 87, 395; ii., 162. - - _Powhatan_, United States ship, ii., 297, 324, 336. - - Prayers for the dead, i., 344. - - _Preble_, American ship, ii., 265-269, 271, 272. - - Precious metals, Export of, ii., 112, 113. - - Presents, i., 217, 367, 368; ii., 59, 85, 96, 97, 104, 141, 175. - - Pring, Martin, i., 237-239. - - Printing, ii., 157. - - Prisons, ii., 217, 220-222. - - Protestants in Japanese missions. - _See_ Missionaries, Protestant. - - Provinces, as found by Portuguese, i., 57, 58; - division by “Circuits, “vii., 343. - - Purcell, ——, ii., 345. - - Purchas, ——, i., 165, 177, 184, 220, 225, 232, 236, 240; ii., 349, 354. - - “Pure Shintō,” i., 66. - - - “Quarterly Review,” ii., 247. - - - Radishes, i., 286, 383; ii., 215. - - Raffles, Sir Stamford, i., 272; ii., 110-112, 195, 196, 202, 208-210. - - Rain-coats, i., 375; ii., 143. - - Rain-maker, Priestly, i., 276. - - Rank, The distinction of, i., 60. - - Rationalists. - _See_ Jūdo. - - _Rebecca_, American ship, ii., 206. - - “Recollections of Japan,” ii., 194, 195. - - Reed, ——, ii., 345. - - Regamey, ——, ii., 345. - - “Relation du Japon,” i., 224. - - “Religions of Japan, The,” i., 74; ii., 344. - - Religious sects and beliefs, i., 65-74, 138, 139, 194, 195, 207, 261, - 291; ii., 65. - - Rémusat, Abel, i., 70; ii., 146, 165, 169. - - Resanoff, Count, ii., 196-199. - - _Rhus succedanea_, ii., 125. - - _Rhus vernix_, i., 76; ii., 125. - - Rice, i., 76, 257, 343; ii., 47, 59, 136, 159. - - Riess, Dr. L., i., 178, 240. - - Rikord, Captain, ii., 226-243. - - Riordan, R., and Takayanagi, T., ii., 344. - - Rivers, i., 384, 385; ii., 50, 63. - - Road-books, i., 376; ii., 13. - - _Roanoke_, U. S. steamer, ii., 336. - - Rodriguez, Father, i., 32, 60, 63, 133, 136, 156, 158, 162, 165. - - Roofs, i., 339, 392; ii., 52, 130, 303, 306, 321. - - Rowing, Method of, i., 389. - - _Rubia cordata_, ii., 124. - - Rundall, ——, i., 225, 230, 240. - - Russian American Company, ii., 203. - - Russian relations with Japan, ii., 190-192, 196-199, 203, 212-244, 323. - - Ryōzayemon, a Russian prisoner, ii., 226-229. - - - Saddles, i., 371, 377. - - Sadono-Kami, president of Prince Hideyori’s council, i., 201. - - Saga, capital of Hizen, ii., 46, 47, 129. - - Sagami, Cape, ii., 283. - - _Saguer_, a rare tree, ii., 11. - - _Saikaidō_, i., 381. - - Sakai, i., 95, 118, 215; ii., 49. - - _Sakana_, ii., 38. - - _Sake_, i., 76, 216, 343; ii., 54, 324. - - Sakhalin, i., 123, 124, 265; ii., 212. - - Salt butter as a remedy, ii., 127. - - Salutation, Ceremony of, i., 210. - - Samisen, i., 212; ii., 315. - - Sancian Island, i., 13. - - “San Francisco Herald,” ii., 313. - - _San Jacinto_, American steamer, ii., 325. - - _San Philip_, Spanish galleon, i., 151, 152, 154, 159, 160, 180. - - Santvoort, Melichor von, i., 203, 244. - - Sao harbor, ii., 70. - - _Saramang_, English frigate, ii., 259. - - _Saratoga_, American sloop, ii., 282. - - Saris, Captain John, i., 196, 207-225, 229, 232, 343. - - Satow, ——, i., 66, 86, 135; ii., 354. - - Sawaas (or Sowas), i., 330, 344. - - Sayer, agent of English East India Company, i., 230. - - Scherer, J. A. B., ii., 344. - - Scheuchzer, Dr. I. G., i., 290. - - Schools, ii., 135. - - Science, Study of, i., 77. - - Scurvy, ii., 229. - - Sea-weeds, Edible, ii., 213. - - Segaki, ii., 26. - - Seimei, and the table of unfortunate days, ii., 41-44. - - Seminary at Goa, i., 41, 49, 55. - - Serfs, i., 59. - - Serqueyra, Father Louis (Bishop of Japan), i., 227, 242. - - Servants, i., 354; ii., 177. - - _Sesamum orientale_, ii., 125. - - Settsu-no-Kami, governor of Nagasaki, i., 347; ii., 100. - - “Seven Gods of Happiness,” i., 359. - - Shaëp, Captain, i., 263, 265. - - Shigemi, S., ii., 344. - - _Shikimi_ (anise-tree), ii., 126. - _See also Hanashikimi_. - - Shikoku Island, i., 123, 124. - _Same as_ Sikoku Island. - - Shimabara Fortress, i., 94, 248, 261. - - Shimada, ii., 71. - - Shimo, i., 27, 57, 93, 97, 98, 119, 124, 125, 145, 164, 213, 228. - - Shimoda, town and river, ii., 301, 302, 305, 316-324, 326. - - Shimonoseki, i., 368, 381; ii., 48, 49. - - Shinagawa, ii., 75, 247, 248. - - Shintō, i., 66-70, 138, 139, 342, 359, 360, 399; ii., 65. - - Shintō clergy, i., 74, 342, 359, 360, 398; ii., 65. - - Shintō temples (Miya), i., 67, 342, 399; ii., 65. - - Shiota, ii., 129. - _See also_ Shiwota. - - Ships and Harbor Guard, Nagasaki, i., 312, 348. - - Ships and boats, i., 77, 387-390; ii., 72. - - Shōgun-Sama, i., 230, 247. - - Shōguns, The, i., 58; ii., 158, 166-173. - - Shooting of birds, ii., 308. - - Shops, i., 394; ii., 11, 52, 77, 247, 319-323. - - Shotten, Timothy, i., 169. - - “Sidney Gazette,” ii., 258. - - Siebold, Dr. Philipp Franz von, i., 8, 9, 31, 33, 123, 338, 351; - ii., 43, 46, 125, 149, 237, 248, 250-254, 274, 310. - - Signs, ii., 320, 323. - - Sikoku Island, i., 57, 119. - _Same as_ Shikoku. - - Silk, i., 76, 101, 321. - - Sitting posture, ii., 133, 303. - - Sloane, Sir Hans, i., 290. - - Small-pox, i., 400. - - _Smilax China_, ii., 124. - - Smoke-holes, i., 3. - - Smoking articles, ii., 37, 38. - - Smuggling, i., 300, 314, 328, 332, 333, 353, 397; ii., 115, 116, 275. - - Soap, ii., 126. - - Soil, i., 76. - - Soldiers, ii., 223, 224. - _See also_ Armies and Soldiery. - - Solis, Jean de, i., 135, 136, 142, 143. - - Sotelo, Father Louis, i., 203-205, 245, 246. - - “Soul of the Far East, The,” ii., 344. - - Sowaas. - _See_ Sowas. - - Sowas (_or_ Sawaas), i., 330, 344, 377. - - Soy, ii., 13, 119, 159. - - Spanish in the East, i., 56, 134-136, 142, 143, 147, 148, 151-154, - 159, 160, 166, 167, 179, 180, 191, 197, 199, 202-204, 208, 209, - 221, 228, 237, 241, 261, 270, 271. - - Spex, Jacob, i., 197, 198, 202, 203, 206. - - Spinola, ——, i., 241. - - _Spirea_, ii., 142. - - Springs, ii., 46, 129. - - Spy Guard, Nagasaki, i., 312, 348. - - State’s Island, i., 124, 265. - - Sterling, Admiral, ii., 323. - - Stevens, Thomas, ii., 350, 351. - - Stewart, Captain, ii., 193-196. - - St. Michael, patron saint of Japan, i., 98. - - Stockings, ii., 143. - - Story, ——, ii., 351. - - “Story of Japan,” ii., 158, 344. - - Street-government of cities, i., 188, 349-353, 356, 361-363; - ii., 51, 80, 330. - - “Suburb of Yedo, A,” ii., 345. - - Sugar, ii., 117, 275. - - Sun-Goddess (Tenshō-daijin), i., 66, 67, 69, 224, 357-359. - - “Sunrise Stories,” ii., 344. - - Superstitions, i., 48, 74, 207, 401; ii., 68, 223. - - Suruga, i., 163, 186, 190, 217; ii., 71. - - _Susquehanna_, American frigate, ii., 282, 291, 314, 315. - - Suwa, Festivals of, i., 296, 356-365. - - Suwa, Temple of, i., 356, 357. - - Suyematsu, ——, ii., 345. - - Sweetmeats, ii., 13, 29, 331. - - Swine, ii., 138. - - Swords, i., 59, 106, 185, 210, 290, 349, 369; ii., 149, 155, 168, 243. - - - Taikō-Sama. _See_ Hashiba. - - Taikō-Sama, Castle of, i., 118; ii., 54. - - Taikō-Sama, Temple and Tomb of, i., 193. - - Takayanagi, T., and Riordan, R., ii., 344. - - “Tales of Old Japan,” ii., 344. - - Tanners, i., 334, 349. - - Tartars, i., 5-10. - - Tashima, Legend of, ii., 42. - - Taxes, i., 258, 355, 356. - - Tea, i., 76, 216; ii., 13, 14, 128, 158, 220. - - Teisuke, Murakami, ii., 221, 223, 226, 239. - - Temples, i., 67, 68, 71, 161, 193, 194, 216, 218, 222, 275, 342, - 356, 357, 397-399; ii., 59, 69, 75, 79, 104-108, 304, 307, 316. - - “Temples of Riches,” i., 275. - - Tennōji, ii., 54. - - Tenriū, River, i., 385. - - Tenshō-daijin. - _See_ Sun-Goddess. - - Tenza, The, i., 164. - - _Tera_ (Buddhist temples), i., 71, 275, 342, 397, 398; ii., 65, 304. - - Terazawa, i., 145, 146, 156. - - Theatrical representations, i., 77, 212, 213, 360-365; ii., 53, 160. - - Thevenot, ——, i., 243, 261, 265; ii., 354. - - Threshing, ii., 158. - - Thunberg, Charles Peter, i., 60, 290, 376, 391, 392; ii., 16, 114-163, - 169, 210, 213, 254. - - _Thuya dolebrata_, ii., 141. - - _Tiger_, English ship, ii., 353, 354. - - Tillage of the soil, i., 76, 381, 386, 387; ii., 134, 136-138, 317. - - Time, Division of, i., 351. - - Time-measurers, ii., 126, 251. - - Titsingh, Isaac, i., 59, 79, 98, 230, 240, 257, 276, 281, 351, 357, - 376; ii., 43, 81, 85, 112, 146, 147, 163-189. - - Tobacco culture, ii., 123. - - _Tōkaidō_, i., 382; ii., 15, 23. - - _Toko_, or cupboard, ii., 4, 7, 178. - - - _Tokowaki_, or side cupboard, ii., 5. - - Tolls, i., 385. - - “Tomb of Ears,” ii., 108. - - Tomb of Taikō-Sama, i., 193, 194. - - Torey (Stewart, Captain), ii., 196. - - Torment of the Fosse, i., 246, 247. - - Torres, Cosme de, i., 52, 54-56, 87, 91, 97. - - _Toshitoku_, i., 359. - - Towns and villages, i., 394, 395; ii., 57, 74. - - “Townsend Harris,” ii., 325. - - Toyohashi (Yoshida), ii., 70. - - Toyotomi Hideyoshi, ii., 54. - _See also_ Hashiba. - - Trade, i., 77; ii., 202, 274, 275. - - Transactions and Proceedings of the Japan Society, London, i., 376. - - Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan, i., 32, 66, 86, 117, - 135, 145, 178, 204, 226, 257, 290, 352, 359; ii., 7, 77, 112, 144, - 149, 154, 174, 183, 199, 206, 210, 315, 346, 354. - - Translations, i., 121, 122, 158, 222, 223, 280; ii., 122, 123, 164, - 165, 210, 222. - - Transportation in the interior, i., 216, 347, 371-385. - - Travellers on the highways, ii., 15-36, 41, 42, 45, 58, 329. - - Trays, ii., 333. - - Trial by torture, i., 353, 354. - - Trials, i., 78, 355; ii., 218. - - Trigault, Nicholas, i., 232. - - Tsadanil trees, ii., 57. - - _Tsubaki_, ii., 125. - - Tsuchi Yama, ii., 69. - - _Tsuitachi_, or first day of the month, ii., 58. - - Tsuni Yoshi, Emperor, ii., 85. - - Turks, i., 16. - - - Ukondono, i., 117-119, 129, 229. - - Umenoki, ii., 68. - - - “Unbeaten Tracks in Japan,” ii., 344. - - Unicorns’ horns, ii., 117, 118. - - United States’ relations with Japan, ii., 193-196, 206, 255-258, - 260-273, 276-339. - - Uraga, i., 218. - - Utensils and dishes, ii., 8. - - - _Vaccinia_, ii., 142. - - Valignani, Father Alexander, i., 100-103, 121, 126-136, 138, 143, - 162, 165; ii., 349. - - Van Braam, ——, ii., 164. - - _Vandalia_, ii., 293. - - Van Linschoten, John Huigen, ii., 351, 352. - - Van Sturlen, director of the Company, ii., 250. - - Varnish-tree, i., 76; ii., 125. - - Vasco da Gama, i., 11. - - Vault, for fire protection, ii., 52. - - Vaz, Alvares, i., 49, 50. - - Vega, Lopo de, Spanish poet, i., 231. - - Vegetables, i., 76; ii., 124, 159, 317. - - Verhagen’s fleet (Dutch), i., 169-177. - - Verhœven fleet (Dutch), i., 182, 196, 198. - - _Viburna_, ii., 142. - - _Vicia faba_, ii., 124. - - Vilela, Father Gaspard, i., 89, 94, 95, 97, 133, 165; ii., 189. - - _Vincennes_, American frigate, ii., 261-265, 283. - - Vivero, Don Rodrigo de, governor of Manila, i., 180, 185-261, 265, - 266; ii., 118, 355. - - Volcanoes, ii., 46, 170, 173, 305. - - “Voyage around the World, A,” ii., 203. - - “Voyages au Nord,” i., 250, 254, 261, 265, 266; ii., 118, 355. - - “Voyages Curieuse,” i., 261. - - “Voyages des Indes,” i., 243, 252, 254, 261; ii., 355. - - - Waardenaar, Heer, ii., 207, 208. - - Wada Iga-no-kami, i., 96, 97. - - Wadenaar, Heer, ii., 195. - - Waganaar, of the Dutch East India Company, i., 265, 266. - - Walnuts, ii., 144. - - Warm drinks, i., 216. - - Water-clocks, ii., 251. - - Water supply, i., 293, 343; ii., 54. - - Weapons, ii., 149. - - Webster, Daniel, ii., 276-281. - - Weddell, Admiral, i., 255. - - “Wee Ones of Japan, The,” 344. - - Weights and measures, i., 23, 59, 249, 272. - - Whale fishery, i., 255. - - Wheat, i., 76, 216. - - Wheeled vehicles, ii., 137, 138. - - Whiskey, ii., 206. - - Whiting, Lieut., ii., 302. - - Whitney, Dr., ii., 144. - - Williams, S. W., ii., 255, 258, 284, 310, 318-323. - - Windows, i., 391; ii., 4, 130, 131, 322. - - Wine, ii., 206. - - Wittert, Admiral, i., 197. - - Women, i., 98, 120, 127, 149, 161, 211, 212, 214, 243, 259, 260, 279, - 292, 340, 341, 345, 361; ii., 23, 24, 29, 30, 47, 58, 70, 91, 96, - 97, 120-122, 127, 153-156, 161, 167, 169, 174-183, 211, 225, - 231-233, 242, 249, 304, 315, 329, 330. - - Wormwood, ii., 125, 146. - - Written language, i., 77, 78. - - - Xavier, Francis, i., 38, 39, 41-43, 46-55, 64, 71, 72, 81-88, 98; - ii., 353. - - - Yakushi, patron of physicians, ii., 68. - - Yamabu. - _See_ Yamabushi. - - _Yamabushi_, or mountain priests, i., 74; ii., 23-25, 72. - - Yamaguchi, capital of Nagato, i., 82, 89, 90, 96. - - Yams, ii., 124. - - Yebisu, patron of fishermen, i., 359. - - _Yebumi_ (figure-treading, _which see_), i., 352. - - Yedo, i., 163, 186, 187, 218, 230, 265, 380; ii., 76-83, 324, 326, 330. - - “Yedo Kagami” (“Mirror of Yedo”), i., 257. - - Yezo Island. - _See_ Matsumaye Island. - - Yodo, ii., 50, 57. - - Yokkaichi, ii., 69. - - Yokohama. - _See_ Kanagawa. - - Yoritomo, Prince, ii., 28-30. - - Yoshida, ii., 70. - - Yoshimune, i., 119, 120, 125, 127, 144, 145. - - “Young Japan” (Black), ii., 345. - - “Young Japan” (Scherer), ii., 344. - - - Zelandia, Fort, in Formosa, i., 262, 302. - - _Zeni_, i., 372, 373; ii., 309. - - Zipangu, i., 1, 3-6, 14. - - - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[1] Omitted in this edition.—EDR. - -[2] Omitted in this edition.—EDR. - -[3] The true distance is about five hundred miles; but, possibly, by -miles Marco Polo may have intended Chinese _li_, of which there are -nearly three in our mile. - -[4] A name applied to part of China, south of the Hoang-ho, held by the -Sung Dynasty till A. D. 1276.—K. M. - -[5] Marsden, the English translator and annotator of Marco Polo, -supposes that _Zaitun_ was the modern _Amoy_, and _Kinsai_ either -_Ningpo_ or _Chusan_. The Chinese annalists, on the other hand, seem -to make the expedition start from Corea, which is much more probable, -as that province is separated from Japan by a strait of only about a -hundred miles in breadth. It was by this Corean strait that, three -hundred years later, the Japanese retorted this invasion. - -[6] Marsden remarks upon this date as evidently wrong. Indeed, it is -given quite differently in different early editions of the travels. -Marsden thinks it should be 1281. This is the date assigned to the -invasion by the Chinese books. The older Japanese annals place it in -1284. In the chapter of Marco Polo which follows the one above quoted, -and which is mainly devoted to the islands of southeastern Asia, he -seems to ascribe to the Japanese the custom of eating their prisoners -of war—a mistake which, as his English translator and commentator -observes, might easily arise from transferring to them what he had -heard of the savage inhabitants of some of the more southern islands. - -The Mongol invasion took place in the fourth year of Kōan [A. D. -1281].—K. M. - -[7] As this chronicle, which is the oldest Japanese history, is -stated to have been originally published A. D. 720, it must be from -a continuation of it that Siebold, or rather his assistant, Hoffman, -translates. - -[A translation by W. G. Aston is published by the Japan Society, -London.—EDR.] - -[8] This is the equivalent, it is to be supposed, of the Japanese date -mentioned in the chronicle. - -[9] Hildreth is here too skeptical. All the events mentioned in the -text really took place between A. D. 1268 and 1281.—K. M. - -[10] Galvano’s book in the translation, published by Hackluyt, in 1601, -may be found in the supplement to Hackluyt’s collection of voyages, -London, 1811. The original work was printed by the pious care of -Francis de Sousa Tauares, to whom Galvano left it, on his death-bed. - -[11] See Appendix, Note D. - -[12] A Portuguese coin, as corresponding to which in value the Spanish -translator of Pinto gives ducats, which, of silver, were about equal to -a dollar of our money. - -[13] This Portuguese colony was of no long continuance. It was soon -broken up by the Chinese, as Pinto intimates, through the folly of the -Portuguese residents. - -[14] It is difficult to understand by what mistake Charlevoix, in his -“Histoire du Japan,” ascribes this discovery to the same year, 1542, as -that of the three Portuguese mentioned by Galvano. Pinto’s chronology -is rather confused, but it is impossible to fix this voyage to Japan -earlier than 1545. - -[15] Probably a corruption of _Tenjikujin_, or the people of _Tenjiku_ -(India).—EDR. - -[16] The terms _Chengecu_ and _Chenghequu_ are represented in two -letters, one dated in 1651 (“Selectarum Epistolarum ex India,” Lib. -i.), addressed to Xavier by a companion of his; the other, dated in -1560, and written by Lawrence, a converted Japanese and a Jesuit -(_Ibid._, Lib. ii), as commonly employed in Japan to designate Europe. - -Golownin mentions that at the time of his imprisonment (1812) -he found a prophecy in circulation among the Japanese that they -should be conquered by a people from the north. Possibly both these -prophecies—that mentioned by Pinto and that by Golownin—might be a -little colored by the patriotic hopes of the European relaters. - -[17] A tael is about an ounce and a third English. The tael is divided -into ten mas; the mas into ten kandarins; the kandarin into ten kas; -and these denominations (the silver passing by weight) are in general -use throughout the far East. Sixteen taels make a katty (about a pound -and a third avoirdupois), and one hundred katties a picul,—these being -the mercantile weights in common use. - -[18] See Appendix, Note C. - -[19] The kingdom or province of Bungo is situated on the east coast of -the second in size and southernmost in situation of the three larger -Japanese islands, off the southeast extremity of which lies the small -island of Tanegashima, where Pinto represents himself as having first -landed. - -The name “Bungo” was frequently extended by the Portuguese to the -whole large island of which it formed a part, though among them the -more common designation of that island, after they knew it to be such -(for they seem at first to have considered it a part of Nippon), was -Shimo.[A] This name, Shimo, appears to have been only a modification of -the term _shima_ (or, as the Portuguese wrote it, _xima_), the Japanese -word for island, and as such terminating many names of places. On our -maps this island is called Kiūshiū, meaning, as Kämpfer tells us, -“Country of Nine,” from the circumstance of its being divided into nine -provinces, which latter appears to be the correct interpretation. There -are in use in Japan Chinese as well as Japanese names of provinces and -officers (the Chinese probably a translation of the Japanese); and not -only the names Nippon and Kiūshiū, but that of Bungo (to judge from the -terminal n of the first syllable), are of Chinese origin. - -A: _Shimo_ is not the modification of _Shima_ (Island), but a word -meaning “lower” geographically.—K. M. - -[20] The Japanese date by the years of the reign of the Dairi, or -Mikado (of whom more hereafter), and they also, for ordinary purposes, -employ the Chinese device of _nengō_. These are periods, or eras, of -arbitrary length, from one year to many, appointed at the pleasure of -the reigning Dairi, named by him, and lasting till the establishment -of a new nengō. For convenience, every new nengō, and also every new -reign, begins chronologically with the new year, the old nengō and old -reign being protracted to the end of the year in which it closes. [See -Notes G and H in Appendix.—EDR.] - -The Japanese month is alternately twenty-nine and thirty days, of which -every year has twelve, with a repetition of one of the months, in seven -years out of every nineteen, so as to bring this reckoning by lunar -months into correspondency with the course of the earth round the sun; -this method being based on a knowledge of the correspondency of two -hundred and thirty-five lunations with nineteen solar years. According -to Titsingh, every thirty-third month is repeated, so as to make up the -necessary number of intercalary months, the number of days in these -intercalary months being fixed by the almanacs issued at Miyako. The -commencement of the Japanese year is generally in February. The months -are divided into two distinct portions, of fifteen days, each having a -distinct name, and the first day of each of which serves as a Sunday, -or holiday. This regulation of the Japanese calendar is borrowed from -the Chinese, as also the use of the period of sixty years corresponding -to our century. [See also paper on “Japanese Calendars,” in vol. xxx of -the Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan.—EDR.] - -[21] No such province is mentioned in the lists of Japanese provinces -by Father Rodriguez, Kämpfer, and Klaproth. [Name of a bay.—EDR.] - -[22] Regarding the portrait of the Portuguese, we know not on what -authority Siebold based his statement.—K. M. - -[23] “They wished to have our portraits taken at full length, and -_Teisuke_, who knew how to draw, was appointed to execute them. He -drew them in India ink, but in such a style that each portrait would -have passed for that of any other individual as well as of him it was -intended for. Except the long beard, we could trace no resemblance in -them. The Japanese, however, sent them to the capital, where they were -probably hung up in some of their galleries of pictures.”—_Golownin’s_ -“_Captivity in Japan_,” vol. i, ch. 4. - -[24] In the Latin version of the Jesuit letters he is called Cosmus -Turrianus. - -[25] Nippon is the name of the whole country; Kondo, of the main -island.—EDR. - -[26] It appears from Golownin that there are also smaller packages, of -which three make the large one. The price of rice varied, of course; -but Kämpfer gives five or six taels of silver as the average value of -the koku. Titsingh represents the koku as corresponding to the gold -koban, the national coin of the Japanese. The original koban weighed -forty-seven kandarins, or rather more than our eagle; but till the year -1672 it passed in Japan as equivalent to about six taels of silver. The -present koban contains only half as much gold; and yet, as compared -with silver, is rated still higher. The koban is figured by Kämpfer as -an oblong coin rounded at the ends, the surface, on one side, marked -with four rows of indented lines, and bearing at each end the arms or -symbol of the Dairi, and between them a mark showing the value, and the -signature of the master of the mint. The other side was smooth, and -had only the stamp of the inspector-general of gold and silver money. -Kämpfer also figures the _ōban_, which even in his time had become very -rare, similar to the koban, but of ten times the weight and value. -A third gold coin was the _ichibu_, figured by Kämpfer as an oblong -square. According to Thunburg, it was of the value of a quarter of the -koban. Silver passed by weight. The Japanese do not appear to have -had any silver coins, unless lumps of irregular shape and weight, but -bearing certain marks and stamps, were to be so considered. In ordinary -retail transactions copper _zeni_, or _kas_, as the Chinese name was, -were employed. They were round, with a square hole in the middle, by -which they were strung. Some were of double size and value, and some -of iron. For further information on the Japanese monetary system, and -on the present state and value of the Japanese circulating medium, see -Chapters XXV, XXXVIII, and XLV. - -[27] Dairi, in its original sense, is said by Rodriguez, in his -Japanese grammar, to signify rather the court than the person of the -theocratic chief to whom it is applied; and so of most of the titles -mentioned in the text. - -[28] According to Rodriguez, there had been also an ancient military -nobility, called _buke_; but in the course of the civil wars many -families of it had become extinct, while other humble families, who had -risen by way of arms, mostly formed the existing nobility. - -[29] According to the Japanese historical legends, the office of -Kubō-Sama, originally limited to the infliction of punishments and -the suppression of crimes, was shared, for many ages, between the -two families of Genji and Heiji, till about 1180, when a civil war -broke out between these families, and the latter, having triumphed, -assumed such power that the Dairi commissioned Yoritomo, a member of -the defeated family of Genji, to inflict punishment upon him. Yoritomo -renewed the war, killed Heiji, and was himself appointed Kubō-Sama, but -ended with usurping a greater power than any of his predecessors. - -[30] See Satow’s papers on “Pure Shintō” and “Japanese Rituals,” in the -Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan.—EDR. - -[31] The word _Kami_ is also doubly used as a title of honor conferred -with the sanction of the Dairi, somewhat equivalent, says Kämpfer, in -one case, to the European title of chevalier, and in the other, to that -of count. Golownin insists that it implies something spiritual. - -[32] The Sun-Goddess, also called Ama-terasu-no-Mikoto.—EDR. - -[33] The following system of Japanese cosmogony is given by Klaproth, -as contained in an imperfect volume of Chinese and Japanese chronology, -printed in Japan, in Chinese characters, without date, but which for -more than a hundred years past has been in the Royal Library of Paris: -“At first the heaven and the earth were not separated, the perfect -principle and the imperfect principle were not disjoined; chaos, under -the form of an egg, contained the breath [of life], self-produced, -including the germs of all things. Then what was pure and perfect -ascended upwards, and formed the heavens (or sky), while what was dense -and impure coagulated, was precipitated, and produced the earth. The -pure and excellent principles formed whatever is light, whilst whatever -was dense and impure descended by its own gravity; consequently the -sky was formed prior to the earth. After their completion, a divine -being (_Kami_) was born in the midst of them. Hence, it has been said, -that at the reduction of chaos, an island of soft earth emerged, as a -fish swims upon the water. At this period a thing resembling a shoot -of the plant _ashi_ [_Eryanthus Japonicus_] was produced between the -heavens and the earth. This shoot was metamorphosed and became the -god [first of the seven superior gods] who bears the honorific title -of Kuni-toko-dachi-no-mikoto, that is to say, the venerable one who -constantly supports the empire.” - -[34] In reading the accounts of the bonzes, and of the delusions -which they practised on the people, contained in the letters of the -Catholic missionaries, and the denunciations levelled against them in -consequence, in those letters, one might almost suppose himself to be -reading a Protestant sermon against Popery, or an indignant leader -against the papists in an evangelical newspaper. The missionaries -found, however, at least they say so, among other theological -absurdities maintained by the bonzes, a number of the “damnable -Lutheran tenets.” - -[35] Buddha, or the sage (which the Chinese, by the metamorphosis made -by their pronunciation of most foreign proper names, have changed first -into _Fuh-hi_, and then into _Fuh_, or _Ho_), is not the personal -name of the great saint, the first preacher of the religion of the -Buddhists, but a title of honor given to him after he had attained -to eminent sanctity. According to the concurrent traditions of the -Buddhists in various parts of Asia, he was the son of a king of central -India, Suddho-dana, meaning in Sanscrit pure-eating king, or eater of -pure food, which the Chinese have translated into their language by -_Zung-fung-wang_. His original name was _Lêh-ta_; after he became a -priest he was called _Sakia-mouni_, that is, devotee of the race of -Sakia, whence the appellation _Shaka_, by which he is commonly known -in Japan, and also the name _Shaku_, applied to the patriarch or head -of the Buddhist church. Another Sanscrit patronymic of Buddha is -_Gautama_, which in different Buddhist nations has, in conjunction with -other epithets applied to him, been variously changed and corrupted. -Thus among the Siamese he is called _Summana-kodom_. - -The Buddhist mythology includes several Buddhas who preceded -Sakia-mouni, and the first of whom, _Adi-Buddha_, or the first Buddha, -was, when nothing else was, being in fact the primal deity and origin -of all things. It seems to be this first Buddha who is worshipped -in Japan under the name of _Amida_, and whose priests form the most -numerous and influential of the Buddhist orders. Siebold seems inclined -to regard them as pure monotheists. - -The birth of Shaka is fixed by the Japanese annalists, or at least by -the book of chronology quoted in a previous note, in the twenty-sixth -year of the emperor Chaou-wang, of the Chinese Chew Dynasty, 1027 B. C. -1006 B. C., he fled from his father’s house to become a priest; 998 B. -C., he reached the highest step of philosophical knowledge; 949 B. C., -being seventy-nine years of age, he entered into _Nirvana_, that is, -died. He was succeeded by a regular succession of Buddhist patriarchs, -of whom twenty-eight were natives of Hindustan. The twenty-eighth -emigrated to China, A. D. 490, where he had five Chinese successors. -Under the second of these, A. D. 552, Buddhism was introduced into -Japan. A. D. 713, the sixth and the last Chinese patriarch died, since -which the Chinese Buddhists, and those who have received the religion -from them, seem not to have acknowledged any general, but only a local, -head in each country. - -[36] In connection with this chapter, read “The Religions of Japan” -(Griffis).—EDR. - -[37] For an account of the Japanese language, literature, etc., see “A -Handbook of Modern Japan” (Clement).—EDR. - -[38] “All military men, the servants of the Shōgun, and persons holding -civil offices under the government, are bound, when they have committed -any crime, to rip themselves up, but not till they have received an -order from the court to that effect; for, if they were to anticipate -this order, their heirs would run the risk of being deprived of their -places and property. For this reason all the officers of government are -provided, in addition to their usual dress, and that which they put on -in the case of fire, with a suit necessary on such occasions, which -they carry with them whenever they travel from home. It consists of a -white robe and a habit of ceremony, made of hempen cloth, and without -armorial bearings. - -“As soon as the order of the court has been communicated to the -culprit, he invites his intimate friends for the appointed day, and -regales them with sake. After they have drank together some time, he -takes leave of them, and the order of the court is then read to him -once more. The person who performs the principal part of this tragic -scene then addresses a speech or compliment to the company, after -which he inclines his head towards the floor, draws his sabre, and -cuts himself with it across the belly, penetrating to the bowels. One -of his confidential servants, who takes his place behind him, then -strikes off his head. Such as wish to display superior courage, after -the cross-cut, inflict a second longitudinally, and then a third in the -throat. No disgrace attaches to such a death, and the son succeeds to -his father’s place. - -“When a person is conscious of having committed some crime, and -apprehensive of being thereby disgraced, he puts an end to his own -life, to spare his family the ruinous consequences of judicial -proceedings. This practice is so common that scarcely any notice is -taken of such an event. The sons of all persons of quality exercise -themselves in their youth, for five or six years, with a view that -they may perform the operation, in case of need, with gracefulness and -dexterity; and they take as much pains to acquire this accomplishment, -as youth among us to become elegant dancers or skilful horsemen; -hence the profound contempt of death which they imbibe in their -earliest years. This disregard of death, which they prefer to the -slightest disgrace, extends to the very lowest classes among the -Japanese.”—_Titsingh_, “_Illustrations of Japan_,” p. 147. - -[39] His family name was Ōtomo, and his given name was Yoshishige.—EDR. - -[40] Pinto gives a long account of this dispute, which has been -substantially adopted by Lucina, the Portuguese biographer of Xavier, -whose life of the saint was published in 1600, and who, in composing -it, had the use of Pinto’s yet unpublished manuscript. Tursellini’s -Latin biography of Xavier was published at Rome and Antwerp, 1596. -From these was compiled the French life, by Bouhours, which our Dryden -translated. Tursellini published also four books of Xavier’s epistles, -translated into Latin. Eight books of new epistles afterwards appeared. -Charlevoix remarks of them, “that they are memoirs, of which it is not -allowable to question the sincerity, but which furnish very little for -history, which was not the writer’s object.” They are chiefly homilies. - -[41] See Satow’s paper in vol. vii of the Transactions of the Asiatic -Society of Japan.—EDR. - -[42] For some further remarks on Pinto and his book, see Appendix, Note -D. - -[43] Of Father de Torres we have four letters rendered into Latin, and -of Vilela, in the same collections, seven, giving, among other things, -a pretty full account of his visit to and residence at Miyako. For the -description, however, of that capital, and the road to it, I prefer -to rely on lay travellers, of whose observations, during a series of -visits extending through more than two centuries, a full abstract will -be found in subsequent chapters. - -[44] The following passage, from Titsingh’s “Memoirs of the Shōguns,” -may serve to shed some light upon the civil war raging in Japan when -first visited by the Portuguese, and which continued down to the time -of Nobunaga: “Takauji was of the family of Yoshiiye, who was descended -from Seiwa-tennō, the fifty-sixth Dairi. He divided the supreme power -between his two sons, Yoshi-nori and Motouji, giving to each the -government of thirty-three provinces. The latter, who ruled over the -eastern part, was styled Kamakura-no-Shōgun, and kept his court at -Kamakura, in the province of Sagami. Yoshi-nori, to whom were allotted -the western provinces, resided at Miyako, with the title of Fuku-Shōgun. - -“Takauji, in dividing the empire between his two sons, was influenced -by the expectation that, in case either of them should be attacked, his -brother would afford him assistance. This partition, on the contrary, -only served to arm them one against the other; the country was involved -in continual war, and the princes, though brothers, were engaged in -frequent hostilities, which terminated only with the destruction of the -branch of Miyako.” - -[45] See note on page 84. - -[46] For a particular description of the dress of Japanese, see Chap. -XLI. - -[47] His reception of the Japanese and his reformation of the calendar -are both recorded together in his epitaph. - -[48] The Letters, Briefs, and the Discourse on Obedience, above -quoted, may be found at length in Latin, in the very valuable and rich -collection, _De Rebus Japonicis Indicis_ and _Peruvianis Epistolæ -Recentiores_, edited by John Hay, of Dalgetty, a Scotch Jesuit, and a -sharp controversialist, published in 1605; in Spanish, in Father Luys -de Gusman’s _Historia de los Missiones, que han hecho los Religioses -de la Compania de Jesus, etc._, published in 1601, of which the -larger part is devoted to the Japanese mission; in Italian, in Father -Daniel Batoli’s “Historia de la Compagnia de Gesu”; and in French, in -Charlevoix’s “Histoire du Japon.” An Italian history of the mission -was printed at Rome, 1585,—the same, I suppose, of which a Latin -translation is given in Hay’s collection; and still rarer and more -valuable one at Macao, in 1590, of which a further account will be -found in a note at the end of the next chapter. - -[49] The princes and nobles of Japan, and indeed most private -individuals, have certain devices embroidered on their gowns, etc., -which the Portuguese and the missionaries compared to the armorial -bearings of Europe. [See paper on “Japanese Heraldry” in vol. v of the -Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan.—EDR.] - -[50] During this residence at Macao the Japanese ambassadors were -not idle. They were engaged upon a very remarkable work, printed at -Macao in 1590 in Japanese and Latin, purporting to be composed by the -ambassadors, and giving, by way of dialogue, an account not only of the -embassy, but of Japan and of all the countries, European and Oriental, -which they had visited. The Latin title is _De Missione Legatorum -Japonensium ad Romanam curiam, rebusque in Europa ac toto in itinere -animadversis, Dialogus, etc._—“A Dialogue concerning the Japanese -Embassy to the Court of Rome, and the things observed in Europe and on -the whole journey, collected from the journal of the ambassadors, and -rendered into Latin by Ed. de Laude, priest of the Society of Jesus.” -It is from this work, though he does not give the title of it, that -Hackluyt extracted the “Excellent Treatise of the Kingdom of China and -of the Estate and Government thereof,” contained in his second volume, -and of which he speaks in his epistle dedicatory to that volume, first -published in 1599, as “the most exact account of those parts that is -yet come to light.” “It was printed,” he tells us, “in Latin, in Makoa, -a city of China, in China paper, in the year 1590, and was intercepted -in the great carac Madre de Dios, two years after, enclosed in a case -of sweet cedar wood, and lapped up almost a hundred fold in fine -Calicut cloth, as though it had been some incomparable jewel.” - -[51] This letter, with the reply in the next chapter, is given by -Froez, from whom Gusman has copied them. - -[52] Letters from the ambassadors to Sixtus V, written at Nagasaki -after their arrival there, and giving an account of their voyage home, -may be found in Hay’s collection. - -[53] Valignani was not the first European to obtain an imperial -audience. The same favor had been granted, as already mentioned, by -Yoshiteru to Father Vilela in 1559. Louis Froez had also been admitted, -in 1565, to an audience of the same emperor, of which he has given a -short but interesting account. - -[54] See Satow’s paper on “The Origin of Spanish and Portuguese Rivalry -in Japan,” in the Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan.—EDR. - -[55] We regret that the original of this letter has been lost, and we -cannot, therefore, compare the translation with the original. But, at -any rate, the date here given is erroneous. Valignani’s departure from -Japan being in 1592, as is mentioned at the end of the next chapter, -this letter must have been written in 1592 (first year of Bunroku).—K. -M. - -[56] The number of troops here set down is too small.—K. M. - -[57] According to the letters of Louis Froez, the prince of Ōmura -joined the army against Corea with one thousand men, the king of Arima -with two thousand, and the king of Bungo with ten thousand, besides -mariners and mean people to carry the baggage. The entire number of -men-at-arms in the empire, at this time, is stated to have been, by -a written catalogue, three hundred thousand. The victories mentioned -in the text were gained by an advanced body of fifteen thousand men. -The Coreans are described by Froez as different from the Chinese in -race and language, and superior to them in personal prowess, yet as in -a manner tributary to China, whose laws, customs, and arts they had -borrowed. They are represented as good bowmen, but scantily provided -with other weapons, and therefore not able to encounter the cannon, -lances, and swords of the Japanese, who had been, beside, practised -by continual wars among themselves. But in nautical affairs Froez -reckons the Chinese and Coreans as decidedly superior to the Japanese. -Translations from several Jesuit letters relating to the Corean war -will be found in Hackluyt, vol. iv, near the end. Siebold, relying upon -Japanese authorities, insists that it was through Corea that the arts, -knowledge, language, and written characters of China were introduced -into Japan. - -[58] See Aston’s papers on “Hideyoshi’s Invasion of Korea,” in the -Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan.—EDR. - -[59] Yet Taikō-Sama was not in general cruel. A curious letter of -Father Organtino Brixiano, written in 1594, enumerates, among the -reasons of Taikō’s great success, his clemency to the conquered -princes, whom he never put to death after having once promised them -their lives, and to whom he granted a revenue, small, but sufficient -to maintain them, and which served to keep them quiet. Another reason -was his having established for his soldiers during war a commissariat, -of which he paid the expense, by which they were rendered much more -efficient. He also kept them employed, for, besides the army maintained -in Corea, he set them to work in building or repairing palaces and -fortresses, or in other public works. At this time he had thirty -thousand men at work upon one castle near Miyako, one hundred thousand -at Fushimi. He also broke the power of the princes by transferring -them to distant parts, while he inspired general respect by his -strict justice, from which he was swerved by no considerations of -relationship, family, or influence, secular or religious. Another -reason mentioned by the missionary does not correspond so well with -Taikō’s letter to the viceroy of Goa. He is said not only to have -disarmed the country people, by whose strength and wealth the petty -kingdoms had been sustained, but also to have reduced them to extreme -poverty; but this, perhaps, applies rather to the petty lords than to -the actual cultivators. This letter is in Hay’s collection, and a part -of it, in English, may be found in Hackluyt’s fourth volume. - -[Dening’s “New Life of Toyotomi Hideyoshi” is the best work dealing -with the career of “the Napoleon of Japan.”—EDR.] - -[60] Some curious information respecting the Philippines is contained -in a letter dated Mexico, 1590, intercepted on its way to Spain by some -English cruiser, and translated and published by Hackluyt in his fourth -volume. This letter represents the country as very unhealthy “for us -Spaniards,” of whom not more than one thousand were left alive out of -fourteen thousand who had gone there in the twenty years preceding. It -seems, too, that the Spaniards at Manila, not less than the Portuguese -at Macao, had succeeded in opening a trade with China. “There is a -place in China, which is an harbor called Macaran, which the king has -given to the Spaniards freely; which shall be the place where the ships -shall come to traffic. For in this harbor there is a great river, which -goeth up into the main land, unto divers towns and cities, which are -near to this river.” Where was this Spanish Chinese port? - -The annual galleons to New Spain were to Manila what the annual carac -to Japan was to Macao,—a main support of the place. The privilege of -putting a certain amount of goods on board was distributed among all -the resident merchants, offices, and public institutions. - -[61] That any Japanese had been in America earlier than 1610 A. D. is -not to be found in any Japanese sources.—K. M. - -[62] The fathers resident at this college had been by no means idle. -They had printed there, in 1593, a Japanese grammar, prepared by Father -Alvarez, and, in 1595, in a thick quarto of upwards of nine hundred -pages, a Portuguese, Latin, and Japanese Lexicon. A vocabulary entirely -Japanese was printed at Nagasaki, 1598. - -[63] Yet the Japanese are said to maintain to this day a garrison on -the coast (Golownin, vol. iii, ch. 9), and to receive tribute from -Corea; but this seems doubtful. - -[64] Go-kirai, including Yamashiro, Yamato, Kawachi, Izumi, and -Settsu.—EDR. - -[65] Father Valignani died in 1606, at Macao, whither he had gone to -look after the Chinese missions, a few Jesuits having at length got -admission into that empire. Father Rodriguez, in his annual letter of -1606, from Miyako, in noticing Valignani’s death, speaks of him as -justly entitled to be called the apostle of the missions of Japan and -China,—a title, indeed, which he had already received from the king of -Portugal. Purchas, who published a few years later, mentions him as the -“great Jesuit.” He enjoyed in his own day, and deservedly, a reputation -quite equal to that of our most famous modern missionaries; but these -missionary reputations are apt not to be very long-lived. Five of his -letters are in the collection of Hay, “De Rebus Japonicis,” etc. - -The death of Father Louis Froez has been mentioned in the previous -chapter. We have of his letters, in Maffei’s “Select Epistles,” nine, -written between the years 1563 and 1573; and in Hay’s collection, -eight, written between 1577 and 1596. Many of these are of great -length. That of February, 1565, contains a curious account of what he -saw at Miyako, on his going thither with Almeida to aid Vilela, who -had labored there alone for six years with only Japanese assistants. -The translation of it in Hackluyt has an important passage in the -beginning, giving a general account of the Japanese, not in the Latin -editions that I have seen. Those in Hay’s collection are rather reports -than letters. That of 1586 contains an account of Valignani’s first -interview with Taikō-Sama, that of 1592 a full account of Valignani’s -embassy, the second of 1595 the history of Taikō-Sama’s quarrel with -his nephew, and the two of 1596 a full account of the first martyrdoms -and of the state of the church at the time. - -Almeida had died in 1583, after a missionary life of twenty-eight -years. We have five of his letters, which show him a good man, but -exceedingly credulous, even for a Portuguese Jesuit. - -[66] This chapter, also the twenty-second, is taken, with alterations -and additions, from an article (written by the compiler of this work) -in “Harper’s Magazine” for January, 1854. - -[67] See Appendix, Note E. - -[68] An account of Adams’ voyage, in two letters of his from Japan, -may be found in Purchas, “His Pilgrimes,” part i, book iii, sect. 5. -Purchas also gives, book ii, chap. v, Captain Wert’s adventures and -return; and in book iii, chap. i, sect. 4, a narrative by Davis, who -acted as chief pilot of the first Dutch voyage to the East Indies, -under Houtman. Hackluyt gives, in his second volume, a narrative -of Lancaster’s voyage, taken down from the mouth of Edmund Baker, -Lancaster’s lieutenant. Henry May’s narrative of the same voyage -is given in Hackluyt’s second volume. What is known of the English -expedition, fitted out in 1594, will be found in Hackluyt, vol. iv, -and “Pilgrimes,” book iii, chap. i, sect. 2. The English East India -Company was formed in 1600, and Lancaster was immediately despatched on -a second voyage “with four tall ships and a victualler,” and by him the -English trade was commenced.—_Pilgrimes_, book iii, chap. iii, sect. 1. -[Ten extant letters of Will Adams may be found in “Letters written by -the English Residents in Japan,” edited by K. Murakawn, and published -in Tōkyō. See also paper by Dr. L. Riess on the “History of the English -Factory at Kirado,” in the Transactions of the Asiatic Society of -Japan.—EDR.] - -[69] See Klaproth’s translation (“Nov. Journal Asiatique,” tom. ii), of -a curious Japanese tract on the Wealth of Japan, written in 1708. - -See note on page 152.—EDR. - -[70] This letter is given by Purchas, vol. i, p. 406. It has neither -date nor signature, nor does it appear who is responsible for the -correctness of the translation. - -[71] It must have been in the next year (1609).—K. M. - -[72] Most likely this “box” was formed by movable screens. See Chapter -XXXVIII. - -[73] Iyeyasu was sixty-six years old in 1609.—K. M. - -[74] It is customary among the Japanese, on receiving a present from a -superior, to touch the top of the head with it. This custom is alluded -to in the king of Bungo’s letter to the Pope, pages 107 and 108. - -[75] Descriptions of it will be found in Chapter XXXV, and also a -census taken in 1690. - -[76] This image was first set up in the year 1576 by the Emperor Taikō. -The temple in which it was placed was destroyed by the great earthquake -of 1596. The rebuilding was commenced in 1602. The colossus, however, -was seriously injured by another earthquake in 1662, after which it was -melted down, and a substitute prepared of wood covered with gilt paper. -For a description of it, see Chapter XXXVII. - -[77] The total number of baptisms in Japan, in 1606, according to the -annual letter of that year, was almost three thousand. According to the -letter of 1603, the number of confessions heard that year was eighty -thousand. It appears from these letters that many female converts were -made, among the higher classes, by the reputed efficacy of relics and -the prayers of the church in cases of difficult labor. - -[78] Don Rodrigo published in Spanish a narrative of his residence in -Japan. Of this very rare and curious work an abstract, with extracts, -is given in the “Asiatic Journal,” vol. ii, new series, 1830. The -Spaniard is rather excessive in his estimates of population, but -appears to have been sensible and judicious. His accounts are well -borne out, as we shall see, by those of Saris, Kämpfer, and others. His -whole title was Don Rodrigo de Vivero y Velasco. - -[79] There is a narrative of this journey, rather a perplexed one, -apparently written by Spex himself, added to the Relation of Verhœven’s -voyage in _Recueil des Voyages qui out servi a l’establisement de la -Compagnie des Indes Oriental dans les Provinces Unies_. A full abstract -of it is in the great collection, “Hist. Gen. des Voyages,” vol. viii. - -[80] They had about four hundred, and the Spaniards about twice as many. - -[81] Kämpfer gives this translation, and also a fac-simile of the -original Japanese. The same translation is also given by Spex. - -[82] The Franciscan martyrology says he was born at Seville of the -blood royal. - -[83] See paper on “Date Masamune,” in vol. xxi of the Transactions of -the Asiatic Society of Japan.—EDR. - -[84] An account in Italian of Sotelo’s embassy, _Historia del Regno -de Voxu del Giaponi, etc., e del Ambasciata, etc._, was published at -Rome the same year, 1615. There is no Japanese letter of later date -than 1601, in the collection of Hay, or, as perhaps it ought rather -to be called, of Martin Nutius (at least so his name was written in -Latin), citizen and bookseller of Antwerp, at the sign of the two -storks, “a man zealous for the Catholic faith,” so Hay says, and by -whom the collection was projected. He applied to the rector of the -Jesuit college at Antwerp for an editor, and Hay was appointed. A few -of the letters were translated by Hay; the greater part had already -appeared as separate pamphlets, translated by others. Hay’s vehement -Scotch controversial spirit breaks out hotly in some of the dedicatory -letters which he has introduced. Of the Japanese letters subsequent to -1601 there is no collection. They were published separately as they -were received, translated into Italian, from which were made French and -Spanish translations. - -[85] See “Letters written by the English Residents in Japan, -1611-1623.”—EDR. - -[86] “I am called in the Japanese tongue ANGIN SAMA. By that name am I -known all the coast along.”—_Letters of Adams_, Jan. 12, 1614. - -[87] This is difficult to decipher, except _kokoro warui_ (“heart -bad”), and may not refer at all to Coreans.—EDR. - -[88] Properly the spirit enshrined in the temple.—EDR. - -[89] Saris makes no mention of tea, not yet known to the Europeans, -and which, perhaps, he confounded with this hot water. All subsequent -travellers have noted this practice of the Japanese of drinking -everything warm even to water. Cold drinks might tend too much to check -the digestion of their vegetable food; at any rate, they are thought -to be frequently the occasion of a violent colic, one of the endemic -diseases of Japan. - -[90] London had at that time a population of two hundred and fifty -thousand. - -[91] Probably the one at Kamakura.—EDR. - -[92] See “Letters written by the English Residents in Japan, -1611-1623.”—K. M. - -[93] This word, though not to be found in any of our dictionaries, was -in current use, at this time, in the signification of head merchant of -a factory ship, or trading post,—_cape_ being, probably, a contraction -of captain. - -[94] Yezo, otherwise called Matsumae, the island north of Nippon. There -is in Purchas, “Pilgrimes,” vol. i., p. 364, a short account of this -island, obtained from a Japanese, who had been there twice. It was -visited in 1620 by Jerome de Angelis, who sent home an account of its -gold-washings, which reads very much like a California letter. It was -also then as now the seat of extensive fisheries. The gold which it -produced made the Dutch and English anxious to explore it. The Dutch -made some voyages in that direction and discovered some of the southern -Kuriles; but the geography of those seas remained very confused till -the voyages of La Perouse. Matsumae was the scene of Golownin’s -captivity in 1812. [See chap. xliii.] One of the ports granted to the -Americans (Hakodate) is on the southern coast of this island. - -[95] These privileges are given by Purchas, “Pilgrimes,” vol. i., p. -357, with a fac-simile of the original Japanese. - -[96] The old Gothic edifice, afterwards destroyed in the great fire of -1666, is the one here referred to. - -[97] This is the same temple and idol seen and described by Don Rodrigo. - -[98] Captain Saris states that the New Testament had been translated -into Japanese for their use; but this is doubtless a mistake. A number -of books of devotion were translated into Japanese, but we hear nowhere -else of any New Testament, nor were such translations a part of the -Jesuit missionary machinery. - -[99] Of another festival, on the 23d of October, Cocks gives the -following account: “The kings with all the rest of the nobility, -accompanied with divers strangers, met together at a summer-house, set -up before the great pagoda, to see a horse-race. Every nobleman went -on horseback to the place, accompanied with a rout of slaves, some -with pikes, some with small shot, and others with bows and arrows. The -pikemen were placed on one side of the street, and the shot and archers -on the other, the middest of the street being left void to run the -race; and right before the summer-house, where the king and nobles sat, -was a round buckler of straw hanging against the wall, at which the -archers on horseback, running a full career, discharged their arrows, -both in the street and summer-house where the nobles sat.” This, from -the date, would seem to be the festival of Tenshō Daijin. See p. 359. -Caron, “Relation du Japon,” gives a similar description. - -[100] Captain Saris’ account of his voyage and travels in Japan (which -agrees remarkably with the contemporaneous observations of Don Rodrigo, -and with the subsequent ones of Kämpfer and others), may be found in -Purchas, “His Pilgrimes,” part i, book iv, chap. i, sect. 4-8. Cocks’ -not less curious observations may be found in chap. iii, sect. 1-3, of -the same book and part. There is also a readable summary of what was -then known of Japan, in Purchas, “His Pilgrimage,” book v, chap. xv. - -Rundall, in his “Memorials of the Empire of Japan,” printed by the -Hackluyt Society, 1850, has republished Adams’ first letter, from two -MSS. in the archives of the East India Company; but the variations -from the text, as given by Purchas, are hardly as important as he -represents. He gives also from the same records four other letters -from Adams, not before printed. It seems from these letters, and from -certain memoranda of Cocks, that there were three reasons why Adams did -not return with Saris, notwithstanding the emperor’s free consent to -his doing so. Besides his wife and daughter in England, he had also a -wife, son, and daughter in Japan. Though he had the estate mentioned as -given him by the emperor (called Hemmi, about eight miles from Uraga), -on which were near a hundred households, his vassals, over whom he had -power of life and death, yet he had little money, and did not like to -go home with an empty purse. He had quarrelled with Saris, who had -attempted to drive a hard bargain with him. The East India Company had -advanced twenty pounds to his wife in England. Saris wanted him to -serve the company for that sum and such additional pay as they might -see fit to give. But Adams, whom the Dutch, Spanish, and Portuguese, -were all anxious to engage in their service, insisted upon a stipulated -hire. He asked twelve pounds a month, but consented to take a hundred -pounds a year, to be paid at the end of two years. - -See “History of the English Factory at Hirado,” in vol. xxvi. of the -Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan, and “Diary of Richard -Cocks,” edited by Mr. N. Murakami, and published in Tōkyō in 1899.—EDR. - -[101] He was deified, and is still worshipped under the name of -Gongen-Sama, given to him after his death. It is from him that the -reigning emperors of Japan trace their descent. He is buried at the -temple of Nikkō, three days’ journey from Yedo, of the splendor of -which marvellous stories are told. Caron, who wrote about the time it -was built, speaks as if he had seen it. In 1782, M. Titsingh, then -Dutch director, solicited permission to visit this temple, but was -refused, as there was no precedent for such a favor. - -[102] These modified privileges have been printed for the first time by -Rundall. - -[103] Lopo de Vega, the poet, who held the office of procurator fiscal -to the apostolic chamber of the archbishopric of Toledo, celebrated the -constancy of the Japanese martyrs, in a pamphlet entitled “Triumpho -de la Fe en los Regnos del Japon, pas los annos de 1614 y 1615,” -published in 1617. “Take away from this work,” says Charlevoix, “the -Latin and Spanish verses, the quotations foreign to the subject, and -the flourish of the style, and there will be nothing left of it.” The -subject was much more satisfactorily treated by Nicholas Trigault, -himself a very distinguished member of the Chinese mission, which -he had joined in 1610. He returned to Europe in 1615, travelling on -foot through Persia, Arabia, and Egypt, to obtain a fresh supply of -laborers. Besides an account of the Jesuit mission to China (from -which, next to Marco Polo’s travels, Europe gathered its first distinct -notions of that empire), and a summary of the Japanese mission from -1609 to 1612, published during this visit to Europe, just before his -departure, in 1618 (taking with him forty-four missionaries, who -had volunteered to follow him to China), he completed four books -concerning the triumphs of the Christians in the late persecution in -Japan, to which, while at Goa, on his way to China, he added a fifth -book, bringing down the narrative to 1616. The whole, derived from -the annual Japanese letters, was printed in 1623, in a small quarto -of five hundred and twenty pages, illustrated by numerous engravings -of martyrdoms, and containing also a short addition, bringing down -the story to the years 1617-1620, and a list of Japanese martyrs, to -the number of two hundred and sixty-eight. There is also added a list -of thirty-eight houses and residences (including two colleges, one at -Arima, the other at Nagasaki) which the Jesuits had been obliged to -abandon; and of five Franciscan, four Dominican, and two Augustinian -convents, from which the inmates had been driven. These works of -Trigault, published originally in Latin, were translated into French -and Spanish. Various other accounts of the same persecution appeared in -Spanish, Italian, and Portuguese. “A Brief Relation of the Persecution -lately made against the Catholic Christians of Japan” was published -at London, 1616. Meanwhile Purchas, in the successive editions of his -“Pilgrimage,” gave an account of the Japanese missions, which is the -best and almost the only one (though now obsolete and forgotten) in -the English language. That contained in the fourth edition (annexed -as a fifth part to the “Pilgrimes”), and published in 1625, is the -fullest. Captain Saris, according to Purchas, ascribed the persecution -to the discovery, by the Japanese, that the Jesuits, under the cloak of -religion, were but merchants. - -[104] Such was the charge of the English. The Dutch narratives, -however, abound with similar charges against the English. Both probably -were true enough, as both nations captured all the Chinese junks they -met. - -[105] The date, as given by Purchas (evidently by a misprint), is 1610. - -[106] The “Swan” and the “Attendance.” The number of English runaways -was three, not six.—K. M. - -[107] From Jacatra Pring proceeded to England with a cargo of pepper. -It would seem that he had not forgotten his early voyages to the coast -of America, for while his ship lay in the road of Saldanha, near the -Cape of Good Hope, a contribution of seventy pounds eight shillings -and sixpence was raised among the ship’s company to endow a school, to -be called the _East India_ School, in the colony of Virginia. Other -contributions were made for this school, and the Virginia Company -endowed it with a farm of a thousand acres, which they sent tenants -to cultivate; but this, like the Virginia University, and many other -public-spirited and promising enterprises, was ruined and annihilated -by the fatal Indian massacre of 1622. - -The “Royal James” carried also to England a copy in Japanese, still -preserved in the archives of the East India Company, of Adams’ will. -With commendable impartiality he divided his property, which, by the -inventory annexed, amounted to nineteen hundred and seventy-two tael, -two mas, four kandarins (two thousand four hundred and sixty-five -dollars and twenty-nine cents), equally between his Japanese and -his English family,—the English share to go, one half to the wife -and the other half to the daughter, it not being his mind, so Cocks -wrote, “his wife should have all, in regard she might marry another -husband, and carry all from his child.” By the same ship Cocks made -a remittance to the English family, having delivered “one hundred -pounds sterling to diverse of the ‘Royal James’Company, entered into -the purser’s books, to pay in England, two for one,”—a very handsome -rate of exchange, which throws some light on the profits of East India -trade in those days. Adams’ Japanese estate probably descended to his -Japanese son; and who knows but the family survives to this day? The -situation of this estate was but a very short distance from the spot -where the recent American treaty was made; nor is the distance great -from Shimoda, one of the ports granted by that treaty. The command -of the fleet left behind, on Pring’s departure, devolved on Captain -Robert Adams. According to Cocks’ account, the crews, both Dutch and -English, inferior officers as well as men, were a drunken, dissolute, -quarrelsome set. Rundall gives a curious record of the trial by jury -and execution of an Englishman of this fleet for the murder of a -Dutchman; and it seems the Dutch reciprocated by hanging a Dutchman for -killing an Englishman. Master Arthur Hatch was chaplain of this fleet. -Purchas gives (vol. i, part ii, book x, ch. i) a letter from him, -written after his return, containing a brief sketch of his observations -in Japan. Purchas also gives a letter from Cocks, which, in reference -to the koku of rice, agrees very well with Titsingh’s statement quoted -on page fifty-nine. Cocks represents the revenues of the Japanese -princes as being estimated in mankoku of rice, each containing ten -thousand koku, and each koku containing one hundred gantas (gantings), -a ganta being a measure equal to three English ale pints. - -Cocks states the revenue of the king of Hirado at six mankoku. He -maintained four thousand soldiers, his quota for the emperor’s service -being two thousand. The income of Kodzuke-no-Suke, formerly three, had -lately been raised to fifteen mankoku. That of the king of Satsuma was -one hundred, and that of the prince next in rank to the emperor, two -hundred mankoku. The value of the mankoku was calculated at the English -factory at nine thousand three hundred and seventy-five pounds, which -would make the koku worth eighteen shillings and sixpence sterling, -or four dollars and fifty cents, and agrees very well with Caron’s -estimates of the koku, which he calls _cokien_, as worth ten Dutch -florins, or four dollars. The estimates of Kämpfer and Titsingh, given -on page fifty-nine, are higher. - -[108] Dr. Riess estimates the loss at less than ten thousand -pounds.—EDR. - -[109] See Appendix F. - -[110] 1624 ought to be 1616.—K. M. - -[111] It may be found in Thevenot’s Collection of Voyages, also in -“Voyages des Indes,” tom. v. - -[112] A candid and conclusive answer to Sotelo, or the false Sotelo, -as the Jesuits persisted in calling him, was published at Madrid -immediately after the appearance of his letter, by Don Jean Cevicos, -a commissary of the holy office, who was able to speak from personal -observation. Cevicos had been captain of the galleon “St. Francis,” -the ship in which Don Rodrigo de Vivero had been wrecked on the coast -of Japan, as related in a former chapter. After a six months’ stay -in Japan, and an acquaintance there with Sotelo, Cevicos sailed for -Manila, was captured on the passage by the Dutch, but recaptured by -a Spanish fleet. Arrived at Manila, he renounced the seas, commenced -the study of theology, was ordained priest, and became provisor of the -archbishopric of the Philippines. The business of this office brought -him to Spain, and being at Madrid when the letter ascribed to Sotelo -appeared, he thought it his duty to reply to it. A full abstract of -this answer, as well as of Sotelo’s charges, may be found at the end of -Charlevoix’s “Histoire du Japon.” It appears, from documents quoted in -it, that the missionaries of the other orders agreed with the Jesuits -in ascribing the persecution mainly to the idea, which the Dutch made -themselves very busy in insinuating, that the independence of Japan was -in danger from the Spaniards and the Pope, who were on the watch to -gain, by means of the missionaries, the mastery of Japan, as they had -of Portugal and so many other countries. - -The charges made in the name of Sotelo against the Jesuits are of more -interest from the fact that, at the time of the Jansenist quarrel, they -were revived and reurged with a bitterness of hatred little short of -that which had prompted their original concoction. - -A Spanish history of the Franciscan mission, full of bitter hatred -against the Jesuits, was published at Madrid in 1632, written down -to 1620, by Father Fray Jacinto Orfanel, who was arrested that year, -and burnt two years after, and continued by Collado, who was also the -author of a Japanese grammar and dictionary. - -[113] Shōgun-Sama seems to be only a title, not a name. This is -Lyemitsu, the “third Shōgun.”—EDR. - -[114] A shuet of silver weighs about five ounces, so that the reward -offered was from $2,000 to $2,500. - -[115] A narrative of this transaction was published at Rome in 1643. -A short but curious document, purporting to be a translation of a -Japanese imperial edict, commanding the destruction of all Portuguese -vessels attempting to approach the coasts of Japan, is given in -“Voyages au Nord,” tom. iv. Ships of other nations were to be sent -under a strong guard to Nagasaki. [See Appendix, Note 1.] - -[116] This curious piece may be found in French, in the “Voyages des -Indes,” tom. v. - -[117] Haganaar’s travels may be found in “Voyages des Indes,” tom. v., -and a narrative of Nuyts’ affair in “Voyages au Nord,” tom. iv. - -[118] According to Titsingh, they amounted in his time (1780) to -eighty thousand in number. Apparently they are the Dōshin, or imperial -soldiers, of whom we shall have occasion hereafter to speak. - -[119] This quantity of rice would suffice for the support of twelve -million persons or more. The cultivators of the imperial domains -retained, according to Kämpfer, six-tenths of the produce, and those -who cultivated the lands of inferior lords four-tenths. Hence it may -be conjectured that the estimate of twenty-five millions of people for -Japan is not excessive. - -[120] These lists were doubtless copied from the _Yedo Kagami_ (Mirror -of Yedo), a kind of Blue Book, still published twice a year, and -containing similar lists. See “Annals des Empereurs du Japon” (Titsingh -and Klaproth), p. 37, note. - -[See paper on Japanese feudalism, in vol. xv of the “Transactions of -the Asiatic Society of Japan.”—EDR.] - -[121] There are two versions of Caron’s account of Japan, materially -different from each other; one with the original questions, as -furnished by Caron himself to Thevenot, the other in the form of a -continuous narrative, with large additions by Haganaar. The first may -be found in Thevenot’s “Voyages Curieuse,” also in “Voyages au Nord,” -tom. iv. The other in “Voyages des Indes,” tom. v, and an English -translation of it in Pinkerton’s collection, vol. vii. - -[122] A curious contemporary narrative of this affair is given, among -other tracts relating to Japan, in “Voyages au Nord,” tom. iv. It -is not unlikely that the military operations of the Dutch in the -neighboring island of Formosa, and their strong fort of Zelandia, -recently erected there, might have aroused the suspicions of the -Japanese. - -[123] There is an account of the voyage of the “Castricoom” in -Thevenot’s collection. It is also contained in “Voyages au Nord,” tom. -iii. Charlevoix gives a full and interesting abstract of the adventures -of Captain Schaëp and his companions, derived from two different French -versions of a Dutch original; but I know not where either the versions -or the original can be found. - -[124] The journals of these embassies of Waganaar, Frisius, and others, -generally pretty dry documents, with extracts from Caron, furnished -the basis for the “Memorable Embassies of the Dutch to the Emperors -of Japan,” a splendid folio, with more than a hundred copper plates, -published at Amsterdam in 1669, purporting to be compiled by Arnold -Montanus, of which an English translation, made by Ogilvy, with the -same cuts, appeared the next year at London, under the title of -_Atlas Japonensis_, and a French translation, with some additions and -alterations, ten years later at Amsterdam. - -The materials are thrown together in the most careless and disorderly -manner, and are eked out by drawing largely upon the letters of the -Jesuit missionaries. The cuts, whence most of the current prints -representing Japanese objects are derived, are destitute of any -authenticity. Those representing Japanese idols and temples evidently -were based on the descriptions of Froez, whose accounts do not seem -quite to agree in all respects with the observations of more recent -travellers. - -The dedication of Ogilvy’s translation outdoes anything Japanese in -the way of prostration, nor can the language of it hardly be called -English. It is as follows: “To the supreme, most high and mighty -prince, Charles II., by the grace of God, of Great Britain, France -and Ireland, king, defender of the faith, &c. These strange and novel -relations concerning the ancient and present state of the so populous -and wealthy empire of Japan, being a book of wonders, dedicated with -all humility, lies prostrate at the sacred feet of your most serene -majesty, by the humblest of your servants, and most loyal subject, John -Ogilvy.” - -[125] This letter, with the instructions and a memoir of Caron’s on -the subject, may be found in “Voyages au Nord,” tom. iv. Caron, who -spent several years in the French service in the East Indies, perished -by shipwreck, near Lisbon, on his return to France in 1674. He was -president of the Dutch factory at the time of its removal to Deshima; -and Kämpfer undertakes to represent his mismanagement as in some degree -the cause of that removal. This story was doubtless current at Deshima -in Kämpfer’s time, but probably it grew out of disgust of the Dutch at -Caron’s having passed into the French service. - -[126] A curious narrative of this visit is printed in Pinkerton’s great -collection, vol. vii. - -[See also “Diary of Richard Cocks.”—K. M.] - -[127] For a further account of Fitch and his travels, see Appendix, -Note E. - -[128] The China trade was shared at this time between the Portuguese of -Macao and the Spaniards of the Philippines. On the Spanish trade, and -the profits of it, some light is thrown by extracts from letters found -on board Spanish prizes taken by the English, which Hackluyt translated -and published in his fourth volume. Thus Hieronymo de Nabores writes -from Panama (August 24, 1590), where he was waiting for the ship for -the Philippines: “My meaning is to carry my commodities thither, for it -is constantly reported that for every one hundred ducats a man shall -get six hundred ducats clearly.” This, however, was only the talk at -Panama; but Sebastian Biscanio had made the voyage, and he writes -to his father from Acapulco (June 20, 1590): “In this harbor here -are four great ships of Mexico, of six hundred or eight hundred tons -apiece, which only serve to carry our commodities to China, and so to -return back again. The order is thus. From hence to China is about two -thousand leagues further than from hence to Spain; and from hence the -two first ships depart together to China, and are thirteen or fourteen -months returning back again. And when these ships are returned, then -the other twain, two months after, depart from hence. They go now from -hence very strong with soldiers. I can certify you of one thing: that -two hundred ducats in Spanish commodities, and some Flemish woods which -I carried with me thither, I made worth fourteen hundred ducats there -in that country. So I make account that with those silks and other -commodities with me from thence to Mexico, I got twenty-five hundred -ducats by the voyage; and had gotten more, if one pack of fine silks -had not been spoiled with salt water. So, as I said, there is great -gain to be gotten, if that a man return in safety. But the year 1588, -I had great mischance coming in a ship from China to New Spain; which, -being laden with rich commodities, was taken by an Englishman [this was -Cavendish, then on his voyage round the world], which robbed us and -afterwards burnt our ship, wherein I lost a great deal of treasure and -commodities.” - -[129] The tael, reckoning the picul at one hundred and thirty-three and -one-third pounds avoirdupois, contains five hundred and eighty-three -grains troy. Our dollar weighs four hundred and twelve and a half -grains; and supposing the Japanese silver to be of equal fineness, the -tael is worth just about one dollar and forty cents. Kämpfer reckons -it as equivalent to three and a half florins, which is precisely one -dollar and forty cents, taking the florin at the usual valuation of -forty cents. This, however, was rather above the valuation of the Dutch -East India Company. There were, it seems, two kinds of Japanese silver, -known among the Dutch as heavy and light money, the latter sometimes -distinguished as bar-silver. Both kinds were carried to account without -distinction down to the year 1635, at the rate of sixty-two and a half -silvers, or one dollar and twenty-five cents per tael. After that -period the bar-silver was reckoned at fifty-seven stivers, or one -dollar and fourteen cents per tael. Reckoning the tael, as the Dutch -commonly did, at one dollar and twenty-five cents of our money, and the -mas is precisely equivalent to the Spanish eighth of a dollar. This -statement is derived from a Dutch memoir by Imhoff, quoted by Raffles -(“History of Java,” Appendix B), and found by him, it would seem, -among the Dutch records at Batavia. Of the chests of silver and gold, -particularly the former, so often mentioned in the old accounts of the -Dutch and Portuguese trade, I have met with no description, except in -Montanus’ “Memorable Embassies.” Unreliable and worthless as that huge -volume generally is, its compilers certainly had access to valuable -Dutch papers, and it is apparently from that source that they have -drawn what they say of the moneys, weights, and measures of Japan. Of -the chests of silver and gold they speak as follows: “Moreover, their -paying of money is very strange; for the Japanese, having great store -of gold and silver, observe a custom to receive their money without -telling or seeing it. The mint-master puts the gold in papers, which -contain the value of two hundred pounds sterling; these, sealed up, -pass from one to another without being questioned. They also use little -wooden boxes, in which they put twenty sealed papers of gold, which -is as much as a man can handsomely carry; every box amounts to four -thousand pounds sterling; and the like boxes, but of another fashion, -they use for their silver, in every one of which is twelve hundred -crowns, and is sealed with the coiner’s seal. But doth it not seem -strange that never any deceit is found in that blind way of paying -money?” “The silver, though weighed and coined, is of no certain value. -The coiners put it together into little packs worth sixty crowns,”—I -suppose taels. Caron says, however, that these packages contained fifty -taels. - -[130] These temples, built in Japan by the Chinese merchants, remind -one of the temples built in Egypt by the Greek merchants, who first -opened a trade with that country. See Grote’s “History of Greece,” -chap. xx. - -[131] The _kamishimo_ is a state dress, composed of two garments -(_kami_ signifies what is above, and _shimo_ what is below), a short -cloak, without sleeves, called _kataginu_, and breeches, called -_hakama_. Both are of a particular form (the breeches being like a -petticoat sewed up between the legs), and of colored stuffs. They are -used only on days of ceremony and at funerals.—_Titsingh._ - -[132] Unfortunately for the English, their attempt at a revival of -intercourse, mentioned in the last chapter, was made the very year of -the introduction of this new check on foreign trade. The appraisement -extended as well to the Chinese as the Dutch cargoes, as is apparent -from the following closing paragraph of the English narrative: “During -the time (July and August, 1673) we were in port, there came twelve -junks in all, eight from Batavia, two from Siam, one from Canton, one -from Cambodia, and six Dutch ships of the Company’s. They had not any -from Taiwan (Formosa), by reason the year before they put the price -upon their sugar and skins; and so they intend to do for all other -people, for whatsoever goods shall be brought to their port; which if -they do, few will seek after their commodities on such unequal terms.” - -There is strong reason to suppose that these new restrictions on -foreign trade grew out of the diminished produce of the mines, which -furnished the chief article of export. The working of these mines -seems to have greatly increased after the pacification of Japan by its -subjection to the imperial authority. Such is the statement in the -Japanese tract on the wealth of Japan, already referred to. According -to this tract the first gold coins were struck by Taikō-Sama. This -increase of metallic product seems to have given, about the time of the -commencement of the Dutch trade, a new impulse to foreign commerce. -Though the Portuguese trade had been stopped, it had been a good deal -more than replaced by the increase of the Chinese traffic, and already -the metallic drain appears to have been seriously felt. This is a much -more likely reason for the policy now adopted than the mere personal -hostility of certain Japanese grandees, to which the Dutch at Deshima, -and Kämpfer as their echo, ascribed it. - -[133] According to Titsingh, the Chinese factory was removed, in 1780, -to a new situation, the site of an ancient temple. He gives a plan of -the new factory after a Japanese draft. - -[134] Thunberg notices an odd mistake by the engravers, in representing -the Japanese as wearing their swords as we do, with the edge downward, -whereas their custom is just the reverse, the edge being turned upwards. - -[135] See also an “Abstract” of Kämpfer’s History in vol. ii of the -“Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan.”—EDR. - -[136] A translation of one of these tablets is given by Kämpfer as -follows: - -“Courtesans only, but no other women, shall be admitted. Only the -ecclesiastics of the mountain Kōya shall be admitted. All other -priests, and all Yamabushi, shall stand excluded.” (Note by Kämpfer. -—Kōyais stated to be a mountain near Miyako, a sanctuary and asylum -for criminals, no officers of justice being suffered to come there. -Its inhabitants, many thousand in number, lead an ecclesiastical life. -All are admitted that desire it, or who fly there for shelter, and are -afterwards maintained for life, if they can but bring in thirty taels -for the use of the convent, and are otherwise willing to serve the -community in their several capacities. These monks are not absolutely -confined to this mountain, but many travel up and down the country -in what manner or business they please. Very many of them betake -themselves to trade and commerce.) - -“All beggars, and all persons that live on charity, shall be denied -entrance. - -“Nobody shall presume with any ship or boat to come within the -palisades of Deshima. Nobody shall presume with any ship or boat to -pass under the bridge of Deshima. - -“No Hollander shall be permitted to come out, but for weighty reasons.” - -[137] For a full account of this journey, see Chap. XXXI, etc. - -[138] For an account of this festival, see Chap. XXIX. - -[139] The custom of using an emblem, or device, instead of a signature, -or to certify it, prevails with the Japanese, as with so many other -nations. - -[140] See further, in relation to this ceremony, Chap. XXIX. - -[141] Properly kuriki, but abbreviated to kuri, to approximate -“coolie.” See note on page 309.—EDR. - -[142] See also “Formosa under the Dutch” (Campbell), and “The Island of -Formosa” (Davidson).—EDR. - -[143] The smuggling affair mentioned on page 327. - -[144] This is, evidently, the word coolie, employed in India and China -to designate laborers of the lowest class. [See note on page 300.—EDR.] - -[145] Along the east coast of Asia, and as far north as the southern -coasts of Japan, the winds, during the six months from April to -September inclusive, blow from southwest to northeast This is called -the southwest monsoon. During the other six months they blow from -northeast to southwest. This is called the northeast monsoon. - -[146] Ambergris is a substance thrown up from the stomachs of whales -suffering from dyspepsia or some other disease. It is much employed in -the East in the preparation of perfumes and sweetmeats, and once had -considerable reputation in Europe. Its true nature was for a long time -in dispute. The Japanese understood it, as appears from their name of -the articles, _Kujira-no-fun_, that is, whale’s excrements. - -[147] This corresponds with Siebold’s description, who goes quite -into raptures at the first sight he had, in 1825, of the hills about -Nagasaki. - -[148] It would seem that Europe had derived the idea of paper-hangings, -as a substitute for tapestry, from Japan. - -[149] According to Haganaar this sake is flavored with honey or sugar. -It is very heating and heavy. Saris describes it as almost as strong as -aqua vitæ. It appears to be very various in quality and strength, quite -as much so as European ale or beer. The yeast from this sake is largely -used for preserving fruit and vegetables. The acid of it penetrates the -fruit or vegetable, giving it a peculiar flavor, of which the Japanese -are very fond. - -The Japanese are very fond of social drinking parties; but, according -to Caron, no drunken brawls occur, each person taking himself quietly -off as soon as he finds that he has enough or too much. - -[150] This prayer, or invocation, unintelligible to the Japanese, is, -as our modern Orientalists have discovered, good Sanscrit. - -[151] Another change, simultaneous with the restrictions upon Dutch and -Chinese trade, was the selection of the governors from the military and -noble class, instead of from the mercantile class, as had previously -been the case. - -[152] These Yoriki and Dōshin seem to be the same officers spoken -of in the subsequent Dutch narratives as _Gobanjoshu_ (said to mean -government overseeing officers), or by corruption, banjoses, upper and -under. The Dōshin seem to be the same with the imperial soldiers. - -[153] The Japanese division of time is peculiar. The day, from the -beginning of morning twilight to the end of evening twilight (so says -Siebold, correcting former statements, which give instead sunrise and -sunset), is divided into six hours, and the night, from the beginning -to the end of darkness, into six other hours. Of course the length of -these hours is constantly varying. Their names (according to Titsingh) -are as follows: _Kokonotsu_ [_nine_], noon, and midnight; _Yatsu_ -[_eight_], about our two o’clock; _Nanatsu_ [_seven_], from four to -five; _Mutsu_ [_six_], end of the evening and commencement of morning -twilight; _Itsutsu_ [_five_], eight to nine; _Yotsu_ [_four_], about -ten; and then Kokonotsu again. Each of these hours is also subdivided -into four parts, thus: _Kokonotsu_, noon or midnight; _Kokonotsu-han_ -[_nine and a half_], quarter past; _Kokonotsu-han-sugi_ [_past nine and -a half_], half past; _Kokonotsu-han-sugi-maye_ [_before past nine and a -half_], three quarters past; commencement of second hour: _Yatsu-han_, -etc., and so through all the hours. - -The hours are struck on bells, _Kokonotsu_ being indicated by nine -strokes, preceded (as is the case also with all the hours) by three -warning strokes, to call attention, and to indicate that the hour is to -be struck, and followed, after a pause of about a minute and a half, by -the strokes for the hour, between which there is an interval of about -fifteen seconds,—the last, however, following its predecessor still -more rapidly, to indicate that the hour is struck. _Yatsu_ is indicated -by eight strokes, _Nanatsu_ by seven, _Mutsu_ by six, _Itsutsu_ by -five, and _Yotsu_ by four. Much speculation has been resorted to by the -Japanese to explain why they do not employ, to indicate hours, one, -two, and three strokes. The obvious answer seems to be, that while -three strokes have been appropriated as a forewarning, their method of -indicating that the striking is finished would not be available, if one -and two strokes designated the first and second hours. [See paper on -“Japanese Calendars,” in vol. xxx of the Transactions of the Asiatic -Society of Japan.—EDR.] - -[154] Caron implies that it was only as to state offences that this -mutual responsibility exists. According to Guysbert, in his account -of the persecution at Nagasaki, if a converted priest was discovered, -not only the householder concealing him was held responsible, but the -two nearest householders on either side, though not only ignorant of -the fact, but pagans. This strict system was very effectual for the -purposes of the persecution. - -[155] Better _fumiye_ or _fumie_.—EDR. - -[156] It would seem from Guysbert, that the participation by young -children in the death decreed against the parents, was rather the -act of those parents who had the power of life and death over their -children, and who did not choose to part with them in this extremity. - -[157] The Japanese year begins at the new moon nearest to the fifth of -February (the middle point between the winter solstice and the spring -equinox). - -[158] According to Klaproth’s statement of Japanese legend, in his -“Histoire Mythologique,” introductory to Titsingh’s “Annals of the -Dairi,” the first three of the celestial gods were solitary males. -The next three had female companions, yet produced their successors -by the force of mutual contemplation only. The seventh pair found out -the ordinary method of generation, of which the first result was the -successive production of eight islands, those of Japan (the number -eight being selected simply because it is esteemed the most perfect), -after which they gave birth also to mountains, rivers, plants, and -trees. To provide a ruler and governor for these creations, they -next produced _Tenshō daijin_, or, in Japanese (for _Tenshō daijin_ -is Chinese), _Ama terasu-no-kami_ (Celestial Spirit of Sunlight); -but, thinking her too beautiful for the earth, they placed her in -the heavens, as they did, likewise, their second born, a daughter, -also, _Tsuki-no-kami_, goddess of the moon. Their third child, _Ebisu -saburō_, was made god of the sea; their fourth child, _Susanoō_, also -a son, god of the winds and tempest. He was agreeable enough when in -good humor, and at times had his eyes filled with tears, but was liable -to such sudden outbreaks and caprices of temper as to render him quite -unreliable. It was concluded to send him away to the regions of the -north; but before going he got leave to pay a visit to his sisters -in heaven. At first he had a good understanding with them, but soon -committed so many outrages,—in the spring spoiling the flower borders, -and in the autumn riding through the ripe corn on a wild horse,—that -in disgust _Tenshō daijin_ hid herself in a cavern, at the mouth of -which she placed a great stone. Darkness forthwith settled over the -heavens. The eight hundred thousand gods, in great alarm, assembled -in council, when, among other expedients, one of their number, who -was a famous dancer, was set to dance to music at the mouth of the -cavern. _Tenshō daijin_, out of curiosity, moved the stone a little, -to get a look at what was going on, when immediately _Te chikara o-no -kami_ (god of the strong hand) caught hold of it, rolled it away, and -dragged her out, while two others stretched ropes across the mouth so -that she could not get in again. Finally, the matter was compromised by -clipping the claws and hair of _Susanoō_, after which he was sent off -to the north, though not till he had killed a dragon, married a wife, -and become the hero of other notable adventures. This legend makes it -clear what _Anjirō_, the first Japanese convert, meant by speaking of -the Japanese as worshippers of the sun and moon. See _ante_, p. 49. -The annual festival of _Tenshō daijin_ falls on the sixteenth day of -the ninth month, immediately after that of _Suwa_, and is celebrated -throughout the empire by matsuri much like that described in the text. -The sixteenth, twenty-first, and twenty-sixth days of every month are -likewise sacred to her, but not celebrated with any great solemnity. -[Also see “Kojiki.”—EDR.] - -Kämpfer mentions as the gods particularly worshipped by the mercantile -class: 1. _Yebisu_, the Neptune of the country, and the protector -of fishermen and seafaring people, said to be able to live two -or three days under water. He is represented sitting on a rock, -with an angling-rod in one hand, and the delicious fish, _Tai_, or -_Steinbrassin_ (_Sparus Aurata_, the Japanese name, signifies _red -lady_), in the other. 2. _Dai-koku_, commonly represented sitting on -a bale of rice, with his fortunate hammer in his right hand, and a -bag laid by him to put in what he knocks out; for he is said to have -the power of knocking out, from whatever he strikes with his hammer, -whatever he wants, as rice, clothes, money, etc. Klaproth states him -to be of Indian origin, and that this name signifies Great Black. 3. -_Toshitoku_, represented standing, clad in a large gown with long -sleeves, with a long beard, a huge forehead, large ears, and a fan -in his right hand. Worshipped at the beginning of the new year, in -hopes of obtaining, by his assistance, success and prosperity. 4. -_Hotei_, represented with a huge belly, and supposed to have in his -gift, health, riches, and children. [These are four of the “Seven Gods -of Happiness.” See also paper on that subject, in vol. viii of the -Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan.—EDR.] - -[159] On the whole, and from the play-bills presently given, the -performance would seem to be a good deal like that of Pyramus and -Thisbe, in the Midsummer Night’s Dream. - -[160] Certainly there is nothing of which the Japanese stood, and still -stand, more in need than some contrivance for extinguishing fires. -Caron, in his memorial addressed to Colbert, had recommended a present -of fire-extinguishers. - -[161] See p. 265. - -[162] These zeni were of various values, a thousand of them being -worth, according to Caron, from eight to twenty-six mas, that is, from -a dollar to three dollars and a quarter; the zeni varying, therefore, -from a mill to three mills and a quarter. Of the existing copper -coinage we shall speak hereafter. See vol. ii, p. 309. - -[163] “Though it may sound extraordinary to talk of a soldier with -a fan, yet the use of that article is so general in Japan that no -respectable man is to be seen without one. These fans are a foot long, -and sometimes serve for parasols; at others instead of memorandum -books. They are adorned with paintings of landscapes, birds, flowers, -or ingenious sentences. The etiquette to be observed in regard to the -fan requires profound study and close attention.”—_Titsingh_. “At -feasts and ceremonies the fan is always stuck in the girdle, on the -left hand, behind the sabre, with the handle downward.”—_Thunberg_. -[See paper on “Japanese Fans,” in vol. ii of the Transactions and -Proceedings of the Japan Society, London.—EDR.] - -[164] This is exclusive of the central tract or imperial domain -(consisting of five provinces), and also of the two island provinces of -Iki and Tsushima. [See also Note A in the Appendix.—EDR.] - -[165] For a part of the distance across Kiūshiū (or Shimo), different -routes were taken in the first and second of Kämpfer’s journeys. In -the first he crossed the gulf of Ōmura; in the second, the gulf of -Shimabara, these two gulfs enclosing the peninsula of Ōmura, the one on -the north, the other on the east. - -[166] The distance is reckoned by the Japanese at three hundred and -thirty-two to three hundred and thirty-three leagues; but these -Japanese leagues are of unequal length, varying from eighteen thousand -to about thirteen thousand feet, and the water-leagues generally -shorter than those by land in the proportion of five to three. Kämpfer -makes the whole distance two hundred German or about eight hundred -English miles. - -[167] Three or four inches thick (according to Thunberg), and made of -rushes and rice straw. - -[168] Japanese feet, that is, for, according to Klaproth (“Annales -des Emp. du Japon”) page 404, note, the _ken_ is equal to seven feet -four inches and a half, Rhineland (which does not differ much from our -English) measure. - -[169] These windows are of light frames, which may be taken out, -and put in, and slid behind each other at pleasure, divided into -parallelograms like our panes of glass, and covered with paper. Glass -windows are unknown. - -[170] Thunberg says, “tiles of a singular make, very thick and heavy.” - -[171] In a Japanese map brought home by Kämpfer the number of castles -in the whole empire is set down at a hundred and forty-six. - -[172] The whole number of towns in the empire, great and small, is set -down in the above-mentioned map at more than thirteen thousand. - -[173] Kämpfer’s meaning seems to be only that the Shintō priests were -not monks living together in convents, like the Buddhist clergy, but -having houses and families of their own. - -[174] According to a memorandum annexed to the Japanese map already -mentioned, there were in Japan twenty-seven thousand seven hundred Kami -temples, one hundred and twenty-two thousand five hundred and eighty -Buddhist temples, in all forty-nine thousand two hundred and eighty. -By the census of 1850, there were in the United States thirty-eight -thousand one hundred and eighty-three buildings used for religious -worship. - -It would appear that though the Shintō temples did not want worshippers -who freely contributed alms to the support of the priests, yet that -since the abolition of the Catholic worship, and as a sort of security -against it, every Japanese was required to enroll himself as belonging -to some Buddhist sect or observance. - -[175] These oharai, or indulgence-boxes, are little boxes made of thin -boards and filled with small sticks wrapped in bits of white paper. -Great virtues are ascribed to them, but a new one is necessary every -year. 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*/ - position: absolute; - left: 92%; - font-size: smaller; - text-align: right; -} /* page numbers */ - -div.hangsection p {text-indent: -3em; margin-left: 3em;} - -.blockquot { - margin-left: 5%; - margin-right: 10%; -} - -.box {margin: 17.5%; - padding-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em; - border: solid 2px; font-size: 85%;} - -.center {text-align: center;} - -.right {text-align: right;} - -.smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} -.allsmcap {font-variant: small-caps; text-transform: lowercase;} - -.small {font-size: small;} - - -/* Images */ - -img {border: none; max-width: 100%} -.caption {font-size: smaller; font-weight: bold;} - -.figcenter { - margin: auto; - text-align: center; - page-break-inside: avoid; - max-width: 100%; -} - -/* Footnotes */ - - .footnotes {border: dashed 1px;} - - .footnote { - margin-left: 10%; - margin-right: 10%; - font-size: 0.9em; - } - -.footnote .label { - position: absolute; - right: 84%; - text-align: right; - } - -.fnanchor { - vertical-align: super; - font-size: .8em; - text-decoration: none; - white-space: nowrap - } - - -/* Transcriber's notes */ - -.transnote { - background-color: #E6E6FA; - color: black; - font-size:smaller; - padding:0.5em; - margin-bottom:5em; - font-family:sans-serif, serif; - } - -/* Illustration classes */ -.illowp100 {width: 100%;} -.illowp20 {width: 20%;} -.x-ebookmaker .illowp80 {width: 100%;} -.illowp90 {width: 90%;} -.x-ebookmaker .illowp90 {width: 100%;} - - - </style> - </head> -<body> - -<div style='text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; font-weight:bold'>The Project Gutenberg eBook of Hildreth's "Japan as it was and is", Volume I (of 2), by Richard Hildreth</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online -at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you -are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the -country where you are located before using this eBook. -</div> - -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: Hildreth's "Japan as it was and is", Volume I (of 2)</p> -<p style='display:block; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:0;'>A Handbook of Old Japan</p> - -<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: Richard Hildreth</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Editor: Ernest W. Clement</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Contributor: W. M. Elliot Griffis</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: December 9, 2021 [eBook #66913]</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Character set encoding: UTF-8</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Produced by: MFR, Les Galloway and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive)</div> - -<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HILDRETH'S "JAPAN AS IT WAS AND IS", VOLUME I (OF 2) ***</div> - -<div class="transnote"> - -<h3>Transcriber’s Notes</h3> - -<p>Obvious typographical errors have been silently corrected. -Variations in hyphenation have been standardised but all other spelling -and punctuation remains unchanged.</p> - -<p>On page 168, 2nd paragraph of Chapter XIX, refers to a Papal Bull -promulgated by Pope Clement VII in 1860. This has been corrected to -Pope Clement VIII who was pope when the Bull was promulgated in 1600. -</p> - -<p>There are a number of footnote references to an Appendix which is -not included in this edition. The first of these are footnotes 1 and 2, -which are linked, but subsequent references are marked by an unlinked -[1}.</p> - -<p>Volume II contains a complete index to both volumes. This has been -copied into this volume.</p> - -</div> -<div class="chapter"></div> - - -<p class="half-title"> -“JAPAN AS IT WAS AND IS”<br /> - -A HANDBOOK OF OLD JAPAN<br /> - -I</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="box"> -<p class="center"><i>Uniform with this Work</i></p> - - -<p class="hang">A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN.<br /> - -By <span class="smcap">Ernest W. Clement</span>. With two<br /> -maps and seventy-two illustrations<br /> from -photographs. <i>Sixth edition.</i><br /> Price, -$1.40 <i>net.</i></p> - -<p class="center"> -<span class="smcap">A. C. McClurg & Co.</span><br /> -<i>Chicago</i></p> -</div> - -<div class="chapter"></div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp90" id="i_frontis" style="max-width: 76.4375em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/i_frontis.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Image of Date Masamune</span></div> -</div> - - - - -<h1> -<span class="smcap">Hildreth’s<br /> -“Japan as it Was and Is”</span><br /> - -<small>A HANDBOOK OF OLD JAPAN</small></h1> - -<p class="center small"> -EDITED, WITH SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES, BY</p> - -<p class="center">ERNEST W. CLEMENT<br /> -<br /> -<small>AUTHOR OF “A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN,” ETC.</small></p> - -<p class="center small space-above"> -INTRODUCTION BY</p> - -<p class="center">WM. ELLIOT GRIFFIS</p> - -<p class="center small"><i>With One Hundred Illustrations and Maps</i></p> - -<p class="center small"><span class="smcap">Volume I</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp20" id="i_title" style="max-width: 9.375em;"> - <img src="images/i_title.png" alt="publisher’s device" /> -</div> - - -<p class="center">CHICAGO<br /> -A. C. McCLURG & CO.<br /> -1906</p> - - -<p class="center small space-above"> -<span class="smcap">Copyright<br /> -A. C. McClurg & Co.</span><br /> -1906</p> - -<p class="center small">Published September 29, 1906</p> - -<p class="center small">THE UNIVERSITY PRESS, CAMBRIDGE, U.S.A.<br /> -</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_v">[Pg v]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CONTENTS">CONTENTS</h2> -</div> - -<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Volume I.</span></p> - -<table class="standard" summary=""> -<tr> -<td></td><td></td> -<td class="tdr"><span class="smcap small">Page</span></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap"><a href="#ADVERTISEMENT">“Advertisement” to Original Edition</a>.</span></td> -<td class="tdr"><span class="smcap">Richard Hildreth</span></td> -<td class="tdr">xiii</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap"><a href="#EDITORS_INTRODUCTION">Editor’s Introduction</a></span></td> -<td class="tdr"><span class="smcap">Ernest W. Clement</span></td> -<td class="tdr">xix</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap"><a href="#FOREWORD">Foreword</a></span></td> -<td class="tdr"><span class="smcap">Wm. Elliot Griffis</span></td> -<td class="tdr">xxv</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap"><a href="#JAPANESE_PRONUNCIATION">Japanese Pronunciation</a></span></td> -<td></td> -<td class="tdr">xxxi</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="3"><a href="#CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdh" colspan="2">Earliest European Knowledge of Japan—Japanese Histories—Marco -Polo’s Account of the Mongol or Tartar Invasion—Accounts -of the Same Event given by the Chinese and Japanese Annalists—A. D. 1281 or 1283</td> -<td class="tdrb">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="3"><a href="#CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdh" colspan="2">Portuguese Empire in the East—Discovery of Japan—Galvano’s -Account of it—Fernam Mendez Pinto’s Account of his First -Visit to Japan, and Adventures there—Japanese Account of -the First Arrival of Portuguese—A. D. 1542-1545</td> -<td class="tdrb">11</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="3"><a href="#CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdh" colspan="2">Pinto’s Second Visit to Japan—Anjirō, or Paul of the Holy - Faith—A. D. 1547-1548</td> -<td class="tdrb">34</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="3"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdh" colspan="2">Religious Faith Three Centuries ago—Zeal of the Portuguese -Conquerors—Antonio Galvano—Missionary Seminaries at -Ternate and Goa—Order of the Jesuits—Francis Xavier—His -Mission to India—His Mission to Japan—His Companion, -Cosme de Torres—The Philippine Islands—A. D. 1542-1550</td> -<td class="tdrb">40 -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_vi">[Pg vi]</span></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="3"><a href="#CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdh" colspan="2">Political and Religious Condition of Japan, as found by the Portuguese—The -Yakatas, or Kings, and their Vassals—Revenues—Money—Distinction -of Ranks—The Kubō-Sama—The -Dairi—Shintō—Buddhism—Judō—A. D. 1550</td> -<td class="tdrb">57</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="3"><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdh" colspan="2">Civilization of the -Japanese—Animals—Agriculture—Arts—Houses—Ships—Literature—Jurisprudence—Character -of the Japanese—Their Custom of cutting themselves open—A. D. 1550</td> -<td class="tdrb">75</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="3"><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdh" colspan="2">Preaching of Xavier—Pinto’s Third Visit to Japan—A. D. 1550-1551</td> -<td class="tdrb">81</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="3"><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">CHAPTER VIII</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdh" colspan="2">Progress of the Missions under Fathers De Torres and Nugnes -Barreto—Mendez Pinto a Fourth Time in Japan—A. D. 1551-1557</td> -<td class="tdrb">87</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="3"><a href="#CHAPTER_IX">CHAPTER IX</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdh" colspan="2">Louis Almeida—The Missionaries establish themselves at Miyako -[Kyōtō]—Louis Froez—Princes converted in Shimo—Rise -of Nobunaga—Prosperity of the Missions—Noble and Princely -Converts—Nagasaki built—Nobunaga makes himself Emperor—A. D. 1557-1577</td> -<td class="tdrb">93</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="3"><a href="#CHAPTER_X">CHAPTER X</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdh" colspan="2">Father Valignani—State of the Missions—Conversion and Baptism -of the King of Bungo—Growth of Nagasaki—Embassy -to the Pope—Documents relating to this Embassy—A. D. 1577-1586</td> -<td class="tdrb">100</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="3"><a href="#CHAPTER_XI">CHAPTER XI</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdh" colspan="2">Events meanwhile in Japan—Downfall of Nobunaga—Accession -of Hashiba, afterwards known as Kwambacudono, and, finally, -as Taikō-Sama—Edict against the Jesuits—Return of the -Ambassadors—A. D. 1582-1588</td> -<td class="tdrb">116<span class="pagenum" id="Page_vii">[Pg vii]</span></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="3"><a href="#CHAPTER_XII">CHAPTER XII</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdh" colspan="2">Recapitulation—Extent of the Japanese Empire—Valignani -arrives at Nagasaki—Progress hitherto of the Catholic Faith—The -Emperor’s Projects against China—Valignani’s Visit to -the Emperor at Miyako—Ukondono—The returned Japanese -Ambassadors—Audience given to Valignani—The Viceroy’s -Letter—The Interpreter Rodriguez—A. D. 1588-1593</td> -<td class="tdrb">123</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="3"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIII">CHAPTER XIII</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdh" colspan="2">New Troubles of the Missionaries from their own Countrymen—The -Emperor claims Homage of the Governor of the Philippines—Mutual -Jealousies of the Portuguese and Spaniards—Spanish -Adventurers in Japan—The Emperor’s Suspicions -excited—His Reply to the Viceroy of Goa—A. D. 1591-1592</td> -<td class="tdrb">134</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="3"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIV">CHAPTER XIV</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdh" colspan="2">The Expedition against Corea—The Emperor associates his -Nephew—City of Fushimi—Correspondence of the Emperor -with the Governor of Manila—The Jesuits denounced by -the Spanish Envoys—Consequences thereof—Departure of -Valignani—A. D. 1592</td> -<td class="tdrb">140</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="3"><a href="#CHAPTER_XV">CHAPTER XV</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdh" colspan="2">Progress of the Corean War—Success of the Japanese—Konishi -Settsu-no-Kami, Viceroy of Corea—Edict of the Emperor for disarming -the Converts in Shimo—Disgrace and Downfall of the -Royal Family of Bungo—Terazawa, Governor of Nagasaki—His -Conversion and Friendly Acts—A. D. 1592-1593</td> -<td class="tdrb">144</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="3"><a href="#CHAPTER_XVI">CHAPTER XVI</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdh" colspan="2">Jealousy on the Part of the Dominicans and Franciscans towards -Jesuits—This Jealousy coöperates with the Mercantile Jealousy -of the Spaniards at Manila—Franciscan Friars establish themselves -at Miyako, Ōsaka, and Nagasaki—Edicts against them—Deposition -and Death of the Emperor’s Nephew—A. D. 1593-1595</td> -<td class="tdrb">147</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="3"><a href="#CHAPTER_XVII">CHAPTER XVII</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdh" colspan="2">Great Earthquake—Mission from China—Arrival of a Spanish -Galleon—Friars on Board her—New Accusations on her Account -against the Jesuits—Connection of the Jesuits with the -Trade to Japan—Arrest of Missionaries and Converts—First -Martyrs—A. D. 1595-1597</td> -<td class="tdrb">151 -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_viii">[Pg viii]</span></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="3"><a href="#CHAPTER_XVIII">CHAPTER XVIII</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdh" colspan="2">New Edict for the Deportation of the Jesuits—Its Partial Evasion—New -Correspondence between the Philippines and Japan—Taikō-Sama’s -Justification of his Recent Proceedings—New -Destruction of Churches in Shimo—Taikō-Sama’s Death—His -Preceding Efforts to secure his own Deification and the Succession -of his Infant Son, Hideyori—Regency—Iyeyasu, its -Head, with the Title of Daifu-Sama—A. D. 1597-1599</td> -<td class="tdrb">158</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="3"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIX">CHAPTER XIX</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdh" colspan="2">Evacuation of Corea—Return of the Converted Princes—Favorable -Disposition of Daifu-Sama—Third Visit of Father -Valignani—Civil War between Daifu-Sama and his Co-Regents—His -Triumph—Disgrace and Execution of Settsu-no-Kami—Daifu-Sama -takes the Title of Ōgosho-Sama and still -favors the Converts—Influx of Dominican and Franciscan Friars—Flourishing -Condition of the Church—Local Persecutions—A. D. 1599-1609</td> -<td class="tdrb">162</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="3"><a href="#CHAPTER_XX">CHAPTER XX</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdh" colspan="2">Attempt of the English and Dutch to discover a New Route to the -Far East—Voyages round the World—Attempted English -Voyage to Japan—English and Dutch Voyages to India—First -Dutch Voyage to Japan—Adams, the English Pilot—His -Adventures and Detention in Japan—A. D. 1513-1607</td> -<td class="tdrb">166</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="3"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXI">CHAPTER XXI</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdh" colspan="2">Spanish Friars in Japan—Extension of Japanese Trade—Progress -of the Dutch in the Eastern Seas—They open a Trade -with Japan—Emperor’s Letter—Shipwreck of Don Rodrigo -de Vivero on the Japanese Coast—His Reception, Observations, -and Departure—Destruction of a Portuguese Carac by -the Japanese—Another Dutch Ship arrives—Spex’s Charter—Embassies -from Macao and New Spain—Father Louis -Sotelo and his Projects—A. D. 1607-1618</td> -<td class="tdrb">179</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="3"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXII">CHAPTER XXII</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdh" colspan="2">Origin and Commencement of English Intercourse with Japan—Captain -Saris’ Voyage thither, and Travels and Observations -there—New Spanish Embassy from the Philippines—Commercial -Rivalry of the Dutch and English—Richard Cocks, -Head of the English Factory—A. D. 1611-1613</td> -<td class="tdrb">206 <span class="pagenum" id="Page_ix">[Pg ix]</span></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="3"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXIII">CHAPTER XXIII</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdh" colspan="2">Ecclesiastical Retrospect—New Persecution—Edict of Banishment -against the Missionaries—Civil War between Hideyori -and Ōgosho-Sama—Triumph of Ōgosho-Sama—His Death—Persecution -more Violent than ever—Mutual Rancor of the -Jesuits and the Friars—Progress of Martyrdom—The English -and Dutch—A. D. 1613-1620</td> -<td class="tdrb">227</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="3"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXIV">CHAPTER XXIV</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdh" colspan="2">Collisions of the Dutch and English in the Eastern Seas—The -English retire from Japan—The Spaniards repelled—Progress -of the Persecution—Japanese Ports, except Hirado and -Nagasaki, closed to Foreigners—Charges in Europe against -the Jesuits—Fathers Sotelo and Collado—Torment of the -Fosse—Apostasies—The Portuguese confined to Deshima—Rebellion -of Shimabara—The Portuguese excluded—Ambassadors -put to Death—A. D. 1621-1640</td> -<td class="tdrb">236</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="3"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXV">CHAPTER XXV</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdh" colspan="2">Policy of the Dutch—Affair of Nuyts—Haganaar’s Visits to -Japan—Caron’s Account of Japan—Income of the Emperor -and the Nobles—Military Force—Social and Political Position -of the Nobles—Justice—Relation of the Dutch to the Persecution -of the Catholics—The Dutch removed from Hirado and -confined in Deshima—Attempts of the English, Portuguese, -and French at Intercourse with Japan—Final Extinction of -the Catholic Faith—A. D. 1620-1707</td> -<td class="tdrb">251</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="3"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXVI">CHAPTER XXVI</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdh" colspan="2">Portuguese Trade to Japan—Dutch Trade—Silver, Gold, and -Copper the Chief Articles of Export—Export of Silver prohibited—Chinese -Trade—Its Increase after the Accession of -the Manchu Dynasty—Chinese Temples at Nagasaki—A -Buddhist Doctor from China—Edict on the Subject of Household -Worship—Restrictions on the Dutch Trade—Increase -in the Number of Chinese Visitors to Nagasaki—Their Objects—Restrictions -on the Chinese Trade—The Chinese shut up in -a Factory—Trade with Lew Chew [Riūkiū]—A. D. 1542-1690</td> -<td class="tdrb">269 -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_x">[Pg x]</span></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="3"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXVII">CHAPTER XXVII</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdh" colspan="2">Engelbert Kämpfer—His Visit to Japan—Deshima and its -Inhabitants as described by him—A. D. 1690</td> -<td class="tdrb">282</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="3"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXVIII">CHAPTER XXVIII</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdh" colspan="2">Particular Statement as to the Dutch Trade as it existed in -Kämpfer’s Time—Arrival of the Ships—Unlading—Passes—Imports—Company -and Private Goods—Kambans, or -Public Sales—Duties—Profits—Exports—Departure of -the Ships—Smuggling—Execution of Smugglers</td> -<td class="tdrb">316</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="3"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXIX">CHAPTER XXIX</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdh" colspan="2">Nagasaki and its Vicinity as seen by Kämpfer—Imperial Governors—Their -Officers and Palaces—Municipal System—Street -Government—Mutual Responsibility—Administration -of Justice—Taxes—Government of other Towns—Adjacent -Country—The God Suwa and his Matsuri—A. D. 1690-1692</td> -<td class="tdrb">337</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="3"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXX">CHAPTER XXX</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdh" colspan="2">Kämpfer’s Two Journeys to Court—Preparations—Presents—Japanese -Attendants—Packing the Baggage and Riding on -Horseback—Japanese Love of Botany—Accoutrements—Road-Books—Norimono -and Kago—A. D. 1690-1692</td> -<td class="tdrb">366</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="3"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXXI">CHAPTER XXXI</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdh" colspan="2">Highways—Rivers—Fords—Ferries—Bridges—Water Part -of the Journey—Coast and Islands—Frail Structure of -Japanese Vessels—Description of them—Buildings on the -Route—Proclamation Places—Places of Execution—Tera, -or Buddhist Temples—Miya, or Shintō Temples—Idols and -Amulets</td> -<td class="tdrb">380</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan ="3"><a href="#INDEX">INDEX</a></td> -</tr> -</table> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xi">[Pg xi]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS">LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</h2> -</div> - -<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Volume I.</span></p> - - -<table class="standard" summary=""> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdr"><span class="smcap small">Page</span></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Image of Date Masamune</td> -<td class="tdr"><i><a href="#i_frontis">Frontispiece</a></i></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">The Invasion of the Mongol Tartars</td> -<td class="tdrb"><a href="#i_002">2</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Entrance to the Temple of Jimmu Tennō</td> -<td class="tdrb"><a href="#i_008">8</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Portrait of St. Francis Xavier, One of the Earliest Missionaries to -Japan</td> -<td class="tdrb"><a href="#i_042">42</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Image of Yoritomo</td> -<td class="tdrb"><a href="#i_064">64</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Ise Temple</td> -<td class="tdrb"><a href="#i_068">68</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">A Shintō Priest</td> -<td class="tdrb"><a href="#i_070">70</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Pilgrims returning from a Temple</td> -<td class="tdrb"><a href="#i_072">72</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">A Buddhist Sermon</td> -<td class="tdrb"><a href="#i_074">74</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Performance of Harakiri</td> -<td class="tdrb"><a href="#i_078f">78</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">The Kintai Bridge, Snō</td> -<td class="tdrb"><a href="#i_090f">90</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Image of Oda Nobunaga</td> -<td class="tdrb"><a href="#i_096f">96</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Painting of Taikō-Sama</td> -<td class="tdrb"><a href="#i_124f">124</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">The Expedition against Corea</td> -<td class="tdrb"><a href="#i_140f">140</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Feudal Strongholds: Himeji Castle; Nagoya Castle</td> -<td class="tdrb"><a href="#i_160fa">160</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Image of Iyeyasu</td> -<td class="tdrb"><a href="#i_164f">164</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Temple of Hideyoshi, Kyōtō</td> -<td class="tdrb"><a href="#i_182f">182</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">A Scene in the Palace Gardens, Kyōtō</td> -<td class="tdrb"><a href="#i_196f">196</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Performers on the Koto and the Samisen</td> -<td class="tdrb"><a href="#i_212f">212</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">The Tomb of Iyeyasu, Nikkō</td> -<td class="tdrb"><a href="#i_230f">230</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Facsimile of an Anti-Christian Edict</td> -<td class="tdrb"><a href="#i_242f">242</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Dutch Candelabrum at Nikkō</td> -<td class="tdrb"><a href="#i_256f">256</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Attack on Fort Zeelandia in Formosa</td> -<td class="tdrb"><a href="#i_302f">302</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Nagasaki Harbor</td> -<td class="tdrb"><a href="#i_312f">312</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Examination of a Prisoner by Torture</td> -<td class="tdrb"><a href="#i_354f">354</a> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xii">[Pg xii]</span></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Festival with Mikoshi</td> -<td class="tdrb"><a href="#i_358f">358</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Musical Instruments: Two Styles of Drums; A Flute-player</td> -<td class="tdrb"><a href="#i_362fa">362</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Transportation Methods: A Buddhist Priest in a Norimono;</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Ancient Imperial Carriages; Lady in a Kago</td> -<td class="tdrb"><a href="#i_366f">366</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">A Bridge spanning the River Ōigawa; View of Fujikawa</td> -<td class="tdrb"><a href="#i_378f">378</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">The River Ōi</td> -<td class="tdrb"><a href="#i_384f">384</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Japanese Craft: Sailboats; Rowboats; Junks</td> -<td class="tdrb"><a href="#i_386fa">386</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">A Merchant Ship</td> -<td class="tdrb"><a href="#i_390f">390</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">A Dry-goods Shop</td> -<td class="tdrb"><a href="#i_396f">396</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">MAPS</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Sketch Map of Old Japan</td> -<td class="tdrb"><a href="#i_1">1</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Map of Feudal Japan</td> -<td class="tdrb"><a href="#i_272">272</a></td> -</tr> -</table> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xiii">[Pg xiii]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="ADVERTISEMENT">ADVERTISEMENT<br /> - -<small>TO ORIGINAL EDITION</small></h2></div> - - -<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">In</span> collecting materials for a biography of the first -explorers and planters of New England and Virginia, -I was carried to Japan, where I happened to arrive -(in the spirit) almost simultaneously with Commodore -Perry’s expedition. My interest thus roused in this -secluded country has produced this book, into which -I have put the cream skimmed, or, as I might say, in -some cases, the juices laboriously expressed, from a good -many volumes, the greater part not very accessible nor -very inviting to the general reader, but still containing -much that is curious and entertaining, and, to most -readers, new; which curiosities, novelties, and palatable -extracts, those who choose will thus be enabled to enjoy -without the labor that I have undergone in their collection -and arrangement—the former, indeed, a labor -of love for my own satisfaction; the latter, one of duty—not -to say of necessity—for the pleasure of the -reading and book-buying public.</p> - -<p>Instead of attempting, as others have done, to cast -into a systematic shape observations of very different -dates, I have preferred to follow the historic method, -and to let the reader see Japan with the successive<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xiv">[Pg xiv]</span> -eyes of all those who have visited it, and who have -committed their observations and reflections to paper -and print. The number of these observers, it will be -found, is very considerable; while their characters, -objects, and points of view, have been widely different; -and perhaps the reader may reach the same conclusion -that I have: that, with all that is said of the seclusion -of Japan, there are few countries of the East which we -have the means of knowing better, or so well.</p> - -<p>The complete history of the Portuguese, Spanish, and -Dutch relations with the Japanese is not to be found -elsewhere in English; nor in any language, in a single -work; while in no other book have the English and -American relations been so fully treated. Many extraordinary -characters and adventures make their appearance -on the scene, and the reader will have no -ground to complain at least of want of variety.</p> - -<p>How little the history of Japan and of its former -relations with Portugal and Holland are known—even -in quarters where information on the subject might -be said to constitute an official duty—is apparent in -the following passage in a letter addressed from the -State Department at Washington to the Secretary of -the Navy, in explanation of the grounds, reasons, and -objects, of our late mission to Japan, and intended as -instruction to the envoy: “Since the islands of Japan -were first visited by European nations, efforts have -<i>constantly</i> been made by the various maritime powers -to establish commercial intercourse with a country -whose large population and reputed wealth hold out -great temptations to mercantile enterprise. Portugal -was the first to make the attempt, and her example -was followed by Holland, England, Spain, and Russia,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xv">[Pg xv]</span> -and finally by the United States. <i>All these attempts, -however, have thus far been unsuccessful</i>; the permission -enjoyed for a short period by the Portuguese, and that -granted to Holland <i>to send annually a single vessel</i> to -the port of Nagasaki, hardly deserving to be considered -exceptions to this remark.”</p> - -<p>From Kämpfer, whose name has become so identified -with Japan, but into whose folios few have the opportunity -or courage to look, I have made very liberal -extracts. Few travellers have equalled him in picturesque -power. His descriptions have indeed the -completeness, and finish, and, at the same time, the -naturalness, and absence of all affectation, with much of -the same quiet humor, characteristic of the best Dutch -pictures. I have preferred to introduce entire the work -of such an artist, rather than to run the risk of spoiling -it by attempting a paraphrase; only, as I had so -many other volumes on hand, the substance, or at least -the spirit, of which was to be transferred to mine, and -as folios are no longer in fashion, I have found it necessary -in quoting him to retrench a little the superabundance -of his words. It is from his work also that -the ornamental title-page<a id="FNanchor_1" href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> is copied, stated by his editor -to be after a style fashionable in Japan, where dragons -are held in great repute. Kämpfer says, that heads of -these imaginary animals are placed over the doors of -houses all over the East—among the Mahometans -of Arabia and Persia, as well as in China and Japan—to -keep off, as the Mahometans say, the envious from -disturbing the peace of families. Perhaps the Japanese -authors surround their title-pages with them in hopes to -frighten away the critics.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xvi">[Pg xvi]</span></p> - -<p>The outline map,<span class="fnanchor">[1]</span> copied principally from that given -in the atlas of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful -Knowledge, contains, with the observations annexed to -it, and the note H[1] of the appendix, about all that we -know of the geography of Japan—all at least that -would interest the general reader. The contour of the -coast is that delineated in our sea-charts, and though -probably not very correct, is much more so than that -of the Japanese maps; which, however large and particular, -are not much to be relied upon, at least in this -respect. The division into provinces of course rests -upon Japanese authority.</p> - -<p>In giving Japanese names and words, I have aimed -at a certain uniformity; but, like all other writers on -Japan, have failed to attain it. The Portuguese missionaries, -or at least their translators into Latin, in -representing Japanese names, employed <i>c</i> with the force -of <i>k</i> before the vowels <i>a</i>, <i>o</i>, and <i>u</i>, and with the force -of <i>s</i> before <i>e</i> and <i>i</i>; which same sound of <i>s</i>, in common -with that of <i>ts</i>, they sometimes represented by <i>x</i>. In -the earlier part of the book I have, in relation to several -names known only, or chiefly, through these writers, -followed their usage; though generally, in the representation -of Japanese names and words, I have avoided -the use of these ambiguous letters, and have endeavored -to conform to the method of representing the Japanese -syllables proposed by Siebold, and of which an account -is given in the Appendix.<a id="FNanchor_2" href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p> - -<p>The daguerreotype views and portraits taken by the -artists attached to Commodore Perry’s expedition, the -publication of which may soon be hoped for, will afford<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xvii">[Pg xvii]</span> -much more authentic pictures of the externals of Japan -than yet have appeared; and, from the limited stay and -opportunities of observation enjoyed by those attached -to that expedition, must constitute their chief contribution -to our knowledge of the Japanese empire.</p> - -<p class="psig">R. H.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap small">Boston</span>, June 1st, 1855.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xix">[Pg xix]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="EDITORS_INTRODUCTION">EDITOR’S INTRODUCTION</h2> -</div> - - -<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">Hildreth’s</span> “Japan as it Was and Is” was -published in three editions,—in 1855, 1856, and -1861. In the last edition a new chapter was -added to bring the book down to that date. The value -of the book, as a compilation from all the important -European writings on Old Japan, has always been acknowledged, -but has been somewhat diminished by the -various old-fashioned styles of transliteration, which -rendered many Japanese words difficult of recognition. -Therefore the present writer, more than ten years ago, -conceived the idea of a revision of Hildreth’s work, -especially by harmonizing the spelling of Japanese -words with the modern system of Romanization, and by -adding such other notes and explanations as might -be necessary. This he has been doing gradually, as -leisure afforded opportunity. In the meantime Mr. -K. Murakawa, an alumnus of the Imperial University, -Tōkyō, has issued, in two small limited editions, in 1902 -and 1905, a reprint somewhat along that line. But as -his work was done with the needs of Japanese in view, -it does not entirely satisfy the needs of foreigners. The -present writer acknowledges his indebtedness to Mr. -Murakawa in some points, but he had done almost all -his work before he saw the Japanese edition. He now -offers an edition which is not merely a reprint, but -also a revision, and is well illustrated. Of course the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xx">[Pg xx]</span> -text of the original has been followed as closely as -possible, and yet not only additions, but also excisions, -have been made whenever necessary. For instance, -some of the footnotes and several of the long notes -in the Appendix have been omitted because they have -become either wholly or comparatively valueless. The -writer’s additional notes are signed “Edr.,” and where -Mr. Murakawa’s notes have been used the initials -“K. M.” are signed.</p> - -<p>Mr. Murakawa says that Hildreth’s book “contains -many errors,” because it was “written by an <i>author</i> -who was not in a position to avail himself of the -Japanese sources, at a <i>time</i> when Japan was yet closed -against foreign intercourse, and at a <i>place</i> far away -from Japan.” This statement is partly true but somewhat -unjust, because it fails to take into consideration -the fact that Hildreth’s work is chiefly a compilation, -including lengthy quotations, from <i>authors</i> who did avail -themselves as much as possible of Japanese sources, -at the very <i>time</i> when they themselves were living in -the very <i>place</i>, Japan itself. But these writers were, -of course, far from infallible and made errors of fact -or inference which Hildreth followed. And yet it is -really remarkable that, with so many limitations and -hindrances, they gained so good an insight into Japanese -life.</p> - -<p>It goes without saying that the present editor has -not attempted to correct all the errors of details,—a -task which would be as impossible as unprofitable. He -has corrected the most flagrant mistakes so far as he -has discovered them, but he may have overlooked errors -needing attention. He would here call special attention -to a few mistakes which were so frequent and so closely<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xxi">[Pg xxi]</span> -interwoven in the narrative as to render correction -impracticable. The word “Nippon,” which is really the -name of the whole country, is applied by the old writers -to the main island, the real name of which is Hondo. -The word “Emperor” almost always refers to the -Shōgun, while the true Emperor is mentioned under -the name of “Dairi.”</p> - -<p>It is quite likely that the transliteration of Japanese -words is not absolutely uniform, even in this revision. -There is still difference of opinion among the best -authorities on some points. But in this book there is -not so much variety as to be confusing. On this subject -see also the Introduction to the editor’s “Handbook -of Modern Japan.”</p> - -<p>A word of explanation may be needed concerning -some of the illustrations of Japanese manners and customs. -They are produced, of course, from modern -photographs; but as there has been comparatively little -change in those particulars, the illustrations practically -represent the olden times under consideration in this -volume.</p> - -<p>The map in the original was so crude and inaccurate -that it was not worth reproducing; therefore an entirely -new map has been prepared to show Japan as it was -during those days. In the map of Sakhalin a dotted -line shows also the present division of the island between -Russia and Japan, because it was the old one.</p> - -<p>The editor is under obligations to his friend, Dr. -Wm. Elliot Griffis, himself both an author and an -authority on Japan and the Japanese, for his Introduction -to this volume. Dr. Griffis, in “The Mikado’s -Empire,” was the first to give in America a full account -of the land and people of Japan.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xxii">[Pg xxii]</span></p> - -<p>The numerous references here and there and the -bibliographical list in the Appendix ought to add considerably -to the value of this edition. Many of the -old books on Japan are out of print and difficult of -access, but even those are included for the sake of -any who may be so fortunate as to have access thereto. -A few books ought without fail to be read in connection -with this revision, because they give more -accurate information than was possible in Hildreth’s -day. These are “The Mikado’s Empire,” by Griffis, -Rein’s “Japan” and “The Industries of Japan,” -Brinkley’s eight encyclopædic volumes on Japan, and -“History of Japan during the Earlier Century of Foreign -Intercourse (1542-1651)” by Murdock and Yamagata. -Frequent references have been made to the valuable -papers in the Transactions of the Asiatic Society of -Japan, which are easily accessible in whole or in -parts.</p> - -<p>The bibliography is not complete, but contains the -most important works in English. More extensive and -specific bibliographies may be found in the editor’s -“Handbook of Modern Japan,” Chamberlain’s “Things -Japanese,” and especially Wenckstern’s (revised) -“Bibliography of Japan.” Poole’s Index is also valuable. -In the bibliography of this edition of Hildreth -it has not been practicable, in all cases, to distinguish -exactly between Old Japan and New Japan. There is -still so much of the old remaining in this transition -period that some writings of modern days may describe -quite accurately conditions of olden days. With the -increased facilities of the present it is possible to understand -better the old conditions, especially as they were -stereotyped for several centuries.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xxiii">[Pg xxiii]</span></p> - -<p>The original title of Hildreth’s work, “Japan as it -Was and Is,” was proper in 1855 and 1856, but it is -rather unsuitable in its entirety fifty years later. -However, this revision of Hildreth, together with the -editor’s “Handbook of Modern Japan,” may not unwarrantably -be considered to cover <i>Japan as it Was -and Is</i>.</p> - -<p class="psig">ERNEST WILSON CLEMENT.</p> - -<p class="small"><span class="smcap ">Tōkyō</span>, July 1, 1906.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xxv">[Pg xxv]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="FOREWORD">FOREWORD<br /> - -<small>BY THE AUTHOR OF “THE MIKADO’S EMPIRE”</small></h2></div> - - -<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">The</span> first American teacher in Echizen (1870-1872) -feels honored at the request of the first -American teacher in Mito (1887-1891) to write -for his revised and annotated edition of Hildreth’s -“Japan” a few words concerning the author and his -book and his most recent editor’s work. In the days of -Townsend Harris and the premier Ii (1858), the feudal -lords of Mito and Echizen, besides being blood relatives, -had misunderstandings with the Yedo authorities, and, -with unswerving loyalty to the Emperor and the most -patriotic of motives, were linked together in strange -experiences while manifesting a common desire to -promote their country’s good.</p> - -<p>After so long a time the pioneer American educator -in Echizen salutes his fellow-worker who has done so -much to make known to us the illustrious character of -the lords of the house of Mito as patrons of literature -and their unwearied devotion to the Imperial and -national cause. I am sure that we are both proud of -having been the servants of the Japanese people in helping -to bring to pass that vision of Japan’s greatness, -so tangible in A. D. 1906, to which Hildreth looked, -yet died without ever seeing.</p> - -<p>The personality of Richard Hildreth, the historian -of the United States and the unquailing opponent of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xxvi">[Pg xxvi]</span> -African slavery in America, was one of the very first -that appealed to me when my own boyish literary aspirations -were first awakened. His intensely powerful -novel, “Archy Moore,” which had been published in -1837, reprinted in England and again republished in the -United States in 1852, under the title of “The White -Slave,” appeared just when Commodore Matthew C. -Perry was making his preparations to sail for Japan. -Philadelphia was agog with interest about the expedition, -and many of her citizens were keenly interested, -among them my father, John L. Griffis, who, like my -grandfather, Captain John Griffis, had voyaged to the -Philippines, China, and the Far East. He had built -a platform in his coalyard, which directly adjoined the -shiphouse and dock of the United States Navy Yard, -wherein was building the United States steam frigate -“Susquehanna,” which later in Japanese waters became -the flagship of Commodore Perry. It is not so many -miles from the upper waters of this noble river of the -three States, New York, Pennsylvania, and Maryland, -that this “foreword” is written.</p> - -<p>As a little boy, on the morning of April 6, 1850, at -8.35 <span class="allsmcap">A.M.</span>, I saw the graceful “Susquehanna” slide -down the ways, float on the Delaware, and, like a bird -of calm, “sit brooding on the charmèd wave.” I remember -how, when sitting on my father’s knee, he put -me down suddenly to rise and call for “three cheers -for the future of the ‘Susquehanna.’” We could not -then foresee what a noble part the frigate was to play in -the annals of both peace and war. She bore the olive -branch to Japan and she unchained her thunders in the -destruction of slavery.</p> - -<p>Richard Hildreth of Massachusetts, author, journalist,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xxvii">[Pg xxvii]</span> -economist, and historian, was born in 1807. He graduated -from Harvard College in 1826 and studied law -in Newburyport, entering upon practice in Boston. He -left the law for journalism, and, as an editor of the -“Boston Atlas,” lifted up the moral world. In 1834, in -poor health, he went South and, in order to get unbiassed -ideas, lived on a slave plantation to study the workings -of the system of unpaid African labor. It was during -this time that he wrote his famous novel, “Archy Moore, -The White Slave.” Returning North he became, with -pen and voice, the tireless opponent of slavery. From -1840 to 1848 Hildreth lived in Demerara, British -Guiana, editing two newspapers, in which he advocated -the system of free instead of slave labor, writing there -also his “Theory of Morals” and his “Theory of Politics.” -In the perspective of history we can now note clearly -that he was one of the potent forces in destroying -human slavery in America, and in helping, as an ex-Confederate -officer, now president of the first Woman’s -College in the Southern States, told me a few days ago, -“to emancipate eleven million white men.”</p> - -<p>Hildreth’s “History of the United States,” though not -of great literary interest, is an amazingly honest picture -of the real character of the makers of the American -Republic. He shows our fathers without transfiguration -of their virtues or disguise of their faults or errors. -How he came to write his book on Japan is told by -him with sufficient fulness in his own introduction. -Those who know his book best are those who appreciate -it most.</p> - -<p>It was while we were fellow-workers in the Imperial -University in Tokio, from 1872 to 1874, that Mr. Edward -H. House, who afterwards found a grave in the land<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xxviii">[Pg xxviii]</span> -he loved, gave me the details of Hildreth’s life and -personality. Mr. House had been engaged with Mr. -Hildreth on the staff of the “New York Tribune” from -the completion of “Japan as it Was and Is” until the -inauguration of Abraham Lincoln. Instead of appointing -Hildreth as Minister to Japan, Mr. Lincoln did but -follow the precedents of political succession, since Perry, -Harris, Van Valkenburg, and Depew (who declined) -were all citizens of the Empire State, and hence nominated -the Hon. Robert H. Pruyn of Albany. It was my -own beloved professor in Rutgers College, Dr. David -Murray, also a native of New York State, later chief -adviser to the Educational Department in Japan, who -in Tokio first loaned me a copy of Hildreth’s valuable -compilation, and I studied it with care. Notable among -the many benefits which made the volume a boon to -foreign students was the discovery, with its aid, in May, -1872, by Mr. James Walter of Yokohama, of the tomb -of Will Adams at Yokosuka (p. 139).</p> - -<p>Hildreth’s scarcely veiled satire on the ignorance of -the Americans of 1852 concerning Japan in his “advertisement” -is keen. None knew more than he how -steadily the Hollanders had maintained commercial -relations with the Japanese, had fertilized their minds -for over two centuries, and had finally paved the way -for American success.</p> - -<p>In gratitude to Professor Clement for his unwearied -researches and for his work as editor in this new -presentation of the perennially interesting volume of -Hildreth, in commendation of the publishers for issuing -this uniquely valuable work, and in the faith that in its -new dress “Japan as it Was and Is” will receive a -warm welcome at the hands of the American public, we<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xxix">[Pg xxix]</span> -raise our cheer at this hopeful launch on the waters of -literature. How the spirit of Hildreth must rejoice at -free America and free Japan, with slavery and feudalism -gone forever and the two nations in mutually beneficial -rivalry for the uplifting of mankind.</p> - -<p class="psig">WM. ELLIOT GRIFFIS.</p> - -<p class="small"><span class="smcap">Ithaca, N. Y.</span>, July 15, 1906.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xxxi">[Pg xxxi]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="JAPANESE_PRONUNCIATION">JAPANESE PRONUNCIATION</h2> -</div> - - -<table class="standard" summary=""> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"><i>a</i></td> -<td class="tdc">like</td> -<td class="tdc"><i>a</i></td> -<td class="tdc">in</td> -<td class="tdl"><i>father</i></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"><i>e</i></td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -<td class="tdc"><i>e</i></td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -<td class="tdl"><i>men</i></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"><i>i</i></td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -<td class="tdc"><i>i</i></td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -<td class="tdl"><i>pin</i></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"><i>o</i></td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -<td class="tdc"><i>o</i></td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -<td class="tdl"><i>pony</i></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"><i>u</i></td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -<td class="tdc"><i>oo</i></td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -<td class="tdl"><i>book</i></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"><i>ai</i></td> -<td class="tdc" >as in</td> -<td></td> -<td></td> -<td class="tdl"><i>aisle</i></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"><i>ei</i></td> -<td class="tdc" >”</td> -<td></td> -<td></td> -<td class="tdl"><i>weigh</i></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"><i>au</i><br /><i>ō</i></td> -<td class="tdc">as</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2"> <i>o</i> in <i>bone</i></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"><i>ū</i></td> -<td class="tdc">as</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2"><i>oo</i> in <i>moon</i></td> -</tr> -</table> - - -<p><i>i</i> in the middle of a word and <i>u</i> in the middle or at the end of -a word are sometimes almost inaudible.</p> - -<p>The consonants are all sounded, as in English: <i>g</i>, however, has -only the hard sound, as in <i>give</i>, although the nasal <i>ng</i> is often -heard; <i>ch</i> and <i>s</i> are always soft, as in <i>check</i> and <i>sin</i>; and <i>z</i> before -<i>u</i> has the sound of <i>dz</i>. In the case of double consonants, each one -must be given its full sound.</p> - -<p>There are as many syllables as vowels. There is practically -no accent; but care must be taken to distinguish between <i>o</i> and -<i>ō</i>, <i>u</i> and <i>ū</i>, of which the second is more prolonged than the first.</p> - -<p>Be sure to avoid the flat sound of <i>a</i>, which is always pronounced -<i>ah</i>.</p> - -<div class="chapter"></div> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xxxiii">[Pg xxxiii]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_1" style="max-width: 62.5em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/i_1.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Sketch Map of Old Japan</span><br /> -Adapted from map in original edition of Hildreth</div> -</div> -<div class="blockquot"> -<p class="center small"><small>Text within Map</small></p> -<p><small><i>The Japanese islands are studded by lofty volcanic mountains, especially -Nipon, which is traversed through its whole length by a chain which forms the -water shed of the island and the highest peaks of which are covered with perpetual -snow. There are seven active volcanoes, three in Kiusiu and four in -Nipon, besides four other mountains sending out hot springs; along the coast -there are several burning islands, the rivers are numerous but short. The -empire includes eight great subdivisions, called Do, or Ways, viz.: 1. Saikaidō, -west sea way, nine provinces; 2. Nankaido, south sea way, six provinces; 3. -Sanyodo, south mountain way, eight provinces; 4. Sanindo, north mountain way, -eight provinces; 5. Gokinaido, five provinces, imperial domain; 6. Tōkaidō, east -sea way, fifteen provinces; 7. Tosando, east mountain way, eight provinces; -8. Hokurokudo, way of the north districts, seven provinces. Tsu, Iki and Jezo -are not included in this arrangement.</i></small></p> - -<p class="center"><small><i>NOTE</i></small></p> - -<p><small><i>In the pronunciation of Japanese names and -words, and in their representation in European -letters, an n is frequently added at the end of a -syllable; as, Nangasaki for Nagasaki, Fingo for -Figo, etc.</i></small></p> -</div> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</span></p> - -<p class="half-title">JAPAN<br /> - - -<small><span class="smcap">As It Was and Is</span></small></p> - -<hr class="small" /> - - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I</h2> -</div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p class="hang"><i>Earliest European Knowledge of Japan—Japanese Histories—Marco -Polo’s Account of the Mongol or Tartar Invasion—Accounts of the -same Event given by the Chinese and Japanese Annalists, A. D. 1281 -or 1283.</i></p> -</div> - - -<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">The</span> name <span class="smcap">Japan</span>, pronounced in the country itself -<i>Nippon</i> or <i>Nihon</i>, is of Chinese origin—in the -Mandarin dialect <i>Jih-pun</i>, that is, sun-source, or -Eastern Country.</p> - -<p>The first account of Japan, or allusion to its existence, -to be found in any European writer, is contained in the -“Oriental Travels” of the Venetian, Marco Polo, first -reduced to writing in the Latin tongue, about <span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1298, -while the author was detained a prisoner of war at Genoa. -Zipangu, Zipangri, Cyampagu, Cimpagu, as different -editions of his work have it, is his method of representing -the Chinese <i>Jih-pun-quo</i>, sun-source kingdom, or -kingdom of the source of the sun. The Japanese chronicles -go back for many centuries previous; but these -chronicles seem to be little more than a bare list of -names and dates, with some legendary statements interwoven, -of which the authority does not appear very -weighty, nor the historical value very considerable.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</span></p> - -<p>Marco Polo resided for seventeen years (<span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1275-1292) -at the court of Kublai Khan (grandson of the -celebrated Ghingis Khan,) and ruler, from <span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1260 -to <span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1294, over the most extensive empire which -the world has ever seen. This empire stretched across -the breadth of the old continent, from the Japanese, the -Yellow, the Blue, and the China Seas (embosoming the -Caspian and the Black Seas), to the Levant, the Archipelago, -the river Dniester, and beyond it. Not content -with having added Anatolia and Russia to the western -extremity of this vast kingdom,—the Greek empire -being reduced, at this moment, to the vicinage of Constantinople -and the western coasts of the Archipelago,—Kublai -Khan, after completing the conquest of Southern -China, sent an expedition against Japan; in which, however, -the Mongols were no more successful than they had -been in their attempts, a few years before, to penetrate -through Hungary and Poland (which they overran and -ravaged, to the terror of all Europe) in Germany, whence -Teutonic valor repelled them.</p> - -<p>The accounts given by Marco Polo, and by the Chinese -and Japanese annalists, of this expedition, though somewhat -contradictory as to the details, agree well enough -as to the general result. As Marco Polo’s account is -short, as well as curious, we insert it at length, from the -English translation of his travels by Marsden, subjoining -to it the statements which we have of the same event -derived from Chinese and Japanese sources. We may -add that Columbus was greatly stimulated to undertake -his western voyages of discovery by the constant study -of Marco Polo’s travels, confidently expecting to reach -by that route the Cathay and Zipangu of that author—countries -for which he sedulously inquired throughout<span class="pagenum" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</span> -the Archipelago of the West Indies, and along the southern -and western shores of the Caribbean Sea.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_002" style="max-width: 75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/i_002f.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">The Invasion by the Mongol Tartars</span><br /> -<span class="right">From <i>Official History of Japan</i></span></div> -</div> - - -<p>“Zipangu,” says Marco Polo, “is an island in the -eastern ocean, situated at the distance of about fifteen -hundred miles<a id="FNanchor_3" href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> from the mainland, or coast of Manji.<a id="FNanchor_4" href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> -It is of considerable size; its inhabitants have fair complexions, -are well made, and are civilized in their manners. -Their religion is the worship of idols. They -are independent of every foreign power, and governed -only by their own kings. They have gold in the -greatest abundance, its sources being inexhaustible; -but as the king does not allow of its being exported, -few merchants visit the country, nor is it frequented by -much shipping from other parts. To this circumstance -we are to attribute the extraordinary richness of the -sovereign’s palace, according to what we are told by -those who have access to the place. The entire roof is -covered with a plating of gold, in the same manner as -we cover houses, or, more properly, churches, with lead. -The ceilings of the halls are of the same precious metal; -many of the apartments have small tables of pure gold, -considerably thick; and the windows, also, have golden -ornaments. So vast, indeed, are the riches of the palace, -that it is impossible to convey an idea of them. In this -island there are pearls, also, in large quantities, of a -pink color, round in shape, and of great size, equal in -value to white pearls, or even exceeding them. It is -customary with one part of the inhabitants to bury their -dead, and with another part to burn them. The former<span class="pagenum" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</span> -have a practice of putting one of these pearls into the -mouth of the corpse. There are also found there a -number of precious stones.</p> - -<p>“Of so great celebrity was the wealth of this island, -that a desire was excited in the breast of the grand -Khan Kublai, now reigning, to make the conquest of it, -and to annex it to his dominions. In order to effect -this, he fitted out a numerous fleet, and embarked a large -body of troops under the command of two of his principal -officers, one of whom was named Abbacatan, and the -other Vonsancin. The expedition sailed from the ports -of Zaitun and Kinsai,<a id="FNanchor_5" href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> and crossing the intermediate sea, -reached the island in safety; but, in consequence of a -jealousy that arose between the two commanders, one of -whom treated the plans of the other with contempt, and -resisted the execution of his orders, they were unable to -gain possession of any city or fortified place, with the -exception of one only, which was carried by assault, -the garrison having refused to surrender. Directions -were given for putting the whole to the sword, and, in -obedience thereto, the heads of all were cut off except of -eight persons, who, by the efficacy of a diabolical charm, -consisting of a jewel or amulet introduced into the right -arm, between the skin and the flesh, were rendered secure -from the effects of iron either to kill or to wound. -Upon this discovery being made, they were beaten with -a heavy wooden club, and presently died.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</span></p> - -<p>“It happened, after some time, that a north wind -began to blow with great force, and the ships of the -Tartars, which lay near the shore of the island, were -driven foul of each other. It was determined thereupon, -in a council of the officers on board, that they ought to -disengage themselves from the land; and accordingly, as -soon as the troops were disembarked, they stood out to -sea. The gale, however, increased to so violent a degree, -that a number of the vessels foundered. The people -belonging to them, by floating upon pieces of the wreck, -saved themselves upon an island, about four miles from -the coast of Zipangu. The other ships, which, not being -so near to the land, did not suffer from the storm, and -on which the two chiefs were embarked, together with -the principal officers, or those whose rank entitled them -to command a hundred thousand or ten thousand men, -directed their course homeward, and returned to the -grand Khan. Those of the Tartars who remained upon -the island where they were wrecked, and who amounted -to about thirty thousand men, finding themselves without -shipping, abandoned by their leaders, and having -neither arms nor provision, expected nothing less than -to become captives or to perish; especially as the island -afforded no habitations where they could take shelter -and refresh themselves. As soon as the gale ceased, -and the sea became smooth and calm, the people from -the main island of Zipangu came over with a large force, -in numerous boats, in order to make prisoners of these -shipwrecked Tartars; and, having landed, proceeded in -search of them, but in a straggling, disorderly manner. -The Tartars, on their part, acted with prudent circumspection; -and, being concealed from view by some high -land in the centre of the island, whilst the enemy were<span class="pagenum" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</span> -hurrying in pursuit of them by one road, made a circuit -of the coast by another, which brought them to the place -where the fleet of boats was at anchor. Finding these -all abandoned, but with their colors flying, they instantly -seized them; and, pushing off from the island, stood for -the principal city of Zipangu, into which, from the -appearance of the colors, they were suffered to enter -unmolested. Here they found few of the inhabitants -besides women, whom they retained for their own use, -and drove out all others. When the king was apprised -of what had taken place, he was much afflicted, and immediately -gave directions for a strict blockade of the -city, which was so effectual that not any person was -suffered to enter or to escape from it during six months -that the siege continued. At the expiration of this time, -the Tartars, despairing of succor, surrendered upon the -condition of their lives being spared. This event took -place in the course of the year 1264.”<a id="FNanchor_6" href="#Footnote_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a></p> - -<p>The above account Marco Polo no doubt derived from -the Mongols, who endeavored, as far as possible, to gloss -over with romantic and improbable incidents a repulse -that could not be denied. The Chinese annalists, who -have no partiality for their Mongol conquerors, tell a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</span> -much less flattering story. According to their account, -as given by Père Amiot, in his “Mémoires concernant -les Chinois,” the fleet consisted of six hundred ships, -fitted out in the provinces of Kiang-nan, Fou-kien, Ho-nan, -and Chan-tong. The army, sailing from Corea, -landed first on the island of Kuchi [?], whence they proceeded -to that of Tsushima, where they learned that -the Japanese had long been expecting them with a -great army. On approaching the coast of Japan, they -encountered a furious tempest, which sunk their vessels; -so that of the whole army scarcely one or two in -every ten persons escaped.</p> - -<p>In the “Histoire Général de la China,” compiled by -Father Malela from Chinese sources, the story is thus -told: “The sixth month (1281) Alahan set out on the -expedition against Japan; but scarcely had he reached -the port of embarkation when he died. Atahai, appointed -to succeed him, did not arrive till the fleet -had already set sail. In the latitude of the isle of -<i>Pinghou</i> [Hirado], it encountered a violent tempest, -by which most of the vessels were driven on shore. -The officers, selecting those least damaged, themselves -returned, leaving behind them in that island more than -a hundred thousand men. The soldiers, finding themselves -thus abandoned, chose a leader, and set themselves -to work to cut down trees to build new vessels, -in which to escape. But the Japanese, apprised of -their shipwreck, made a descent upon the island with -a powerful army, and put them to the sword. They -spared only ten or twelve thousand Chinese soldiers, -of whom they made slaves; and, of the whole formidable -invading army, hardly three persons returned to -China.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</span></p> - -<p>Father Gaubil, in his “Histoire de la Dynastie des -Mongoux,” compiled also from Chinese sources, states -the number of Chinese and Corean prisoners at eighty -thousand, and of the Mongols who were slain at thirty -thousand.</p> - -<p>Kämpfer, in his elaborate work on Japan, gives the -following as from the Japanese chronicles, <i>Nippon -Ōdaiki</i>, and <i>Nippon Ōkeizu</i>: “Go-Uda succeeded his -father in the year of Jimmu 1985, of Christ 1275.” -“In the ninth year of his reign, the Tartar general, -Mōko, appeared on the coasts of Japan, with a fleet -of four thousand sail, and two hundred and forty -thousand men. The then reigning Tartarian emperor, -Lifsu [Kublai Khan], after he had conquered the empire -of China, sent this general to subdue also the empire of -Japan. But this expedition proved unsuccessful. The -<i>Kami</i>, that is, the gods of the country, and protectors of -the Japanese empire, were so incensed at the insult -offered them by the Tartars, that, on the first day -of the seventh month, they excited a violent and -dreadful storm, which destroyed all this reputed invincible -armada. Mōko himself perished in the waves, -and but few of his men escaped.”</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_008" style="max-width: 75em;"> - <img src="images/i_008f.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Entrance to the Temple of Jimmu Tennō</span></div> -</div> - -<p>Siebold, in his recently published “Archives of Japan,” -gives the following as the account of this invasion contained -in the esteemed Japanese chronicle, <i>Nikongi</i>:<a id="FNanchor_7" href="#Footnote_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</span> -“So soon as Kublai Khan had ascended the Mogul -throne, he turned his eyes upon distant Japan. This -nation, like <i>Kaou-le</i> (one of the kingdoms of Corea), -must become tributary. Accordingly, in the year 1268,<a id="FNanchor_8" href="#Footnote_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> -he summoned the ruler of Nippon to acknowledge his -sovereignty. No notice was taken of this summons, nor -of others in 1271 and 1273, the Mongol envoys being not -admitted to an audience, but always dismissed by the -governor of Dazaifu. Hereupon a Mongol fleet, with -a Corean contingent, appeared off Tsushima [a small -island half-way from Corea to Japan]. The Mikado -[ecclesiastical sovereign] appointed prayer days, but -the Shōgun [the temporal sovereign] had previously -made along the coast every necessary preparation for -defence. The hostile army did not venture upon a decisive -attack. Its movements were governed neither -by energy nor by consistency; and after hovering -about a while, without any apparent definite purpose, -the squadron disappeared from the Japanese seas, -merely committing some hostilities upon Kiūshiū at -its departure.”</p> - -<p>A Japanese encyclopædia, of quite recent date, quoted -in Siebold’s work, besides giving Kublai Khan’s letter -of summons, asserts that the Mongol fleet was met and -defeated, after which, other Mongol envoys being sent -to Japan, they were summoned into the presence of the -Shōgun, by whom a decree was promulgated that no -Mongol should land in Japan under pain of death. And -it is even pretended that under this decree the persons -composing two subsequent missions sent by Kublai -Khan, in 1276 and 1279, were all put to death. This -was followed, according to the same authority, by the -appearance of a new Mongol-Corean fleet, in 1281, off -the island of Hirado. This fleet was destroyed by a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</span> -hurricane. Those who escaped to the shore were taken -prisoners and executed, only three being saved to carry -to Kublai Khan the news of this disaster. All these -additions, however, to the story—the letter of Kublai -Khan, the murder of the ambassadors, and the double -invasion—may safely enough be set down as Japanese -inventions.<a id="FNanchor_9" href="#Footnote_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a></p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II</h2> -</div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p class="hang"><i>Portuguese Empire in the East—Discovery of Japan—Galvano’s Account -of it—Fernam Mendez Pinto’s Account of his First Visit to Japan, -and Adventures there—Japanese Account of the First Arrival of -Portuguese, A. D. 1542-1545.</i></p> -</div> - - -<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">Vasco da Gama</span>, by the route of the Cape of -Good Hope, entered the Indian Ocean in November, -1497, and, after coasting the African continent -as far north as Melinda, arrived in May, 1498, at -Calicut, on the Malabar or southwestern coast of the -peninsula of Hindustan,—a discovery speedily followed, -on the part of the Portuguese, by extensive Eastern explorations, -mercantile enterprises, and conquests. The -trade of Europe with the East in silks, spices, and other -luxuries, chiefly carried on for two or three centuries -preceding, so far as related to their distribution through -Europe, by the Venetians, aided in the north by the -Hanse towns, and, so far as the collection of the articles -of it throughout the East was concerned, by the Arabs -(Cairo, in Egypt, being the point of exchange), was -soon transferred to the Portuguese; and Lisbon, enriched -by this transfer, which the Mahometan traders -and the Venetians struggled in vain to prevent, rose -rapidly, amid the decline of numerous rivals, to great -commercial wealth and prosperity, and the headship of -European commerce.</p> - -<p>The Portuguese, from the necessity of the case, traded -sword in hand; and their intercourse with the nations of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</span> -the East was much more marked by the insolence of -conquest, than by the complaisance of traders. Goa, -some three hundred miles to the north of Calicut, which -fell into their power in 1510, became a splendid city, the -vice-royal and archiepiscopal seat, whence were governed -a multitude of widespread dependencies. The rule of -the Portuguese viceroy extended on the west by Diu, -Ormus, and Socotra (commanding the entrances into the -Gulf of Cambay, the Persian Gulf, and the Red Sea), -along the east coast of Africa by Melinda to Sofala, -opposite the south part of Madagascar. Malacca, near -the extremity of the peninsula of Further India, occupied -in 1511, became the capital of their possessions and conquests -in the far East, and soon rose into a magnificent -seat of empire and commerce, second only to Goa. -Among the most valuable dependencies of Malacca -were the Moluccas or Spice Islands. The islands of -Sumatra, Java, and Borneo,—in the occupation of which -the Mahometans had preceded them,—Celebes, Mindanao, -and even New Guinea were coasted, and commercial -and political relations established, to a greater or -less degree, with the native chiefs. The coasts of Pegu, -Siam, Cambodia, and the southern parts of China, were -visited as early as 1516; but the usual insolence of the -Portuguese, in attempting to establish a fortified post -not far from Canton, resulted in the imprisonment and -miserable death of an ambassador of theirs, then on his -way to Pekin, while it gave a new impulse to the suspicious -policy of the Chinese, which allowed no intercourse -with foreigners, and even forbade the Chinese junks to -trade to foreign ports. In spite, however, of this prohibition, -numerous Chinese merchants, self-exiled from -home, were established in the principal trading marts of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</span> -the southeastern seas; and with their aid, and sometimes -that of the corsairs, by whom the coasts of China -were then, as now, greatly infested, and by bribing the -mandarins, a sort of commerce, a cross between smuggling -and privateering, was carried on along the Chinese -coast. The principal marts of this commerce were -Ningpo (known to the Portuguese as Liampo, on the -continent, opposite the isle of Chusan, in the suburbs of -which city the Portuguese managed to establish a trading -settlement) and Sancian, an island near the entrance -of the bay of Canton, where the Chinese merchants from -Canton met the Portuguese traders, who, during a few -months in each year, sojourned there in temporary huts -while the trade was going on. Down, however, to the -year 1542 nothing had yet been heard of Japan, beyond -Marco Polo’s mention and brief account of it.</p> - -<p>The first visit of the Portuguese to Japan is ascribed -to that year, 1542, by Antonio Galvano, in his little -book, first published, after his death, in 1557, containing -a brief chronological recital of discoveries by sea -and land, from the flood to the year of grace 1555, -particularly the recent ones of the Spanish and Portuguese, -in which Galvano had been an active participator, -having greatly distinguished himself as the Portuguese -governor of the Moluccas. With a disinterestedness as -uncommon then as now, more intent upon the public -service than his own enrichment, after repeatedly refusing -the regency of the Moluccas tendered to him by the -natives, and putting into the public treasury the rich -presents of spices which were made to him, he had -returned to Portugal, in 1540, a poor man; and so vain -was his reliance on the gratitude of the court that he -was obliged to pass the last seventeen years of his life<span class="pagenum" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</span> -as the inmate of a charitable foundation, solacing his -leisure by composing the history of exploits in which -he no longer participated. His account of the discovery -of Japan, which he must have obtained at second hand, -as it happened after he had left the Indies, is thus given -in Hackluyt’s translation<a id="FNanchor_10" href="#Footnote_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a>:</p> - -<p>“In the year of our Lord 1542, one Diego de Freitas -being in the realm of Siam, and in the city of Dodra, as -captain of a ship, there fled from him three Portuguese -in a junco (which is a kind of ship) towards China. -Their names were Antony de Moto, Francis Zimoro, -and Antonio Perota. Directing their course to the city -of Liampo [Ningpo], standing in 30° odd of latitude, -there fell upon their stern such a storm, that it set -them off the land; and in a few days they saw an -island towards the east, standing in 32°, which they do -name Japan, which seemeth to be the isle of Zipangry -whereof Paulus Venetus [Marco Polo] maketh mention, -and of the riches thereof. And this island of Japan -hath gold, silver, and other riches.”</p> - -<p>Upon the strength of this statement of Galvano’s, -Maffei in his elegant Latin “Indian History,” first printed -in 1589, and whom subsequent writers have generally -followed, ascribes to the three Portuguese above mentioned -the honor of the discovery of Japan, though it -was claimed, he says, by several others. Of these others -the only one known to us is Fernam Mendez Pinto, -who in his “Peregrinations in the East,” first published -in 1614, about thirty-six years after his death, seems to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</span> -represent himself and two companions as the original -Portuguese discoverers.</p> - -<p>Pinto’s veracity has been very sharply called in question<a id="FNanchor_11" href="#Footnote_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a>; -but the main facts of his residence in the East -and early visits to Japan are amply established by contemporary -letters, written from Malacca as early as -1564, and published at Rome as early as 1566, including -one from Pinto himself. In the introduction to his -“Peregrinations” he describes himself as the child of poor -parents, born in the city of old Montemayor, in Portugal, -but placed in the year 1521, when he was about -ten or twelve years old,—he fixes the year by the -breaking of the escutcheons on the death of King -Manuel, a ceremony which he witnessed, and the oldest -historical fact he could remember,—through the interest -of an uncle, in the service of a noble lady of Lisbon. -Having been with her for a year and a half, some catastrophe -occurred—he does not tell what—which led -him to fly in terror for his life; and, finding himself -upon a pier, he embarked on a vessel just about to -leave it. That vessel was taken by French pirates, who -threatened at first to sell him and the other captives to -the Moors of Barbary; but having taken another richer -prize, after much ill treatment they put him and several -others ashore on the Portuguese coast. After this he -passed into the service successively of two noblemen; -but finding their pay very small, he was prompted to -embark to seek his fortune in the East, and, in pursuit -of that object, landed at Diu in 1537.</p> - -<p>It was by the daring and enterprise of just such adventurers -as Pinto that the Portuguese, who, up to this<span class="pagenum" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</span> -time, had few regular troops in the East, had already -acquired so extensive an empire there; just as a similar -set of Spanish adventurers had acquired, and still -were extending, a vast Spanish empire in America; -the two nations, in their circuit round the globe, meeting -at the Moluccas, the possession of which, though -about this very time, as we shall see, contested by the -Spaniards, the Portuguese succeeded in maintaining, -as indeed they had been the first to visit and occupy -them.</p> - -<p>The Turks at this time were the terror and dread of -all the Christian nations. In the West they had lately -occupied Hungary, laid siege to Vienna, and possessed -themselves of all the fortresses hitherto held by the -Venetians in the Archipelago and the Morea. Having -acquired the superiority over Egypt by dethroning the -Mameluke sultans, and by the renunciation of the -caliphs of Bagdad (long exiles in Egypt), the headship -of the Mahometan church, they were now carrying on, -with renewed energy, by way of the Red Sea, the perpetual -war waged in the East, as well as in the West, -by the Mussulmans against the infidels; and had, indeed, -just before Pinto’s arrival at Diu, besieged that city in -great force. Going to cruise against these Mussulman -enemies, after various adventures and a visit to Abyssinia,—with -which secluded Christian or semi-Christian -kingdom the Portuguese had opened a communication,—Pinto -was captured at the entrance of the Red Sea, -carried to Mocha, and there sold to a Greek renegado, -and by him to a Jew, from whom he was redeemed by -the Portuguese governor of Ormus, who furnished him -with the means of reaching Goa. At this centre of -Portuguese enterprise and adventure Pinto entered<span class="pagenum" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</span> -into the service of Dom Pedro de Faria, captain-general -of Malacca. Perceiving his superior intelligence and -adroitness, Faria sent him on numerous missions to the -native princes of those parts, by intermeddling in whose -domestic affairs the Portuguese generally contrived to -find a foothold for themselves. Despatched on one of -these missions, he was shipwrecked, made a slave of, -and sold to a Mussulman, who carried him to Malacca, -whence he was again sent on a new mission, provided -with money to redeem certain Portuguese captives, and -taking with him also a small sum, which he had borrowed -at Malacca, to trade upon for himself. While -occupied with this mission, Pinto met, at Patana [present -Patany] (on the east shore of the Malay peninsula, -and some four hundred miles to the north of Malacca), -with Antonio de Faria, a kinsman of his patron’s, sent -thither on a political mission, but who had also improved -the opportunity for trade, by borrowing at -Malacca twelve thousand crusados,<a id="FNanchor_12" href="#Footnote_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> which he had invested -in cloths. Finding no market there for these -goods, Faria was induced to despatch them to Lugor, -on the same coast, further north; and Pinto, with his -small adventure, was led by the hope of a profitable -trade to embark in the same vessel. He arrived safely -near Lugor; but the vessel, while lying in the river -below that city, was boarded by a Saracen corsair. -Pinto with two others plunged into the water and escaped, -wounded, to the shore; and having succeeded in -reaching Patana, he communicated to Antonio de Faria -information of their mutual loss.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</span></p> - -<p>Overwhelmed by this news, and afraid to face his -creditors at Malacca, Faria, with the remnant of his fortune -and the assistance of his friends, fitted out a small -cruiser, in which he embarked in May, 1540, with several -Portuguese, and Pinto among the rest, nominally to -seek out the pirate who had robbed him, but in fact to -recruit his fortune as he might. After many adventures—the -acquisition of great wealth by numerous -captures of richly laden corsairs and others, its loss by -shipwreck, the getting of a new vessel, the meeting -with the corsair who had robbed them at Lugor, the -taking of his vessel, another shipwreck, and the sack -of a Chinese town, where some of their shipwrecked -companions were detained as prisoners—they put into -Liampo (Ningpo), finding on some islands at no great -distance from that city, and known as the Gates of -Liampo, a Portuguese settlement of a thousand houses, -with six or seven churches, and with regular Portuguese -officers and laws—as much so, says Pinto, as if -the place had been situated between Lisbon and Santarem.<a id="FNanchor_13" href="#Footnote_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> -Here they met with a Chinese corsair, who -told them a marvellous story of the island of Calempui, -not far from Pekin, in which lay buried seventeen -Chinese kings, and whose tombs, guarded and watched -over by priests, contained vast treasures. Under the -pilotage of this corsair, Faria set out in May, 1542, to -rob these tombs. Pinto’s account of the voyage thither, -and of the tombs themselves, from which, terrified by -the alarm that was raised, they fled away, with their -object only partially accomplished, forms one of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</span> -most questionable, and at all events the most distorted, -portions of his narrative.</p> - -<p>Shortly after, they were shipwrecked again on the -Chinese coast. Faria with most of his countrymen -were drowned; but Pinto with thirteen others escaped -to the shore, where they lived a while by begging, but -were presently taken up as vagabonds, harshly treated, -sent to Nankin, and there, on suspicion of being thieves, -condemned to lose their thumbs. They appealed from -this sentence by the aid of certain officers appointed to -look after the poor, and were taken to Pekin, where, -after a residence of two months and a half, the charge of -theft was dismissed for want of proof, the prosecutors -being obliged to pay them damages; but still they were -sent in confinement to the frontier town of Quansi for -eight months, there to work in the maintenance of the -great wall. From this imprisonment they were delivered -by an inroad of Tartars, who laid siege to Pekin, -and to whom one of the Portuguese, the party reduced -by this time to nine, rendered essential military service. -Accompanying these invaders back to Tartary, they -were sent, except one, who remained behind, as attendants -upon the train of an ambassador to Cochin China, -by whose procurement they were conveyed to the island -of Sancian, in hopes of finding a passage thence to -Malacca. But the Portuguese ships had departed five -days before; and so they proceeded on some leagues -further to the island of Lampacau (the same upon which -the Portuguese town of Macao was not long afterwards -built, and already a resort for merchants and rovers). -Here they found no other resource except to enlist in -the service of a Chinese corsair, who arrived shortly -after they did, with two ships, of which the crews were<span class="pagenum" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</span> -mostly wounded, having just escaped, with the loss of -many other ships, from a recent engagement with a -Chinese fleet off Chincheo, a great city, about half-way -from Canton to Ningpo. The Portuguese had got into -a quarrel among themselves, which they carried out, as -Pinto says, with true Portuguese obstinacy. Five of -them embarked in one of the corsair’s ships, and Pinto, -with two companions, named Diego Zeimoto and Christopher -Borello, in the other. The five, with the vessel -in which they sailed, were soon after lost in a desperate -naval engagement, which lasted a whole day, with seven -large corsair junks, in which that vessel was burnt. -The other, in which Pinto was, escaped with the -greatest difficulty, by favor of the breeze, which freshened -at night. This breeze changed soon into a gale, -before which the corsair ran for the Lew Chew islands -(Riū-Kiū), with which he was familiar; but being without -a pilot, and the wind shifting to the northeast, they -had to beat against it for twenty-three days before they -made land. After running along the coast for some distance -they anchored off an island in seventy fathoms.<a id="FNanchor_14" href="#Footnote_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> -“Immediately,” says Pinto, “two little skiffs put off -the shore to meet us, in which were six men, who, on -coming on board, after having saluted us courteously, -asked us whence our junk came; and being answered -that it came from China, with merchandise to trade -there, if permission should be obtained, one of the six -said to us that the Nantaquim (?), the lord of that<span class="pagenum" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</span> -island, which was called Tanegashima, would willingly -permit us to trade if we would pay the duties customarily -paid in Japan; ‘which,’said he, ‘is that great -island which you see there over against us.’” Whereupon -the ship was piloted into a good harbor, on which -was situated a considerable town, and was soon surrounded -with boats bringing provisions to sell.</p> - -<p>In a short time they were visited by the Nantaquim (?) -himself, accompanied by many gentlemen and merchants, -with chests of silver. As he approached the -ship, the first persons who attracted his attention were -Pinto and his companions. Perceiving how different -they were in complexion, features, and beard from the -others, he eagerly inquired who they were. “The -corsair captain made answer to him,” says Pinto, “that -we were from a land called Malacca, to which many -years before we had gone from another very distant -country, called Portugal; at which the prince, greatly -astonished, turning to those about him, said, ‘May I -die, if these be not the Chenchicogins,<a id="FNanchor_15" href="#Footnote_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a> of whom it is -written in our ancient books, that, flying on the tops of -the waves, they will subdue all the lands about them -until they become masters of all the countries in which -God has placed the riches of the world! Wherefore we -should esteem it a great piece of good fortune if they -come to us with offers of friendship and good will.’ -<a id="FNanchor_16" href="#Footnote_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a>”<span class="pagenum" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</span> -And then calling in the aid of a woman of Lew Chew, -whom he employed as interpreter, he proceeded to make -very particular inquiries of the captain as to where he -had found these men, and why he had brought them -thither. “To whom,” says Pinto, “our captain replied, -that without doubt we were merchants and trusty -people, whom, having found shipwrecked on the island -of Lampacau, he had received on board his junk, as it -was his custom to do by all whom he found in such -case, having himself been saved in the same way from -the like disaster, to which all were liable who ventured -their lives and property against the impetuous fury of -the waves.” Satisfied with this answer, the prince came -on board; not with his whole retinue, though they were -all eager for it, but with only a select few. After -examining the ship very curiously, he seated himself -under an awning, and asked the Portuguese many -questions about their country, and what they had seen -in their travels. Highly delighted with their answers -and the new information they were able to give him, he -invited them to visit him on shore the next day, assuring -them that this curious information was the merchandise -he most wished for, and of which he never could have -enough. The next morning he sent to the junk a large -boat loaded with grapes, pears, melons, and a great -variety of vegetables, for which the captain returned a -present of cloths and Chinese jewels. The next day, -having first moored the ship securely, the captain went -on shore with samples of his goods, taking with him the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</span> -three Portuguese and ten or twelve of the best-looking -of the Chinese. Their reception was very gracious, and -the prince having called together the principal merchants, -the samples were exhibited, and a tariff of prices -agreed upon.</p> - -<p>This matter arranged, the prince began to requestion -the Portuguese; to which inquiries Pinto, who acted as -spokesman, made answers dictated, as he confesses, less -by strict regard to the truth than by his desire to satisfy -the prince’s appetite for wonders, and to magnify the -king and country of Portugal in his eyes. The prince -wished to know whether it were true, as the Chinese -and Lew Chewans had told him, that Portugal was -larger and richer than China? Whether (a matter as -to which he seemed very certain) the king of Portugal -had really conquered the greater part of the world? -And whether he actually had more than two thousand -houses full of gold and silver? All which questions -Pinto answered in the affirmative; though, as to the -two thousand houses, he confessed that he had never -actually counted them—a thing by no means easy in a -kingdom so vast.</p> - -<p>Well pleased with his guests, the king caused the -Portuguese to be entertained, by a wealthy merchant, -in a house near his own; and he assigned also warehouses -to the Chinese captain to facilitate his trade, -which proved so successful that a cargo, which had -cost him in China twenty-five hundred taels<a id="FNanchor_17" href="#Footnote_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> of silver,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</span> -brought him in twelve times as much in Japan; thus -reimbursing all the loss he had lately suffered by the -capture of his vessels.</p> - -<p>“Meanwhile we three Portuguese,” says Pinto, “as -we had no merchandise to occupy ourselves about, -enjoyed our time in fishing, hunting, and visiting the -temples, where the priests, or bonzes, as they are called, -gave us a very good reception, the Japanese being -naturally well disposed and very conversable.” Diego -Zeimoto went often forth to shoot with an espingarda -[a large hand-gun or musket], which he had brought -from Tartary, and in the use of which he was very dexterous. -One day, at a lake where were many kinds of -birds, he killed at various shots six-and-twenty ducks. -Some Japanese, observing this new method of shooting, -which they had never seen before, reported it to the -prince, who was busy at the moment in observing the -running of some horses, which had been brought to him -from a distance. Zeimoto, being called, came into his -presence, with the gun on his shoulder, and two Chinamen -loaded with the game; and as the thing was entirely -novel in this country, and as the Japanese knew nothing -of the secret of the powder, they all ascribed it to enchantment,—an -astonishment which Zeimoto increased -by shooting on the spot a kite and two doves. The -prince caused Zeimoto to be mounted on a horse, himself -sitting behind him, and to be conducted through -the town, followed by a great crowd, preceded by a -herald, who proclaimed him an adopted kinsman of the -prince, to be treated by all as such; and having taken -him to his own palace, he assigned him an apartment -there next his own, doing many favors also to the other -Portuguese for his sake. Zeimoto responded by making<span class="pagenum" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</span> -the prince a present of the gun, who sent him, in return, -a thousand taels of silver, beseeching him much to teach -him how to make the powder; with which request -Zeimoto complied. The prince, greatly delighted with -his acquisition, caused other guns to be made like it; -“so that,” says Pinto, “when we left, which was in five -months and a half, there were more than six hundred; -and when I visited Japan, in 1556, as ambassador from -the Portuguese viceroy, Don Alonzo de Noronha, to -the king of Bungo, the Japanese told me that in the -city of Fuchū [or Funni], the capital of that kingdom, -there were more than thirty thousand guns. And when -I expressed my astonishment at this as incredible, some -very respectable merchants positively assured me that -in the whole land of Japan there were more than three -hundred thousand, and that they themselves, in six -voyages to Lew Chew, had carried thither five-and-twenty -thousand. From which it may be known what -this nation is, and how naturally inclined to military -exercises, in which it delights itself more than any other -of these distant nations yet discovered.”<a id="FNanchor_18" href="#Footnote_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a></p> - -<p>At the end of three-and-twenty days, a ship arrived -from the kingdom of Bungo, in which came many merchants, -who, as soon as they had landed, waited on the -prince with presents, as was customary. Among them -was an old man, very well attended, and to whom all -the rest paid great respect. He made prostrations -before the prince, presenting him a letter, and a rich -sword garnished with gold, and a box of fans, which -the prince received with great ceremony. The reading -of this letter seemed to disturb the prince, and, having<span class="pagenum" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</span> -sent the messengers away to refresh themselves, he informed -the Portuguese, through the interpreter, that it -came from the king of Bungo and Hakata, his uncle, -father-in-law, and liege lord, as he was also the superior -of several other principalities. This letter—which, as -is usual with him in such cases, Pinto, by a marvellous -stretch of memory, undertakes to give in precise words—declared -that the writer had heard by persons from -Satsuma that the prince had in his city “three Chenchicogins -[<i>Tenjikujin</i>], from the end of the world, very -like the Japanese, clothed in silk and girded with -swords; not like merchants, whose business it is to -trade, but like lovers of honor, seeking to gild their -names therewith, and who had given great information, -affirming, on their veracity, that there is another world, -much larger than this of ours, and peopled with men of -various complexions”; and the letter ended with begging -that, by Hizen dono, his ambassador, the prince -would send back one of these men, the king promising -to return him safe and soon. It appeared from this -letter, and from the explanations which the prince -added to it, that the king of Bungo was a severe sufferer -from a gouty affection and from fits of melancholy, -from which he hoped, by the aid of these foreigners, -to obtain some diversion, if not relief. The prince, -anxious and bound as he was to oblige his relative -and superior, was yet unwilling to send Zeimoto, his -adopted kinsman, but one of the others he begged to -consent to go; and when both volunteered, he chose -Pinto, as he seemed the more gay and cheerful of the -two, and so best fitted to divert the sick man’s melancholy; -whereas the solemn gravity of the other, though -of great account in more weighty matters, might, in the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</span> -case of a sick man, rather tend to increase his ennui. -And so, with many compliments, to which, says Pinto, -the Japanese are much inclined, he was given in charge -to the ambassador, with many injunctions for his good -treatment, having first, however, received two hundred -taels with which to equip himself.</p> - -<p>They departed in a sort of galley; and stopping in -various places, arrived in four or five days at Usuki, a -fortress of the king of Bungo,<a id="FNanchor_19" href="#Footnote_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a> seven leagues distant -from his capital of Fuchū (present Ōita), to which they -proceeded by land. Arriving there in the middle of -the day (not a proper time to wait upon the king), the -ambassador took him to his own house, where they were -joyfully met, and Pinto was well entertained by the -ambassador’s wife and two sons. Proceeding to the -palace on horseback, they were very graciously received<span class="pagenum" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</span> -by a son of the king, some nine or ten years old, who -came forth richly dressed and with many attendants. -After many ceremonies between the young prince and -the ambassador, they were taken to the king, who, -though sick abed, received the ambassador with many -formalities. Presently Pinto was introduced, and by -some well-turned compliments made a favorable impression, -leading the courtiers to conclude—and so they -told the king—that he could not be a merchant, who -had passed his life in the low business of buying and -selling, but rather some learned bonze, or at least some -brave corsair of the seas. In this opinion the king -coincided; and, being already somewhat relieved from -his pains, proceeded to question the stranger as to the -cure of the gout, which he suffered from, or at least -some remedy for the total want of appetite by which he -was afflicted. Pinto professed himself no doctor, but -nevertheless undertook to cure the king by means of a -sovereign herb which he had brought with him from -China (ginseng, probably); and this drug he tried on -the patient with such good effect that in thirty days he -was up and walking, which he had not done for two -years before. The next twenty days Pinto passed in -answering an infinite number of questions, many of -them very frivolous, put to him by the king and his -courtiers, and in entertaining himself in observing their -feasts, worship, martial exercises, ships of war, fisheries, -and hunting, to which they were much given, and especially -their hunting with hawks and falcons, quite -after the European fashion.</p> - -<p>A gun, which Pinto had taken with him, excited as -much curiosity as it had done at Tanegashima, especially -on the part of a second son of the king, named<span class="pagenum" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</span> -Arichandono (?), about seventeen or eighteen years old, -who was very pressing to be allowed to shoot it. This -Pinto declined to permit, as being dangerous for a person -without experience; but, at the intercession of the -king, he appointed a time at which the experiment -should be made. The young prince, however, contrived -beforehand to get possession of the gun while -Pinto was asleep, and having greatly overloaded it, it -burst, severely wounding his hand and greatly disabling -one of his thumbs. Hearing the explosion, and running -out to see what might be the matter, Pinto found the -young prince abandoned by his frightened companions, -and lying on the ground bleeding and insensible; and by -the crowd who rushed in he was immediately accused -of having murdered the king’s son, hired to do so, as -was suspected, by the relations of two noblemen executed -the day before as traitors. His life seemed to be -in the most imminent danger; he was so frightened as -not to be able to speak, and so beside himself that if -they had killed him he hardly thinks he would have -known it; when, fortunately, the young prince coming -to, relieved him from all blame by telling how the accident -had happened. The prince’s wounds, however, -seemed so severe, that none of the bonzes called in -dared to undertake the cure; and it was recommended, -as a last resource, to send to Hakata, seventy leagues -off, for another bonze, of great reputation, and ninety-two -years old. But the young prince, who declared -that he should die while waiting, preferred to entrust -himself to the hands of Pinto, who, following the methods -which he had seen adopted by Portuguese surgeons in -India, in twenty days had the young prince able to walk -about again; for which he received so many presents<span class="pagenum" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</span> -that the cure was worth to him more than fifteen hundred -crusados. Information coming from Tanegashima -that the Chinese corsair was ready to sail, Pinto was -sent back by the king in a galley, manned by twenty -rowers, commanded by a gentleman of the royal household, -and provided with abundant supplies.</p> - -<p>The corsair having taken him on board, they sailed -for Liampo (Ningpo), where they arrived in safety. -The three survivors of Antonio de Faria’s ship were -received at that Portuguese settlement with the greatest -astonishment, and many congratulations for their return; -and the discovery they had made of the rich lands of -Japan was celebrated by a religious procession, high -mass, and a sermon.</p> - -<p>These pious services over, all hastened with the -greatest zeal and contention to get the start of the rest -in fitting out ships for this new traffic, the Chinese -taking advantage of this rivalry to put up the prices of -their goods to the highest rates. In fifteen days nine -junks, not half provided for the voyage, put to sea, -Pinto himself being on board one of them. Overtaken -on their passage by a terrible storm, seven of them -foundered, with the loss of seven hundred men, of -whom a hundred and forty were Portuguese, and cargoes -to the value of three hundred thousand crusados. -Two others, on board one of which was Pinto, escaped, -and arrived near the Lew Chew Islands; where, in -another storm, that in which Pinto was, lost sight of the -other, nor was it ever afterwards heard of. “Towards -evening,” says Pinto, “the wind coming east-northeast, -the waves ran so boisterous, wild, and high, that it was -most frightful to see. Our captain, Gaspar de Melo, -an hidalgo and very brave, seeing that the junk had<span class="pagenum" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</span> -sprung a leak in her poop, and that the water stood -already nine palms deep on the lower deck, ordered, -with the advice of his officers, to cut away both masts, -as, with their weight and the rolling, the junk was -opening very fast. Yet, in spite of all care he could -not prevent the mainmast from carrying away with it -fourteen men, among whom were five Portuguese, -crushed in the ruins,—a most mournful spectacle, -which took away from us survivors all the little spirits -we had left. So we suffered ourselves to be drifted -along before the increasing tempest, which we had no -means to resist, until about sunset, when the junk -began to open at every seam. Then the captain and -all of us, seeing the miserable condition in which we -were, betook ourselves for succor to an image of our -Lady, whom we besought with tears and groans to -intercede for us with her blessed Son to forgive our -sins.”</p> - -<p>The night having passed in this manner, about dawn -the junk struck a shoal and went to pieces, most of the -crew being drowned. A few, however, escaped to the -shore of what proved to be the Lew Chew Islands, now -first made known to the Portuguese. Here happened -many new dangers and adventures; but at last, by -female aid, always a great resource with Pinto, he -found his way back in a Chinese junk to Liampo, -whence, after various other adventures, he again reached -Malacca.</p> - -<p>To these Portuguese accounts of the European discovery -of Japan may be added the following, which -Siebold gives as an extract from a Japanese book of -annals: “Under the Mikado Go-Nara and the Shōgun -Yoshiharu, in the twelfth year of the <i>Nengō</i> [era]<span class="pagenum" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</span> -Tembun,<a id="FNanchor_20" href="#Footnote_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> on the twenty-second day of the eighth month -[October, 1543], a strange ship made the island Tanegashima, -near Koura, in the remote province Nishimura.<a id="FNanchor_21" href="#Footnote_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a> -The crew, about two hundred in number, had a singular -appearance; their language was unintelligible, their -native land unknown. On board was a Chinese, named -Gohow [Gobō], who understood writing. From him it -was gathered that this was a <i>nam-ban</i> (Japanese form -of the Chinese <i>nan-man</i>), that is, ‘southern barbarian,’ship. On the twenty-sixth this vessel was taken to -Akuopi harbor on the northwest side of the island, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</span> -Tokitaka, governor of Tanegashima, instituted a strict -investigation concerning her, the Japanese bonze, Tsyn-sigu-zu, -acting as interpreter by means of Chinese -characters. On board the <i>nam-ban</i> ship were two commanders, -Mura-synkya and Krista-muta. They had fire-arms, -and first made the Japanese acquainted with -shooting arms and the preparation of shooting powder.” -It is added that the Japanese have preserved portraits -of these two distinguished strangers<a id="FNanchor_22" href="#Footnote_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a>; but, if so, it is -much to be feared that the likenesses cannot be relied -upon, as Fischer, one of the most recent writers on -Japan, and who has himself published the finest specimens -which have yet appeared of Japanese graphic art, -says he never knew nor heard of a tolerable Japanese -portrait-painter; while Golownin declares that the portraits -taken of himself and his companions, prisoners on -the island of Matsumai, in 1812, to be forwarded to -Yedo, bore not the least resemblance to the originals.<a id="FNanchor_23" href="#Footnote_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a></p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III</h2> -</div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p class="center"><i>Pinto’s Second Visit to Japan</i>—<i>Anjirō, or Paul of the Holy Faith</i>—<i>A. D. -1547-1548.</i></p> -</div> - - -<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">After</span> a great variety of haps and mishaps in -Pegu, Siam, Java, and elsewhere, Fernam -Mendez Pinto represents himself as having embarked -a second time for Japan, in a ship commanded -by George Alvarez, which sailed from Malacca in the -year 1547. In twenty-six days they made the island of -Tanegashima, nine leagues south of the mainland of -Japan; and on the fifth day afterwards reached Fuchū, -in the kingdom of Bungo, a hundred leagues to the -north. The king and the inhabitants gave them a very -friendly reception; but very shortly after their arrival -a civil commotion broke out, in which the king was -murdered with most of his family and a number of Portuguese -who were in his service; the city being set on -fire during the outbreak, and great numbers killed on -both sides.</p> - -<p>One of the king’s sons, who, when this event occurred, -happened to be at the fortress of Usuki, seven leagues -distant, would have proceeded at once to Fuchū but -for the advice of his tutor, Hizen dono, the same name -borne by the ambassador of the king of Bungo, under -whose guidance Pinto, according to his former narrative, -had first visited Fuchū. This person advised the -young prince first to collect a sufficient army; and of -the Japanese method of calling to arms Pinto gives the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</span> -following account: Every housekeeper, high and low, -was required to keep by him a conch-shell, which, under -severe penalties, could be sounded on four occasions -only,—tumults, fire, thieves, and treason. To distinguish -what the alarm was for, the shell was sounded -once for tumult, twice for fire, three times for thieves, -and four times for treason. So soon as the alarm of -treason was sounded, every householder who heard it -was obliged to repeat it. And upon the signal thus -given, and which spread from house to house and village -to village, all were obliged to march armed to the -spot whence it came, the whole population of the district -being thus very soon collected.</p> - -<p>By this means, in the course of seven days, during -three of which the young prince lamented his murdered -relatives at a convent of bonzes in a grove near the -city, after which he proceeded to confiscate the estates -of the rebels, Pinto collects for him an army,—he is -generally pretty liberal in such matters,—estimated at -one hundred and thirty thousand men, of whom seventeen -thousand were cavalry. The multitude thus collected -breeding a famine, the prince marched upon -Fuchū, where he was received with great demonstrations -of loyalty. But, before repairing to the palace, -he stopped at the temple where the body of his father -was lying, whose obsequies he celebrated with much -pomp, the observance lasting through two nights, with -a great display of torches and illuminations. The closing -ceremony was the presentation to the son of the -bloody garments of the father, on which he swore that -he would show no mercy to the traitors, even though -to save their lives they might turn bonzes; but that, -rather than allow them to escape, he would destroy<span class="pagenum" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</span> -every convent or temple in which they might take -refuge.</p> - -<p>On the fourth day, having been inaugurated as king, -but with little pomp, he marched with a still-increasing -army against the rebels, who, to the number of ten -thousand, had entrenched themselves on a neighboring -hill, where, being surrounded by the royal forces, rather -than surrender, they were cut off to a man.</p> - -<p>The city of Fuchū was left almost in ruins by this -civil war; and the Portuguese, despairing of being able -to find purchasers for their goods, proceeded to the city -of Hamanoichi [or Miyakonojō], ninety leagues to the -southward, on the bay of Kagoshima, where they remained -for two months and a half, unable to sell their -cargo, as the market was completely overstocked by -Chinese merchandise, which had been poured in such -quantities into the Japanese ports as to be worth much -less than it was in China. Pinto and his company were -entirely at a loss what to do; but from this dilemma -they were delivered, as Pinto will have it, by the special -providence of the Most High; for at the new moon of -December a terrible storm occurred, in which almost -the whole of these foreign traders were destroyed, to -the incredible number, as Pinto relates, of near two -thousand vessels, including twenty-six belonging to -the Portuguese. Of the whole number, only ten or a -dozen escaped, among them that in which Pinto was, -which afterwards disposed of her lading to very good -profit. So they got ready to depart, well pleased to -see themselves so rich, but sad at having made their -gains at the cost of so many lives, both of countrymen -and strangers. Three times, however, they were detained -by accidents, the last time barely escaping—by<span class="pagenum" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</span> -the help of the Virgin Mary, as Pinto insists—being -carried by the strong current upon a dangerous reef; -just at which moment they saw approaching the shore, -in great haste, two men on horseback, making signs to -them with a cloth. The preceding night four slaves, -one of whom belonged to Pinto, had escaped from the -vessel; and, thinking to receive some news of them, -Pinto went in the boat with two companions. “Coming -to the shore,” he says, “where the two men on -horseback awaited us, one of them, who seemed the -principal person, said to me, ‘Sir, as the haste I am in -admits of no delay, being in great fear of some people -who are in pursuit of me, I beg of you, for the love of -God, that, without suggesting doubts or weighing inconveniences, -you will receive me at once on board -your ship.’At which words of his I was so much -embarrassed,” says Pinto, “as hardly to know what to -do, and the more so as I recollected having twice seen -him in Hamanoichi, in the company of some merchants -of that city. Scarcely had I received him and his companion -into the boat, when fourteen men on horseback -made their appearance, approaching at full speed and -crying out to me, ‘Give up that traitor, or we will kill -you!’Others soon after came up, both horsemen and -on foot; whereupon I put off to the distance of a good -bow-shot, and inquired what they wanted. To which -they made answer, ‘If thou dost carry off that Japanese, -know that a thousand heads of fellows like thee shall -pay the forfeit of it.’To all which,” says Pinto, “I -replied not a word, but, pulling to the ship, got on -board with the two Japanese, who were well received, -and provided by the captain and the other Portuguese -with everything necessary for so long a voyage.” The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</span> -name of this fugitive was Anjirō, “an instrument -selected by the Lord,” so Pinto piously observes, “for -his praise and the exaltation of the holy faith.”</p> - -<p>In fourteen days the ship reached Chincheo, but -found the mouth of the river leading to it blockaded by -a famous Chinese corsair with a great fleet, to avoid -whom they turned aside and sailed for Malacca.</p> - -<p>In this city Pinto met, apparently for the first time, -with Master Francis Xavier, general superior or provincial -of the order of the Jesuits in India, in all parts -of which occupied by the Portuguese he had already -attained a high reputation for self-devotion, sanctity, -and miraculous power; and who was then at Malacca, -on his return to Goa, from a mission on which he had -lately been to the Moluccas. “The father,” says Pinto, -“had received intelligence of our arrival, and that we -had brought with us the Japanese Anjirō. He came to -visit George Alvarez and myself in the house of one -Cosmo Rodriguez, where we lodged, and passed almost -a whole day with us in curious inquiries (all founded on -his lively zeal for the honor of God) about the countries -we had visited; in the course of which I told him, not -knowing that he knew it already, that we had brought -with us two Japanese, one of whom appeared to be a -man of consideration, well skilled in the laws and religion -of Japan. Whereupon he expressed great desire -to see him; in consequence of which we brought him -to the hospital, where the father lodged, who received -him gladly and took him to India, whither he was then -on his way. Having arrived at Goa, Anjirō there became -a Christian, taking the name of Paulo de Santa Fe -[Paul of the Holy Faith], and in a short time learned -to read and write Portuguese, and mastered the whole<span class="pagenum" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</span> -Christian doctrine; so that the father only waited for -the monsoon to go to announce to the heathen of the -isle of Japan, Christ, the Son of the living God, nailed -to the cross for our sins (as he was accustomed to do), -and to take this man with him as an interpreter, as he -afterwards did, and his companion also, who, as well as -himself, professed the Christian faith, and received from -the father the name of John.”</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV</h2> -</div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p class="hang"><i>Religious Faith Three Centuries ago—Zeal of the Portuguese Conquerors—Antonio -Galvano—Missionary Seminaries at Ternate and Goa—Order -of the Jesuits—Francis Xavier—His Mission to India—His -Mission to Japan—His Companion, Cosme de Torres—The -Philippine Islands—A. D. 1542-1550.</i></p> -</div> - - -<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">Three</span> centuries ago the religious faith of Europe -was much more energetic and active than -at present. With all imaginative minds, even -those of the highest order, the popular belief had at -that time all the force of undoubted reality. Michael -Angelo and Raphael embodied it in marble and colors; -and it is difficult to say which impulse was the stronger -with the Portuguese and Spanish adventurers of that -age,—the fierce thirst for gold and glory, which they -felt as we feel it now, or passionate desire for the propagation -of their religious faith, such indeed as is still -talked about, and feebly exhibited in action, but in -which the great bulk of the community, especially the -more cultivated part of it, takes at present either no -interest, or a very slight one.</p> - -<p>The Portuguese adventurers in the East, wherever -they went, were accompanied by friars, mostly Franciscans, -and the building of magnificent churches was -one of the first things attended to.</p> - -<p>Of all these adventurers, few, if indeed a single one, -have left so respectable a character as Antonio Galvano, -already mentioned, governor of the Moluccas from 1536<span class="pagenum" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</span> -to 1540, which islands, from a state of violent hostility -to the Portuguese, and rebellion against them, he -brought back to quiet and willing submission. Not -less distinguished for piety than for valor and disinterestedness, -Galvano made every effort to diffuse among -the natives of the Oriental archipelago a knowledge of -the Catholic faith; and with that view he established -at Ternate, seat of the Portuguese government of the -Moluccas, a seminary for the education of boys of superior -abilities, to be collected from various nations, who, -upon arriving at maturity, might preach the gospel, -each in his own country,—an institution which the -Council of Trent not long after warmly approved.</p> - -<p>By the efforts of Galvano and others a similar seminary, -sometimes called “Paul’s,” and sometimes “Of -the Holy Faith,” had been erected at Goa, lately made -the seat of an Indian bishopric; and it was at this -seminary, endowed and enriched by the spoils of many -heathen temples, that the Japanese Anjirō was placed -by Xavier for his education. The name which he -adopted at his baptism, Paul of the Holy Faith, was, -as it thus appears, taken from the seminary at which he -had been educated.</p> - -<p>But the efforts hitherto made in India on behalf of -the Catholic faith, if earnest, had been desultory. The -establishment of the order of Jesuits in 1540 laid the -foundation for a systematic attack upon the religious -systems of the East, and an attempt at a spiritual revolution -there, neither less vigorous nor less pertinacious -than that which, for the forty years preceding, had been -carried on by the new-comers from the West against -political, commercial, and social institutions of those -countries.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</span></p> - -<p>The leader in this enterprise was Francis Aspilcota, -surnamed Xavier, one of the seven associates of whom -the infant Society of Jesus, destined soon to become so -powerful and so famous, originally consisted. He was -born in 1506, in Navarre, at the foot of the Pyrenees, -the youngest son of a noble and numerous family, of -whom the younger members, and he among the rest, bore -the surname of Xavier. Not inclining to the profession -of arms embraced by the rest of the family, after preliminary -studies at home he went to Paris, and was first -a student at the College of St. Barbe, and afterwards, -at the age of twenty-two, professor of philosophy in that -of Beauvais. It was in this latter station that he first -became acquainted with Ignatius Loyola, who, fifteen -years older than Xavier, had come to Paris to pursue, -as preparatory to a course of theology, those rudimentary -studies which had not been thought necessary for -the military destination of his earlier days. This remarkable -Spaniard, whose military career had been cut -short by a wound which made him a cripple, had already -been for years a religious devotee; and having been from -his youth thoroughly impregnated with the current ideas -of romantic chivalry, he was already turning in his mind -the formation of a new monastic order, which should -carry into religion the spirit of the romances. Xavier, -with whom he lived at Paris on intimate terms,—they -slept, indeed, in the same bed,—was one of Loyola’s -first disciples; and on the day of the Assumption, -August 16, 1534, they two, with five others, of whom -three or four were still students, in a subterranean -chapel of the church of the abbey of Montmartre, united -at a celebration of mass by Le Fèvre, who was already -a priest, and in the consecration of themselves by a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</span> -solemn vow to religious duties. This rudimentary -order included, along with Loyola and Xavier, three -other Spaniards, Lainez, Salmaron, and Boabdilla, -Rodriguez, a Portuguese, and Le Fèvre, a Savoyard,—all -afterwards distinguished. A mission to Jerusalem, -which Loyola had already visited, was at that -time their leading idea.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp90" id="i_042" style="max-width: 56.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/i_042f.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">St. Francis Xavier</span> -One of the Earliest Missionaries to Japan</div> -</div> - -<p>Loyola then returned home, the others remaining at -Paris; but with an agreement to meet at Venice before -the close of the year 1536, at which meeting three more -were added to their number. A scheme of the order -was subsequently drawn up, which, besides the vows of -chastity and poverty, and of absolute obedience, as to -God, to a general of the order, to be elected for life, -included, instead of the mission to Jerusalem, which -the war with the Turks made impracticable, a vow to -go wherever the Pope might send them for the salvation -of souls. To procure the sanction of the Pope, Loyola, -with Lainez and Le Fèvre, spent several years at Rome. -The scheme, having been referred to a commission, was -approved by Paul III., by a bull, bearing date September -27, 1540, in which the name of “Clerks of the -Society of Jesus” was bestowed upon the order, which -was limited, however, to sixty members. Loyola was -elected, early in 1541, the first general; and by a subsequent -bull of Julian III., dated March 15, 1543, the -society was allowed to increase its members indefinitely. -Its object was the maintenance of the absolute authority -of the church as personified in the Pope, not only by -resisting the rebellion against it, then lately set on foot -by Luther in Germany, but by extending the domination -of the Pope into all parts of the world. To guard -against the corruptions of preceding orders, the members<span class="pagenum" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</span> -were not to accept of any church preferment, except by -the positive command of the Pope, nor of any fees for -religious services; nor could the houses of the professed -and the coadjutors (the two highest ranks of the order) -have any endowments, though the colleges and novitiates -might.</p> - -<p>That which gave the Jesuits their first success was -their introduction of good works, acts of charity and -humanity, a care for the salvation of others as well as -their own, into the first class of duties. Instead of -being bound, like the other Catholic orders, to a peculiar -garb and the stated repetition of formal prayers and -ceremonies, they wore the ordinary clerical dress, and -their time was to be divided between mental prayers -and good works, of which the education of youth, the -direction of consciences, and the comfort and care of -the poor and sick, were the principal. In this latter -service novices, or probationers, who must be at least -fourteen years of age, of sound body, of good abilities -and fair character, were to be tried for two years. From -the novitiate, after taking the vows, the neophytes -passed into the colleges, to which also were attached -schools for lay pupils. From the colleges they might -be admitted coadjutors and professed, which latter class -must have studied theology for four years. These two -latter ranks were to live in professed houses, which, -unlike the colleges and novitiates, could have no property, -but must be supported by alms. The coadjutors -were of two classes: those admitted to holy orders, from -which class the rectors of the colleges were appointed; -and the lay coadjutors, furnishing cooks, stewards, -agents, and the business men generally of the society. -The professed and the coadjutors must renounce all<span class="pagenum" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</span> -claim to hereditary succession, not for themselves only, -but for the society also. There were, however, a class -of lay coadjutors who simply took the vows, yet continued -to enjoy their property and lived in the world.</p> - -<p>What added to the efficiency of the order was its -strict military organization. It had nothing about it of -the republican cast of the other Catholic orders, in -which rotation in office occurred, chapters were frequent, -and many points were decided by a majority of -votes. The general of the Jesuits, chosen for life by -a select congregation, had absolute authority, as had -also, under him, each in his sphere, the provincials, -the vice-provincials, the superiors of professed houses, -and the rectors of colleges, all of whom the general -might appoint and remove at pleasure. The general -received monthly reports from the provincials and vice-provincials, -quarterly ones from the superiors of professed -houses and rectors of colleges, and half-yearly -ones from every professed member. Every member -was bound to report to his immediate superior his own -misconduct or that of any of his companions.</p> - -<p>John III, of Portugal, though very desirous of sending -out a competent supply of spiritual laborers to his -dominions in the East, could hardly find the means for -it at home. There was but a single university—that -of Coimbra—in all Portugal, and that not much frequented. -John, it is true, had exerted himself in behalf -of that institution, by inviting professors not only from -Spain, but from Germany and Italy; but as yet the few -Portuguese who devoted themselves to study sought -their education for the most part at Complutum or -Salamanca, and some of them at Paris. In this dearth -of Portuguese laborers, having heard some rumor of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</span> -new order of the Jesuits, John charged his ambassador -at Rome to request the founder, Ignatius, to send him -for service in India not less than six members of it. -Loyola, who had other schemes on foot, could spare -only two, one of whom, Rodriguez, the original Portuguese -of the order, remained behind in Portugal to -organize the society there, where he established at -Coimbra the first Jesuit college. The other was Xavier, -to whom, as a test of his obedience,—though, the order -being as yet not formally authorized, Loyola had no legal -authority over him,—the command for his departure -was communicated only the day beforehand, leaving -him scarcely time before setting out upon so distant a -journey to say farewell to his friends, and to get the -rents mended in his tattered and threadbare cloak. He -was indeed able to get ready the easier, not having, like -our modern missionaries, the incumbrance or the comfort -of a wife and children, and no baggage to impede -his movements beyond his prayer-book and the clothes -on his back.</p> - -<p>Arriving at Lisbon, he waited on the king, but immediately -upon leaving the palace proceeded, as was his -wont, to the public hospital, devoting all his time, till -the ships were ready, to the care and consolation of the -sick and dying. While here he received from the Pope -the appointment of apostolic nuncio for India, with full -powers. Of all the offers made to him of an outfit for -the voyage he would for a long time accept of nothing; -but at last, lest he should seem too obstinate, he consented -to receive some coarse cloaks, to be used in -passing the Cape of Good Hope, one for himself, and -one for each of the two companions who were to accompany -him; likewise a few books, of which he understood<span class="pagenum" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</span> -there was a great scarcity in India. To the offer pressed -upon him of the service of a boy to attend to his daily -wants during the voyage, he replied, “While I have -hands and feet of my own I shall need no servant.” -The matter being still urged, with the remark that it -was unfitting for a man in his position to be openly seen -among the crowd of sailors and passengers washing his -clothes or cooking his daily food, “You see,” he answered, -“to what a pass this art of preserving one’s -dignity has brought the commonwealth of Christendom! -For my part, there is no office, however humble, which, -provided there be no sin in it, I cannot upon occasion -perform.” This was a specimen of his whole conduct -throughout the voyage, which commenced April 7, 1541, -giving rise to a remark of the captain of the fleet that -it was even harder to make Xavier accept anything than -it was to get rid of other men’s importunities.</p> - -<p>All this self-sacrifice, accompanied as it was by a most -careful attention to the wants of others, was not without -its reward. It gave Xavier—not to mention his -subsequent canonization—an immense reputation with -his fellow-voyagers, and a great influence over them, -which he did not fail to exercise. Already, amid all -this early austerity, the principles of Jesuitism were -fully developed. Xavier addressed everybody, even the -most notorious profligates, with mild familiarity, no -severity in his face, no harshness in his words. He -even volunteered himself as a sociable companion, and -thus acquired an influence all the greater because it was -hardly perceived by those who submitted to it, so that -he was generally said by those who knew him best to -have accomplished much more by his familiar conversation -than even by his public preaching,—of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</span> -effects of which, however, very extraordinary stories -were told.</p> - -<p>He arrived at Goa in May, 1542, and, taking lodgings -at a hospital, entered at once with great zeal on the -duties of his office as Pope’s nuncio, provincial in India -of the order of Jesuits, and apostolical missionary, professing, -however, entire submission to the bishop of -Goa. Passing through the streets, bell in hand, he -called the children, women, and servants to be catechised, -and to help the memory and catch the ear he -put the catechism into rhyme. But it was not merely -to the Christian population that he confined his labors. -He had to encounter the scornful fanaticism of the -Mahometans, who, setting out from Arabia, had preceded -the Portuguese by centuries in commercial and -military visits to the coasts of India and the eastern -islands, and who had in many places largely diffused -their religion. He had to meet the insolent bigotry of -the twice-born Brahmins, who, through the system of -castes, held society fast bound, helpless and stationary, -in the fetters of an all-pervading superstition. Jewish -scoffers were also to be met. In fact, all sects seemed -to be brought together in southern India, including even -an ancient form of Christianity, a remnant of the followers -of Zoroaster, from Persia, and in Ceylon, Buddhists. -After a year’s stay at Goa, Xavier proceeded -to the southern point of Hindustan, about Cape -Comorin, the pearl-fishers of which region had, for the -sake of Portuguese protection, professed the Christian -religion, of which, however, they knew nothing but the -name. Having preached for a year or more in this district, -he passed to the neighboring territories of the -Coromandel coast, where there already existed the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</span> -remains, before referred to, of an ancient Christianity, -originally propagated, it seems probable, by Nestorian -missionaries of the fifth or sixth century, but which the -Portuguese insisted upon ascribing to St. Thomas, the -apostle, about whose life and labors in the East a whole -volume of fables was, between them and the native -Christians, speedily manufactured.</p> - -<p>Incapable of staying long in one place, from India -Xavier soon proceeded to Malacca, where he arrived -towards the close of 1545, and whence the next Spring -he set out on a missionary journey through the Moluccas. -It was on his return from this last expedition -that he first met with the Japanese Anjirō, at Malacca,—as -related, after Pinto, in the preceding chapter,—with -whom he arrived at Goa in March, 1548. The -Japanese were placed, as has been mentioned, in the -seminary of St. Paul; and so delighted was Xavier with -their progress and fervor, as to resolve to undertake, -after visiting his churches at Cape Comorin, a new -mission to Japan.</p> - -<p>We have seen the account given by Pinto of the -origin of the acquaintance between Xavier and Anjirō. -The biographers of the saint and the Jesuit historians -of the Japanese mission embellish this story by the -addition of several romantic particulars. Anjirō, they -tell us, had long been troubled with remorse of conscience, -for which he could find no remedy, and which -he only aggravated in the attempt to cure it by retiring -for a time to a Japanese monastery of bonzes. Having -made the acquaintance of some of the earliest Portuguese -adventurers to Japan, he consulted them as to -this malady, one of whom, by name Alvares Vaz, -having heard the fame of Xavier, strongly advised the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</span> -inquiring Japanese to seek his assistance. Anjirō was -much inclined to do so; but the danger and distance of -the voyage deterred him, till, having killed a man in a -rencontre, the fear of arrest drove him to embark on the -first vessel he could find, which happened to be a Portuguese -ship bound for Malacca, and commanded by -George Alvarez, a great admirer of Xavier’s. The -good example and edifying discourse of this pious sea-captain -brought Anjirō to the determination to become -a Catholic; but being disappointed in finding Xavier as -he had expected, or, according to other accounts, being -refused baptism by the vicar of the bishop of Goa resident -at Malacca, he thought no more but of returning -home again, and with that object, not meeting with any -ship bound direct for Japan, he embarked for Chincheo, -in China. Thence he sailed for home; but a terrible -storm drove him back to the port he had left, reviving -also his almost forgotten resolution to become a Catholic, -in which he was the more confirmed by happening -to find in the harbor his old Portuguese friend, Alvares -Vaz, in command of a ship on her way back to India. -Yielding to the persuasions of this old friend, Anjirō -sailed in his ship for Malacca; and, on landing there, -the very first person whom he met was George Alvarez, -who immediately took him to Xavier. These accounts -also give him two Japanese servants, both of whom are -stated to have accompanied him to Goa, and to have -been baptized, one by the name of John, the other by -that of Anthony. And this last part of the story is -confirmed by a letter of Xavier’s, dated July, 1549, and -written from Malacca on his way to Japan, in which -letter he gives an interesting, and at the same time -characteristic, account of his converts, very much in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</span> -substance, and even in expression, like what we may -read in the very latest missionary reports.</p> - -<p>“No sooner,” he writes, “had they been cleansed by -the waters of baptism, than the divine goodness shed -upon them such delight, and brought them to such a -sense of God’s beneficence towards them, that through -pious and spiritual joy they melted into tears. In all -the virtues they made such a progress as to afford us a -pleasant and useful subject of conversation. They also -learned to read and write, and diligently attended at the -appointed seasons of prayer. When inquired of by me -what subject of contemplation affected them most, they -answered, the sufferings of our Lord; and, therefore, -to this contemplation they chiefly applied themselves. -They studied also the articles of faith, the means of -redemption, and the other Christian mysteries. To -my frequent inquiries what religious rites they found -profited them the most, they always answered, confession -and communion; adding, also, that they did not -see how any reasonable man could hesitate to assent -to and obey the requirements of Christian discipline. -Paul of the Holy Faith, one of the number, I once -heard bursting out, with sighs, into these exclamations: -‘O miserable Japanese! who adore as deities the very -things which God has made for your service!’And -when I asked him to what he referred, he answered, -‘Because they worship the sun and the moon, things -made to serve those who know the Lord Jesus; for to -what other end are they made, except to illuminate -both day and night, in order that men may employ that -light in the worship and to the glory of God and his -Son?’”</p> - -<p>He mentions, in the same letter, that the voyage to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</span> -Japan was so dangerous, that not more than two vessels -out of three were expected to arrive there in safety. -He even seems to have had some temptations to abandon -the enterprise; but in spite of numerous obstacles put -in his way, as he will have it, by the great adversary -of mankind, he determined to persevere, especially as -letters from Japan gave encouraging information of the -desire there for Christian instruction, on the part of a -prince of the country who had been much impressed by -the efficacy of the sign of the cross, as employed by certain -Portuguese merchants, in driving the evil spirits -from a haunted house.</p> - -<p>Another letter of Xavier’s, written from Kagoshima, -in Japan, and dated in November, 1549, about three -months after his arrival, gives an account of his voyage -thither.</p> - -<p>Taking with him the three Japanese, Cosme de -Torres, a priest, and Jean Fernandes, a brother of the -society,—of which, besides several who had joined it -in India, some ten or twelve members had followed -Xavier from Portugal, and had been distributed in -various services,—he sailed in the ship of Chinese -merchants, who had agreed with the Portuguese commander -at Malacca to carry him to Japan. As Pinto -tells the story, this merchant was a corsair, and so notorious -a one as to go by the name of the Robber. Xavier -says nothing of that, but complains of the levity and -vacillation natural to barbarians, which made the captain -linger at the islands where he touched, at the risk -of losing the monsoon and being obliged to winter in -China. Xavier was also greatly shocked at the assiduous -worship paid by the mariners to an idol which they -had on board, and before which they burnt candles and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</span> -odoriferous wood, seeking oracles from it as to the result -of the voyage. “What were our feelings, and what we -suffered, you can well imagine,” he exclaims, “at the -thought that this demon should be consulted as to the -whole course of our journey.”</p> - -<p>After touching at Canton the Chinese captain, instead -of sailing thence to Japan, as he had promised, followed -the coast north toward Chincheo; but hearing, when he -approached that port, that it was blockaded by a corsair, -he put off in self-defence for Japan, and arrived safe in -the port of Kagoshima.</p> - -<p>Anjirō, or Paul as he was now called, was well received -by his relations, and forty days were spent by -Xavier in laborious application to the rudiments of the -language, and by Paul in translating into Japanese the -ten commandments, and other parts of the Christian -faith, which Xavier determined, so he writes, to have -printed as soon as possible, especially as most of the -Japanese could read. Anjirō also devoted himself to -exhortations and arguments among his relations and -friends, and soon made converts of his wife and -daughter, and many besides, of both sexes. An interview -was had with the king of Satsuma,—in which -province Kagoshima was situated,—and he presently -issued an edict allowing his subjects to embrace the -new faith. This beginning seemed promising; but -Xavier already anticipated a violent opposition so soon -as his object came to be fully understood. He drew -consolation, however, from the spiritual benefits enjoyed -by himself, “since in these remote regions,” so he wrote, -“amid the impious worshippers of demons, so very far -removed from almost every mortal aid and consolation, -we almost of necessity, as it were, forget and lose<span class="pagenum" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</span> -ourselves in God, which hardly can happen in a Christian -land, where the love of parents and country, intimacies, -friendship and affinities, and helps at hand both -for body and mind, intervene, as it were, between man -and God, to the forgetfulness of the latter.” And what -tended to confirm this spiritual state of mind was the -entire freedom in Japan “from those delights which -elsewhere stimulate the flesh and break down the -strength of mind and body. The Japanese,” he wrote, -“rear no animals for food. Sometimes they eat fish;—they -have a moderate supply of rice and wheat; but -they live, for the most part, on vegetables and fruits; -and yet they attain to such a good old age, as clearly to -show how little nature, elsewhere so insatiable, really -demands.”</p> - -<p>Anjirō himself wrote at the same time a short letter -to the brethren at Goa, but it adds nothing to the information -contained in Xavier’s.</p> - -<p>The following account, which Cosme de Torres,<a id="FNanchor_24" href="#Footnote_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a> a -Spaniard by birth, Xavier’s principal assistant, and his -successor at the head of the mission, gives of himself in -a letter written from Goa to the society in Europe, just -before setting out, shows, like other cases to be mentioned -hereafter, that it was by no means merely from -the class of students that the order of the Jesuits was -at its commencement recruited.</p> - -<p>Though always inclined, so Cosme writes, to religion, -yet many things and various desires for a long time distracted -him. In the year 1538, in search he knew not -of what, he sailed from Spain to the Canaries, whence -he visited the West Indies and the continent of New<span class="pagenum" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</span> -Spain, where he passed four years in the greatest abundance, -and satiety even, of this world’s goods. But -desiring something greater and more solid, in 1542 he -embarked on board a fleet of six ships, fitted out by -Mendosa, the viceroy of New Spain, to explore and -occupy the islands of the Pacific, discovered by Magellan -in 1521. Standing westward, on the fifty-fifth day -they fell in, so Cosme writes, with a numerous cluster -of very small, low islands, of which the inhabitants -lived on fish and the leaves of trees. Ten days after -they saw a beautiful island, covered with palms, but the -wind prevented their landing. In another ten or twelve -days the ships reached the great island of Mindanao, -two hundred leagues in circumference, but with few -inhabitants. Sailing thence to the south they discovered -a small island abounding in meat and rice; but -having, during half a year’s residence, lost four hundred -men in contests with the natives, who used -poisoned arrows, they sailed to the Moluccas, where -they remained about two years, till it was finally resolved, -not having the means to get back to New Spain, -to apply to the Portuguese governor to forward them -to Goa. At Amboina, Cosme met with Xavier, whose -conversation revived his religious inclinations; and, -proceeding to Goa, he was ordained a priest by the -bishop there, who placed him in charge of a cure. But -he found no peace of mind till he betook himself to the -college of St. Paul (which seems by this time to have -passed into the hands of the Jesuits), being the more -confirmed in his resolution to join the order, by the -return of Xavier to Goa, whose invitation to accompany -him to Japan he joyfully accepted, and where he continued -for twenty years to labor as a missionary.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</span></p> - -<p>Cosme, in his letter above quoted, says nothing of -any hostile collision of the Spanish ships, in which he -reached the East, with the Portuguese; but it appears, -from Galvano’s account of this expedition, that such -collision did take place. He also gives, as the reason -why the Spaniards did not land on Mindanao, the opposition -they experienced from some of the princes of it, -who, by his own recent efforts, had been converted to -Catholicism; and who, owing their obedience to him, -would by no means incur his displeasure by entertaining -these interloping Spaniards.</p> - -<p>One of the Spanish ships was sent back to New Spain -with news of their success thus far. This ship passed -among the northern islands of the group, which seem -now first to have received the name of the <i>Philippines</i>. -Another fleet sailed from Seville, in the year 1544, to -coöperate with Rui Lopes; but none of the ships succeeded -in passing the Straits of Magellan, except one -small bark, which ran up the coast to Peru. The -Spaniards made no further attempts in the East till the -expiration of ten years or more, when the Philippines -were finally colonized—an event not without its influence -upon the affairs of Japan.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V</h2> -</div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p class="hang"><i>Political and Religious Condition of Japan, as found by the Portuguese—The -Yakatas, or Kings, and their Vassals—Revenues—Money—Distinction -of Ranks—The Kubō-Sama—The Dairi—Shintō—Buddhism—Judō—A.D. 1550.</i></p> -</div> - - -<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">Japan</span>, as found by the Portuguese, embraced -three large islands, besides many smaller ones. -Shimo (or Kiūshiū), the most southern and -western of the group, and the one with which the -Portuguese first became acquainted, is separated at the -north, by a narrow strait, from the much larger island -of Nippon,<a id="FNanchor_25" href="#Footnote_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a> forming with its western portion a right -angle, within which the third and much smaller island -of Sikoku is included. These islands were found to -be divided into sixty-six separate governments or kingdoms, -of which Nippon contained fifty-three, Shimo -(or Kiūshiū) nine, and Sikoku four—the numerous -smaller islands being reckoned as appurtenant to one -or another of the three larger ones. These kingdoms, -grouped into eight, or rather nine, larger divisions, and -subdivided into principalities, of which, in all, there -were not less than six hundred, had originally (at least -such was the Japanese tradition) been provinces of a -consolidated empire; but by degrees and by dint of civil -wars, by which the islands had been, and still were, -very much distracted, they had reached at the period of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</span> -the Portuguese discovery a state of almost complete -independence. Indeed, several of the kingdoms, like -that of Hizen, in the west part of Shimo, had still -further disintegrated into independent principalities.</p> - -<p>It still frequently happened, however, that several -provinces were united under one ruler; and such was -especially the case with five central provinces of Nippon, -including the great cities of Miyako, Ōsaka and Sakai, -which five provinces formed the patrimony of a prince -who bore the title of Kubō-Sama—Sama meaning lord, -and Kubō general or commander. This title the Portuguese -rendered into <i>Emperor</i>, and it was almost precisely -equivalent to the original sense of the <i>Imperator</i> -of the Romans, though still more exactly corresponding -to Cromwell’s title of <i>Lord-general</i>.</p> - -<p>This Kubō or Shōgun, as he was otherwise -called, was acknowledged by all the other princes as in -some respect their superior and head. The other rulers -of provinces bore the title of Shugo, or Yakata, which -the Portuguese rendered by the term <i>King</i>. Reserving -to themselves, as their personal domain, a good half of -the whole extent of their territories, these chiefs divided -the rest among certain great vassals, called Tono, -Kunishū, or Kunidaimiō, who were bound to military -service in proportion to the extent of the lands which -they held; which lands, after reserving a portion for -their private domain, these nobles distributed in their -turn to other inferior lords, called Yoriki, who held of -them upon similar conditions of military service, and -who had still beneath them, upon the same footing, a -class of military vassals and tenants, called Dōshin, and -corresponding to the men-at-arms of the feudal times of -Europe. The actual cultivators of the lands—as had<span class="pagenum" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</span> -also been, and still to a considerable extent was, the -case in feudal Europe—were in the condition of serfs.</p> - -<p>Thus it happened, that, as in feudal Europe, so in -Japan, great armies might be very suddenly raised; and -war being the chief employment of the superior classes, -and the only occupation, that of the priesthood excepted, -esteemed honorable, the whole country was in a -constant state of turbulence and commotion.</p> - -<p>All the classes above enumerated except the last enjoyed -the highly prized honor of wearing two swords. -One sword was worn by certain inferior officials; but -merchants, traders, and artisans, were confounded, as to -this matter, with the peasants, not being permitted to -wear any. The revenue of the princes and other proprietors -was, and still is, reckoned in <i>koku</i> of rice, each -of three sacks or bales, each bale containing (according -to Titsingh) thirty-three and one-third gantings [<i>shō</i>],—the -universal Japanese measure for all articles, liquid -or dry,—and weighing from eighty-two to eighty-three -katties, or somewhat more than a hundred of our -pounds.<a id="FNanchor_26" href="#Footnote_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a> Ten thousand koku make a mankoku, in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</span> -which the revenues of the great princes are reckoned. -The distinction of rank was very strictly observed, being -even ingrained into the language. Inferiors being seated -on their heels, according to the Japanese fashion, testified -their respect for their superiors by laying the palms -of their hands on the floor, and bending their bodies so -low that their foreheads almost touched the ground, in -which position they remained for some seconds. This -is called the <i>kitō</i>. The superior responded by laying -the palms of his hands upon his knees, and nodding or -bowing, more or less low, according to the rank of the -other party.</p> - -<p>As to everything that required powers of analysis, or -the capacity of taking general views, the Portuguese -missionaries were but poor observers; yet they could -not but perceive in the Dairi the surviving shadow, and -indeed, in the earlier days of the missions, something -more than a mere shadow, of a still more ancient form -of government, in which the civil and ecclesiastical -authority had both been united under one head.</p> - -<p>The Dairi,<a id="FNanchor_27" href="#Footnote_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a> Ō, or Mikado, as he was otherwise<span class="pagenum" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</span> -designated, had for his residence the northeast quarter -of Miyako (a great city not far from the centre of Nippon, -but nearest the southern shore). This quarter was -of vast extent, surrounded by a wall, with a ditch and -rampart, by which it was separated from the rest of the -city. In the midst of this fortified place, in a vast -palace, easily distinguished from a distance by the -height of its tower, the Dairi dwelt, with his empress -or chief wife; his other eleven wives had adjoining -palaces in a circle around, outside of which were the -dwellings of his chamberlains and other officers. These -Dairi claimed to be descended from Jimmu, who, it was -said, had, <span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 660, introduced civilization into Japan, -and first established a regular government, and commencing -with whom, the Japanese annals show a regular -series of Dairi, who are represented as having been -for many ages the sole lords and imperial rulers of -Japan, till at length they had been insensibly set -aside, as to the actual exercise of authority, by the -Kubō-Sama, or commanders of the armies. Yet these -gradually eclipsed and finally superseded emperors—equivalents -of the “idle kings” of the Carlovingian race -of France, or to the present nominal sovereign of the -British empire—were, and still are, treated (as Queen -Victoria is) with all the ceremonial of substantial power, -and even with the respect and reverence due to the -spiritual head of the national church, descended from -a race of divinities, and destined at death to pass by a -regular apotheosis into the list of the national gods.</p> - -<p>All the revenue drawn from the city of Miyako and -its dependencies was appropriated to their support, to -which the Kubō-Sama added a further sum from his -treasury. He himself treated the Dairi with as much<span class="pagenum" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</span> -ceremonious respect and semi-worship as the British -prime minister bestows upon the British queen. He -paid an annual visit to the court of the Dairi in great -state, and, withal, the carriage of an inferior; but took -care to maintain a garrison at Miyako, or its neighborhood, -sufficient to repress any attempt on the part of -the Dairi or his partisans to reëstablish the old order of -things,—an idea which, when the islands first became -known to the Portuguese, seems not yet to have been -entirely abandoned.</p> - -<p>We may trace a still further resemblance between the -position of the Dairi of Japan and the Queen of England, -in the circumstance that all public acts are dated -by the years of his reign, and that all titles of honor -nominally emanate from him, though of course obliged, -as to this matter, to follow the suggestions of the Kubō-Sama. -Even the Kubō-Sama himself condescends, like -a British prime minister, to accept such decorations -at the hands of the Dairi, affecting to feel extremely -honored and flattered at titles which had been, in fact, -dictated by himself.</p> - -<p>The whole court of the Dairi, and all the inhabitants -of the quarter of Miyako in which he dwelt, consisted of -persons who plumed themselves upon the idea of being, -like the Dairi himself, descended from Tenshō-daijin, -the first of the demigods, and who in consequence looked -down, like the Indian Brahmins, upon all the rest of the -nation as an inferior race, distinguishing themselves as -Kuge, and all the rest of the nation as Gege. These -Kuge, who may be conjectured to have once formed a -class resembling the old Roman patricians, all wore a -particular dress, by which was indicated, not only their -character as members of that order, but, by the length<span class="pagenum" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</span> -of their sashes, the particular rank which they held in -it; a distinction the more necessary, since, as generally -happens with these aristocracies of birth, many of the -members were in a state of poverty, and obliged to support -themselves by various handicrafts.<a id="FNanchor_28" href="#Footnote_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a></p> - -<p>Of the magnificence of the court of the Dairi, and of -the ceremonials of it, the missionaries reported many -stories, chiefly, of course, on the credit of hearsay. It -was said that the Dairi was never allowed to breathe -the common air, nor his foot to touch the ground; that -he never wore the same garment twice, nor ate a second -time from the same dishes, which, after each meal, were -carefully broken,—for, should any other person attempt -to dine from them, he would infallibly perish by an -inflammation of the throat. Nor could any one who -attempted to wear the Dairi’s cast-off garments, without -his permission, escape a similar punishment. The -Dairi, as we are told, was, in ancient times, obliged to -seat himself every morning on his throne, with the -crown on his head, and there to hold himself immovable -for several hours like a statue. This immobility, it -was imagined, was an augury of the tranquillity of the -empire; and if he happened to move ever so little, or -even to turn his eyes, war, famine, fire, or pestilence -was expected soon to afflict the unhappy province toward -which he had squinted. But as the country was thus -kept in a state of perpetual agitation, the happy substitute -was finally hit upon of placing the crown upon -the throne without the Dairi—a more fixed immobility<span class="pagenum" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</span> -being thus assured; and, as Kämpfer dryly observes, -one doubtless producing much the same good effects.</p> - -<p>At the time of the arrival of Xavier in Japan the -throne of the Dairi was filled by Go-Nara, the hundred -and sixth, according to the Japanese chronicles, in the -order of succession; while the throne of the Kubō-Sama -was occupied by Yoshiharu, who was succeeded the next -year by his son Yoshiteru, the twenty-fourth of these -officers, according to the Japanese, since their assumption -of sovereign power in the person of Yoritomo, -<span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1185.</p> - -<p>The Japanese annals, which are scarcely more than a -chronological table of successions, cast little light upon -the causes and progress of this revolution;<a id="FNanchor_29" href="#Footnote_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a> but, from -the analogy of similar cases, we may conjecture that it -was occasioned, at least in part, by the introduction into -Japan, and the spread there, of a new religion, gradually -superseding, to a great extent, the old system, of -which the Dairi was the head.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp90" id="i_064" style="max-width: 62.5em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/i_064f.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Image of Yoritomo</span> -From <i>Official History of Japan</i></div> -</div> - - -<p>One might have expected from the Portuguese missionaries -a pretty exact account of the various creeds -and sects of Japan, or, at least, of the two leading -religions, between which the great bulk of the people -were divided; instead of which they confound perpetually -the ministers of the two religions under the common -name of bonzes, taking very little pains to distinguish<span class="pagenum" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</span> -between the two systems, both of which they regarded -as equally false and pernicious. Their attention, indeed, -seems to have been principally fixed on the new religion, -that of Buddha, or Ho, of which the adherents were by -far the most numerous, and the hierarchy the most compact -and formidable, presenting, in its organization and -practices (with, however, on some points a very different -set of doctrines), a most singular counterpart to the -Catholic Church,—a similarity which the missionaries -could only explain by the theory of a diabolical imitation; -and which some subsequent Catholic writers -have been inclined to ascribe, upon very unsatisfactory -grounds, to the ancient labors of Armenian and Nestorian -missionaries, being extremely unwilling to admit -what seems, however, very probable, if not, indeed, -certain,—little attention has as yet been given to this -interesting inquiry,—that some leading ideas of the -Catholic Church have been derived from Buddhist -sources, whose missionaries, while penetrating, as we -know they did, to the East, and converting entire -nations, may well be supposed not to have been without -their influence also on the West.</p> - -<p>Notwithstanding, however, the general prevalence, -at the time when Japan first became known to Europeans, -of the doctrine of Buddha,—of which there -would seem to have been quite a number of distinct -observances, not unlike the different orders of monks -and friars in the Catholic Church,—it appears, as well -from the memoirs of the Jesuit missionaries, as from -more exact and subsequent observations made by -residents in the Dutch service, that there also existed -another and more ancient religious system, with which -the person and authority of the Dairi had been and still<span class="pagenum" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</span> -were closely identified. This system<a id="FNanchor_30" href="#Footnote_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a> was known as -the religion of <i>Shintō</i>, or of the <i>Kami</i>,—a name given -not only to the seven mythological personages, or celestial -gods, who compose the first Japanese dynasty, and -to the five demigods, or terrestrial gods, who compose -the second (two dynasties which, as in the similar mythology -of the Egyptians and Hindus, were imagined -to have extended through immense and incomprehensible -ages preceding the era of Jimmu), but including -also the whole series of the Dairi, who traced their -descent from the first of the demigods, and who, though -regarded during their lives as mere men, yet at their -deaths underwent, as in the case of the Roman Cæsars, -a regular apotheosis, by which they were added to the -number of the Kami, or Shin,—words both of which -had the same signification, namely, inhabitants of -heaven.<a id="FNanchor_31" href="#Footnote_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a> A like apotheosis was also extended to all -who had seemed to deserve it by their sanctity, their -miracles, or their great benefactions.</p> - -<p>The Kami of the first dynasty, the seven superior -gods, being regarded as too elevated above the earth to -concern themselves in what is passing on it, the chief -object of the worship of the adherents of this ancient -system was the goddess Tenshō-daijin,<a id="FNanchor_32" href="#Footnote_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a> already mentioned -as the first of the demigods, and the supposed -progenitor of the Dairi, and of the whole order of the -Kuge. Of this Tenshō-daijin, and of her heroic and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</span> -miraculous deeds, a vast many fables were in circulation. -Even those who had quitted the ancient religion -to embrace the new sects paid a sort of worship to the -pretended mother of the Japanese nation; and there -was not a considerable city in the empire in which there -was not a temple to her honor. On the other hand, the -religion of the Kami, by its doctrine of the apotheosis -of all great saints and great heroes, gave, like the old -pagan religions, a hospitable reception to all new gods, -so that even the rival demigod, Buddha, came to be -regarded by many as identical with Tenshō-daijin,—a -circumstance which will serve to explain the great -intermixture of religious ideas found in Japan, and the -alleged fact, very remarkable, if true, that, till after the -arrival of the Portuguese missionaries, religious persecution -had never been known there.</p> - -<p>Each of these numerous demigods was supposed by -the adherents of the religion of Shintō to preside over -a special paradise of his own; this one in the air, that -one at the bottom of the sea, one in the moon and -another in the sun, and so on; and each devotee, choosing -his god according to the paradise that pleased him -best, spared no pains to gain admission into it. For -what St. Paul had said of the Athenians, might, according -to the missionaries, be applied with equal truth to -the Japanese,—they were excessively superstitious, and -this superstition had so multiplied temples, that there -was scarcely a city in which, counting all the smaller -chapels, the number did not seem at least equal to that -of the most pious Catholic countries.</p> - -<p>The temples of the Shintō religion, called <i>Miya</i>, were -and are—for in this respect no change has taken place—ordinarily -built upon eminences, in retired spots, at<span class="pagenum" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</span> -a distance from bustle and business, surrounded by -groves and approached by a great avenue having a gate -of stone or wood, and bearing a tablet or door-plate of -a foot and a half square, which announces, in gilded -letters, the name of the Kami to whom the temple is -consecrated. These exterior appendages would seem to -foretell a considerable structure; but within there is -usually found only a wretched little building of wood, -half hid among trees and shrubbery, about eighteen -feet in length, breadth, and height, all its dimensions -being equal, and with only a single grated window, -through which the interior may be seen, empty, or containing -merely a mirror of polished metal, set in a frame -of braided straw, or hung about with fringes of white -paper. Just within the entrance of the enclosure stands -a basin of water, by washing in which the worshippers -may purify themselves. Beside the temple is a great -chest for the reception of alms, partly by which, and -partly by an allowance from the Dairi, the guardians of -the temples are supported, while at the gate hangs a -gong, on which the visitant announces his arrival. -Most of these temples have also an antechamber, in -which sit those who have the charge, clothed in rich -garments. There are commonly also in the enclosure -a number of little chapels, or miniature temples, portable -so as to be carried in religious processions. All of -these temples are built after one model, the famous one -of <i>Ise</i>, near the centre of the island of Nippon, and -which within the enclosure is equally humble with all -the rest.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_068" style="max-width: 75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/i_068f.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Ise Temple</span></div> -</div> - -<p>The worship consists in prayers and prostrations. -Works of religious merit are, casting a contribution -into the alms-chest, and avoiding or expiating the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</span> -impurities supposed to be the consequence of being -touched by blood, of eating of the flesh of any quadruped -except the deer, and to a less extent even that of -any bird, of killing any animal, of coming in contact -with a dead person, or even, among the more scrupulous, -of seeing, hearing of, or speaking of any such impurities. -To these may be added, as works of religious -merit, the celebration of festivals, of which there are -two principal ones in each month, being the first and -fifteenth day of it, besides five greater ones distributed -through the year, and lasting, some of them, for several -days, in which concerts, spectacles, and theatrical exhibitions -form a leading part. We must add the going on -pilgrimages, to which, indeed, all the religious of Japan -are greatly addicted. The pilgrimage esteemed by the -adherents of Shintō as the most meritorious, and which -all are bound to make once a year, or, at least, once in -their life, is that of <i>Ise</i>, the name of a central province -on the south coast of Nippon, in which Tenshō-daijin -was reported to have been born and to have died, and -which contains a Miya, exceedingly venerated, and -already mentioned as the model after which all the -others are built.</p> - -<p>Though it is not at all easy to distinguish what, either -of ceremony or doctrine, was peculiar or original in the -system of Shintō,<a id="FNanchor_33" href="#Footnote_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a> yet in general that system seems to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</span> -have been much less austere than the rival doctrine of -Buddha, which teaches that sorrow is inseparable from -existence, the only escape from it being in annihilation. -The adherents of Shintō were, on the other hand, much -more disposed to look upon the bright side of things, -turning their religious festivals into holidays, and regarding -people in sorrow and distress as unfit for the -worship of the gods, whose felicity ought not to be -disturbed by the sight of pain and misery. And this, -perhaps, was one of the causes that enabled the religion -of Buddha, which addresses itself more to the sorrowing -hearts of which the world is so full, to obtain that predominance -of which the Portuguese missionaries found -it in possession.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp90" id="i_070" style="max-width: 62.5em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/i_070f.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">A Shintō Priest</span></div> -</div> - -<p>Of this religion of Buddha, by no means peculiar to -Japan, but prevailing through the whole of central and -southeastern Asia, and having probably more adherents -than any other religious creed, it is not necessary here -to speak at any length. A much more correct idea of -it is to be obtained from the recorded observations of -our modern missionaries, and from the elaborate investigations -of Abel Rémusat, and several other learned -Orientalists, who have shed a flood of light upon this -interesting subject, than can be gathered from the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</span> -letters of the Portuguese missionaries, whose comprehension -of the Buddhist doctrine was, on many important -points, especially as to the cardinal one of annihilation, -exceedingly confused, contradictory, and erroneous; -and, indeed, the same confusion and error exists in -almost all European travellers in the East, down to a -very recent period. Suffice it to say, that in the austerities -and contempt for the world and its pleasures, -practised and professed by the bonzes of the Buddhists, -even Xavier and his brother Jesuits found their match; -while, in the hierarchy into which those bonzes were -arranged; the foreign language, imperfectly known -even to themselves, of their sacred books and their -liturgy, and which recent investigations have detected to -be, with the bonzes of China and Japan, not Pali alone, -but also pure Sanscrit; their doctrine of celibacy; the -establishment of monasteries and nunneries; their orders -of begging devotees; their exterior of purity and self-denial, -but supposed secret licentiousness;<a id="FNanchor_34" href="#Footnote_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a> their fasts; -their garbs; the tinkling of bells; the sign of the cross; -the rosaries on which they counted their prayers; the -large number of persons of noble birth who entered -upon the clerical life; their manner of preaching; their -religious processions; their pilgrimages; the size, splendor, -and magnificence of their temples, known as Tera, -the roofs supported by tall pillars of cedar; the altar -within, and the lamps and incense burning there; the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</span> -right of asylum possessed by the Tera; and even the -practice of confession, prayers for the dead, and the sale -of merit;—in all these respects, this system presented a -complete counterpart at least to the show and forms and -priestly devices of that very scheme of Roman Catholic -worship which Xavier and his brother missionaries -sought to introduce into Japan. The only striking difference -was in the images, often of gigantic size, to be -found in the Tera, but which, after all, were no more than -a set-off against the pictures of the Catholic churches.</p> - -<p>At the head of the Buddhist hierarchy was a high -priest called <i>Shaku</i>, resident at Miyako, and having -much the same spiritual prerogative with the Pope of -Rome, including the canonization of saints. With him -rested the consecration of the <i>Jūji</i>, corresponding to -the bishops, or rather to the abbots, of the Catholic -Church—all the Buddhist clergy being, in the language -of Rome, regulars (similar, that is, to the monks and -friars), and living together in monasteries of which the -Jūji were the heads. These Jūji, however, could not -enter upon their offices, to which great revenues were -attached, except by the consent of the temporal authorities, -which took care to limit the interference of the -Shaku and the Jūji strictly to spiritual matters.<a id="FNanchor_35" href="#Footnote_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a></p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_072" style="max-width: 75em;"> - <img src="images/i_072f.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Pilgrims returning from a Temple</span></div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</span></p> - -<p>There was this further resemblance also to the regular -orders of the Romish church, that the Buddhist clergy -were divided into a number of observances, hardly less -hostile to each other than the Dominicans to the Franciscans, -or both to the Jesuits. But as the church and -state were kept in Japan perfectly distinct,—as now in -the United States,—and as the bonzes possessed no -direct temporal power, there was no appeal to the secular -arm, no civil punishments for heresy, and no religious -vows perpetually binding, all being at liberty, so -far as the civil law was concerned, to enter or leave the -monasteries at pleasure. It was also another result of -this separation of state and church—as here in the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</span> -United States—that there was only needed a Jo Smith, -a man hardy or self-deceived enough to pretend to inspiration, -to set up a new observance; an occurrence by -which the theology of Japan had become from time to -time more and more diversified.</p> - -<p>There were also, besides the more regular clergy, enthusiasts, -or impostors, religious vagabonds who lived -by beggary, and by pretending to drive away evil spirits, -to find things lost, to discover robbers, to determine -guilt or innocence of accused parties, to interpret -dreams, to predict the future, to cure desperate maladies, -and other similar feats, which they performed -chiefly through the medium, not of a table, but of a -child, into whom they pretended to make a spirit enter, -able to answer all their questions. Such, in particular, -were the Yamabushi, or mountain priests, an order of -the religion of Shintō.</p> - -<p>Yet, exceedingly superstitious as the Japanese were, -there was not wanting among them a sect of Rationalists, -the natural result of freedom of opinion, who regarded -all these practices and doctrines, and all the various -creeds of the country, with secret incredulity, and even -contempt. These Rationalists, known as Jiudōshiu, and -their doctrine as Judō, and found chiefly among the -upper classes, looked up to the Chinese Confucius as -their master and teacher. They treated the system of -Buddha with open hostility, as mere imposture and -falsehood; but, in order to avoid the odium of being -destitute of all religion, conformed, at least so far as -external observances were concerned, to the old national -system of Shintō.<a id="FNanchor_36" href="#Footnote_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a></p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_074" style="max-width: 75em;"> - <img src="images/i_074f.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">A Buddhist Sermon</span></div> -</div> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI</h2> -</div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p class="hang"><i>Civilization of the Japanese—Animals—Agriculture—Arts—Houses—Ships—Literature—Jurisprudence—Character -of the Japanese—Their -Custom of cutting themselves open—A. D. 1550.</i></p> -</div> - - -<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">The</span> doctrine of the transmigration of souls, one -of the most distinguishing tenets of the Buddhist -faith, had not failed to confirm the Japanese -in a distaste for animal food, which had originated, -perhaps, from the small number of animals natives -of that insular country [<i>sic</i>],—an abstinence, indeed, -which even the ancient religion of Shintō had countenanced -by denouncing as impure the act of killing any -animal, or being sprinkled with the slightest drop of -blood. Of domestic tame animals, the Japanese possessed -from time immemorial the horse, the ox, the buffalo, -the dog, and the cat; but none of these were ever -used as food. The Portuguese introduced the deer and -the goat; but the Japanese, not eating their flesh nor -understanding the art of working up their wool or hair, -took no pains to multiply them. The Chinese introduced -the hog; but the eating of that animal was confined -to them and to other foreigners. The deer, the -hare, and the wild boar were eaten by some sects, and -some wild birds by the poorer classes. The fox was -hunted for its skin, the hair of which was employed for -the pencil used in painting and writing. The animal -itself, owing to its roguery, was believed to be the residence -of particularly wicked souls—an idea confirmed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</span> -by many strange stories in common circulation. The -tortoise and the crane were regarded in some sort as -sacred animals, never to be killed nor injured. Whales -of a small species were taken, then as now, near the -coast, and were used as food, as were many other kinds -of fish, the produce of the sea and rivers. Shell-fish and -certain seaweeds were also eaten in large quantities.</p> - -<p>The soil of Japan, being of volcanic origin, was in -some places very fertile; but in many parts there were -rugged and inaccessible mountains, the sides of which, -not admitting the use of the plough, were built up in -terraces cultivated by hand. Agriculture formed the -chief occupation of the inhabitants, and they had carried -it to considerable perfection, well understanding the -use of composite manures. The chief crops were rice, -which was the great article of food; barley, for the -horses and cattle; wheat, used principally for vermicelli; -and several kinds of peas and beans. They cultivated, -also, a number of seeds, from which oils were expressed; -likewise cotton, hemp, the white mulberry for the feeding -of silkworms (silk being the stuff most in use), -and the paper mulberry for the manufacture of paper. -To these may be added the camphor-tree, which grew, -however, only in the southwestern parts of Shimo, the -<i>Rhus vernix</i>, which produces the celebrated Japanese -varnish, and the tea-plant, spoken of by one of the early -Portuguese missionaries as “a certain herb called Cha, -of which they put as much as a walnut shell may contain -into a dish of porcelain, and drink it with hot -water.” From rice they produced by fermentation an -intoxicating drink, called <i>sake</i>, which served them in -the place of wine, and which was consumed in large -quantities. A yeast, or rather vinegar, produced from<span class="pagenum" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</span> -this liquor, was largely employed in the pickling of -vegetables. Their most useful woods were the bamboo, -the fir of several species, and the cedar.</p> - -<p>They understood in perfection the arts of weaving -silks and of moulding porcelain, and excelled in gilding, -engraving, and especially in the use of lacquer or varnish. -They also were able to manufacture sword-blades -of excellent temper.</p> - -<p>As in other Eastern countries, the greater nobles exhibited -an extreme magnificence; but trade and the arts -were held in low esteem, and the mass of the people -were excessively poor. Their buildings, though they -had some few solid structures of stone, were principally -light erections of wood, to avoid the effects of frequent -earthquakes; but this and the varnish employed exposed -them to conflagrations, which, in the towns, were very -frequent and destructive. These towns consisted, for -the most part, of very cheap structures (like most of -those throughout the East), so that cities were built and -destroyed with equal ease and celerity.</p> - -<p>Their commerce was limited almost entirely to the -interchange of domestic products, a vast number of -vessels, of rather feeble structure, being employed in -navigating the coasts of the islands, which abounded -with deep bays and excellent harbors.</p> - -<p>Of the sciences, whether mathematical, mixed, or -purely physical, they knew but little. They had, -however, a considerable number of books treating of -religion, medicine, and their history and traditions. -The young were instructed in eloquence, poetry, and a -rude sort of painting and music, and they had a great -fondness for theatrical representations, in which they -decidedly excelled. Their writing, in which they<span class="pagenum" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</span> -greatly studied brevity, was in columns, as with the -Chinese, from the top to the bottom of the page, for -which they gave this reason: that writing ought to be -a true representation of men’s thoughts, and that men -naturally stood erect. These columns read from right -to left. They employed, besides the Chinese ideographic -signs, a syllabic alphabet of their own, though -in many works the Chinese characters were freely -introduced.<a id="FNanchor_37" href="#Footnote_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a></p> - -<p>Jurisprudence, as in most Eastern countries, was a -very simple affair. The laws were very few. Heads -of families exercised great power over their households. -Most private disputes were settled by arbitration; but -where this failed, and in all criminal cases, a decision -was made on the spot by a magistrate, from whom there -was seldom any appeal. The sentences were generally -executed at once, and often with very great severity. -Whether from their temperament, or their belief in the -doctrines of transmigration and annihilation, it was -observed that the Japanese met death with more courage -than was common in Europe. It was, indeed, a point -of honor, in many cases, to inflict it on themselves, -which they did in a horrid manner, by cutting open -their bowels by two gashes in the shape of a cross. -The criminal who thus anticipated execution secured -thereby the public sympathy and applause, saving his -property from confiscation, and his family from death; -and, upon the death of superiors or masters, the same -fate was often, as a mark of personal devotion and -attachment, self-inflicted; and sometimes, also, in consequence -of a disgrace or affront, to escape or revenge<span class="pagenum" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</span> -which no other means appeared.<a id="FNanchor_38" href="#Footnote_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a> The missionaries -especially noted in the Japanese a pride, a self-respect, -a haughty magnanimity, a sense of personal honor, very -uncommon in the East, but natural characteristics -enough of a people who had never been conquered by<span class="pagenum" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</span> -invaders from abroad; while the great vicissitudes to -which they were exposed—all vassals generally sharing -the fate of their superiors—made them look upon -the goods and evils of fortune in a very philosophical -spirit.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_078f" style="max-width: 75em;"> - <img src="images/i_078f.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Performance of Harakiri</span></div> -</div> - -<p>Such was the condition in which Japan was found -when it first became known to Europe through the -letters and relations of Xavier and the other Portuguese -missionaries, his successors.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII</h2> -</div> - -<p class="center"><i>Preaching of Xavier—Pinto’s Third Visit to Japan—A. D. 1550-51.</i></p> - - -<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">It</span> is not our purpose to trace minutely the progress -and fluctuating fortunes of the Jesuit missionaries; -nor, indeed, would it always be easy to extract the -exact truth from relations into which the marvellous so -largely enters. Xavier’s letters throw very little light -on the subsequent history of his mission, which mainly -depends upon accounts derived from an inquisition into -the particulars of the apostle’s ministry and miracles in -the East, ordered to be made shortly after his death by -John III., of Portugal, and which resulted in a large -collection of duly attested depositions, containing many -marvellous statements, most of them purporting to come -from eye-witnesses, from which source the Jesuit historians -of the Eastern missions and the biographers of -the saint have drawn most of their materials.</p> - -<p>If we are to believe them, Xavier was not only always -victorious in his disputes with bonzes; he went even -so far, shortly after his arrival in Japan, as to raise the -dead—a miracle which furnished Poussin with a subject -for a celebrated picture. Xavier, we are told, had -been charged in India with a similar interference with -the laws of nature; it is true he attempted to explain it -away, as, perhaps, he would have done this Japanese -miracle; but that denial the historian Maffei thinks, -instead of disproving the miracle, only proves the -modest humility of Xavier.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</span></p> - -<p>Though at first well received, as we have seen, by -the king of Satsuma, and though, in the course of near -a year he remained there, the immediate family and -many of the relations of Anjirō were persuaded to be -baptized, yet the remonstrances of the bonzes, followed -by the transfer of the Portuguese trade, for the sake of -a better harbor, from Kagoshima to Hirado, caused the -king of Satsuma to issue an edict forbidding his subjects, -under pain of death, to renounce the worship of -their national gods. In consequence of this edict, -Xavier departed for Hirado, which island, off the west -coast of Shimo, having separated from the kingdom of -Hizen, had become independent under a prince of its -own. Anjirō was left behind, but soon afterwards was -obliged to fly to China, where, as Pinto informs us, he -was killed by robbers.</p> - -<p>At Hirado, in consequence of the representations of -the Portuguese merchants, Xavier was well received; -but, desirous to see the chief city of Japan, leaving -Torres behind, he set out with Fernandez and two Japanese -converts on a visit to Miyako.</p> - -<p>Proceeding by water, he touched first at Hakata, a -considerable town on the northwest coast of Shimo, -and capital of the kingdom of Chikuzen, and then at -Yamaguchi, at that time a large city, capital of Nagato, -the most western kingdom or province of the great island -of Nippon, separated at this point from Shimo by a -narrow strait.</p> - -<p>The populace of Yamaguchi, ridiculing Xavier’s mean -appearance as contrasted with his pretensions, drove -him out of the city with curses and stones. Winter -had now set in, and the cold was severe. The coast -was infested by pirates, and the interior by robbers,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</span> -which obliged the saint to travel as servant to some -merchants, who, themselves on horseback, required -him, though on foot, and loaded with a heavy box of -theirs, to keep up with them at full gallop. This, however, -seems a little exaggerated, as Japanese travellers -on horseback never exceed a walk; while the box which -Xavier carried is represented by the earlier writers as -containing the sacred vessels for the sacrifice of the -mass.</p> - -<p>Arriving thus at Miyako in rather sad plight, Xavier -found that capital almost ruined by civil wars, and on -the eve of becoming the field of a new battle. He -could obtain no audience, as he had hoped, either of -the Kubō-Sama or of the Shaku, nor any hearing except -from the populace, so that he judged it best to return -again to Hirado.</p> - -<p>There are two means of working upon the imagination, -both of which are employed by turns alike by the -Romish and by the Buddhist clergy. One is by showing -a contempt not merely for elegances, but even for -common comforts and ordinary decencies: the other, -by pomp, show, and display. Xavier, on his way to -Miyako, entered the city of Yamaguchi barefoot and -meanly clad, and had, as we have stated, been hooted -and stoned by the populace. He now returned thither -again from Hirado handsomely clothed, and taking with -him certain presents and recommendatory letters from -the Portuguese viceroy of the Indies and the governor -of Malacca, addressed to the Japanese princes, but of -which as yet he had made no use. Demanding an -audience of the king, he was received with respect, and -soon obtained leave to preach, and an unoccupied house -of the bonzes to live in. Here, being soon surrounded<span class="pagenum" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</span> -by crowds, he renewed, say his biographers, the miracle -of tongues, not only in preaching fluently in Japanese -and in Chinese to the numerous merchants of that nation -who traded there, but in being able by a single answer -to satisfy a multitude of confused questions which the -eager crowd simultaneously put to him. Such was his -success that, in less than two months, five hundred persons, -most of them of consideration, received baptism; -and, though the king soon began to grow less favorable, -the converts increased, during less than a year that he -remained there, to three thousand.</p> - -<p>The seed thus planted, Xavier resolved to return to -the Indies for a fresh supply of laborers; and, having -heard of the arrival of a Portuguese vessel at Fuchū, -in the kingdom of Bungo, leaving De Torres and Fernandez -at Yamaguchi, he proceeded to Fuchū for the -purpose of embarking.</p> - -<p>Among the merchants in this ship was Fernam Mendez -Pinto, now in Japan for the third time, and who -gives at some length the occurrences that took place -after Xavier’s arrival at Fuchū, where he was received -with great respect by the Portuguese, of whom more -than thirty went out on horseback to meet him.</p> - -<p>The young king, whose name was Kiuan,<a id="FNanchor_39" href="#Footnote_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a> had already -obtained, through intercourse with Portuguese merchants, -some knowledge of their religion. He invited -Xavier to an audience, to which the Portuguese merchants -accompanied him with so grand a display as -somewhat to shock the modesty of the saint, but which -strongly impressed in his favor the people of Bungo, to -whom he had been represented by the bonzes as so<span class="pagenum" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</span> -miserable a vagabond as to disgust the very vermin -with which he was covered. The young king received -him very graciously; and he preached and disputed -with such success as greatly to alarm the bonzes, who -vainly attempted to excite a popular commotion against -him as an enchanter, through whose mouth a demon -spoke, and a cannibal, who fed on dead bodies which -he dug up in the night.</p> - -<p>Finally, after conquering, in a long dispute before -the king of Bungo, the ablest and most celebrated -champion of the bonzes,<a id="FNanchor_40" href="#Footnote_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a> and converting several of the -order to the faith, Xavier embarked for Goa on the -20th of September, 1551, attended by two of his Japanese -converts. Of those one died at Goa. The other, -named Bernard, proceeded to Europe, and, after a visit -to Rome, returned to Portugal, and, having entered the -Society of Jesus, closed his life at the Jesuit college of -Coimbra, a foundation endowed by John III for the -support of a hundred pupils, to be prepared as missionaries -to the East.</p> - -<p>At Yamaguchi, after Xavier’s departure, the bonzes, -enemies of Catholicity, were more successful. An insurrection -which they raised so alarmed the king, that -he shut himself up in his palace, set it on fire, and,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</span> -having slain his only son with his own hand, ended by -cutting himself open. The missionaries, however, were -saved by an unconverted princess, who even induced -certain bonzes to shelter them; and a brother of the -king of Bungo having been elected king of Nagato, the -Catholics, not one of whom, we are told, had been killed -in the insurrection, were soon on a better footing than -ever.<a id="FNanchor_41" href="#Footnote_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a></p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VIII">CHAPTER VIII</h2> -</div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p class="hang"><i>Progress of the Missions under Fathers De Torres and Nugnes Barreto—Mendez -Pinto a Fourth Time in Japan—A. D. 1551-1557.</i></p> -</div> - - -<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">The</span> apostle of the Indies returned no more to -Japan. He died in December, 1552, at the age -of forty-six, on his way to China, at the island -of Sancian, a little way from Macao, partly, it would -seem, through vexation at having been disappointed, by -the jealousy and obstinacy of the governor of Malacca, -in a more direct mission to that empire, on which he -had set his heart, and for which he had made every -arrangement.</p> - -<p>But already, before leaving for China, he had despatched -from Malacca three new missionaries to Japan, -Balthaza Gago, a priest, and two brothers, Peter -d’Alcaceva and Edward de Sylva, who landed at Kagoshima, -in August, 1552, whence they proceeded to -Bungo, where, as well as at Yamaguchi, a site had been -granted for a residence and a church. Father de -Torres, now at the head of the mission, in a sort of -general assembly of the faithful, to which the principal -converts were admitted, regulated the policy of the -infant church. To meet the objection of the bonzes, -that the new converts had left their old religions to -escape the usual contributions of alms, it was resolved -to establish hospitals for the sick and poor, as well -pagan as converted,—and the more so as poverty in -Japan was regarded as peculiarly despicable, and the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</span> -poor as condemned by the gods. To suit the taste of -the Japanese for spectacles, an impressive burial service -was agreed upon.</p> - -<p>Great attention, according to the policy of the Catholic -Church, and especially of the Jesuits, was bestowed -on the education of the young. Not to be outdone by -the bonzes, the missionaries practised great austerities; -regular whipping of themselves in church by all the -converts made a stated part of their religious exercises; -but what most contributed to the spread of the new faith -was, so we are told, the exceeding zeal, self-denial, and -disinterestedness of the new converts, including among -the number several bonzes of the old religions, some of -whom were made Jesuits, and even ordained priests, -and who soon gave examples of sublime piety, which -even the missionaries themselves found it difficult to -imitate.</p> - -<p>Meanwhile, Peter d’Alcaceva, one of the newly -arrived Jesuits, having been sent back to Goa for -further aid, on his way to that capital found at Malacca -the body of Xavier, preserved in quicklime, and -also on its way to Goa, whither he attended it. At -Goa he encountered Fernam Mendez Pinto, who, having -amassed great wealth in the Indies, was about to -return to Portugal. Preliminary to this voyage Pinto -made a general confession to Father Nugnes Barreto, -the vice-provincial of the Jesuits; after which, falling -upon the subject of Xavier, whose dead body lying at -Goa was reported to work numerous miracles, he related -to his confessor many wonderful stories of the prodigies -which he himself had witnessed while with Xavier at -Bungo. Passing thence to the zeal and merits of the -Japanese converts, he strongly urged Nugnes to proceed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</span> -thither to take Xavier’s place, even offering himself to -go as his companion, and to devote the whole of his -fortune (except two thousand crowns to be sent to some -poor relations in Portugal), partly to the founding of -a seminary at Yamaguchi, whence the faith might be -diffused through the whole of Japan, and partly in -purchasing magnificent presents for the princes of the -country, which he thought would be a good means of -securing their favor for the new religion.</p> - -<p>Pinto was accordingly appointed ambassador from the -Portuguese viceroy to the king of Bungo, and Nugnes -sailed for Malacca in his company, taking with him -Father Gaspard Vilela, four brothers, not yet priests, -and five young orphans from the Seminary of the Holy -Faith, to act as catechists. Before setting out, Nugnes -and his brother Jesuits renewed their vows, according -to a rule of the order, which required such a renewal -once every six months. Pinto was present at this ceremony, -and his excitable temperament was so wrought -upon by it, that, seized with a sudden impulse, he -insisted upon himself repeating the vows, with an additional -one to consecrate his person and his goods to the -Japanese mission. As he was the viceroy’s ambassador, -it was resolved that he should not adopt the Jesuit habit -till after he had fulfilled his mission—a delay which -proved a lucky thing for Pinto, whose zeal speedily -began to evaporate. He served, indeed, for some time -in the hospitals of Malacca, where they arrived in June, -1554, and where, by the sickness of Nugnes and other -accidents, they were detained upwards of a year; and, -according to the letters of Nugnes, he gave great edification, -the people admiring to see so rich a man, and one -lately so fond of display and good living, clothed in rags<span class="pagenum" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</span> -and begging alms from door to door, having given up all -his wealth that he might the better obey the Lord.</p> - -<p>Sailing from Malacca, Nugnes and his company, after -perils from pirates, were driven by storms first to Sancian, -and then to Macao, whence, in the spring of -1556, Nugnes proceeded to Canton, where he made -many unavailing efforts for the introduction of Catholicism -into China. Meanwhile, he received letters -from Goa, urging his return, enclosing one from Loyola -himself, disapproving of such long voyages by the vice-provincials -of the order; but he was still induced to -Japan by a pressing letter from the prince of Hirado, -who hoped by this means to attract the Portuguese trade -from Bungo to that port. He sailed accordingly for -Hirado, but was compelled by stress of weather to find -a harbor in Bungo.</p> - -<p>Meanwhile, the parts of Japan occupied by the missionaries -had been the seats of serious commotions. -The king of Bungo had indeed confirmed his power by -suppressing an insurrection; but his brother, the king of -Nagato, had been driven from his throne and defeated -and slain by Mōri Motonari, a relative of the late king; -and during this civil war the city of Yamaguchi had -been sacked and burnt, and the missionaries obliged to -flee for their lives to Bungo. There, too, a new insurrection -had been attempted, but again without success; -though the king still kept himself shut up in a fortress -at a distance from his capital. He returned, however, -to receive Nugnes, which he did very graciously, but -resisted, on grounds of expediency, all his exhortations -to make an open profession of Catholicism. Thus disappointed, -Nugnes, after sending Gago to establish himself -at Hirado, thought it best to return to Goa.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_090f" style="max-width: 75em;"> - <img src="images/i_090f.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">The Kintai Bridge, Snō</span></div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</span></p> - -<p>On arriving in Japan, the zeal of Pinto had speedily -declined, and he had begun to sigh for his liberty. -Perhaps he was alarmed at the appearance of Cosme de -Torres, who, from being plump and portly, had, under -the thin diet of the country, and the labors of the mission, -grown to be exceedingly lean and haggard. At -all events, it was found impossible to revive his fervor, -and, as the Jesuits wanted no unwilling members, it was -decided to release him from his vows. He returned -with Nugnes to Goa, whence, not long after, he sailed -for Lisbon. In his book he relates his last visit to Japan, -but with no mention of his having joined the Jesuits,—of -which our knowledge is drawn from the published -letters of the missionaries, including one dated in 1554, -and written by Pinto himself, from the college at Malacca, -addressed to the scholars of the college of Coimbra, -and giving a sketch of his travels in the East.</p> - -<p>Having arrived at Lisbon, September 22, 1558, he -delivered to the queen regent a commendatory letter -from the viceroy of Goa, and had the honor to explain -to her what his long experience suggested as of most -utility for the affairs of Portugal in the East, not forgetting -also some private application for himself. The -queen referred him to the minister, who gave him high -hopes; but at the end of four or five years of tedious -solicitation, which became more insupportable than all -his past fatigues, he concluded to content himself with -the little fortune which he had brought from India, and -for which he was indebted to nobody but himself. Yet -he piously and loyally concludes that, if he had been no -better rewarded for twenty-one years’ services, during -which he had been thirteen times a slave, and seventeen -times sold, it could only be attributed to the divine<span class="pagenum" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</span> -justice, which disposes of all things for the best, and -rather to his own sins than to any want of royal discernment. -He died about 1580, leaving his narrative -behind him, which was not printed till 1614, and which -was written, as he says at the beginning of it, in his old -age, that he might leave it a memorial and heritage to -his children to excite their confidence in the aid of -Heaven by the example of his own sufferings and -deliverances.<a id="FNanchor_42" href="#Footnote_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a></p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_IX">CHAPTER IX</h2> -</div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p class="hang"><i>Louis Almeida—The Missionaries establish themselves at Miyako (Kyōto)—Louis -Froez—Princes converted in Shimo—Rise of Nobunaga—Prosperity -of the Missions—Noble and Princely Converts—Nagasaki -built—Nobunaga makes himself Emperor—A. D. 1557-1577</i>.</p> -</div> - - -<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">The</span> loss of Pinto and Nugnes, and even that of -Father Gago, who, three or four years later, -after a very zealous career as a missionary, grew -weary of the work, and obtained permission to return -to Goa, was more than made up for by the accession -of William and Ruys Pereyra, two of the catechists -brought by Nugnes, and whom, before his departure, -he admitted into the order, and especially by that of -Louis Almeida, who had arrived in Japan as surgeon -to a trading vessel, and who, after amassing a large fortune, -gave it all to pious uses,—of which a hospital for -abandoned infants was one,—and, joining the Jesuits, -soon became distinguished for his zeal and assiduity as -a missionary.</p> - -<p>The extension which, in the fluctuating condition of -affairs, shortly afterwards took place of the dominions -of the king of Bungo over the greater part of the island -of Shimo, was very favorable to the new religion. The -prince of Hirado was obliged to pay him tribute, and, -notwithstanding the double-faced policy of that prince, -the new doctrine continued to spread in his territories, -where some of the members of the ruling family became -converts. A new church was planted at Hakata, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</span> -the old original one at Kagoshima was reëstablished. -Presently the new faith gained a footing also in the -kingdoms of Arima and Gotō, which, as well as Hirado, -had been dissevered from the ancient province of Hizen. -The lord of Shimabara (afterwards famous as the last -stronghold of the Catholics) invited the missionaries to -his city. The king of Arima was also very friendly; -he gave the missionaries an establishment, first at -Yokoseura, and, after that city had been burned by the -bonzes, at a port of his called Kuchinotsu, on the -southern coast of the southwestern peninsula of Shimo. -The prince of Ōmura, a dependency of Arima, and -the prince of the island of Tanegashima, the same at -which Pinto had first landed, then a dependency of -Hirado, were both among the converts, and exceedingly -zealous to induce their subjects to follow their example; -and, notwithstanding the hostility of the bonzes, the -frequent wars between the princes, and repeated internal -commotions, by which the missionaries were often -in danger, the new religion continued to spread in all -parts of Shimo, and in fact to be carried by native converts -to many parts of Nippon, which no missionary had -yet reached. Meanwhile, new establishments also had -been gained on the island of Nippon, in addition to -that at Yamaguchi, at its western extremity. The -fame of the missionaries had induced an old Jūji, or -superior of a Buddhist monastery near Miyako (Kyōto), -to send to Yamaguchi to ask information about the new -religion. Father Vilela was despatched, in 1559, for -his instruction, and though the Jūji died before the -arrival of the missionary, his successor and many of the -bonzes listened with respect to the words of Vilela. As -none, however, were willing to receive baptism, he<span class="pagenum" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</span> -departed for Miyako, where he found means to approach -Yoshiteru, the Kubō-Sama, and to obtain from him -permission to preach. Having secured the favor of -Miyoshi, the emperor’s principal minister, and presently -that of Matsunaga, the chief judge, he converted many -bonzes and nobles, and built up a large and flourishing -church.</p> - -<p>An attack upon the emperor by Mōri Motonari, king -of Nagato, who forced the city of Miyako, and set it -on fire, detained Vilela for a while in the neighboring -town of Sakai, the most commercial place in Japan, -which seems, at that time, to have been a free city, as -it were, with an independent government of its own; -and there also a church was planted. But the emperor -soon reëstablished his affairs; and although, from the -hostility of Mōri, the church at Yamaguchi was very -much depressed, everything went on well at Miyako, -where Vilela was joined, in 1565, by Louis Almeida, -and by a young missionary, Louis Froez, lately arrived -from Malacca. Of their journey from Kuchinotsu to -Miyako we have a detailed account in a long and very -interesting letter of Almeida’s. His visit to Miyako -was only temporary. Froez remained there, and from -him we have a long series of letters, historical and -descriptive, as well as religious, which, for a period of -thirty years following, throw great light on the history -and internal condition of Japan.</p> - -<p>At this time the entire empire, since and at present -so stable, was the scene of constant revolutions. Very -shortly after Froez’s arrival Miyoshi and Matsunaga -conspired against their patron (<i>i. e.</i> the Shōgun Yoshiteru), -dethroned him, and drove him to cut himself -open, as did great numbers of his relatives and partisans.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</span> -These nobles, hitherto favorable to the missionaries, -now published an edict against them, probably to secure -the favor of the bonzes; and Vilela and Froez were thus -again driven to take refuge at Sakai, where they had a -few converts. But the believers at Miyako stood firm, -and a new revolution soon occurred, headed by a noble -called Wada Iga-no-kami, and by Nobunaga (Oda -Nobunaga), king of Owari,—which province adjoined -the emperor’s special territory on the east, a prince -whose military prowess had already made him from a -petty noble the master of eighteen provinces in the -eastern part of Nippon.</p> - -<p>In 1566 Wada and Nobunaga proclaimed as emperor -a brother of the late one—a bonze who had escaped -from the rebels. Miyako was regained, and the new -emperor established there <span class="allsmcap">A. D. 1567</span>. All real authority -remained, however, with Nobunaga, who showed -himself very hostile to the Buddhist bonzes, they having -generally taken the side of the late rebels. He -even destroyed many of their temples, using the idols -which they contained as materials for a new palace. -He easily granted to Wada, who was himself a sort of -half convert, the reëstablishment of the missionaries at -Miyako, which was soon confirmed by an imperial edict, -issued in 1568; and, in spite of an attempt at interference -on the part of the Dairi, the new religion, under -the protection of Wada, who was appointed governor of -Miyako, soon reached a very flourishing condition.</p> - - -<div class="figcenter illowp90" id="i_096f" style="max-width: 68.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/i_096f.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Image of Oda Nobunaga</span><br /> -From Dening’s <i>New Life of Toyotomi Hideyoshi</i></div> -</div> - -<p>To this prosperity at Miyako a strong contrast was, -however, presented by the state of things at Yamaguchi, -whence the missionaries were expelled by the king of -Nagato, though the church there was still kept alive by -the zeal and constancy of some of the converts. In the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</span> -island of Shimo the new religion continued to spread. -Indeed, the baptized prince of Ōmura, not content with -hacking idols to pieces, and refusing to join in the old -national festivals, wished also to prohibit all the old -ceremonies, and to compel his subjects to adopt the new -ones,—an excess of zeal which, by displaying the intolerant -spirit of the new sect, fostered a union of all -the old ones against it, such as at last occasioned its -destruction.</p> - -<p>This prince had allowed certain Portuguese merchants -to establish themselves at Nagasaki, then a mere -fishing village, but having a capacious harbor, the port -of Japan nearest to China and the Indies, at the head of -a deep bay, opening to the west. Presently he built a -church there, and, <span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1568, invited the missionaries -to make it their headquarters, with a promise that no -religion but theirs should be allowed. This invitation -was accepted; many converts flocked thither, and -Nagasaki soon became a considerable city. Fathers de -Torres and Vilela both died in 1570,<a id="FNanchor_43" href="#Footnote_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a> worn out with -years and labors, the latter being succeeded as head of -the mission by Father Cabral, sent out from Goa as -vice-provincial of the order, and accompanied by Father -Gnecchi, who soon became an efficient laborer.</p> - -<p>Meanwhile, an insurrection in the imperial provinces, -on the part of the old rebels, which it cost the life -of Wada to suppress, so provoked Nobunaga that he<span class="pagenum" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</span> -wreaked his vengeance anew upon the bonzes (who had -again aided the insurgents), by destroying a great number -of their monasteries on the famous mountain of -Japan (Hieizan), and putting the inmates to death. -This occurrence took place <span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1571, as the missionaries -remarked, on the day of St. Michael, whom -Xavier had named the patron saint of Japan. Cabral, -the vice-provincial, having made a visit to Miyako, was -very graciously received by Nobunaga. Shortly after -the titular Kubō-Sama made a vain attempt to regain -the exercise of authority. The defeated prince was -still left in possession of his title, but Nobunaga was -thenceforth regarded as, in fact, himself the emperor. -This was in 1573. In 1576 the church received new -and important accessions in Shimo. The king of -Bungo, though from the beginning favorable to the -missionaries, had, from reasons of policy, and through -the influence of his wife, who was very hostile to the -new religion, declined baptism; none of the courtiers -had submitted to it, and the converts in that kingdom -had consisted as yet of an inferior class. But the -second son of the king having taken the resolution to -be baptized, in spite of the violent opposition of the -queen, his mother,—who had great influence over -Yoshimune, the king’s eldest son, associated, according -to a usual Japanese custom, in the government,—his -example was followed by many persons of rank in the -kingdom of Bungo, and even by the neighboring king -of Arima, who died, however, shortly after, leaving his -kingdom to an unbelieving successor.<a id="FNanchor_44" href="#Footnote_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a></p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_X">CHAPTER X</h2> -</div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p class="hang"><i>Father Valignani—State of the Missions—Conversion and Baptism of -the King of Bungo—Growth of Nagasaki—Embassy to the Pope—Documents -relating to this Embassy—A. D. 1577-1586.</i></p> -</div> - - -<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">Such</span> was the state of things on the arrival, at -the beginning of 1577, of Father Alexander -Valignani, visitor-general of the Jesuit establishments -in the East, and who in that capacity came -to inspect the missions of Japan. He found there, in -addition to a large number of native catechists, fifty-nine -professed Jesuits (including twelve who had -arrived but a short time before), of whom twenty-six -were native Japanese; but, as only twenty-three of the -whole number were ordained priests, it was found very -difficult to meet the demand for ministers qualified to -baptize and to administer the other sacraments. Hence -the visitor was the more convinced of the necessity of -establishing a novitiate of the order (a project already -started by Father Cabral, the vice-provincial), and -seminaries for the education of the children of the converts -designed for the priesthood, especially those of -superior rank; and in his letter to the general of the -order and to the Pope, he recommended the appointment -of a bishop, so that ordination might be had without -the necessity of going to Malacca. He also settled, -at a general assembly of the missionaries, who met him -at Kuchinotsu, many points of discipline, and especially -a difficult and much disputed question as to the wearing<span class="pagenum" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</span> -of silk garments, which, as being the stuff in use by all -persons of consideration in Japan, some of the Jesuits -wished to wear. The ground taken was that it would -only be a new application of the policy, which had been -agreed upon, of conforming as far as innocently might -be to the customs of the country. This argument, -however, had not satisfied Father Cabral; he had prohibited -the wearing of silk, which the rule of the order -did not allow; and that decision was now confirmed by -the visitor.</p> - -<p>There were, however, other points upon which the -vice-provincial and the visitor did not so well agree. -Of Cabral, Charlevoix draws the following character, -one for which many originals might be found: “He -was a holy professor, a great missionary, a vigilant and -amiable superior; but he was one of those excellent -persons who imagine themselves more clear-headed -than other men, and who, in consequence, ask counsel -of nobody but themselves; or rather, who believe themselves -inspired, when they have once prayed to be so, -regarding as decrees of Heaven, expressed by their -mouth, all the resolutions which they have taken at the -foot of the cross, where the last thing to be laid down -is one’s own judgment.” Cabral had taken up the -idea that persons of such vigorous understanding as the -Japanese must be duly held in check; and the whole -twenty-six of them received, up to this time, into the -company, and almost all of whom aspired to the priesthood, -he strictly limited to such studies as would suffice -to qualify them for the subordinate parts of divine -service. This policy Valignani did not approve; but -when he sought to alter it, he encountered such opposition -from Father Cabral, to be obliged to send him<span class="pagenum" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</span> -off to Goa, appointing Father Gaspard Cuello in his -place.</p> - -<p>Shortly after the arrival of Valignani, the church -gained a new and distinguished accession in Kiuan,<a id="FNanchor_45" href="#Footnote_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a> -king of Bungo, who, having repudiated his old pagan -wife, to whom the Catholics gave the name of Jezebel, -married a new one, and was baptized with all his household, -taking the name of Francis, according to the custom -of the missionaries in giving European names to -their converts. There were even strong hopes of gaining -over his eldest son and colleague, Yoshimune, when -a war broke out with the king of Satsuma for the possession -of the intervening kingdom of Hyūga, which -resulted in the loss of all Kiuan’s conquests, and his -reduction to his original province of Bungo, which also -he was in danger of losing,—a change by no means -favorable to the missionaries. Kuchinotsu was ruined -in this war; and the spectacle of the vicissitudes to -which everything in Japan was exposed induced Valignani -to urge upon the Portuguese merchants and residents -to fortify Nagasaki. This was done in 1579, and -that port became thenceforward almost the sole one resorted -to by the Portuguese. The converted king of -Gotō having died, the guardian of his infant son showed -himself hostile to the missionaries; but this circumstance -was an advantage to Nagasaki, which received -many fugitives from these islands.</p> - -<p>The new king of Arima being brought, by the labors -of the visitor, to a better disposition, was baptized, and -became one of the most zealous of the converts. Both -the emperor Nobunaga and his three sons still continued -very well disposed to the missionaries, allowing Father<span class="pagenum" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</span> -Gnecchi, who was a favorite with him, to establish a -house, a church, and a seminary at Azuchiyama, his -local capital, which he had greatly beautified, and between -which and Miyako he had caused a highway to -be built, at great expense and with immense labor. His -evident design to make his authority absolute had indeed -led to a league against him, which, however, -proved of no avail, this attempt at resistance resulting -in the subjection of all the kings of the western half of -Nippon, except Mōri of Nagato. The good service -which the missionaries rendered, in persuading the -Christian princes, and the Christian vassals of the -unconverted ones, to submit to the emperor, as their -superior lord, caused Valignani to be very graciously -received, both at Miyako and also at Azuchiyama.</p> - -<p>On the visitor’s return to Shimo, the converted kings -of Bungo and Arima, and the prince of Ōmura, determined -to send ambassadors to be the bearers of their -submission to the Pope. For this purpose two young -nobles were selected, scarcely sixteen years of age: one, -prince of Hyūga, the son of a niece of the king of -Bungo, the other, prince of Arima, cousin of the king -of Arima, and nephew of the prince of Ōmura. They -were attended by two counsellors somewhat older than -themselves, by Father Diego de Mesquita, as their -preceptor, and interpreter, and by a Japanese Jesuit, -named George Loyola, and, in company with Father -Valignani, they sailed from Nagasaki February 20, -1582, in a Portuguese ship bound for Macao, now the -headquarters of the Portuguese trade to Japan. They -arrived at Macao after a very stormy and dangerous -passage of seventeen days; but the season of sailing for -Malacca being past, they had to wait there six months.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</span> -When at length they did sail, they encountered very -violent storms; but at last, after twenty-nine days’ passage -(January 27, 1583), they reached Malacca, passing, -as they entered the harbor, the wreck of another richly -laden Portuguese vessel, which had sailed from Macao -in their company. After resting at Malacca eight days, -they embarked for Goa, which third voyage proved not -less trying than the two others. Delayed by calms, they -ran short of provisions and water, and by the ignorance -of the pilot were near being run ashore on the island of -Ceylon. They disembarked at length at Travancore, -at the southeastern extremity of the peninsula of India, -whence they proceeded by land to the neighboring port -of Cochin. Here, owing to the unfavorable monsoon, -they had to wait six months before they could sail for -Goa, at which capital of Portuguese India they arrived -in September. The viceroy of the Indies received them -with great hospitality, and furnished them with a good -ship, in which they had a favorable passage round the -Cape of Good Hope, arriving at Lisbon August 10, -1584.</p> - -<p>Four years before, Portugal had passed under the -rule of Philip II, of Spain, who had thus united on his -single head the crowns of both the East and the West -Indies; and to him these ambassadors were charged -with a friendly message. The viceroy of Portugal -received them at Lisbon with every attention. At -Madrid they were received by Philip II himself with -the greatest marks of distinction. Having traversed -Spain, they embarked at Alicante, but were driven by -a storm into the island of Majorca, thereby escaping an -Algerine fleet and a Turkish squadron, both of which -were cruising in that neighborhood. Sailing thence<span class="pagenum" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</span> -they landed at Leghorn, where Pierro de’ Medici, -brother of the grand duke of Tuscany, was waiting to -attend them. They spent the carnival at Pisa, and -thence by Florence proceeded towards Rome.</p> - -<p>Aquiviva, general of the Jesuits (the fourth successor -of Loyola), was very pressing with the Pope for -a reception without display; but Gregory XIII (the -same to whom we owe the reform of the calendar) had -determined in consistory that the honor of the church -and of the holy see required a different course. The -ambassadors were met at Viterbo by the Pope’s light -horse, and were escorted into the city by a long cavalcade -of Roman nobles. The whole of the corso up to -Jesus, the church and house of the Jesuits, where the -ambassadors were to lodge, was crowded with people, -who greeted their arrival with deafening shouts. As -they alighted from their carriage, they were received -by Father Aquiviva, attended by all the Jesuits then -at Rome, who conducted them to the church, where <i>Te -Deum</i> was chanted.</p> - -<p>The next day a magnificent procession was formed -to escort them to the Vatican. It was headed by the -light horse, followed by the Pope’s Swiss guard, the -officers of the cardinals, the carriages of the ambassadors -of Spain, France, Venice, and the Roman princes, the -whole Roman nobility on horseback, the pages and -officers of the ambassadors, with trumpets and cymbals, -the chamberlains of the Pope, and the officers of the -palace, all in red robes. Then followed the Japanese -on horseback, in their national dress,<a id="FNanchor_46" href="#Footnote_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a> three silken -gowns of a light fabric, one over the other, of a white<span class="pagenum" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</span> -ground, splendidly embroidered with fruits, leaves, and -birds. In their girdles they wore the two swords, -symbols of Japanese gentility. Their heads, shaven, -except the hair round the ears and neck, which was -gathered into a cue bent upwards, had no covering. -Their features were hardly less divergent from the -European standard than their dress, yet their whole -expression, air, and manner, modest and amiable, but -with a conscious sentiment of nobility, was such as -impressed the bystanders very favorably. The prince -of Hyūga came first, between two archbishops. The -prince of Arima followed, between two bishops. Of -their counsellors, one was kept away by sickness, the -other followed between two nobles, and after him Father -de Mesquita, the interpreter, also on horseback. A -great number of richly dressed courtiers closed the -procession. The crowds, which filled the streets and -the windows, looked on in almost breathless silence. -As the ambassadors crossed the bridge of St. Angelo, -all the cannon of the castle were fired, to which those -of the Vatican responded, at which signal all the bands -struck up, and continued to play till the hall of audience -was reached.</p> - -<p>The ambassadors approached the foot of the papal -throne, each with the letter of his prince in his hand. -Prostrating themselves at the Pope’s feet, they declared -in Japanese, in a voice loud and distinct, that they had -come from the extremities of the earth to acknowledge -in the person of the Pope the vicar of Jesus Christ, and -to render obedience to him in the name of the princes -of whom they were the envoys, and also for themselves. -The Father de Mesquita expressed in Latin -what they had said; but the appearance of the young<span class="pagenum" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</span> -men themselves, who had essayed so many dangers and -fatigues to come to pay their homage to the holy see, was -more expressive than any words; and it drew tears and -sobs from the greater part of the audience. The Pope -himself, greatly agitated, hastened to raise them up, -kissed their foreheads, and embraced them many times, -dropping tears upon them. They were then conducted -to an alcove, while the secretary of the consistory read -the letters from the Japanese princes, which Father de -Mesquita had translated into Italian, and of which the -following may serve as a specimen:</p> - -<p class="center">“LETTER OF THE KING OF BUNGO,</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p class="hang">“<i>To him who ought to be adored and who holds the place of -the King of Heaven, the great and most holy Pope</i>.</p> -</div> - -<p>“Full of confidence in the grace of the supreme and almighty -God, I write, with all possible submission, to your -Holiness. The Lord, who governs heaven and earth, who -holds under his empire the sun and all the celestial host, has -made his light to shine upon one who was plunged in ignorance -and buried in deep darkness. It is more than thirty -years since this sovereign Master of nature, displaying all -the treasures of his pity in favor of the inhabitants of these -countries, sent thither the fathers of the Company of Jesus, -who have sowed the seed of the divine Word in these kingdoms -of Japan; and he has pleased, in his infinite bounty, -to cause a part of it to fall into my heart: singular mercy, -for which I think myself indebted, most holy Father of all -the faithful, as well to the prayers and merits of your Holiness -as to those of many others. If the wars which I have -had to sustain, my old age, and my infirmities had not prevented -me, I should myself have visited the holy places -where you dwell, to render in person the obedience which<span class="pagenum" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</span> -I owe you. I would have devotedly kissed the feet of your -Holiness, I would have placed them on my head, and would -have besought you to make with your sacred hand the august -sign of the cross on my heart. Constrained, by the reasons -I have mentioned, to deprive myself of a consolation so -sweet, I did design to send in my place Jerome, son of the -king of Fiunga [Hyūga], and my grandson; but as he was -too far distant from my court, and as the father-visitor -could not delay his departure, I have substituted for him -Mancio, his cousin and my great-nephew.</p> - -<p>“I shall be infinitely obliged if your Holiness, holding -upon earth the place of God himself, shall continue to shed -your favor upon me, upon all Christians, and especially -upon this little portion of the flock committed to your care. -I have received from the hand of the father-visitor the reliquary -with which your Holiness honored me, and I have -placed it on my head with much respect. I have no words -in which to express the gratitude with which I am penetrated -for a gift so precious. I will add no more, as the father-visitor -and my ambassador will more fully inform your Holiness -as to all that regards my person and my realm. I truly -adore you, most holy Father, and I write this to you trembling -with respectful fear. The 11th day of January, in the -year of our Lord 1582.</p> - -<p class="psig">“<span class="smcap">Francis</span>, King of Bungo,</p> -<p class="pcontr">“prostrate at the foot of your Holiness.”</p> - -<p>The reading of this and of the other letters, translated -into Italian, was followed by a “Discourse on Obedience,” -pronounced, in the name of the princes and the -ambassadors, by Father Gaspard Gonzales, a model of -rhetorical elegance and comprehensive brevity—whatever -may be thought of its ethical or theological doctrines—which -some of the long-winded speakers of the -present day, both lay and clerical, would do well to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</span> -imitate. We give, as a specimen, a passage from the -beginning:</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>“Nature has separated Japan from the countries in which -we now are, by such an extent of land and sea, that, before -the present age, there were very few persons who had any -knowledge of it; and even now there are those who find it -difficult to believe the accounts of it which we give. It is -certain, nevertheless, most holy Father, that there are several -Japanese islands, of a vast extent, and in these islands -numerous fine cities, the inhabitants of which have a keen -understanding, noble and courageous hearts, and obliging -dispositions, politeness of manners, and inclinations disposed -towards that which is good. Those who have known -them have decidedly preferred them to all the other people -of Asia, and it is only their lack of the true religion which -prevents them from competing with the nations of Europe.</p> - -<p>“For some years past this religion has been preached to -them, under the authority of the holy see, by apostolical -missionaries. Its commencements were small, as in the case -of the primitive church; but God having given his blessing -to this evangelical seed, it took root in the hearts of the -nobles, and of late, under the pontificate of your Holiness, -it has been received by the greatest lords, the princes and -kings of Japan. This, most holy Father, ought to console -you, for many reasons; but principally because, laboring as -you do with an indefatigable zeal and vigor to reëstablish -a religion, shaken and almost destroyed by the new heresies -here in Europe, you see it take root and make great progress -in the most distant country of the world.</p> - -<p>“Hitherto your Holiness has heard, and with great pleasure, -of the abundant fruits borne by this vine newly planted, -with so much labor, at the extremities of the earth. Now -you may see, touch, taste them, in this august assembly, and -impart of them to all the faithful. What joy ought not all<span class="pagenum" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</span> -Christians to feel, and especially the Roman people, at seeing -the ambassadors of such great princes come from the -ends of the earth to prostrate themselves at the feet of your -Holiness, through a pure motive of religion,—a thing which -has never happened in any age! What satisfaction for -them to see the most generous and valiant kings of the East, -conquered by the arms of the faith and by the preaching of -the gospel, submitting themselves to the empire of Jesus -Christ, and, as they cannot, from their avocations, come in -person to take the oath of obedience and fidelity to the holy -see, acquitting themselves of this duty by ambassadors so -nearly related to them, and whom they so tenderly love!”</p> -</div> - -<p>In the following passage the orator alludes more at -length to the revolt in Europe against the authority of -the Pope, which Philip II, no less than the Pope, was -at this moment vigorously laboring to put down, by the -recent introduction of the Jesuits into the Netherlands, -where the Protestant rebels had been suppressed, by -war against Holland, by aiding the French leaguers, by -countenancing the retrograde movement then in rapid -progress in Germany, and by preparing to carry out -against Elizabeth of England the sentence of deposition -which the Pope had fulminated against her.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>“O immortal God! What a stroke of thine arm! What -an effect of thy grace! In places so distant from the holy -see, where the name of Jesus had never been heard, nor his -gospel ever preached, as soon as the true faith shed there the -first rays of the truth, men of temperaments quite different -from ours, kings illustrious by their nobility, redoubtable for -their power, happy in the abundance of their possessions, -conquerors and warriors signalized by their victories, acknowledge -the greatness and dignity of the Roman church, -and hold it a great honor to kiss the feet of the church’s<span class="pagenum" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</span> -head by the lips of persons infinitely dear to them; all this -happens while we see men at our very gate blind and impious -enough to wish to cut off with a parricidal hand the head -of the mystic body of Jesus Christ, and to call in doubt, to -their own ruin, the authority of the holy see, established by -Jesus Christ himself, confirmed by the course of so many -ages, defended by the writings of so many holy doctors, -recognized and approved by so many councils!</p> - -<p>“But it is not proper that I should give way to grief, -or trouble the joys of this day by the recollection of our -miseries!”</p> -</div> - -<p>To this address, on behalf of the Japanese princes -and their ambassadors, Monseigneur Antony Bocapaduli -replied in Latin, in the Pope’s name, as follows:</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>“His Holiness commands me, most noble lords, to say to -you that Dom Francis, king of Bungo, Dom Protais, king -of Arima, and Dom Barthelemi, prince of Ōmura, have acted -like wise and religious princes in sending you from the extremities -of Asia to acknowledge the power with which God’s -bounty hath clothed him on the earth, since there is but one -faith, one church universal, and but a single chief and supreme -pastor, whose authority extends to all parts of the -earth where there are Christians, which pastor and only head -is the bishop of Rome, the successor of St. Peter. He is -charmed to see that they believe firmly and profess aloud -this truth, with all the other articles that compose the Catholic -faith. He gives ceaseless thanks to the divine goodness -which has wrought these marvels; and this joy appears to -him so much the more legitimate, as it has its foundation -in the zeal by which he is animated for the glory of the Almighty, -and the salvation of souls which the incarnate Word -has purchased with his blood. This is why this venerable -pontiff and all the sacred college of the cardinals of the -Roman church receive, with a truly paternal affection, the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</span> -protestation which you make to the vicar of Jesus Christ of -faith, filial devotion, and obedience, on the part of the princes -whom you represent. His Holiness earnestly desires and -prays to God that all the kings and princes of Japan, and -all those who rule in other parts of the world, may imitate -so good an example, may renounce their idols and all their -errors, may adore in spirit and in truth the sovereign Lord -who has created this universe, and his only son, Jesus -Christ, whom he has sent into the world; since it is in this -knowledge and this faith that eternal life consists.”</p> -</div> - -<p>The reply finished, the ambassadors were conducted -around to the foot of the throne, and again kissed the -feet of the Pope; after which the cardinals, drawing -near, embraced them, and put to them many questions -as to their travels and the rarities of their country: -questions to which they replied with so much sense and -acuteness as to cause no little admiration.</p> - -<p>At length the Pope rose, exclaiming, <i>Nunc dimittis -servum tuum, Domine</i> (which might by a pious Catholic -be taken as a prophecy of his approaching death). The -two chief ambassadors, who were of the blood royal, -were directed to lift up the train of his robes,—an -honor monopolized, as far as the princes of Europe were -concerned, by the ambassador of the emperor. The -holy father having been thus conducted to his apartment, -the cardinal St. Sixtus, his nephew, the cardinal -Guastavillani, and the duke of Sora entertained the -Japanese at a magnificent dinner. A private audience -followed, in which the ambassadors delivered the presents -they had brought, and the Pope announced that -he had endowed the proposed new seminary at Fuchū -with an annual dotation of four thousand Roman -crowns.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</span></p> - -<p>Gregory XIII died a few days after;<a id="FNanchor_47" href="#Footnote_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a> but his successor, -Sixtus V, who, as cardinal of Monte Alto, had -taken greatly to the Japanese, was not less favorable to -them as Pope. They assisted, among the other ambassadors -of kings, at his coronation, bearing the canopy and -holding the basin for his Holiness to wash in when he -said mass. They had the same honors when the pontiff -was enthroned at Saint John Lateran. The holy father -afterwards invited them to visit his country-house, -where they were splendidly entertained and regaled on -his behalf by his steward and four-and-twenty prelates.</p> - -<p>Finally, on the eve of the Ascension, in the presence -of all the Roman nobility, they were dubbed knights of -the gilded spurs. The Pope himself girded on their -swords, while the spurs of the two princes were buckled -on by the ambassadors of France and Venice, and those -of the two others by the Marquis Altemps; after which -the Pope placed about their necks chains of gold, to -which his medal was attached, and kissed and embraced -them. The next day his Holiness said mass in person, -and they communicated from his hand. He dismissed -them with briefs, addressed to their princes, of which -the following may serve as a sample:</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p class="center">“BRIEF OF POPE SIXTUS V TO THE KING -OF ARIMA</p> - -<p class="hang">“<i>Noble prince and our well-beloved son, salvation and apostolical -benediction.</i></p> - -<p>“Our well-beloved son Dom Michael, your ambassador to -this court, delivered to Pope Gregory XIII, our predecessor,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</span> -of holy and happy memory, now, as we must presume, in -glory, the letters with which your majesty had charged him; -and after these letters had been publicly read, he rendered -to that pontiff the obedience due to the vicar of Jesus Christ, -and which all Catholic kings are accustomed to render to -him. This was done in presence of all the cardinals of -the holy church, then assembled at Rome, of which number -we were. A greater concourse of persons of all conditions, -and a greater public joy, had never been seen. Shortly -after, it having pleased God to charge us, without our having -in the least merited it, with the government of His church, we -have also received with entirely paternal tenderness the same -duties of obedience which Dom Michael has renewed to us, -in the name of your majesty; whereupon we have thought -proper to add you to the number of our very dear children, -the Catholic kings of the holy church. We have seen, with -much joy and satisfaction, the testimonies of your piety and -religion; and, to give you the means of increasing these in -your heart, we have sent you, by your before-named ambassador, -inclosed in a cross of gold, a piece of the cross to -which was nailed Jesus Christ, King of kings and eternal -Priest, who, by the effusion of his blood, has made us also -kings and priests of the living God. We send you, also, a -sword and hat, which we have blessed, such as it is the custom -of the Roman pontiff to send to all the Catholic kings, -and we pray the Lord to be the support of your majesty in -all your enterprises. According to the usage in the courts -of the kings of Europe, the sword and hat should be received -at the end of a mass, to which we shall attach a -plenary indulgence for all sins for the benefit of all who -may assist thereat, and who, after having confessed themselves, -shall pray for the tranquillity of the Catholic church, -the salvation of the Christian princes, and the extirpation -of heresies—provided they have a true confidence in the -divine mercy, in the power which has been given to the holy<span class="pagenum" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</span> -apostles Peter and Paul, and in that with which we are -clothed. Given at Rome, at St. Peter’s, under the seal of -the fisherman,” etc.</p> -</div> - -<p>From Rome, escorted out of the city with all honors, -the ambassadors went by way of Loretto, where they -paid their devotions, to Venice, and thence to Milan -and Genoa, at which latter place they embarked for -Barcelona. They declined, as they had been so long -from home, a pressing invitation from Henry III to visit -France, and, after a new audience with Philip II, they -hastened to sail from Lisbon on their return voyage, -embarking April 13, 1586.<a id="FNanchor_48" href="#Footnote_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a></p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XI">CHAPTER XI</h2> -</div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p class="hang"><i>Events meanwhile in Japan—Downfall of Nobunaga—Accession of Hashiba, -afterwards known as Kwambacudono, and, finally, as Taikōsama—Edict -against the Jesuits—Return of the Ambassadors—A. D. 1582-1588.</i></p> -</div> - - -<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">While</span> the ambassadors were on their way to -Europe, great changes had taken place in the -Japanese islands. A few months after they -had sailed from Nagasaki, Akechi Mitsuhide, a favorite -general of Nobunaga’s, had marched from Miyako to -join Hashiba Hideyoshi, another favorite general, employed -in prosecuting the war against Nagato. The -stern severity of Nobunaga had rendered him very unpopular, -of which Akechi took advantage to turn about -and attack him, left as he was at Miyako almost without -troops. Nobunaga, thus betrayed and surprised, having -no other resource, set fire to his palace, and perished in -it, June 15, 1580, with his eldest son. His second son, -overwhelmed by this disaster, went mad, and in that -condition set fire to his father’s patrimonial palace at -Azuchiyama, thus kindling a conflagration which consumed -almost the entire city, including a splendid temple, -which Nobunaga had lately erected there, and in -which, suspending all other worship by edict, he had -required divine honors to be paid to a stone graven with -his arms<a id="FNanchor_49" href="#Footnote_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a> and other devices. To the missionaries, who<span class="pagenum" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</span> -had all along counted upon making a convert of Nobunaga, -this step had caused no less horror than surprise; -and they found in it a ready explanation of the sudden -ruin which had overtaken himself and his family, especially -as his eldest son had been the first to pay the -required worship.</p> - -<p>Akechi now aspired to succeed the master he had betrayed -and overthrown; but he was defeated by Ukondono -[Kōyama Ukon], another general, a nephew of the -Wada, who had played so conspicuous a part in previous -revolutions, and a convert to the Catholic faith, who -united with Hashiba to revenge their master’s death, -the latter marching upon Miyako in the name of the late -emperor’s third son, whom he proclaimed as Kubō-Sama, -reserving, however, to himself all real authority; and -thus again was Japan, as during part of Nobunaga’s -reign, furnished with two “idle kings,”—a Dairi and a -titular Kubō-Sama,—while the real power was in the -hands of a third party.</p> - -<p>Hashiba’s own very humble birth made him the more -willing to begin, at first, with ruling in the name of -another. Originally he was but a mere private soldier, -who, having attracted the attention of Nobunaga, as -well by his wit and drollery as by his courage and -sagacity, had been gradually raised by him to the highest -commands. This founder of the Japanese imperial -authority, as it now exists, is described as having been -short, but quite fat, and exceedingly strong, with six -fingers on each hand, and something frightful in his -face, his eyes protruding in a strange manner. It was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</span> -he who completed what Nobunaga had begun, and who -first gave to Japan, at least in modern times, a real -and effective emperor, ruling supreme over the whole -territory.</p> - -<p>The son of Nobunaga, being restless under the humiliation -to which he was reduced, was deprived of his -place as Kubō-Sama, and obliged to be satisfied with the -island of Shikoku, the smaller of the three larger Japanese -islands which his father had assigned him as an -appanage, while Hashiba declared himself the guardian -of an infant child of Nobunaga’s eldest son, whom he -set up as titular Kubō-Sama.</p> - -<p>He showed at first the same favor to the Catholics as -his predecessor had done, and the more so as Ukondono, -his confederate against the rebel Akechi, was himself a -convert, as were others of his great vassals and principal -officers of his court and army.</p> - -<p>As the son of Nobunaga could not keep quiet, he was -presently stripped of all authority, though his life was -spared, and Hashiba, assuming to himself the high title -of Kwambakudono, strengthened himself still further by -marrying a daughter of the Dairi.</p> - -<p>Desirous to outdo his predecessor in everything, he -converted Ōsaka, which had, till lately subdued by Nobunaga, -been under the rule of a bonze, into a great city, -and he built in its neighborhood a great stone castle. -To this city, made his capital, the Jesuit seminary, originally -established in the now ruined Azuchiyama, was -removed, another being also set up in the neighboring -city of Sakai. The king of Nagato was even induced -to allow the reintroduction of missionaries into his territories. -The king of Bungo having appealed to Hashiba -for aid against his neighbors, the converted general<span class="pagenum" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</span> -Kodera Yoshitaka, the chief commander of his cavalry, -whom he sent to Shimo, not only rescued the young -king, Yoshimune, from his enemies, the kings of Chikuzen -and Satsuma, who had taken his capital and ravaged -his territories, but succeeded also in bringing up to the -point of baptism that fickle and inconstant prince, who -had long been a great trial to the missionaries, as well as -to his pious father Civan, who, having given up to him -the reins of government, had been treated thenceforth -with very little respect. The result of this interference -also was to reduce the whole of Shimo to the power -of the emperor, who now reigned supreme over Shimo, -Sikoku, and all the western part of Nippon, though still -obliged to pay a certain deference and respect to the pretensions -and power of the local kings and princes, -whom, however, he required to be frequent attendants -on his court, and to leave their wives and children there -as hostages, and whose authority and consequence he -sought by all means to diminish.</p> - -<p>Peace thus reëstablished, everything seemed to favor -the spread of Catholicity, when, all of a sudden, and in the -most unexpected manner, in the month of July, 1587, -the emperor signed an order for the banishment of the -missionaries; and because Ukondono would not renounce -his religion (at least such was the ostensible cause), -stripped him at once of his place and his property. Father -Cuello, the vice-provincial, was ordered to assemble all -the missionaries at Hirado; and, in obedience to his order, -they collected there to the number of about one hundred -and twenty, only Father Gnecchi remaining concealed at -Ōsaka, and one brother in Bungo. But when the emperor -commanded them to embark on board a Portuguese -vessel about to sail, they resolved not to obey. A few<span class="pagenum" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</span> -indeed went on board and sailed for China; but the -greater part remained, a message being sent to the emperor -that the vessel could not carry the others; to which -he responded by ordering all the churches in Miyako, -Ōsaka, and Sakai to be destroyed. The converted -princes, however, in general, stood firm, except Yoshimune, -king of Bungo; and even the unconverted ones are -said to have protested against the emperor’s edict as in -violation of the freedom of religious opinion heretofore -allowed. The missionaries, in disguise, were distributed -through the territories of their adherents. The emperor’s -grand admiral, Konishi Settsu-no-Kami, who was viceroy -of Shimo, though himself a convert, still kept the confidence -of the emperor, as did also Kodera, the chief commander -of his cavalry. The Portuguese merchants were -admitted as before. After a little while the emperor -seemed disposed to wink at the conduct of the converted -princes, and the missionaries soon began to conceive hopes -that, by caution on their part, the work of conversion -might still go on, the stimulus of a prohibition not very -strictly enforced, more than supplying all the benefits -hitherto derived from the <i>éclat</i> of imperial favor.</p> - -<p>Some difficulty about obtaining recruits for the imperial -seraglio, especially from the province of Hizen, -celebrated for its handsome women, but in which the -converts were numerous, was said to have provoked the -emperor, in a fit of drunken fury, to put forth so suddenly -his edict of persecution. But, in fact, his policy -brooked no power but his own. He did not fancy a -religion which taught his subjects to look up with implicit -reverence to a distant and foreign potentate; nor -probably was his hostility to the Jesuits much different -in substance from that sentiment which had caused<span class="pagenum" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</span> -Henry VIII, of England, fifty years earlier, to break -with the holy see—a breach also ascribed by the Catholics -to amorous passion.</p> - -<p>But the cautious and artful emperor, who, however he -might give way to sudden fits of violence and caprice, -was a perfect master of all the arts of dissimulation, -knowing, as well as Bonaparte, if not better, how to wait -till the pear was ripe, was not yet wholly prepared to -break with the converted kings and nobles, whom he -found, perhaps, as well as the humbler converts, more -attached to their faith than he had supposed. There -were too many inflammable materials in his yet unconsolidated -empire for him to run the risk of provoking a -rebellion; and, besides, there still remained to be subdued -eight independent provinces in the east and north -of Nippon, including a kingdom of five provinces, in -which were situated the great cities of Suruga and Yedo.</p> - -<p>The conquest of this kingdom was speedily achieved, -partly by arts and partly by arms. A new palace was -erected for the Dairi, in place of the old one, which had -been burnt during the late troubles at Miyako. A -splendid temple had also been built near that city, in -which it was suspected that the emperor intended to -cause himself to be worshipped, as his predecessor had -done; when, in August, 1588, Father Valignani, appointed -ambassador to the emperor and kings of Japan, -from the Portuguese viceroy of Goa, arrived at Macao, -on his way to Nagasaki, having in his company the returning -ambassadors to the Pope, who had touched at -Goa on their way home, and who had stopped there a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</span> -whole year before proceeding for Japan.<a id="FNanchor_50" href="#Footnote_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a></p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XII">CHAPTER XII</h2> -</div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p class="hang"><i>Recapitulation—Extent of the Japanese Empire—Valignani arrives at -Nagasaki—Progress hitherto of the Catholic Faith—The Emperor’s -Projects against China—Valignani’s Visit to the Emperor at Miyako—Ukondono—The -returned Japanese Ambassadors—Audience given -to Valignani—The Viceroy’s Letter—The Interpreter Rodriguez—A. -D. 1588-1593.</i></p> -</div> - - -<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">The</span> Japanese islands had been found by Xavier -and his successors divided into numerous principalities, -which, though they acknowledged a -nominal subordination to one imperial head, were substantially -independent, and engaged in perpetual wars -with each other. The superior abilities of two successive -military usurpers,—Nobunaga, who ruled from 1567 -to 1582, and Hashiba Hideyoshi, who took first the title -of Kwambacudono, and subsequently that of Taikō-Sama—had -consolidated these numerous states into a real -empire, embracing then as now the three principal -islands of Nippon, Shimo (or Kiūshiū), and Shikoku, -with many smaller ones, and some claims also of authority -over parts, at least, of the large northerly island of -Matsumaye, or Yezo, the latter the aboriginal name.</p> - -<p>Among the dependencies, at present, of the Japanese -empire, are reckoned at the north, besides this island, -the southern half of the large island or peninsula of -Sakhalin, called by the Japanese Oku Yezo (upper -Jeso), or, as Siebold says, Karafuto, and the three -smaller Kurile islands, Kunajiri, Etoropu, and Uruppu, -numbered on the Russian charts as the 20th, 19th, and -18th Kurile islands, and the two latter called by the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</span> -Dutch <i>State’s Island</i> and <i>Company’s Island</i>. On the -south, the Lew Chew Islands form, or did form (for -the Japanese seem lately to have renounced their claim -of sovereignty), a dependency of the kingdom of Satsuma. -But all these are of comparatively recent acquisition, -subsequent to the accession of Hashiba. It is -said, indeed, on Japanese authority, that Yezo was first -invaded in 1443 by the Japanese family of Matsumae; -but it is apparent from missionary letters that in 1620 -it was a recent settlement. The Japanese annals date -the conquest of the Lew Chew Islands from the year -1610; and, according to Golownin, the Japanese settlements -on Sakhalin have been subsequent to the voyage -of La Perouse in 1782.</p> - -<p>Of Nippon, at least equal in extent to Great Britain, -and with a population nearer, it would seem, to that of -Great Britain now than to what that island could boast -in the reign of Elizabeth, the missionaries were as yet -acquainted only with the southwestern part—their establishments -being confined to the kingdom of Nagato, -at its western extremity, where it is separated from -Shimo by a narrow strait, and to the great cities of -Miyako, Ōsaka, and Sakai, situated towards the middle -of the southern coast. Many princes, nobles, and large -landed proprietors had fallen under the influence of the -Jesuits, and had professed the new faith; but it does not -appear that either in Nippon or in the adjoining island of -Shikoku (about equal in extent to Sicily) any considerable -progress had been made in converting the rural -population. It was in the island of Shimo, the westernmost -in situation and the second in size (two-thirds as -large as Ireland), that the new religion had taken the -firmest root. The kingdom of Bungo, indeed almost the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</span> -whole of the eastern portion of that island, was thoroughly -indoctrinated with the new faith; and such was -still more the case with the kingdom of Arima and the -principality of Ōmura, embracing that great southwestern -peninsula itself, divided into three smaller peninsulas -by two deep bays, one opening to the south and -the other to the west, at the head of the latter of which -is situated the city of Nagasaki.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_124f" style="max-width: 62.5em;"> - <img src="images/i_124f.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Painting of Taikō Sama</span></div> -</div> - -<p>Founded in 1579 by converts to the new faith, and -made the centre of the Portuguese trade to Japan, as -well as of the Jesuit missions, Nagasaki had grown up -with great rapidity; nor was any other worship practised -in it except that of the new religion. It had become the -largest and most important town in Shimo; and, since -the recent subjection of that island to the imperial -authority, according to the new policy of weakening the -local princes, the emperor had assumed the appointment -of its governor,—Nagasaki being placed, along with -Miyako, Ōsaka, and Sakai in the list of imperial towns.</p> - -<p>At the date of the edict, so unexpectedly issued in -1587, for the banishment of the Jesuits, there were in -Japan three hundred members of the company, a novitiate, -a college, two preparatory seminaries for the -education of young nobles designed for the church, two -hundred and fifty churches, and a number of converts, -amounting, probably, to between two and three hundred -thousand, though the estimate of the Jesuits was much -larger. Notwithstanding the apostasy of Yoshimune, -the young king of Bungo (whose father, Civan, had died -just before the emperor’s edict had appeared), the numerous -converts in that kingdom remained firm in the faith. -That zealous Catholic, the prince of Ōmura, had also -lately deceased; but the young prince, his only son and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</span> -successor, who had been educated by the Jesuits, was -hardly less zealous than his father had been. The king -of Arima also continued steady in the faith. It was this -king who, along with the deceased king of Bungo and -the deceased prince of Ōmura, had sent the ambassadors -to the Pope, of whose visit to Europe an account has -been given in a preceding chapter, and whom the last -chapter left at Macao, on their return to Japan, in company -with Father Valignani, who had been deputed by -the viceroy of Goa as his ambassador to the emperor.</p> - -<p>It was at Macao that Valignani and his companions -learned the news of the edict for the banishment of the -Jesuits. It was said at Macao that the emperor was a -good deal mollified, and seemed inclined to wink at the -general disregard of his edict; yet as Valignani was himself -a Jesuit, and had once already visited Japan in that -character, he did not judge it best to proceed to Japan -till he had first obtained express permission to do so. -On the representations of the Christian princes, who put -forward Valignani’s character as ambassdor, the emperor -readily consented to receive him; and, accompanied -by the returning Japanese envoys and some twenty -Jesuits, he landed at Nagasaki, in June, 1590, where he -was received with great affection by the converted princes -of Shimo, and by Father Gomez, who, on the death of -Cuello, had succeeded to the post of vice-provincial. -The emperor, in the late redistribution of the kingdoms -of that island, had liberally provided for Konishi Settsu-no-kami, -the grand admiral, and for Kodera, his general -of horse, both of whom, notwithstanding their continued -adhesion to the new faith, still retained his favor. To -Konishi he had given the kingdom of Higo, and to Kodera -that of Buzen, so that almost the whole of the island of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</span> -Shimo was now ruled by converted princes. Even the -changeable Yoshimune, not finding his apostasy so advantageous -as he had expected, soon sought and presently -obtained a reconciliation to the church. The king of -Hirado was not friendly, but he was kept in check by -the number of converts among his subjects, especially by -a very zealous converted wife, a sister of the prince of -Ōmura—whom he complained of as having more influence -over his kingdom than himself,—and also by his -fear of driving off the Portuguese merchants, who still -occasionally visited his island.</p> - -<p>Notwithstanding the emperor’s edict of expulsion, -there still remained in Japan a hundred and forty -Jesuits, including those lately brought by Valignani. -The seminary of nobles at Ōsaka had been broken up, -most of the pupils retiring with their teachers; but the -other seminary in the kingdom of Arima was still maintained, -being, for greater security, removed to a retired -spot surrounded with wood. The college and novitiate, -for similar reasons, were transferred to the island of -Amakusa. Besides these, the Jesuits had twenty other -houses of residence. Those districts in which the missionaries -had no settled establishments they supplied by -frequent journeys, which they made secretly, and generally -in disguise, being assisted also by a great number -of adroit and zealous native catechists, who not only -maintained the fervor of the old converts, but daily -added new ones to the number. This employment of -catechist was held in great honor in the church of -Japan. None were admitted into it except persons -of approved virtue, generally young men of family and -promise, devoted by their parents from their infancy to -a service upon which they entered for life, being<span class="pagenum" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</span> -ordained with much ceremony, and wearing a garb similar -to that of the missionaries with whom they lived in -community, observing the same rules. Conversions still -continued to be made among the upper as well as among -the lower classes, and the numerous adherents to the -new faith, or favorers of it, in the court and household -of the emperor, including even the empress, carefully -watched and reported to the missionaries every word or -hint dropped by him, from which his disposition and intentions -might be conjectured.</p> - -<p>At this moment the emperor’s thoughts seemed a -good deal withdrawn from domestic affairs, being engrossed -by a war, which he had determined to commence -by invading Corea, a dependency of the Chinese -empire, and the part of the continent of Asia nearest to -Japan. For this purpose he was constructing a fleet at -a port of Shimo, on the strait of Corea. Not long after -Valignani’s arrival at Nagasaki, leave was obtained for -him to visit the emperor’s court at Miyako; but his -friends there advised that, instead of ecclesiastics, his -retinue should be composed as much as possible of -Portuguese merchants. The merchants at Nagasaki -entered zealously into the affair, and not less than -twenty-seven of them accompanied Valignani, in the -style of great lords, sparing no expense to give magnificence -to the ambassador’s train. He took with him also -four priests, some young Japanese Jesuits not yet -ordained, and the four returned youthful ambassadors. -These ambassadors had learned to sing in the European -style, and chanted church music tolerably well. They -also had with them a great show of maps, globes, clocks, -watches, and other European curiosities, which attracted -much attention. Their description of what they had<span class="pagenum" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</span> -seen and heard made a deep impression upon the princes -and nobles, who flocked from all quarters to see them. -And there was ample leisure for this, as the approach of -the ambassador to Miyako was delayed for more than -two months by the death of the emperor’s only son.</p> - -<p>In this interval Valignani had the pleasure of a visit -from the disgraced Ukondono, whose face he was rejoiced -to see lighted up with an air of content rarely -seen among those on whom the favors of fortune are -most prodigally showered. He protested that the happiest -day in his life was that on which he had lost everything -for Jesus Christ. He communicated to Father -Valignani a design he had formed of quitting the world -altogether, and consecrating himself entirety to the service -of God; but besides that he had a wife and a -numerous family, whom his retreat would have left -without resource, the father considered that he was -much younger than the emperor; that if reëstablished -in his offices and his possessions, he might render much -greater services to the church by remaining in the world -than by quitting it, and on that ground he advised -Ukondono not to withdraw from that station in life in -which Providence had placed him.</p> - -<p>At last the emperor consented to admit Valignani to -an audience, but only on condition that he should say -nothing about religion or the revocation of the edict -against the Jesuits. Through the care of Kodera, to -whom that business had been entrusted, the embassy -was received at Miyako with all honor, and was able to -make a display which strongly impressed the inhabitants, -and even the emperor in its favor. On the day of audience, -Gon-dainagon Hidetsugu, the emperor’s nephew -and presumptive heir, attended by a great number of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</span> -lords, met the ambassador, and conducted him to the -hall of audience. This hall, which opened upon a magnificent -balcony, before which spread a parterre of great -beauty, consisted of five several divisions, rising, like -steps, one above the other. The first served as an antechamber, -or hall of waiting, for the gentlemen in attendance. -In the two next were assembled the lords of the -court and the great officers of the empire, arranged in -order, according to their rank. In the fourth, there were -only two persons, a priest who held the first dignity in -the household of the Dairi, and the chief counsellor of -that same dignitary; by the side of whom Gon-dainagon -also took his place, after introducing the ambassador to -the fifth and highest apartment, in which the emperor -was seated alone, on his heels, in the Japanese fashion -upon an elevated throne, approached by steps on all -sides. Father Valignani was preceded by one of the -Portuguese gentlemen of his suite, bearing the letter -of the Indies, written in gilded letters upon fine vellum, -with a golden seal attached to it, the whole enclosed in -a little box beautifully wrought. That letter was as -follows:</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p class="center">LETTER OF THE VICEROY OF GOA TO THE -EMPEROR OF JAPAN.</p> - -<p>“<span class="smcap">Most Serene Emperor</span>: Though the great space that -separates us has not hitherto allowed me much communication -with your majesty, yet fame and the religious men who -labor in your empire to make known the law of the true God -to your subjects, have informed me of the great deeds done -by you, and of the victories which have made you the greatest -monarch who has reigned in Japan for ages; and I have<span class="pagenum" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</span> -therefore thought it my duty to congratulate your majesty -on the happy successes with which the God of heaven has -favored you. The same religious men, who are, for the -most part, natural-born subjects of the great prince whom -the Indies obey, and who go through the earth with a truly -heroical courage to teach men to know and to adore the Author -of nature, have also informed me of the distinguished -favors with which your majesty has uniformly honored them, -and have begged me to convey to you their thanks, which I -willingly do, conjointly with my own; and that, indeed, is -the particular object of this embassy, with which I have -charged the Father Alexander Valignani, who has the honor -to be already known to you. After rendering to your majesty -his humblest thanks for your past favors, he will supplicate -you, in my name, to vouchsafe to continue them; and -I dare to assure your majesty that subjects for your favors -cannot be found who will merit them better. Favors to -them I shall esteem as favors to me, and shall take every -opportunity to acknowledge them as such. I have charged -my ambassador to present you with two Arabian genets, -with their housings and harness, two swords, and two guns -of a new fashion, two webs of tapestry embroidered with -gold, and two complete suits of wrought steel armor, a dagger, -which serves also as a pistol, and a tent for country -excursions.</p> - -<p>“At Goa, this year of Redemption, 1587.</p> - -<p> -<span class="smcap">Dom Edward de Menesez.</span>”<a id="FNanchor_51" href="#Footnote_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a><br /> -</p> -</div> - -<p>The presents seemed greatly to please the emperor, by -whom they were carefully examined. A signal being -given, Valignani was led up the steps of the throne to -the emperor’s feet, whom, on bended knee, he saluted, -after the European fashion, by kissing his hand,—a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</span> -privilege to which all the members of his suite were -admitted in succession, the ambassador being meanwhile -seated in the third compartment among the grandees of -the court. Tea was then served to the emperor in a -gilded cup, which, after sipping from it a little, he sent -to the ambassador, who, at the same time, received, by -way of present, a hundred silver platters and four silk -dresses. Presents were also distributed among the members -of his suite. The emperor then retired, first directing -his nephew to entertain the ambassador at dinner, -which he did, but with more of ceremony than good -cheer. The guests consisted of three members of the -imperial family and eight other great lords, all eating, -each from his own little table or salver, in profound -silence, many persons of inferior rank standing about -them. The ambassador’s suite were entertained at the -same time in a separate apartment.</p> - -<p>After dinner the emperor again made his appearance -in undress, and, seating himself beside Father Valignani, -conversed with him for some time. He also conversed -freely with the four returned Japanese, and seemed much -pleased at hearing them sing and play in the European -fashion. He made great offers to one of them; but they -had all made up their minds to enter the company of the -Jesuits, which, in spite of a good deal of opposition on -the part of their friends and relations, they presently -did.<a id="FNanchor_52" href="#Footnote_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a> Passing into the hall where the ambassador’s suite -had dined, the emperor addressed them with great familiarity, -and they improved the opportunity to complain of -some oppressions, on the part of the collector of the port<span class="pagenum" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</span> -of Nagasaki, which he promised should be redressed.<a id="FNanchor_53" href="#Footnote_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a> -In the evening, Rodriguez, a young Portuguese Jesuit, -who acted as one of Valignani’s interpreters, was sent for -to show the emperor how to wind up a clock which the -ambassador had presented to him. The emperor seemed -much pleased with Rodriguez’s conversation, detaining -him till late at night. On dismissing him he bade him -say to Father Valignani that he was at liberty to remain -at Miyako or wherever he pleased, till an answer to the -viceroy’s letter was prepared, but that he must take care -that the ecclesiastics who accompanied him comported -themselves with discretion, so as not to drive him into -striking disagreeable blows. Not long after Rodriguez -was selected as the emperor’s interpreter, in which capacity -he became attached to the court, and, by his access -to the emperor and influence with him, had opportunities -of rendering essential service to his order.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XIII">CHAPTER XIII</h2> -</div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p class="hang"><i>New Troubles of the Missionaries from their own Countrymen—The Emperor -claims Homage of the Governor of the Philippines—Mutual -Jealousies of the Portuguese and Spaniards—Spanish Adventurers -in Japan—The Emperor’s Suspicions excited—His Reply to the -Viceroy of Goa.—A. D. 1591-1592.</i></p> -</div> - - -<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">Valignani’s</span> gracious reception greatly raised -the hopes of the Japanese converts. But much -annoyance was soon experienced from two pagan -lords, who had been appointed joint governors of Nagasaki. -Nor was it pagan hostility alone which the -Jesuits had to dread. Enemies even more dangerous -were found among their own countrymen in Japan, -many of whom had ceased to exhibit that zeal for the -faith, at first so universal. The irregular conduct of -certain Portuguese merchants, in frequenting ports -where there were no missionaries, and where they could -freely follow their own devices, had greatly troubled the -Jesuit fathers. A Japanese adventurer, by name Harada -Kiyemon, having gone to the Philippines to trade, -had taken it into his head to suggest to the emperor of -Japan to require the Spanish governor of those islands -to acknowledge him as sovereign. This idea, conveyed -to the emperor through a Japanese courtier with whom -Harada was intimate, was eagerly caught at by a prince -rendered vain by the elevation to which he had attained, -and whose head was filled with schemes for still further -extending his empire. He wrote an imperious letter to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</span> -the governor of the Philippines, demanding his homage, -and despatched it by the hand of Harada, who applied -to Father Valignani, to write to the Jesuits at Manila, -and to the Spanish governor, in furtherance of this -project. Valignani refused to write any such letters, -alleging as an ostensible reason, that he had no acquaintance -with the governor of the Philippines, nor authority -over the Jesuits of Manila; and, in consequence of -this refusal, Harada did not venture to carry the letter -himself, but sent it by another hand. Valignani wrote, -however, by a simultaneous opportunity, to the Jesuits -of Manila, informing them of this affair, suggesting its -delicate character, and the expediency, while due care -was had of the honor of the Spanish crown, of not giving -to the emperor of Japan any pretence for renewing -his persecution of the missionaries.</p> - -<p>Notwithstanding the union of the crowns of Spain and -Portugal upon the head of Philip II, a very fierce jealousy -and hatred continued to exist between the two -nations; and this feeling was particularly violent at -Manila, which city, founded in 1572, was almost contemporaneous -in its origin with Nagasaki, and whose -merchants looked very enviously at the monopoly of the -trade to Japan secured to the Portuguese, and to the city -of Macao, by the terms of the union between the two -crowns.<a id="FNanchor_54" href="#Footnote_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a> This express exclusion of all Spanish merchants -from Japan had been indeed already broken -through, in at least two instances, by the arrival of one -Jean de Solis from Peru, by way of Macao, and of another -Spanish merchant from the Philippines, both of whom,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</span> -after various adventures, and receiving aid and services -from the Jesuit missionaries, had reached Nagasaki. -Solis soon after proceeded to Satsuma on the southern -coast of Shimo, where he commenced building a vessel -in which to trade to China and thence to Peru,—a -project in which he was presently joined by the other -Spaniard. But to carry out this scheme it became necessary -for Solis to get back a sum of money which he had -been compelled to deposit in the hands of the Portuguese, -at Nagasaki, as security for certain debts which he had -contracted at Macao; and because Father Valignani -would not help them in this matter, the two Spaniards -threatened to give information to the emperor of the large -number of Jesuits still in Japan, in violation of his edict, -and to denounce the princes who gave them shelter.</p> - -<p>The emperor, meanwhile, had been a good deal soured -and his suspicions excited by some suggestions, thrown -out by the enemies of the Jesuits, that Valignani was no -real ambassador, that being a mere pretence to secure -his entry into Japan. Means, indeed, had been found to -quiet him upon this head, to which the representations -of Rodriguez greatly contributed; but the answer which -he caused to be prepared to the viceroy’s letter, took so -high a tone, and was so filled with invectives against -the missionaries, that Valignani was unwilling to be the -bearer of it.</p> - -<p>Finally, by the persuasions of the governor of Miyako, -an idolater, but favorable to the new religion, the emperor -was induced to modify his letter; and he even adopted a -crafty suggestion of Rodriguez that the Jesuits whom -Valignani had brought with him should remain at Nagasaki -as hostages, till the authenticity of his mission was -placed beyond question. The letter, as finally modified,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</span> -a frank exposition of Taikō’s policy, was in the following -terms:</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p class="center">TAIKŌ-SAMA TO THE VICEROY OF GOA.</p> - -<p>“<span class="smcap">Most Illustrious Lord</span>: I received with pleasure the -letter which you wrote me, and in reading it seemed to realize -that great distance between us of which you speak. Japan -contains more than sixty realms or principalities, which have -been for a long time agitated by troubles and civil wars, -growing out of the refusal of the princes to render to their -sovereign lord the obedience which they owe him. The sight -of so many evils sensibly afflicted me from my earliest age, -and I resolved in my mind a remedy for them; and with that -view I laboriously applied myself to the acquisition of three -virtues the most necessary for so great an undertaking. In -the first place, I studied affability, so as to gain all hearts. -Next I strove to accustom myself to judge soundly of all -things, and to comport myself at all times with prudence and -discretion. In the third place, I have omitted no occasion -of inspiring a high idea of my valor. Thus have I succeeded -in subjecting all Japan to my authority, which I govern with -a mildness equal to the courage displayed in subduing it. -I have especially caused the effects of my tenderness to be -felt by the laborers who cultivate the earth. All my severity -is reserved for those who deviate from the paths of virtue. -Nothing is more tranquil than Japan at this moment, and it -is this tranquillity which makes it strong. This vast monarchy -is like a firmly fixed rock; all the efforts of its enemies -cannot shake it. So, not only am I at peace at home, but -even very distant countries send to render me the obedience -which is my due. I expect soon to conquer China, and as I -have no doubt of succeeding in it, I hope we shall soon be -much nearer to each other, and that the communication -between us will not be so difficult.</p> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</span> -<p>“As to what regards religion, Japan is the realm of the -Kami, that is, of Shin, the beginning of all things; and the -good order of the government depends upon the exact observance -of the ancient laws of which the Kami are the -authors. They cannot be departed from without overturning -the subordination which ought to exist, of subjects to their -sovereign, wives to their husbands, children to their parents, -vassals to their lords, and servants to their masters. These -laws are necessary to maintain good order within and tranquillity -without. The fathers, called the Company, have -come to these islands to teach another religion; but as that -of the Kami is too deeply rooted to be eradicated, this new -law can only serve to introduce into Japan a diversity of -worship very prejudicial to the state. It is on that account -that, by an imperial edict, I have forbidden these strange -doctors to continue to preach their doctrine. I have even -ordered them to leave Japan, and I am determined not to -allow anybody to come thither to retail new opinions. But -I still desire that commerce, as between you and me, may -continue on its old footing. I shall keep the way open to -you both by sea and land, by freeing the one from pirates -and the other from robbers. The Portuguese may trade -with my subjects in all security, and I shall take care that -nobody harms them. All the presents mentioned in your -letter have been faithfully delivered; and I send you in -return some rarities of this country, of which a list is annexed. -For other matters I refer you to your ambassador, -and will therefore say no more. Dated the 25th year of the -era Tenshō, and the 25th of the 7th month.”<a id="FNanchor_55" href="#Footnote_55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a></p> -</div> - -<p>It would seem from this letter and from what we know<span class="pagenum" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</span> -of the actual policy adopted by Taikō-Sama and his -predecessor Nobunaga that, in seeking to reëstablish the -imperial authority on its old traditional basis, they had -aimed also at reëdifying the old national religion. Nobunaga -had treated the Buddhist bonzes with very great -severity; and, though the policy of Taikō was less -bloody, they do not appear to have enjoyed any share of -his favor; and it is to be observed that in his letter he -speaks exclusively of the religion of the Kami as the -creed proper to Japan. The assurances on the subject -of commerce seemed the more necessary on account of -a dispute which had arisen between the governors of -Nagasaki and the commander of the annual Portuguese -ship, which, however, on appeal to the emperor, had been -settled against the governors. The presents that accompanied -this letter were two suits of Japanese armor, not -so strong as the armor of Europe, but very handsome, -a kind of esponton or halbert, enclosed in a scabbard of -gold, and a sabre and poniard of the highest temper, and -richly ornamented.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XIV">CHAPTER XIV</h2> -</div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p class="hang"><i>The Expedition against Corea—The Emperor associates his Nephew—City -of Fushimi—Correspondence of the Emperor with the Governor -of Manila—The Jesuits denounced by the Spanish Envoys—Consequences -thereof—Departure of Valignani—A. D. 1592.</i></p> -</div> - - -<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">Meanwhile</span>, an army of eighty thousand men,<a id="FNanchor_56" href="#Footnote_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a> -divided into four corps, had been raised for the -war against Corea; and not to leave the country -without a head, should the emperor choose himself to -lead the invading forces, he took his nephew [Hidetsugu -by name] as an associate in the empire, resigning to him -the title of Kwambacudono, while he assumed for himself -that of Taikō-Sama, the title by which this most illustrious -of the Japanese emperors is commonly known.</p> - -<p>Though much engaged in this foreign enterprise, he -still found time to lay the foundations of the new city of -Fushimi, which he designed to make his capital, but the -nearness of which to Miyako ultimately placed it in the -position of a sort of suburb to that ancient city.</p> - -<p>The first division of the invading army, which at length -set sail, was led by the grand admiral, king of Higo -[Konishi Yukinaga], whose troops, as well as those of -the second division, led by the son of Kodera, the king -of Buzen [Kuroda Nagamasa], were drawn from the -island of Shimo, and were composed almost entirely, -officers as well as men, of Catholic converts. And, -indeed, the suspicion soon began to be entertained that<span class="pagenum" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</span> -Corea had been invaded, not so much to add new provinces -to the Taikō-Sama’s empire, as to keep the converted -princes employed away from home.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_140f" style="max-width: 75em;"> - <img src="images/i_140f.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">The Expedition against Corea</span><br /> -<i>From Official History of Japan</i> -</div> -</div> - -<p>While the emperor, to look after and to second the -invasions, hastened to Shimo, where his presence caused -no little alarm to the missionaries, the grand admiral -was already making rapid progress. Having taken two -places by assault, all the others, as far as the capital, -opened their gates. To save their capital, the Coreans -fought and lost a pitched battle. A second victory, on -the part of the grand admiral, drove the Corean king to -seek refuge in China, while the capital opened its gates -to the triumphant Japanese.<a id="FNanchor_57" href="#Footnote_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a></p> - -<p>But the joy of the missionaries at the success of an -army led by one of their adherents, and so largely composed -of converts, was not a little damped by a side -blow from another and an unexpected quarter. So<span class="pagenum" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</span> -anxious was the Spanish governor of Manila to improve -every chance for opening a trade with Japan, that, in -spite of the imperious character of the emperor’s letter, -he sent an answer to it by a Spanish gentleman named -Liano, in which, indeed, he evaded its demands by suggesting -that the mean quality of the person who had -brought it, and his not having heard anything on the -subject from the Jesuits at Nagasaki, had led him to -suspect its authenticity. Liano, accompanied by a Dominican -friar, landed in Satsuma, where he met with -Solis, the Spaniard from Peru, still busy with his ship-building -enterprise, and in no very good humor with the -Portuguese and the Jesuits. To confer with Harada, -the envoys proceeded to Nagasaki, which city they left -again without any communication with the Portuguese -merchants, or the missionaries; and, accompanied by -Harada, and his Japanese friend, Hasegawa, they -hastened to the northern coast of Shimo, where the -emperor then was. Hasegawa and Harada translated -so ill the letter of the governor of Manila, as to make it -express something of a disposition to comply with the -emperor’s pretensions, who thereupon wrote a second -letter, declaring the other to be genuine, and renewing -the demand which it had contained of submission and -homage. The envoys, without fully understanding its -contents, consented to receive this letter; and in the -hope that, if the Portuguese were driven away, the commerce -of Japan might fall into the hands of the Spaniards -of Manila, they proceeded to suggest heavy -complaints against the Portuguese at Nagasaki, whom -they not only charged as guilty of great harshness in -support of their commercial monopoly, but also with -protecting the Jesuits, great numbers of whom, in spite<span class="pagenum" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</span> -of the emperor’s edicts, still continued to be sheltered in -that city and its neighborhood. The emperor either -was, or had affected to be, ignorant of the extent to -which his edicts had been disregarded. This information -put him into a great rage; and he issued instant -orders for the destruction of the splendid church at -Nagasaki, hitherto untouched, and also of the house of -the Jesuits, who had now no place of residence left there -except the hospital of Misericordia. But these wicked -Spaniards did not long go unpunished. Solis, on his -way back to Satsuma, perished by shipwreck, as did the -Spanish envoys on their return voyage to Manila. It -was stated, too, that the emperor’s mother died at -Miyako, at the very moment of his signing the order for -the destruction of the church,—judgments so striking -as to become, so we are told by the missionaries, the -occasion of many conversions.</p> - -<p>Such was the state of affairs when Father Valignani, -leaving Japan for the second time, sailed for Macao in -October, 1592.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XV">CHAPTER XV</h2> -</div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p class="hang"><i>Progress of the Corean War—Success of the Japanese—Konishi Settsu-no-kami, -Viceroy of Corea—Edict of the Emperor for disarming the -Converts in Shimo—Disgrace and Downfall of the Royal Family of -Bungo—Terazawa, Governor of Nagasaki—His Conversion and -Friendly Acts—A. D. 1592-1593.</i></p> -</div> - - -<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">Though</span> the emperor did not himself pass into -Corea, he sent thither such reinforcements as to -raise his army there to the number of two hundred -thousand men. But the Coreans having abandoned -their cities and fled to inaccessible places, burning -everything, even to provisions which they could not -carry away (thus setting an example long afterwards -followed by the Russians on a similar occasion), this -great force was soon reduced to extremities, by which -its numbers were rapidly diminished. The Chinese -also came to the assistance of the Coreans; and the -grand admiral, with forces so reduced as to be greatly -inferior in numbers, was obliged to encounter these new -enemies in several desperate engagements. Compelled -at last to retreat, he fell back upon a garrison which he -had left to keep up his communications with the coast, -the command of which he had entrusted to Yoshimune, -king of Bungo. But that feeble prince, in a moment -of terror, had abandoned his post; and, the grand admiral’s -communications thus cut off, nothing but his -distinguished firmness and courage saved his army from -total destruction. After a drawn battle under the walls<span class="pagenum" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</span> -of the Corean capital, terms of peace were agreed upon, -according to which five of the eight provinces of Corea -were assigned to the Japanese; and the commerce -between China and Japan, which by the act of the -former had for some time been broken off, was again -renewed.<a id="FNanchor_58" href="#Footnote_58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a></p> - -<p>The admiral was named viceroy of Corea, and the -converted princes were still detained there at the head -of their troops. The missionaries, thus separated from -their protectors, were filled with new alarms by an order -of the emperor for disarming all their converts in Shimo. -The king of Bungo, as a punishment for his cowardice, -was stripped of his estates; and in the end he and his -family, reduced to absolute poverty, were obliged to -retire to Nagasaki, and to live there on the charity of -the Jesuits. His territories were assigned to pagan -lords, and the converted inhabitants soon felt the consequences -of the change. Indeed, throughout Shimo -the converts suffered greatly by the absence of their -princes, of whom several died about this time. But, in -general, the Catholics stood firm; and several of the -Jesuit fathers having made their way to Corea, new -converts were made in the ranks of the army.</p> - -<p>The missionaries also found a new friend in Terazawa, -a young man appointed governor of Nagasaki, and who, -not long after, was secretly baptized. He represented -to the emperor that, if the Portuguese merchants were -still to be admitted to trade at Nagasaki, they ought to -be allowed some priests, since it was the influence and -authority of the priests that kept the merchants in order, -settled their quarrels, and obliged them to strict justice<span class="pagenum" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</span> -in their commercial transactions; and, upon the strength -of these plausible representations, Terazawa obtained -leave for the Jesuits to rebuild their house and church -at Nagasaki. Father Gnecchi, also, in consideration -of his age and infirmities, was allowed to remain at -Miyako, though without any church, or permission to -celebrate divine service openly.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XVI">CHAPTER XVI</h2> -</div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p class="hang"><i>Jealousy on the Part of the Dominicans and Franciscans towards Jesuits—This -Jealousy coöperates with the Mercantile Jealousy of the Spaniards -at Manila—Franciscan Friars establish themselves at Miyako, -Ōsaka, and Nagasaki—Edicts against them—Deposition and Death -of the Emperor’s Nephew—A. D. 1593-1595.</i></p> -</div> - - -<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">It</span> was not alone against the emperor’s hostility and -the mercantile envy of the Spanish that the Jesuits -had to contend. The rapid rise and great successes -of the Company of Jesus had excited against -them not only the dread and deadly hatred of the -Protestants (which might naturally enough have been -expected), but feelings also of envy and jealousy, -scarcely less hostile, and by no means very scrupulous, -on the part of their monastic brethren of the Catholic -church,—the Dominicans, and especially the numerous -bodies of Franciscans, who had attempted, by various -reforms and modifications, to revive and purify that -ancient order so as to make it equal to compete with -the Jesuits.</p> - -<p>A brief of Pope Gregory XIII, dated in 1585, had -forbidden, under pain of the greater excommunication, -any but Jesuits to proceed to Japan with the view of -exercising any ecclesiastical function there; and this -bull was not less disagreeable to the Dominicans and -Franciscans, than the Portuguese monopoly of the Japanese -trade was to the Spanish merchants. At Manila -these feelings of dissatisfaction, both mercantile and -ecclesiastical, combined in a common focus, giving rise<span class="pagenum" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</span> -to the most injurious and unfounded reports, which -were even embodied in print, of extensive apostasies -among the Japanese converts, and of the great jeopardy -into which Catholicism had been brought by the misconduct -of the Jesuits, who, at this moment, were out of -favor in Spain.</p> - -<p>The same Harada, already mentioned, having gone in -person to Manila, inflamed the zeal of some Franciscans -whom he found there, by representing that it was to the -Jesuit missionaries personally, and not to their religion, -that the emperor was opposed. The Spanish governor, -not having received the emperor’s answer to his former -letter, was induced, in the hope of opening the door to -commercial intercourse, to write a new one; and four -Franciscans attached themselves to the bearer of it, -eagerly seizing upon this opportunity to gain admission -into Japan.</p> - -<p>When the emperor found that these new deputies had -not brought the submission which he had demanded, at -first he was very angry, but was finally persuaded to -allow them to travel through the empire in order to see -and to report its greatness. The Franciscans were even -suffered to build or buy a house at Miyako, to which -they presently added a church; and, being joined by -others of their order, a convent was established at -Ōsaka. Two of them having gone to Nagasaki, took -possession of a church in the environs of that city, -which had remained closed since the commencement of -the persecution; and here, as well as in the other two -cities, they performed their religious functions with an -ostentation and publicity which greatly alarmed the -Jesuits, whom the Franciscans accused of an unworthy -timidity.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</span></p> - -<p>The Jesuits, under these circumstances, thought -proper to call the attention of these new-comers to the -bull of Gregory XIII, above referred to, prohibiting -the entry into Japan of any ecclesiastics except those -of the Company of Jesus; to which the Franciscans -replied, that they had entered Japan not as ecclesiastics, -but as envoys from the governor of Manila; and that -being there without any violation of the bull, nobody -had any right to prevent them from exercising their -ecclesiastical functions,—a piece of casuistry which not -even a Jesuit could have outdone. Very soon, however, -the governor of Nagasaki closed the church of the -Franciscans, and, before long, an edict appeared threatening -the punishment of death to all who frequented the -convent and church at Miyako,—procedures which -the Franciscans were uncharitable enough to ascribe to -the intrigues of the Jesuits. It seems probable, however, -that decisive steps would still earlier have been -taken against these over-zealous Franciscans, had not -the emperor’s attention been engrossed by other more -pressing matters. He had conceived a jealousy against -his nephew and colleague, whom, by slow and cautious -steps, he stripped of all his authority, sending him at -length to a monastery of bonzes, where he soon received -an order to cut himself open. The thirty-one wives of -the deposed prince, with all their children, were publicly -beheaded, and all his closest adherents shared his disgrace, -and many of them his tragical fate.<a id="FNanchor_59" href="#Footnote_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a> An infant<span class="pagenum" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</span> -son, by name Hideyori, borne to the emperor from his -new wife [Yodo-gimi by name], and to whom he desired -to secure the succession, was the innocent cause of these -cruelties. No sooner was the nephew out of the way -than that infant received from the Dairi the title of -Kwambacudono.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XVII">CHAPTER XVII</h2> -</div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p class="hang"><i>Great Earthquake—Mission from China—Arrival of a Spanish Galleon—Friars -on Board her—New Accusations on her Account against the -Jesuits—Connection of the Jesuits with the Trade to Japan—Arrest -of Missionaries and Converts—First Martyrs—A. D. 1595-1597.</i></p> -</div> - - -<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">The</span> emperor, now at the height of his power and -glory, was making great preparations to receive -an embassy from China, when Japan was visited -by a frightful earthquake, which almost ruined his new -city of Fushimi. The sea rose to an extraordinary -height, especially in the strait between Nippon and -Shikoku, attended with a terrible destruction of life -and property. Nor did the mission from China at all -answer the expectation of the emperor, since the ambassadors -demanded nothing less than the entire evacuation -of Corea,—a demand which speedily led to a -renewal of the war.</p> - -<p>In 1596, a richly laden Spanish galleon, from the -Philippines, disabled and driven by adverse winds to -the coast of Japan, was induced, partly by persuasions -and partly by a show of force, to enter a harbor on the -south coast of Shikoku, where she was immediately -seized by the local authorities as forfeited. The commander -of the vessel sent two of his officers to Miyako -to solicit a remission of this forfeiture, which mission -was charged to have nothing to do with the Jesuits, but -to consult only with the Franciscans established in that -city. It had, however, no success. The prize seemed -to the emperor too valuable to be given up. Driven at<span class="pagenum" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</span> -length by extremity to seek the aid of the Jesuits, the -ship’s company, after being for some time supported by -their charity, were shipped off by their assistance to -Manila, all except four Augustine friars, a Dominican -and two Franciscans, who remained in Japan as missionaries. -But, instead of getting any thanks from the -inhabitants of Manila, the Jesuits were accused of having -by their intrigues caused the forfeiture of the ship -and her cargo.<a id="FNanchor_60" href="#Footnote_60" class="fnanchor">[60]</a></p> - -<p>A narrative of the affair, written by a monk, and full -of charges against the Jesuits, was printed there, and -sent to Spanish America, whence it was carried to -Europe, and widely diffused by the enemies of the -order, being soon followed by violent memorials to the -same effect, addressed to the Pope and the king of -Spain. These charges, however, did not remain unanswered, -a reply to them being published at Acapulco, -signed by a number of Japanese who traded thither,<a id="FNanchor_61" href="#Footnote_61" class="fnanchor">[61]</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</span> -and by several Spaniards and Portuguese who had been -in Japan.</p> - -<p>It was the Manila pamphlet above referred to which -first brought against the Jesuits the charges, ultimately -so damaging to the order, of an uncanonical connection -with commerce. The account of this trade, so far as -Japan was concerned, as given by the Jesuits themselves, -is as follows. The revenues of the mission had consisted -at first only of the charities of some individuals, -aided by a sum of five hundred ducats, paid yearly at -Macao by the king of Portugal—a donation doubled in -1574, to facilitate the foundation of a college. Some -considerable amounts had been received at different -times from the wealthier native converts; but almost -the whole of these sums had been expended in the -founding and support of hospitals and other charities. -For several years the chief resource of the fathers for -their own support had been the proceeds of a fund of -four thousand ducats, which Louis Almeida, on entering -the order in 1556, and devoting himself to the Japanese -mission, as mentioned in a former chapter, had set aside -for that purpose out of his own private fortune, all the -rest of which he had bestowed in the founding of hospitals. -This fund had been entrusted by Almeida to -certain Portuguese merchants to trade upon for the -benefit of the Jesuits. But, though this trust had been -faithfully executed, the proceeds of it had been quite -too small to support the increasing number of the missionaries. -Some small pensions, allowed them by the -Popes Gregory XIII and Sixtus V, failed to make up -the deficiency; and, at length, it was agreed by the -commercial company at Macao, by whom the annual -Portuguese carac was fitted out for Japan, and by<span class="pagenum" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</span> -means of which the chief trade between Japan and the -Portuguese was now carried on, that out of the sixteen -hundred packages of silks, which formed a part of her -cargo, fifty (afterwards increased to eighty) packages -should be shipped on account of the Jesuits,—an arrangement -to which the viceroy of the Indies assented. -For this business two commercial agencies were maintained -by the Jesuits,—one at Macao, the other at -Nagasaki. The enemies of the Jesuits insisted that -they sent to Japan yearly goods to the value of a hundred -and sixty thousand ducats, on which their profits -were sixty thousand. This was probably exaggerated; -yet, when Charlevoix pretends that the whole annual -Portuguese trade and profits did not amount to those -sums, his statement is refuted as well by other known -facts as by the vastly larger value of the cargoes of such -of the annual caracs as some years later fell into the -hands of the Dutch.</p> - -<p>While the unlucky affair of the forfeited Spanish -galleon caused Europe to resound with accusations -against the Jesuits, in Japan itself it had results more -speedily and more fatal. The Spanish pilot, finding -that entreaties did not succeed, had attempted to make -an impression upon those who had seized the ship by -expatiating on the power of the king of Spain, the -extent of whose dominions in Europe, Asia, Africa, and -America, he exhibited on a map of the world. To the -inquiry how such an extent of dominion had been obtained, -the pilot replied that nothing was easier; that -the king began by sending missionaries into the countries -he wished to conquer, who, as soon as they had -converted a part of the inhabitants, were followed by -troops, which troops, being joined by the converts,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</span> -easily succeeded in subduing the country. This statement, -it is said, was immediately reported to the emperor, -who no sooner heard it than he ordered guards -to be placed at the doors of the Franciscan converts at -Miyako and Ōsaka, at which latter city, since the earthquake, -the emperor had made his residence. Guards -were also placed at the houses of the Jesuits; but in -that at Ōsaka there was only one young priest with two -proselytes, and in that at Miyako only the aged Father -Gnecchi, who soon, through the dexterity of some of -his friends, was conveyed out of it unobserved by the -guards. There were taken in the convents of the -Franciscans three priests, a clerk, and two lay brothers, -one of them a Spanish creole of Mexico, the other a -Portuguese creole of the East Indies. A list was also -ordered to be taken of the persons who frequented the -Franciscan churches at Miyako and Ōsaka. A great -many names were originally placed on it, but the governor -of Miyako, desirous to limit as much as possible -the number of victims, finally struck off all but fifteen, -who also were put under arrest.</p> - -<p>On the 3d of January, 1597, these twenty-four prisoners -were taken to a public square in Miyako, where -each of them had the tip of his left ear cut off, after -which they were placed in carriages and paraded -through the streets. A similar ceremony soon after -took place in Sakai and Ōsaka, whence the prisoners -were sent to Nagasaki to be executed. At all the -towns and cities on the way they were made a spectacle -of, as if to terrify those of the same faith. But they -exhibited, we are told, great fervor and firmness, making -many new converts and inspiring many old ones -with the desire of martyrdom. On the way their<span class="pagenum" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</span> -number was increased to twenty-six by the addition of -two others who had greatly busied themselves in ministering -to the wants of the prisoners, and who, upon -being asked if they were Catholics, replied that they -detested the gods of Japan.</p> - -<p>Fortunately for himself, Terazawa, the secretly converted -governor of Nagasaki, had been ordered to Corea, -his place being supplied by a pagan brother of his, by -whom an edict was issued threatening with death all -who should embrace the foreign religion. At the same -time he intimated to the Jesuits that he should allow no -Japanese to enter their church in that city, nor themselves -to traverse the country, as they had done, -preaching and baptizing. He exhibited, however, every -disposition to be as indulgent as possible in the execution -of his orders; for though the prisoners were denied -the privilege of hearing mass, they were permitted on -their way to the place of execution to stop at the hermitage -of St. Lazarus, where the Jesuits confessed to -Father Rodriguez and another of their order, who met -them there, and the Franciscans to each other.</p> - -<p>The place of execution was not that made use of for -ordinary malefactors, but a hill bordering on the sea, -one of those by which the city of Nagasaki is surrounded, -and thenceforth known among the converts as -the <i>Holy Mountain</i>, or <i>Mount of Martyrs</i>, to which -name it gained still further claim by becoming the scene -of many subsequent executions, continuing also, as long -as the new religion lasted in Japan, a place of pilgrimage -for its adherents. The prisoners were followed to -this hill by an excited crowd, who, with tears and benedictions, -besought their prayers. They were put to -death by crucifixion, which, however, according to the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</span> -Japanese method, is not a lingering punishment. The -sufferer is bound, not nailed, to the cross, and his body -is immediately pierced by a lance, or sometimes by two -lances, thrust in at the sides, and coming out at the -shoulders.</p> - -<p>The earth, wet with the martyr’s precious blood, was -sedulously gathered up by the bystanders, and, in spite -of the care with which the bodies were guarded, those -of the three Jesuits were conveyed away to Macao; or, -at least, bodies alleged to be the same were preserved -in the churches there with great veneration as relics. -Many miracles were alleged to have attended and followed -the death of these martyrs, as to which duly -authenticated affidavits may be found recorded in the -great collection of Bolandus, affording grounds for the -canonization of these twenty-six Japanese proto-martyrs, -decreed, thirty years after, by Pope Urban VIII.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XVIII">CHAPTER XVIII</h2> -</div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p class="hang"><i>New Edict for the Deportation of the Jesuits—Its Partial Evasion—New -Correspondence between the Philippines and Japan—Taikō-Sama’s -Justification of his Recent Proceedings—New Destruction of Churches -in Shimo—Taikō-Sama’s Death—His Preceding Efforts to secure -his own Deification and the Succession of his Infant Son Hideyori—Regency—Iyeyasu, -its Head, with the Title of Daifu-Sama—A. D. -1597-1599.</i></p> -</div> - - -<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">Even</span> a more serious blow than the execution of -the first martyrs, which seems rather to have -warmed than to have cooled the zeal of the converted -Japanese, was an order from the emperor to the -governor of Nagasaki to collect all the missionaries, and -to ship them off to China, except only his interpreter, -Rodriguez, and two or three other Jesuits, who might -be permitted to remain at Nagasaki for the benefit of -the Portuguese traders.</p> - -<p>There were still in Japan as many as a hundred and -twenty-five members of the Company, of whom forty-six -were priests. To blind the emperor by an apparent submission -to his will, it was agreed that the newly arrived -bishop of Japan (the fourth appointed to this diocese, -but the first who had arrived there) should depart in the -same vessel in which he had come, especially as he might -improve his absence to represent to the viceroy of the -Indies the pressing necessities of his diocese. The novitiate, -the college in the island of Amakusa,<a id="FNanchor_62" href="#Footnote_62" class="fnanchor">[62]</a> and the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</span> -seminary for young nobles hitherto kept on foot in -Arima, were all given up, and most of the fathers connected -with them set out for Nagasaki. Of the whole -number, however, there remained behind eight in the -island of Amakusa, twelve in Arima and Ōmura, four -in Bungo, and as many more in Hirado and Gotō, while -two others passed into Corea; but it was understood -that these priests thus left behind, while ministering to -the faithful, should avoid doing anything that might -draw attention upon them.</p> - -<p>The aged Father Gnecchi, with two priests and five -or six other Jesuits, remained at Miyako, Father Matthew -de Couros being appointed to fill the place of Father -Louis Froez, lately deceased, in the office of sending to -Rome memoirs for the history of Japan. With these -exceptions all the rest of the Jesuits assembled at Nagasaki, -making a show of getting ready to depart. Indeed, -the poop of a Portuguese vessel, which sailed shortly -after, appeared to be full of them; but most of these -seeming Jesuits were only Portuguese merchants, -dressed for the occasion in the habit of the order; while, -to account for the staying behind of any who might -happen to be detected in the provinces, it was given out -that some had been left because the vessel was not large -enough to take all.</p> - -<p>Soon after the departure of this vessel, a Spanish -gentleman arrived from Manila with presents and a -letter to the emperor from a new governor of the Philippines, -remonstrating, though in measured terms, against -the confiscation of the “San Philip” and the execution of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</span> -the Spanish ecclesiastics, several of whom had entered -Japan in the character of envoys from his predecessor. -The letter requested the bodies of those martyrs, and, for -the future, safety and kind treatment to all Spanish vessels -driven accidentally to Japan. Taikō-Sama, in reply, -justified his proceedings against the missionaries, not -only because they had disregarded his repeated orders to -leave Japan, but because, insinuating their creed into -the minds of his subjects, they designed finally to get -possession of the country as the Spaniards had done of -Manila. His excuse for the confiscation of the “San -Philip” was that she had attempted to enter a port of -Japan in violation of law. He refused to give up any -part of her cargo, but offered to restore a number of -slaves which had belonged to her, at the same time expressing -a willingness to consent to a regulated trade -with the Spaniards, provided they would promise to -bring no priests.</p> - -<p>A report that the emperor was about to visit Nagasaki -led to the destruction in the adjoining provinces of -not less than a hundred and thirty-seven churches and -of many houses which had belonged to the Jesuits; and, -to appease the authorities, a new embarkation of missionaries -became necessary, limited, however, by reason -of the smallness of the vessel, to eleven persons.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_160fa" style="max-width: 56.25em;"> - <img src="images/i_160fa.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Himeji Castle</span></div> -</div> -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_160fb" style="max-width: 56.25em;"> - <img src="images/i_160fb.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Nagoya Castle<br /> -Feudal Strongholds</span></div> -</div> - -<p>In the midst of these alarms news arrived that the -emperor had been seized with a sudden and violent sickness, -apparently a dysentery, which, after two months’ -struggles against it, brought him to his end. He died -in September, 1598, at the age of sixty-four, retaining -his absolute authority to the last. During his latter -years two thoughts seem principally to have engrossed -him,—the securing divine honors to himself, and the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</span> -transmission of his authority to his infant son, Hideyori, -not yet above three or four years old. With the first -object in view, though really (at least, so the missionaries -concluded) without any religion at all, he had rebuilt, in -a magnificent manner, many temples and Buddhist monasteries -destroyed by Nobunaga, by himself, or by the -accidents of war. He also had erected, in a new quarter -which he had added to Miyako, a splendid temple, which -he caused to be consecrated to himself in the character -of the new Hachiman, that being the title of a Kami -celebrated for his conquests, and regarded as the god -of war.</p> - -<p>To secure the succession of his infant son, the expiring -emperor established, on his death-bed, a council of regency, -composed of nine persons, at the head of which -he placed Tokugawa Iyeyasu, king of the Bandō, which, -besides the five provinces of the Kwantō, in which were -the great cities of Suruga and Yedo, embraced, also, -three other kingdoms. Iyeyasu had been king of Mikawa, -a more westerly province, which he had lost by -adhering to the fortunes of the third son of Nobunaga, -he being allied to that family by marriage. But afterwards, -by some means, he had recovered the favor of -Taikō-Sama, who had even bestowed upon him the newly -conquered Bandō, and who, the better to secure his fidelity, -had caused his infant son and destined successor to -be married to a young granddaughter of Iyeyasu.</p> - -<p>The strong castle of Ōsaka had been chosen by Taikō-Sama -as the residence of his son during his minority, and -there he dwelt with his baby wife, in charge of his mother, -while the administration of affairs passed into the hands -of Iyeyasu, who, as head of the regency, governed with -the title of Daifu-Sama.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XIX">CHAPTER XIX</h2> -</div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p class="hang"><i>Evacuation of Corea—Return of the Converted Princes—Favorable Disposition -of Daifu-Sama—Third Visit of Father Valignani—Civil -War between Daifu-Sama and his Co-regents—His Triumph—Disgrace -and Execution of Settsu-no-Kami—Daifu-Sama takes the -Title of Ōgosho-Sama and still favors the Converts—Influx of Dominican -and Franciscan Friars—Flourishing Condition of the Church—Local -Persecutions—A. D. 1599-1609.</i></p> -</div> - - -<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">The</span> first act of the regency was to put an end to -the war in Corea. That country was abandoned,<a id="FNanchor_63" href="#Footnote_63" class="fnanchor">[63]</a> -and the return of so many converted -princes greatly strengthened the lately suffering church. -Father Rodriguez had always been on good terms with -Daifu-Sama, with whom he had become acquainted at the -court of the late emperor. This head of the regency was -even thought to be well disposed to the new religion, and -the converted princes, in conjunction with Father Valignani, -who, just before the death of Taikō-Sama, had -reached Japan for the third time, in company with a new -bishop, proceeded gradually and unostentatiously to re-establish -the missionaries, to rebuild the churches, and -to set up again the college and seminaries, till soon the -Catholic faith seemed to be replaced on almost as firm a -basis as ever. For a time, indeed, things were thrown -into confusion by a civil war which soon broke out -between Daifu-Sama and his co-regents. Some of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</span> -Catholic princes lost their provinces as adherents of the -defeated party, and among the rest, that distinguished -pillar of the church, Konishi Settsu-no-Kami, the grand -admiral, king of Higo and conqueror of Corea, who, for -his share in this business, perished by the hand of the -executioner,—his religious opinions not allowing him to -adopt the Japanese alternative of cutting himself open. -But the victorious regent, who presently took the title of -Ōgosho-Sama, and with it the entire imperial authority -(though the boy, Hideyori, still enjoyed the title of Kubō-Sama), -showed himself so far favorable to the Jesuits (to -the headship of whom Father Francis Pazio had lately -succeeded as vice-provincial) as to permit their reëstablishment -at Nagasaki, Miyako, and Ōsaka. Yet an edict -of his, restraining the missionaries to their ancient seats, -and forbidding the accession of new converts, though -little regarded, showed the necessity of caution.</p> - -<p>Pope Clement VIII, having promulgated a bull in December, -1600, by which all the mendicant orders were -allowed to go as missionaries to Japan, provided they -proceeded by way of Portugal, and not by the Philippines, -Dominican and Franciscan friars took advantage -of this favorable disposition of the emperor to enter that -empire, the Franciscans reoccupying their old station at -Miyako, and setting up a new one at Yedo, where the -Jesuits had never been. This was the seat of the emperor’s -son, whom, according to the Japanese custom, he -had associated with him in the empire. He himself had -his residence at Suruga, no great distance to the west. -The young Hideyori, the titular Kubō-Sama, still dwelt -in the castle of Ōsaka, Miyako being given up exclusively -to the Dairi, or ecclesiastical emperor. The prohibition -to pass from the Philippines to Japan was little regarded.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</span> -As there was no civil arm to enforce it, the friars laughed -at the excommunication denounced by the Pope’s bull. -The Jesuits, on the other hand, did not submit to this -invasion without loud complaints.</p> - -<p>In the Tenza, or five provinces<a id="FNanchor_64" href="#Footnote_64" class="fnanchor">[64]</a> nearest to Miyako, and -including, also, the cities of Sakai and Ōsaka, the ancient -imperial domain, the adherents of the new religion were -seldom molested, and the governor of Miyako even built -a magnificent church for the Jesuits in the upper city, in -addition to one which they already possessed in the lower -city. An observatory at Ōsaka had gained additional -credit for their religion by displaying their scientific -knowledge. A seminary for nobles was reopened at -Nagasaki, and, by the special zeal of Father Gnecchi, -hospitals for lepers, which had been from the first a -favorite charity, were set up at Ōsaka and in several -other cities. By the favor of particular princes, Jesuit -missionaries even penetrated into the more remote and -hitherto unvisited provinces. Persecution, however, still -went on within the jurisdiction of several of the local -rulers, especially in the island of Shimo; and some of -the converted princes, having apostatized, became themselves -persecutors. But the bishop, having made a journey -to Miyako in 1606, was very favorably received by -the Kubō-Sama,—a circumstance not without its influence -in all the local courts.</p> - -<p>Such was the state of things in Japan when the hold -of the Portuguese and the Jesuits upon that country, -already shaken by the consolidation of the empire under -one head, and by the intrusion of Dominican and Franciscan -friars and Spanish merchants and negotiators,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</span> -encountered a still more alarming disturbance from the -appearance of the Dutch flag in the eastern seas.<a id="FNanchor_65" href="#Footnote_65" class="fnanchor">[65]</a></p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp90" id="i_164f" style="max-width: 62.5em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/i_164f.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Image of Iyeyasu</span><br /> -From <i>Official History of Japan</i></div> -</div> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XX">CHAPTER XX</h2> -</div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p class="hang"><i>Attempt of the English and Dutch to discover a New Route to the Far East—Voyages -round the World—Attempted English Voyage to Japan—English -and Dutch Voyages to India—First Dutch Voyage to Japan—Adams, -the English Pilot—His Adventures and Detention in -Japan<a id="FNanchor_66" href="#Footnote_66" class="fnanchor">[66]</a>—A. D. 1513-1607.</i></p> -</div> - - -<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">For</span> a full century subsequent to the discovery -of the passage to India by the Cape of Good -Hope, the commerce of the Indian seas, so far -as Europe was concerned, remained almost a complete -monopoly in the hands of the Portuguese. The ancient -Venetian commerce with India, by the Red Sea, had -been speedily brought to an end, while the trade carried -on overland, by way of Aleppo and the Persian Gulf, -was mainly controlled by the Portuguese, who held possession -of Ormus, through which it mostly passed. Nor -did the Spanish discovery of another passage to India, -by the Straits of Magellan, and the lodgment which the -Spaniards made about the year 1570, in the Philippine -Islands, very materially interfere with the Portuguese -monopoly. The passage by the Straits of Magellan -was seldom or never attempted, the Spanish trade being -confined to two annual ships between Acapulco and -Manila.</p> - -<p>It was the desire to share in this East India commerce -(which made Lisbon the wealthiest and most populous<span class="pagenum" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</span> -city of Europe) that led to so many attempts to discover -a northeastern, a northwestern, and even a northern -passage to India (directly over the pole), not only -as shorter, but as avoiding any collision with the Portuguese -and Spanish, who did not hesitate to maintain by -force their respective exclusive claims to the passages -by the Cape of Good Hope and the Straits of Magellan. -These attempts were at first confined to the English, -beginning with that made by Sebastian Cabot, on his -third and last voyage from England. The Dutch and -Belgians were long content to buy Indian merchandise -at Lisbon, which they resold in the north of Europe; -but after the union of the Spanish and Portuguese dominions, -in 1580, and the seizure, which soon followed, -of the Dutch ships at Lisbon, and their exclusion from -any trade with Portugal, the Dutch began to entertain, -even more ardently than the English, the desire of a -direct commerce with the far East. Drake, in his voyage -round the world (1577-80), outward by the Straits -of Magellan and homeward by the Cape of Good Hope, -a track in which he was speedily followed by Cavendish -(1586-88), led the way to the Indian seas; but -the failure of Cavendish in a second attempt to pass -the Straits of Magellan, and the capture, <span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1594, -by Spanish-American cruisers in the Pacific, of Sir -Richard Hawkins, a son of the famous Sir John Hawkins, -who had attempted a voyage to Japan by the -same route, served to keep up the terrors of that -passage.</p> - -<p>Meanwhile, Captain Lancaster, as early as 1592, accomplished -the first English voyage to India by the -Cape of Good Hope. After a rather disastrous voyage, -he returned in 1594, having been greatly delayed by<span class="pagenum" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</span> -his ignorance of the monsoons. A second expedition, -destined for China, sailed in 1596, but perished miserably -at sea. It is to the Dutch that the credit mainly belongs -of first breaking in upon the Portuguese and Spanish -monopoly of Indian commerce.<a id="FNanchor_67" href="#Footnote_67" class="fnanchor">[67]</a></p> - -<p>Among other Dutch ship captains and merchants who -had been thrown into prison at Lisbon was Cornelius -Houtman, who improved that opportunity to acquire, -by conversation with Portuguese seamen, a knowledge -of the Indian seas; and it was by his persuasion that the -merchants of Amsterdam, associating as an East India -Company, fitted out, in 1595, eight vessels,—four to -renew the experiment of a northeastern passage, and -four to proceed to India by the Cape of Good Hope. -The voyage of the first four, under the direction of -Hugh Linschooten,<span class="fnanchor">[67]</span> who had lately returned from Goa, -where he had resided six years in the service of the -archbishop, resulted in the discovery of Nova Zembla, -beyond which neither this expedition nor two subsequent -ones were able to proceed. The four other ships, -under the charge of Houtman, reached the west coast -of Java, and in spite of the arts and opposition of the -Portuguese, whom they found established at Bantam, -in that island, they opened a trade with the natives, -not without an occasional intermixture of hostilities, in -which they lost more than half their numbers, besides -being obliged to abandon and burn one of their vessels. -The other three ships returned to Holland in 1598. -This voyage had not been profitable; yet the actual -commencement of the long-desired Indian traffic greatly -stimulated the hopes of the merchants, and that same -year not less than four distinct India squadrons were<span class="pagenum" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</span> -fitted out,—one of two vessels, under Houtman; -another, under Jacques Mahay, of five vessels, known as -Verhagen’s fleet, from the chief promoter of the enterprise; -a third, of three vessels, under Oliver Noort; and -a fourth, of not less than eight vessels, set forth by a -new East India association, including not only the merchants -of Amsterdam, but those of the other cities of -the province of Holland, rudiment of the afterwards so -celebrated <span class="smcap">Dutch East India Company</span>. The first -and last of these expeditions proceeded by the Cape of -Good Hope. The other two were to attempt the passage -by the Straits of Magellan.</p> - -<p>The Dutch merchants were at this time much richer -than those of England, and for these enterprises of theirs -to India they obtained the assistance of quite a number -of adventurous Englishmen. Houtman had an English -pilot named Davis; Noort carried, in the same capacity, -Thomas Melis, who had made the voyage round the -world with Cavendish. The fleet of Mahay had two -English pilots, William Adams and Timothy Shotten, -with the former of whom, as being the first Englishman -who ever reached Japan, and long a resident there, our -narrative has chiefly to do.</p> - -<p>Born, according to his own account, on the banks of -the Medway, between Rochester and Chatham, Adams, -at the age of twelve, had commenced a seafaring life, -apprentice to Master Nicholas Diggins, of Limehouse, -near London, whom he served for twelve years. He -acted afterward as master and pilot in her Majesty’s -(Queen Elizabeth’s) ships. Then for eleven or twelve -years he was employed by the worshipful company of -the Barbary merchants. The Dutch traffic with India -beginning, desirous, as he tells us, “to make a little<span class="pagenum" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</span> -experience of the small knowledge which God had given -him,” he was induced to enter that service.</p> - -<p>Mahay’s squadron, in which Adams sailed as chief -pilot, consisted of the “Hope,” of two hundred and fifty -tons and one hundred and thirty men, the “Faith,” of one -hundred and fifty tons and one hundred and nine men, -the “Charity,” of one hundred and sixty tons and one -hundred and ten men, the “Fidelity,” of one hundred tons -and eighty-six men, and the “Good News,” of seventy-five -tons and fifty-six men; but these names of good omen -did not save these small and overcrowded vessels from -a succession of disasters, too common in the maritime -enterprises of those days. They left the Texel the 24th -of June, and on the 21st of August reached the Cape -Verde Islands, where they remained twenty-one days to -refresh the men, of whom many were sick with scurvy, -including Mahay, their chief commander, who died soon -after they had recommenced their voyage. Encountering -contrary winds and heavy rains, they were forced to the -coast of Guinea, and landed on Cape Gonsalves, just -south of the line. The sick were set on shore, and soon -after a French sailor came aboard, who promised to do -them all favor with the negro king. The country could -furnish very few supplies; and as the sick recovered -from the scurvy, those hitherto well began to suffer from -fever.</p> - -<p>In this state of distress they set sail for the coast of -Brazil; but falling in soon after with the island of Annabon, -in the Gulf of Guinea, they landed, took the -town, which contained eighty houses, and obtained a -supply of oxen, and of oranges and other fruits; but -still the men continued to die, of whom they buried more -than thirty on this island.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</span></p> - -<p>Two months were thus spent on the African coast. -The ships, setting sail again about the middle of November, -were greatly delayed by one of the vessels losing her -mainmast, and it was five months before they reached the -Straits of Magellan, the crews during most of that time -on short allowance, and driven to such extremity as to -eat the calf-skins with which the ropes were covered.</p> - -<p>Having entered the straits the beginning of April, -1599, they obtained a good supply of penguins for food; -but the commander stopping to wood and water, they -were overtaken by the winter then just setting in, during -which they lost more than a hundred men by cold and -hunger, and were thus detained—though, according to -Adams, there were many times when they might have -gone through—till the 24th of September, when at last -they entered the South Sea.</p> - -<p>A few days after, they encountered a violent storm, -by which the ships were separated. Captain Wert, with -the “Faith” and “Fidelity,” was driven back into the -straits, where he fell in with Oliver Noort, who had left -Holland a few days after the Verhagen fleet, had followed -in the same track, had encountered many of the same -difficulties, but who, more fortunate, not only passed -the strait, but succeeded in completing the fourth circumnavigation -of the globe,—a feat accomplished before -his voyage only by the ships of Magellan, Drake, and -Cavendish. As Noort was unable to afford him any aid, -Wert abandoned the enterprise, and returned with his -two ships to Holland.</p> - -<p>The other three ships steered separately for the coast -of Chili, where a rendezvous, in the latitude of forty-six -degrees, had been appointed. The “Charity,” in which -Adams was, on reaching the place of rendezvous found<span class="pagenum" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</span> -some Indian inhabitants, who at first furnished sheep in -exchange for bells and knives, with which they seemed -well satisfied, but who shortly after disappeared, probably -through Spanish influence. Having waited twenty-eight -days, and hearing nothing of her consorts, the -“Charity” ran by Valdivia to the island of Mocha, and -thence toward the neighboring island of Santa Maria. -Seeing on the mainland near by a number of people, -boats were sent for a parley; but the people would suffer -none to land from the boats, at which they shot a multitude -of arrows. “Nevertheless,” says Adams, “having -no victuals in our ship, and hoping to find refreshing, -we forcibly landed some seven-and-twenty or thirty of -our men, and drove the wild people from the water-side, -having the most of our men hurt with their arrows. -Having landed, we made signs of friendship, and in the -end came to parley, with signs that our desire was to -have victuals for iron, silver, and cloth, which we showed -them. Whereupon they gave our folks wine, with batatas -(sweet potatoes) and other fruits, and bade them, -by signs and tokens, to go aboard, and the next day to -come again, and they would bring us victuals.”</p> - -<p>The next day, after a council, in which it was resolved -not to land more than two or three men at once, the -captain approached the shore with all the force he had. -Great numbers of people were seen, who made signs for -the boats to land; and in the end, as the people would -not come near the boats, twenty-three men landed with -muskets, and marched up toward four or five houses; -but before they had gone the distance of a musket-shot -they found themselves in an ambush, and the whole, including -Thomas Adams, a brother of William, the chief -pilot, were slain or taken. “So our boats waited long,”<span class="pagenum" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</span> -says Adams, “to see if any of them would come again; -but seeing no hope to recover them, our boats returned, -with this sorrowful news, that all our men that landed -were slain, which was a lamentable thing to hear, for we -had scarce so many men left as could wind up our -anchor.”</p> - -<p>After waiting a day longer, they went over to the -neighboring island of Santa Maria, where they found -the “Hope,” which had just arrived, but in as great distress -as themselves, having, at the island of Mocha, the -day before the “Charity” had passed there, lost their commander -and twenty-seven men in an attempt to land to -obtain provisions. Some provisions were finally got by -detaining two Spaniards, who came to visit the ships, -and requiring them to pay a ransom in sheep and oxen. -It was proposed to burn one of the ships, as there were -not men enough for both; but the new captains, of -whom the one in command of the “Charity” was named -Quackernack, could not agree which of the ships to burn.</p> - -<p>At length, the men being somewhat refreshed, a council -was called to consider what should be done to make -the voyage as profitable as possible to the merchants. -It was stated by one of the sailors, who had been to -Japan in a Portuguese ship, that woollen cloth, of which -they had much on board, was good merchandise there; -and considering that the Moluccas, and most parts of -the East Indies, were not countries in which woollen -cloths would be likely to be very acceptable; hearing -also from the people on shore that Spanish cruisers were -after them,—by whom, in fact, their third vessel was -captured, news of their intentions and force having been -sent from Spain to Peru about the time of their departure -from Holland,—it was finally resolved to stand<span class="pagenum" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</span> -away for Japan. Leaving the coast of Chili on the 27th -of November, and standing northwesterly across the -equator for three or four months, they had the trade-wind -and pleasant weather. In their way they encountered -a group of islands somewhere about sixteen degrees -of north latitude (perhaps the Sandwich Islands), to -which eight of their men ran off with the pinnace, and -were eaten, as was supposed, by the islanders, who, by -the report of one who was taken, were cannibals.</p> - -<p>In the latitude of twenty-seven degrees north, the vessels, -encountering variable winds and stormy weather, -were separated. The “Hope” was never more heard of; -the “Charity” still kept on her course, though with many -of her men sick and others dead, when, on the 11th of -April, being then in great misery, with only four or five -men out of a company of four-and-twenty able to walk, -and as many more to creep on their knees, the whole -expecting shortly to die, at last they made the hoped-for -land, which proved to be the eastern coast of Shimo. -They were immediately boarded by numerous boats, -which they had no force to resist; but the boatmen -offered no injury beyond stealing what they could conveniently -lay their hands on. This, however, was put a -stop to the next day by the governor of the neighboring -district, who sent soldiers on board to protect the cargo, -and who treated the crew with great kindness, furnishing -them with all necessary refreshments, and giving -them a house on shore for their sick, of whom nine -finally died.</p> - -<p>For some days the only conversation was by signs; -but before long a Portuguese Jesuit, with some other -Portuguese, arrived from Nagasaki, on the opposite -western coast of the island.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</span></p> - -<p>The Dutch now had an interpreter; but, what with -religious and what with national antipathies, little was to -be hoped from a Jesuit and a Portuguese. In fact, the -Portuguese accused them of being pirates, and two of their -own company, in hopes to get control of the cargo, turned -traitors, and plotted with the Portuguese. After nine -days the emperor [Iyeyasu] sent five galleys, in which -Adams, attended by one of the sailors, was conveyed to -Ōsaka, distant about eighty leagues. Here he found the -emperor, “in a wonderful costly house, gilded with gold -in abundance,” who, in several interviews, treated him -with great kindness, and was very inquisitive as to his -country and the cause of his coming. Adams replied -that the English were a people who had long sought -out the East Indies, desiring friendship, in the way of -trade, with all kings and potentates, and having in their -country divers commodities which might be exchanged -to mutual advantage. The emperor then inquired if the -people of Adams’ country had no wars. He answered -that they had with the Spanish and Portuguese, but were -at peace with all other nations. He also inquired as to -Adams’ religious opinions, and the way in which he got -to Japan; but when Adams, by way of answer, exhibited -a chart of the world, and pointed out the passage -through the Straits of Magellan, he showed plain signs -of incredulity.</p> - -<p>Notwithstanding this friendly reception, Adams was -ordered back to prison, where he was kept for nine-and-thirty -days, expecting, though well treated, to be -crucified, which he learned was the customary mode of -execution in that country.</p> - -<p>In fact, as he afterwards discovered, the Portuguese -were employing this interval in poisoning the minds of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</span> -the natives against these new-comers, whom they represented -as thieves and common sea-robbers, whom it was -necessary to put to death to prevent any more of their -freebooting countrymen from coming, to the ruin of the -Japanese trade. But at length the emperor gave this -answer: that, as these strangers had as yet done no -damage to him nor to any of his people, it would be -against reason and justice to put them to death; and, -sending again for Adams, after another long conversation -and numerous inquiries, he set him at liberty, and gave -him leave to visit the ship and his companions, of whom, -in the interval, he had heard nothing. He found them -close by, the ship having in the interval been brought to -Sakai, within seven or eight miles of Ōsaka. The men -had suffered nothing, but the ship had been completely -stripped, her whole company being thus left with only -the clothes on their backs. The emperor, indeed, ordered -restitution; but the plundered articles were so dispersed -and concealed that nothing could be recovered, except -fifty thousand rials in silver (five thousand dollars), which -had formed a part of the cargo, and which was given up to -the officers as a fund for their support and that of the men. -Afterward the ship was taken still eastward to a port near -Yedo. All means were used to get her clear, with leave -to depart, in which suit a considerable part of the money -was spent; till, at the end of two years, the men refusing -any longer to obey Adams and the master, the remaining -money was, “for quietness’ sake,” divided, and each -was left to shift for himself. The emperor, however, -added an allowance to each man of two pounds of rice -a day, besides an annual pension in money amounting -to about twenty-four dollars. In Adams’ case this -pension was afterward raised to one hundred and forty<span class="pagenum" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</span> -dollars, as a reward for having built two ships for the -emperor on the European model. Adams’ knowledge of -mathematics also proved serviceable to him, and he was -soon in such favor as to be able, according to his own -account, to return good for evil to several of his former -maligners. The emperor acknowledged his services, -and endeavored to content him by giving him “a living -like unto a lordship in England, with eighty or ninety -husbandmen as his servants and slaves”; but he still -pined for home, and importuned for leave to depart, -desiring, as he says, “to see his poor wife and children, -according to conscience and nature.” This suit he again -renewed, upon hearing from some Japanese traders that -Dutch merchants had established themselves at Acheen -in Sumatra, and Patania on the east coast of Malacca. -He promised to bring both the Dutch and English to -trade in Japan; but all he could obtain was leave for the -Dutch captain and another Dutchman to depart. This -they presently did, for Patania, in a Japanese junk, -furnished by the king or prince of Hirado, whence they -proceeded to Jor, at the southern end of the peninsula of -Malacca, where they found a Dutch fleet of nine sail. In -this fleet the Dutch captain obtained an appointment as -master, but was soon after killed in a sea-fight with the -Portuguese, with whom the Dutch were, by this time, -vigorously and successfully contending for the mastership<span class="pagenum" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</span> -of the eastern seas.<a id="FNanchor_68" href="#Footnote_68" class="fnanchor">[68]</a></p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XXI">CHAPTER XXI</h2> -</div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p class="hang"><i>Spanish Friars in Japan—Extension of Japanese Trade—Progress of -the Dutch in the Eastern Seas—They open a Trade with Japan—Emperor’s -Letter—Shipwreck of Don Rodrigo de Vivero on the Japanese -Coast—His Reception, Observations, and Departure—Destruction -of a Portuguese Carac by the Japanese—Another Dutch Ship arrives—Spex’s -Charter—Embassies from Macao and New Spain—Father -Louis Sotelo and his Projects—A. D. 1607-1618.</i></p> -</div> - - -<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">The</span> Dutch and English, though they had not -yet reached Japan, were already, especially the -Dutch, making great progress in the Indian -seas; but it was not by them alone that the Portuguese -monopoly of Japanese commerce and Japanese conversion -was threatened.</p> - -<p>Taking advantage of the bull of Clement VII, already -referred to, a multitude of Spanish friars from Manila -poured into Japan, whose first and chief business it was, -according to the Jesuit letter-writers and historians, -to declaim with vehemence against the conduct of the -fathers of the company, whom they represented as altogether -too circumspect, reserved, and timid in the publication -of the gospel. The fanaticism of these Spanish -friars was excessive, in illustration of which the Jesuit -historians relate, with malicious satisfaction, the following -story: One of them, in a dispute with one of the -shipwrecked Hollanders of Adams’ company (perhaps -with Adams himself), to sustain the authority of the -Catholic church, appealed to its miraculous power, and -when this obstinate Dutch heretic questioned the reality<span class="pagenum" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</span> -of any such power, and challenged an exhibition of it, -the fanatical missionary undertook to convince him by -walking himself on the sea. A day was appointed for -the miracle. The Spaniard prepared himself by confession, -prayer, and fasting. A crowd of Japanese assembled -to see it, and the friar, after a confident exhortation to -the multitude, stepped, crucifix in hand, into the water, -certain of being buoyed up by faith and providence. -But he was soon floundering over his head, and was only -saved from drowning by some boats sent to his assistance; -nor did this experiment add much either to the -faith of the Dutchman or to the docility of the Japanese. -About this same time, also, the institution of parish -priests was introduced; but this, like the admission of -friars, led only to new disputes and collisions.</p> - -<p>The merchants of Manila, no less than the monks, -still looked with longing eyes in the direction of Japan, -anxious to share in its commerce; and Don Rodrigo de -Vivero, upon his accession to that government, by way -of conciliation discharged from confinement and sent -home some two hundred Japanese, whom he found -imprisoned there, either by way of retaliation for the -confiscation of the “San Philip” and the execution of -the Spanish missionaries, or for some other cause.</p> - -<p>Besides these European rivals, a dangerous competition -in the way of trade seems to have been threatened on the -part of the Japanese themselves, who appear to have -been much more adventurous at this time, whether in -point of navigation or the visiting of foreign countries, -than the present jealous policy of their government -permits. Japanese vessels frequented Manila for the -purchase of rich China silks, which formed the chief -article of export from Macao to Japan, the policy of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</span> -China and the relations of Japan towards her not allowing -a direct trade. Japanese vessels appeared even in -the Pacific Spanish-American ports. It is to this period -that the Japanese ascribe the conquest by the king of -Satsuma of the Lew Chew Islands; and Macao, Siam, -and Annam are enumerated, on Japanese authority, as -additional places to which Japanese vessels traded.<a id="FNanchor_69" href="#Footnote_69" class="fnanchor">[69]</a></p> - -<p>The Portuguese seem, on the other hand, to have had -little left of that courage and spirit by which their -forefathers of the preceding century had been so distinguished. -The Dutch cruisers in the East Indies proved -a great annoyance to them. In 1603 they blockaded -Goa, and the same year Hemkirk took the carac of -Macao, a prize of fourteen hundred tons, and valued, -with her cargo, at several millions of florins. When the -Dutch, under Matelief, attacked Malacca, in 1606, the -Portuguese were greatly indebted to a small body of -Japanese, who formed a part of the garrison, for their -success in repelling the assault. On the other hand, in -1608 a large number of Japanese, obliged to winter at -Macao, got into collision with the Portuguese authorities -of that city, who suspected them of a design to seize the -place, and who, in consequence, put a number of them -to death. During this and the two preceding years the -annual Portuguese carac had been prevented from sailing -from Macao by fear of Dutch cruisers; and, with the -effect of this interruption of intercourse and of the bad -feeling produced by the collision at Macao, still other -circumstances coöperated to endanger the Portuguese -ascendency.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</span></p> - -<p>The first was the arrival at Hirado, in July, 1609, of -the Dutch vessel, the “Red Lion,” attended by the yacht -“Griffon.” They belonged to the fleet of Verhœven, -who had left Holland December 12, 1607, with thirteen -ships (of which several were of a thousand tons burden), -nineteen hundred men, and three hundred and seventy-seven -pieces of artillery. The Portuguese fleet, which -sailed about the same time from Lisbon, to take out a -new viceroy to Goa, was composed of eight great caracs -and six galleons. This fleet was scattered by a storm -off the Canaries, and one of the galleons, mounting ten -cannon, and with one hundred and eighty men, fell into -Verhœven’s hands. He had previously made an unsuccessful -attack on Mozambique; but had taken, however, -in the harbor a carac, mounting thirty-four guns and -loaded with merchandise. Off Goa another carac was -burned by the Portuguese, to prevent its falling into the -hands of the Dutch, who proceeded to Calicut, where a -treaty of alliance against the Portuguese was entered -into with the king. The Dutch then proceeded by -Cochin to Johor, on the peninsula of Malacca (whence -the two ships were despatched to Japan) and finally to -Bantam and the Moluccas, where the Dutch expected -that a truce with Spain, announced by a ship late from -Holland, would enable them to devote all their strength -to guard against the English, who were also aiming at -an establishment in those islands.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_182f" style="max-width: 75em;"> - <img src="images/i_182f.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Temple of Hideyoshi, Kyōtō</span></div> -</div> - -<p>The ships detached from Johor, equally equipped for -trading and for fighting, as were all the Indiamen of that -period, having missed, by being a few days too late, the -carac of Macao, proceeded to carry out their instructions -for opening a commercial intercourse with Japan. They -were very kindly received at Hirado, whence they sent a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</span> -deputation to the emperor’s court, with presents, in the -name of the Stadtholder, and were successful in obtaining -leave to establish a factory at Hirado, for the supply -of which with goods the Dutch were to send a ship or -two yearly. The “Red Lion,” arriving in the Texel, -July, 1610, carried back the following letter:</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p class="center">THE EMPEROR OF JAPAN TO THE KING OF -HOLLAND.</p> - -<p>“I, emperor and king of Japan, wish to the king of -Holland [prince of Orange] who hath sent from so far -countries to visit me, greeting.</p> - -<p>“I rejoice greatly in your writing and sending unto me, -and wish that our countries were nearer the one to the other, -whereby we might continue and increase the friendship begun -betwixt us, through your presence, whom I imagine in earnest -to see; in respect I am unknown unto your majesty, -and that your love towards me is manifested through your -liberality in honoring me with four presents, whereof, though -I had no need, yet, coming in your name, I received them in -great worth, and hold them in good esteem.</p> - -<p>“And further, whereas the Hollanders, your majesty’s -subjects, desire to trade with their shipping in my country -(which is of little value and small), and to traffic with my -subjects, and desire to have their abiding near unto my court, -whereby in person I might help and assist them, which cannot -be as now, through the inconvenience of the country; yet, -notwithstanding, I will not neglect, as already I have been, -to be careful of them, and to give in charge to all my governors -and subjects that, in what places and havens, in what -port soever they shall arrive, they shall show them all favor -and friendships to their persons, ships, and merchandise; -wherein your majesty or your subjects need not to doubt or<span class="pagenum" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</span> -fear aught to the contrary. For they may come as freely as -if they came into your majesty’s own havens and countries, -and so may remain in my country to trade. And the friendship -begun between me and my subjects with you shall never -be impaired on my behalf, but augmented and increased.</p> - -<p>“I am partly ashamed that your majesty (whose name -and renown through your valorous deeds is spread through -the whole world) should cause your subjects to come from so -far countries into a country so unfitting as this is, to visit -me, and to offer unto me such friendships as I have not -deserved. But considering that your affection hath been the -cause thereof, I could not but friendly entertain your subjects, -and yield to their requests, whereof this shall serve for -a testimony; that they in all places, countries, and islands -under mine obedience, may trade, and traffic, and build -houses serviceable and needful for their trade and merchandises, -where they may trade without any hindrance at their -pleasure, as well in time to come as for the present, so that -no man shall do them any wrong. And I will maintain and -defend them as mine own subjects.</p> - -<p>“I promise, likewise, that the persons whom I understand -shall be left here, shall now and at all times be held as -recommended unto me, and in all things to favor them, -whereby your majesty shall find us as your friends and -neighbors.</p> - -<p>“For other matters passed between me and your majesty’s -servants, which would be too long here to repeat, I refer -myself unto them.”<a id="FNanchor_70" href="#Footnote_70" class="fnanchor">[70]</a></p> -</div> - -<p>The Dutch were greatly indebted for their success to -Matsuura Hōin, king of Hirado, who interested himself -greatly in the establishment of a Dutch factory in his<span class="pagenum" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</span> -island. In fact, it had been at his expense that the two -Dutchmen, shipmates of Adams, had some years before -been sent to Patania upon their promise to induce their -countrymen to open a trade to Japan. In addition to -this outlay, which had amounted to fifteen hundred taels, -he had furnished the Dutch belonging to the two recently -arrived vessels with a galley manned with fifty-six rowers, -for their visit to court, of which they had the use for -two months; and he had, besides, accommodated them -by purchasing all their pepper and silk, the latter article -at a considerable loss to himself.</p> - -<p>Some time previous to the arrival of these Dutch -ships, in the autumn of 1608, Don Rodrigo de Vivero, -the late governor of Manila, returning to New Spain in -the galleon the “St. Francis,” was wrecked on the southeast -coast of Nippon.<a id="FNanchor_71" href="#Footnote_71" class="fnanchor">[71]</a> At first it was not known what -land it was, but a Japanese Catholic on board soon -recognized it. The crew, who had escaped to the shore, -proceeded to a neighboring village, the people of which -evinced much compassion for them, the women even -shedding tears. They gave them clothing and food -(consisting of rice, pulse, and a little fish), and sent -word to the Tono, or lord of the district, who issued -orders that they should be well treated, but not suffered -to remove.</p> - -<p>They were soon visited by the Tono, who came in great -pomp, preceded by three hundred men; some bearing -banners, others armed with lances, matchlocks, and halberts. -He saluted Don Rodrigo with much politeness, -by a motion of his head and hand, and placed him on -his left, that being considered the place of honor among -the Japanese, because the swords are worn on that side.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</span> -He made Don Rodrigo several presents, and took upon -himself the subsistence of the party, allowing two -Spanish officers to proceed to the emperor’s court, -to communicate to him and to his son and, according -to the Japanese custom, colleague, the details of the -case.</p> - -<p>Yedo, where the emperor’s son resided, was about -forty leagues distant, and Suruga, where the emperor -held his court, still forty leagues further. The messengers -returned in twenty-four days, with an officer of the -prince, charged with a message of condolence from the -emperor, and leave to visit their courts. All the property -that could be saved from the wreck was given up -to the Spaniards.</p> - -<p>The first place on their route was a town of ten or -twelve thousand inhabitants. The Tono took Don Rodrigo -to his castle, situated on a height, and surrounded -by a ditch fifty feet deep, passed by a drawbridge. The -gates were of iron; the walls of solid masonry, eighteen -feet high, and the same in thickness. Near the first -gate stood a hundred musketeers, and between that and -the second gate, which opened through a second wall, -were houses, gardens, orchards, and rice-fields. The -dwelling rooms were of wood, exquisitely finished and -adorned with a profusion of gold, silver, varnish, etc.</p> - -<p>All the way to Yedo the density of the population -greatly surprised the Spaniards, who were everywhere -well lodged and entertained. They entered that city -amid such a crowd, that the officers of police had to -force a way for them,—and yet the streets were very -broad. Such crowds collected about the house which -the prince had ordered to be prepared for them, that -they had no rest; till at last a guard was placed about<span class="pagenum" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</span> -it, and a tablet set up, prohibiting the populace from -molesting them. Of the city Rodrigo gives this description: -“Yedo contains seven hundred thousand inhabitants, -and is traversed by a considerable river which -is navigable by vessels of moderate size. By this river, -which divides in the interior into several branches, the -inhabitants are supplied with provisions and necessaries, -which are so cheap that a man may live comfortably for -a rial (five cents) a day. The Japanese do not make -much wheaten bread, though what they do make is -excellent. The streets and squares of Yedo are very -handsome, clean, and well kept. The houses are of -wood, and mostly of two stories. The exterior is less -imposing than with us, but they are far handsomer and -more comfortable within. Towards the street the houses -have covered galleries, and each street is occupied by -persons of the same calling; carpenters in one, jewellers -in another, tailors in another, including many trades -unknown in Europe. The merchants and traders dwell -together in the same way. Provisions also are sold in -places appointed for each sort. I observed a market -where game was sold; there was a great supply of rabbits, -hares, wild boars, deer, and other animals which I -never saw before. The Japanese rarely eat any flesh -but that of game, which they hunt. The fish market, -very extensive and extremely neat and clean, affords a -great variety of fish, sea and river, fresh and salt; and -there were large tubs containing live fish. Adjoining -the inns are places where they let and sell horses, and -these places are so numerous, that the traveller, who, -according to custom, changes his horse every league, -is only embarrassed where to choose. The nobles and -great men inhabit a distant part of the city, and their<span class="pagenum" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</span> -quarter is distinguished by the armorial ornaments, -sculptured, painted, or gilt, placed over the doors of -the houses,—a privilege to which the Japanese nobles -attach great value. The political authority is vested -in a governor, who is chief of the magistracy, civil and -military. In each street resides a magistrate who takes -cognizance, in the first instance, of all cases, civil and -criminal, submitting the more difficult to the governor. -The streets are closed at each end by a gate, which is -shut at nightfall. At each gate is placed a guard of -soldiers, with sentinels at intervals; so that, if a crime -is committed, notice is conveyed instantly to each end -of the street, and, the gates being closed, it rarely happens -that the offender escapes. This description is -applicable to all the other cities in the kingdom.”</p> - -<p>After an interval of two days, the prince sent his secretary, -whose name was Honda Kōzuke-no-Suke, to invite -Don Rodrigo to visit him. The palace he describes -as enclosed by a wall of immense blocks of freestone, -put together without cement, with embrasures, at equal -distances, well furnished with artillery. At the foot of -this wall was a deep wet ditch, crossed by a drawbridge -of a peculiar and very ingenious construction. Don -Rodrigo passed through two ranks of musketeers, about -one thousand in number, to the second wall, distant from -the first three hundred paces. At the gate four hundred -lancers and pikemen were stationed. A third wall, -about twelve feet high, was guarded by three hundred -halberdiers. Within was the palace, with the royal -stables on one side, containing three hundred horses, -and on the other an arsenal with arms for one hundred -thousand men. Rodrigo affirms that from the entrance -to the palace were more than twenty thousand men, not<span class="pagenum" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</span> -assembled for the occasion, but constantly employed and -paid for the daily service of the court.</p> - -<p>The first apartment of the palace was entirely covered -with rich ornaments, carpets, stuffs, velvet, and gold. -The walls were hung with pictures representing hunting -subjects. Each apartment exceeded the preceding in -splendor, till the further one was reached, in which the -prince was seated on a superb carpet of crimson velvet, -embroidered with gold, placed upon a kind of platform, -raised two steps, in the centre of the apartment. He -wore three dresses, one over the other, the exterior one -green and yellow; in his girdle were his longer and -shorter swords. His hair was tied up with ribbons of -different colors, and his head had no other ornament. -He was about thirty-five years of age; of a brown complexion, -a pleasing figure, and good height. Don Rodrigo -was conducted to a seat on the left hand of the -prince, who conversed with him on a variety of indifferent -subjects.</p> - -<p>Four days after, the travellers set off for Suruga, on a -visit to the emperor. The road is thus described: “On -whatsoever side the traveller turns his eyes, he perceives -a concourse of people passing to and fro, as in the most -populous cities of Europe. The roads are lined on both -sides with superb pine-trees, which keep off the sun. -The distances are marked by little eminences planted -with two trees.” In the hundred leagues between Suruga -and Miyako, several towns were passed, estimated to -contain one hundred thousand inhabitants, and a village -occurred at every quarter of a league. Rodrigo declares -himself so delighted with Japan, that, “if he could have -prevailed upon himself to renounce his God and his -king, he should have preferred that country to his own.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</span></p> - -<p>He estimated Suruga to contain from five to six hundred -thousand inhabitants. The climate was more -agreeable than that of Yedo, but the city not so handsome. -As at Yedo, a convenient residence was provided -for him, which the crowd besieged as they had done -there. The emperor sent a secretary to compliment -him on his arrival, with a present of rich dresses, and in -about a week he had his presentation. He was conveyed -in an elegant litter to the palace, which was a fortress -like that at Yedo. On the whole, there was less -display than at the prince’s court, but more marks of -power and fear. The interview with the emperor is -thus described: “I followed the minister, who conducted -me into the presence of the sovereign, whom I -saluted. He was in a kind of square box, not very -large, but astonishingly rich. It was placed two steps -above the floor, and surrounded at four paces’ distance -by a gold lattice-work, six feet high, in which were -small doors, by which the emperor’s attendants went in -and out, as they were called from the crowd, prostrate -on their hands and knees around the lattice.<a id="FNanchor_72" href="#Footnote_72" class="fnanchor">[72]</a> The -monarch was encircled by nearly twenty grandees, ministers -or principal courtiers, in long silk mantles, and -trousers of the same material, so long that they entirely -concealed the feet. The emperor was seated on a kind -of stool, of blue satin, worked with stars and half-moons -of silver. In his girdle he wore a sword, and had his -hair tied up with ribbons of different colors, but had no -other head-dress. His age appeared to be about sixty.<a id="FNanchor_73" href="#Footnote_73" class="fnanchor">[73]</a> -He was of the middle stature, and of a very full person.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</span> -His countenance was venerable and gracious; his complexion -not near so brown as that of the prince.”</p> - -<p>As if to magnify the emperor, Don Rodrigo was detained -during the introduction of a Tono of high rank, -who brought presents in gold, silver, and silk, worth -twenty thousand ducats. At a hundred paces from the -throne he prostrated himself with his face to the floor, -and remained in this posture for several minutes in perfect -silence, neither the emperor nor either of the ministers -vouchsafing a word. He then retired with his -suite, consisting of three thousand persons. After other -exhibitions of the same sort, Don Rodrigo, having been -directed to make what requests he would, was conducted -by two ministers to a third apartment, whence other great -officers escorted him out of the palace with all ceremony.</p> - -<p>Afterwards he was entertained by Kōzukedono, the -prime minister, at a magnificent collation, the host -pledging his health in exquisite Japanese wine [<i>sake</i>?] -by placing the glass upon his head.<a id="FNanchor_74" href="#Footnote_74" class="fnanchor">[74]</a> The Spaniard presented -at this time a memorandum of his requests translated -into Japanese. They were three: first, that the -royal protection might be granted to Christian priests -of different orders who then resided in the empire, and -that they might not be molested in the free use and disposal -of their houses and churches; secondly, that amity -might continue between the emperor and the king of -Spain; and, lastly, that, as an evidence of that friendship, -the emperor would not permit the Dutch (whose -arrival has already been mentioned) to reside in his -territories, but would drive them out—since, besides<span class="pagenum" id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</span> -being enemies of Spain, they were little better than -pirates and sea-rovers.</p> - -<p>The minister, the next day, after another collation, -reported the emperor’s answer, who had remarked, with -admiration, that Don Rodrigo, though destitute, had -asked nothing for himself, but had regarded only the -interests of his religion and his king. The two first -requests were granted. As to the expulsion of the -Hollanders, that, the emperor said, “will be difficult -this year, as they have my royal word for permission to -sojourn in Japan; but I am obliged to Don Rodrigo for -letting me know what characters they are.” The emperor -offered the shipwrecked Spaniard one of the ships of -European model, which the pilot Adams had built for -him, in which to proceed to New Spain; and he begged -him to request King Philip to send to Japan fifty miners, -as he understood those of New Spain to be very skilful, -whereas those of Japan did not obtain from the ore half -the silver it was capable of yielding.</p> - -<p>Don Rodrigo soon after set out for Shimo, where he -was to take ship. From Suruga to Miyako, estimated -at one hundred leagues, the country was mostly -level and very fertile. Several considerable rivers were -crossed in large ferry-boats by means of a cable stretched -from bank to bank. Provisions were very cheap. His -idea of the population of the country grew more and -more exaggerated. He insists that he did not pass a -town of less population than one hundred and fifty -thousand; and Miyako, which he considers the largest -city in the world, he sets down at one million five hundred -thousand.<a id="FNanchor_75" href="#Footnote_75" class="fnanchor">[75]</a> Situated upon a highly cultivated<span class="pagenum" id="Page_193">[Pg 193]</span> -plain, its walls were ten leagues in circuit, as Don -Rodrigo ascertained by riding round them on horseback. -It took him an entire day. He enters into a number of -details about the Dairi and his court. He was powerless, -and lived in splendid poverty. The court of the governor -of Miyako, who had six vice-governors under him, -was scarcely less splendid than that of the emperor. He -told Don Rodrigo that this city contained five thousand -temples and more than fifty thousand public women. -He showed him a temple, the largest building he had -seen in Japan, containing statues of all the gods, and -another in which was an immense bronze statue, the size -of which filled him with astonishment. “I ordered,” he -says, “one of my people to measure the thumb of the -right hand; but, although he was a person of the ordinary -size, he could not quite encircle it with both arms. -But the size of the statue is not its only merit; the feet, -hands, mouth, eyes, forehead, and other features are as -perfect and expressive as the most accomplished painter -could make a portrait. When I first visited this temple -it was unfinished; more than one hundred thousand men -were daily employed upon it. The devil could not suggest -to the emperor a surer expedient to get rid of this -immense wealth.”<a id="FNanchor_76" href="#Footnote_76" class="fnanchor">[76]</a></p> - -<p>The temple and tomb of Taikō-Sama, raised since his -death to the rank of the gods, is thus described by -Rodrigo, who deplores the dedication of such an edifice -to one whose “soul is in hell for all eternity.” The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_194">[Pg 194]</span> -entrance was by an avenue paved with jasper four -hundred feet by three hundred. On each side, at equal -distances, were posts of jasper, on which were placed -lamps lighted at night. At the end of this passage was -the peristyle of the temple, ascended by several steps, -and having on the right a monastery of priests. The -principal gate was encrusted with jasper and overlaid -with gold and silver ornaments skilfully wrought. The -nave of the temple was supported by lofty columns. -There was a choir, as in European cathedrals, with seats -and a grating all round. Male and female choristers -chanted the prayers, much as in Catholic churches, and -the surplices put Rodrigo in mind of the prebends of -Toledo. The church was filled with silent devotees. -Four of the priests accosted him, and seem to have put -him to great uneasiness by conducting him to the altar -of their “infamous relics,” surrounded with an infinite -number of lamps. After raising five or six curtains, -covering as many gratings, first of iron, then of silver, -and the last one of gold, a kind of chest was exposed, -in which were contained the ashes of Taikō-Sama. -Within this enclosure none but the chief priests could -enter. All the Japanese prostrated themselves.</p> - -<p>Hastening to quit “this accursed spot,” Rodrigo was -accompanied by the priests to their gardens, exceeding, -he says, those of Aranjuez.</p> - -<p>Of the religion of Japan he makes the following -observation: “The Japanese, like us, use holy, or rather -unholy, water, and chaplets consecrated to their false -gods, Shaka [Buddha] and Nido [Amida], which are not -the only ones that they worship, for there are no less -than thirty-five different sects or religions in Japan. -Some deny the immortality of the soul, others adore<span class="pagenum" id="Page_195">[Pg 195]</span> -divers gods, and others yet the elements. All are tolerated. -The bonzes of all the sects having concurred in -a request to the emperor that he would expel our monks, -the prince, troubled with their importunities, inquired -how many different religions there were in Japan. -‘Thirty-five,’was the reply. ‘Well,’said he, ‘where -thirty-five sects can be tolerated, we can easily bear with -thirty-six;—leave the strangers in peace.’” He estimates -the Christians at three hundred thousand,—a -much more probable number than the eighteen hundred -thousand at which they were reckoned by the missionaries,<a id="FNanchor_77" href="#Footnote_77" class="fnanchor">[77]</a> -whose reckoning was the same now that it had -been ten years before.</p> - -<p>From Miyako Don Rodrigo proceeded to Fushimi, -adjoining, where he embarked for Ōsaka, ten leagues -down a river, as large as the Guadalquivir at Seville, and -full of vessels. Ōsaka, built close to the sea, he reckons -to contain one million inhabitants. Here he embarked -in a junk for Nagasaki. Not finding his vessel in proper -repair, he accepted an invitation from the emperor to -return to Suruga, where he renewed his endeavors to -persuade that prince to expel the Dutch, but without -effect. At last, with presents and despatches for the -king of Spain, he set sail August 1, 1610, after a stay in -Japan of nearly two years.<a id="FNanchor_78" href="#Footnote_78" class="fnanchor">[78]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_196">[Pg 196]</span></p> - -<p>Meanwhile an event occurred of which Rodrigo makes -no mention, but for which the Portuguese were inclined to -hold him responsible, no less than the Dutch. The annual -carac from Macao had arrived, as we have seen, in the -autumn of 1609, after an interval of three years, commanded, -as it happened, by the very same person who had -been chief magistrate there on occasion of the late seizure -and execution of certain Japanese. The emperor, -strengthened, as it was thought, by the expectation of -Dutch and Spanish trade, encouraged the prince of Arima -to revenge the death of his subjects who had perished at -Macao; and when the carac was ready to sail on her return -voyage she was attacked by a fleet of Japanese boats. -They were two or three times repulsed, but, taking the -carac at a disadvantage, becalmed and drifted into a -narrow passage, they succeeded in setting her on fire, -and in destroying her with all her crew.</p> - -<p>Both the Dutch factors who had been left in Japan, -and the king of that island, Hōin-Sama, who had exerted -himself greatly for the establishment of Dutch commerce, -were not a little annoyed at the non-appearance -of any Dutch vessels at Hirado during the year 1610. -The Dutch in the East Indies had, indeed, at this -moment other things to attend to. Verhœven, after his -return to the Moluccas, had been entrapped and treacherously -slain at Banda, by the natives of that island, -along with many of his principal officers. This, however, -did not prevent the Dutch from soon after making -a treaty with these islanders, by which they obtained the -sole right of purchasing their nutmegs and mace, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_197">[Pg 197]</span> -which they followed up by the establishment of not less -than seven forts in the Molucca Islands, and by vigorous, -though as yet unsuccessful, attempts to drive away the -Spaniards who had come to the aid of the Portuguese.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_196f" style="max-width: 75em;"> - <img src="images/i_196f.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">A Scene in the Palace Gardens, Kyōtō</span></div> -</div> - -<p>The Moluccas thus occupied, Admiral Wittert, who -had succeeded to the command of the Dutch fleet, sailed -with part of the ships for Manila; for though the truce -between Spain and Holland was known, it had not been -proclaimed in the East Indies, and was not regarded by -either party. Here, unfortunately, Wittert suffered himself -to be surprised by a much superior Spanish force, -and though he fought with the greatest courage till he -fell, his own ship and two others were taken, and -another blown up, two only making their escape.</p> - -<p>Immediately upon the arrival of the “Red Lion” in -Holland, a number of ships had been fitted out for -Japan; but the first to arrive was a small yacht, called -the “Brach,” in July, 1611, with only a trifling cargo of -cloths, silks, pepper, ivory, and lead. Presently a government -officer came on board to demand a manifest of -the cargo to be sent to the emperor; but this the Dutch -did not like to submit to, as the Portuguese were free from -it, and especially as the present cargo was so trifling. -These demands being renewed, finally, though somewhat -perplexed by the small means they had of making -presents, they resolved upon a new mission to the emperor’s -court. The king of Hirado advised them also to -extend their visit to the hereditary prince at Yedo, and -not to omit paying their respects to Hideyori at Ōsaka, -son of the late emperor, and who might yet mount the -throne. The king of Hirado furnished a galley, in -addition to one belonging to the factories, and two -commissioners, of whom the principal was Jacob Spex,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_198">[Pg 198]</span> -set out for Suruga, July 17, with an interpreter and a -Japanese gentleman as a guide or conductor<a id="FNanchor_79" href="#Footnote_79" class="fnanchor">[79]</a>.</p> - -<p>The 6th of August they reached Ōsaka, defended by -a fine castle, in which dwelt Hideyori, now eighteen -years of age. He had always been kept secluded, but -enjoyed a large revenue, and had many adherents, by -whom, as the Dutch learned, the hope of placing him on -the throne was zealously entertained.</p> - -<p>Arriving at Miyako, they learned that a Portuguese -embassy had passed through it four days preceding. -They were deputies from Macao, who had landed at -Kagoshima, in a small vessel, and had gone with rich -presents to the emperor to solicit a renewal of trade and -indemnification for the vessels destroyed at Nagasaki -two years before. Accompanied by a large number of -trumpeters and other musicians, they marched, with -great pomp, to the sound of the instruments, the whole of -them, even their black slaves, clothed in velvet of a uniform -color. The governor of Miyako, to whom they had -made rich presents, had furnished them with eighty-eight -horses, which they had equipped at their own expense.</p> - -<p>Nor was this governor (the same apparently who had -entertained Don Rodrigo) less bountiful to the Dutch. -He furnished them with horses, a passport, and letters -to the chief of the emperor’s council, but refused their -presents, not being accustomed, he said, to take anything -from strangers. When they pressed him, he still refused -to accept anything now, but promised, if they had<span class="pagenum" id="Page_199">[Pg 199]</span> -anything left at their return, to allow them to remember -him,—a piece of disinterestedness by which the economical -Dutch were greatly charmed.</p> - -<p>Just before reaching Suruga they encountered Adams, -the English pilot, to whom they had written, and who, -upon arriving at Suruga, hastened to Kōzukeno-Suke, -the same secretary of the emperor seen by Don Rodrigo, -but whom the Dutch call president of the council, to -solicit for them a speedy audience. While waiting for -it, they learned that the Portuguese ambassadors had not -been very successful; nor had a Spanish embassy, which -had just arrived from New Spain, with thanks to the -emperor for his courtesies to Don Rodrigo. The presents -of this ambassador were very splendid; but his -carriage was so haughty as to displease the Japanese. -He demanded leave for the Spaniards to build ships, for -which the forests and workmen of Japan afforded -greater facilities than either Manila or New Spain, and -to explore the coasts, the Spaniards’ ignorance of which -had cost them the loss of some valuable vessels. This -was agreed to; but the emperor declined the request for -the expulsion of the Dutch, saying that he had nothing -to do with these European quarrels. Adams was present -at these interviews; nor did he fail by his representations -to excite the suspicions of the emperor against -the Spaniards.</p> - -<p>Gotō Shōzaburō, the emperor’s treasurer, freely told -the Dutch that the Spaniards and Portuguese had represented -him as coming to Japan rather as privateersmen -than as traders, and that, as might be seen by the -smallness of their present cargo, their chief resource for -trade was in the prizes they took. But Adams entered -with great zeal into their defence, insisting upon their<span class="pagenum" id="Page_200">[Pg 200]</span> -honesty and fairness as the qualities which had given -them such success in trade, referring to the recent truce -with Spain as showing that plunder was not their object, -and excusing the smallness of the present venture by -the lack, as yet, of any regular treaty.</p> - -<p>These representations were not without their effect. -Kōzukeno-Suke received the Dutch very graciously, -approved the requests which they made on the subject -of trade, and promised to lay them before the emperor -pending their visit to Yedo, for which he furnished them -with vessels, horses, and guides. With much persuasion -he was at last induced to accept a present, which the -Dutch regarded as a special favor, as he had positively -declined any from the Portuguese and Spaniards. Before -their departure, they were admitted to an audience -from the emperor, who inquired of them how many soldiers -they had in the Moluccas<a id="FNanchor_80" href="#Footnote_80" class="fnanchor">[80]</a>; whether they traded -to Borneo; whether it were true that the best camphor -came from that island; what odoriferous woods the -Dutch had in their country; and other similar questions, -to which they replied through their interpreter. -After they had taken their leave, Kōzukedono and Gotō -Shōzaburō reconducted them out of the hall, at the same -time felicitating them on their favorable audience. It -was very unusual, they said, for the emperor to make -himself so familiar; he did not bestow such a favor even -on the greatest lords of the empire, who brought him -presents of the value of ten, twenty, and thirty thousand -taels; nor had he said a single word to the Portuguese -and Spanish ambassadors. To Adams, who was called -back to the royal apartments, the emperor expressed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_201">[Pg 201]</span> -himself greatly delighted with the presents, as showing -that the Dutch were “past masters” in arts as well -as in arms.</p> - -<p>The Dutchmen, having caused their propositions to -be written out in Japanese, placed them in the hands of -Kōzukedono, and on the 18th they were furnished with -an order for ten horses, and a letter to the hereditary -prince at Yedo. Adams, who was in as great favor at -this court as at Suruga, lodged them in a house of his -own, and undertook to give notice of their arrival to -Sadono-Kami, president of the prince’s council and father -of Kōzukedono, who sent an officer in return to make -his compliments to the Dutchmen.</p> - -<p>They made him a visit the next day, with a present, -which, as a great favor, he condescended to accept. He -inquired of them particularly the cause of the war which -had lasted so long between the Spaniards and the Dutch, -and the history of the negotiations which had brought -about the recent truce. The Dutch did not conceal the -small extent of their country, and the Japanese minister -expressed great astonishment that so feeble a state -should have resisted with such success so powerful a -king. Finally, he treated them to a collation of fruit. -Though very old and infirm, he conducted them to the -passage, and promised to accompany them the next day -to the palace. Admitted to the imperial palace, the -prince thanked them for the journey they had undertaken -to see him; but when (pretending orders from -Holland to that effect) they besought his favor and protection, -he dismissed them with a nod. An officer, however, -conducted them over the palace, and the prince -sent them some presents, though not very magnificent -ones. They themselves made many presents, principally<span class="pagenum" id="Page_202">[Pg 202]</span> -cloth and glass bottles, to many lords of the court, -among whom they found, in high favor, a brother of the -young king of Hirado.</p> - -<p>From Yedo they proceeded to a port eighteen leagues -distant (probably Uraga), where Adams had another -house, and where they found the Spanish ship which had -brought the ambassador from New Spain. The ambassador -himself was also there. He sent them a very civil -message, to which they responded with equal civility. -Pressing invitations for a visit passed between them, but -neither party would be the first to call on the other. By -some Flemings, however, attached to the ambassador’s -suite, they were assured that the ambassador had no authority -to demand the exclusion of the Dutch, which he -had done on his own authority. The embassy, they said, -had been fitted out at an expense of fifty thousand dollars.</p> - -<p>Upon their return to Suruga, October 1, Adams -brought them the patent which the emperor had granted -for their commerce, and which, being translated, proved -to be in the following words:</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>“All Dutch ships that come into my empire of Japan, -whatever place or port they put into, we do hereby expressly -command all and every one of our subjects not to molest the -same in any way, nor to be a hindrance to them; but, on the -contrary, to show them all manner of help, favor, and assistance. -Every one shall beware to maintain the friendship in -assurance of which we have been pleased to give our imperial -word to these people; and every one shall take care that our -commands and promises be inviolably kept.</p> - -<p>“Dated (according to the Japanese calendar equivalent to) -August 30, 1611.”<a id="FNanchor_81" href="#Footnote_81" class="fnanchor">[81]</a></p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_203">[Pg 203]</span></p> - -<p>The Dutch were very much troubled to find that the -clause guaranteeing freedom from the visits of inspectors -and guards, and interference with their trade by the -government, which had been the great object of their -mission, was omitted. They made representations on -the subject to Kōzukeno-Suke, who advised them not to -press it. But as they conceived it of the greatest importance, -they drew up a Japanese memorial, which -Adams presented to the emperor and the request of -which Kōzukedono seconded with such effect that the -emperor ordered an edict granting the wishes of the -Dutch to be drawn up, which he immediately proceeded -to sign. Such is the statement of Spex’s narrative; -but no such document appears to be preserved -in the archives of the Dutch factory, the short one -already given being everywhere cited and relied upon -as the charter of the Dutch trade to Japan, without -any mention anywhere else of any such supplement -to it.</p> - -<p>The return of the Dutchmen, by way of Miyako, to -Hirado, does not offer anything remarkable, except their -meeting at Sakai (whither they went to learn the price -of goods and the course of trade there), with Melichor -von Santvoort, one of the Dutchmen who had reached -Japan at the same time with Adams. After selecting -factors to stay behind, ordering the erection of warehouses, -and making such presents as their small means -admitted to their Japanese friends, their vessel set sail -on her return the 28th of September.</p> - -<p>The Dutch, as we have seen, had been greatly assisted -by Adams. The Spanish envoy, in his negotiations, -relied chiefly, as Don Rodrigo had done before him, on -the advice and assistance of Father Louis Sotelo, a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_204">[Pg 204]</span> -Franciscan friar of noble descent<a id="FNanchor_82" href="#Footnote_82" class="fnanchor">[82]</a>, established at Miyako, -who entered with great zeal into the project of a regular -trade between Japan and Mexico. But the old jealousy -which the Japanese had long entertained of the Spaniards -soon broke out afresh. Some soundings made along -the coast by the vessel which brought out the Spanish -ambassador were looked upon with great suspicion and -jealousy, which Adams is said to have aggravated. -Sotelo, despairing of success with the emperor, though -at first he had seemed to favor his projects, subsequently -proposed the same scheme to Date Masamune, who ruled -over a part, or the whole, of the kingdom of Ōshū, or -Mutsu, in the north of Japan, hitherto almost unknown, -but to which a few missionaries had lately made their -way. The prince of Ōshū adopted Sotelo’s project with -zeal, affecting also quite a leaning towards the new faith, -and, at Sotelo’s suggestion, he sent an ambassador to the -Pope and the king of Spain<a id="FNanchor_83" href="#Footnote_83" class="fnanchor">[83]</a>.</p> - -<p>After many disappointments, Sotelo with this ambassador -set sail at length for New Spain, about the end of -the year 1613, in a vessel belonging to Masamune; and, -by way of the city of Mexico, proceeded to Seville and -Madrid, where they arrived in October, 1614. Thence -they proceeded to Rome, and had an audience of the -Pope, November 30, 1615, by whom Sotelo was nominated -bishop for the north and east parts of Japan, and his -legate for the whole of it<a id="FNanchor_84" href="#Footnote_84" class="fnanchor">[84]</a>. Having reached New Spain<span class="pagenum" id="Page_205">[Pg 205]</span> -on his return, he found in the port of Acapulco a Japanese -vessel belonging to Masamune, which, having disposed -of a cargo of Japanese goods, took on freight for -Manila a part of the suite of a new Spanish governor of -the Philippines, intending to purchase at Manila a cargo -of Chinese silks. But the Council of the Indies, under -the influence of the Jesuits, and on the plea that the -nomination of all Eastern bishops belonged to the king, -opposed Sotelo’s consecration; and the merchants of -Manila, alarmed at the rivalry of New Spain for the -Japanese trade, made such representations that, on his -arrival there, his papers were seized, and he himself was -sent back to the superiors of his order in New Mexico.</p> - -<p>But long before the occurrence of these events—in -fact, previous to the departure of Sotelo from Japan—the -Catholic faith there had received a blow from -which it never recovered, and which brought it to -speedy ruin.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_206">[Pg 206]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XXII">CHAPTER XXII</h2> -</div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p class="hang"><i>Origin and Commencement of English Intercourse with Japan—Captain -Saris’ Voyage thither, and Travels and Observations there—New -Spanish Embassy from the Philippines—Commercial Rivalry of the -Dutch and English—Richard Cocks, Head of the English Factory—A. -D. 1611-1613.</i></p> -</div> - - -<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">The</span> pilot, Adams, having heard from Spex that -certain English merchants had established themselves -in the island of Java, he wrote to them, -under date of October 22, 1611, giving an account of -himself, and enclosing a letter to his wife, which he -besought these unknown countrymen of his to convey to -his friends at Limehouse or in Kent, so that his wife, -“in a manner a widow,” and his fatherless children, might -hear of him, and he of them, before his death. “You -shall understand,” wrote Adams, “that the Hollanders -have here an Indies of money, so that they need not to -bring silver out of Holland to the East Indies, for in -Japan there is much gold and silver to serve their turn -in other places where need requireth.” He enumerated -as vendible in Japan for ready money, raw silk, damask, -black taffetas, black and red cloth of the best kinds, -lead, etc. To a somewhat exaggerated, and otherwise -not very correct account of the extent and the geography -of the Japanese dominions, he added the following description -of the inhabitants: “The people of this island -of Japan are good of nature, courteous above measure, -and valiant in war. Their justice is severely executed, -and without partiality, upon transgressors. They are<span class="pagenum" id="Page_207">[Pg 207]</span> -governed in great civility. I think no land in the -world better governed by civil policy. The people are -very superstitious in their religion, and are of diverse -opinions. There are many Jesuit and Franciscan friars -in this land, and they have converted many to be Christians, -and have many churches in the island.”</p> - -<p>This letter, which was given in charge to the master’s -mate of the Dutch vessel, must have reached the English -East India Company’s factory at Bantam, in Java, -previous to the first of June, 1612, for on that day an -answer to it was despatched by the “Globe,” which had -just arrived from England, and which, sailing from -Bantam to Patania, met there the same master’s mate -who had brought Adams’ letter, and who, being just -about to return to Japan in a Dutch pinnace, promised -to deliver the answer.</p> - -<p>Already, however, independently of Adams’ letter, a -project had been started in England for opening a trade -with Japan, founded upon a knowledge of Adams’ being -there, derived from the crew of the Dutch ship, the “Red -Lion.” The “Globe,” which left England January 5, -1611, carried letters to Adams to that effect, and she was -followed in April by the “Clove,” the “Thomas,” and the -“Hector,” under the command of Captain John Saris, an -old adventurer in the East, and a former resident of -Bantam, with letters from the king of England to the -emperor of Japan<a id="FNanchor_85" href="#Footnote_85" class="fnanchor">[85]</a>.</p> - -<p>After touching, trading, negotiating and fighting, at -Socotra, Mocha, and other ports of the Red Sea, Saris -arrived at Bantam in October, 1612. Soon after his -arrival the letter of Adams was re-read in presence of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_208">[Pg 208]</span> -the assembled merchants; and doubtless it encouraged -Saris in his project of visiting Japan. Having taken in -seven hundred sacks of pepper, in addition to the -broadcloths, gunpowder, and other goods brought from -England, Saris sailed on the 14th of January, 1618, in -the “Clove,” his crew consisting of seventy-four English, -one Spaniard, one Japanese, to serve as an interpreter, -he speaking also the Malay language, which Captain -Saris understood, and five Swarts, probably Malays.</p> - -<p>Passing in sight of the south coast of Celebes, Saris -touched at several of the ports in the group of the -Moluccas, occupied at that time, some of them by Dutch -and others by Spanish factories,—the Spaniards from -Manila having come to the rescue of the Portuguese, -whom the Dutch had driven out. Regarding all new -comers (if of any other nation than their own) with -scarcely less suspicion and hostility than they did each -other, and both of them joining to oppress and plunder -the unhappy natives, “who were wrought upon,” so -Saris says, “to spoil one another in civil war,” the Dutch -and Spaniards, secure in strong forts, sat by and looked -on, “prepared to take the bone from him that would -wrest it from his fellow.” The Dutch fort at Buchian -had a garrison of thirty Dutch soldiers, and eleven Dutch -women, “able to withstand the fury of the Spaniard, or -other nation whatsoever, being of a very lusty, large -breed.”</p> - -<p>The Dutch commander would not allow the natives to -trade with the English, even to the extent of a single -<i>katty</i> of cloves, threatening with death those who did so, -and claiming all the Spice Islands held by them as “their -country, conquered by the sword they having, with -much loss of blood and money, delivered the inhabitants<span class="pagenum" id="Page_209">[Pg 209]</span> -from the tyranny of the Portuguese, and having made -a perpetual contract with them for the purchase of all -their spices at a fixed rate,” in the case of cloves at about -eight cents the pound. This claim of exclusive right of -trade Captain Saris declined to acknowledge; at the -same time he professed his readiness to give the Dutch, -“as neighbors and brethren in Christ,” a preference in -purchasing any part of his cargo of which they might -happen to stand in need.</p> - -<p>The English and Dutch had been ready enough to join -together in breaking up the Portuguese and Spanish -monopoly, and in forcing a trade in the Indian seas; but -it was already apparent that the Dutch East India Company, -which in the amount of capital at its command -very far surpassed the English Company, was bent on -establishing a monopoly of its own, not less close than -that formerly maintained by the Portuguese. The -Spaniards, on the other hand, professed friendship, and -made some offers of trade; but Captain Saris, suspecting -treachery, did not choose to trust them.</p> - -<p>On the 14th of April, he left the Moluccas, and stood -on his course for Japan. On the 10th of June, having -been in sight of land for a day or two, his ships were -boarded by four great fishing-boats, fitted with both sails -and oars, from whose crews they learned that they were -off the harbor of Nagasaki. In fact, one of these boats -belonged to the Portuguese, and was manned by “new -Christians,” who had mistaken the ships of Captain Saris -for the annual Portuguese carac. Finding their mistake, -no entreaty could prevail upon them to stay; but two of -the other boats, for thirty dollars each in money, and rice -for food, agreed to pilot the ship to Hirado, by the pilot’s -reckoning some thirty leagues to the north, and the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_210">[Pg 210]</span> -boatmen coming on board began to assist in working the -vessel, showing themselves not less handy than the English -sailors.</p> - -<p>No sooner had the ship anchored off Hirado, than she -was visited by the king or hereditary governor of that -island, by name Hōin Sama,—the same who had shown -so much favor to the Dutch,—upward of seventy years -old, attended by his nephew or grandchild, a young man -of two-and-twenty, who governed under him. They -came with forty boats or galleys, with from ten to fifteen -oars a side; but on approaching the vessel, all fell -back, except the two which carried the princes, who -came on board unattended, except by a single person -each. They were bareheaded and barelegged, wearing -shoes, but no stockings; the fore-part of their heads -shaven to the crown, and their hair behind, which was -very long, gathered up into a knot. They were clad in -shirts and breeches, over which was a silk gown girt to -them, with two swords of the country at their side, one -half a yard in length, the other half as long. Their -manner of salutation was to put off their shoes, and -then stooping, with their right hand in their left, and -both against their knees, to approach with small sidling -steps, slightly moving their hands at the same time, and -crying <i>Augh! Augh!</i></p> - -<p>Captain Saris conducted them to his cabin, where he -had a banquet spread, and a concert of music, with -which they seemed much delighted. The old king -received with much joy a letter from the king of England, -but put off reading it till “<i>Ange</i>” (or, according to -Adams’ way of writing it, Angin [Anjin<a id="FNanchor_86" href="#Footnote_86" class="fnanchor">[86]</a>]) should come<span class="pagenum" id="Page_211">[Pg 211]</span> -—that word being the Japanese for pilot, and the name -by which Adams was known, to whom, then at Yedo, -letters were sent the same night, as also to the emperor.</p> - -<p>As soon as the king had gone on shore, all his principal -people, attended by a multitude of soldiers, entered -the ship, each man of consequence bringing a present of -venison, wild boar, large and fat wild fowl, fruits, fish, -etc.; but as the crowd proved troublesome, King Hōin -sent an officer on board to keep order and prevent mischief. -The next day came some threescore great boats or -galleys, very well manned, which towed the vessel into -the harbor, of which the entrance was narrow and dangerous. -Here they anchored in five fathoms, so close to -the shore that they could talk with the people in the -houses, saluting the town with nine pieces of ordnance—a -compliment which the inhabitants were unable to -return, having no cannon, only pieces for small shot. -The ship was speedily surrounded with boats full of -people, who seemed much to admire her head and stern, -and the decks were so crowded with men, women, and -children, that it was impossible to move about. The -captain took several of the better sort of women into his -cabin, where a picture of Venus and Cupid “did hang -somewhat wantonly, set out in a large frame, which, -mistaking it for the Virgin and her Son, some of those -women kneeled to and worshipped with great devotion,” -at the same time whispering in a low tone, that -they might not be overheard by their companions, -that they were <i>Christianos</i>; by which it was understood -that they were converts of the Portuguese Jesuits.</p> - -<p>Soon after, King Hōin came again on board, and -brought with him four women of his family. They -were barelegged, except that a pair of half-buskins were<span class="pagenum" id="Page_212">[Pg 212]</span> -bound by a silk ribbon about their insteps, and were -clad in a number of silk gowns, one skirt over another, -bound about their waists by a girdle, their hair very -black and long, and tied in a comely knot on the crown -of the head, no part of which was shaven, like the -men’s. They had good faces, hands, and feet, clear-skinned -and white, but wanting color; which, however, -they supplied by art. They were low in stature and -very fat, courteous in behavior, of which they well -understood the ceremonials according to the Japanese -fashion. At first they seemed a little bashful; but the -king “willing them to be frolic,” and all other company -being excluded except Captain Saris and the interpreter, -they sang several songs, playing on an instrument -much like a guitar, but with four strings -only, which they fingered very nimbly with the left -hand, holding in the other a piece of ivory, with which -they touched the strings, playing and singing by book, -the tunes being noted on lines and spaces, much the -same as European music.</p> - -<p>Not long after, desirous to be “frolic,” the king -brought on board a company of female actors—such as -were common in Japan, little better, it would seem, than -slaves and courtesans, being under the control of a master, -who carried them from place to place, selling their -favors, and “exhibiting comedies of war, love, and such -like, with several shifts of apparel for the better grace -of the matter acted.”</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_212f" style="max-width: 75em;"> - <img src="images/i_212f.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Performers on the Koto and the Samisen</span></div> -</div> - -<p>It appeared, however, on a subsequent occasion, on -which several of the English were present, that, besides -these professional actors, the king and his principal -courtiers were accustomed, on certain great festivals, -at which the whole country was present, to present a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_213">[Pg 213]</span> -play, of which the matter was the valiant deeds of their -ancestors, from the beginning of their kingdom or commonwealth, -intermixed, however, with much mirth, “to -give the common people content.” On that occasion -they had as musical instruments, to assist their voices, -little tabors or stringed instruments, small in the middle -and large at both ends, like an hour-glass; also fifes; -but though they kept exact time, the whole performance -was very harsh to English ears.</p> - -<p>While waiting for Adams, who presently arrived, after -being seventeen days on his way, a house on shore for -a factory was hired, furnished with mats, according to -the custom of the country, for a rent of about ninety-five -dollars for six months. Not long after, leaving Mr. -Richard Cocks in charge of the factory and the trade, -Captain Saris set out on a visit to the emperor, attended -by Adams and seventeen persons of his own company, -including several mercantile gentlemen, a tailor, a cook, -the surgeon’s mate, the Japanese interpreter, the coxswain, -and one sailor. He was liberally furnished by -old King Hōin with a conductor for the journey, a large -galley, of twenty-five oars a side, manned with sixty men, -and also with a hundred taels in Japanese money (equal -to one hundred and twenty-five dollars), to pay his expenses, -which, however, Captain Saris directed Cocks to -place to King Hōin’s credit as so much money lent.</p> - -<p>The galley being handsomely fitted up with waist-cloths -and ensigns, they coasted along the western -and northern shores of the great island of Shimo (or -Kiūshiū), off the northwest coast of which the small -island of Hirado lay. As they coasted along, they -passed a number of handsome towns. Hakata, distant -two days’ rowing from Hirado, had a very strong castle<span class="pagenum" id="Page_214">[Pg 214]</span> -of freestone, with a wide and deep ditch and drawbridge, -kept in good repair, but without cannon or garrison. -Here, finding the current too strong, they stopped to -dine. The town seemed as large as London within the -walls, very well built, with straight streets. As they -landed, they had experience, repeated almost wherever -they went, of that antipathy to foreigners, so characteristic -a trait of the country; for the boys, children, and -worser sort of idle people, would gather about them, -crying out <i>Coré, Coré, Cocoré, Waré</i><a id="FNanchor_87" href="#Footnote_87" class="fnanchor">[87]</a>, taunting them by -these words as Coreans with false hearts, whooping, -hallowing, and making such a noise, that the English -could hardly hear each other speak, and even in some -places throwing stones at them—all which went on -without any interference on the part of the public officers. -In general, however, the police was very strict, -and punishments very prompt and bloody. Saris saw -several executions in the streets, after which, every -passer-by was allowed to try his sword on the dead -bodies, which thus are chopped into small pieces, and -left for the birds of prey to devour. All along the coast -they noticed many families living in boats upon the -water, as in Holland, the women being very expert -fishers, not only with lines and nets, but by diving, -which gave them, however, blood-shot eyes.</p> - -<p>Coasting through the Strait of Shimonoseki, and the -channel which separates Nippon from the two more -southern islands, on the twentieth day after leaving -Hirado they reached the entrance of a river, a short distance -up which lay the town of Ōsaka, which, however, -they could only reach in a small boat. This town,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_215">[Pg 215]</span> -which seemed as large as Hakata, had many handsome -timber bridges across a river as wide as the Thames at -London. It had, also, a great and very strong castle of -freestone, in which, as they were told, the son of the late -emperor, left an infant at his father’s decease, was kept -a close prisoner. Some nine miles from Ōsaka, on the -other side of the river, lay the town of Sakai, not so -large, but accessible to ships, and a place of great trade.</p> - -<p>Leaving their galley at Ōsaka, Captain Saris and his -company passed in boats up a river or canal, one day’s -journey, to Fushimi, where they found a garrison of -three thousand soldiers, maintained by the emperor to -keep in subjection Ōsaka and the still larger neighboring -city of Miyako [Kyōto]. The garrison being -changed at that time, the old troops marching out, and -new ones marching in, a good opportunity was afforded -to see their array. They were armed with a species of -fire-arms, pikes, swords, and targets, bows and arrows, -and <i>wakizashi</i>, described as like a Welsh hook. They -marched five abreast, with an officer to every ten files, -without colors or musical instruments, in regiments of -from a hundred and fifty to five hundred men, of which -one followed the other at the distance of a league or -two, and were met for two or three days on the road. -Captain Saris was very favorably impressed with the -discipline and martial bearing of these troops. The -captain-general, whom they met in the rear, marched in -very great state, hunting and hawking all the way, the -hawks being managed exactly after the European fashion. -The horses were of middle size, small-headed, and -very full of mettle.</p> - -<p>At Fushimi, Captain Saris and his company quitted -their bark, and were furnished each man with a horse to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_216">[Pg 216]</span> -travel overland to Suruga, where the emperor held his -court. For Captain Saris a palanquin was also provided, -with bearers to carry it, two at a time, six in number -where the way was level, but increased to ten when it -became hilly. A spare horse was led beside the palanquin -for him to ride when he pleased, and, according to -the custom of the country with persons of importance, a -slave was appointed to run before him, bearing a pike.</p> - -<p>Thus they travelled, at the rate of some forty-five -miles a day, over a highway for the most part very level, -but in some places cut through mountains; the distances -being marked, in divisions of about three miles, by two -little hillocks on each side of the way, planted at the top -with a fair pine-tree, “trimmed round in fashion of an -arbor.” This road, which was full of travellers, led by a -succession of farms, country-houses, villages, and great -towns. It passed many fresh rivers by ferries, and near -many <i>hotoke</i><a id="FNanchor_88" href="#Footnote_88" class="fnanchor">[88]</a>, or temples, situated in groves, “the most -pleasantest places for delight in the whole country.”</p> - -<p>Every town and village was well furnished with taverns, -where meals could be had at a moment’s warning. -Here, too, lodgings were obtained, and horses and men -for the palanquin were taken up by the director of the -journey, like post-horses in England. The general food -was observed to be rice. The people ate also fish, wild -fowl of various kinds, fresh and salted, and various picked -herbs and roots. They ploughed with horses and oxen, -as in Europe, and raised good red wheat. Besides <i>sake</i>, -made from rice, they drank with their food warm water<a id="FNanchor_89" href="#Footnote_89" class="fnanchor">[89]</a>.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_217">[Pg 217]</span></p> - -<p>The entrance of the travellers into Suruga, where the -emperor held his court, and which they reached on the -seventh day, was not very savory, as they were obliged -to pass several crosses, with the dead and decaying bodies -of the malefactors still nailed to them. This city they -judged to be as large as London with all the suburbs<a id="FNanchor_90" href="#Footnote_90" class="fnanchor">[90]</a>. -The handicraftsmen dwelt in the outskirts of the town, -so as not to disturb with their pounding and hammering -the richer and more leisurely sort.</p> - -<p>After a day or two spent in preparations, Saris, -accompanied by the merchants and others, went in his -palanquin to the palace, bearing his presents, according -to the custom of the country, on little tables, or rather -salvers, of a sweet-smelling wood. Having entered the -castle, he passed three drawbridges, each with its guard, -and, ascending a handsome stone staircase, he was met -by two grave, comely men, Kōzuke-no-Suke, the emperor’s -secretary, and Hyōgo-no-Kami, the admiral, who -led him into a matted antechamber. Here they all sat -down on the mats, but the two officers soon rose again, -and took him into the presence-chamber, to bestow due -reverence on the emperor’s empty chair of state. It was -about five feet high, the sides and back richly ornamented -with cloth of gold, but without any canopy. The presents -given in the name of the king, and others by Captain -Saris in his own name (as the custom of the country -required), were arranged about this room.</p> - -<p>After waiting a little while longer in the antechamber,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_218">[Pg 218]</span> -it was announced that the emperor had come, when the -officers motioned Saris into the room, but without entering -themselves. Approaching the emperor, he presented, -with English compliments (on his knee, it may be presumed), -the king’s letter, which the emperor took and -raised toward his forehead, telling the interpreter to bid -them welcome after their wearisome journey, and that in -a day or two his answer would be ready. He invited -them in the mean time to visit his son, who resided at -Yedo.</p> - -<p>The country between Suruga and Yedo, which were -two days’ journey apart, was found to be well inhabited. -They saw many temples on the way, one of which contained -a gigantic image of Buddha<a id="FNanchor_91" href="#Footnote_91" class="fnanchor">[91]</a>, made of copper, -hollow within, but of very substantial thickness. It -was, as they guessed, twenty-two feet high, in likeness of -a man kneeling on the ground, and seated on his heels, -clothed in a gown, his arms of wonderful size, and the -whole body in proportion. The echo of the shouts of -some of the company, who went into the body of it, was -very loud. Some of the English left their names written -upon it, as they saw was customary.</p> - -<p>Yedo was found to be a city much larger than Suruga, -and with much handsomer buildings, making a very glorious -appearance as they approached, the ridge tiles and -corner tiles, and the posts of the doors, being richly gilded -and varnished. There were, however, no glass windows, -but window-shutters instead, opening in leaves, and -handsomely painted.</p> - -<p>From Yedo, where our travellers were received much -as they had been at Suruga, they proceeded some forty -miles, by boats, to Uraga, an excellent harbor on the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_219">[Pg 219]</span> -sea-side, whence, in eight days, they coasted round a -projecting point of land back to Suruga, where they -received the emperor’s answer to the king’s letter, also -an engrossed and official copy of certain privileges of -trade, a draught of which they had furnished to the -emperor’s secretary, and which, having been condensed -as much as possible, to suit the Japanese taste for brevity, -and thus reduced from fourteen articles to eight, -were expressed in the following terms<a id="FNanchor_92" href="#Footnote_92" class="fnanchor">[92]</a>:</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>“1. <i>Imprimis.</i> We give free license to the subjects of -the king of Great Britain, namely, Sir Thomas Smith, governor, -and the company of the East India merchants and -adventurers, forever, safely to come into any of the ports -of our empire of Japan, with their ships and merchandises, -without any hindrance to them or their goods, and to abide, -buy, sell and barter, according to their own manner, with all -nations: to tarry here as long as they think good, and to -depart at their pleasures.</p> - -<p>“2. <i>Item.</i> We grant unto them freedom of custom for -all such merchandises as either now they have brought or -hereafter they shall bring into our kingdoms, or shall from -hence transport to any foreign part; and do authorize those -ships that hereafter shall arrive and come from England, to -proceed to present sale of their commodities, without further -coming or sending up to our court.</p> - -<p>“3. <i>Item.</i> If any of their ships shall happen to be in -danger of shipwreck, we will our subjects not only to assist -them, but that such part of ship and goods as shall be saved be -returned to their captain or cape-merchant<a id="FNanchor_93" href="#Footnote_93" class="fnanchor">[93]</a>, or their assigns:<span class="pagenum" id="Page_220">[Pg 220]</span> -and that they shall or may build one house or more for -themselves, in any part of our empire where they shall think -fittest, and at their departure to make sale thereof at their -pleasure.</p> - -<p>“4. <i>Item.</i> If any of the English, merchants or other, -shall depart this life within our dominions, the goods of the -deceased shall remain at the dispose of the cape-merchant: -and all offenses committed by them shall be punished by the -said cape-merchant, according to his discretion; our laws to -take no hold of their persons or goods.</p> - -<p>“5. <i>Item.</i> We will that ye our subjects, trading with -them for any of their commodities, pay them for the same -according to agreement, without delay, or return of their -wares again unto them.</p> - -<p>“6. <i>Item.</i> For such commodities as they have now -brought, or shall hereafter bring fitting for our service and -proper use, we will that no arrest be made thereof, but that -the price be made with the cape-merchant, according as they -may sell to others, and present payment upon the delivery of -the goods.</p> - -<p>“7. <i>Item.</i> If, in discovery of other countries for trade, -and return of their ships, they should need men or victuals, -we will that ye our subjects furnish them for their money as -their need shall require.</p> - -<p>“8. And that, without further passport, they shall and -may set out upon the discovery of Yezo<a id="FNanchor_94" href="#Footnote_94" class="fnanchor">[94]</a>, or any other part in -and about our empire<a id="FNanchor_95" href="#Footnote_95" class="fnanchor">[95]</a>.”</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_221">[Pg 221]</span></p> - -<p>The letter from the emperor to the king of England -did not differ very materially from that to the prince of -Orange, already given. [See Appendix, Note 1.]</p> - -<p>In the original draught of the Privileges, there had been -an additional article, to the effect that, as the Chinese -had refused to trade with the English, in case the English -should capture any Chinese ships, they might be -allowed the privilege of selling such prizes in the Japanese -ports; but this article, upon consideration, the -emperor refused to grant.</p> - -<p>While these documents were under consideration, a -Spanish ambassador from the Philippines had arrived at -Suruga with the request that such Portuguese and Spaniards -as were in the emperor’s territories without authority -from the king of Spain might be delivered up to be -transported to the Philippines—a request occasioned -by the great want of men to defend the Spanish posts in -the Moluccas against the Dutch, who were then preparing -to make an absolute conquest of the whole of those -islands. But to this demand the emperor replied that his -country was a free country, and nobody should be forced -out of it; but if the ambassador could persuade any of his -countrymen to go, they should not be prevented; whereupon -the ambassador departed, not a little discontented.</p> - -<p>The day after receiving the emperor’s letter and the -Privileges, being the 9th of October, Captain Saris and -his company set out by land for Miyako, where the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_222">[Pg 222]</span> -presents were to be delivered to him, over the same road -by which they had travelled from Ōsaka to Suruga; but, -owing to the heavy rains and the rising of the river, -their progress was much delayed.</p> - -<p>Miyako they found to be the greatest and most commercial -city of Japan. Here, too, was the largest hotoke, -or temple, in the whole country, built of freestone, begun -by the late emperor, and just finished by the present one, -as long, they estimated, as the part of St. Paul’s, in -London, westerly from the choir, being as high-arched, -and borne upon pillars like that<a id="FNanchor_96" href="#Footnote_96" class="fnanchor">[96]</a>. This temple was -attended upon by a great many bonzes or priests, who -thus obtained their living, being supported by the produce -of an altar, on which the worshippers offered rice -and small pieces of money, and near which was a colossal -copper image, like that already described, but much -larger, reaching to the very arch of the temple, which -itself stood on the top of a hill, having an avenue of -approach on either side of fifty stone pillars, ten paces -apart, on each of which was suspended a lantern, lighted -every night<a id="FNanchor_97" href="#Footnote_97" class="fnanchor">[97]</a>.</p> - -<p>Here, also, the Jesuits had a very stately college, in -which many of them reside, both Portuguese and natives, -and in which many children were trained up in the Christian -religion according to the Romish church. In this -city alone there were not less than five or six thousand -professing Christians<a id="FNanchor_98" href="#Footnote_98" class="fnanchor">[98]</a>.</p> - -<p>But already that persecution was commenced which<span class="pagenum" id="Page_223">[Pg 223]</span> -ended in the banishment of the Jesuits from Japan, and, -indeed, in the exclusion of all Europeans, with a slight -exception in favor of the Dutch. Following up an -edict of the previous year, against the Franciscans, the -emperor had issued a proclamation, about a month -before Captain Saris’ arrival at Suruga, that no church -should stand, nor mass be sung, within ten leagues of -his court, upon pain of death.</p> - -<p>Having at length received the emperor’s presents for -the king of England, being ten byōbu [screen] or -“large pictures to hang a chamber with,” they proceeded -the same day to Fushimi and the next to Ōsaka, where -they reëmbarked in the galley which had been waiting -for them, and returned to Hirado, having spent just -three months on the tour.</p> - -<p>Captain Saris found that, during his absence, seven of -his crew had run away to Nagasaki, where they had -complained to the Portuguese of having been used more -like dogs than men. Others, seduced by drink and -women, and sailor boarding-house keepers,—just the -same in Japan as elsewhere,—had committed great -irregularities, quarrelling with the natives and among -themselves, even to wounding, and maiming, and -death. What with these troubles, added to a “<i>tuffon</i>,” -[typhoon]—a violent storm,—which did a good deal -of damage (though the ship rode it out with five -anchors down), and alarms of conflagration, founded -on oracles of the bonzes, and numerous festivals and -entertainments, at which Cocks had been called upon -to assist,—one of which was a great feast, lasting three<span class="pagenum" id="Page_224">[Pg 224]</span> -days and three nights, to which the Japanese invited -their dead kindred, banqueting and making merry all -night at their graves<a id="FNanchor_99" href="#Footnote_99" class="fnanchor">[99]</a>,—but little progress had been -made in trade. The cargo consisted largely of broadcloths, -which the Dutch had been selling, before the -English came, at seventeen dollars the yard. Captain -Saris wished to arrange with them to keep up the price, -but the head of their factory immediately sent off to the -principal places of sale large quantities, which he disposed -of at very low prices, in order to spoil the market. -The natives, also, were the more backward to buy, because -they saw that the English, though very forward -to recommend their cloth, did not much wear it themselves, -the officers being clothed in silks, and the men -in fustians. So the goods were left in charge of the -factory, which was appointed to consist of eight English, -including Cocks and Adams (who was taken into the -service of the East India Company on a salary of one -hundred pounds a year), three Japanese interpreters, -and two servants, with charge, against the coming of -the next ships, to search all the neighboring coasts to -see what trade might be had with any of them.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_225">[Pg 225]</span></p> - -<p>The matter arranged, and having supplied the place -of those of his crew who had died or deserted, by fifteen -Japanese, and paid up a good many boarding-house -and liquor-shop claims against his men, to be deducted -out of their wages, Captain Saris sailed on the 5th of -December for Bantam, where he arrived the 3d of January, -1614. Having taken in a cargo of pepper, he -sailed for home on the 13th of February, anchored off -the Cape of Good Hope on the 16th of May, and, on the -27th of September, arrived at Plymouth, having in the -preceding six weeks experienced worse weather and -encountered more danger than in the whole voyage -beside<a id="FNanchor_100" href="#Footnote_100" class="fnanchor">[100]</a>.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_227">[Pg 227]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XXIII">CHAPTER XXIII</h2> -</div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p class="hang"><i>Ecclesiastical Retrospect—New Persecution—Edict of Banishment -against the Missionaries—Civil War between Hideyori and Ōgosho-Sama—Triumph -of Ōgosho-Sama—His death—Persecution more -Violent than ever—Mutual Rancor of the Jesuits and the Friars—Progress -of Martyrdom—The English and Dutch, A. D. 1613-1620.</i></p> -</div> - - -<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">Between</span> the edict of Taikō-Sama against the -Catholics, and those the issue of which by Ōgosho-Sama -is briefly alluded to in the preceding chapter, -sixteen years had elapsed, during the whole of which -time the missionaries and the Catholic Japanese had -been kept in a state of painful uncertainty.</p> - -<p>It is true that the new emperor had greatly relaxed -from the hostility of his predecessor, and seemed at -times decidedly favorable. In many parts of Japan the -Catholic worship was carried on as openly as ever. -Many new laborers, both Jesuits and other, had come -into the field, and conversion still continued to be -made among persons of the highest rank. There was -scarcely any part of the empire in which converts were -not to be found, and the missionaries occasionally penetrated -into the most remote provinces. The general -of the Jesuits had been encouraged to raise Japan to the -dignity of a province, of which China and the neighboring -regions had been made a part, and of which Father -Valentine Carvilho was made provincial. Japan had -also a resident bishop, or at least coadjutor, in the person -of Father Louis Serqueyra, himself taken from the -order of the Jesuits; and under the bishop, as we have<span class="pagenum" id="Page_228">[Pg 228]</span> -seen, were a few secular clergy. By a brief of Pope -Paul V., just published in Japan, that empire had been -opened to the members of all the religious orders of the -church, with liberty to proceed thither by way of Manila -as well as of Macao.</p> - -<p>Yet, during these sixteen years, the Catholics of the -different subordinate kingdoms had been more or less -exposed to persecution, especially in the island of Shimo, -where they were most numerous, and which, from being -mainly ruled by converted princes, was now chiefly governed -by apostates or infidels; nor could the favor of -the emperor be at any time certainly relied upon.</p> - -<p>The new Dutch and English visitors were prompted -no less by religious than by mercantile jealousies and -hatreds to do all they could to diminish the credit of the -Catholic missionaries; and it is by no means improbable -that, as the Portuguese asserted, their suggestions had -considerable weight in producing the new persecuting -edicts of Ōgosho-Sama. Indeed, they had only to confirm -the truth of what the Portuguese and Spanish said -of each other to excite in the minds of the Japanese -rulers the gravest distrust as to the designs of the -priests of both nations.</p> - -<p>The edicts already mentioned were followed by -another, about the beginning of the year 1614, of which -the substance was that all priests and missionaries of the -Catholic faith should forthwith depart the empire, that -all their houses and churches should be destroyed, and -that all the Japanese converts should renounce the foreign -faith.</p> - -<p>There were in Japan when this edict was issued about -a hundred and thirty Jesuits, in possession of some fifty -schools, colleges, and convents, or houses of residence,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_229">[Pg 229]</span> -also some thirty friars of the three orders of St. Augustin, -St. Dominic and St. Francis, besides a few secular -ecclesiastics, or parish priests. Most of them were -shipped off at once. Some found means to return in disguise; -but the new persecution speedily assumed a character -far more alarming than any of the former ones. -Severe measures were now taken against the native converts. -Those who refused to renounce their faith were -stripped of their property, those of the most illustrious -rank, among whom was Ukondono [Kōyama Ukon], -being shipped off to Manila and Macao, and others sent -into a frightful sort of Siberian banishment among the -mountains of Northern Japan, now first described in the -letters of some of the missionaries who found their way -thither to console and strengthen these exiles. Many, -also, were put to death, most of whom exhibited in -the midst of torments all the firmness of the national -character.</p> - -<p>The violence of this persecution was interrupted for a -moment by an attempt on the part of Hideyori now -grown to man’s estate, to recover his father’s authority—a -rebellion in which many of the converts joined in -hopes of gaining something by the change.</p> - -<p>On the 10th of December, 1614, Cocks, the English -resident at Hirado, wrote to Saris that, since his departure, -the emperor had banished all Jesuits, priests, friars, -and nuns out of Japan, and had pulled down and burned -all their churches and monasteries, shipping them away, -some for Macao and others for Manila; that old King -Hōin was dead, on which occasion three of his servants -had cut themselves open to bear him company, according -to a common Japanese fashion of expressing attachment -and gratitude; that a civil war had broken out<span class="pagenum" id="Page_230">[Pg 230]</span> -between the emperor and his imprisoned son-in-law; and -that all Ōsaka, except the castle, where the rebels were -entrenched and besieged, had been burned to the ground. -Yedo had also suffered exceedingly by a terrible -“tuffon” or hurricane, which the Christians ascribed -to the judgment of God, and the pagan Japanese to the -conjurations of the Jesuits. Sayer, another of the English -Company, wrote, December 5, 1615, that the emperor -had got the victory, with the loss—doubtless exaggerated—of -four hundred thousand men on both sides.</p> - -<p>The death of Ōgosho-Sama,<a id="FNanchor_101" href="#Footnote_101" class="fnanchor">[101]</a> in 1616, left his son -Shōgun-Sama sole emperor. He continued to reside at -Yedo, which, thenceforth, became the capital. He diligently -followed up the policy of his three predecessors,—that -of weakening the particular kings and princes so -as to reduce them to political insignificance; nor does it -appear that, from that time to this, the empire, formerly -so turbulent, has ever been disturbed by civil wars, or -internal commotions. He also began that system of -foreign policy since pushed to such extremes. The -English, by a new version of their privileges,<a id="FNanchor_102" href="#Footnote_102" class="fnanchor">[102]</a> were restricted -to the single port of Hirado, while the new -emperor positively refused to receive a present from the -viceroy of New Spain, or to see the persons who -brought it.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_230f" style="max-width: 75em;"> - <img src="images/i_230f.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">The Tomb of Iyeyasu, Nikkō</span></div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_231">[Pg 231]</span></p> - -<p>At the commencement of the new reign, there were -yet concealed within the empire thirty-three Jesuits, -sixteen friars of the three orders, and seven secular -priests, who still continued to minister to the faithful -with the aid of a great number of native catechists. -Seven Jesuits and all the friars but one were in Nagasaki -and its environs. Of the other Jesuits, several resided -in the other imperial cities where they still found -protectors, while the rest travelled from place to place, -as their services were needed. Those at Nagasaki were -disguised as Portuguese merchants, who were still -allowed full liberty to trade; while those in the provinces -adopted the shaven crowns and long robes, the -ordinary guise of the native bonzes. After a while some -of them even ventured to resume the habits of their -order, and to preach in public; but this only drew out -from the emperor a new and more formal and precise -edict. It was accompanied with terrible menaces, such -as frightened into apostasy many converts who had -hitherto stood out, and even drove some of them, in -order to secure favor for themselves, to betray the missionaries, -who knew no longer whom to trust.</p> - -<p>The missionaries sent home lamentable accounts of -their own sufferings and those of their converts, and all -Catholic Europe resounded with lamentations over this -sudden destruction of what had long been considered -one of the most flourishing and encouraging provinces -of missionary labor, not unmingled, however, with exultations -over the courage and firmness of the martyrs.<a id="FNanchor_103" href="#Footnote_103" class="fnanchor">[103]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_232">[Pg 232]</span></p> - -<p>Such, indeed, was the zeal for martyrdom on the part -of the Japanese, in which they were encouraged by the -friars, and which the Jesuits strove in vain to keep -within some reasonable limits, as to lead to many acts of -imprudence, by which the individual was glorified, but<span class="pagenum" id="Page_233">[Pg 233]</span> -the church damnified. Henceforth, the missionary letters, -which still found their way to Rome, though in -diminishing numbers and with decreasing regularity, -contain little but horrible accounts of tortures and martyrdoms, -mingled, indeed, with abundant exultations -over the firmness and even the jubilant spirit with which -the victims met their fate, now by crucifixion, now by -the axe, and now by fire. Infinite were the prayers, the -austerities, the fasts, the penitential exercises, to which -the converts resorted in hopes to appease the wrath of -Heaven. Even infants at the breast were made to bear -their share in them, being allowed to nurse but once a -day, in the hope that God would be moved by the cries -of these innocents to grant peace to his church. But, -though many miraculous things are told of the martyrs, -many of them, it is said, distinctly pronouncing the name -of Jesus and Mary after their heads were cut off, the -persecution continued to rage with unabated fury.</p> - -<p>While the persecution of the Catholics was thus fiercely -pursued in Japan, the Dutch, not in those islands only, -but throughout the eastern seas, were zealously pushing -their mercantile enterprises; and in Japan, as elsewhere, -they got decidedly the advantage of the English, their -companions and rivals, in these inroads upon the Portuguese -and Spaniards.</p> - -<p>The English at Hirado brought junks and attempted a -trade with Siam, where they already had a factory, one -of their first establishments in the East; and with -Cochin China and Corea; but without much advantage. -In 1616, two small vessels arrived from England, one of -which was employed in trading between Japan and Java. -The operations of the Dutch were on a much larger -scale. Not content with driving the Spaniards from the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_234">[Pg 234]</span> -Moluccas, they threatened the Philippines, and sent to -blockade Manila a fleet, which had several engagements -with the Spaniards. Five great Dutch ships arrived at -Hirado in 1616, of which one of nine hundred tons -sailed for Bantam, fully laden with raw silk and other -rich China stuffs; and another, of eight hundred tons, -for the Moluccas, with money and provisions. Several -others remained on the coast to watch the Spanish and -Portuguese traders, and to carry on a piratical war -against the Chinese junks, of which they captured, in -1616, according to Cocks’ letters, not less than twenty -or thirty, pretending to be English vessels, and thus -greatly damaging the English name and the chance of a -trade with China.<a id="FNanchor_104" href="#Footnote_104" class="fnanchor">[104]</a></p> - -<p>On a visit to Miyako, in 1620, Cocks, as appears by -his letters, saw fifty-five Japanese martyred, because -they would not renounce the Christian faith; among -them little children of five or six years old, burned in -their mother’s arms, and crying to Jesus to receive their -souls. Sixteen others had been put to death for the -same cause at Nagasaki, five of whom were burned, and -the rest beheaded, cut in pieces, and cast into the sea in -sacks; but the priests had secretly fished up their bodies -and preserved them for relics. There were many more -in prison, expecting hourly to die; for, as Cocks wrote, -very few turned pagans.</p> - -<p>Nagasaki had been from its foundation a Catholic -city. Hitherto, notwithstanding former edicts for their -destruction, one or two churches and monasteries had<span class="pagenum" id="Page_235">[Pg 235]</span> -escaped; but, in 1621, all that were left, including the -hospital of Misericordia, were destroyed. The very -graves and sepulchres, so Cocks wrote, had been dug up: -and, as if to root out all memory of Christianity, heathen -temples were built on their sites.</p> - -<p>One of the Jesuits wrote home that there was not now -any question as to the number of Jesuit residences in -Japan, but only as to the number of prisons. Even those -who had not yet fallen into the hands of the persecutors -had only caves and holes in the rocks for their dwellings, -in which they suffered more than in the darkest -dungeons.</p> - -<p>It is not necessary to give implicit credit to all which -the contemporary letters and memoirs related, and which -the Catholic historians and martyrologists have repeated, -of the ferocity of the persecutors, the heroism of the -sufferers, and especially of the miracles said to be wrought -by their relics. Yet there can be no question, either of -the fury of the persecution, or of the lofty spirit of -martyrdom in which it was unavailingly met. Catholicism -lingered on for a few years longer in Japan, yet it -must be considered as having already received its death-blow -in that same year in which a few Puritan pilgrims -landed at Plymouth, to plant the obscure seeds of a new -and still growing Protestant empire.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_236">[Pg 236]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XXIV">CHAPTER XXIV</h2> -</div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p class="hang"><i>Collisions of the Dutch and English in the Eastern Seas—The English -retire from Japan—The Spaniards repelled—Progress of the Persecution—Japanese -Ports, except Hirado and Nagasaki, closed to -Foreigners—Charges in Europe against the Jesuits—Fathers Sotelo -and Collado—Torment of the Fosse—Apostasies—The Portuguese -confined to Deshima—Rebellion of Shimabara—The Portuguese -excluded—Ambassadors put to Death—A. D. 1621-1640.</i></p> -</div> - - -<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">Already</span> the relation of the Dutch and English -in the East had assumed the character of open -hostility. A letter from Cocks, of March 10, -1620,<a id="FNanchor_105" href="#Footnote_105" class="fnanchor">[105]</a> complains that the Hollanders, having seven ships, -great and small, in the harbor of Hirado, had, with sound -of trumpet, proclaimed open war against the English, -both by sea and land, to take their ships and goods, and -kill their persons as mortal enemies; that they had seized -his boat, fired at his barks, and had beset the door of his -factory,—a hundred Dutchmen to one Englishman,—and -would have entered and cut all their throats but for -the interference of the Japanese: all because Cocks had -refused to give up six Englishmen who had escaped -from two English ships<a id="FNanchor_106" href="#Footnote_106" class="fnanchor">[106]</a> which the Dutch had captured, -and whom they claimed to have back, representing them -to the Japanese as their “slaves.”</p> - -<p>To sustain the English interest in the eastern seas, the -English East India Company, by great efforts, had fitted<span class="pagenum" id="Page_237">[Pg 237]</span> -out, in 1617, the largest expedition yet sent from England -to the East Indies. It consisted of the “Royal -James,” of one thousand tons; the “Royal Anne,” of -nine hundred; the “Gift,” of eight hundred; the -“Bull,” of four hundred; and the “Bee,” of one hundred -and fifty tons; and sailed from London under the -command of Martin Pring, who, twelve years before, -following up the discoveries of Gosnold, had entered -and explored—the first Englishman to do so—Penobscot -bay and river, on the coast of what had since begun -to be known as New England. Pring sailed first for -Surat, where the Company had a factory, and where -he assisted the native prince against the Portuguese, -with whom he was at war. On the 17th of June, 1618, -he arrived at Bantam, whence he proceeded, in September, -to Jacatra, a city of the natives, the site of the -present Batavia. There he received news that the -Dutch in the Moluccas, not content with driving out -the Spaniards, had attacked the English also, making -prisoners of the merchants, whom they had treated with -great harshness. News had also reached England of -these Dutch outrages, and to make head against them, -the Company, not long after Pring’s departure, despatched -Sir Thomas Dale—also well known to readers -of American history as high-marshal of the colony of -Virginia, one of its first legislators, and for three or -four years its deputy governor—with a fleet of six -large ships, with five of which he joined Pring in -November, 1618, in the Bay of Bantam, assuming the -command of the whole, including others which he found -there.</p> - -<p>Both fleets were in a very leaky condition, and after -some skirmishing with the Dutch, and the capture of a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_238">[Pg 238]</span> -richly laden Dutch ship from Japan, the English sailed -for the coast of Coromandel, to refit and to obtain provision, -which could not be had on the coast of Java. -Having arrived at Musilapatam, Dale died there August -9, 1619. Toward the end of the year, Pring, who -succeeded in the command, returned again towards the -Straits of Sunda, and on the 25th of January, 1620, -met, off the coast of Sumatra, three English ships of a -new fleet, from which he learned that four others of the -squadron to which they belonged had been surprised -while at anchor off the coast of Java, and taken by the -Dutch; that another had been wrecked in the Straits of -Sunda; and that the Dutch were in pursuit of two -others, with every prospect of taking them.</p> - -<p>As the Dutch at Jacatra were three times as strong as -the three squadrons now united under Pring, and as -three of his largest ships were very leaky, and the whole -fleet short of provisions, it was resolved to send part of -the vessels to a place at the north end of Sumatra, in -hopes to meet with the Company’s ships on their way -with rice from Surat, while Pring himself, with his -leaky vessels, should proceed to Japan,—reported to be -a good place for repairs as well as for obtaining provisions. -Just at this time the happy news arrived, -brought by two vessels despatched for that purpose from -Europe, of an arrangement of the pending dispute, and of -the union of the Dutch and English East India Companies -into one body.</p> - -<p>Shortly after this welcome information, Pring sailed -for Japan with two of his leaky vessels, having made an -arrangement to be followed in a month by a united fleet -of five English and five Dutch ships. These ships were -intended partly, indeed, for trade, but their principal<span class="pagenum" id="Page_239">[Pg 239]</span> -object appears to have been attacks upon Manila and -Macao.</p> - -<p>All these vessels, the “Unicorn” excepted, arrived safely -at Hirado. She was stranded on the coast of China, and -her crew were the first Englishmen known to have landed -there. A joint embassy was sent to the emperor with -presents, which, notwithstanding the privileges of trade, -were expected from every vessel that came. Having -completed his repairs, and leaving the other vessels behind -him, Pring sailed on the 7th of December, 1620, in -the “Royal James,” for Jacatra, carrying with him the -news of the death of Adams, who, having remained in -the service of the Company, had never again visited -England.<a id="FNanchor_107" href="#Footnote_107" class="fnanchor">[107]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_240">[Pg 240]</span></p> - -<p>The arrangement with the Dutch was but of short -duration. Fresh quarrels broke out. In 1623 occurred -the famous massacre of Amboyna, followed by the expulsion -of the English from the Spice Islands; and about -the same time the Company abandoned the trade to -Japan, after having lost forty thousand pounds in the -adventure.<a id="FNanchor_108" href="#Footnote_108" class="fnanchor">[108]</a> This massacre of Amboyna consisted in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_241">[Pg 241]</span> -the execution, by the Dutch, of ten or twelve factors -of the English East India Company, on the charge of -having conspired with some thirty Japanese residents to -seize the Dutch fort. One of these Japanese having put -some questions to a Dutch sentinel about the strength -of the fort, he and others of his countrymen were arrested -on suspicion, and by torture were compelled to -accuse the English, who were then tortured in their turn -into accusing each other. The residence of these Japanese -at Amboyna is a proof, in addition to those already -mentioned, of the adventurous spirit of the Japanese -of that day, who had indeed a reputation for desperate -daring, such as might give some color to the suspicions -of the Dutch.<a id="FNanchor_109" href="#Footnote_109" class="fnanchor">[109]</a></p> - -<p>Meanwhile the persecution continued as violently as -ever. In the year 1622 fourteen Jesuits were burnt at -the stake, including Spinola, a missionary of illustrious -birth, who had been twenty years in Japan. Two friars -were also burnt, who had been found on board a Japanese -vessel from the Philippines, captured in 1620, by -one of the English ships, the Elizabeth, employed in the -blockade of Macao, and by her commander carried to -Hirado. The master and crew of the Japanese vessel -and many other native converts were executed at the -same time. The Spaniards were suspected of smuggling -in missionaries, and were wholly forbidden the islands. -As a greater security against this danger, by an edict, -issued in 1624,<a id="FNanchor_110" href="#Footnote_110" class="fnanchor">[110]</a>—shortly previous to which there had -been a very severe inquisition in Yedo and its neighborhood -for concealed priests,—all the ports of Japan were -closed against foreigners, except Hirado and Nagasaki,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_242">[Pg 242]</span> -of which Hirado remained open to the Dutch and -English, Nagasaki to the Portuguese, and both to the -Chinese. At the same time was introduced the custom -of requiring an exact muster roll, and making a strict -inspection of the crews of all foreign vessels. By the -same edict all the subjects of the Catholic king, whether -Portuguese or Spaniards, were banished the country, -however long they might have been settled there, and -even though they might have families by Japanese wives.</p> - -<p>What aggravated the misfortunes of the Japanese -church, and greatly diminished the dignity of its fall, -was the still hot jealousy and mutual hatred of the -Jesuits and of the friars, inflamed rather than quenched -by all this common danger and suffering. The bishop -of Japan having died (it was said of grief, at the peril -of his flock) just as the persecution broke out, a most -unseemly quarrel arose, which was carried on for several -years with great virulence, as to the administration of -the bishopric. It was claimed, on the one hand, by -Father Corvailho, the provincial of the Jesuits, under -an authority from the Pope; and, on the other, by -Father Pierre Baptiste, a Franciscan, as vicar-general -of the archbishop of Manila, to whose jurisdiction it -was pretended the bishopric of Japan appertained. This -quarrel about the administration of the bishopric was -finally settled by the Pope in favor of the Jesuits.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_242f" style="max-width: 75em;"> - <img src="images/i_242f.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Facsimile of an Anti-Christian Edict</span></div> -</div> - -<p>The Jesuit seminaries in Japan being broken up, they -had organized one at Macao for the education of Japanese -ecclesiastics; but the severe penalties denounced -against all priests coming into Japan, and against all, -whether natives or foreigners, who should shelter them -after their arrival, made the existence of the church -and the celebration of divine service every day more<span class="pagenum" id="Page_243">[Pg 243]</span> -precarious. From year to year it grew more and more -difficult for new missionaries to get landed, great as was -the zeal for that service. Of those who did land, the -greater part were immediately seized and put to death. -Large rewards were offered to any person who would -betray or take a missionary. Those already in the -country lived in hourly danger of arrest, forced to conceal -themselves in cellars, holes and caverns and the -huts of lepers, exposing to tortures and death all who -might bring them food, or in any way assist in concealing -them. The greatness of their sufferings does not -depend merely upon the testimony of their own letters. -Roger Gysbert, a Dutch Protestant and a resident in -Japan, between the years 1622 and 1629, wrote an affecting -narrative of it, and the general fact is strongly -stated in Caron’s account of Japan, written a few years -later.</p> - -<p>Gysbert, in his narrative<a id="FNanchor_111" href="#Footnote_111" class="fnanchor">[111]</a>, relates the martyrdom of -more than five hundred persons; but there was a still -larger amount of suffering which terminated not in -martyrdom, but in recantation. The Japanese officers -seldom exhibited any personal malice against the Catholics. -Their sole object was the extinction of that faith. -They made it a study to deny the crown of martyrdom -so enthusiastically sought, and by a series of protracted -and ingenious tortures to force a renunciation. For this -purpose the prisoners were sprinkled with water from -the boiling sulphur springs, not far from Nagasaki, and -exposed to breathe their stifling odor. The modesty -of the women was barbarously assailed, and numerous -means of protracted torture were resorted to, such as in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_244">[Pg 244]</span> -general proved sooner or later successful. Other means -were employed still more efficacious. All natives engaged -in foreign trade were required to give in an exact -statement of their property, which, unless the proprietors -would conform to the national faith, was declared -forfeited. It was even forbidden that European merchants -should lodge in the houses of any who were or -had been Catholics. At Hirado and Nagasaki all heads -of families were obliged to swear, in the presence of an -idol, that there were no Catholics in their houses, and, -according to the Japanese usage, to sign this declaration -with their blood. From Melchior Santvoort, an old -Dutchman, one of the companions of Adams in the first -Dutch voyage to Japan, and a resident at Nagasaki, the -authorities were indeed satisfied to take instead a declaration -that he was a Hollander,—a circumstance which -gave occasion to the scandal at which Kämpfer is so indignant, -that the Hollanders were accustomed to report -themselves to the Japanese authorities as not Christians, -but Dutchmen. All who refused to conform to the national -worship were deprived of their employments, and -driven out to live as they could among the barren mountains. -The seafaring people had been mostly Catholics, -but no Catholic was henceforth to be permitted to sail -on board any ship. So successful were these means, -that although when Gysbert first visited Nagasaki, in -1626, it was said to contain forty thousand native -Christians, when he left it, in 1629, there was not one -who admitted himself to be such.</p> - -<p>In the midst of these martyrdoms the Jesuits were -called upon to suffer still severer torments, in new attacks -upon their policy and conduct in Japan, published -throughout Europe. Father Collado, a Dominican, for<span class="pagenum" id="Page_245">[Pg 245]</span> -some time resident at Nagasaki, who returned to Europe -in 1622, was known to have gone home charged with -accusations against the Jesuits; by way of answer to -which a memorial was transmitted, prepared by the provincial -Father Pacheco, who, four years after, himself -suffered martyrdom at the stake. Nor was Collado their -only assailant. Among those arrested in 1622 was -Father Sotelo, that same enterprising Franciscan of -whom already we have had occasion to make mention. -Insisting upon his character of legate from the Pope, -he had disobeyed the orders of his superiors, had sailed -from New Spain to Manila, and had contrived to get a -passage thence to Nagasaki, in a Chinese vessel, under -the character of a merchant. But the captain detected -and betrayed him; he was immediately arrested and -thrown into prison, and in 1624 was put to death.</p> - -<p>In 1628 there was published at Madrid what purported -to be a letter from Sotelo to Pope Urban VIII, -written in Latin, dated just before his martyrdom, and -containing, under the form of a narrative of his own proceedings, -a violent attack upon the Jesuits, and their -conduct in Japan. Not liking to be thus attacked as it -were by a martyr from his grave, they denied its authenticity. -A memorial of Collado, printed in 1633, reiterated -the same charges, to most of which it must be -admitted that the replies made on behalf of the Jesuits -are entirely satisfactory<a id="FNanchor_112" href="#Footnote_112" class="fnanchor">[112]</a>.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_246">[Pg 246]</span></p> - -<p>Finding that the means as yet employed had little -effect upon the missionaries and their native assistants, -a new and more effectual, because more protracted, torture -was resorted to, known in the relations of the missionaries -as the <i>Torment of the Fosse</i>. A hole was dug -in the ground, over which a gallows was erected. From -this gallows the sufferer, swathed in bandages, was suspended -by his feet, being lowered for half his length, -head downward, into the hole, which was then closed by -two boards which fitted together around the victim so -as to exclude the light and air. One hand was bound -behind the back, the other was left loose, with which to -make the prescribed signal of recantation and renunciation -of the foreign creed; in which case the sufferer -was at once released.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_247">[Pg 247]</span></p> - -<p>This was a most terrible trial, indeed. The victim suffered -under a continual sense of suffocation, the blood -burst from the mouth, nose and ears, with a twitching -of the nerves and muscles, attended by the most intolerable -pains. Yet the sufferer, it was said, lived sometimes -for nine or ten days. The year 1633, in which -this punishment was first introduced, the second year of -a new emperor, son of Shōgun Sama<a id="FNanchor_113" href="#Footnote_113" class="fnanchor">[113]</a>, proved more fatal -than any previous one to the new religion. In the -month of August of that year forty-two persons were -burnt alive in various parts of Japan, eleven decapitated, -and sixteen suspended in the fosse. The Dutchman -Hagenaar, who was at Hirado in 1634, states, in his -printed voyages, that during the time of his visit thirty-seven -persons lost their lives at that place on the charge -of being Catholics. Five of these perished by the torment -of the fosse, others were beheaded, others cut to -pieces, and others burnt.</p> - -<p>What at last struck the deepest horror to the souls of -the few surviving Jesuits, and was greatly improved -in Europe to the damage of the Company, by its enemies, -was the apostasy of Father Christopher Ferreyra, a -Portuguese, an old missionary, the provincial of the -order, and the administrator of the bishopric. He was -taken in 1633 at Nagasaki, and being suspended in the -fosse, after five hours he gave the fatal signal of renunciation. -After having been kept some time in prison, -and given what information he could for the detection -of those of his late brethren still concealed in Japan, he -was set at liberty; and, having assumed the Japanese -dress and a Japanese name, he lived for several years at<span class="pagenum" id="Page_248">[Pg 248]</span> -Nagasaki. He had been compelled to marry a Japanese -woman, who was very rich, being the widow of a -Chinese goldsmith, who had been executed for some -offence; but the Jesuits comforted themselves with the -idea that the marriage was never consummated; and -they even got up a report that in his old age this renegade -brother recovered his courage, and having, on his -death-bed, confessed himself a Christian, was immediately -hurried off to perish a martyr by that very torment -of the fosse, the terror of which had first made and had -so long kept him an apostate. But for this fine story -there seems to have been no foundation except the -wishes and hopes of those who circulated it.</p> - -<p>As a further security against the surreptitious introduction -of missionaries, the policy was adopted, in 1635, -of confining the Portuguese sailors and merchants to -the little artificial island of Deshima, in the harbor of -Nagasaki, a spot but just large enough to hold the necessary -residences and warehouses. Shortly after the -issue of this edict, the people of the kingdom of Arima, -all of them still Catholic except the king and the nobility, -seeing no other hope, broke out into open revolt. -They were headed by a descendant of their ancient -kings, and mustering, it is said, to the number of thirty-seven -thousand, took possession of the fortress of Shimabara, -situated about due east from Nagasaki, on the -gulf of the same name. Here they were besieged; and -the place being taken in 1638, those who held it were -cut off to a man.</p> - -<p>The Portuguese were accused of having encouraged -this revolt; in consequence of which an edict was -issued, in 1638, not only banishing all the Portuguese, -but forbidding also any Japanese to go out of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_249">[Pg 249]</span> -country. That edict, as given by Kämpfer, was as -follows:</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>“No Japanese ship or boat whatever, nor any native of -Japan, shall presume to go out of the country: who acts -contrary to this shall die, and the ship with the crew and -goods aboard shall be sequestered till further order.</p> - -<p>“All Japanese who return from abroad shall be put to -death.</p> - -<p>“Whoever discovers a priest shall have a reward of 400 to -500 <i>shuets</i> of silver, and for every Christian in proportion<a id="FNanchor_114" href="#Footnote_114" class="fnanchor">[114]</a>.</p> - -<p>“All persons who propagate the doctrine of the Christians, -or bear this scandalous name, shall be imprisoned in the -<i>Ombra</i>, or common jail of the town.</p> - -<p>“The whole race of the Portuguese, with their mothers, -nurses, and whatever belongs to them, shall be banished to -Macao.</p> - -<p>“Whoever presumes to bring a letter from abroad, or to -return after he hath been banished, shall die with all his -family; also whoever presumes to intercede for them shall -be put to death.</p> - -<p>“No nobleman nor any soldier shall be suffered to purchase -anything of a foreigner.”</p> -</div> - -<p>The Portuguese ships of 1639 were sent back with a -copy of this edict, without being suffered to discharge -their cargoes. The corporation of the city of Macao, -greatly alarmed at the loss of a lucrative traffic, on -which their prosperity mainly depended, sent deputies to -solicit some modification of this edict. But the only -reply made by the emperor was to cause these deputies -themselves, with their attendants, to the number of -sixty-one persons, to be seized and put to death, as<span class="pagenum" id="Page_250">[Pg 250]</span> -violators of the very edict against which they had been -sent to remonstrate. Thirteen only, of the lowest rank, -were sent back to Macao, August, 1640, with this account -of the fate of their company<a id="FNanchor_115" href="#Footnote_115" class="fnanchor">[115]</a>.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_251">[Pg 251]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XXV">CHAPTER XXV</h2> -</div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p class="hang"><i>Policy of the Dutch—Affair of Nuyts—Haganaar’s Visits to Japan—Caron’s -Account of Japan—Income of the Emperor and the Nobles—Military -Force—Social and Political Position of the Nobles—Justice—Relation -of the Dutch to the Persecution of the Catholics—The -Dutch removed from Hirado and confined in Deshima—Attempts -of the English, Portuguese, and French at Intercourse with -Japan—Final Extinction of the Catholic Faith—A. D. 1620-1707.</i></p> -</div> - - -<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">Throughout</span> the whole of the long and cruel -persecution of the Catholics, the Dutch had -striven by extreme subserviency to recommend -themselves to the favor of the Japanese, in hopes of -exclusively engrossing a trade which appears at this -time to have been more extensive and more lucrative -than at any former period. The Japanese, however, -seem not to have been insensible to the advantages of -competition; and, so long as the Portuguese commerce -continued, they extended to the vessels of that nation -a certain protection against the Dutch, and even preference -over them. The danger from Dutch cruisers appears -to have caused the substitution, for the single great -carac of Macao, of a number of smaller vessels; nor -were the Dutch, however urgent their solicitations, -allowed to leave Hirado till such a number of days after -the departure of the Portuguese from Nagasaki as would -prevent all danger of collision.</p> - -<p>Yet, however cringing the general policy of the Dutch -East India Company, their trade, through the folly of a -single individual, was near being exposed to a violent<span class="pagenum" id="Page_252">[Pg 252]</span> -interruption. In the year 1626, Conrad Kramer, the -head of the Dutch factory, was extremely well received -on his visit to Yedo, and was allowed to be present at -Miyako during the visit of the emperor to the Dairi,—an -occasion which drew together an immense concourse, -and which, according to the account that Kramer has -left of it, was attended with vast confusion<a id="FNanchor_116" href="#Footnote_116" class="fnanchor">[116]</a>. The -annual visit to Yedo was made the next year by Peter -de Nuyts, who gave himself out as ambassador from the -king of Holland, and at first was treated as such; but -the Japanese having discovered that he had no commission -except from the council of Batavia, sent him away -in disgrace.</p> - -<p>Shortly after, Nuyts was appointed governor of Formosa. -The Dutch, following in the footsteps of some -Japanese adventurers, had formed an establishment on -that island, about the year 1620, with a view to a smuggling -trade with China; and, by erecting a fort at the -mouth of the harbor, had speedily obtained the exclusive -control of it. Not long after Nuyts’ appointment as -governor, there arrived two Japanese vessels, on a voyage -to China. They merely touched at Formosa for water, -but Nuyts, to gratify the spite he had conceived against -the Japanese nation, contrived to detain them so long -that they missed the monsoon; and having required -them, as the sole condition on which he would allow -their entrance, to give up their sails and rudders, upon -one pretence and another, he refused to return them, till -at length the patience of the Japanese was entirely -exhausted. They numbered five hundred men; and at -last, all their reiterated and urgent applications for leave<span class="pagenum" id="Page_253">[Pg 253]</span> -to depart being refused, they attacked the governor by -surprise, overpowered his household, and made him prisoner; -nor did the garrison of the neighboring fort dare -to fire upon them for fear of killing their own people. -Thus the brave Japanese extorted liberty to depart and -indemnity for their losses, to which the Dutch assented, -notwithstanding their superior force, for fear of reprisals -in Japan. These, however, they did not avoid, for, as -soon as the Japanese reached home, the emperor put -under sequestration nine vessels with their cargoes, then -at Hirado, belonging to the Dutch East India Company, -and forbade any further trade with their agents. Things -remained in this state for three years, the Japanese, -however, receiving as usual Dutch vessels which came -from Batavia, under the assumed character of belonging -not to the East India Company, but to private merchants. -At last it was resolved to seek an accommodation by -surrendering up Nuyts to the mercy of the Japanese, -which was done in 1634.</p> - -<p>Having obtained his unconditional surrender, they -treated him with great clemency; for, though detained -in custody, he was not kept a close prisoner; and, in -return for this concession, the Company’s ships were released -and their trade reëstablished. The liberation of -Nuyts was granted two years afterwards as a mark of -the emperor’s satisfaction, with a splendid chandelier -among the annual presents of the Company, and which -was used as an ornament for the temple-mausoleum of -the emperors of the race of Gongen-Sama [at Nikkō], -completed about that time.</p> - -<p>In the solicitation for the release of Nuyts both Haganaar -and Caron were employed, to each of whom we are -indebted for some curious memoirs of the state of Japan<span class="pagenum" id="Page_254">[Pg 254]</span> -in their time. Haganaar made three visits thither. -The first included the last four months of 1634. The -second extended from September, 1635, to November, -1636; during which he made a visit to Yedo, and was -at the head of the factory. The third was limited to -three months in the autumn of 1637. Of each of these -visits he has given brief notes in his printed travels<a id="FNanchor_117" href="#Footnote_117" class="fnanchor">[117]</a>, -besides adding some observations of his own to Caron’s -account of Japan. Hirado, which he describes as a town -of thirty-six streets, had grown up suddenly, in consequence -of the Dutch trade,—a single street producing -more revenue to the lord than the whole town formerly -had done; yet there were hardly any merchants in the -place, except those who lodged at the factory, and -who were drawn thither from all parts by the Dutch -trade.</p> - -<p>During Haganaar’s second visit, the Dutch were called -sharply to account for having presumed to sell their silk -at a higher rate than that asked by the Portuguese, and -a price was prescribed, which they were not to exceed. -Being deputed to visit Yedo, on the business of Nuyts’ -release, Haganaar proceeded thither by sea, and took -lodgings at the house of a Japanese bonze, who was the -usual host of the Dutch. The agency of the lord of -Hirado and of his secretary was employed with several -of the imperial counsellors, but owing, as it would seem, -to a deficiency of presents, without success. Caron arranged -this matter more successfully the next year. -From Yedo to Ōsaka Haganaar travelled by land, and -from Ōsaka by water to Hirado, where, during his -absence, thirteen or fourteen persons had suffered death<span class="pagenum" id="Page_255">[Pg 255]</span> -because they belonged to Catholic families. He notes -that the Japanese whale fishery for the season of 1636 -resulted in the capture of two hundred and seventy-four -whales; which, however, were much smaller and less fat -than the Greenland whales, and were taken more for -food than oil. Shortly after his return to Hirado, news -came of an order from court that all the Portuguese -half-castes—that is, descendants of Portuguese by Japanese -women—should be shipped off with their wives -and children to Macao.</p> - -<p>Returning to Japan a third time, in 1637,—in the -seventh Dutch ship which arrived that year,—Haganaar -heard that Admiral Weddell was at Nagasaki with four -richly laden English ships. They had been refused -entrance into Macao, and had come thence to Japan, -but could not obtain permission to trade, nor even to -land. Six Portuguese galliots had also arrived from -Macao with full cargoes of rich silks, which were sold, -however, at little profit. Yet they were reported to -have carried back, in return, two thousand six hundred -chests of silver, or more than three millions of dollars.</p> - -<p>To relieve the necessities of the Dutch governor of -Formosa, who was engaged in hostilities with the -natives, and had been obliged to borrow of Chinese -traders, at the rate of three per cent a month, Haganaar -was despatched thither with four ships and four hundred -and fifty chests of silver, of which two hundred had been -borrowed at Miyako of Japanese capitalists, at twenty-four -per cent per annum. The following year he returned -to Holland, where he soon after printed his -voyages, and along with them the answers made by -Francis Caron to a series of questions which had been -submitted to him by the director of the Company, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_256">[Pg 256]</span> -which throw not a little light upon the condition of -Japan at this time.</p> - -<p>Caron, born in Holland of French parents, had originally -gone to Japan quite young, Kämpfer says, as cook -of a Dutch ship. Bad treatment caused him to quit the -ship in Japan, where he was presently taken into the -service of the Dutch factory, and taught reading, writing, -and accounts. He gave evidence of remarkable abilities, -and rose in time to the head of the establishment. He -spoke the language fluently, had married a Japanese -wife, and from the liberty of intercourse then allowed, -and his long residence in the country, enjoyed means of -information which no European has since possessed.</p> - -<p>In describing the political state of Japan, Caron -gives the names, residences, and revenues of thirty-two -princes, that is, rulers of one or more provinces -(spoken of in the earlier relations as kings), of whom -the prince of Kaga, who was also ruler of two other -provinces, had a revenue of one hundred and nineteen -mankoku, and the others revenues varying from seventy -to eighteen mankoku. He adds the mimes, residences, -and incomes of one hundred and seven other lords, -twenty of whom had revenues of from fifteen to seven -mankoku, and the others of from six to two mankoku. -Another list contains the names of forty-one lords, with -revenues of from one to two mankoku; and in a fourth -list he enumerates sixteen lords attached to the imperial -court, of whom the first four had from fifteen to nine -mankoku, and the others from six to one mankoku. -The total revenues of these one hundred and ninety-six -great nobles amounted to nineteen thousand three hundred -and forty-five mankoku, exclusive of nine thousand -mankoku of imperial revenue, of which four thousand</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp80" id="i_256f" style="max-width: 62.5em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/i_256f.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Dutch Candelabrum at Nikkō</span> -</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_257">[Pg 257]</span></p> - -<p>were employed in the maintenance of the court, and the -remainder in the support of the imperial guard, all of -whom were nobles, many of them children of the concubines -of the emperors and great princes, and excluded -on that account from the prospect of succession<a id="FNanchor_118" href="#Footnote_118" class="fnanchor">[118]</a>. Thus -the total annual revenues of the great landed proprietors -of Japan amounted to twenty-eight million three -hundred and forty-five thousand koku of rice, equal to -about ninety million cwt., or one hundred and thirty-three -million five hundred thousand bushels; nor is it -probable that in this respect there has been much change -from that time to this<a id="FNanchor_119" href="#Footnote_119" class="fnanchor">[119]</a>. Caron gives as the current -value of the koku, or, as he calls it, cokien, ten guilders -(or four dollars), which would make the mankoku -equal to one hundred thousand florins (forty thousand -dollars), or what the Dutch called a ton of gold. The -prince of Satsuma, who was lord also of four other provinces, -is put down in the above lists at sixty-four mankoku, -the prince of Hizen at thirty-six, and the lord of -Hirado at six<a id="FNanchor_120" href="#Footnote_120" class="fnanchor">[120]</a>.</p> - -<p>These revenues arose in part from mines of gold,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_258">[Pg 258]</span> -silver, copper, iron, tin, and lead, from timber, hemp, -cotton, and silk, and from fisheries; but chiefly from the -rice and other crops. There were no taxes or duties in -Japan, except ground rents for lands and houses, payable -in produce or money and in personal services. All -these nobles had residences at Yedo, in the precinct of -the imperial palace, in which their children resided as -hostages for their fidelity. For each thousand koku of -revenue these lords furnished on demand twenty foot-soldiers -and two horsemen, and maintained them during -the campaign, exclusive of the necessary servants and -camp followers. The whole of their quotas, or of the -feudal militia of Japan, thus amounted to three hundred -and sixty-eight thousand foot and thirty-eight thousand -eight hundred horse, in addition to a standing army of -one hundred thousand foot and twenty thousand horse, -maintained by the emperor from his own revenues, as -garrisons and guards. The princes, however, prided -themselves on keeping up many more troops than their -regular quotas. To every five men there was an officer. -Five of these sections composed a platoon, which had its -commander. Two platoons made a company, which had -its captain. Five of these companies, of fifty privates -and thirteen officers, composed a battalion of two hundred -and fifty rank and file, with its special officer; and -ten battalions, a division of two thousand five hundred -men. The civil division was much the same. Every five -houses had an inspector, who kept a register of all births -and deaths, and every street its magistrate and watch.</p> - -<p>Though the revenues of the nobles were great, their -expenses were still more so. They were obliged to pass -six months at the imperial court; those of the northern -and eastern provinces during one half the year, those of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_259">[Pg 259]</span> -the southern and western provinces during the other -half. They travelled in great state, some of them with -not less than four or five thousand men in their suite, -and, on their arrival and departure, gave great entertainments. -The prince of Hirado, though one of the lesser -class, was always attended in his journeys by at least -three hundred men, and entertained in his two houses -at Yedo more than a thousand persons. What with -their households, the clothing of their followers, their -women, of whom they entertained a great number, their -children,—the prince of Mito, the emperor’s uncle, had -fifty-four boys, and daughters still more numerous,—presents -and festivals, their expenses generally exceeded -their incomes; and, besides, they were often required to -furnish workmen, at the demand of the emperor, for -building new castles, temples, or anything he might -undertake. The honor of a visit from the emperor was -very highly esteemed. He seldom paid more than one -to the same house. No expense was spared, and years -were spent in preparations, which often ruined those -who enjoyed this honor. The visit made by the emperor -to the Dairi at Miyako, once in seven years, was -a still more magnificent affair.</p> - -<p>The emperor maintained on the estate of each noble a -secretary, in fact a spy, sent nominally to assist and -advise him in the management of his affairs. Those -selected for this service were generally persons educated -at court, and of known fidelity, who, before their departure, -signed with their blood a promise to keep the -emperor fully informed of the affairs and actions of the -prince to whom they were sent.</p> - -<p>The marriages of the nobles were arranged by the -emperor. The wife thus given was entitled to great<span class="pagenum" id="Page_260">[Pg 260]</span> -respect. Her sons alone succeeded to the lordship, -which, in case she had none, was generally transferred -to some other family. The children by the numerous -concubines of the nobles had no share in the inheritance, -and were often reduced to beggary. Besides -concubines, free indulgence was allowed with the courtesans -maintained by the lords of each district for public -use. The lawful wives lived in splendid seclusion, -attended by troops of female servants. Of women’s -rights the Japanese nobles had no very high idea. Not -only the strictest chastity was expected from them, but -entire devotion to their husbands, and abstinence from -any intermeddling with business or politics; the Japanese -opinion being—in which Caron seems fully to -coincide—that women are only made for the pleasure -of the men and to bring up children. The children, -though treated with great indulgence, were exceedingly -respectful to their parents.</p> - -<p>The emperor had in every city and village officers for -the administration of justice; but every householder -had the right to dispense punishments in his own family. -Justice was very strict and severe, especially in -cases of theft; and for crimes against the state the -punishment extended to the whole family of the offender. -The nobles and military, in case they were -convicted of crimes, enjoyed the privilege of cutting -themselves open. Merchants and mechanics were held -in mean esteem,—the former as cheats and tricksters, -the latter as public servants. The cultivators were -little better than slaves.</p> - -<p>The account which Caron gives of domestic manners -corresponds sufficiently well with the more extended -observations to be quoted hereafter from subsequent<span class="pagenum" id="Page_261">[Pg 261]</span> -observers. He did not regard the Japanese as very -devout. The persecution against the Catholics he describes -as equal to anything in ecclesiastical history. -He particularly admired the steadiness and constancy of -many young children of ten or twelve years. All the -inhabitants were required once a year to sign a declaration -that they were good Japanese, and that the Catholic -religion was false. The Catholics had amounted -to four hundred thousand; and their number was still -considerable<a id="FNanchor_121" href="#Footnote_121" class="fnanchor">[121]</a>.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>The Dutch had all along stimulated the Japanese -against the Portuguese. All missionaries bound for -Japan, found on board of Portuguese and Spanish prizes -taken in the neighboring seas, had been delivered into -the hands of the Japanese authorities. The Dutch had -even assisted at the siege of Shimabara, for which they -had furnished a train of artillery, conducted thither by -Kockebecker, the head, at that time, of the Dutch factory. -But they were far from realizing all the advantages -which they had expected from the expulsion of their -rivals. They, too, had excited suspicions by replacing -their dilapidated wooden factory at Hirado by a strong -stone warehouse, which had something of the aspect of -a fortress. In spite of their submissiveness in pulling -down<a id="FNanchor_122" href="#Footnote_122" class="fnanchor">[122]</a> this erection, their establishment at that place<span class="pagenum" id="Page_262">[Pg 262]</span> -was suddenly closed, and in 1641 the Dutch factors -were transferred to Nagasaki, where they were shut up -in the same little artificial island of Deshima, which had -been constructed to be the prison-house of the Portuguese. -And to this narrow island they have ever since -been confined, with the exception of some occasional -visits to Nagasaki and its environs, and an annual journey, -by the chief officers of the factory, to pay their -homage to the emperor at Yedo,—a ceremony which -seems to have been coeval with the first arrival of the -Dutch. Hitherto the Portuguese and the Dutch also -had freely intermarried with the Japanese; but this intimacy -now came wholly to an end, and even the Dutch -were thenceforth regarded rather as prisoners than as -friends.</p> - -<p>What contributed to increase this jealousy of the -Dutch was the peace between Holland and the Portuguese, -which followed the assumption of the crown of -Portugal by the house of Braganza, and the separation -of Portugal from Spain, in the year 1640.</p> - -<p>Evidence of this very soon appeared. In the year -1643 the Dutch sent two ships from Batavia, the “Castricoom” -and the “Breskens,” to explore the yet little-known -northern coast of Japan, the island of Yezo, and -the adjacent continent, and especially to search out certain -fabled islands of gold and silver, whence the Japanese -were said to derive large supplies of those metals. These -vessels, when off Yedo, were separated in a storm, and -the “Breskens,” in need of supplies, touched at a fishing -village in about forty degrees of north latitude. The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_263">[Pg 263]</span> -lord of the village, and a principal person of the neighboring -district, visited the ship with great show of friendship, -and having enticed the captain, Shaëp, and his -chief officers on shore, made them prisoners, bound them, -and sent them off to Nambu, near by. They were permitted -to communicate with the ship, and to obtain their -baggage, but at first were treated with much rigor on suspicion -of being Spaniards or Portuguese. It being found, -however, that they paid no respect to the sign of the cross -or to pictures of the Virgin, it was concluded that they -were Hollanders, and they were treated with less severity. -At Nambu they were splendidly entertained, and -in their twenty days’ journey thence to Yedo, in which -they passed through a hundred well-built villages, they -had nothing to complain of except the inconvenience of -the crowds that flocked to see them. In every village -they saw rewards posted up for the discovery of Christians. -Not being willing to reveal the true object of -their voyage, they stated themselves to have been driven -to the north in an attempt to reach Nagasaki. It was -plain, however, that their story about having come from -Batavia, and being in the service of the East India Company, -was not believed. It was suspected that they had -come from Macao or Manila for the purpose of landing -missionaries, and they were subjected in consequence to -numerous fatiguing cross-examinations, in which a bonze -assisted, who spoke Spanish, Portuguese, English, and -Flemish, and whom they conjectured to be some apostate -European. What increased the suspicions of Japanese -was, that five Jesuits from Manila had recently, in -an attempt to reach Japan, been arrested at the Lew -Chew Islands, and sent thence to Yedo. The Dutchmen -were confronted with these Jesuits, to their great alarm.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_264">[Pg 264]</span> -They also feared, if the true object of the voyage came -out, being exposed to punishment not only for undertaking -unauthorized explorations, but for falsehood in -concealing and misrepresenting their object; but when -the Japanese had learned from Nagasaki that two Dutch -ships had been sent on a voyage for the exploration of -Tartary, of which the factors represented theirs as probably -one, they excused their silence on that subject on -the ground of not having been properly understood and -interpreted. The factors at Nagasaki had been not less -careful than themselves to say nothing about the search -for mines.</p> - -<p>New interpreters were brought from Nagasaki, among -them another apostate, whom there are grounds for supposing -was the ex-provincial Ferreyra, between whom -and the Jesuit prisoners they witnessed a bitter scene of -mutual reproaches. A great many rigorous cross-examinations -followed. The Dutchmen were required to -sign a paper by which all the Company’s property was -pledged for their reappearance before the imperial tribunals -at any time that it might be discovered that they -had landed missionaries. Their having discharged some -pieces of artillery from the ship was insisted upon as a -crime; also their ship having sailed off without waiting -for them. The recent peace between Holland and Portugal -was pointedly alluded to, and even the search for mines -seems to have been suspected. The appearance of a ship -on the east coast of Japan, which proved to be the “Castricoom,” -some of whose people who landed were seized -and sent to Yedo, gave rise to many new interrogations. -Elserak, the director, at length arrived, and, after a separate -examination, was confronted with them and signed -the paper above described, when the Dutch were finally<span class="pagenum" id="Page_265">[Pg 265]</span> -released, after an imprisonment of upwards of four -months<a id="FNanchor_123" href="#Footnote_123" class="fnanchor">[123]</a>.</p> - -<p>The “Castricoom,” more successful, discovered the Kurile -Islands, Yetorofu and Uruppu, to which were given -the names of <i>State’s Islands</i> and <i>Company’s Islands</i>, and -made some explorations of the east coast of Yezo, and of -Sakhalin, taken to be a part of it. The information thus -obtained, together with the two relations of Father de -Angelis, written in 1616 and 1621, was all that was -known of these regions till the explorations of Broughton -and La Perouse, towards the close of the last century. -Golownin’s adventures and experience there, as related in -a subsequent chapter, bear a very remarkable and curious -resemblance to those of Captain Schaëp and his companions. -Their release was acknowledged in a solemn -embassy from the Company,—that of Frisius. About -the same time, in 1647, a Portuguese embassy arrived in -Japan, in hopes, since the separation from Spain, of -reviving the ancient commercial intercourse; but, though -the ambassador was treated with respect, his request was -peremptorily declined.</p> - -<p>A new emperor, a minor, having succeeded in 1651, -the Dutch Company sent Waganaar to congratulate him. -Among other presents he brought a Casuar, a strange bird -of the ostrich kind, from Banda, but the officers at Nagasaki -would not suffer it to be forwarded. During this -visit there happened a terrible fire at Yedo, by which -two-thirds of that city were laid in ruins. Some violent<span class="pagenum" id="Page_266">[Pg 266]</span> -disputes having arisen, and the Japanese having gone so -far as to take away the rudders of the Dutch ships, Waganaar -went on a second embassy to Yedo, in 1659<a id="FNanchor_124" href="#Footnote_124" class="fnanchor">[124]</a>.</p> - -<p>The establishment of the French East India Company -by Colbert led to some projects for a French trade with -Japan, especially as Caron in some disgust had quitted -the Dutch service, and enlisted into that of France. A -letter from Louis XIV to the emperor of Japan, dated -in 1666, was prepared, and instructions for Caron, who -was to be the bearer of it; but the project does not appear -to have been prosecuted<a id="FNanchor_125" href="#Footnote_125" class="fnanchor">[125]</a>. [See Appendix, Note 1.]</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_267">[Pg 267]</span></p> - -<p>In 1673, the English East India Company made an -attempt at the renewal of the trade with Japan, by -despatching a ship thither. The Japanese, through the -medium of the Dutch, kept themselves informed, as they -still do, of the affairs of Europe; and the first question -put to the new-comers was, how long since the English -king (Charles II) had married a daughter of the king -of Portugal. Though otherwise courteously enough -received and entertained, the vessel was not allowed to -sell her cargo. This refusal of intercourse the English -ascribed to Dutch jealousy; but it probably was a step, -as will be seen in the next chapter, to which the Japanese -did not need any urging.<a id="FNanchor_126" href="#Footnote_126" class="fnanchor">[126]</a></p> - -<p>Though the Catholics of Japan were effectually cut -off from all intercourse with Europe, the Catholic faith -still lingered for a good while in those parts of Shimo in -which it had taken the deepest root. So late as 1690, -there were, according to Kämpfer, fifty persons, men, -women, and children (of whom three had been arrested in -1683), imprisoned at Nagasaki for life, or until they -should renounce the Catholic faith and conform to the -religious usages of the country. These were peasants -who knew little more of the faith which they professed -except the name of the Saviour and the Virgin Mary, -which, indeed, according to the Dutch accounts, was all<span class="pagenum" id="Page_268">[Pg 268]</span> -that the greater part of the Japanese converts had ever -known.</p> - -<p>To land in Japan, to strengthen and comfort the faithful -there, or at least to secure the crown of martyrdom -in the attempt, long continued an attractive enterprise to -the more romantic spirits among the religious orders of -the Catholic church. Most of those who undertook this -adventure were known to have been seized and executed -soon after landing. The last effort of this sort appears -to have been made in 1707. From that time, and -notwithstanding the great revival, within fifty or sixty -years past, of the missionary spirit, Japan has remained -even less attempted by missionary than by mercantile -enterprise.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_269">[Pg 269]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XXVI">CHAPTER XXVI</h2> -</div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p class="hang"><i>Portuguese Trade to Japan—Dutch Trade—Silver, Gold, and Copper the -Chief Articles of Export—Export of Silver prohibited—Chinese -Trade—Its Increase after the Accession of the Manchu Dynasty—Chinese -Temples at Nagasaki—A Buddhist Doctor from China—Edict -on the Subject of Household Worship—Restrictions on the -Dutch Trade—Increase in the Number of Chinese Visitors to Nagasaki—Their -Objects—Restrictions on the Chinese Trade—The -Chinese shut up in a Factory—Trade with Lew Chew [Riūkiū]—A. D. -1542-1690.</i></p> -</div> - - -<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">Of</span> the real value and extent of the trade which -for some ninety years the Portuguese carried -on with Japan, and which was brought to a -final close in the year 1638, we have no means of forming -any very exact estimate. When we read in writers of -two or three centuries ago glowing accounts of immense -commercial profits, we must also recollect that, compared -with the commerce of the present day, the trade upon -which these great profits were made was exceedingly -limited in amount.</p> - -<p>For more than half of the above period of ninety years -the intercourse of the Portuguese with Japan seems to -have been reduced, or nearly so, to a single annual ship, -known as the great carac of Macao, sent annually from -that city, and laden chiefly with China silks, every Portuguese -citizen of Macao having the right, if he chose to -exercise it, of putting on board a certain number of -packages, as did also the Society of Jesus, which had a -college and a commercial agency in that city. Of this -traffic the following account is given by Ralph Fitch, an<span class="pagenum" id="Page_270">[Pg 270]</span> -intelligent Englishman, who was in Malacca in the year -1588<a id="FNanchor_127" href="#Footnote_127" class="fnanchor">[127]</a>: “When the Portuguese go from Macao in China -to Japan, they carry much white silk, gold, musk, and -porcelains, and they bring from thence nothing but silver. -They have a great carac, which goeth thither every year, -and she bringeth from thence every year about six hundred -thousand crusados (not far from as many dollars); -and all this silver of Japan, and two hundred thousand -crusados more in silver, which they bring yearly out of -India, they employ to their advantage in China; and -they bring from thence gold, musk, silk, porcelains, and -many other things very costly and gilded.”<a id="FNanchor_128" href="#Footnote_128" class="fnanchor">[128]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_271">[Pg 271]</span></p> - -<p>If we allow to the Portuguese an annual average export -of half a million of dollars, that will make in ninety -years forty-five millions of dollars of silver carried away -by the Portuguese; for, according to all accounts, they -brought away nothing else.</p> - -<p>Though the Spaniards were never allowed to trade to -Japan, at one period, as we have seen, a considerable -number of Japanese junks frequented Manila for the -purchase of Chinese goods; but this trade was brought -to an end in 1624, in consequence of the facilities which -it afforded for the introduction of Catholic priests into -Japan.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp90" id="i_272" style="max-width: 62.5em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/i_272.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Map of Feudal Japan</span></div> -</div> - -<p>The Dutch trade began in 1609. We have seen that -in a short time it gained a very considerable extent; -and it increased, as the trading establishment which the -Dutch gradually obtained in India and Persia, and that -on the island of Formosa, whence they had access to -China, furnishing them with a supply of rich silks, the -great article of import into Japan. As the Portuguese -trade was carried on from Macao, so the Dutch trade was -carried on, not from Holland, but from Batavia. The -year preceding the shutting up of the Dutch in Deshima -is stated to have been the most profitable of any. The -previous average sales in Japan had been about sixty -tons of gold; but that year the Dutch had imported and -disposed of goods to the value of eighty tons of gold -(that is, three million two hundred thousand dollars, a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_272">[Pg 272]</span> -Dutch ton of gold being one hundred thousand florins, -or forty thousand dollars). Among the exports were -fourteen hundred chests of silver, each chest containing -one thousand taels, or near two million dollars in -silver alone<a id="FNanchor_129" href="#Footnote_129" class="fnanchor">[129]</a>. About this time, however, owing to the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_273">[Pg 273]</span> -comparative exhaustion of the silver, or the comparative -increase of gold, that metal became a leading, as, indeed, -it seems to have been before a considerable article of export -with the Dutch. The gold koban, the national coin -of the Japanese, weighed at this time forty-seven kanderins, -that is, two hundred and seventy-four grains troy, -which is sixteen grains more than our present eagle. -But, if superior in weight, the koban was inferior in -fineness, containing of pure gold only two hundred and -twenty-four grains, whereas the eagle contains two hundred -and thirty-two grains. It passed in Japan and was -purchased by the Dutch for six taels or less in silver, -which enabled them to dispose of it to good advantage -on the coast of Coromandel, where the relative value of -gold was much higher. In the two years, 1670, 1671, -more than one hundred thousand koban were exported, -at a profit of a million florins; and down to that time -the Dutch sent annually to Japan five or six ships a year. -In 1644, the export of copper began, and went on gradually -increasing. In 1671, an edict was issued, prohibiting -the further export of silver; but this gave no concern -to the Dutch, who had already ceased to export it. Its -principal operation was against the Chinese, who at this -time carried on a great trade to Japan.</p> - -<p>Of the early commercial relations of China and Japan -our knowledge is very limited. As the Japanese at an -early era, according to their own annals (constructed, it -is probable, by Buddhist priests), as early as <span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 600,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_274">[Pg 274]</span> -had received from China Buddhist missionaries, and -through them the language, graphic characters, science, -etc., of the Chinese, it would seem probable that some -commercial intercourse must have early existed between -these two nations. If so, however, the threatened Mongol -invasion, towards the end of the thirteenth century, -would have been likely to have interrupted it. The native -Chinese dynasty, which succeeded after the expulsion -of the Mongols, was exceedingly jealous of all strangers -and hostile to intercourse with them. No foreign trade -was allowed, and every Chinese who left his country -incurred a sentence of perpetual banishment. It is true -that the Chinese colonists, that had emigrated, perhaps -on the invasion of the Mongols, and had settled in the -neighboring maritime countries (as others did afterwards -on the invasion of the present Manchu dynasty), still -contrived to keep up some intercourse with China, while -they carried on a vigorous trade with the adjacent islands -and countries; but, at the time of the Portuguese discovery, -no such trade would seem to have existed with -Japan.</p> - -<p>The Manchu dynasty (the same now reigning), which -mounted the throne in 1644, was much less hostile to -foreigners; and under their rule the Chinese trade to -Japan appears to have rapidly increased. This was -partly by vessels direct from China, and partly by the -commercial enterprise of the Chinese fugitives who -possessed themselves of Formosa, from which, in 1662, -they drove out the Dutch, or who had settled elsewhere -on the islands and coasts of southeastern Asia.</p> - -<p>“They come over,” says Kämpfer, “when and with -what numbers of people, junks, and goods they pleased. -So extensive and advantageous a liberty could not<span class="pagenum" id="Page_275">[Pg 275]</span> -but be very pleasing to them, and put them upon -thoughts of a surer establishment, in order to which, -and for the free exercise of their religion, they built -three temples at Nagasaki, according to the three chief -languages spoken by them (those of the northern, -middle, and southern provinces), each to be attended -by priests of their own nation, to be sent over from -China.”<a id="FNanchor_130" href="#Footnote_130" class="fnanchor">[130]</a></p> - -<p>These temples, called, each in the special dialect of its -frequenters, “Temples of Riches,”—the god which the -Chinese chiefly worship,—are described by Kämpfer, -from his own observation, as remarkable for their handsome -structure and the number of monks or Buddhist -clergy attached to them. As soon as any Chinese ships -arrived in the harbor, the crews immediately took on -shore the idols which formed a part of the ship’s outfit, -and placed them in some small chapels, built for that -purpose, near by the large temples, or convents as in -fact they rather were. This was done with uncommon -respect and particular ceremonies, playing upon cymbals -and beating of drums, which same ceremonies were repeated -when, upon the departure of the junks, the idols -were carried on board again.</p> - -<p>Encouraged by this favorable reception of his countrymen, -Ingen, who was at that time at the head of the -Buddhist priesthood of China, claiming to be the twenty-eighth -in succession from the founder of the Chinese -Buddhist patriarchate, surrendered to a successor his -high dignity at home, and in the year 1653 came over<span class="pagenum" id="Page_276">[Pg 276]</span> -to Japan, there to establish a sort of caliphate or archiepiscopal -see, as Kämpfer expresses it, of the particular -branch or sect of the Buddhist faith to which he belonged. -“The princes and lords of several provinces -came to compliment him, clad in their <i>kamishimo</i>,<a id="FNanchor_131" href="#Footnote_131" class="fnanchor">[131]</a> or -garments of ceremony. The emperor offered him for -his residence a mountain in the neighborhood of the -holy city of Miyako, which he called <i>Ōbaku</i>, the name -of his former papal residence in China. An incident -which happened soon after his arrival contributed very -much to forward his designs, and raised an uncommon -respect for his person, and a great opinion of his holiness. -After a very great drought, the country people, -his neighbors, desired him to say a <i>kitō</i>, or extraordinary -solemn prayer, in order to obtain rain. He answered -that it was not in his power to make rain, and that he -could not assure them that his kitō would obtain it. -However, at their pressing instances, he promised to do -his utmost. Accordingly, he went up to the top of the -mountain and made his kitō. The next day there fell -such profuse showers as even to wash away the smaller -bridges in the city of Miyako, which made both the city -and country believe that his kitō had been rather too -strong. His companions, who came over with him from -China, had likewise very great respect paid them, as -more immediate partakers of his glory; so that even a -cook, who came over with this learned and sanctified -company, was raised to the dignity of superior of one of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_277">[Pg 277]</span> -the three convents of Nagasaki, where, by his sublime -understanding and reputed great knowledge, he obtained,” -and in Kämpfer’s time still held, “the name -and repute of a <i>Godō</i>, that is, a person blessed with -divine and most acute understanding, whom they suppose -to be able to find out by his <i>Satori</i>, or Enthusiastic -Speculations, such mysterious truths as are far beyond -the reach of common knowledge.”</p> - -<p>What tended to favor Ingen’s design was an edict -lately issued by the emperor, aimed at the few remaining -Catholics, and also at the sect of the <i>Judō</i>, or Moralists, -requiring everybody to belong to some sect of the -recognized religions of Japan, and to have a <i>Zushi</i> in -their houses,—that is, a corner or altar consecrated to -some idol. Nevertheless, in spite of his favorable reception -and eminent learning and sanctity, Ingen failed to -gain the submission of the various Buddhist sects in -Japan; nor was his spiritual headship acknowledged, -except by the three Chinese convents.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Though the prohibition of the export of silver, mentioned -as having taken place in 1671, did not affect the -Dutch, the very next year the Japanese commenced a -system of measures which, within a quarter of a century, -reduced the Dutch commerce to the very narrow -limit at which it has ever since remained. The first -step was to raise the value of the koban to six tael eight -maas of silver; nor was this by any means the worst of -it. The Dutch were no longer allowed to sell to the -native merchants. The government appointed appraisers, -who set a certain value on the goods, much less than -the old prices, at which valuation the Dutch must sell, -or else take the goods away. Anything which the goods<span class="pagenum" id="Page_278">[Pg 278]</span> -sold for to the Japanese merchants, over the appraisement, -went into the town treasury of Nagasaki.<a id="FNanchor_132" href="#Footnote_132" class="fnanchor">[132]</a> These -appraisements grew lower and lower every year, till at -last the Dutch, threatening, if things went on in this -way, to abandon the trade altogether, petitioned the -emperor to be restored to their ancient privileges, assured -to them by the concession of Gongen-Sama -[Iyeyasu]. After waiting three years, they got a gracious -answer. The appraisements were abolished, but -at the same time, in 1685, an order was suddenly issued, -limiting the amount which the Dutch might sell in any -one year to the value of a hundred thousand taels, or in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_279">[Pg 279]</span> -Dutch money to ten tons and a half of gold, equal to -four hundred and twenty thousand dollars. All the -goods of any one year’s importation, remaining after -that amount had been realized, were to lie over till the -next annual sale. At the same time, the annual export -of copper was limited to twenty-five thousand -piculs; and so matters stood at the time of Kämpfer’s -visit.</p> - -<p>The Chinese trade had meanwhile gone on increasing -“to that degree”—we quote again from Kämpfer—“as -to make the suspicious and circumspect Japanese -extremely jealous of them. In the years 1683 and 1684 -there arrived at Nagasaki, in each year, at least two -hundred junks, every junk with not less than fifty people -on board, making for each year more than ten thousand -Chinese visitors.” Nor was it trade alone that -drew the Chinese thither. In China, the women, except -those of servile condition, are kept in perfect seclusion. -No man sees even the woman he is to marry till -she has actually become his wife; and courtesanship is -strictly forbidden and punished. The case, as we have -seen, is widely different in Japan, and numerous young -and wealthy Chinese were attracted to Nagasaki, “purely -for their pleasure,” as Kämpfer observes, “and to spend -some part of their money with Japanese wenches, which -proved very beneficial to that town,”—truly a very -mercantile view of the matter!</p> - -<p>“Not only did this increasing number of Chinese -visitors excite jealousy, but what still more aroused the -suspicion of the Japanese was, that the Jesuits, having -gained the favor of the then reigning monarch of China, -(the celebrated Kanghi), with the liberty of preaching -and propagating their religion in all parts of the empire,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_280">[Pg 280]</span> -some tracts and books, which the Jesuit fathers had -found the means to print in China, in Chinese characters, -were brought over to Japan among other Chinese -books, and sold privately, which made the Japanese -apprehensive that by this means the Catholic religion, -which had been exterminated with so much trouble and -the loss of so many thousand persons, might be revived -again in the country.” And they even suspected that -the importers of these books, if not actual converts, -were at least favorers of the Catholic doctrine.</p> - -<p>These reasons combined to produce, in 1684, at the -same time with the restrictions placed upon the Dutch, -an edict, by which the Chinese were limited to an annual -importation, double the value of that allowed the -Dutch; namely, six hundred thousand taels, equivalent -to eight hundred and forty thousand dollars, the annual -number of junks not to exceed seventy, of which a specific -number was assigned to each province and colony, -and each to bring not more than thirty persons. Chinese -books were, at the same time, subjected to a censorship, -two censors being appointed, one for theological, -the other for historical and scientific works, none to be -imported without their approval.</p> - -<p>This was followed up, in the year 1688, by another -order, by which the Chinese were, like the Dutch, shut -up in a sort of prison, for which, like the Dutch, they -were compelled to pay a heavy rent. The site chosen -for this spot was a garden, pleasantly situated, just outside -of the town, on the side of the harbor opposite -Deshima. It was covered with several rows of small -houses, each row having a common roof, and the whole -was surrounded with a ditch and a strong palisade, from -which the only exit was through well-guarded double<span class="pagenum" id="Page_281">[Pg 281]</span> -gates<a id="FNanchor_133" href="#Footnote_133" class="fnanchor">[133]</a>. Even here the Chinese had no permanent residence, -like the Dutch. They arrived in detachments, -twenty junks in spring, thirty in summer, and twenty -in autumn; and, after selling their goods, went away, -leaving the houses empty.</p> - -<p>Besides the trade with the Dutch and the Chinese, -the Lew Chew Islands [Riūkiū] were also permitted to -carry on a particular trade with the province of Satsuma, -the prince of which they acknowledged as in some respects -their sovereign. The import and sale of their -goods was limited to the annual amount of one hundred -and twenty-five thousand taels, though, in Kämpfer’s -time, a much larger amount was smuggled in, large -quantities of Chinese goods being thus introduced.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_282">[Pg 282]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XXVII">CHAPTER XXVII</h2> -</div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p class="center"><i>Engelbert Kämpfer—His Visit to Japan—Deshima and its Inhabitants -as described by him—A. D. 1690.</i></p> -</div> - - -<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">Engelbert Kämpfer</span> was the first scientific -and systematic observer who visited Japan. -Of those who have since followed him, but one -or two had either his zeal, his assiduity, or his qualifications, -and it is to him that we remain indebted for -no inconsiderable part of what we yet know of that -country, especially of its natural history, and its social, -religious, and political institutions. Subsequent visitors, -correcting him in some few particulars, have generally -confirmed him. The Japanese, according to the most -recent observations, appear to have changed very little -since his time.</p> - -<p>Kämpfer was born September, 1651, in the northwest -of Germany, in the county of Lippe, at Lemgow, a small -town of which his father was minister. He was early -destined for the profession of physic, and, after the best -school education his father could give him, spent three -years at the university of Cracow, in Poland, and four -years more at that of Koningsburg, in Prussia. Thence -he passed to Sweden, where, inspired with a desire of -seeing foreign countries, he obtained the place of secretary -to an embassy about to be sent to the king of -Persia. That country he reached by way of Moscow, -Astracan, and the Caspian Sea, arriving at Ispahan in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_283">[Pg 283]</span> -1684. During his residence there, he employed himself -chiefly in researches into the natural history of the -country; and for the sake of continuing those researches, -when the embassy was the next year about to return -home, he obtained, through the recommendation of the -Swedish ambassador, the place of chief surgeon to -the Dutch East India Company’s fleet, then cruising -in the Persian Gulf. “It agreed best with my inclination,” -so he says in the preface to his work on Japan, -“to undertake a further journey, and I chose rather to -lead the restless and troublesome life of a traveller, than -by coming home to subject myself to a share in that -train of calamities my native country was then involved -in. Therefore, I took my leave of the ambassador and -his retinue (who did me the honor to attend me a mile -out of Ispahan) with a firm resolution to spend some -years longer in seeing other Eastern courts, countries, -and nations. I was never used to receive large supplies -of money from home. ’T was by my own industry I -had till then supported myself, and the very same -means maintained me afterwards, as long as I stayed -abroad, and enabled me to serve the Dutch East India -Company, though in a less honorable employment.</p> - -<p>“This offspring of Japhet enjoys, more than any other -European nation, the blessing of Noah to live in the -tents of Shem, and to have Canaan for their servant. -God hath so blessed their valor and conduct, that they -have enlarged their trade, conquests and possessions, -throughout Asia, to the very extremities of the East, -and there hath never been wanting among them a succession -of prudent and able men, who have promoted -their interests and welfare to the utmost of their capacity. -But to come to the point. It was by the gracious leave,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_284">[Pg 284]</span> -and under the protection of this honorable Company, -that I have often obtained my end in the Indies, and -have had the satisfaction at last to see the remote empire -of Japan, and the court of its powerful monarch.”</p> - -<p>Kämpfer remained at Gamroon, on the Persian Gulf, -for near three years, employing his leisure in scientific -researches. Leaving that unhealthy station in June, -1688, he proceeded in the fleet along the coasts of Persia -and India to Ceylon, and thence by Sumatra to Batavia, -where he arrived in September, 1689. Having obtained -the appointment of physician to the factory in Japan, he -left Batavia in May, 1690, and having touched at Siam, -of which he has given an account in his book, on the -22d of September, about noon, he came in sight of the -high mountainous country about Nagasaki. As soon as -the land was seen, all on board were required, as the -usage was, to give up their prayer-books and other books -of divinity, as also all the European money they had -about them, to the captain, who, having taken a memorandum -of them, packed away all these surrendered -articles in an old cask, to be hid away from the Japanese, -but to be surrendered to the owners on leaving Japan. -At sunset, Nagasaki was six or seven leagues distant. -At midnight they reached the entrance of the bay, in -which they found fifty fathoms of water. This entrance -was full of rocks and islands, which obliged them to wait -till morning; and then, being becalmed, they fired cannon -to notify their arrival. These were heard at the Dutch -factory, six miles distant, and in the afternoon four small -vessels came out with some persons from the factory, -accompanied by swarms of Japanese officers, clerks and -soldiers, and the chief interpreter, who, on boarding the -ship, demanded all writings and letters, in the hands of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_285">[Pg 285]</span> -whomsoever they might be. They soon left, and the -ship followed slowly, making her way by kedging, till -by ten at night she dropped anchor within half a league -of the city. The next morning she was towed in still -further by a fleet of Japanese boats.</p> - -<p>The harbor was found to be well protected, and completely -enclosed by rocks, islands and mountains, on the -tops of which were guard-houses, from which those on -the look-out, by means of their spy-glasses, detected the -ship shortly after she had made the land, and had given -notice of her arrival to the authorities. Along the shore -several bastions were seen, with palisades painted red, -but no cannon; and on the hills several fortifications, -screened by cloths, so as to prevent what was in them -from being visible.</p> - -<p>Having dropped anchor within three hundred yards of -the island of Deshima, they were again boarded by two -Japanese officers, with a host of attendants, who made a -careful examination of all on board, according to a list -given them, writing down their names and business. -Five or six of the number were then subjected to a strict -cross-examination as to all the particulars of the voyage. -It so happened that the steward had died, the day before -their arrival, of a fit of apoplexy, consequent upon his -being denied any more arrack, or brandy—apart from -his drinking, an able man, and, as Kämpfer tells us, the -son of a noted divine at the Hague, but who, by early -indulgence, had fallen into debaucheries and a dissolute -life. Many questions were asked about the dead man, -and his breast and other parts of the corpse were carefully -examined to see if there were any cross or other -mark of the popish religion upon it. After much urging, -the Japanese consented to the immediate removal of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_286">[Pg 286]</span> -the body; but none of the ship’s company were allowed -to attend, or to see what was done with it.</p> - -<p>As soon as this roll-calling and examination were over, -Japanese soldiers and revenue officers were put into -every corner, and the ship was, as it were, completely -taken out of the hands of the Dutch. For that day -only, they were left in possession of the boats to look -after the anchor; but all their arms and gunpowder were -taken away. “In short,” says Kämpfer, “had I not been -beforehand acquainted with their usual proceedings, I -could not have helped thinking that we had got into a -hostile country, and had been taken for spies.” That -evening was received from the factory a supply of fowls, -eggs, fish, shell-fish, turnips, radishes [daikon],—which, -as Kämpfer afterwards observed, were largely cultivated, -and formed a great part of the food of the country people,—onions, -fresh ginger, pumpkins, watermelons, -white bread, and a barrel of sake, or Japanese rice-beer.</p> - -<p>On the twenty-ninth the officers of the factory came -on board, and calling the ship’s company together, read -to them the orders of the Dutch East India Company, -and of the governor of Nagasaki, to the effect that -every one was to behave soberly and discreetly with -respect to the natives and to the laws and customs of the -country. A paper containing these orders, written in -Dutch, was, according to the Japanese custom, left on -board for everybody to read. No one, except the captain -of the ship and the director, or head officer (in Dutch, -<i>Opperhoofd</i>), of the factory, could leave the ship for -Deshima, or return on board again, without a written -passport, in the one case granted by the Japanese officers -on board, in the other by those upon the island. On the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_287">[Pg 287]</span> -twenty-sixth Kämpfer took his goods and landed for his -two years’ residence on the island. It was his object to -get all the knowledge he possibly could of the present -state and past history of Japan; but in this he encountered -many difficulties. The Japanese officers, with -whom the Dutch came in contact, were all bound by an -oath, renewed every year, not to talk with the Dutch, -nor to make any disclosures to them, respecting the -domestic affairs of the country, its religion, or its politics; -and not only that, they were also bound by oath to watch -and report each other—which fear of being informed -against was indeed their chief dread and restraint. -“Naturally the Japanese were,” in Kämpfer’s opinion, -“their pride of warlike humor being set aside, as civil, -as polite and curious a nation as any in the world, naturally -inclined to commerce and familiarity with foreigners, -and desirous to excess to be informed of their -histories, arts and sciences. But,” he adds, “as we are -only merchants, whom they place in the lowest class of -mankind, and as the narrow inspection we are kept under -must naturally lead them to some jealousy and mistrust, -so there is no other way to gain their friendship, and to -win them over to our interest, but a willingness to -comply with their desire, a liberality to please their -avaricious inclinations, and a submissive conduct to -flatter their vanity. ’Twas by this means I worked -myself into such a friendship and familiarity with my -interpreters, and the officers of our island, who daily -came over to us, as I believe none before me could boast -of, ever since we have been put under such narrow regulations. -Liberally assisting them as I did with my advice -and medicines, with what information I was able to give -them in astronomy and mathematics, and with a cordial<span class="pagenum" id="Page_288">[Pg 288]</span> -and plentiful supply of European liquors, I could also -in my turn freely put to them what questions I pleased -about the affairs of their country, whether relating to -the government in civil or ecclesiastical affairs, to the -customs of the natives, to the natural and political history; -and there was none that ever refused to give me -all the information he could, when we were alone, even -of things which they are strictly charged to keep secret. -The private informations thus procured from those who -came to visit me were of great use to me in collecting -materials for my intended history of this country; but -yet they fell far short of being altogether satisfactory, -and I should not, perhaps, have been able to compass -that design, if I had not by good luck met with other -opportunities, and in particular the assistance of a discreet -young man, by whose means I was richly supplied with -whatever information I wanted concerning the affairs of -Japan. He was about twenty-four years of age, well -versed in the Chinese and Japanese languages, and very -desirous of improving himself. Upon my arrival, he was -appointed to wait upon me as my servant, and at the -same time to be by me instructed in physic and surgery. -The Otona, who is the chief officer of our island (of -Deshima), having been attended by him under my inspection -in a serious illness, suffered him to continue in my -service during the whole time of my abode in the country, -which was two years, and to attend me in our two -journeys to court, consequently four times, almost from -one end of the empire to the other—a favor seldom -granted to young men of his age, and never for so long -a time. As I could not well have obtained my end without -giving him a competent knowledge of the Dutch -language, I instructed him therein with so much success<span class="pagenum" id="Page_289">[Pg 289]</span> -that in a year’s time he could write and read it better -than any of our interpreters. I also gave him all the -information I could in anatomy and physic, and further -allowed him a handsome yearly salary to the best of my -ability. In return I employed him to procure me as -ample accounts as possible of the then state and condition -of the country, its government, the imperial court, -the religions established in the empire, the history of -former ages, and remarkable daily occurrences. There -was not a book I desired to see on these and other subjects, -which he did not bring to me, and explain to me -out of it whatever I wanted to know. And because he -was obliged, in several things, to inquire, or to borrow, -or to buy of other people, I never dismissed him -without providing him with money for such purposes, -besides his yearly allowance. So expensive, so difficult -a thing is it to foreigners, ever since the shutting up -of the Japanese empire, to procure any information -about it.”</p> - -<p>After two years thus spent, Kämpfer left Japan in -November, 1692, and reached Amsterdam, by way of -Batavia, the October following, bringing with him a -very rare collection of Japanese books, maps, coins, etc. -It had been his intention immediately on his return to -prepare his notes and memoirs for publication; but -being appointed physician to the count of Lippe, his -native prince, and speedily obtaining a large private -practice, and assuming also the responsibility and cares -of a family, this purpose was long delayed. His “Amoenitates -Exoticae,” notes of his eastern travels, did not -appear till 1712, and he died in 1716, leaving his “History -of Japan” still unpublished. It first appeared in -1727, translated from the German into English, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_290">[Pg 290]</span> -published in two folios, with numerous engravings<a id="FNanchor_134" href="#Footnote_134" class="fnanchor">[134]</a>, under -the patronage of Sir Hans Sloane and the Royal Society. -There was prefixed to it by the translator, Dr. I. G. -Scheuchzer, a valuable introduction, containing a catalogue -of works upon Japan which Charlevoix, in the -similar catalogue at the end of his History of Japan, has -mainly copied; as was done also by his publishers, as to -most of Kämpfer’s engravings.</p> - -<p>Kämpfer’s work is divided into five books<a id="FNanchor_135" href="#Footnote_135" class="fnanchor">[135]</a>. The first -book contains, first, a general and particular geographical -description of the empire, derived mainly from -Japanese writers; second, a disquisition on the origin -of the Japanese,—whom Kämpfer thinks, from the evidence -as well of language as of character, not to be a -Chinese colony, nor even to belong to the same stock; -third, the stories, evidently mythical, which the Japanese -give of their own origin; and fourth, an account of -the climate of Japan, its minerals and metals, plants, -animals, reptiles, fish and shells.</p> - -<p>The second book devoted to the political state of -Japan contains, first, their mythological history; second, -the annals of the Dairi, with a description of their court -and residence; and third, a list of the Kubō-Sama. -This part of the work, at least the annals, is sufficiently -dry; but it contains the substance of all that the Japanese -know or believe as to the chronology of their own -history.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_291">[Pg 291]</span></p> - -<p>The third book describes the religious state of Japan, -giving an analytical view of the different creeds prevailing -there, such as throws great light upon the confused -and mixed up view taken in the letters of the -Jesuit missionaries.</p> - -<p>The fourth book treats of foreign relations and trade. -The rise and fall of the Portuguese missions, although -the most interesting portion of the history of Japan, is -very slightly touched upon, as it seems to have been no -part of Kämpfer’s plan to revamp old materials, but to -collect new ones.</p> - -<p>The fifth book, and much the largest, is devoted, -to his two journeys from Nagasaki to Yedo and back—those -journeys having furnished him with the principal -opportunity he enjoyed of seeing Japan as it -was.</p> - -<p>“The place where the Dutch live,” says Kämpfer, “is -called Deshima, that is, the Fore Island, the island situated -before the town; also, Deshimamachi, or the Fore -Island Street, it being reckoned as one of the streets of -Nagasaki. It has been raised from the bottom, which -is rocky and sandy, lying bare at low water. The -foundation is of freestone, and it rises about half a -fathom above high water mark. In shape it nearly resembles -a fan without a handle, being of an oblong -square figure, the two longer sides segments of a circle. -It is joined to the town by a small stone bridge, a few -paces long, at the end of which is a guard-house, where -there are soldiers constantly upon duty. On the north, -or seaward side, are two strong gates, never opened but -for lading and unlading the Dutch ships. The island is -enclosed with pretty high deal boards, covered with -small roofs, on the top of which is planted a double row<span class="pagenum" id="Page_292">[Pg 292]</span> -of pikes, like a Cheval de Frise but the whole very -weak, and unable to hold out against any force.</p> - -<p>“Some few paces off, in the water, are thirteen posts, -standing at proper distances, with small wooden tablets -at the top, upon which is written, in large Japanese -characters, an order from the governors, strictly forbidding -all boats or vessels, under severe penalties, to come -within these posts, or to approach the island.</p> - -<p>“Just by the bridge, towards the town, is a place -where they put up the imperial mandates and proclamations, -and the orders of the governors.</p> - -<p>“Besides this, the Otona, or chief officer of the street, -chiefly at the time of the sale, causes orders of his own, -much to the same purpose with those of the governors, -to be put up on the other side of the bridge, just by the -entry into the island<a id="FNanchor_136" href="#Footnote_136" class="fnanchor">[136]</a>.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_293">[Pg 293]</span></p> - -<p>“By my own measuring I found the breadth to be -eighty-two common paces, and the longest side two hundred -and thirty-six. The surface is commonly estimated -at a stadium (about three acres). There is a narrow -walk to go round along the deal boards which enclose -it. The houses are on both sides of a broad street that -runs across the island. These houses, and the whole -island, were built at the expense of some of the inhabitants -of Nagasaki, to whom, or their heirs, the Dutch -pay a yearly rent of six thousand five hundred taels—a -price far beyond the real value. The houses, built of -wood, and very sorry and poor, are two stories high, the -lower stories serving as warehouses, and the uppermost -to live in.</p> - -<p>“The other buildings are three guard-houses, one at -each end and one in the middle of the island, and a place -by the entrance, where are kept all the necessary instruments -to extinguish fires. Water for the kitchen and -for common use, which is a separate charge in addition -to the rent, comes from the river which runs through -the town, being brought over in pipes made of bamboos, -into a reservoir within the island.</p> - -<p>“Behind the street is a convenient house for the sale -of goods, and two warehouses, strong enough to hold -out against fire, built by the Company at their own -expense; also, a large kitchen; a house for the deputies -of the governors of Nagasaki, who have the regulation of -the trade; a house for the interpreters, made use of only -at the time of the sale; a kitchen and pleasure-garden; -a place to wash linen and other things; some small -private gardens, and a bath. The Otona, or chief officer -of the street, has also a house and garden of his own.</p> - -<p>“Such,” says Kämpfer, “is the state of island,” and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_294">[Pg 294]</span> -such it continues to the present time, “to that small -compass of which the Dutch have been confined by the -Japanese; and as things now stand, we must be so far -satisfied with it, there being no hopes that we shall ever -be better accommodated or allowed more liberty by so -jealous and circumspect a nation.</p> - -<p>“Our ships, which put into this harbor once a year, -after they have been thoroughly visited by the Japanese, -and proper lists taken of all the goods on board, have -leave to put their men on shore on this island to refresh -them, and to keep them there so long as they lie in the -harbor, commonly two or three months. After they -have left, the director of our trade remains in the island, -with a small number of people, about seven, or more if -he thinks proper.</p> - -<p>“Thus we live all the year round little better than -prisoners, confined within the compass of a small island, -under the perpetual and narrow inspection of our keepers. -’Tis true, indeed, we are now and then allowed a -small escape, an indulgence which, without flattering -ourselves, we can by no means suppose to be an effect -of their love and friendship, for as much as it is never -granted to us, unless it be to pay our respects to some -great men, or for some other business, necessary on our -side and advantageous for the natives. Nor doth the -coming out, even upon these occasions, give us any -greater liberty than we enjoy on our island, as will -appear, first, by the great expenses of our journeys and -visits, great or small, and by the number of guards and -inspectors who constantly attend us, as if we were traitors -and professed enemies of the empire.</p> - -<p>“After the departure of our ships, the director of our -trade, or resident of the Dutch East India Company,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_295">[Pg 295]</span> -sets out with a numerous retinue on his journey to -court, to pay his respects to the emperor, and to make -the usual yearly presents. This journey must be made -once a year, not only by the Dutch, but, also, by all the -lords and princes of the empire, as being the emperor’s -vassals; and our own embassy is looked upon at court -as an homage paid by the Dutch nation to the emperor -of Japan, as their sovereign lord. Upon the journey we -are not allowed any more liberty than even close prisoners -could reasonably claim. We are not suffered to -speak to anybody, not even (except by special leave) to -the domestics and servants of the inns we lodge at. As -soon as we come to an inn, we are without delay carried -up stairs, if possible, or into the back apartments, which -have no other view but into the yard, which, for a still -greater security, and to prevent any thoughts of escape, -is immediately shut and nailed up. Our retinue, which, -by special command from the governors of Nagasaki, -guards, attends, and assists us in our journey, is composed -of the interpreters and cooks of our island, and -of a good number of soldiers, servants, bailiffs, porters, -and people, to look after our horses and baggage, which -must be conveyed on horseback. All these people, -though never so needless, must be maintained at the -Company’s expense<a id="FNanchor_137" href="#Footnote_137" class="fnanchor">[137]</a>.</p> - -<p>“Before our departure from Yedo, and again upon -our return, our director, with one of his Company, goes -to make a visit to the governors of Nagasaki, at their -palace, to return them thanks for their protection, and -to entreat its continuance. Nor can even this visit be -made without a numerous train of guards, soldiers, and -bailiffs.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_296">[Pg 296]</span></p> - -<p>“Another visit, and with the like numerous attendants, -is made to the governors by the director of our -factory, upon the first day of the eighth month, when it -is usual to make them a present.</p> - -<p>“The few Dutchmen who remain at Deshima, after -the departure of our ships, are permitted, once or twice -a year, to take a walk into the adjacent country, and in -particular to view the temples about Nagasaki. This -liberty is oftener granted to physicians and surgeons, -under pretence of going to search for medicinal plants. -However, this pleasure-walk falls very expensive to us, -for it must be made in company of the Otona, of our -ordinary interpreters, and other officers in our service, -who are handsomely treated by us at dinner in one of -the temples of the Ikkoshiu sect; and we must on this -occasion, and that with seeming satisfaction, see our -purses strongly squeezed for the most common civilities -shown us by the priests of the temple.</p> - -<p>“The festival of Suwa, the patron and protector of -Nagasaki, falling just upon the time when our ships lie -in the harbor, our people are permitted to view this solemnity -from a scaffold, built at our own expense, our -presence being not only thought honorable to their saint, -but, what they value still more, advantageous to many -of his worshippers. It may be easily imagined that our -train and guards are not lessened upon such an occasion. -On the contrary, we are examined and searched four -times before we come to the place where the solemnity -is performed, and again afterwards counted over several -times with all possible accuracy, when we go up and -when we come down from the scaffold, as if it were possible -for some of us to slip out between their fingers.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_297">[Pg 297]</span> -Our slaves, also, are admitted to this solemnity, as black -Dutchmen<a id="FNanchor_138" href="#Footnote_138" class="fnanchor">[138]</a>.</p> - -<p>“Another day is set apart for viewing five large -boats, which must be constantly kept, at the expense -of the Dutch East India Company, for the lading and -unlading of our ships. This is again done with the -same numerous retinue, which we afterwards entertain -at dinner at one of the neighboring temples.</p> - -<p>“When one of our ships hath been discovered to -steer towards the harbor, some of the Dutchmen left -at Deshima are sent to meet her, in order to get a preliminary -information of her cargo and condition. The -Company for this purpose constantly keeps two barges -in readiness, large enough to take on board our usual -numerous attendants, which, together with the commissioners -for victualling, attending in their own barge, -with a good provision of victuals and refreshments, -must be treated in the neighboring small island, Iwō-ga-shima, -the whole again at the Company’s expense.</p> - -<p>“These are the days allowed us for our recreation, -if it may be called a recreation to be led about, like -prisoners, under the narrow inspection of so many attentive -eyes; for, as to the several officers concerned in the -management of our island and trade, and permitted on -that account to converse with us, no sincere friendship, -good understanding, or familiarity, can be by any means -expected of them; for, before they are admitted into -our service, they must oblige themselves, by a solemn -oath, to deny us all manner of communication, credit, or -friendship, any ways tending to support or promote our -interest.</p> - -<p>“The person who takes this oath prays the vengeance<span class="pagenum" id="Page_298">[Pg 298]</span> -of the supreme gods of the heavens and the chief magistrates -of the country upon him, his family, his domestics, -his friends and near relatives, in case he doth not -sincerely fulfil and satisfy to all and every article, as they -are read and specified to him after the form of the oath, -which, together with these articles, must be signed by -him, and sealed with his seal<a id="FNanchor_139" href="#Footnote_139" class="fnanchor">[139]</a>, dipped in black ink, pouring, -for a still stronger confirmation, some drops of his -own blood upon it, which he fetches by pricking one -of his fingers behind the nail. This must be repeated -twice a year, at least: first, about the beginning of the -year, at the time when they perform the solemn act -of theirs of trampling upon the image of our blessed -Saviour, pendent from the cross, of the Virgin Mary, -and of other holy persons, as a public and unquestionable -proof that they forever renounce the Christian -religion<a id="FNanchor_140" href="#Footnote_140" class="fnanchor">[140]</a>; and again, after the arrival of our ships in -the harbor, in order to remind them of the solemn obligation -they lay under, and to renew their hatred towards -us. The persons who are to attend us in our journey -to court must, immediately after their departure, take -a third oath, promising that they will have a strict hand -and watchful eye over us and our conduct all along -the road, and that they will not show us any particular -acts of friendship, or enter into any kind of familiarity -with us.</p> - -<p>“This oath, however, though never so terrible and -binding, would be but little regarded by this nation, -were it not for the severe punishment put by the civil<span class="pagenum" id="Page_299">[Pg 299]</span> -magistrate upon the least transgression thereof,—a -crime that is not to be expiated but by shedding the -very same blood the oath hath been confirmed by.</p> - -<p>“Thus much I cannot forbear owning, in justice to -the natives, that, even amidst all the troubles and hardships -we are exposed to in this country, we have at least -this comfort, that we are treated by our numerous guardians -and overseers with apparent civility, with caresses, -compliments, presents of victuals, and other marks of -deference, so far as it is not inconsistent with their reasons -of state. But this, their gentle and reasonable behavior -on our behalf, is owing more to the custom of the -country, and to the innate civility and good manners of -the natives, than to any particular esteem they have for -us, or any favor they are willing to show us.</p> - -<p>“No Japanese, who seems to have any regard or -friendship for the Dutch, is looked upon as an honest -man and true lover of his country. This maxim is -grounded upon the principle that it is absolutely contrary -to the interests of the country, against the pleasure -of their sovereign,—nay, by virtue of the oath they -have taken, even against the supreme will of the gods, -and the dictates of their conscience,—to show any favor -to foreigners. Nay, they pursue this false reasoning -still further, and pretend that a friend of foreigners -must of necessity be an enemy to his country, and a -rebel to his sovereign; for, they say, if the country -should happen to be attacked or invaded by these foreigners, -the laws and ties of friendship would oblige him -to stand by them, and, consequently, to become a traitor -to his country and sovereign.</p> - -<p>“Hence, to overreach a Dutchman; to ask extravagant -prices of him; to cheat and defraud him (so much<span class="pagenum" id="Page_300">[Pg 300]</span> -as they think will not prove prejudicial to their reputation, -which they have a very tender regard for); to -lessen the liberties and advantages of the Dutch; to propose -new projects for making their servitude and condition -still worse, and the like, are looked upon as good, -handsome, and lawful things in themselves, and unquestionable -proofs of a good patriot.</p> - -<p>“If anybody steals anything of the Dutch, and it be -found upon him (which the kuri<a id="FNanchor_141" href="#Footnote_141" class="fnanchor">[141]</a>, or porters, we employ -at the time of our sale are very dexterous at), -there is seldom any other punishment inflicted upon -him but restitution of the stolen goods, and a few lashes -from soldiers upon duty at our gate. Sometimes he is -banished from the island for a short time, or, if the -crime be very notorious, from the town, though that is -done but seldom. But the penalty inflicted upon smugglers -is no less than an unavoidable death, either by -beheading or the cross, according to the nature of the -crime, and the degree of guilt.</p> - -<p>“The lading and unlading of our ships, and other business -of this kind, must not be done by our own people, -but by the natives, who are well paid for their work, -whilst our people stand idle, and have nothing to do but -to look at them. But this is not the only grievance, -for they always hire at least twice as many people as -there is occasion for, and, if they work but one -hour, we must, nevertheless, pay them a whole day’s -wages.</p> - -<p>“All the people who have anything to do for or with -us, though never so numerous, and mere meddlers, -must be maintained by us, either directly by appointed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_301">[Pg 301]</span> -salaries, or indirectly by the money which the governors -of the town detain from the price of our commodities.</p> - -<p>“No Dutchman can send a letter out of the country, -unless the contents be first entered into a register-book -kept for this purpose, and a copy of it left with the governors. -As to letters from abroad, all the public ones -must be sent directly to the governors, before they are -opened. As to the private ones, there are ways and -means secretly to convey them to us, which the government -connives at, though it be contrary to law.</p> - -<p>“No Japanese is permitted to send any letters or -presents to their relatives abroad (there being still some -left from former marriages with the Dutch), or to -receive any from them, unless they be first carried to -the governors, to be by them opened, and left entirely at -their disposal.</p> - -<p>“Formerly, when a Dutchman died at Nagasaki, his -body, deemed unworthy of their ground, was thrown -into the sea, somewhere without the harbor. But, of -late, an empty spot of waste ground was assigned us, -and leave given us decently to bury our dead there.</p> - -<p>“It is an easy matter for anybody, whether native or -foreigner, to make his claims upon the Dutch; but we -find it very difficult to obtain justice from others. In -the first case, the government is always willing to give -the complaining party damages, without so much as -considering whether the claim be upon the whole Company, -or some of its officers and servants, and whether -it be just to make the former suffer for the misdemeanors -of the latter. But, if we have any complaint to -make, we generally meet with so many difficulties and -tedious delays as would deter anybody from pressing -even the most righteous cause. One instance out of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_302">[Pg 302]</span> -many will be sufficient. The famous Chinese pirate, -<i>Koxinga</i> [Kokusenya], having made himself master of -the island of Formosa, and of our fortress, Tayouan or -Zelandia thereon, we took an opportunity, by way of -reprisals, to attack a large junk of his, bound for that -island, with about three hundred men on board, and to -disable her with our fire, so that, although she drove for -about thirteen days after the attack, yet not above nine -of the whole company saved their lives. Upon this, -heavy complaints were made by the Chinese to the government -of Nagasaki, and with so good an effect that -the same year twenty-seven thousand taels damages -were assigned to them out of our treasury. Some -time after, about the year 1672, one of our ships having -unfortunately stranded upon the coast of Formosa, the -ship’s company was barbarously murdered, and the -whole cargo taken possession of by the Chinese subjects -of <i>Koxinga</i>; whereupon we made our complaints, before -the very same court, against this act of hostility, but -with so little success that, far from having any damages -assigned us, we could not obtain the restitution of so -much as one farthing<a id="FNanchor_142" href="#Footnote_142" class="fnanchor">[142]</a>.</p> - -<p>“The chief and most extensive company or corporation -of the officers of our island, is that of the Interpreters, -or, in the literal sense, <i>through-mouths</i>. Those -of the first order, called <i>true Interpreters</i>, are eight in -number. By virtue of their office they are obliged to -assist and attend us whenever there is occasion; and so -far, indeed, they execute their duty with great preciseness, -that we can scarce ever one moment get rid of -their importunate presence; for as they are made -answerable for our conduct, so they spare no pains nor -trouble to have a watchful eye over us.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp90" id="i_302f" style="max-width: 68.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/i_302f.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"> <span class="smcap">Attack on Fort Zeelandia in Formosa</span><br /> -<i>From Verwaerloosde Formosa</i></div> -</div> - - -<p>“Four of these are high interpreters, of whom one is -Nemban, signifying a yearly guardian, or person appointed -to report upon another. This officer is only -annual, and to him all petitions and complaints, and -whatever else relates to us and to our commerce, must -be delivered, and by him, with the consent of his brethren, -to the commanding governor or his deputy. He -hath the greatest share in the management of our island, -in the direction of our trade, and in all our affairs in -general. The four other interpreters, though of the -same order, are called inferior interpreters. They have -not near the authority of the first four, whom they are -to assist in the performance of their duties. They, too, -have a Nemban, or president of their own, who is a sort -of deputy to the chief Nemban. Both Nembans attend -us in our journey to the court, their year of office terminating -with their return.</p> - -<p>“They are paid by fees and presents (to buy their -favor), and by profits on the hire of laborers for the -Company, and horses for the journey to court. The -whole income of a chief interpreter may amount to three -thousand taels and upwards, and that of an inferior -interpreter is seldom less than one thousand five hundred -taels; and yet, with all this income, they live but -sparingly, because they must maintain out of this money -numerous families, and sometimes poor relations, whom, -according to the innate pride of this nation, they won’t -suffer to appear necessitous. Some part, also, of their -revenue is spent in presents to the governors of Nagasaki -and their deputies.</p> - -<p>“Next to the chief interpreters, must be mentioned<span class="pagenum" id="Page_304">[Pg 304]</span> -the <i>learning interpreters</i>, or <i>apprentices</i>. They are -never less than eight, but sometimes more, all sons to -the chief interpreters, by birth or adoption. They come -over to us every day, in order to learn the Dutch and -Portuguese languages, as well as the art and mystery -of dealing with foreigners. They are employed as spies -upon several occasions, as also to inspect the lading -and unlading of our ships, to search the sailors, and such -others as go on board or leave the vessels. They also examine -the goods imported, and exported, and are allowed -for these services a salary of forty taels a year, besides a -share in the boarding wages and other perquisites.</p> - -<p>“After these come the <i>house interpreters</i>, employed -by private Dutchmen within their own houses. They -have nothing to do on our island, unless it be at the -time of our yearly fair, or sale, when, after having taken -a solemn oath to avoid all communication, intimacy, and -familiarity with us, they are by the Otona admitted into -our service. From two to six are assigned to every -Dutchman, during the whole time of our fair, nominally -as interpreters, but in fact as spies to watch his actions; -for there is scarce one in ten of them that understands a -Dutch word, excepting some few who have been servants -to the Dutch formerly.</p> - -<p>“There are upwards of a hundred of these house -interpreters, who all stand under the command of the -chief interpreters, and particularly the Nemban, or president -for the time being. Their salaries, an uncertain -sum, taken out of the taxes laid upon the Dutch trade, -are supposed, one year with another, to amount about six -thousand taels, which they divide among themselves, -according to their rank and office, and as it is computed -that the twelve chiefs among them get at furthest two<span class="pagenum" id="Page_305">[Pg 305]</span> -hundred taels apiece, the rest must take up with half -that money, and sometimes with less. This company of -interpreters have four treasurers and two clerks to keep -their cash and an account of what is paid in and out.</p> - -<p>“Two fundamental maxims they go upon: to do -what lies in their power, insensibly to increase the yearly -expenses of the Dutch, to the advantage of their countrymen, -as becomes true patriots; to conceal as much as -possible all the tricks and cheats they perpetually play -us, lest the natives should come to know them. Both -these ends they endeavor to obtain by confining us still -more and more, looking upon this as the surest means -to keep us ignorant of the language of the country, and -to prevent all conversation and familiarity with the natives. -If there be any of our people that hath made any -considerable progress in the Japanese language, they are -sure, under some pretext or other, to obtain an order -from the governors to expel him from the country.</p> - -<p>“The only thing wherein the captains, as they are -here called, or directors of our trade (a province the -Japanese will suffer them to have very little to do with), -can be useful to the Company and show their zeal for -their master’s service, is to act contrary to these principles, -and to find out ways and means civilly to refuse -what new requests are from time to time made to them. -For if any one of these demands be granted but once, -or any new charge, though never so small, be suffered -to be laid upon us, they make it a precedent forever -after. And herein they particularly endeavor to deceive -new directors, who never have been in the country before, -and whom they suppose to be not fully apprised of their -ways of proceeding. On this account they will often, -on the first year of their presence help them to a very<span class="pagenum" id="Page_306">[Pg 306]</span> -profitable trade, knowing, in case their demands be not -admitted, how to balance it the next with a more -chargeable and less profitable one.</p> - -<p>“The officer next in rank to the president of the -interpreters, and having jurisdiction over everybody on -the island except the interpreters, is the Otona, or magistrate -of the street. He has the inspection of our trade, -and of the yearly sale of our goods, jointly with the -company of interpreters. He keeps a particular list of -those of our goods that belong to private persons, keeps -those goods in his custody, and gives orders when and -how they are to be disposed of. He takes care that our -street, houses and other buildings, be kept in good repair, -and likewise, as much as lies in his power, that they be -not injured by thieves, fire, or other accidents. He protects -our servants, cooks, daily laborers, and all persons -who are within his jurisdiction, composes the difference -arising between them, admits and swears them into their -respective employments, and dismisses them as he pleases. -He gives passports and tickets to come to Deshima, nobody -being permitted to enter this island without them. -He is obliged, by virtue of his office and by the oath he -hath taken, narrowly to examine into the conduct, life -and behavior, not only of our servants and officers, but -also of ourselves, and to keep us to a strict obedience to -the imperial orders, though he is very cautious of laying -any commands upon us of his own sole authority, knowing -that we would refuse to obey them.</p> - -<p>“However, he hath so much power over us that -in case any considerable crime be committed, or any -disregard shown to the imperial orders, by any one of -us, he can arrest him, and lay him in irons, of which -there are many and almost daily instances.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_307">[Pg 307]</span></p> - -<p>“Our present Otona, Yoshikawa Gibuyemon, as on one -side he worked himself into no small esteem and favor -with the government by his great severity in the execution -of his office, but chiefly by having betrayed us and -our interest in a late affair<a id="FNanchor_143" href="#Footnote_143" class="fnanchor">[143]</a>, so much is he, on the other -side, hated by us. I will not take upon me to examine -what reasons he hath to allege for his conduct in that -affair, though I have been credibly informed he had -very good ones. Thus far I must do justice to his character, -and own that he shows a great deal of prudence in -his conduct, that he is no ways given to covetousness or -falsehood, as, also, that he is an enemy to ignorance and -brutality, and so well versed in the moral doctrine of -Kōshi (or Confucius), and in the history, laws, and -religion of his country, that he hath been desired to -write the history of the province of Hizen.</p> - -<p>“The Otona has under him a Nichigyōshi, or messenger, -whose business it is daily to examine into the condition -and safety of the locks at the water-gates, to look -into the state of our warehouses and other buildings, -and to give his master notice of what he finds out of -repair; also several clerks, who are to make lists of all -the movable goods belonging to private persons, which -may be disposed of, to seal them up in the Otona’s -name, and to take them into safe custody.</p> - -<p>“The Otona hath the same salary allowed him by the -Dutch East India Company as the chief interpreter, and -the same share in the money detained by the order of the -government from the price of our goods, besides several -other advantages, as, for instance, his salary as Otona of -another street in the town, many presents and gratifications -made him by the proprietors of our island, and a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_308">[Pg 308]</span> -considerable part of the yearly rents we pay for the -same, he having already purchased about a third of our -houses. His greatest profits arise from the Dutch goods -bought up for him at a cheap rate in other people’s -names, and afterwards sold by him for much more than -their prime cost.</p> - -<p>“Next to the Otona are our twenty-four landlords, -or proprietors of our island. They visit us but seldom, -except at the time of our sale, when they make their -appearance daily, to look after the condition of our -houses, to be present and lend a helping hand in making -a list of all our commodities, household goods, and other -things, and, what is more, to have a watchful eye over -us, their tenants, and to examine into our behavior and -conduct, as being, by virtue of the laws and customs of -the country, answerable for the same, and, in case of -accidents and misdemeanors, sentenced to bear a share -either in the loss or punishment.</p> - -<p>“Next come the five secretaries of the island, a sort -of deputies to the chief interpreters. Their business is -to keep an account of the presents made by the Dutch, -of their ordinary expenses, the expenses of their journey -to court, and other things of this kind, which are thought -beneath the dignity of the chief interpreters. Nay, they -themselves being not always willing to despatch their -business in person, keep also their deputies. The Company -allows a constant salary only to two, and these are -to attend us in our journey to court. The others are -rewarded by handsome gratuities at the time of our sale.</p> - -<p>“The inspectors of our kuri<a id="FNanchor_144" href="#Footnote_144" class="fnanchor">[144]</a>, or workmen, consist of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_309">[Pg 309]</span> -fifteen persons. One of the fifteen is quartermaster, -who must be present in person to encourage and look -after them when there is any work to be done. The -whole company is to take care that we be not robbed by -these kulis, they being very dexterous at it, whenever a -favorable opportunity occurs. For this reason our East -India Company allows them a constant salary.</p> - -<p>“The kulis, who are employed in lading and unlading -of our ships, are people unknown to us, and taken out of -the town. All we know of them is, that we must pay -them well for their trouble. In order to make it beneficial -to the whole town, the Otona of each street keeps a -list of what people in his street are willing or able to -serve as kulis, that in their turn they may be sent over -to Deshima.</p> - -<p>“The <i>treasury officers</i> are a company of thirty-six persons, -superior and inferior, who receive the money for -the goods we have disposed of, change it into kobans of -gold, and deliver them to our interpreters, who count -them before us. These treasurers retain one per cent, -for their trouble, and fifteen per cent or more for the -benefit of the town, according to the yearly value of the -koban, which varies from fifty-five to fifty-nine mas in -silver, besides which, the director of this Company receives -a hundred taels a year salary from the Dutch, and -the rest of the number fifty taels.</p> - -<p>“Our commissioners for victualling are a company of -about seventeen house-keepers of Nagasaki with their -families. Their business is to provide our island with -victuals, drink, household goods, and what else we want, -or have leave to buy, of this kind. Nobody but the -members of this corporation is permitted to sell us any -victuals or goods, though they exact so much upon us<span class="pagenum" id="Page_310">[Pg 310]</span> -that they make us pay at least twice or thrice as much -as things are sold for at the market. They also furnish -our people, on demand, with courtesans; and, truly, our -young sailors, unacquainted as they commonly are with -the virtue of temperance, are not ashamed to spend five -rix dollars for one night’s pleasure, and with such -wenches, too, as a native of Nagasaki might have for -two or three mas, they being none of the best and handsomest; -nor do the masters of the women get more than a -tael. The rest is laid up in the cash of this Company for -their own private use, or, as they pretend, to hire proper -servants to conduct the damsels over to our island.</p> - -<p>“The officers of the kitchen consist of three cooks, -who serve by turns, each a month, of two grooms of the -kitchen, an apprentice or two, who are generally the -cook’s own sons, likely to succeed their fathers in time, -lastly of some laborers to carry water. This is the -reason that our table is so very expensive, since the best -part of the year, the time of our sale only excepted, -there are actually more cooks than people to provide -victuals for. And yet we have strict commands from -the governors of the town, not in the least to alter this -number, nor to get our victuals dressed by our own -people. We are obliged to allow one hundred and fifty -taels a year to the first, one hundred and thirty to the -second, and one hundred to the third. There are, besides, -some other people who now and then do some little -service in and for our kitchen, such as a man to look -after our cattle,—though but very few in number, and -of very little use to us, the males being generally secretly -poisoned, or their legs broken in the night, to prevent -their multiplying too much, which, ’tis apprehended -would turn to the disadvantage of the commissioners of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_311">[Pg 311]</span> -victualling,—a gardener and some other menial servants. -This being looked upon by the meaner sort of people at -Nagasaki as a perquisite, which every one is glad to have -a share of in his turn, these servants are relieved once a -month, and others sent in their stead, to do their business, -out of every street of Nagasaki. But the chief -reason why they relieve them so often is because they -apprehend a longer stay might make them too familiar -with us, and perhaps too favorable for our interest.</p> - -<p>“The Dutch, out of a particular favor, are permitted -to have some young boys to wait upon them in the daytime. -They are entered in the Otona’s book in quality -of messengers. They are commonly sons of the inferior -interpreters and other officers of our island, who, by this -opportunity of learning the Dutch language, qualify -themselves in time to succeed their fathers. However, -care is taken that they stay in our service only so long -as they are looked upon as simple, and ignorant of the -state and interest of their country, or else so long as the -Otona pleases to give them leave; but never without -sufficient security, given upon oath, by a respectable -inhabitant of Nagasaki, who obliges himself to be answerable -for their misbehavior. Thus much must be -owned in justice to these young boys, that more readiness -to do what they are commanded, and a greater -fidelity in the custody of the goods they are entrusted -with by their masters, is hardly to be met with in any -other nation.</p> - -<p>“Some tradesmen and artificers of several companies -in Nagasaki, are also permitted to come over to our -island, when sent for, provided they have leave of the -governors, which must be obtained every time they are -wanted.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_312">[Pg 312]</span></p> - -<p>“The guards employed to watch us are two within -the island, and three without. Six of the poorer inhabitants -of Nagasaki, furnished by turns from all the streets, -and relieved once a month, have their appropriate stations -within the island, whence they go over to one -another all night, and indicate, according to the custom -of the country, both their vigilance and the hours, by -beating two wooden cylinders, one against the other. -They are also to watch thieves, accidents of fire, and the -like.</p> - -<p>“During the sale, another guard, on purpose to watch -accidents of fire, is kept by our Otona, his clerks, our -landlords, the officers of our exchequer, and the cooks. -In their first round they knock at every door, to ask -whether there be no Japanese hid within, and to recommend -to the occupants to take care of the fire. The Otona -must be present at least once in the night, when, according -to the custom of the country, his fire-staff, hung -about with iron rings, as the badge of his authority, is -carried rattling after him. The Dutch also keep, at the -same time, a watch of their own people, to take care that -their masters be not robbed by their Japanese guards.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_312f" style="max-width: 75em;"> - <img src="images/i_312f.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Nagasaki Harbor</span></div> -</div> - -<p>“The <i>Ship and Harbor Guard</i>, appointed to have a -general inspection over all foreigners, Chinese as well as -Dutch, goes the round of the harbor all night, particularly -about our island. The <i>Spy Guard</i> watches from -the mountains back of the town the approach of foreign -ships. The <i>Gate Guard</i> keeps the gate towards the -town, that being the only passage in and out. It is -mounted daily by five persons, their servants not computed. -At the time of the sale of our goods there are -never less than ten, but sometimes twelve or more, and -to these, its regular members, are added at that time two<span class="pagenum" id="Page_313">[Pg 313]</span> -persons from the ship and harbor guard, two from the -spy guard, four furnished by the town of Nagasaki, four -by the silk merchants, and two on the part of the two -chief magistrates or burgomasters of the lower town of -Nagasaki, one of whom keeps the journal of the guard, -wherein (for the information of the governors of the -town, who, at least once a month, call for this record and -look it over) is entered what passes from hour to hour, -and what persons and things go in or out. Yet, without -express orders from the governors, or leave given by the -Otona, nothing is suffered to pass through but what is -sent in by those appointed to provide us with necessaries -and unprohibited goods. For a still greater security, -three sworn searchers are added to this guard, one or -two of whom attend constantly hard by the gate, to -search whoever goes in or out. Nor is anybody exempted -from being searched but the governors, their -deputies or commissioners, with their retinues, and our -ordinary interpreters and their sons, who are entered as -apprentices.</p> - -<p>“Such a variety of people of different ranks and characters -being to do duty upon one guard, it obliges on the -one side everybody to discharge their duty to the utmost -of their power, and on the other it puts the government -out of all apprehensions of their plotting or conspiring -together; for, in fact, they are not only to watch us, and -the people who have business with us, and, on this -account, go in and out of our island, but each other also. -Among the things which stand by, or are hung upon the -walls of the guard-house, are irons to put on criminals, -ropes to bind them, heavy staffs to beat them, and a particular -sort of an instrument, a kind of hook or rake, -which they make use of to catch thieves and deserters,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_314">[Pg 314]</span> -and which is commonly carried about at their public -execution.</p> - -<p>“All these people, although they maintain themselves -and their families entirely by what they get by -us and our service, yet from their conduct one would -think them to be our sworn enemies, always intent to -do us what mischief they can, and so much the more to -be feared, as their hatred and enmity is hid under the -specious color of friendship, deference, and good-will.</p> - -<p>“Considering that there are so very few Dutchmen -left in the island, one would imagine that the Japanese -had no reason to be uneasy, or anyways apprehensive -of our conduct. Surely such a small number of people, -and those, too, deprived of arms and ammunition (the -very first thing which the Japanese take into their custody -upon the arrival of our ships), would never take -it into their heads to make any attempt against the peace -and tranquillity of the empire. As to smuggling, they -have too well prevented any attempts of that kind, by -taking not only an exact inventory of all our goods and -commodities, but by locking them up under their own -locks and seals. Even the cloth and stuffs which are -brought over for our own use must be delivered into the -custody of the Otona, till one of their own tailors, sworn -for this purpose, cuts them, allowing each of us just so -much as will make him a good suit. But what they -have still less reason to be apprehensive of, is the subversion -of their pagan doctrine and religion, so little -conspicuous are the principles of Christianity in our -lives and actions. Nevertheless, so many guards, corporations, -societies, with their numerous attendants, all -upon oath, and themselves jealous and mistrustful one -of another, are set to guard and narrowly to watch us,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_315">[Pg 315]</span> -as if we were the greatest malefactors, traitors, spies—in -a word, the worst and most dangerous set of people; -or, to make use of a very significant expression of the -Japanese, as if we were, what I think we really are, -Hitodichi, that is, the emperor’s hostages.”</p> - -<p>It is to be observed that in different parts of his book -Kämpfer appears in two distinct characters. Sometimes -he seems to be the mere surgeon of the Dutch factory, -fully sharing and giving voice to all the feelings and -prejudices of that establishment, bringing before us, in -a very lively manner, the angry Dutch factors grumbling -over the new restrictions lately put upon the Dutch -trade, and especially the new precaution against smuggling. -Elsewhere he shows himself perfectly able to -enter into all the views and feelings of the Japanese; -and however angry he may occasionally get at the obstacles -encountered by himself, especially on the part of -the old chief interpreter, in his efforts to obtain a full -knowledge of Japanese affairs, he had evidently conceived -a strong liking for the Japanese people, and never -fails to do them justice, whether as individuals or as -a nation. He composed, indeed, a formal dissertation, -originally published in his “Amœnitates,” in which he -enters into an elaborate defence of the policy of the -Japanese in their jealous exclusion of foreigners; nor -can any one who calls to mind the consequences of -that intercourse to the natives of Eastern Asia and -America, and especially the history of the late Anglo-Chinese -opium war, deny the plausibility at least of the -argument.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_316">[Pg 316]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XXVIII">CHAPTER XXVIII</h2> -</div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p class="hang"><i>Particular Statement as to the Dutch Trade as it existed in Kämpfer’s -Time—Arrival of the Ships—Unlading—Passes—Imports—Company -and Private Goods—Kambans, or Public Sales—Duties—Profits—Exports—Departure -of the Ships—Smuggling—Execution -of Smugglers.</i></p> -</div> - - -<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">“The</span> Dutch ships,” says Kämpfer, “are expected -some time in September, towards the latter -end of the southwest monsoon, that being the -only time proper for this navigation.<a id="FNanchor_145" href="#Footnote_145" class="fnanchor">[145]</a> As soon as the -spy guards with their glasses discover a ship steering -towards the harbor, and send notice of her approach to -the governors of Nagasaki, three persons of our factory -are sent with the usual attendance to meet her about -two miles without the harbor, and to deliver to the captain -the necessary instructions, from the director of our -trade, with regard to his behavior.</p> - -<p>“The interpreter and the deputies of the governors -demand forthwith the list of the cargo and crew, as also -the letters on board, which are carried to Nagasaki, -where the governors first examine and then deliver them -to our director.</p> - -<p>“The ship follows as soon as possible, and, having -entered the harbor, salutes both imperial guards with all<span class="pagenum" id="Page_317">[Pg 317]</span> -her guns, and casts anchor opposite to the town, about a -musket-shot from our island. If the wind be contrary, -rowing-boats (kept for this purpose by the common -people of the town) are sent at our expense, but not at -our desire, to tow her in by force. In still weather they -send about ten of these boats; if it be stormy, and -the wind contrary, they increase the number to fifty, -and sometimes to a hundred—so many as they think -necessary—that is, at least twice the number there is -occasion for.</p> - -<p>“When the ship has entered the harbor, two guard-boats, -with a good number of soldiers, are put one on -each side of her, and continued, being mounted with -fresh troops every day, till she leaves. As soon as the -ship drops anchor, great numbers of officers come on -board to demand our guns, cutlasses, swords and other -arms, as also the gunpowder packed up in barrels, which -are taken into their custody, and kept in a store-house, -built for this purpose, till her departure. They attempted, -also, in former times, to take out the rudder, -but, having found it impracticable, they now leave -it in.</p> - -<p>“The next day after her arrival, the commissioners of -the governor come on board, with their usual attendance -of soldiers, interpreters, and subordinate officers, to make -an exact review, in presence of our director, of all the -people on board, according to the list which hath been -given them, and wherein is set down every one’s name, -age, birth, place of residence, and office, examining them -from top to toe. Many questions are asked, as to those -who died on the voyage, when and of what distemper -they died. Even now and then a dead monkey or parrot -may occasion a strict inquiry to be made after the cause<span class="pagenum" id="Page_318">[Pg 318]</span> -and manner of their death, and they are so scrupulous -that they will not give their verdict, without sitting -upon the body itself, and carefully examining it.</p> - -<p>“After this, the orders of our director, and likewise -of the governors of Nagasaki, relating to our behavior -with regard to the natives, are read in Low Dutch, and -afterwards, for every one’s inspection, stuck up in several -places on board the ship, and at Deshima. The -same rules are observed with all our ships, of which -there are two, three, or four, sent from Batavia to Japan -every year, according to the quantity of copper they -have occasion for; one of which goes first to Siam, to -make up part of her cargo with the commodities of that -country. Formerly, when the Dutch as yet enjoyed a -free trade, they sent seldom less than six or seven ships, -and sometimes more.</p> - -<p>“The review being over, they proceed to unlade the -ships, during which, several of the governors’ officers, a -chief interpreter, a deputy interpreter, and an apprentice, -besides several clerks and inferior officers, remain -on board, taking possession of every corner, to see that -nothing be carried away privately. The water gates of -our island, through which the cargo is to be brought in, -are opened in presence of the <i>karō</i>, that is, high commissioners -of the governors, and their retinue. So long -as the gates are kept open, the karō, with their deputies -and other assistants, stay in a room built for this purpose, -not far off. The whole body of interpreters, as -also our landlords, clerks, and other officers of our -island, give their attendance, and also their assistance, -at that time. They fall to work with three hundred or -more kuri, or workmen—always at least twice the -number there is occasion for. The unlading of every<span class="pagenum" id="Page_319">[Pg 319]</span> -ship ought to be performed in two days, but notwithstanding -the number of men they employ, they generally -make a three days’ work of it, in order to make it so -much the more beneficial to the town.</p> - -<p>“The goods are brought from the ship in boats, kept -for this purpose only, at the Company’s expense. Being -brought within the water gates, they are laid before the -commissioners, who set them down in writing, count -them, compare them with the list that hath been given -in (opening a bale or two of each sort, picked out from -among the rest), and then order them to be locked up, -under their seal, in the Company’s warehouse, until the -day of sale. The trunks belonging to private persons -are set down at the entry of the island, and there opened -and examined. If the owner doth not forthwith appear -with the key, they proceed, without any further ceremony, -to open them with axes. All vendible goods are -taken out and locked up under their seals. Some other -things, also, which they do not approve of, as, for instance, -arms, stuff, and cloth wrought with gold and -silver, as also all contraband goods, are taken into custody -by the Otona, who returns them to the owner upon -his departure.</p> - -<p>“No European, nor any other foreign money, and, in -general, nothing that hath the figure of a cross, saint, or -beads, upon it, is suffered to pass. If any such thing -should be found upon any of our people, it would occasion -such a confusion and fright among the Japanese as -if the whole empire had been betrayed. I have already -taken notice that, upon our drawing near the harbor, every -one is obliged to deliver his prayer-books, and other books -of divinity, as also all European money, to the captain, -who packs them all up in an old cask, and hides them.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_320">[Pg 320]</span></p> - -<p>“Those who are newly arrived must suffer themselves, -in going in or coming out of our island, to be -searched, whether or no they have any contraband goods -about them. Every one who wishes to go on board, -whether it be for his own private business, or in the -Company’s service, is obliged to take out a pass-board -from the commissioners at the water gates, and, in like -manner, when he returns on shore, he must take out -another from those on the ship.</p> - -<p>“At night, when the commissioners sent on board the -ship return with their retinue to Nagasaki, the cabin is -sealed up in their presence, and all the Dutchmen accurately -counted over, to see that there be none wanting, -which would occasion a very great confusion. During -my stay in Japan it happened that a common sailor -unfortunately was drowned in the night, nobody perceiving -his falling into the water. At the review made the -next morning (for it is constantly made every morning -and night) the fellow was missed. This unlucky accident -suddenly stopped all proceedings, and the fear lest -it should be a Roman Catholic priest, who had made his -escape into the country, occasioned such a consternation -among the Japanese, that all the officers ran about, -scratching their heads, and behaving as if they had lost -their senses, and some of the soldiers in the guard-ships -were already preparing to rip themselves open, when at -last the unlucky fellow’s body being taken up from the -bottom of the harbor put an end to their fears.</p> - -<p>“At all other times, that for lading and unlading our -ships excepted, the water gates are shut, by which means -all communication is cut off between those that stay on -board and those that remain on shore. The ship’s cargo -having been placed in the warehouses, the goods lie there<span class="pagenum" id="Page_321">[Pg 321]</span> -till they are pleased, in two or three days of sale, which -they call <i>Kamban</i>, to sell them. What remains unsold -is carried back to the warehouses, and kept there against -the next year’s sale.</p> - -<p>“The following goods are imported by us: raw silk, -from China, Tonquin, Bengal, and Persia; all sorts of -silks, woollen, and other stuffs (provided they be not -wrought with gold and silver); Brazil wood; buffalo, -and other hides; raw skins, wax, and buffalo horns from -Siam; tanned hides from Persia, Bengal, and other -places, but none from Spain and Manila, under pain of -incurring their utmost displeasure; pepper; sugar, in -powder and candied; cloves; nutmegs; camphor, from -Borneo and Sumatra; quicksilver; cinnabar; saffron; -lead; saltpetre; borax; alum; musk; gum benzoin; gum -lac; rosmal, or <i>storax liquida</i>; catechu, commonly called -Terra Japonica; fustic; corals; amber; right antimony -(which they use to color their china ware); looking-glasses, -which they cut up to make spy-glasses, magnifying -glasses, and spectacles, out of them. Other things -of less note are snakewood; mangoes, and other unripe -East India fruits, pickled with Turkish pepper, garlic, -and vinegar; black lead and red pencils; sublimate of -mercury (but no calomel); fine files; needles; spectacles; -large drinking-glasses of the finest sort; counterfeit -corals; strange birds, and other foreign curiosities, both -natural and artificial. Some of these are often sold in -private, by sailors and others, without being produced -upon the <i>Kamban</i>, and in this case the Dutch make no -scruple to get as much for them beyond their real value -as possibly they can.</p> - -<p>“Of all the imported goods, raw silk is the best liked, -though it yields the least profit of any. All sorts of stuffs<span class="pagenum" id="Page_322">[Pg 322]</span> -and cloths yield a considerable and sure profit, and should -there be never so much imported, the consumption in so -populous a country would be still greater. Brazil wood -and hides are also to be disposed of to very good advantage. -The most profitable commodities are sugar, catechu, -storax liquida, camphor of Borneo (which they covet -above all other sorts), looking-glasses, etc., but only when -they have occasion for them, and when the Chinese have -imported in small quantities. Corals and amber are two -of the most valuable commodities in these eastern parts; -but Japan hath been so thoroughly provided by smugglers, -that at present there is scarce fifty per cent to be -got upon them, whereas formerly we could sell them, -ten, nay, a hundred times dearer. The price of these -things, and of all natural and artificial curiosities, varies -very much, according to the number and disposition of -the buyers, who may be sure to get cent per cent clear -profit by them, at what price soever they buy them.</p> - -<p>“The yearly sum to the value of which the Dutch are -permitted to sell goods imported by them is, by Japanese -reckoning, three hundred chests of silver, each of a -thousand taels, or in gold fifty thousand kobans; the -highest value of the koban, as current in Japan, being -sixty mas, or six taels. But the Japanese having obliged -the Dutch East India Company to accept payment in -gold kobans, each reckoned at sixty-eight mas, the sales -of the Company, though made to the amount of three -hundred thousand taels in silver, produced only forty-four -thousand one hundred and eighteen kobans.”</p> - -<p>A chance was thus afforded, as Kämpfer expresses it -“to make the officers concerned in carrying on the -Dutch trade some amends for their trouble and hard -usage, by allowing them to dispose of goods on their own<span class="pagenum" id="Page_323">[Pg 323]</span> -private account,” to the value of five thousand six hundred -and eighty-two kobans, equivalent, at the reckoning -of fifty-eight mas, to forty thousand taels, thus making -up the fifty thousand kobans, to the amount of which -the annual sale of Dutch goods was limited; and as this -arrangement for private trade had been made by the -Japanese, the East India Company did not venture to -interfere with it.</p> - -<p>At the head of these officers stands the Director, or, -as he is called by the Japanese, Captain of the Dutch -(<i>Hollanda Capitan</i>), who has the command, inspection, -and care of the trade. The same person is the head of -the embassy sent to court once every year; and, according -to the custom of the country, he must be relieved -after the year is expired. The ships from Batavia bring -over his successor, with some few merchants and clerks, -to assist during the sale, after which, the old director -goes on board, to return to Batavia. The privilege of -private trade was, in Kämpfer’s time, divided as follows: -The acting director could sell to the extent of ten -thousand taels; the new director to the extent of seven -thousand; his deputy, or the next person after him, to -the extent of six thousand. The captains of the ships, -the merchants, clerks, &c., shared the remainder, as they -happened to be in favor with the chief managers, and the -Japanese interpreters.</p> - -<p>“The day of the <i>Kamban</i> (as they call our sale), -which must be determined by the court, drawing near, a -list of all the goods is hung up at the gates without our -island, written in very large characters, that everybody -may read it at a due distance. Meanwhile, the government -signifies to the several Otonas of the town, and -these to the merchants, who are come hither from diverse<span class="pagenum" id="Page_324">[Pg 324]</span> -parts of the empire, what duty per cent will be laid for -the benefit of the inhabitants of Nagasaki, upon each -description of our goods, in order to enable them to -determine what price they can afford to offer. The day -before the <i>Kamban</i>, papers are put up at all the gates of -the streets, to invite the merchants to make their appearance -the next morning at Deshima, where, for their -further information, they find before every house a list -of the goods laid up in it. As the direction of our trade -is entirely in the hands of the government of Nagasaki, -so, particularly, the <i>Kamban</i> cannot be held but in presence -of two Stewards of the governors, authorized by -them to assist at it. The chief officers of our island -must likewise be present. The first interpreter presides, -and directs everything, while our own triumvirs—I -mean the two directors, the old and new—and the deputy -director, have little or nothing to say.</p> - -<p>“All persons who must be present at the sale having -met together, our directors order samples of all our goods -to be exposed to view, and then give a signal with a -<i>gum-gum</i>, a sort of flat bell, not unlike a basin, for the -merchants to come in. The house where the sale is kept -is a very neat building, built at the Company’s expense, -and is then, by removing the shutters, laid open towards -the street for people to look in. There is a small gallery -round it, and it is divided within into several partitions, -very commodiously contrived for this act.</p> - -<p>“The sale itself is performed in the following manner. -Only one sort of goods is put up at a time. Those who -have a mind to buy them give in some tickets, each -signed by feigned names, and signifying how much they -intend to give for a piece, or a katti, of the article on sale. -I took notice that every merchant gives in several tickets.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_325">[Pg 325]</span> -This is done in order to see how matters are like to go, -and to keep to a less price in case he repents of the -greater, for which purpose they are signed only by feigned -names; and, because of the great number and subdivision -of the small coin, it seldom happens that two tickets -exactly agree. After all the bidders have given in their -tickets, our directors proceed to open and assort them. -They are then delivered to the presiding chief interpreter, -who reads them aloud, one after another, beginning with -the highest. He asks after the bidder three times, and, -if there is no answer made, he lays that ticket aside and -takes the next to it. So he goes on, taking always a -less, till the bidder cries out, ‘Here I am,’and then draws -near to sign the note, and to put his true name to it -with black ink, which the Japanese always carry about -them. The goods first put up being sold, they proceed -to others, which they sell in the same manner; and so -they go on till the sum determined by the emperor hath -been raised, which is commonly done in two or three, -seldom in four, days of sale. The day after each <i>Kamban</i> -the goods are delivered to the buyer, and carried off. A -company of merchants of the five imperial cities have -obtained the monopoly for buying and selling raw silks, -of which they would fain oblige us to make up at least -one-third of our cargoes.</p> - -<p>“The duty or custom levied upon goods has been -introduced at Nagasaki, merely with an intent to take off -part of the vast profits which foreigners get upon their -commodities, and to assign them for the use and maintenance -of the poorer inhabitants of the town, among -whom it is distributed in proportion to the trouble they -must be at, on account of the public offices they -must serve by turns. They commonly receive in this<span class="pagenum" id="Page_326">[Pg 326]</span> -distribution from three to fifteen taels each. The duty -laid upon the goods belonging to the Company is fifteen -per cent, producing forty-five thousand taels. The goods -belonging to private persons, which are commonly sold -at the end of the <i>Kamban</i>, pay much more—no less than -sixty-five per cent upon goods sold by the piece, and sixty-seven -per cent on goods sold by weight. Rating each -sort at half the whole amount, and the whole produce -is twenty-seven thousand taels. The reason they give -for the difference in the rate of duty is, because private -goods are brought over in the Company’s ships, at the -Company’s expense, and, consequently, deserve less profit. -The Chinese, for the like reason,—that is, because they -are not at the expense of such long and hazardous voyages -as the Dutch, but are nearer at hand,—pay a duty -of sixty per cent for all their goods, which brings in a -sum of three hundred and sixty thousand taels duty. If -to this be added the yearly rent for our houses and factories, -which is five thousand five hundred and eighty -taels, and that of the Chinese factory, which is sixteen -thousand taels, it makes up in all a sum of four hundred -and fifty-three thousand five hundred and eighty taels -(upwards of half a million of dollars) which the foreign -commerce produces annually to the magistrates and -inhabitants of Nagasaki.</p> - -<p>“The profits our goods produce may be computed -to amount, one year with another, to sixty per cent, -though, if all the charges and expenses of our sale be -taken into consideration, we cannot well get above forty -or forty-five per cent clear gain. Considering so small -a profit, it would scarcely be worth the Company’s -while to continue this branch of our trade any longer, -were it not that the goods we export from thence, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_327">[Pg 327]</span> -particularly the refined copper, yield much the same -profit, so that the whole profit may be computed to -amount to eighty or ninety per cent.</p> - -<p>“The goods belonging to private persons being -brought over and sold without any expense to the -owner, the gain therefrom, notwithstanding the great -duty laid upon them, is no ways inferior to that of the -Company. The two chief directors have the greater -share of it. They cannot hold their offices longer than -three years, and that not successively, being obliged, -after they have served one year, to return with the homeward-bound -ships to Batavia, whence they are sent back -again, either by the next ships, or two years after. If -the directors stand upon good terms with the chief interpreter, -and have found ways and means to secure his -favor, by making him large presents at the Company’s -expense, he can contrive things so that some of their -goods be put up and sold upon the first or second <i>Kamban</i>, -among the Company’s goods, and so, by reason of -the small duty, produce sixty-five to seventy per cent -profit. This, too, may be done without any prejudice to -the Company; for, in casting up the sums paid in for -goods, these articles are slipped over. If they have any -goods beyond the amount they are legally entitled to, -chiefly red coral, amber, and the like, it is an easy matter -to dispose of them in private, by the assistance of -the officers of the island, who will generally themselves -take them off their hands. The Otona himself is very -often concerned in such bargains, they being very advantageous. -Formerly, we could sell them by a deputy to -the persons who came over to our island at the time of -our <i>Kamban</i>, and that way was far the most profitable -for us. But one of our directors, in 1686, played his<span class="pagenum" id="Page_328">[Pg 328]</span> -cards so awkwardly that ten Japanese were beheaded -for smuggling, and he himself banished the country forever.</p> - -<p>“The residing director, who goes also as ambassador -to the emperor’s court, hath, besides, another very considerable -advantage, in that such presents as the governors -of Nagasaki desire to be made to the emperor, not -to be found in the Company’s warehouses, and therefore -to be bought, can be furnished by him out of his own -stock, if it so happens that he hath them, in which case -he takes all the profit to himself, without doing any -prejudice to the Company. Nay, they might possibly -go still further in pursuit of their own private advantages, -were it not that they endeavor to pass for men of -conscience and honor, or, at least, aim to appear fearful -lest they should be thought too notoriously to injure -both the confidence and interest of their masters. I do -not pretend hereby to charge them with any indirect -practices as to the annual expenses, though perhaps -even those are sometimes run up to an unnecessary -height; nor is it in the least my intention to detract -from the reputation and character of probity of so many -worthy gentlemen, who have filled this station with -honor, and discharged their duty with the utmost faithfulness -to their masters. Thus much I can say without -exaggeration, that the directorship of the Dutch trade in -Japan is a place which the possessor would not easily -part with for thirty thousand guilders (twelve thousand -dollars). ’Tis true, it would be a great disadvantage to -the director, and considerably lessen his profits, if he -hath not a good cash in hand to provide himself, before -his departure from Batavia, with a sufficient stock of -goods, but must take them upon credit, and upon his<span class="pagenum" id="Page_329">[Pg 329]</span> -return share the profits with his creditors. Besides, he -must not presume to leave Batavia, much less to return -thither, without valuable consideration to his benefactors, -unless he intends to be excused for the future the -honor of any such employment. The goods he brings -back to Batavia are silk gowns, which he receives as -presents from the emperor and his ministers, and -whereof he makes presents again to his friends and -patrons, victuals, china ware, lackered or japanned -things, and other manufactures of the country, which he -can dispose of at Batavia at fifty per cent profits; and -besides some kobans in gold; though if he have any left -it is much more profitable to buy ambergris,<a id="FNanchor_146" href="#Footnote_146" class="fnanchor">[146]</a> or refined -copper, and to send the latter, if possible, on board the -Company’s ships to Malacca. I say if possible, because -there are strict orders from the Company against it.</p> - -<p>“But it is time at last to send our ships on their -return. To make up their cargoes we buy from twelve -thousand to twenty thousand piculs of refined copper, -cast in small cylinders, a span long and an inch thick, -each picul packed in a fir box. We buy, likewise a -small quantity of coarse copper, delivered to us in broad -flattish round cakes, and sometimes we take in some -hundred piculs or chests of copper kasies or farthings, but -not unless they be asked for at Tonquin and other places. -All the copper is sold to us by a company of united merchants, -who, by virtue of a privilege from the emperor, -have the sole refining and selling of it to foreigners.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_330">[Pg 330]</span></p> - -<p>“The other part of our cargo is made up of Japanese -camphor, from six thousand to twelve thousand, and -sometimes more, pounds a year, packed up in wooden -barrels; of some hundred bales of china ware packed up -in straw; of a box or two of gold thread, of an hundred -rolls to the box; of all sorts of japanned cabinet-boxes, -chests of drawers, and the like, all of the very best -workmanship we can meet with; of umbrellas, screens, -and several other manufactures, made of canes, wood, -buffalo and other horns, hard skins of fishes, which -they work with uncommon neatness and dexterity, stone, -copper, gold and <i>Sowas</i> (?), which is an artificial metal, -composed of copper, silver and gold, and esteemed at least -equal in value to silver. To these may be added paper -made transparent with oil and varnish; paper printed and -colored with false gold and silver for hanging of rooms; -rice, the best to be had in Asia; sake, a strong liquor -brewed from rice; soy, a sort of pickle, fit to be eat at -table with roasted meat; pickled fruits packed in barrels; -indented tobacco; tea and marmalades; besides -some thousand kobans of gold in specie. The exportation -of the following articles is strictly forbidden. All -prints, pictures, goods or stuffs, bearing the emperor’s -coat of arms. Pictures and representations, printed and -others, of soldiers and military people, of any person -belonging to the court of the Dairi, or of Japanese ships; -maps of the empire or any part of it; plans of towns, -castles, temples, and the like; all sorts of silk, cotton, -and hempen stuffs; all sorts of arms, including those -made in Japan after European patterns; carpenters’ -knives; silver.</p> - -<p>“Our ships cannot be laden, nor set sail, till special -leave has been given, and the day of their departure<span class="pagenum" id="Page_331">[Pg 331]</span> -determined by the court. When they are laden, all our -private goods and what else we have to bring on board, -must be again narrowly searched. For this purpose, -two of our landlords, two apprentices of the interpreters, -and two clerks, with some kuri, or workmen, about two -or three days before the departure of the ships, call upon -every one in his room, as well those who stay at Deshima -as those who are to return, and who, during the time of -sale, have been lodged in our empty houses. These -people visit every corner, and examine all our things -piece by piece, taking an exact memorandum of what -they find; then they bind them together with straw -ropes, and put their seals to them, along with a list of -what the parcel contains, for the information of the gate-guard, -who would else open them again. All contraband -goods are seized at this search. Should any of these be -found upon any Dutchman, the possessor would be at -least banished the country for life, and the interpreters -and servants appointed for his service and all other suspected -persons would be put to the rack, till the seller -and all his accomplices were discovered, by whose blood -only is such crime to be expiated. Of this we had a late -instance in the imperial steward’s own secretary, who, -having endeavored to send over some scymitar blades to -China, was executed for it, with his only son, not above -eight years old. Upon my own departure, although my -things, for good reasons, were visited but slightly, and -over a bottle, yet they seized upon an old Japanese razor -and a few other things, just because they happened to -see them.</p> - -<p>“The day determined for the departure of our ships -drawing near, they proceed to lade their cargoes one -after another. Last of all, the arms and powder are<span class="pagenum" id="Page_332">[Pg 332]</span> -brought on board, followed by the ship’s company, who -must again pass in review according to the list which -was given in upon ship’s arrival. The ship being ready, -she must weigh her anchors that instant and retire two -leagues off the town towards the entrance of the harbor, -where she rides till the other ships are laden in the same -manner. When all the homeward-bound ships are -joined, they proceed on their voyage and after they -have gotten to the main sea, to a pretty considerable -distance from the harbor, the Japanese ship-guard, -which never quitted them from their first arrival till -then, leave them and return home. If the wind proves -contrary to the ship’s going out, a good number of -Japanese rowing boats, fastened to a rope, tow them -out by force one after another. For the emperor’s -orders must be executed in spite of wind and weather, -should even afterwards all the ships run the hazard of -being wrecked.</p> - -<p>“All these several strict orders and regulations of the -Japanese have been made chiefly with an intent to prevent -smuggling. The penalty put upon this crime is -death without hope of reprieve; but it extends only to -the person convicted and his accomplices, and not to -their families, as the punishment of some other crimes -does. And yet the Japanese are so addicted to it, that, -according to computation, no less than three hundred -persons have been executed in six or seven years’ time -for smuggling with the Chinese, whose departing junks -they follow to the main sea, and buy of them at a low -price what goods they could not dispose of at their sale -at Nagasaki. But these unhappy wretches are almost -as frequently caught by the Japanese boats particularly -appointed for that purpose, and delivered up to justice<span class="pagenum" id="Page_333">[Pg 333]</span> -at Nagasaki, which constantly proves severe and unmerciful -enough.”</p> - -<p>Not long after Kämpfer’s arrival in Japan, eleven -smugglers were caught in one boat, and brought to -Nagasaki, where they were executed a few days after. -On the 28th of December, 1691, twenty-three persons -suffered death for smuggling, ten of whom were beheaded, -and the others crucified. Among the latter -were five who, upon being taken, made away with -themselves, to avoid the shame of an unavoidable public -execution; but their bodies were nevertheless preserved -in salt, on purpose to be afterwards fixed to the cross. -During Kämpfer’s stay in Japan, which was not above -two years, upwards of fifty smugglers lost their lives.</p> - -<p>“Though there are not many instances of people executed -for smuggling with the Dutch, yet such a case -occurred in 1691, when,” says Kämpfer, “two Japanese -were executed on our island for having smuggled from -a Dutchman one pound of camphor of Borneo, which -was found upon the buyer just as he endeavored to -carry it off from our island. Early in the morning on -the day of execution the acting governor of Nagasaki -sent notice by the Otona to our director to keep himself -with the rest of the Dutchmen in readiness to see -the criminals executed. About an hour after came -over the numerous flocks of our interpreters, landlords, -cooks and all the train of Deshima, with the sheriffs -and other officers of justice, in all to the number of at -least two hundred people. Before the company was -carried a pike with a tablet, whereupon the crime for -which the criminals were to suffer was specified in large -characters. Then followed the two criminals, surrounded -with bailiffs. The first was the buyer, a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_334">[Pg 334]</span> -young man of twenty-three years of age, very meanly -clad, upon whom the camphor was found. The second -was a well-looking man, well clad, about forty years of -age, who suffered only for having lent the other, formerly -a servant of his, the money to buy it with.</p> - -<p>“One of the bailiffs carried an instrument upright, -formed like a rake, but with iron hooks instead of teeth, -proper to be made use of if any of the malefactors should -attempt to make his escape, because it easily catches -hold of one’s clothes. Another carried another instrument -proper to cut, to stab, and to pin one fast to a wall. -Then followed two officers of the governor’s court, with -their retinues, as commissioners to preside at this act, -and at some distance came two clerks. In this order -they marched across our island to the place designed for -this execution.</p> - -<p>“We Dutchmen, only seven in number (our ship -being already gone), resolved not to come near. But -our director advised us to go, as he had heard that on -our refusal we would be compelled by force. I followed -this advice, and went without delay to see the execution -done. I found the two criminals in the middle of the -place, one behind the other, kneeling, their shoulders -uncovered, and their hands tied to their backs. Each -had his executioner standing by him, the one a tanner -(for tanners in this country do the office of executioners), -the other his best friend and comrade, whom -he earnestly desired, as the custom is in this country, -by doing him this piece of service, to confirm the friendship -he had always had for him. At about twenty paces -from the criminals sat the two commissioners upon one -bench, and the two clerks upon another. A third was -left empty for our director, who, however, did not<span class="pagenum" id="Page_335">[Pg 335]</span> -appear. The rest of the people stood promiscuously -where they pleased. I myself crowded with my Japanese -servant as near one of the malefactors as possibly -we could. While they were waiting for the rest of the -Dutchmen I overheard a very extraordinary discourse -between the two criminals; for as the elderly man was -grumbling between his teeth his Kwannongyō, or short -prayer to the hundred-hand idol Kwannon, the other, -to whom I stood nearest, rebuked him for it. ‘Fy!’said he. ‘For shame, to appear thus frightened out of -your wits!’‘Ah, ah!’ says the other, ‘I only pray a -little.’‘You have had time enough to pray,’ replied -the first; ‘it serves no purpose now, but to expose yourself -and to show the Dutch what a coward you are!’and this discourse so wrought upon the other that he -actually left off praying.</p> - -<p>“The minute that the Dutch were all assembled at -the place of execution, a signal was given, and that -instant both executioners cut off each his criminal’s -head, with a short scymitar, in such a manner that their -bodies fell forward to the ground. The bodies were -wrapped up, each in a coarse rush mat, and both their -heads together in a third, and so carried away from -Deshima to the ordinary place of execution, a field not -far from Nagasaki, where, it was said, young people -tried their strength and the sharpness of their scymitars -upon the dead bodies, by hacking them into small pieces. -Both heads were fixed upon a pole, according to custom, -and exposed to view for seven days. The execution -being over, the company marched off from Deshima -without any order. Our director went to meet the two -commissioners, and afterwards the two clerks upon the -street, as they were returning home, thanked them for<span class="pagenum" id="Page_336">[Pg 336]</span> -the trouble they had been at on this occasion, and -invited them to his house to smoke a pipe; but he had -nothing in return for this kind invitation but a sharp -reprimand, with an admonition to take care of his -people, that no more such accidents should happen for -the future. This was the first time criminal blood was -shed upon our island.”</p> - -<p>The proceedings at the Chinese sales, and the articles -imported and exported by them, were according to -Kämpfer, much the same as in the case of the Dutch, -except that they were not allowed to take away any -money, but merchandise only.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_337">[Pg 337]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XXIX">CHAPTER XXIX</h2> -</div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p class="hang"><i>Nagasaki and its Vicinity as seen by Kämpfer—Imperial Governors—Their -Officers and Palaces—Municipal System—Street Government—Mutual -Responsibility—Administration of Justice—Taxes—Government -of other Towns—Adjacent Country—The God Suwa and -his Matsuri—A. D. 1690-1692.</i></p> -</div> - - -<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">Kämpfer</span> describes Nagasaki as situated upon -an indifferent and barren soil, amid rocks and -steep hills or mountains. The harbor, which -has its head at the north of the city, where it is narrow -and shallow with a sandy bottom, soon grows broader -and deeper. When about half a mile broad and five or -six fathoms deep, it turns to the southwest, and so runs -on between high land and mountains for about a mile -(narrowing again to a quarter of a mile in breadth), till -it reaches an island or rather mountain surrounded by -water, which the Dutch call Pappenburg. This, properly -speaking, is the entrance of the harbor, and here -vessels lie at anchor to watch a favorable opportunity -of getting out, which would be easily done in two hours -were it not for the many banks, shoals, and cliffs, which -make the passage equally difficult and dangerous.</p> - -<p>“There are seldom less than fifty Japanese ships in -this harbor, besides some hundred fishing-vessels and -small boats. Of foreign ships there are seldom, some -few months of the winter excepted, less than thirty, -most of which are Chinese junks. The Dutch ships -never stay longer than three months in autumn; very -seldom so long. The anchorage is about a musket-shot<span class="pagenum" id="Page_338">[Pg 338]</span> -from the town, where ships ride at anchor upon the -soft clay, with about six fathom at high tide, and four -and a half at low water.</p> - -<p>“The town—situated where the harbor is broadest, -and where, from the change in its direction, it forms a -nearly semi-circular shore—has the shape of a half-moon, -somewhat inclining to a triangle. Built along -the shore in a narrow valley, formed by the opening of -the neighboring mountains, it is about three quarters of -a mile long and nearly as broad, the chief and broadest -street running nearly that distance up the valley. The -mountains which encompass it are not very high, but -steep, green to their tops, and of a very agreeable -aspect. Just behind the city, in going up the mountains, -are many stately temples, beautifully adorned -with fine gardens and terrace-walks. Higher up are -innumerable burying-places. In the distance appear -other high mountains, fruitful and well-cultivated. In -short, the whole situation affords to the eye a most delicious -and romantic view<a id="FNanchor_147" href="#Footnote_147" class="fnanchor">[147]</a>.”</p> - -<p>The town is open, as are most other towns in Japan, -without either castle, walls, or fortifications. Some bastions -are built along the harbor, as it were for defence, -but they have no cannon. About two miles from the -town, seaward, just beyond the anchorage, are two -guard-houses, opposite each other, and enclosed by palisades. -They are held each by about seven hundred men, -including those who do duty in the harbor guard-boats.</p> - -<p>“Three fresh-water rivers come down from the neighboring -mountains, and run through the town. For the -greater part of the year they have scarce water enough<span class="pagenum" id="Page_339">[Pg 339]</span> -to irrigate some rice-fields and to drive a few mills, -though in rainy weather they are apt to increase so as -to wash away whole houses. They are crossed by -thirty-five bridges, great and small, twenty of stone and -fifteen of wood, very simple in their structure, being -made more for strength than show.</p> - -<p>“The city is divided into two parts. <i>Uchimachi</i> (the -inner town) consists of twenty-six <i>Chō</i>, or streets, all -very irregular, as if built in the infancy of the city; -<i>Sotomachi</i> (or the outer town) contains sixty-one streets, -so that there are eighty-seven in all.</p> - -<p>“The streets of Nagasaki and other towns in Japan -have borrowed their name, <i>Chō</i>, from that of a Japanese -measure of sixty fathoms (three hundred and sixty -feet); but, though generally short, they are not all precisely -of that length. These streets or divisions of -streets, seldom containing more than sixty or less than -thirty houses, have gates at each end, which are always -closed at night, and often in the day, when there is -the least occasion for it. The streets of Nagasaki are -neither straight nor broad, but crooked, dirty, and narrow, -leading some up and others down hill, on account -of the irregularity of the ground upon which the town -is built. Some of the steepest have staircases of stone. -They are full stocked with inhabitants, as many as ever -they will hold.</p> - -<p>“The houses of the common people are mean, sorry -buildings, small and low, seldom above one story high. -If there be two stories, the uppermost is so low that it -scarce deserves the name. The roof is covered with -shavings of fir wood [shingles?] fastened by other pieces -of wood laid across. Indeed, the whole structure is of -wood, as are most buildings throughout the empire.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_340">[Pg 340]</span> -The walls within are wainscoted and hung with painted -and variously-colored paper<a id="FNanchor_148" href="#Footnote_148" class="fnanchor">[148]</a>. The floor is covered with -mats wove of a considerable thickness, which they take -care to keep exceedingly clean and neat. The rooms -are separated from each other by movable paper screens. -Seats and chairs they have none, and only some few -household goods, chiefly such as are absolutely necessary -for daily use in the kitchen and at meals. Behind every -house is a back yard, which, though never so small, yet -contains always some curious and beautiful plants, kept -with a great deal of care.</p> - -<p>“The houses of eminent merchants and of other rich -people, are of a far better structure, commonly two -stories high, and built after the Chinese manner, with a -large court-yard before them and a garden behind.</p> - -<p>“The palaces of the two resident governors take in a -large spot of ground, standing something higher than the -rest of the town. The buildings are very neat and handsome, -and all uniform; strong gates and well guarded -lead into the court about which they are arranged.</p> - -<p>“Besides the governors’ palaces there are some twenty -other houses in Nagasaki belonging to the principal -nobility of the island of Kiūshiū, always occupied by -some of their vassals, who take care of them, and in -which the owners lodge when they come to town.</p> - -<p>“The handsomest buildings belonging to townspeople -are two streets all occupied by courtesans. The girls in -these establishments, which abound throughout Japan, -are purchased of their parents when very young. The -price varies in proportion to their beauty and the number -of years agreed for, which is, generally speaking,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_341">[Pg 341]</span> -ten or twenty, more or less. They are very commodiously -lodged in handsome apartments, and great care is -taken to teach them to dance, sing, play upon musical -instruments, to write letters, and in all other respects -to make them as agreeable as possible. The older ones -instruct the young ones, and these in their turn serve -the older ones as their waiting-maids. Those who make -considerable improvement, and for their beauty and -agreeable behavior are oftener sent for, to the great -advantage of their masters, are also better accommodated -in clothes and lodging, all at the expense of their -lovers, who must pay so much the dearer for their -favors. The price paid to their landlord or master is -from one <i>mas</i> to two <i>ichibu</i> (twelve and a half cents to -four dollars), for a night, beyond which they are forbid -to ask under severe penalties. One of the sorriest must -watch the house over night in a small room near the -door, free to all comers upon the payment of one mas. -Others are sentenced to keep the watch by way of punishment -for their misbehavior.</p> - -<p>“After having served their time, if they are married, -they pass among the common people for honest women, -the guilt of their past lives being by no means laid to -their charge, but to that of their parents and relations -who sold them in their infancy for so scandalous a way -of getting a livelihood, before they were able to choose -a more honest one. Besides, as they are generally well -bred, that makes it less difficult for them to get husbands. -The keepers of these houses, on the contrary, -though possessed of never so plentiful estates, are forever -denied admittance into honest company.”</p> - -<p>Kämpfer enumerates of public buildings three large -wooden ship-houses, in which are kept three imperial<span class="pagenum" id="Page_342">[Pg 342]</span> -junks or men-of-war, equipped and ready for launching; -a powder-magazine on a hill opposite the town, and a -city prison. There are also sixty-two temples, within -and without the town—five for the worship of the -<i>Kami</i>, or ancient national gods of Japan, seven of the -Yamabushi, or mountain priests, and fifty <i>Tera</i>, temples -of four different Buddhist sects or observances, including -the three temples erected by the Chinese, as mentioned -in a previous chapter.</p> - -<p>“These temples are sacred not only to devotion and -worship, but serve also for recreation and diversion, -being for this purpose curiously adorned with pleasant -gardens, elegant walks, and fine apartments, and by -much the best buildings of the town. The Buddhist -temples are not so much to be commended for their -largeness or splendor as for their pleasant and agreeable -situations, being moreover adorned within with fine -raised altars, gilt images as big as life, lackered columns, -gates and pillars, the whole very neat and pretty -rather than magnificent.</p> - -<p>“Those who attend the service of the Kami temples, -though not collected into monasteries, like the Buddhist -clergy, but secular and married persons, yet assume to -themselves a far higher degree of holiness and respect -than they think the common bulk of secular persons -deserve. They live with their families in houses built -for them in the descent of the mountains. Their way of -life, as well as their common dress at home and abroad, -is no ways different from that of the other inhabitants, -except that they do not shave their heads, but let their -hair grow, and tie it together behind. When they go -to the temple they dress in an ecclesiastical habit, with -various head-dresses, according to every one’s office<span class="pagenum" id="Page_343">[Pg 343]</span> -and quality. They maintain themselves by the alms -and offerings given them by those who come to worship -in their temples, or at their appearance in solemn -processions.</p> - -<p>“The ecclesiastics of the Buddhist religion have no -processions nor other public solemnities, like the Shintō -clergy. They always keep within the district of their -convent, where they mind little else but their prayers in -the temple at certain stated hours. Their maintenance -arises from the fees given them for prayers to be said -in their temples, or at funerals for the relief of departed -souls, as also from voluntary and charitable -contributions.”</p> - -<p>The gardens in and about the city and the neighboring -villages abundantly furnish it with all sorts of fruits, -vegetables and roots, with firewood, and also with some -venison and poultry; but the domestic supply of rice is -insufficient, and that capital article has to be imported -from the neighboring provinces. The harbor and -neighboring coast yield plenty of fish and crabs. The -rivers that run through the town provide it with clear -and sweet water, “very fit,” says Kämpfer, “for daily -drink; the sake, or rice beer, as it is brewed in Japan, -being too strong, and that in particular made at Nagasaki -of a disagreeable taste<a id="FNanchor_149" href="#Footnote_149" class="fnanchor">[149]</a>.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_344">[Pg 344]</span></p> - -<p>Except articles made of gold, silver and <i>Sawaas</i> (?),—a -mixture of gold, silver, and copper,—for the foreign -trade, manufactures at Nagasaki are not so good -as in other parts of the empire; and yet everything is -sold dearer, chiefly to foreigners.</p> - -<p>The inhabitants are mostly merchants, shop-keepers, -tradesmen, handicraftsmen, artificers, brewers, besides -the numerous retinue of the governors, and the people -employed in the Dutch and Chinese trade, by which, -in fact, the town is mainly supported. There are -many poor people and beggars, most of them religious -mendicants.</p> - -<p>“The town,” says Kämpfer, “is never without a great -deal of noise. In the day, victuals and other merchandise -are cried up and down the streets. Day-laborers -and the seamen in the harbor encourage one another to -work with a certain sound. In the night the watchmen -and soldiers upon duty, both in the streets and harbor, -show their vigilance, and at the same time indicate the -hours of the night, by beating two pieces of wood against -each other. The Chinese contribute their share chiefly -in the evening, when they burn some pieces of gilt -paper, and throw them into the sea, as an offering to -their idol, or when they carry their idol about its temple; -both which they do with beating of drums and cymbals. -But all this is little compared with the clamor and -bawling of the priests and the relations of dying or dead -persons, who, either in the house where the corpse lies, -or else upon certain days sacred to the deceased’s -memory, sing a <i>Namida</i> [Namu-amida-butsu], that is, -a prayer, to their god <i>Amida</i><a id="FNanchor_150" href="#Footnote_150" class="fnanchor">[150]</a>, with a loud voice, for<span class="pagenum" id="Page_345">[Pg 345]</span> -the relief of his soul. The like is done by certain -fraternities or societies of devout neighbors, friends, or -relations, who meet by turns in their houses, every day, -in the morning or evening, in order to sing the Namida -by way of precaution for the future relief of their own -souls.”</p> - -<p>Nagasaki, down to the year 1688, had, like the other -imperial cities, two governors, commanding by turns; -the one not in the immediate exercise of authority being -resident meanwhile at Yedo. In 1688, the policy was -adopted of having three governors; two to be always -resident at Nagasaki, to watch each other, and presiding -alternately for two months, while the third was to come -in each alternate year from Yedo to relieve the senior -resident<a id="FNanchor_151" href="#Footnote_151" class="fnanchor">[151]</a>. The resident governors leave their families -at Yedo as hostages for their good behavior, and, during -the time of their absence from court, are strictly prohibited, -so it is stated, to admit any woman within -their palaces. The establishments of these imperial -governors, as described by Kämpfer, may probably be -taken as a specimen of the ordinary way of life with the -higher order of Japanese officials. Their salary did not -exceed fifteen hundred or two thousand <i>koku</i> of rice (in -money, the price of the article being very variable, from -seven thousand to ten thousand taels); but the perquisites -were so considerable that in a few years they might -get vast estates, did not the presents which must be -made to the emperor and the grandees of the court consume -the greater part of their profits. Out of their<span class="pagenum" id="Page_346">[Pg 346]</span> -allowance they were obliged to maintain an extensive -retinue,—two <i>Karō</i>, or stewards of the household, ten -<i>Yoriki</i>, all noblemen of good families, who acted both as -civil and military officers, and thirty <i>Dōshin</i>, likewise -military and civil officers, but of inferior rank.</p> - -<p>The business of the <i>Yoriki</i> was to assist the governor -with their advice, if required, and to execute his commands, -either as military officers or as magistrates. -They had, besides their food and a new suit annually, -an allowance of one hundred taels a year; but this -hardly sufficed to enable them to keep the servants -necessary to their dignity, such as a pike-bearer, a -keeper of their great sword, and a shoe or slipper -bearer, and much less to maintain a family. The Dōshin -were a sort of assistants to the Yoriki. They served as -guards, and did duty on board ship, especially in the -guard-boats, either as commanding officers or as privates. -Sometimes they did the office of bailiffs or constables, -and put people under arrest, for which purpose -they always carried a halter about them. Their yearly -allowance, beside their board, did not exceed fifty taels, -out of which they must maintain each a servant.<a id="FNanchor_152" href="#Footnote_152" class="fnanchor">[152]</a> -The governors had still other domestics, of inferior -rank, to dress and undress them, to introduce visitors, and -to bring messages, besides numerous menial servants.</p> - -<p>At the entrance of their palaces, within the court-yard, -a guard was kept of four or five Dōshin. No domestic -could leave the house without taking from its place in -the guard-room a square wooden tablet, which he hung<span class="pagenum" id="Page_347">[Pg 347]</span> -up again on his return, so that it could be known at a -glance how many and who were absent. Within the -great door or main entrance into the house, another -guard was kept by some of the Yoriki, one of whom -had charge of a book, in which he entered, as the custom -is at the houses of persons of rank, the names of all -who go in or out, for the information of the master -of the house, who sometimes at night examines the -entries.</p> - -<p>The governor’s equipage and attendance when going -abroad consisted of a led horse, a Norimono, in which -he was carried, by the side of which walked four of the -gentlemen of his bedchamber, and behind it two pike-bearers, -followed by a train of Karō, Yoriki, and Dōshin, -with their own servants and attendants.</p> - -<p>Kämpfer thus describes the persons who held the -office of governors of Nagasaki at his arrival in Japan—“<i>Kawaguchi -Settsu-no-Kami</i> is a handsome, well-shaped -man, about fifty years of age, cunning and malicious, -and a great enemy of the Dutch (who ascribed -to him the authorship of the new arrangement for their -trade), an unjust and severe judge, but an agreeable, -liberal and happy courtier, with an income from his -private estates of four thousand seven hundred koku. -<i>Yamaoka Tsushima-no-Kami</i> had formerly been a high -constable, and had been rewarded with his present office -for his services in clearing Yedo of thieves and pickpockets. -He had a private revenue of two thousand -koku. He is about sixty, short, sincere, humble, and -very charitable to the poor, but with so much of his old -profession about him, that he often orders his domestics -to be put to death without mercy for very trifling faults. -<i>Miyagi Tonomo</i>, also about sixty, is a man of great<span class="pagenum" id="Page_348">[Pg 348]</span> -generosity and many good qualities, with a private -estate of four thousand koku of yearly revenue.”</p> - -<p>To watch the governors, an imperial officer, called -<i>Daikwan</i>, was appointed to reside at Nagasaki, and a -like service was required of all the chief lords of the -island of Shimo.</p> - -<p>To secure the harbor and town these same lords were -bound to march with their vassals at the first alarm. -The princes of the provinces of Hizen and Chikuzen -were obliged to furnish alternately, each for a year, -the guard at the entrance of the harbor, which was -independent of the governors. The inhabitants of the -water-side streets of Nagasaki supplied the <i>Funaban</i> or -ship-guard with its guard-boats to watch foreign ships -in the harbor. There was another fleet of boats employed -ordinarily in whale-fishing but whose business it -also was to see all foreign vessels well off the coast, to -guard against and to arrest smugglers, and to prevent -any foreign vessels from touching elsewhere than at -Nagasaki. Finally, there was the spy-guard, stationed -on the top of neighboring mountains, to look out for the -approach of foreign vessels; and on one of these hills -was a beacon, which, being fired, served, in connection -with other similar beacons, to telegraph alarms to Yedo.</p> - -<p>Next in rank to the governors were four mayors or -burgomasters, whose office, like most others, had become -hereditary, and two deputy-mayors, principally for the -affairs of the new town. They would seem to have -once been the actual chief magistrates, but their authority -had been greatly eclipsed by that of the imperial -governors. There were also four other officers annually -appointed to solicit the interests of the town’s people at -the court of the governors, and to keep them informed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_349">[Pg 349]</span> -of the daily proceedings of the mayors, for which purpose -they had a small room at the governor’s palace, -where they were always in waiting.</p> - -<p>There was no town-house nor other public place of -assembly. When the magistrates met on business, it -was at the presiding mayor’s house. Besides the various -bodies of interpreters and others, connected with -the foreign trade, there was a particular corporation of -constables and bailiffs, consisting of about thirty families, -who lived in a street by themselves. Their office -was reputed military and noble, and they had the privilege -of wearing two swords,—a privilege which the -mayors and mercantile people did not possess.</p> - -<p>The tanners, obliged to act also as public executioners, -were held in execration, yet they also wore two swords. -They lived in a separate village near the place of execution, -placed as everywhere in Japan at the west end -of the town.</p> - -<p>But the most remarkable thing in the municipal government -of Nagasaki (and the same thing extended to -all the other Japanese towns) was the system of street -government, mentioned in the narratives of Don Rodrigo, -Caron, and others, but which Kämpfer more particularly -describes.</p> - -<p>The house-owners of every street were arranged in -companies, or corporations, of five <i>Goningumi</i>, or sometimes -a few more, each street having from ten to fifteen -such companies. None but house-owners were admitted -into these corporations; mere occupants were looked -upon as dependants on their landlords with no voice in -the affairs of the street, nor right to claim any share in -the public money, though they paid high rents. Each -street company had one of its number for a head, who<span class="pagenum" id="Page_350">[Pg 350]</span> -was responsible for the conduct of his four companions, -and obliged, in certain cases at least, to share the punishment -of their crimes. The members of these corporations -chose from among themselves an <i>Otona</i>, or chief -magistrate of the street. The choice was by ballot, and -the name of the person having the greatest number was -presented to the governor, with a humble petition that -he might be appointed to the office, of which the salary -in Nagasaki was a ten-fold share of the annual distribution -to the inhabitants, derived from the duties on the -foreign trade.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp90" id="i_350" style="max-width: 56.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/i_350.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">DIAL OF OLD CLOCK.</div> -</div> - -<p>The duty of the Otona was to give the necessary -orders in case of fire; to have the oversight of the -watch; to keep a register of the deaths, births, marriages, -arrivals, departures, &c.; to arrest criminals,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_351">[Pg 351]</span> -and to punish those of smaller magnitude; to compose, -if he could, all disputes among the people of his street; -and generally to be personally answerable for their good -behavior. He had for assistants three lieutenants, the -heads of the corporations of house-owners, a secretary, -a treasurer, and a messenger. A guard was kept every -night, of three or more house-owners, while the street -was paced by two sentinels, walking from each gate till -they met, and then back. The hours were regularly in -the daytime struck on a bell hung for that purpose -on the ascent of the mountains, and during the night -the street-watch indicated them by beating two sticks -together<a id="FNanchor_153" href="#Footnote_153" class="fnanchor">[153]</a>.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_352">[Pg 352]</span></p> - -<p>The street officers were held responsible for the -offences of the house-owners; the house-owners for -the offences of their lodgers, domestics, and families; -masters for servants; children for parents, each corporation -for its individual members; neighbors for each -other<a id="FNanchor_154" href="#Footnote_154" class="fnanchor">[154]</a>. It was naturally a part of this system that no -new inhabitant was admitted into any street, except by -consent of all the house-owners in it, which thus became -necessary to every purchase and sale of a house.</p> - -<p>Every year, a list was made out by the street officers -of all the inhabitants in each street, with their religion, -shortly after which came the ceremony of <i>Yebumi</i><a id="FNanchor_155" href="#Footnote_155" class="fnanchor">[155]</a>, or -<i>figure-treading</i>—that is, trampling upon the crucifix, -an image of the Virgin Mary, and other saints—a -ceremony which appears to be observed, at least at -Nagasaki, down even to the present day. The images -used in Kämpfer’s time were about a foot long, cast in -brass, and kept in a particular box for that purpose. -The ceremony took place in the presence of the street -officers. Each house was entered by turns, two messengers -carrying the box. The images were laid upon -the bare floor, and, the list of the household being called<span class="pagenum" id="Page_353">[Pg 353]</span> -over, they were required, one by one, to tread upon -them. Young children, not yet able to walk, were -held in their mothers’ arms, so as to touch the images -with their feet. It has been asserted that the Dutch -were obliged to submit to this ceremony; but the fact -was not so.</p> - -<p>To prevent smuggling, whenever the foreign ships or -junks set sail the street gates of Nagasaki were shut, -and kept closed till the ships were out of the harbor, -strict searches being made, at uncertain times, on which -occasions every inhabitant of the street was obliged -to report himself. The same thing took place when -criminals were searched for, or other investigations, -sometimes very frivolous ones, were made. On these -and other occasions of alarm, no one could go from one -street into another, except with a written pass, and -attended by an officer; nor could an inhabitant of -Nagasaki at any time leave the city without a similar -pass and an undertaking on the part of his neighbors -for his return within a specified time.</p> - -<p>Accused persons were often made to confess by torture. -Capital punishments were either by beheading or -crucifixion. Other punishments—and this class was -often inflicted for the misdemeanors of others—were -imprisonment, for longer or shorter periods, banishment -to certain desolate spots, and islands, and forfeiture of -property and office. Punishments were prompt and -severe; yet great regard was had to the nature of the -offence, the condition of the person who committed it, -and the share of guilt to be reasonably laid to the charge -of his superiors, relations, or neighbors. The practice -of making young children suffer with their parents was -possibly intended as much in mercy to them as to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_354">[Pg 354]</span> -aggravate the punishment of the real offenders<a id="FNanchor_156" href="#Footnote_156" class="fnanchor">[156]</a>. It is by -this same motive of humanity, that the Japanese justify -their practice of exposing such infants as they have not -the means or inclination to support and educate.</p> - -<p>Persons sentenced to death could not be executed -without a warrant signed by the council of state at -Yedo, which must likewise be consulted in all affairs -of moment, provided they admit of the delay necessary -to send a courier and receive an answer. This, however, -did not prevent the governors of Nagasaki, and -other high officers, from liberally exercising the right -of life and death in the case of their own immediate -servants and retainers. All servants, indeed, were so -far at the disposal of their masters, that, if they were -accidentally killed while undergoing punishment, the -master was not answerable. Yet, in general, as in -China, homicide, even in self-defence or undesigned, -must be expiated by the blood of the offender, and even -his neighbors were, in many cases, held to a certain -extent responsible.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_354f" style="max-width: 75em;"> - <img src="images/i_354f.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Examination of a Prisoner by Torture</span></div> -</div> - -<p>“Some will observe,” says Kämpfer, “that the Japanese -are wanting in a competent knowledge of the law. -I could heartily wish, for my part, that we Europeans -knew as little of it as they, since there is such an abuse -made of a science highly useful in itself, that innocence, -instead of being relieved, is often still more oppressed. -There is a much shorter way to obtain justice in Japan, -and, indeed, all over the East;—no necessity for being -at law for many years together, no occasion for so many<span class="pagenum" id="Page_355">[Pg 355]</span> -writings, answers, briefs, and the like. The case is, -without delay, laid before the proper court of judicature, -the parties heard, the witnesses examined, the -circumstances considered, and judgment given without -loss of time. Nor is there any delay to be apprehended -from appealing, since no superior court hath the power -to mitigate the sentence pronounced in another, though -inferior. And, although it cannot be denied but that -this short way of proceeding is liable to some errors and -mistakes in particular cases, yet I dare affirm that in the -main it would be found abundantly less detrimental to -the parties concerned than the tedious and expensive -law-suits in Europe.”</p> - -<p>Certain yearly contributions, under the name of free -gifts, were paid by all the house-owners and office-holders -of Nagasaki, partly as perquisites to the governor -and other officers, and partly for municipal -purposes. So far as the house-owners were concerned, -it amounted to a regular tax, levied according to the -size of the lots; but this sort of levy was said to be -unknown in other cities of the empire, and at Nagasaki -was much more than made up for by the surplus share -of the house-owners in the duty levied on the foreign -trade, which, after paying all particular services and -municipal expenses, was divided among them. The -only other tax was an imperial ground-rent on the -house-lots—four mas (fifty cents), in the old town, -and six mas (seventy-five cents) in the upper town, for -every <i>ken</i> (very nearly six English feet) of frontage, -where the depth was not more than fifteen ken. On -every lot exceeding that depth the tax was double. -This is stated by Kämpfer to be the only town tax -levied throughout the empire, whether in the towns of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_356">[Pg 356]</span> -the imperial domain, or in those belonging to particular -lords, and the city of Miyako, by a particular privilege, -was exempt even from this.</p> - -<p>A municipal police, similar to that of Nagasaki, was -established in all the other towns, boroughs, and villages, -with this difference only, that the magistrates, -though invested with the same power, were, perhaps, -known by different names, and that their administration -was, in general, much less strict than at Nagasaki.</p> - -<p>The adjacent country was under the control of an -imperial steward (the same forming a part of the imperial -domains), who collected the rent, forming, with the -house-tax, the entire imperial revenue. This rent -amounted to four parts in ten of the crop; whereas inferior -landlords exacted six parts in ten. Grain was -delivered in kind; garden grounds, orchards and woods, -paid a compensation in money.</p> - -<p>We may close this account of Nagasaki with a description -of the <i>Matsuri</i>, or public spectacle exhibited -on the birthday of the god <i>Suwa</i>, the patron of the city, -one of the occasions on which the Dutch were permitted -to leave the island of <i>Deshima</i>, for the purpose of witnessing -the spectacle. This festival was, and still is, -celebrated at the expense of ten or eleven streets uniting -each year for that purpose; so that every street is called -upon thus to contribute once in seven or eight years, -except that in which the courtesans reside, which must -pay every year. The celebration consists in processions, -plays, dances, etc., and as something new must always -be got up, at least in the way of dress, it is attended -with heavy expense.</p> - -<p>The temple of <i>Suwa</i>, according to Kämpfer’s description, -stands not far from the town, upon the mountain<span class="pagenum" id="Page_357">[Pg 357]</span> -<i>Tutla</i> (?). A fine staircase, of two hundred stone steps, -leads up to it. The temple court, somewhat lower -than the Miya itself, extends down the declivity of the -mountain. At the entry of this court, next the gate, is -a long, open room, or gallery, where plays are acted, -for the diversion both of <i>Suwa</i> and his worshippers. -This room is curiously adorned with many pictures and -carved images, placed there by devout worshippers in -fulfilment of vows made in some moment of exigency. -Further off stand some small chapels of wood, clean and -neat, but without ornaments. In the same court stand -the temples of <i>Morisaki Gongen</i>, and <i>Sumiyoshi</i>, each -of whom has also his <i>Mikoshi</i>, or small eight-angular -shrine, curiously adorned, and hanging in beautiful -polls, wherein their images or relics are carried about -upon festivals. Kämpfer also observed, in the same -enclosure, another small chapel, built in honor of the -god and lord of thousand legs, hung about with numbers -of his clients, that is, with legs of all sorts and sizes, -given by his worshippers.</p> - -<p>There are several festivals sacred to <i>Suwa</i>, of which -the chief is on the seventh, eighth, and ninth days of -the ninth month<a id="FNanchor_157" href="#Footnote_157" class="fnanchor">[157]</a>. On the eighth the god is diverted -in his temple, at the expense of rich and devout people, -with a musical concert, performed by boys beating upon -drums and bells—the very same music made use of to -appease the supreme kami <i>Tenshō Daijin</i>, when, out of -disdain and anger, she hid herself in a cavern, and -thereby deprived the world of light and sunshine<a id="FNanchor_158" href="#Footnote_158" class="fnanchor">[158]</a>.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_358">[Pg 358]</span></p> - -<p>The great festival of the ninth consists of processions -through the principal streets, and spectacles exhibited -in a temporary building of bamboo, with a thatched -roof, open towards the square on which it is erected. -“The whole building,” says Kämpfer, “scarcely deserves -to be compared to one of our barns, it is so -mean and simple, for it must be purposely built according -to the sorry architecture of their indigent ancestors.” -A tall fir is planted on each side of the front<span class="pagenum" id="Page_359">[Pg 359]</span> -of this temple, and three sides of the square are built -round with benches and scaffolds for the convenience of -spectators.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_358f" style="max-width: 75em;"> - <img src="images/i_358f.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Festival with Mikoshi</span></div> -</div> - -<p>“Everything being ready, the Shintō clergy of the -city appear in a body, with a splendid retinue, bringing -over in procession the <i>Mikoshi</i> of their great <i>Suwa</i>, as, -also, to keep him company, that of <i>Sumiyoshi</i>. <i>Morisaki -Gongen</i> is left at home, as there is no instance in -the history of his life and actions from which it could be -inferred that he delighted in walking and travelling.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_360">[Pg 360]</span></p> - -<p>“The Shintō clergy, upon this occasion, style themselves -<i>Ōtomo</i>(?)—that is, the <i>high great retinue</i>—which -pompous title notwithstanding, the alms-chest is one of -the principal things they carry in the procession, and, -indeed,” says Kämpfer, “to very good purpose, for -there is such a multitude of things thrown among them -by the crowds of superstitious spectators, as if they -had a mind out of mere charity to stone them.</p> - -<p>“When they come to the place of exhibition, the -ecclesiastics seat themselves, according to their quality, -which appears in good measure by their dress, upon -three benches, built for them before the front of the -temple. The two superiors take the uppermost bench, -clad in black, with a particular head ornament, and a -short staff, as a badge of their authority. Four others, -next in rank, sit upon the second bench, dressed in -white ecclesiastical gowns, with a black lackered cap, -something different from that worn by their superiors. -The main body takes possession of the third and lowermost -bench, sitting promiscuously, and all clad in white -gowns, with a black lackered cap, somewhat like those -of the Jesuits. The servants and porters appointed to -carry the holy utensils of the temple, and other people -who have anything to do at this solemnity, stand next -to the ecclesiastics, bareheaded.</p> - -<p>“On the other side of the square, opposite to the -ecclesiastics, sit the deputies of the governors, under a -tent, upon a fine mat, somewhat raised from the ground. -For magnificence’ sake, and out of respect for this holy -act, they have twenty pikes of state planted before them -in the ground.</p> - -<p>“The public spectacles on these occasions are a sort -of plays, acted by eight, twelve, or more persons. The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_361">[Pg 361]</span> -subject is taken out of the history of their gods and -heroes. Their remarkable adventures, heroic actions, -and sometimes their love intrigues, put in verse, are -sung by dancing actors, whilst others play upon musical -instruments. If the subject be thought too grave and -moving, there is now and then a comic actor jumps out -unawares upon the stage, to divert the audience with -his gestures and merry discourse in prose. Some of -their other plays are composed only of ballets, or -dances, like the performance of the mimic actors on -the Roman stage. For the dancers do not speak, but -endeavor to express the contents of the story they are -about to represent, as naturally as possible, both by -their dress and by their gestures and actions, regulated -according to the sound of musical instruments. The -chief subjects of the play, such as fountains, bridges, -gates, houses, gardens, trees, mountains, animals, and -the like, are also represented, some as big as the life, -and all in general contrived so as to be removed at -pleasure, like the scenes of our European plays<a id="FNanchor_159" href="#Footnote_159" class="fnanchor">[159]</a>.</p> - -<p>“The actors are commonly girls, taken out of the -courtesans’ houses, and boys from those streets at whose -expense the solemnity is performed. They are all magnificently -clad, in variously colored silken gowns, suitable -to the characters they are to present; and it must be -owned that, generally speaking, they act their part with -an assurance and becoming dexterity, not to be exceeded, -nay, scarce to be paralleled, by the best European actors.</p> - -<p>“The streets which bear the expense make their appearance -in the following order: First of all is carried<span class="pagenum" id="Page_362">[Pg 362]</span> -a rich canopy, or else an umbrella, made of silk, being -the palladium of the street. Over it, in the middle, is -placed a shield, whereupon is writ, in large characters, -the name of the street. Next to the canopy follow the -musicians, masked, and in proper liveries. The music -is both vocal and instrumental. The instruments are -chiefly flutes of different sorts, and small drums; now -and then a large drum, cymbals and bells, are brought -in among the rest. The instrumental music is so poor -and lamentable that it seems much easier to satisfy their -gods than to please a musical ear. Nor is the vocal part -much preferable to the instrumental, for although they -keep time tolerably, and sing according to some notes, -yet they do it in so very slow a manner that the music -seems to be rather calculated to regulate their action, -and the motions of their body in their ballets and -dances, wherein they are very ingenious and dexterous, -and little inferior to our European dancers, excepting -only that they seem to want a little more action and -swiftness in their feet.</p> - -<p>“The musicians are followed by the necessary machines -and the whole apparatus for the ensuing representations, -the largest being carried by laboring people, -the lesser—as benches, staffs, flowers, and the like—by -the children of the inhabitants, neatly clad. Next -follow the actors themselves, and after them all the -inhabitants of the street in a body in their holiday -clothes and garments of ceremony. To make the appearance -so much the greater the procession is closed -by a considerable number of people who carry stools and -other things, walking two and two.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_362fa" style="max-width: 56.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/i_362fa.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"> Two Styles of Drums</div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_362fb" style="max-width: 56.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/i_362fb.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">A Flute-player<br />Musical Instruments</div> -</div> - -<p>“The dances and shows of each street commonly last -about three quarters of an hour, and being over, the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_363">[Pg 363]</span> -company marches off in the same order they came in, -to make way for the appearance and shows of another -street, which is again followed by another, and so on. -All the streets strive to outdo each other in a magnificent -retinue and surprising scenes. The processions and -shows begin early in the morning, and the whole ends -about noon.”</p> - -<p>The following were among the presentations by the -different streets at the <i>matsuri</i> at which Kämpfer was -present.</p> - -<p>1. “Eight young girls, clad in colored gowns, interwove -with large white flowers, with broad hats, as if to -defend them from the heat of the sun, with fans and -flowers in their hands, dancing by turns. They were -from time to time relieved by a couple of old women -dancing in another dress.</p> - -<p>2. “A garden, with fine flowers on each side of the -place where the act was performed, a thatched house -in the middle, out of which jumped eight young girls, -dressed in white and red, dancing, with fans, canes, -and flower-baskets. They were relieved by a very good -actress, who danced by herself.</p> - -<p>3. “Eight triumphal chariots, with oxen before them, -of different colors, the whole very naturally represented, -and drawn by young boys, well clad. Upon them stood -a <i>Tsubaki</i> [camellia] tree, in flower; a mountain, covered -with trees; a thicket of bamboos, with a tiger lurking; -a load of straw, with an entire tree, with its root and -branches; a whale, under a rock, half covered with -water. Last of all, another mountain appeared, with -a real boy, magnificently clad, who stood at the top, -under an apricot-tree in full blossom. This mountain -was again drawn by boys.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_364">[Pg 364]</span></p> - -<p>4. “Some dancers, acting between six flower-beds, -which, and a green tree, were drawn upon the place by -boys. Nine other boys, in the same dress, and armed -each with two swords and a musket; a peasant, dancing.</p> - -<p>5. “A mountain, carried upon men’s shoulders; a -fountain, with a walk round it; a large cask, and a -house, were severally set upon the place. Then two -giants, masked, with prodigious great heads representing -some Indian deities, began a dance. They were -met soon after by a third, of a still more monstrous size, -who came forth out of the mountain, armed with a great -broadsword. He was followed by seven Chinese, jumping -out of the same mountain, though to all appearance -quite small, and dancing about in company with the -giants. After some time spent in dances, the great -monstrous giant beat the cask to pieces, out of which -came a young boy, very handsomely clad, who, after a -fine long speech, which he delivered in a very graceful -manner, danced with the giant alone. Meanwhile, -three monkeys, with roe’s heads, crept out of the fountain, -and, jumping on the walk round it, performed a -dance, mimicking that of the giant and boy. This -done, every one returned to his place, and so the scene -ended.</p> - -<p>6. “The pompous retinue of a prince, travelling with -his son, very naturally represented by boys.</p> - -<p>7. “Several huge machines, accurately resembling, -both in size and color, the things they were to represent, -but made of a thin substance, so that one man could -easily carry one upon his back. But, besides this load -on the back, every one of these men had a very large -drum hanging before him, which some others played -upon with bells. After this manner they crossed the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_365">[Pg 365]</span> -stage, dancing, though not very high, because of their -load. The things which they carried were, a well, -with all the implements for extinguishing fires; a large -church-bell, with the timber work belonging to it, and -a dragon wound round it for ornament’s sake; a mountain, -covered with snow, and shaped like a dragon, with -an eagle on the top; a brass gun, weighing twenty-four -pounds, with all the tackle belonging to it; a heavy -load of traveller’s trunks, packed up in twelve straw -balls, according to the country fashion; a whale in a -dish; several shell fish and fruits, as big as the life, -carried each by one person.”</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_366">[Pg 366]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XXX">CHAPTER XXX</h2> -</div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p class="hang"><i>Kämpfer’s Two Journeys to Court—Preparations—Presents—Japanese -Attendants—Packing the Baggage and Riding on Horseback—Japanese -Love of Botany—Accoutrements—Road-Books—Norimono and -Kago—A. D. 1690-1692.</i></p> -</div> - - -<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">Mention</span> has already been made of the custom -established in Japan, that all the governors of -imperial cities and of provinces, and, indeed, all -the <i>Daimiō</i> and <i>Shōmiō</i>—that is, nobles of the first and -second rank—should, once a year, make a journey to -court; those of the first rank to pay their respects and -make presents to the emperor in person, and those of -the second rank to salute his chief ministers, assembled -in council.</p> - -<p>In this respect the director of the Dutch trade is -placed on the same footing with the superior nobility, -and his journey to court, accompanied by a physician, a -secretary or two, and a flock of Japanese attendants of -various ranks, affords the Dutch the only opportunity -they have of knowing anything by their own personal -observation, beyond the vicinage of Nagasaki.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_366fa" style="max-width: 62.5em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/i_366fa.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">A Buddhist Priest in a Norimono</span></div> -</div> - - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_366f" style="max-width: 62.5em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/i_366f.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Ancient -Imperial Carriages</span></div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_366fc" style="max-width: 62.5em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/i_366fc.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Lady in a Kago<br /> -Transportation Methods</span></div> -</div> - -<p>Kämpfer made this journey twice—the first time in -1691, and again in 1692—and, notwithstanding the -strict surveillance under which the Dutch are kept, his -observations were highly curious. Besides a journal of -his daily route, he gives a general summary of all that -he observed, containing a great deal of curious information, -the most interesting part of which is copied in this -and the following chapters, nearly in his own words:</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_367">[Pg 367]</span></p> - -<p>“The first thing to be done, is to look out proper -presents for his imperial majesty, for his privy councillors, -and some other great officers at Yedo, Miyako, and -Ōsaka, the whole amounting, as near as possible, to a -certain sum, to assort them, and particularly to assign -to whom they are to be delivered. Afterwards they -must be put up into leather bags, which are carefully -wrapped up in mats, in order to preserve them from all -accidents in so long a journey; and, for a further security, -several seals are affixed to them.</p> - -<p>“It is the business of the governors of Nagasaki to -judge and determine what might prove acceptable to the -court. They take out of the goods laid up in our warehouse -what they think proper, and give instructions to -the departing director about such things as should be -sent over from Batavia the next year. Sometimes some -of their own goods they have been presented with by -the Chinese are put in among these presents, because by -this means they can dispose of them to the best advantage, -either by obliging us to buy them at an excessive -and their own price, or by exchanging them for other -goods. Now and then some uncommon curiosities, -either of nature or art, are brought over from Europe, -and other parts of the world, on purpose to be presented -to the emperor; but it often happens that they are not -approved of by these rigid censors. Thus, for instance, -there were brought over, in my time, two brass fire-engines -of the newest invention, but the governors did -not think them proper to be presented to the emperor, -and so returned them to us, after they had first seen -them tried, and taken a pattern of them.<a id="FNanchor_160" href="#Footnote_160" class="fnanchor">[160]</a> Another time<span class="pagenum" id="Page_368">[Pg 368]</span> -the bird Casuar<a id="FNanchor_161" href="#Footnote_161" class="fnanchor">[161]</a> was sent over from Batavia, but likewise -disliked and denied the honor of appearing before -the emperor, because they heard he was good for nothing -but to devour a large quantity of victuals.</p> - -<p>“These presents are placed on board a barge, three or -four weeks before our departure, and sent by water to -<i>Shimonoseki</i>, a small town at the southwestern extremity -of the great island of Nippon, where they wait our -arrival by land. Formerly our ambassador, with his -whole retinue, embarked at the same time, whereby we -saved a great deal of trouble and expense we must now -be at in travelling by land; but a violent storm having -once put the whole company into eminent danger, and -the voyage having been often, by reason of the contrary -winds, too long and tedious, the emperor has ordered -that for the future we should go by land. The presents -for the imperial court, and other heavy baggage, being -sent before us, the rest of the time till our departure is -spent in preparations for our journey, as if we designed -some great expedition into a remote part of the world.</p> - -<p>“The first and most essential part consists in nominating, -and giving proper instructions to, the several -officers, and the whole retinue that is to go with us to -court. The governors appoint one of their Yoriki, to be -<i>Bugiō</i>, that is, head and commander-in-chief. He is to -represent the authority of his masters, as a badge -whereof he hath a pike carried after him. A Dōshin is -ordered to assist him in quality of his deputy. Both -the Yoriki and Dōshin are taken from among the domestics -of one of the governors, who stays that year at<span class="pagenum" id="Page_369">[Pg 369]</span> -Nagasaki. To these are added two beadles, who, as -well as the Dōshin, carry, by virtue of their office, a -halter about them, to arrest and secure, at command or -wink from the Yoriki, any person guilty or suspected of -any misdemeanor. All these persons are looked upon -as military men, and as such have the privilege of wearing -two swords;—all persons that are not either noblemen -by birth, or in some military employment, being by -a late imperial edict denied this privilege.</p> - -<p>“I have already stated that our interpreters are -divided into two companies, the upper consisting of the -eight chief interpreters, and the inferior including all -the rest. The <i>Nemban,</i> or president for the time being, -of each of these companies is appointed to attend us in -this journey. To these is now added a third, as an apprentice, -whom they take along with them to qualify -him for the succession. All the chief officers, and all -other persons that are able to do it, take some servants -along with them, partly to wait upon them, partly for -state. The <i>Bugiō</i> and the principal interpreter take -as many as they please, the other officers, each two or -three, as they are able, or as their office requires. The -Dutch captain, or ambassador, may take three, and -every Dutchman of his retinue is allowed one. The interpreters -commonly recommend their favorites to us, -and the more ignorant they are of the Dutch language, -the better it answers their intention.</p> - -<p>“I omit to mention some other persons, who, by order -or by special leave of the governors and interpreters, -make the journey in company with us, and at our expense, -too, though otherwise they have no manner of -business upon our account.</p> - -<p>“All these future companions of our voyage have<span class="pagenum" id="Page_370">[Pg 370]</span> -leave to make us some friendly visits at Deshima, in -order to get beforehand a little acquainted with us. -There are many among them who would willingly be -more free and open, were it not for the solemn oath -they must all take before their departure, but much -more for the fear of being betrayed by others, since, by -virtue of the same oath, they are obliged all and every -one of them to have a strict and watchful eye, not only -over the Dutch, but also over the conduct of each other, -particularly with regard to the Dutch.</p> - -<p>“Another branch of preparations for our journey is -the hiring of horses and porters. This is the chief interpreter’s -business, as keeper of our purse, who is also -appointed to take care that whatever is wanted during -the whole journey be provided for. ’Tis he, likewise, -that gives orders to keep everything in readiness to -march the minute the Bugiō is pleased to set out.</p> - -<p>“Two days before our departure every one must deliver -his cloak, bag, and portmantle, to proper people, to -be bound up;—this not after our European manner, -but after a particular one of their own, which deserves -to be here described.</p> - -<p>“A plain wooden saddle, not unlike the pack-saddles -of the Swedish post-horses, is girded on the horse with a -breast-leather and crupper. Two latchets are laid upon -the saddle, which hang down on both sides of the horse, -in order to their being conveniently tied about two portmantles, -which are put on each side in a due balance; -for when once tied together, they are barely laid on the -horse’s back, without any other thong or latchet to tie -them faster. However, to fasten them in some measure, -a small, long box, or trunk, called by the Japanese -<i>Atotsuke</i>, is laid over both portmantles upon the horse’s<span class="pagenum" id="Page_371">[Pg 371]</span> -back, and tied fast to the saddle with thongs; and over -the whole is spread the traveller’s covering and bedding, -which are tied fast to the <i>Atotsuke</i> and side trunks. -The cavity between the two trunks, filled up with some -soft stuff, is the traveller’s seat, where he sits, as it -were, upon a flat table, commodiously enough, either -cross-legged or with his legs extended hanging down by -the horse’s neck, as he finds it most convenient. Particular -care must be taken to sit in the middle, and not -to lean too much on either side, which would either -make the horse fall, or else the side trunks and rider. -In going up and down hills the footmen and stable -grooms hold the two side trunks fast, for fear of such -an accident. The traveller mounts the horse, and -alights again, not on one side, as we Europeans do, but -by the horse’s breast, which is very troublesome for stiff -legs. The horses are unsaddled and unladen in an -instant; for having taken the bed-clothes away, which -they do first of all, they need but untie a latchet or two, -which they are very dexterous at, and the whole baggage -falls down at once. The latchets, thongs, and -girths, made use of for these several purposes, are broad -and strong, made of cotton, and withal very neatly -worked, with small, oblong, cylindrical pieces of wood -at both ends, which are of great use to strain the -latchets, and to tie things hard.</p> - -<p>“The saddle is made of wood, very plain, with a -cushion underneath and a caparison behind, lying upon -the horse’s back, with the traveller’s mark, or arms, -stitched upon it. Another piece of coarse cloth hangs -down on each side as a safeguard to the horse, to keep -him from being daubed with dirt. These two pieces -are tied together loosely under the horse’s belly. His<span class="pagenum" id="Page_372">[Pg 372]</span> -head is covered with a net-work of small but strong -strings, to defend it, and particularly the eyes, from flies, -which are very troublesome. The neck, breast, and -other parts are hung with small bells.</p> - -<p>“The side portmantles, which are filled only with -light stuff, and sometimes only with straw, are a sort -of square trunk, made of stiff horse leather, mostly four -feet long, a foot and a half broad, and as many deep. -The cover is made somewhat larger, and so deep as to -cover the lower part down to the bottom. Though they -hold out rain very well, yet for a greater security, they -are wrapt up in mats, with strong ropes tied about -them; for which reason, and because it requires some -time to pack them up, they are seldom unpacked till -you are come to the journey’s end, and the things which -are the most wanted upon the road are kept in the -<i>Atotsuke</i>. This is a small, thin trunk or case, about -four feet and a half in length, nine inches broad, and -as many deep. It contains one single drawer, much of -the same length, breadth and depth. It hath a little -door or opening on one side, which can be locked up, -and by which you can come conveniently at the drawer, -without untying the <i>Atotsuke</i>. What things are daily -wanted upon the road must be kept in this trunk. It -serves likewise to fasten the two portmantles, or side -trunks, which would otherwise require a stick. It is -made of thick, strong, gray paper, and, further to secure -it against all accidents of a long journey, strings are -tied about it in form of a net, very neatly.</p> - -<p>“To complete our traveller’s equipage, some other -things are requisite, which are commonly tied to the -portmantles. Such are, 1. A string with <i>Zeni</i>, a brass -money with a hole in the middle, they being more<span class="pagenum" id="Page_373">[Pg 373]</span> -proper to buy what necessaries are wanted on the road -than silver money, which must be weighed. People -that travel on horseback tie this string behind them to -one of the sashes of their seats. Foot travellers carry -it in a basket upon their back<a id="FNanchor_162" href="#Footnote_162" class="fnanchor">[162]</a>. 2. A lantern, of varnished -and folded paper, with the possessor’s arms -painted upon its middle. This is carried before travellers -by their footmen, upon their shoulder, in travelling -by night. It is tied behind one of the portmantles, put -up in a net or bag, which again hath the possessor’s -arms, or marks, printed upon it, as have in general the -clothes and all other movables travellers of all ranks -and qualities carry along with them upon their journeys. -3. A brush made of horse’s hairs, or black cock -feathers, to dust your seat and clothes. It is put behind -your seat, on one side, more for show than use. 4. A -water-pail, which is put on the other side of the seat, -opposite to the brush, or anywhere else. 5. Shoes, or -slippers, for horses and footmen. These are twisted of -straw, with ropes likewise of straw, hanging down from -them, whereby they are tied about the horse’s feet, -instead of our European iron horse-shoes, which are not -used in this country. They are soon worn out in stony, -slippery roads, and must be often changed for new ones. -For this purpose, the men that look after the horses -always carry a competent stock along with them, tied to -the portmanteaus, though they are to be met with in -every village, and are offered for sale by poor children -begging the road.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_374">[Pg 374]</span></p> - -<p>“I must beg leave to observe that, besides the several -things hitherto mentioned, which travellers usually -carry along with them in their journeys, I had for my -own private use a very large Javan box, which I had -brought with me from Batavia. In this box I privately -kept a large mariner’s compass, in order to measure the -directions of the roads, mountains, and coasts; but open -and exposed to everybody’s view, was an inkhorn; and -I usually filled it with plants, flowers, and branches of -trees, which I figured and described (nay, under this -pretext whatever occurred to me remarkable). Doing -this, as I did it free and unhindered, to everybody’s -knowledge, I should be wrongly accused to have done -anything which might have proved disadvantageous to -the Company’s trade in this country, or to have thereby -thrown any ill suspicion upon our conduct from so -jealous and circumspect a nation. Nay, far from it, I -must own that, from the very first day of our setting -out, till our return to Nagasaki, all the Japanese companions -of our journey, and particularly the Bugiō or -commander-in-chief, were extremely forward to communicate -to me what uncommon plants they met with, -together with their names, characters, and uses, which -they diligently inquired into among the natives. The -Japanese, a very reasonable and sensible people, and -themselves great lovers of plants, look upon botany as -a study both useful and innocent, which, pursuant to -the very dictates of reason and the law of nature, ought -to be encouraged by everybody. Thus much I know, -by my own experience, that of all the nations I saw and -conversed with in my long and tedious travels, those -the least favored botanical learning who ought to have -encouraged it most. Upon my return to Nagasaki,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_375">[Pg 375]</span> -<i>Tōnemon</i>, secretary and chief counsellor to the governors, -being at Deshima, sent for me, and made me, -by the chief interpreter, the following compliment: -That he had heard with great pleasure from our late -Bugiō, how agreeably I had spent my time, and what -diversion I had taken upon our journey in that excellent -and most commendable study of botany, whereof he, -<i>Tōnemon</i>, himself was a great lover and encourager. -But I must confess, likewise, that at the beginning of -our journey I took what pains and tried what means -I could to procure the friendship and assistance of -my fellow-travellers, obliging some with a submissive -humble conduct and ready assistance, as to physic and -physical advice, others with secret rewards for the very -meanest services and favors.</p> - -<p>“A traveller must not forget to provide himself with -a cloak, against rainy weather, made of double-varnished -oiled paper, and withal so very large and wide that it -covers and shelters at once man, horse, and baggage. -It seems the Japanese have learned the use of it, together -with the name <i>Kappa</i>, from the Portuguese.</p> - -<p>“To keep off the heat of the sun, travellers must be -provided with a large hat, which is made of split bamboos -or straw, very neatly and artfully twisted, in form -of an extended sombrero, or umbrella. It is tied under -the chin with broad silk bands, lined with cotton. It -is transparent and exceedingly light, and yet, if once -wet, will let no rain come through. Not only the men -wear such hats upon their journeys, but also the women -in cities and villages, at all times, and in all weathers, -and it gives them no disagreeable look.</p> - -<p>“The Japanese upon their journeys wear very wide -breeches, tapering towards the end, to cover the legs,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_376">[Pg 376]</span> -and slit on both sides to put in the ends of their large, -long gowns, which would otherwise be troublesome in -walking or riding. Some wear a short coat or cloak over -the breeches. Some, instead of stockings, tie a broad -ribbon around their legs. Ordinary servants, chiefly -Norimono-men and pike-bearers, wear no breeches, and, -for expedition’s sake, tuck their gowns quite up to their -belt, exposing their naked bodies, which they say they -have no reason at all to be ashamed of.</p> - -<p>“The Japanese of both sexes never go abroad without -fans, as we Europeans seldom do without gloves<a id="FNanchor_163" href="#Footnote_163" class="fnanchor">[163]</a>. -Upon their journeys they make use of a fan which hath -the roads printed upon it, and tells them how many -miles they are to travel, what inns they are to go to, -and what price victuals are at. Some, instead of such -a fan, make use of a road-book, which are offered them -for sale by numbers of poor children, begging along the -road. The Dutch are not permitted, at least publicly, -to buy any of these fans, or road-books.</p> - -<p>“A Japanese on horseback, tucked up after this -fashion, makes a very comical figure at a distance; for, -besides that they are generally short and thick, their -large hat, wide breeches and cloaks, together with their -sitting cross-legged, make them appear broader than long.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_377">[Pg 377]</span> -Upon the road they ride one by one. Merchants have -their horses, with the heavy baggage packed up in two -or three trunks or bales, led before them. They follow, -sitting on horseback, after the manner above described. -As to the bridle, the traveller hath nothing to do with -that, the horse being led by one of his footmen, who -walks at the horse’s right side, next by the head, and -together with his companions sings some merry song or -other, to divert themselves, and to animate their horses.</p> - -<p>“The Japanese look upon our European way of sitting -on horseback, and holding the bridle one’s self, as -warlike and properly becoming a soldier. For this very -reason they seldom or never use it in their journeys. -It is more frequent among people of quality in cities, -where they go a visiting one another. But even then -the rider (who makes but a sorry appearance when sitting -after our manner) holds the bridle merely for form, -the horse being still led by one, and sometimes by two, -footmen, who walk on each side of the head, holding it -by the bit. Their saddles come nearer our German -saddles than those of any Asiatic nation. The stirrup-leathers -are very short. A broad round leather hangs -down on both sides, after the fashion of the Tartars, to -defend the legs. The stirrup is made of iron, or -Sowaas (?), very thick and heavy,—not unlike the sole -of a foot, and open on one side, for the rider to get his -foot loose with ease, in case of a fall,—commonly of -an exceeding neat workmanship, and inlaid with silver. -The reins are not of leather, as ours, but silk, and fastened -to the bit.</p> - -<p>“Besides going on horseback, there is another more -stately and expensive way of travelling in this country, -and that is to be carried in <i>Norimono</i>, and <i>Kago</i>, or -particular sorts of chairs or litters. The same is usual<span class="pagenum" id="Page_378">[Pg 378]</span> -likewise in cities. People of quality are carried about -after this manner for state, others for ease and convenience. -There is a wide difference between the litters -men of quality go in, and those of ordinary people. -The former are sumptuous and magnificent, according -to every one’s rank and riches. The latter are plain -and simple. The former are commonly called Norimono, -the latter Kago. The vulgar (in all nations -master of the language) have called them by two different -names, though, in fact, they are but one thing. -Norimono signifies, properly speaking, a thing to sit in; -Kago, a basket. Both sorts rise through such a variety -of degrees, from the lowest to the highest, from the -plainest to the most curious, that a fine Kago is scarce -to be distinguished from a plain and simple Norimono, -but by its pole. The pole of a Kago is plain, massy, -all of one piece, and smaller than that of a Norimono, -which is large, curiously adorned and hollow. The -pole of a Norimono is made up of four thin boards, -neatly joined together, in form of a wide arch, and -much lighter than it appears to be. Princes and great -lords show their rank and nobility, amongst other -things, particularly by the length and largeness of the -poles of their Norimono. People who fancy themselves -to be of greater quality than they really are, are apt -now and then to get the poles of their Norimono or -Kago much larger than they ought to have been. But -then, also, they are liable to be obliged by the magistrates, -if they come to know of it, to reduce them to -their former size, with a severe reprimand, if not a considerable -punishment, into the bargain. This regulation, -however, doth not concern the women, for they -may, if they please, make use of larger poles than their -own and their husbands’ quality would entitle them to.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_379">[Pg 379]</span></p> - -<p>The Norimono itself is a small room, of an oblong -square figure, big enough for one person conveniently -to sit or lie in, curiously woven of fine, thin, split -bamboos, sometimes japanned and finely painted, with -a small folding-door on each side, sometimes a small -window before and behind. Sometimes it is fitted up -for the conveniency of sleeping in it. It has at top a -roof, which in rainy weather has a covering of varnished -paper. It is carried by two, four, eight, or more men, -according to the quality of the person in it, who (if he -be a prince or lord of a province) carry the pole on the -palms of their hands; otherwise, they lay it upon their -shoulders. All these Norimono-men are clad in the same -livery, with the coat of arms or mark of their masters. -They are every now and then relieved by others, who -in the mean time walk by the Norimono’s side.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_378f" style="max-width: 62.5em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/i_378f.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">A Bridge spanning the River Ōigawa</span></div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_378fb" style="max-width: 62.5em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/i_378fb.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">View of Fujikawa</span></div> -</div> - - -<p>“The Kago are not near so fine nor so well attended. -They are much of the same figure, but smaller, with a -solid, square or sometimes a round, pole, which is either -fastened to the upper part of the roof, or put through it -underneath. The Kago commonly made use of for -travelling, chiefly for carrying people over mountains, -are very poor and plain, and so small, that one cannot -sit in them without very great inconveniency, bowing -the head and laying the legs across. They are not -unlike a basket with a round bottom, and a flat roof, -which one reaches with his head. In such Kago we are -carried over the rocks and mountains, which are not -easily to be passed on horseback. Three men are appointed -for every Kago, who, indeed, for the heaviness -of their burden, have enough to do.”</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_380">[Pg 380]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XXXI">CHAPTER XXXI</h2> -</div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p class="hang"><i>Highways—Rivers—Fords—Ferries—Bridges—Water Part of the -Journey—Coast and Islands—Frail Structure of Japanese Vessels—Description -of them—Buildings on the Route—Proclamation Places—Places -of Execution—Tera, or Buddhist Temples—Miya, or -Shintō Temples—Idols and Amulets.</i></p> -</div> - - -<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">“The</span> empire of Japan,” says Kämpfer, “is divided -into seven great tracts,<a id="FNanchor_164" href="#Footnote_164" class="fnanchor">[164]</a> every one of which is -bounded by a highway, and, as these tracts are -subdivided into provinces, so there are particular ways -leading to and from every one of these provinces, all -ending in the great highways, as small rivers lose themselves -in great ones. These highways are so broad that -two companies, though never so great, can, without hindrance, -pass by one another. That company which, -according to their way of speaking, goes up, that is, to -Miyako, takes the left side of the way, and that which -comes from Miyako the right. All the highways are -divided into measured miles, which are all marked, and -begin from the great bridge at Yedo as the common -centre. This bridge is by way of preëminence, called -<i>Nihombashi</i>, that is, the bridge of Japan. By this -means, a traveller, in whatever part of the empire he -be, may know at any time how many Japanese miles -it is from thence to Yedo. The miles are marked by -two small hills thrown up, one on each side of the way,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_381">[Pg 381]</span> -opposite each other, and planted at the top with one or -more trees. At the end of every tract, province, or -smaller district, a wooden or stone pillar is set up in -the highway, with characters upon it, showing what -provinces or lands they are which here bound upon -each other, and to whom they belong. Like pillars -are erected at the entry of the sideways which turn off -from the great highway, showing what province or -dominion they lead to, and the distance in leagues to -the next remarkable place. The natives, as they improve -every inch of ground, plant firs and cypress-trees -in rows along the roads over the ridges of hills, mountains, -and other barren places. No firs or cypress can -be cut down without leave of the magistrate of the -place, and they must always plant young ones instead -of those they cut down.</p> - -<p>“In our journey to court we pass along two of these -chief highways, and go by water from one to the other, -so that our whole journey is divided into three parts. -We set out from Nagasaki to go by land across the -island Kiūshiū to the town of Kokura, where we arrive -in five days. From Kokura we pass the straits in small -boats to Shimonoseki, a convenient and secure harbor, -about two leagues off, where we find our barge, with -the baggage, riding at anchor and waiting our arrival. -The road from Nagasaki to Kokura is called by the -Japanese <i>Saikaidō</i>, that is, the west sea way.<a id="FNanchor_165" href="#Footnote_165" class="fnanchor">[165]</a> At -Shimonoseki we go on board our barge for Hyōgo, where<span class="pagenum" id="Page_382">[Pg 382]</span> -we arrive in eight days, more or less, according to the -wind. Ōsaka, a city very famous for the extent of its -commerce and the wealth of its inhabitants, lies about -thirteen Japanese water-leagues from Hiōgo, which, on -account of the shallowness of the water, we make in -small boats, leaving our barge at Hiōgo till our return. -From Ōsaka we go again by land, over the great island -Nippon, as far as Yedo, the emperor’s residence, where -we arrive in about fourteen days or more. The road -from Ōsaka to Yedo is by the Japanese called Tōkaidō, -that is, the east sea or coast way. We stay at Yedo -about twenty days, or upwards; and having had an -audience of his imperial majesty, and paid our respects -to some of his chief ministers and favorites, we return -to Nagasaki the same way, completing our whole journey -in about three months’ time.<a id="FNanchor_166" href="#Footnote_166" class="fnanchor">[166]</a></p> - -<p>“In most parts of Saikaidō, and everywhere upon -Tōkaidō, between the towns and villages, there is a -straight row of firs planted on each side of the road, -which by their agreeable shade make the journey both -pleasant and convenient. The ground is kept clean and -neat, convenient ditches and outlets are contrived to -carry off the rain-water, and strong dikes are cast up -to keep off that which comes down from higher places. -This makes the road at all times good and pleasant, -unless it be then raining and the ground slimy. The -neighboring villages must jointly keep them in repair,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_383">[Pg 383]</span> -and sweep and clean them every day. People of great -quality cause the road to be swept with brooms, just -before they pass it; and there lie heaps of sand in -readiness, at due distances (brought thither some days -before), to spread over the road, in order to dry it, in -case it should rain upon their arrival. The lords of the -several provinces, and the princes of the imperial blood, -in their journeys, find, at every two or three leagues’ -distance, huts of green-leaved branches erected for -them, with a private apartment, where they may step -in for their pleasures or necessities. The inspectors for -repairing the highway are at no great trouble to get -people to clean them, for whatever makes the roads -nasty is of some use to the neighboring country people, -so that they rather strive who shall first carry it away. -The pine-nuts, branches, and leaves, which fall down -daily from the firs, are gathered for fuel to supply the -want of wood, which is very scarce in some places. -Nor doth horses’ dung lie long upon the ground, but is -soon taken up by poor country children, and serves to -manure the fields. For the same reason care is taken -that the filth of travellers be not lost, and there are in -several places, near country people’s houses, or in their -fields, houses of office built for them. Old shoes of -horses and men, which are thrown away as useless, are -gathered in the same houses, burnt to ashes, and added -to the mixture. Supplies of this composition are kept -in large tubs or tuns, buried even with the ground in -their villages and fields, and, being not covered, afford -full as ungrateful and putrid a smell of radishes (which -is the common food of country people) to tender noses, -as the neatness and beauty of the road is agreeable to -the eyes.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_384">[Pg 384]</span></p> - -<p>“In several parts of the country the roads go over -hills and mountains, which are sometimes so steep and -high, that travellers are necessitated to get themselves -carried over them in kago, such as I have described in -the preceding chapter, because they cannot, without -great difficulty and danger, pass them on horseback. -But even this part of the road, which may be called bad -in comparison to others, is green and pleasant, for the -abundance of springs of clear water, and green bushes, -and this all the year round, but particularly in the -spring, when the flower-bearing trees and shrubs being -then in their full blossom, prove an additional beauty, -affording to the eye a curious view, and filling the nose -with agreeable scent.</p> - -<p>“Several of the rivers we are to cross over, chiefly -upon Tōkaidō, run with so impetuous a rapidity towards -the sea that they will bear no bridge nor boat, and this -by reason partly of the neighboring snow-mountains, -where they arise, partly of the frequent great rains, -which swell them to such a degree as to make them -overflow their banks. These must be forded. Men, -horses, and baggage, are delivered up to the care of -certain people, bred up to this business, who are well -acquainted with the bed of the river, and the places -which are the most proper for fording. These people, -as they are made answerable for their passenger’s lives, -and all accidents that might befall them in the passage, -exert all their strength, care, and dexterity, to support -them with their arms against the impetuosity of the -river, and the stones rolling down from the mountains -where the rivers arise. Norimono are carried over by -the same people.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_384f" style="max-width: 75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/i_384f.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">The River Ōi</span><br /> -From <i>Official History of Japan</i></div> -</div> - -<p>“The chief of these rivers is the formidable <i>Ōigawa</i>,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_385">[Pg 385]</span> -which separates the two provinces Tōtōmi and Suruga. -The passage of this river is what all travellers are apprehensive -of, not only for its uncommon rapidity and -swiftness, but because sometimes, chiefly after rains, it -swells so high that they are necessitated to stay several -days on either bank, till the fall of the water makes it -passable, or till they will venture the passage, and -desire to be set over at their own peril. The rivers -<i>Fuji-jedagawa</i> and <i>Abegawa</i>, in the last mentioned -province, are of the like nature, but not so much -dreaded.</p> - -<p>“There are many other shallows and rapid rivers, but -because they are not near so broad nor impetuous as -those above mentioned, passengers are ferried over them -in boats, which are built after a particular fashion proper -for such a passage, with flat, thin bottoms, which will -give way, so that if they run aground, or upon some -great stone, they may easily, and without any danger, -slide over it and get off again. The chief of these are -the river <i>Tenriū</i>, in the province Tōtōmi; <i>Fujigawa</i>, in -the province Suruga; <i>Benriū</i>, in the province Musashi, -and <i>Asukagawa</i>, which is particularly remarkable, for -that its bed continually alters, for which reason inconstant -people are compared to it in proverb.</p> - -<p>“Strong, broad bridges are laid over all other rivers -which do not run with so much rapidity, nor alter their -beds. These bridges are built of cedar, and kept in -constant repair, so that they look at all times as if they -had been but lately finished. They are railed on both -sides. As one may travel all over Japan without paying -any taxes or customs, so likewise they know nothing -of any money to be paid by way of a toll for the repair -of highways and bridges. Only in some places the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_386">[Pg 386]</span> -custom is, in winter-time to give the bridge-keeper, -who is to look after the bridge, a zeni for his trouble.</p> - -<p>“That part of our journey to court made by water is -along the coasts of the great island Nippon, which we -have on our left, steering our course so as to continue -always in sight of land, and not above one or two leagues -off it at farthest, that in case of a storm arising it may -be in our power forthwith to put into some harbor. -Coming out of the straits of Shimonoseki, we continue -for some time in sight of the southeastern coasts of -Kiūshiū. Having left these coasts, we come in sight of -those of the island Shikoku. We then make the island -Awaji, and steering between this island and the main -land of the province Izumi, we put into the harbor of -Ōsaka, and so end that part of our journey to court -which must be made by sea. All these coasts are very -much frequented, not only by the princes and lords of -the empire, with their retinues, travelling to and from -court, but likewise by the merchants of the country, -going from one province to another to buy and sell, so -that one may chance on some days to see upwards of a -hundred ships under sail. The coasts hereabouts are -rocky and mountainous; but many of the mountains are -cultivated to their very tops; they are well inhabited and -stocked with villages, castles, and small towns. There -are very good harbors in several places, where ships put -in at night to lie at anchor, commonly upon good clean -ground, in four to eight fathoms.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_386fa" style="max-width: 62.5em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/i_386fa.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Sailboats</span></div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_386fb" style="max-width: 62.5em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/i_386fb.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Rowboats</span></div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_386fc" style="max-width: 62.5em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/i_386fc.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Junks<br /> -Japanese Craft</span></div> -</div> - - -<p>“In this voyage we pass innumerable small islands, -particularly in the straits between Shikoku and Nippon. -They are all mountainous, and for the most part barren -and uncultivated rocks. Some few have a tolerable -good soil and sweet water. These are inhabited, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_387">[Pg 387]</span> -the mountains, though never so steep, cultivated up to -their tops. These mountains (as also those of the main -land of Nippon) have several rows of firs planted for -ornament’s sake along their ridges at top, which makes -them look at a distance as if they were fringed, and -affords a very curious prospect. There is hardly an -island, of the inhabited ones, but what hath a convenient -harbor, with good anchoring ground, where ships may -lie safe. All Japanese pilots know this very well, and -will sometimes come to an anchor upon very slight pretences. -Nor, indeed, are they much to be blamed for -an over-carefulness, or too great a circumspection, -which some would be apt to call fear and cowardice. -Their ships are not built strong enough to bear the -shocks and tossings of huge raging waves. The deck -is so loose that it will let the water run through, unless -the mast hath been taken down and the ship covered, -partly with mats, partly with sails. The stem is laid -quite open, and, if the sea runs high, the waves will -beat in on all sides. In short, the whole structure is so -weak that, a storm approaching, unless anchor be forthwith -cast, the sails taken in, and the mast let down, it -is in danger every moment to be shattered to pieces.</p> - -<p>“All the ships and boats we met with on our voyage -by sea were built of fir or cedar, both which grow in -great plenty in the country. They are of a different -structure, according to the purposes and the waters for -which they are built. The pleasure-boats, made use -of only for going up and down rivers, or to cross small -bays, are widely different in their structure, according -to the possessor’s fancy. Commonly they are built for -rowing. The first and lowermost deck is flat and low; -another, more lofty, with open windows, stands upon it,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_388">[Pg 388]</span> -and this may be divided, like their houses, by folding -screens, as they please, into several apartments. Several -parts are curiously adorned with variety of flags -and other ornaments.</p> - -<p>“The merchant-ships which venture out at sea, -though not very far from the coasts, and serve for the -transport of men and goods from one island or province -to another, deserve a more accurate description. They -are commonly eighty-four feet long and twenty-four -broad, built for sailing as well as rowing. They run -tapering from the middle towards the stern, and both -ends of the keel stand out of the water considerably. -The body of the ship is not built bulging, as our European -ones; but that part which stands below the surface -of the water runs almost in a straight line towards -the keel. The stern is broad and flat, with a wide -opening in the middle for the easier management of the -rudder, which reaches down almost to the bottom of the -ship, and lays open all the inside to the eye. The deck, -somewhat raised towards the stern, consists only of deal -boards laid loose, without anything to fasten them together. -It rises but little above the surface of the water, -when the ship hath its full lading, and is almost covered -with a sort of a cabin, full a man’s height, only a small -part of it towards the stern being left empty to lay up -the anchor and other tackle. This cabin jets beyond -the ship about two feet on each side; and there are -sliding-windows round it, which may be opened or shut, -as occasion requires. In the furthermost parts are the -cabins, or rooms for passengers, separate from each -other by folding screens and doors, with floors covered -with fine neat mats. The furthermost cabin is always -reckoned the best and for this reason assigned to the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_389">[Pg 389]</span> -chief passenger. The roof, or upper deck, is flatfish, -and made of neat boards curiously joined together. In -rainy weather the mast is let down upon the upper -deck, and the sail extended over it, affording to the -sailors and the people employed in the ship’s service -shelter and a place to sleep at night. Sometimes, and -the better to defend the upper deck, it is covered with -common straw mats, which for this purpose lie there at -hand. The ship hath but one sail, made of hemp, and -very large. She hath also but one mast, standing up -about a fathom beyond her middle towards the stern. -This mast, which is of the same length with the ship, -is hoisted up by pulleys, and again, when the ship comes -to an anchor, let down upon deck. The anchors are of -iron, and cables twisted of straw, and stronger than one -would imagine. Ships of this burden have commonly -thirty or forty hands apiece to row them if the wind -fails. The watermen’s benches are towards the stern. -They row according to the air of a song, or other noise, -which serves at the same time to direct and regulate -their work and to encourage the rowers. They do not -row after our European manner, extending their oars -straight forwards, and cutting just the surface of the -water, but let them fall down into the water almost -perpendicularly, and then lift them up again. This -way of rowing not only answers all the ends of the -other, but is done with less trouble. The benches of -the rowers are raised considerably above the surface of -the water. Their oars are, besides, made in a particular -manner, calculated for this way of rowing, being not -straight like our European oars, but somewhat bent, -with a movable joint in the middle, which, yielding to -the violent pressure of the water, facilitates the taking<span class="pagenum" id="Page_390">[Pg 390]</span> -them up. The ship’s timbers and planks are fastened -together with hooks and bands of copper. The stern -is adorned with a knot of fringes made of thin, long, -black strings. Men of quality in their voyages have -their cabin hung all about with cloth, whereupon is -stitched their coats of arms. Their pike of state, as -the badge of their authority, is put up upon the stern -on one side of the rudder. On the other side there is -a weather-flag for the use of the pilot. In small ships, -as soon as they come to an anchor, the rudder is hoisted -up, and one end of it extended to the shore, so that one -may pass through the opening of the stern, as through -a back door, and walking over the rudder, as over a -bridge, get ashore. Thus much of the ships. I proceed -now to other structures and buildings travellers -meet with in their journeys by land.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_390f" style="max-width: 75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/i_390f.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">A Merchant Ship</span><br /> -From <i>Official History of Japan</i></div> -</div> - -<p>“It may be observed, in general, that the buildings of -this country, ecclesiastical or civil, public or private, -being commonly low and of wood, are by no means to -be compared to ours in Europe, neither in largeness -nor magnificence. The houses of private persons never -exceed six ken, or thirty-six feet in height. Nay, ’tis -but seldom they build their houses so high, unless they -design them also for warehouses. Even the palaces of -the Dairi, the secular monarch, and of the princes and -lords, are not above one story high. And although -there be many common houses, chiefly in towns, of two -stories, yet the upper story, if it deserves that name, is -generally very low, unfit to be inhabited, and good for -little else but to lay up some of the least necessary -household goods, it being often without a ceiling or any -other cover but the bare roof. The reason of their -building their houses so low, is the frequency of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_391">[Pg 391]</span> -earthquakes, which prove much more fatal to lofty and -massy buildings of stone, than to low and small houses -of wood. But if the houses of the Japanese be not so -large, lofty, or so substantially built as ours, they are -on the other hand greatly to be admired for their uncommon -neatness and cleanliness, and curious furniture. -I could not help taking notice that the furniture and -the several ornaments of their apartments make a far -more graceful and handsome appearance in rooms of a -small compass, than they would do in large, lofty halls. -They have none, or but few, partition walls to divide -their rooms from each other, but instead of them make -use of folding screens, made of colored or gilt paper, -and laid into wooden frames, which they can put up or -remove whenever they please, and by this means enlarge -their rooms or make them narrower, as it best suits their -fancy or convenience. The floors are somewhat raised -above the level of the street, and are all made of boards, -neatly covered with fine mats<a id="FNanchor_167" href="#Footnote_167" class="fnanchor">[167]</a>, the borders whereof are -curiously fringed, embroidered, or otherwise neatly -adorned. All mats are of the same size in all parts of -the empire, to wit, a ken, or six feet long<a id="FNanchor_168" href="#Footnote_168" class="fnanchor">[168]</a>, and half a -ken broad. All the lower part of the house, the staircase -leading up to the second story, if there be any, -the doors, windows<a id="FNanchor_169" href="#Footnote_169" class="fnanchor">[169]</a>, posts and passages, are curiously<span class="pagenum" id="Page_392">[Pg 392]</span> -painted and varnished. The ceilings are neatly covered -with gilt or silver colored paper, embellished with -flowers, and the screens in several rooms curiously -painted. In short, there is not one corner in the whole -house but looks handsome and pretty, and this the -rather since all their furniture may be bought at an -easy rate.</p> - -<p>“I must not forget to mention, that it is very healthful -to live in these houses, and that in this particular -they are far beyond ours in Europe, because of their -being built all of cedar wood or fir; and because the -windows are generally contrived so that upon opening -them, and removing the screens which separate the -rooms, a free passage is left for the air through the -whole house.</p> - -<p>“I took notice that the roof, which is covered with -planks<a id="FNanchor_170" href="#Footnote_170" class="fnanchor">[170]</a>, or shingles of wood, rests upon thick, strong, -heavy beams, as large as they can get them, and that -the second story is generally built stronger and more -substantial than the first. This they do by reason of -the frequent earthquakes which happen in this country, -because, they observe, that in case of a violent shock, -the pressure of the upper part of the house upon the -lower, which is built much lighter, keeps the whole -from being overthrown.</p> - -<p>“The castles of the Japanese nobility are built, either -on great rivers, or upon hills and rising grounds. They -take in a vast deal of room, and consist commonly of -three different fortresses, or enclosures, which cover -and defend, or, if possible, encompass one another. -Each enclosure is surrounded and defended by a clean, -deep ditch, and a thick, strong wall, built of stone or<span class="pagenum" id="Page_393">[Pg 393]</span> -earth, with strong gates. Guns they have none. The -principal and innermost castle or enclosure is called the -<i>Honmaru</i>, that is, the true or chief castle. It is the residence -of the prince or lord who is in possession of it, -and as such it is distinguished from the others by a -square, large, white tower, three or four stories high, -with a small roof encompassing each story like a crown -or garland. In the second enclosure, called <i>Ni-no-maru</i>, -that is, the second castle, are lodged the gentlemen of -the prince’s bedchamber, his stewards, secretaries, and -other chief officers, who are to give a constant attendance -about his person. The empty spaces are cultivated, -and turned either into gardens or sown with rice. The -third and outwardmost enclosure is called <i>Sotogamaye</i>, -that is, the outwardmost defence; as, also, <i>Sannomaru</i>, -that is, the third castle. It is the abode of a numerous -train of soldiers, courtiers, domestics, and other people, -everybody being permitted to come into it. The white -walls, bastions, gates, each of which hath two or more -stories built over it, and above all the beautiful tower -of the innermost castle, are extremely pleasant to behold -at a distance. There is commonly a place without the -castle designed for a rendezvous and review of troops. -Hence it appears, that, considering wars are carried on -in this country without the use of great guns, these -castles are well enough defended, and of sufficient -strength to hold out a long siege. The proprietors are -bound to take particular care that they be kept in constant -repair. However, if there be any part thereof -going to ruin, the same cannot be rebuilt without the -knowledge and express leave of the emperor. Much -less doth the emperor suffer new ones to be built in any -part of his dominions. The castles where the prince<span class="pagenum" id="Page_394">[Pg 394]</span> -or lords reside are commonly seated at the extremity of -some large town, which encompasses them in the form -of a half-moon<a id="FNanchor_171" href="#Footnote_171" class="fnanchor">[171]</a>.</p> - -<p>“Most of the towns are very populous and well built. -The streets are generally speaking regular, running -straight forward, and crossing each other at right -angles, as if they had been laid out at one time, and -according to one general ground-plot. The towns are -not surrounded with walls and ditches. The two chief -gates, where people go in and out, are no better than -the ordinary gates which stand at the end of every -street, and are shut at night. Sometimes there is part -of a wall built contiguous to them on each side, merely -for ornament’s sake. In larger towns, where some -prince resides, these two gates are a little handsomer, -and kept in better repair, and there is commonly a -strong guard mounted, all out of respect for the residing -prince. The rest of the town generally lies open -to the fields, and is but seldom enclosed even with a -common hedge or ditch. In our journey to court I -counted thirty-three towns and residences of princes of -the empire, some whereof we passed through, but saw -others only at a distance. Common towns and large -villages or boroughs, on our road, I computed at from -seventy-seven to eighty or upwards<a id="FNanchor_172" href="#Footnote_172" class="fnanchor">[172]</a>.</p> - -<p>“I could not help admiring the great number of -shops we met with in all the cities, towns, and villages; -whole streets being scarce anything else but continued -rows of shops on both sides, and I own, for my part,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_395">[Pg 395]</span> -that I could not well conceive how the whole country -is able to furnish customers enough, only to make -the proprietors get a livelihood, much less to enrich -them.</p> - -<p>“The villages along the highways in the great island -Nippon, have among their inhabitants but few farmers, -the far greater part being made up by people who resort -there to get their livelihood either by selling some odd -things to travellers, or by servile daily labor. Most of -these villages consist only of one long street, bordering -on each side of the highway, which is sometimes extended -to such a length as almost to reach the next -village.</p> - -<p>“The houses of country people and husbandmen -consist of four low walls covered with a thatched or -shingled roof. In the back part of the house the floor -is somewhat raised above the level of the street, and -there it is they place the hearth; the rest is covered -with neat mats. Behind the street door hang rows of -coarse ropes made of straw, not to hinder people from -coming in or going out, but to serve instead of a lattice-window -to prevent such as are without from looking in -and observing what passes within doors. As to household -goods they have but few. Many children and -great poverty is generally what they are possessed of; -and yet with some small provision of rice, plants, and -roots, they live content and happy.</p> - -<p>“Passing through cities and villages and other inhabited -places, we always found, upon one of the chief -public streets, a small place, encompassed with grates, -for the supreme will, as the usual way of speaking is in -this country, that is, for the imperial orders and proclamations. -The lord or governor of every province<span class="pagenum" id="Page_396">[Pg 396]</span> -publishes them in his own name for the instruction of -passengers. They are written, article by article, in -large, fair characters, upon a square table of a foot or -two in length, standing upon a post at least twelve feet -high. We saw several of these tables, as we travelled -along, of different dates and upon different subjects. -The chief, largest, and oldest contain the edict against -the Roman Catholic religion, setting forth also proper -orders relating to the image-trampling inquisition, and -specifying what reward is to be given to any person or -persons that discover a Christian or a priest. The lords -or governors of provinces put up their own orders and -edicts in the same place. This is the reason why there -are sometimes so many standing behind or near one -another, that it is scarce possible to see and to read -them all. Sometimes, also, they have pieces of money, -in gold or silver, stuck or nailed to them, to be given as -a reward to any one who discovers any fact, person, or -criminal therein mentioned. These grated proclamation-cases -are commonly placed, in great cities, just at the -entrance, and in villages and hamlets in the middle of -the chief streets, where there is the most passing. -Along the road there are some other orders and instructions -for passengers put up in the like manner, -but upon lower posts. These come from the sheriffs, -surveyors of the roads, and other inferior officers, and -although the things therein ordered or intimated be -generally very trifling, yet they may involve a transgressor -or negligent observer in great troubles and -expense.</p> - -<p>“Another remarkable thing we met with, as we travelled -along, were the places of public execution, easily -known by crosses, posts, and other remains of former<span class="pagenum" id="Page_397">[Pg 397]</span> -executions. They commonly lie without the cities or -villages, on the west side.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_396f" style="max-width: 75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/i_396f.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">A Dry-goods Shop</span></div> -</div> - -<p>“In this heathen country fewer capital crimes are -tried before the courts of justice, and less criminal -blood shed by the hands of public executioners, than -perhaps in any part of Christendom. So powerfully -works the fear of an inevitable, shameful death upon -the minds of a nation, otherwise so stubborn as the -Japanese, and so regardless of their lives, that nothing -else but such strictness would be able to keep them -within due bounds. ’Tis true, indeed, Nagasaki cannot -boast of that scarcity of executions; for besides that -this place hath been in a manner consecrated to cruelty -and blood, by being made the common butchery of many -thousand Japanese Christians, there have not been since -wanting frequent executions, particularly of those people -who, contrary to the severe imperial edict, cannot leave -off carrying on a smuggling trade with foreigners, and -who alone perhaps of the whole nation seem to be more -pleased with this unlawful gain, than frightened by the -shameful punishment which they must inevitably suffer -if caught in the fact or betrayed to the governors.</p> - -<p>“Of all the religious buildings to be seen in this -country, the Tera, that is, the Buddhist temples, with -the adjoining convents, are, doubtless, the most remarkable, -as being far superior to all others, by their stately -height, curious roofs, and numberless other beautiful -ornaments. Such as are built within cities or villages, -stand commonly on rising grounds and in the most -conspicuous places. Others, which are without, are -built on the ascent of hills and mountains. All are -most sweetly seated,—a curious view of the adjacent -country, a spring or rivulet of clear water, and the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_398">[Pg 398]</span> -neighborhood of a wood, with pleasant walks, being -necessary for the spots on which these holy structures -are to be built.</p> - -<p>“All these temples are built of the best cedars and -firs, and adorned within with many carved images. In -the middle of the temple stands a fine altar, with one or -more gilt idols upon it, and a beautiful candlestick, -with sweet-scented candles burning before it. The -whole temple is so neatly and curiously adorned, that -one would fancy himself transported into a Roman -Catholic church, did not the monstrous shape of the -idols, which are therein worshipped, evince the contrary. -The whole empire is full of these temples, and -their priests are without number. Only in and about -Miyako they count three thousand eight hundred and -ninety-three temples, and thirty-seven thousand and -ninety-three Shukke, or priests, to attend them.</p> - -<p>“The sanctity of the Miya, or temples sacred to the -gods of old worshipped in the country, requires also -that they should be built in some lofty place, or, at -least, at some distance from unclean, common grounds. -I have elsewhere observed that they are attended only -by secular persons<a id="FNanchor_173" href="#Footnote_173" class="fnanchor">[173]</a>. A neat broad walk turns in from -the highway towards these temples. At the beginning -of the walk is a stately and magnificent gate, built -either of stone or of wood, with a square table, about -a foot and a half high, on which the name of the god to -whom the temple is consecrated is written or engraved -in golden characters.</p> - -<p>“Of this magnificent entry one may justly say,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_399">[Pg 399]</span> -<i>Parturiunt Montes</i>; for if you come to the end of the -walk, which is sometimes several hundred paces long, -instead of a pompous, magnificent building, you find -nothing but a low, mean structure of wood, often all -hid amidst trees and bushes, with one single grated -window to look into it, and within either all empty, or -adorned only with a looking-glass of metal, placed in -the middle, and hung about with some bundles of straw, -or cut white paper, tied to a long string, in form of -fringes, as a mark of the purity and sanctity of the -place. The most magnificent gates stand before the -temples of <i>Tenshō daijin</i>, of <i>Hachiman</i>, and of that -<i>Kami</i>, or god, whom particular places choose to worship -as their tutelar deity, who takes a more particular care -to protect and defend them<a id="FNanchor_174" href="#Footnote_174" class="fnanchor">[174]</a>.</p> - -<p>“Other religious objects travellers meet with along -the roads are the Hotoke, or foreign idols, chiefly those -of <i>Amida</i> and <i>Jizō</i>, as also other monstrous images and -idols, which we found upon the highways in several -places, at the turning in of sideways, near bridges, -convents, temples, and other buildings. They are set -up partly as an ornament to the place, partly to remind -travellers of the devotion and worship due to the gods. -For this same purpose, drawings of these idols printed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_400">[Pg 400]</span> -upon entire or half sheets of paper, are pasted upon the -gates of cities and villages, upon wooden posts, near -bridges, upon the proclamation-cases above described, -and in several other places upon the highway, which -stand the most exposed to the traveller’s view. Travellers, -however, are not obliged to fall down before -them, or to pay them any other mark of worship and -respect than they are otherwise willing to do.</p> - -<p>“On the doors and houses of ordinary people (for -men of quality seldom suffer to have theirs thus disfigured) -there is commonly pasted a sorry picture of one -of their Lares, or house gods, printed upon a half sheet -of paper. The most common is the black-horned <i>Gion</i>, -otherwise called <i>Gozutennō</i>,—that is, according to the -literal signification of the Chinese characters for this -name, <i>the ox-headed prince of heaven</i>,—whom they -believe to have the power of keeping the family from -distempers, and other unlucky accidents, particularly -from the small-pox, which proves fatal to great numbers -of their children. Others fancy they thrive extremely -well, and live happy, under the protection of a countryman -of Yezo, whose monstrous, frightful picture they -paste upon their doors, being hairy all over his body, -and carrying a large sword with both hands, which they -believe he makes use of to keep off, and, as it were, to -parry, all sorts of distempers and misfortunes endeavoring -to get into the house.</p> - -<p>“On the fronts of new and pretty houses I have sometimes -seen dragons’ or devils’ heads, painted with a -wide open mouth, large teeth, and fiery eyes. The -Chinese and other Indian nations—nay, even the -Mahometans in Arabia and Persia—have the same -placed over the doors of their houses, by the frightful<span class="pagenum" id="Page_401">[Pg 401]</span> -aspect of this monstrous figure to keep off, as the latter -say, the envious from disturbing the peace of families.</p> - -<p>“Often, also, they put a branch of the <i>Hanashikimi</i>, -or anise-tree, over their doors, which is, in like manner, -believed to bring good luck into their houses; or else -liverwort, which they fancy hath the particular virtue -to keep off evil spirits; or some other plants or branches -of trees. In villages they often place their indulgence-boxes<a id="FNanchor_175" href="#Footnote_175" class="fnanchor">[175]</a>, -which they bring back from their pilgrimage to -Ise, over their doors, thinking, also, by this means to -bring happiness and prosperity upon their houses. -Others paste long strips of paper to their doors, which -the adherents of the several religious sects and convents -are presented with by their clergy, for some small gratuity. -There are odd, unknown characters, and divers -forms of prayers, writ upon these papers, which the -superstitious firmly believe to have the infallible virtue -of conjuring and keeping off all manner of misfortunes. -Many more amulets of the like nature are pasted to -their doors, against the plague, distempers, and particular -misfortunes. There is, also, one against poverty.”</p> - - -<p class="center">END OF VOL. I.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="INDEX">INDEX</h2> -</div> - -<div class="index"> -<ul class="index"> -<li class="ifrst">Abegawa, River, i., <a href='#Page_385'>385</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Acorns, Edible, ii., 142.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Acorus</i>, ii., 124.</li> - -<li class="indx">Actors, i., <a href='#Page_212'>212</a>, <a href='#Page_360'>360</a>-365; ii., 160, 161.</li> - -<li class="indx">Acupuncture, ii., 145, 202.</li> - -<li class="indx">Adams, ——, ii., 345.</li> - -<li class="indx">Adams, Captain Robert, i., <a href='#Page_240'>240</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Adams, Thomas, i., <a href='#Page_172'>172</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Adams, William, i., <a href='#Page_169'>169</a>-179, <a href='#Page_192'>192</a>, <a href='#Page_199'>199</a>-204, <a href='#Page_206'>206</a>, <a href='#Page_207'>207</a>, -<a href='#Page_210'>210</a>, <a href='#Page_211'>211</a>, <a href='#Page_213'>213</a>, <a href='#Page_224'>224</a>, <a href='#Page_225'>225</a>, <a href='#Page_239'>239</a>, -<a href='#Page_240'>240</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ainslie, Dr., ii., 208.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Ainu and their Folk-lore, The,” ii., 345.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Ainu of Japan, The,” ii., 345.</li> - -<li class="indx">Akechi Mitsuhide, i., <a href='#Page_116'>116</a>, <a href='#Page_117'>117</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Alcea rosea</i>, ii., 124.</li> - -<li class="indx">Alcock, ——, ii., 345.</li> - -<li class="indx">Almeida, Louis, i., <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>, -<a href='#Page_153'>153</a>, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Alphabets in use, i., <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>; ii., 164.</li> - -<li class="indx">Alvarez, George, i., <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ambassadors to the Pope, i., <a href='#Page_103'>103</a>-115, <a href='#Page_121'>121</a>, <a href='#Page_122'>122</a>, -<a href='#Page_126'>126</a>, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a>, <a href='#Page_132'>132</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ambergris, i., <a href='#Page_329'>329</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Amboyna, Massacre of, i., <a href='#Page_240'>240</a>, <a href='#Page_241'>241</a>; ii., 355.</li> - -<li class="indx">“America in the East,” ii., 273.</li> - -<li class="indx">“American anchorage,” ii., 291.</li> - -<li class="indx">American relations with Japan. <i>See</i> United States’ relations with Japan.</li> - -<li class="indx">Amida, the god and his idols, i., <a href='#Page_399'>399</a>; ii., 49, 65.</li> - -<li class="indx">Amiot, Père, i., <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Amœnitates Exoticae,” i., <a href='#Page_289'>289</a>, <a href='#Page_315'>315</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Amomum miōga</i>, ii., 124.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Anas galericulata</i>, ii., 135.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ancestor worship, ii., 188.</li> - -<li class="indx">Anderson, W., ii., 345.</li> - -<li class="indx">Angelis, Jerome de, i., <a href='#Page_220'>220</a>, <a href='#Page_265'>265</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Animals and birds eaten for food, i., <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a>, <a href='#Page_187'>187</a>; -ii., 135;</li> -<li class="isub1">those not eaten, ii., 253.</li> - -<li class="indx">Anise-tree, i., <a href='#Page_401'>401</a>; ii., 126.</li> - -<li class="indx">Anjirō, i., <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a>, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>, -<a href='#Page_49'>49</a>-54, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>, <a href='#Page_359'>359</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Annales des Voyages,” ii., 349.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Annals des Dairi,” ii., 89.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Annals des Empereurs du Japon,” i., <a href='#Page_257'>257</a>, <a href='#Page_391'>391</a>; -ii., 108, 165.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Annals of the Dairi,” i., <a href='#Page_357'>357</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Apples, ii., 140.</li> - -<li class="indx">Arai, ii., 65, 70.</li> - -<li class="indx">Arai Hakuseki, ii., 112.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Aratame</i>, ii., 65.</li> - -<li class="indx">Architecture, domestic, i., <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>, <a href='#Page_187'>187</a>, <a href='#Page_218'>218</a>, <a href='#Page_339'>339</a>, <a href='#Page_340'>340</a>, -<a href='#Page_390'>390</a>-392, <a href='#Page_395'>395</a>; ii., 52, 63, 79, 129-131, 306, 318-322.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Archives of Japan,” i., <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Argonaut</i>, English ship, ii., 191.</li> - -<li class="indx">Arima, King of, i., <a href='#Page_98'>98</a>, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Armies and soldiery, i., <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>, <a href='#Page_215'>215</a>, <a href='#Page_258'>258</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Armor, i., <a href='#Page_139'>139</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Arms, or mark, upon clothing, etc., i., <a href='#Page_116'>116</a>, <a href='#Page_188'>188</a>, <a href='#Page_371'>371</a>, <a href='#Page_373'>373</a>; -ii., 17, 18, 285, 322.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Artemisia</i>, ii., 146.</li> -<li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> Wormwood.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Arts and Crafts of Old Japan,” ii., 345.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Arum dracontium</i> and <i>esculentum</i>, ii., 142.</li> - -<li class="indx">Asakawa, ——, ii., 345.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Asiatic Journal,” i., <a href='#Page_195'>195</a>; ii., 46, 72, 108, 254, 352.</li> - -<li class="indx">Aston, W. G., i., <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>, <a href='#Page_145'>145</a>; ii., 199, 206, 345.</li> - -<li class="indx">Astronomers, ii., 143, 201, 223, 251.</li> - -<li class="indx">Asukagawa, River, i., <a href='#Page_385'>385</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Atlas Japonensis,” i., <a href='#Page_266'>266</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Atotsuke</i>, i., <a href='#Page_370'>370</a>, <a href='#Page_372'>372</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Atsuta (Miya), ii., 69.</li> - -<li class="indx">Audiences with emperor and princes, i., <a href='#Page_175'>175</a>, <a href='#Page_189'>189</a>-191, <a href='#Page_217'>217</a>; -ii., 55, 56, 60-62, 85-104, 149-153, 331-334.</li> - -<li class="indx">Audsley, ——, and Bowes, ——, ii., 345.</li> - -<li class="indx">Austerities practised by both bonzes and Jesuits, i., <a href='#Page_71'>71</a>, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Autographs of travellers, i., <a href='#Page_218'>218</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Awa, Provinces of, ii., 283.</li> - -<li class="indx">Azuchiyama, i., <a href='#Page_103'>103</a>, <a href='#Page_116'>116</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Bacon, Miss, ii., 344.</li> - -<li class="indx">Baggage, i., <a href='#Page_370'>370</a>-377.</li> - -<li class="indx">Baker, Edmund, i., <a href='#Page_177'>177</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Baptiste, Father Pierre, i., <a href='#Page_242'>242</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Barley, i., <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Batchelor, John, ii., 345.</li> - -<li class="indx">Baths, ii., 9, 52, 134.</li> - -<li class="indx">Batoli, Father Daniel, i., <a href='#Page_115'>115</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bedding, ii., 5, 133, 156.</li> - -<li class="indx">Beechey, Captain, ii., 282.</li> - -<li class="indx">Beer, ii., 207.</li> - -<li class="indx">Beggars, ii., 23-28, 58.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bell in Miyako temple, ii., 105, 108.</li> - -<li class="indx">Benriū, River, i., <a href='#Page_385'>385</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bent, Lieut., ii., 302.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bettelheim, Rev. B. J., ii., 266, 267.</li> - -<li class="indx">Biddle, Commodore, ii., 261-265.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bidinger, Mr., ii., 300.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Bikuni</i> (nuns), ii., 23, 24.</li> - -<li class="indx">Binding of prisoners, ii., 214, 270.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bird, Miss, ii., 344.</li> - -<li class="indx">Birds eaten for food, ii., 135.</li> - -<li class="indx">Biscanio, Sebastian, i., <a href='#Page_270'>270</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Biwa, Lake, ii., 63, 67.</li> - - -<li class="indx">Black, ——, ii., 345.</li> - -<li class="indx">Blindness, ii., 29.</li> - -<li class="indx">Blomhoff, Herr, ii., 245, 247.</li> - -<li class="indx">Blomhoff, Mme., ii., 245.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Blossom</i>, English ship, ii., 282.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bonin Islands, ii., 282, 292.</li> - -<li class="indx">Books, i., <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>; ii., 118, 123, 224.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bōshū (Awa) Province, ii., 283.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Botanical Magazine” (Curtis), ii., 125.</li> - -<li class="indx">Botany, i., <a href='#Page_374'>374</a>, <a href='#Page_375'>375</a>; ii., 123, 157, 162, 253.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bowes, ——, and Audsley, ——, ii., 345.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bowmen, ii., 149.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bramhall, Mrs., ii., 344.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Brassica orientalis</i>, ii., 124, 137.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Breskens</i>, Dutch ship (1643), i., <a href='#Page_262'>262</a>-264.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bridges, i., <a href='#Page_385'>385</a>; ii., 50, 51, 57, 58, 67, 78, 329.</li> - -<li class="indx">Brixiano, Father Organtino, i., <a href='#Page_149'>149</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Broadcloth, English, i., <a href='#Page_224'>224</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Broughton, Captain, i., <a href='#Page_265'>265</a>; ii., 191.</li> - -<li class="indx">Brown, Mr., ii., 302.</li> - -<li class="indx">Buddha, The great, ii., 108.</li> - -<li class="indx">Buddhism, i., <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a>-74, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a>, <a href='#Page_275'>275</a>-277, <a href='#Page_342'>342</a>, -<a href='#Page_343'>343</a>; ii., 28, 65.</li> - -<li class="indx">Buddhist clergy, i., <a href='#Page_72'>72</a>-74, <a href='#Page_275'>275</a>-277, <a href='#Page_342'>342</a>, 343; ii., 65.</li> - -<li class="indx">Buddhist temples (<i>Tera</i>), i., <a href='#Page_71'>71</a>, <a href='#Page_275'>275</a>, <a href='#Page_342'>342</a>, <a href='#Page_397'>397</a>, <a href='#Page_398'>398</a>; -ii., 65, 304.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Buke</i> (military nobility), i., <a href='#Page_63'>63</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Buku</i>, ii., 187.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bullocks, ii., 317.</li> -<li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> Oxen.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bungo, Kingdom of, i., <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>-29, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>-36, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>-86, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>, <a href='#Page_98'>98</a>, -<a href='#Page_102'>102</a>, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a>-120, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a>, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a>, <a href='#Page_145'>145</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Burger, Dr., ii., 252.</li> - -<li class="indx">Burial service, Jesuit, i., <a href='#Page_88'>88</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Burrows, Silas E., ii., 312-314.</li> - -<li class="indx">Burying-grounds, ii., 123, 296, 307, 316.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Bushido—The Soul of Japan,” ii., 344.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Cabot, Sebastian, i., <a href='#Page_167'>167</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cabral, Father, i., <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>, <a href='#Page_98'>98</a>, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a>-101.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Cactus ficus</i>, ii., 159.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Caladium</i>, ii., 142.</li> - -<li class="indx">Calendar, Japanese, i., <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>, <a href='#Page_357'>357</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">California, ii., 276, 278.</li> - -<li class="indx">Call to arms, i., <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cambodia River, ii., 354.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Camellia sasankwa</i>, ii., 125.</li> - -<li class="indx">Campbell, ——, i., <a href='#Page_302'>302</a>; ii., 345.</li> - -<li class="indx">Campbell, Archibald, ii., 203.</li> - -<li class="indx">Camphor-tree, i., <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>; ii., 46, 125, 250.</li> - -<li class="indx">Candles, ii., 38, 39.</li> - -<li class="indx">Canvas batteries, ii., 257.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Capital of the Tycoon, The,” ii., 345.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Capsicum</i>, ii., 124.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Captive of Love, A,” ii., 345.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Captivity in Japan,” i., <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Carac of Macao, Cargo of, i., <a href='#Page_153'>153</a>, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a>, <a href='#Page_269'>269</a>, <a href='#Page_270'>270</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Card games, ii., 224.</li> - -<li class="indx">Caron, Francis, i., <a href='#Page_224'>224</a>, <a href='#Page_240'>240</a>, <a href='#Page_243'>243</a>, <a href='#Page_253'>253</a>-257, <a href='#Page_260'>260</a>, -<a href='#Page_261'>261</a>, <a href='#Page_266'>266</a>, <a href='#Page_267'>267</a>, 273, <a href='#Page_343'>343</a>, 352, <a href='#Page_368'>368</a>, <a href='#Page_373'>373</a>; -ii., 16, 30, 46, 65, 135, 355, 365, 366.</li> - -<li class="indx">Carvilho, Father Valentine, i., <a href='#Page_227'>227</a>, <a href='#Page_242'>242</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cassa, Heer, ii., 207, 209.</li> - -<li class="indx">Castles, i., <a href='#Page_186'>186</a>, <a href='#Page_392'>392</a>-394; ii., 48, 54, 58, 63, 69, 80-83, 86-88.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Castricoom</i>, Dutch ship (1643), i., <a href='#Page_262'>262</a>, <a href='#Page_264'>264</a>, <a href='#Page_265'>265</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Casuar, rare Batavian bird, i., <a href='#Page_265'>265</a>, <a href='#Page_368'>368</a>; ii., 53.</li> - -<li class="indx">Catechists, Native, i., <a href='#Page_100'>100</a>, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a>, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a>, <a href='#Page_231'>231</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Catholic Church in the East, i., <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>-47, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>, <a href='#Page_205'>205</a>, -<a href='#Page_235'>235</a>, <a href='#Page_261'>261</a>, <a href='#Page_267'>267</a>, <a href='#Page_277'>277</a>, <a href='#Page_396'>396</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> Missionaries <i>and</i> Xavier, Francis.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cats, ii., 138, 253.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cavendish, Thomas, i., <a href='#Page_167'>167</a>, <a href='#Page_271'>271</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cecille, Admiral, ii., 265.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cedar-trees, ii., 141.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Celastrus alatus</i>, ii., 124.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cevicos, Don Jean, i., <a href='#Page_245'>245</a>, <a href='#Page_246'>246</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Chamberlain, ——, ii., 345.</li> - -<li class="indx">Chaplin-Ayrton, Mrs., ii., 344.</li> - -<li class="indx">Charlevoix, Father, i., <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a>, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a>, -<a href='#Page_232'>232</a>, <a href='#Page_246'>246</a>, <a href='#Page_265'>265</a>, <a href='#Page_290'>290</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Charms against evil spirits, ii., 323.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cherry-trees, ii., 10, 140.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Child Life in Japan,” ii., 344.</li> - -<li class="indx">Children, i., <a href='#Page_259'>259</a>, <a href='#Page_260'>260</a>, <a href='#Page_353'>353</a>; -ii., 41, 73, 121, 135, 211.</li> - -<li class="indx">China trade, i., <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>, <a href='#Page_270'>270</a>, <a href='#Page_273'>273</a>-275, <a href='#Page_277'>277</a>-281; -ii., 111, 275, 276.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Chinese Repository,” ii., 254, 255, 258, 284.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Chiushingura, the Loyal League,” ii., 345.</li> - -<li class="indx">Chronicles, Japanese, i., <a href='#Page_1'>1</a>, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Citrus tripoliata</i>, ii., 142.</li> - -<li class="indx">Civility of Japanese, i., <a href='#Page_287'>287</a>; ii., 34, 41.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Classical Poetry of the Japanese,” ii., 345.</li> - -<li class="indx">Clement, Ernest W., i., <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>; ii., 343, 357, 360.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Cleopatra</i>, French frigate, ii., 265.</li> - -<li class="indx">Climate, ii., 162.</li> - -<li class="indx">Clocks, ii., 126, 251.</li> - -<li class="indx">Coal, ii., 311, 312.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cocks, Richard, i., <a href='#Page_213'>213</a>, <a href='#Page_223'>223</a>-225, <a href='#Page_229'>229</a>, <a href='#Page_234'>234</a>, <a href='#Page_236'>236</a>, -<a href='#Page_239'>239</a>, <a href='#Page_240'>240</a>; ii., 121, 122.</li> - -<li class="indx">Coimbra (Portugal) University, i., <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Jesuit college, i., <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Coins and currency, i., <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a>, <a href='#Page_257'>257</a>, <a href='#Page_272'>272</a>, <a href='#Page_273'>273</a>, -<a href='#Page_277'>277</a>, <a href='#Page_278'>278</a>, <a href='#Page_322'>322</a>, <a href='#Page_372'>372</a>; ii., 109-111, 309-311, 337.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Coins of Japan, The,” ii., 310.</li> - -<li class="indx">Colbert, ——, i., <a href='#Page_266'>266</a>, <a href='#Page_368'>368</a>; ii., 355, 364.</li> - -<li class="indx">Colds and catarrh, ii., 134.</li> - -<li class="indx">Colewort, ii., 124.</li> - -<li class="indx">Colic, Treatment of, ii., 145.</li> - -<li class="indx">Collado, Father, i., <a href='#Page_244'>244</a>-246.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Columbus</i>, American ship, ii., 261-265, 283.</li> - -<li class="indx">Company of Jesus.</li> -<li class="isub1"><i>See</i> Order of Jesuits <i>and</i> Missionaries, Jesuit.</li> - -<li class="indx">Company’s Island, i., <a href='#Page_124'>124</a>, <a href='#Page_265'>265</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Compliments, i., <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Concubines and courtesans, i., <a href='#Page_260'>260</a>, <a href='#Page_279'>279</a>, <a href='#Page_292'>292</a>, <a href='#Page_310'>310</a>, <a href='#Page_340'>340</a>, <a href='#Page_341'>341</a>, <a href='#Page_356'>356</a>; -ii., 23, 30, 120, 121, 175, 249.</li> - -<li class="indx">Conder, ——, ii., 7.</li> - -<li class="indx">Contee, Mr., ii., 284.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Contributions towards a Knowledge of the Japanese Empire,” ii., 247.</li> - -<li class="indx">Converts, native, i., <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a>, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>-98, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a>, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a>, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a>-121, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a>-129, <a href='#Page_134'>134</a>, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a>, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a>, <a href='#Page_145'>145</a>, <a href='#Page_155'>155</a>-158, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a>-164, <a href='#Page_195'>195</a>, <a href='#Page_207'>207</a>, <a href='#Page_211'>211</a>, <a href='#Page_222'>222</a>, <a href='#Page_227'>227</a>-234, <a href='#Page_243'>243</a>-248, <a href='#Page_267'>267</a>, <a href='#Page_268'>268</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> Missionaries.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cook-shops, ii., 12, 13.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cooper, Captain, ii., 260, 261.</li> - -<li class="indx">Copper, i., <a href='#Page_329'>329</a>; ii., 159, 202, 203.</li> - -<li class="indx">Corean expedition, i., <a href='#Page_128'>128</a>, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a>, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a>, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a>, <a href='#Page_145'>145</a>, <a href='#Page_151'>151</a>, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a>; ii., 108.</li> - -<li class="indx">Corvailho, Father.</li> -<li class="isub1"><i>Same as</i> Carvilho, Father Valentine.</li> - -<li class="indx">Couros, Father Matthew de, i., <a href='#Page_159'>159</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cows, ii., 137.</li> - -<li class="indx">Craftsmen segregate, i., <a href='#Page_187'>187</a>, <a href='#Page_217'>217</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Credit on accounts, ii., 127.</li> - -<li class="indx">Crucifixion, i., <a href='#Page_156'>156</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Crusado</i>, i., <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cuello, Father Gaspard, i., <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>, <a href='#Page_119'>119</a>, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Cupressus japonica</i>, ii., 141.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Cyprus</i>, English brig, ii., 254.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Daguerreotypes, ii., 302.</li> - -<li class="indx">Daibutsu Temple, ii., 106.</li> - -<li class="indx">Daifu-Sama.</li> -<li class="isub1"><i>See</i> Iyeyasu.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Daikoku</i>, i., <a href='#Page_359'>359</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Dairi, or Mikado, i., <a href='#Page_60'>60</a>-66; ii., 166, 167.</li> - -<li class="indx">Dale, Sir Thomas, i., <a href='#Page_237'>237</a>, <a href='#Page_238'>238</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Date Masamune, i., <a href='#Page_204'>204</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Davidson, J. W., i., <a href='#Page_302'>302</a>; ii., 345.</li> - -<li class="indx">Davis, pilot of Dutch vessel, i., <a href='#Page_169'>169</a>, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a>; ii., 353, 354.</li> - -<li class="indx">Dee-yee-no-skee, Japanese seaman, ii., 312-314.</li> - -<li class="indx">De Jancigny, ——, ii., 254, 274, 277, 310.</li> - -<li class="indx">Dening, ——, i., <a href='#Page_150'>150</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Deshima, Island of, i., <a href='#Page_248'>248</a>, <a href='#Page_262'>262</a>, <a href='#Page_291'>291</a>-294; -ii., 117.</li> - -<li class="indx">Devereux, Captain, ii., 194.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Diana</i>, Russian sloop, ii., 212, 226-243, 324.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Diary of Richard Cocks,” i., <a href='#Page_225'>226</a>, <a href='#Page_267'>267</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Dick, Stewart, ii., 345.</li> - -<li class="indx">Dickins, ——, ii., 345.</li> - -<li class="indx">Dickson, ——, ii., 345.</li> - -<li class="indx">Dictionary, Japanese-Dutch, ii., 210.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Dioscorea Japonica</i>, ii., 124.</li> - -<li class="indx">Distance, Measures of, i., <a href='#Page_382'>382</a>, <a href='#Page_391'>391</a>; ii., 89.</li> - -<li class="indx">Dixon, ——, ii., 345.</li> - -<li class="indx">Doeff, Heer Hendrick, ii., 194-212, 245.</li> - -<li class="indx">Dogs, ii., 138, 253.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Dolichos polystachos</i>, ii., 159.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Dolichos soia</i>, ii., 159.</li> - -<li class="indx">Dominicans in Japanese missions.</li> -<li class="isub1"><i>See</i> Missionaries, Catholic, other than Jesuit.</li> - -<li class="indx">Dosha powder, ii., 147.</li> - -<li class="indx">Dōshin, or imperial soldiers, i., <a href='#Page_257'>257</a>, <a href='#Page_346'>346</a>; ii., 223.</li> - -<li class="indx">Drake, Sir Francis, i., <a href='#Page_167'>167</a>; ii., 351.</li> - -<li class="indx">Draughts, Game of, ii., 224, 225.</li> - -<li class="indx">Dress, i., <a href='#Page_105'>105</a>, <a href='#Page_210'>210</a>-212, <a href='#Page_276'>276</a>, <a href='#Page_375'>375</a>, <a href='#Page_376'>376</a>; -ii., 55, 56, 58, 143, 154-156, 248, 285, 331, 332.</li> - -<li class="indx">Dress, ease of adjustment, ii., 9, 133, 156.</li> - -<li class="indx">Dresser, ——, ii., 345.</li> - -<li class="indx">Drinking, i., <a href='#Page_343'>343</a>; ii., 39, 226.</li> - -<li class="indx">Dutch East India Company, i., <a href='#Page_169'>169</a>, <a href='#Page_209'>209</a>, <a href='#Page_238'>238</a>, <a href='#Page_251'>251</a>-253, <a href='#Page_261'>261</a>, -<a href='#Page_272'>272</a>, <a href='#Page_283'>283</a>-336, <a href='#Page_366'>366</a>; ii., 31-41, 101, 109-111, 114-120, 122, 123, 126-129, 136, 139, 193-209, 245, 246.</li> -<li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> Dutch in Japan.</li> - -<li class="indx">Dutch in Japan, i., <a href='#Page_165'>165</a>, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a>-175, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a>, 179, <a href='#Page_181'>181</a>-185, <a href='#Page_191'>191</a>, -<a href='#Page_192'>192</a>, <a href='#Page_195'>195</a>-204, <a href='#Page_206'>206</a>-209, <a href='#Page_220'>220</a>, 221, <a href='#Page_223'>223</a>, <a href='#Page_228'>228</a>, -<a href='#Page_233'>233</a>-238, <a href='#Page_240'>240</a>, <a href='#Page_241'>241</a>, <a href='#Page_251'>251</a>-256, <a href='#Page_261'>261</a>-267, <a href='#Page_271'>271</a>-273, -<a href='#Page_277'>277</a>-281, <a href='#Page_284'>284</a>-301; ii., 274, 275, 325.</li> -<li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> Dutch East India Company.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Dyosperos kaki</i>, ii., 159.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">“Early Institutional Life of Japan,” ii., 345.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Early Study of Dutch in Japan, The,” ii., 210.</li> - -<li class="indx">Earthquakes, i., <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>, <a href='#Page_151'>151</a>, <a href='#Page_391'>391</a>, <a href='#Page_392'>392</a>; ii., 50, 85, 143, 173, 324.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Eclipse</i>, American ship, ii., 203.</li> - -<li class="indx">Eclipses, ii., 143, 223.</li> - -<li class="indx">Edicts, i., <a href='#Page_395'>395</a>, <a href='#Page_396'>396</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Edmund</i>, English whaler, ii., 273.</li> - -<li class="indx">Education, i., <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Elephant, ii., 209, 223.</li> - -<li class="indx">Elgin, Lord, ii., 335.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Eliza</i>, American ship, ii., 193, 194.</li> - -<li class="indx">Elserak, Dutch director, i., <a href='#Page_264'>264</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Embassy to Washington, ii., 335-339.</li> - -<li class="indx">Emperor, Castle of, ii., 80-83, 86-91, 148-153.</li> - -<li class="indx">Emperors, Chronology of, ii., 158, 166, 360, 361.</li> - -<li class="indx">Empress, ii., 91.</li> - -<li class="indx">English East India Company, i., <a href='#Page_178'>178</a>, <a href='#Page_219'>219</a>, <a href='#Page_220'>220</a>, <a href='#Page_225'>225</a>, <a href='#Page_236'>236</a>-241, -<a href='#Page_267'>267</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> English in the East.</li> - -<li class="indx">English in the East, i., <a href='#Page_167'>167</a>, <a href='#Page_169'>169</a>, <a href='#Page_175'>175</a>, <a href='#Page_178'>178</a>, <a href='#Page_179'>179</a>, -<a href='#Page_207'>207</a>-209, <a href='#Page_219'>219</a>-221, <a href='#Page_228'>228</a>, <a href='#Page_230'>230</a>, <a href='#Page_233'>233</a>-240, <a href='#Page_278'>278</a>; -ii., 246, 259, 260, 272, 273, 323, 324, 335.</li> -<li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> English East India Company.</li> - -<li class="indx">Enoshima, Island of, ii., 74.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Essay on the Commerce of Japan,” ii., 274.</li> - -<li class="indx">Everett, Hon. Edward, ii., 280.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Evolution of the Japanese, The,” ii., 344.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Examiner” (London), ii., 259.</li> - -<li class="indx">Executions and tortures, i., <a href='#Page_156'>156</a>, <a href='#Page_214'>214</a>, <a href='#Page_246'>246</a>, <a href='#Page_247'>247</a>, <a href='#Page_333'>333</a>-335, -<a href='#Page_349'>349</a>, <a href='#Page_353'>353</a>, <a href='#Page_354'>354</a>, <a href='#Page_396'>396</a>; ii., 75.</li> - -<li class="indx">Eye diseases, ii., 29, 123.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Fans, i., <a href='#Page_376'>376</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Farming class, ii., 159.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Fauna Japonica,” ii., 253.</li> - -<li class="indx">Feith, M., ii., 157.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fernandes, Jean, i., <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ferreyra, Father Christopher, i., <a href='#Page_247'>247</a>, <a href='#Page_248'>248</a>, <a href='#Page_264'>264</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ferry-boats, i., <a href='#Page_385'>385</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Festivals, i., <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>, <a href='#Page_223'>223</a>, <a href='#Page_224'>224</a>, <a href='#Page_356'>356</a>-365; -ii., 188, 189, 225, 226.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Feudal and Modern Japan,” ii., 344.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Figara peperita</i>, ii., 124.</li> - -<li class="indx">Figure-treading, Ceremony of, i., <a href='#Page_298'>298</a>, <a href='#Page_352'>352</a>, <a href='#Page_396'>396</a>; ii., 128, 271.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fillmore, President, ii., 276-281.</li> - -<li class="indx">Firearms, i., <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>; ii., 149, 224, 346-348.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fire-extinguishers, i., <a href='#Page_367'>367</a>; ii., 52, 79, 303.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fire-flies, ii., 158.</li> - -<li class="indx">Firemen, ii., 76, 79, 200.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fires, i., <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>; ii., 70, 71, 78, 79, 143, 173, 200, 303, 321.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fir-trees, ii., 141.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fischer, ——, i., <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Fiscus pumila</i> and <i>erecta</i>, ii., 124.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fishermen, i., <a href='#Page_214'>214</a>; ii., 213.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fisscher, Herr, ii., 210, 247-250.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fitch, Ralph, i., <a href='#Page_269'>269</a>, <a href='#Page_270'>270</a>; ii., 351, 352.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Flora Japonica” (Siebold and Zaccarini), ii., 253.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Flora Japonica” (Thunberg), ii., 162.</li> - -<li class="indx">Floris, ——, ii., 354.</li> - -<li class="indx">Flower-arrangements, ii., 7.</li> - -<li class="indx">Flute, ii., 315.</li> - -<li class="indx">Food, i., <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a>, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>, <a href='#Page_187'>187</a>, <a href='#Page_216'>216</a>, <a href='#Page_286'>286</a>, -<a href='#Page_343'>343</a>; ii., 12, 13, 38, 75, 98, 99, -102-104, 126, 127, 140, 159, 215, 217, 220, 317, 318, 333, 334.</li> - -<li class="indx">Foot-coverings, ii., 142.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fords, i., <a href='#Page_384'>384</a>, <a href='#Page_385'>385</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Foreigners, Antipathy to, i., <a href='#Page_214'>214</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Forestry regulations, i., <a href='#Page_381'>381</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Formosa, i., <a href='#Page_252'>252</a>-255, <a href='#Page_262'>262</a>, <a href='#Page_271'>271</a>, <a href='#Page_274'>274</a>, <a href='#Page_302'>302</a>; ii., 355.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Formosa under the Dutch,” i., <a href='#Page_302'>302</a>; ii., 345.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fowls, Domestic, ii., 138.</li> - -<li class="indx">Foxes, i., <a href='#Page_75'>75</a>; ii., 42, 43.</li> - -<li class="indx">Franciscans in Japanese missions.</li> -<li class="isub1"><i>See</i> Missionaries, Catholic, other than Jesuit.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Franklin</i>, American ship, ii., 194.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Free Press” (Serampore), ii., 265.</li> - -<li class="indx">French East India Company, i., <a href='#Page_266'>266</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">French in Japanese affairs, i., <a href='#Page_266'>266</a>; ii., 265, 335.</li> - -<li class="indx">Frisius, of the Dutch East India Company, i., <a href='#Page_265'>265</a>, <a href='#Page_266'>266</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Froez, Father Louis, i., <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a>, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a>, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a>, -<a href='#Page_159'>159</a>, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a>, <a href='#Page_266'>266</a>; ii., 38.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Frog-in-a-well” policy, ii., 170, 171, 193.</li> - -<li class="indx">“From Far Formosa,” ii., 345.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fruits, ii., 140, 159.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fuchū, i., <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a>, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Fucus saccharinus</i>, ii., 140.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fujigawa, River, i., <a href='#Page_385'>385</a>; ii., 72.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fuji-jedagawa, River, i., <a href='#Page_385'>385</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fuji-no-Yama, ii., 72, 141, 286, 328.</li> - -<li class="indx">Funeral customs, ii., 183-189.</li> - -<li class="indx">Furniture and interiors, i., <a href='#Page_340'>340</a>, <a href='#Page_391'>391</a>, <a href='#Page_392'>392</a>; ii., 4-8, 52, 55, 62, 130, 131, 133, 303, 330.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fushimi, i., <a href='#Page_140'>140</a>, <a href='#Page_151'>151</a>, <a href='#Page_215'>215</a>; ii., 58.</li> - - -<li class="indx">Gago, Balthaza, i., <a href='#Page_87'>87</a>, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Galvano, Antonio, i., <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Gardenia Florida</i>, ii., 142.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gardens, i., <a href='#Page_194'>194</a>; ii., 10-12, 52, 82, 322.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gate Guard, Nagasaki, i., <a href='#Page_312'>312</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Gate of the two kings,” ii., 108.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gaubil, Father, i., <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Gege</i> (plebeians), i., <a href='#Page_62'>62</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Geisenger, Captain, 266.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Genji Monogatari,” ii., 345.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gin, ii., 206.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ginseng, ii., 118.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Glimpse at the Art of Japan, A,” ii., 345.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Glimpses of Unfamiliar Japan,” ii., 344.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Globe</i>, English ship, ii., 354.</li> - -<li class="indx">Globius (Takaro Sampei), ii., 201, 222, 223, 239, 248.</li> - -<li class="indx">Glyn, Commander, ii., 266-269, 271.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gnecchi, Father, i., <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a>, <a href='#Page_119'>119</a>, <a href='#Page_146'>146</a>, <a href='#Page_155'>155</a>, -<a href='#Page_159'>159</a>, <a href='#Page_164'>164</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Goa, i., <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>; ii., 350-353.</li> - -<li class="indx">Godō, i., <a href='#Page_277'>277</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Goede Frouw</i>, Dutch ship, ii., 206.</li> - -<li class="indx">Go-kirai (The Tenza), i., <a href='#Page_164'>164</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Golownin, Vassili, i., <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>, -<a href='#Page_124'>124</a>, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a>, <a href='#Page_221'>221</a>, <a href='#Page_265'>265</a>; ii., 140, 159, 200, 208, 212-244, 246.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gomez, Father, i., <a href='#Page_126'>126</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gongen-Sama (Iyeyasu, <i>which see</i>), i., <a href='#Page_230'>230</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gordon, Captain, ii., 246.</li> - -<li class="indx">Goseman, ——, ii., 205.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gotō Shōzaburō, treasurer to Emperor Hashiba, i., <a href='#Page_199'>199</a>, <a href='#Page_200'>200</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Governors of Nagasaki, i., <a href='#Page_347'>347</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gowns presented to Company, ii., 104, 154;</li> -<li class="isub1">to U. S. Consul, ii., 333.</li> - -<li class="indx">Griffis, William Elliot, i., <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>; ii., 273, 324, 344.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gros, Baron, ii., 335.</li> - -<li class="indx">Grote, George, i., <a href='#Page_275'>275</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gruy, ——, ii., 345.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Guitar” (samisen), ii., 315.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gulick, Sidney, ii., 344.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gusman, Father Luys de, i., <a href='#Page_115'>115</a>, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gutzlaff, Mr., ii., 255.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gysbert (or Guysbert), Roger, i., <a href='#Page_243'>243</a>, <a href='#Page_244'>244</a>, <a href='#Page_352'>352</a>, <a href='#Page_354'>354</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Hackluyt’s translations, i., <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>, <a href='#Page_121'>122</a>, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a>, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a>, -<a href='#Page_165'>165</a>, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a>, <a href='#Page_178'>178</a>, <a href='#Page_270'>270</a>; ii., 350, 351.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hagenaar, ——, i., <a href='#Page_247'>247</a>, <a href='#Page_253'>253</a>-255, <a href='#Page_261'>261</a>, <a href='#Page_343'>343</a>; ii., 355.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hagendorp, Heer, ii., 196.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hair, Manner of wearing, ii., 147, 148.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hakata, Island of Shimo, i., <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>, <a href='#Page_213'>213</a>, <a href='#Page_214'>214</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hakodate, Island of Matsumae, i., <a href='#Page_221'>221</a>; ii., 191, 213, 216, 305, 306.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hakone pass, ii., 65, 73, 141, 328.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hamamatsu, ii., 70.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hamilton, Dr., ii., 316.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Hanashikimi</i> (anise-tree), i., <a href='#Page_401'>401</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> Shikimi.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Handbook of Modern Japan, A,” i., <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>; ii., 343, 357, 360.</li> - -<li class="indx">Handkerchiefs, ii., 155.</li> - -<li class="indx">Harada Kiyemon, i., <a href='#Page_134'>134</a>, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a>, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a>, <a href='#Page_148'>148</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hara-kiri, i., <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>, <a href='#Page_229'>229</a>, <a href='#Page_260'>260</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Harbors, i., <a href='#Page_386'>386</a>, <a href='#Page_387'>387</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Harper’s Magazine,” i., <a href='#Page_166'>166</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Harris, Mrs., ii., 345.</li> - -<li class="indx">Harris, Townsend, ii., 325-335.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hartman, S., ii., 345.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hartshorne, Miss, ii., 344.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hashiba (Taikō-Sama), i., <a href='#Page_117'>117</a>-121, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a>, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a>, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a>-144, <a href='#Page_147'>147</a>-151, -<a href='#Page_155'>155</a>, <a href='#Page_158'>158</a>-161, <a href='#Page_193'>193</a>; ii., 54, 167.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hatch, Arthur, i., <a href='#Page_240'>240</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hawkins, Sir Richard and Sir John, i., <a href='#Page_167'>167</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hay’s (John) translations, i., <a href='#Page_115'>115</a>, <a href='#Page_132'>132</a>, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a>, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a>, <a href='#Page_205'>205</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Healthfulness of houses, i., <a href='#Page_392'>392</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hearn, Lafcadio, ii., 344.</li> - -<li class="indx">Heating of houses, ii., 5, 6, 120, 131, 303, 321.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hecr, ——, ii., 346.</li> - -<li class="indx">Heine, Mr., ii., 302.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hemmi, Adams’s estate, i., <a href='#Page_225'>225</a>, <a href='#Page_240'>240</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hemp, ii., 124.</li> - -<li class="indx">Heusken, Mr., ii., 328, 332.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Hibiscus manihot</i>, ii., 132.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hidetsugu (Kwambacudono), i., <a href='#Page_140'>140</a>, <a href='#Page_149'>149</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hideyori, son of Taikō-Sama, i., <a href='#Page_150'>150</a>, <a href='#Page_161'>161</a>, <a href='#Page_163'>163</a>, <a href='#Page_197'>197</a>, <a href='#Page_198'>198</a>, -<a href='#Page_229'>229</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Hideyoshi’s Invasion of Korea,” i., <a href='#Page_145'>145</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hieizan, Mountain of, i., <a href='#Page_98'>98</a>; ii., 67.</li> - -<li class="indx">Highways, i., <a href='#Page_189'>189</a>, <a href='#Page_216'>216</a>, <a href='#Page_380'>380</a>-384; -ii., 15, 16, 33, 123, 328, 329.</li> - -<li class="indx">Higo, Castle of, ii., 54.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hildreth, Richard, i., <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>; ii., 364.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hiōgo, ii., 334.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hirado, i., <a href='#Page_254'>254</a>, <a href='#Page_261'>261</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hirado, Prince of, i., <a href='#Page_177'>177</a>, <a href='#Page_184'>184</a>, <a href='#Page_185'>185</a>, <a href='#Page_196'>196</a>, <a href='#Page_197'>197</a>, -<a href='#Page_210'>210</a>, <a href='#Page_213'>213</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">“His Pilgrimes” (or “His Pilgrimage”), i., <a href='#Page_177'>177</a>, <a href='#Page_177'>178</a>, <a href='#Page_220'>220</a>, <a href='#Page_225'>225</a>, -<a href='#Page_232'>232</a>; ii., 354.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Hist. Gen. des Voyages,” i., <a href='#Page_198'>198</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Histoire de la Dynastie des Mongoux,” i., <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Histoire du Japon,” i., <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a>, <a href='#Page_246'>246</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Histoire Général de la China,” i., <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Histoire Mythologique,” i., <a href='#Page_357'>357</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Historia de la Compagnia de Gesu,” i., <a href='#Page_115'>115</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">“History of Greece,” i., <a href='#Page_275'>275</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">“History of Japan” (Adams), ii., 345.</li> - -<li class="indx">“History of Japan” (Charlevoix), i., <a href='#Page_290'>290</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">“History of Japan” (Kämpfer), i., <a href='#Page_289'>289</a>-291.</li> - -<li class="indx">“History of Japanese Literature,” ii., 345.</li> - -<li class="indx">“History of Java,” i., <a href='#Page_272'>272</a>; ii., 110-112.</li> - -<li class="indx">“History of Plants,” ii., 125.</li> - -<li class="indx">“History of the Empire of Japan,” ii., 346.</li> - -<li class="indx">“History of the English Factory at Hirado,” i., <a href='#Page_225'>226</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">“History of the United States,” ii., 364.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hizen, Province of, i., <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>, <a href='#Page_120'>120</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hoffman, assistant to Siebold, i., <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hōin-Sama.</li> -<li class="isub1"><i>See</i> Hirado, Prince of.</li> - -<li class="indx">Homicide, Punishment for, i., <a href='#Page_354'>354</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Honda the Samurai,” ii., 344.</li> - -<li class="indx">Horseback-riding, i., <a href='#Page_370'>370</a>-377.</li> - -<li class="indx">Horse-shoes, i., <a href='#Page_373'>373</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Horses, i., <a href='#Page_215'>215</a>; ii., 138, 317.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Hotei</i>, i., <a href='#Page_359'>359</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Hotoke</i>, or idols, i., <a href='#Page_399'>399</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Houtman, Cornelius, i., <a href='#Page_168'>168</a>, <a href='#Page_169'>169</a>, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a>; ii., 353.</li> - -<li class="indx">Huish, ——, ii., 345.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hyōgo, Province Settsu, ii., 49.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">“Ideals of the East, The,” ii., 345.</li> - -<li class="indx">Idols, i., <a href='#Page_193'>193</a>, <a href='#Page_399'>399</a>, <a href='#Page_400'>400</a>; ii., 45, 106-108.</li> -<li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> Temples.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Illustrations of Japan,” i., <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>; ii., 81, 147, 168, 174.</li> - -<li class="indx">Image-trampling.</li> -<li class="isub1"><i>See</i> Figure-treading.</li> - -<li class="indx">Imhoff, author of Dutch memoir, i., <a href='#Page_272'>272</a>; ii., 110.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Imi</i>, ii., 186, 187.</li> - -<li class="indx">Incomes of princes, i., <a href='#Page_240'>240</a>, <a href='#Page_256'>256</a>-259.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Indian History,” i., <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Indulgence-boxes, i., <a href='#Page_401'>401</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ingen, Buddhist priest, i., <a href='#Page_275'>275</a>-277.</li> - -<li class="indx">Inns, i., <a href='#Page_187'>187</a>, <a href='#Page_216'>216</a>; ii., 2-13, 29, 36-41, 328.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Intercourse between the United States and Japan, The,” ii., 273.</li> - -<li class="indx">Interest, ii., 127.</li> - -<li class="indx">Interpreters, i., <a href='#Page_302'>302</a>-306, <a href='#Page_369'>369</a>, <a href='#Page_370'>370</a>; ii., 34, 117, 164.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ise Temple, i., <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>; ii., 20, 21, 69.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Island of Formosa, The,” i., <a href='#Page_302'>302</a>; ii., 345.</li> - -<li class="indx">Iyeyasu (Tokugawa Iyeyasu), i., <a href='#Page_161'>161</a>-163, <a href='#Page_175'>175</a>-177, <a href='#Page_190'>190</a>-193, <a href='#Page_200'>200</a>, <a href='#Page_201'>201</a>, -<a href='#Page_218'>218</a>-223, <a href='#Page_230'>230</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Izu, Cape, ii., 283, 328.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Jacatra (Batavia), i., <a href='#Page_237'>237</a>; ii., 354.</li> - -<li class="indx">Jancigny.</li> -<li class="isub1"><i>See</i> De Jancigny.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Japan” (De Jancigny), ii., 254, 277.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Japan” (Dickson), ii., 345.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Japan” (Reed), ii., 345.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Japan—An Interpretation,” ii., 344.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Japan and her People,” ii., 344.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Japan and its Art,” ii., 345.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Japan in Art and Industry,” ii., 345.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Japan in History, Folk-lore, and Art,” ii., 344.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Japan, its Architecture, Art, and Art Manufactures,” ii., 345.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Japan: presented in Sketches of the Manners and Customs of that Realm, especially of the Town -of Nagasaki,” ii., 249.</li> - -<li class="indx">Japan Society, London, i., <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Japanese Armour,” ii., 149.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Japanese Art,” ii., 345.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Japanese Boy, A,” ii., 344.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Japanese Calendars,” i., <a href='#Page_352'>352</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Japanese Costume,” ii., 154.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Japanese Education,” ii., 345.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Japanese Fairy World” (Griffis), ii., 344.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Japanese Fairy World, The” (Ozaki), ii., 344.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Japanese Fans,” i., <a href='#Page_376'>376</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Japanese Funeral Rites,” ii., 183.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Japanese Girls and Women,” ii., 344.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Japanese Heraldry,” i., <a href='#Page_117'>117</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Japanese Homes,” ii., 344.</li> - -<li class="indx">Japanese in America, i., <a href='#Page_152'>152</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Japanese Life in Town and Country,” ii., 344.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Japanese Plays,” ii., 345.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Japanese Rituals,” i., <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Jarves, J. J., ii., 345.</li> - -<li class="indx">Jesuits.</li> -<li class="isub1"><i>See</i> Order of Jesuits.</li> - -<li class="indx">Jewels, ii., 332.</li> - -<li class="indx">Jizō, Idol of, i., <a href='#Page_399'>399</a>; ii., 45.</li> - -<li class="indx">Jodogawa, River, ii., 50.</li> - -<li class="indx">Johannis Botanicus, ii., 201.</li> - -<li class="indx">Jones, Sir William, ii., 164.</li> - -<li class="indx">Jontoux, Father, ii., 118.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Journal of Commerce” (New York), ii., 293.</li> - -<li class="indx">Jūdo, i., <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>, <a href='#Page_277'>277</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Jugulans nigra</i>, ii., 144.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Junrei</i>, ii., 22.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst"><i>Kago</i>, i., <a href='#Page_377'>377</a>-379.</li> - -<li class="indx">Kahei, Takataya, ii., 228-243.</li> - -<li class="indx">Kakegawa, ii., 70.</li> - -<li class="indx">Kamakura image of Buddha, i., <a href='#Page_218'>218</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Kamakura, Island of, ii., 74.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Kamban</i>, i., <a href='#Page_323'>323</a>-325.</li> - -<li class="indx">Kamel, George Joseph, ii., 125.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Kami</i>, i., <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> Shintō.</li> - -<li class="indx">Kämpfer’s account of Japan, i., <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a>, -<a href='#Page_66'>66</a>, <a href='#Page_196'>196</a>, <a href='#Page_202'>202</a>, <a href='#Page_225'>225</a>, <a href='#Page_240'>240</a>, <a href='#Page_244'>244</a>, -<a href='#Page_249'>249</a>, <a href='#Page_256'>256</a>, <a href='#Page_257'>257</a>, <a href='#Page_267'>267</a>, <a href='#Page_272'>272</a>, <a href='#Page_274'>274</a>-401; -ii., 1-109, 118, 125, 146, 159, 169, 250, 254, 300.</li> - -<li class="indx">Kanagawa, ii., 74, 293, 300, 303, 334.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Kanrin-maru</i>, Japanese steamer, ii., 336.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Keramic Art of Japan,” ii., 345.</li> - -<li class="indx">Kinosita, Yetaro, ii., 345.</li> - -<li class="indx">Kitchin, ——, ii., 345.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Kitō</i>, i., <a href='#Page_60'>60</a>, <a href='#Page_276'>276</a>; ii., 167.</li> - -<li class="indx">Kiūshiū.</li> -<li class="isub1"><i>See</i> Shimo.</li> - -<li class="indx">Klaproth, Heinrich, i., <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>, <a href='#Page_181'>181</a>, <a href='#Page_257'>257</a>, <a href='#Page_357'>357</a>, -<a href='#Page_359'>359</a>, <a href='#Page_391'>391</a>; ii., 46, 62, 67, 72, 89, 108, 112, 165, 199.</li> - -<li class="indx">Knapp, A. M., ii., 344.</li> - -<li class="indx">Knox, Dr., ii., 112.</li> - -<li class="indx">Knox, G. W., ii., 344.</li> - -<li class="indx">Kōbō, saint and sage, ii., 147.</li> - -<li class="indx">Kochebecker, of the Dutch East India Company, i., <a href='#Page_261'>261</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Kojiki,” i., <a href='#Page_359'>359</a>; ii., 346.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Kokoro,” ii., 344.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Koku</i>, i., <a href='#Page_240'>240</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Kokura, capital of Buzen, ii., 48.</li> - -<li class="indx">Konishi Settsu-no-Kami, i., <a href='#Page_163'>163</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Kōshi (Confucius), ii., 68.</li> - -<li class="indx">Koxinga, Chinese pirate, i., <a href='#Page_302'>302</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Koya, near Miyako, i., <a href='#Page_292'>292</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Kōzukeno-Suke, secretary to Emperor Hashiba, i., <a href='#Page_199'>199</a>, <a href='#Page_200'>200</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Kramer, Conrad, i., <a href='#Page_252'>252</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Krusenstern, Captain, ii., 196, 197.</li> - -<li class="indx">Kublai Khan, i., <a href='#Page_2'>2</a>, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>-10.</li> - -<li class="indx">Kubō-Sama, i., <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>, <a href='#Page_61'>61</a>, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a>, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Kuchiki Samon, ii., 163.</li> - -<li class="indx">Kuchinotsu, i., <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Kuge</i> (patricians), i., <a href='#Page_62'>62</a>, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>; ii., 21.</li> - -<li class="indx">Kuno, Fortress of, ii., 71.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Kuri</i>, i., <a href='#Page_300'>300</a>, <a href='#Page_308'>308</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Kurile Islands, i., <a href='#Page_123'>123</a>, <a href='#Page_221'>221</a>, <a href='#Page_265'>265</a>; ii., 190, 212, 213.</li> - -<li class="indx">Kurume, Castle of, ii., 47.</li> - -<li class="indx">Kuwana, Province of Owari, ii., 69.</li> - -<li class="indx">Kwambacudono, i., <a href='#Page_118'>118</a>, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a>, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a>, <a href='#Page_149'>149</a>, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Kwannon Temple, ii., 107.</li> - -<li class="indx">Kyōto (Miyako, <i>which see</i>), i., <a href='#Page_215'>215</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst"><i>Ladoga</i>, American whaler, ii., 266, 269.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Lady Pierce</i>, American ship, ii., 312-314.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Lady Rowena</i>, ii., 258.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lampacau Island, i., <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lancaster, Captain, i., <a href='#Page_167'>167</a>, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Land of the Morning, The,” ii., 345.</li> - -<li class="indx">Langsdorff, Attaché, ii., 197.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lanterns, i., <a href='#Page_373'>373</a>; ii., 329.</li> - -<li class="indx">La Perouse, Voyage of, i., <a href='#Page_124'>124</a>, <a href='#Page_221'>221</a>, <a href='#Page_265'>265</a>; ii., 190.</li> - -<li class="indx">La Salle, ii., 364.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lattices, ii., 91.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Lawrence</i>, American whaler, ii., 265.</li> - -<li class="indx">Laws, i., <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>, <a href='#Page_206'>206</a>, <a href='#Page_260'>260</a>, <a href='#Page_354'>354</a>; ii., 161, 162, 245.</li> - -<li class="indx">Laxman, Lieut., ii., 191, 192, 196, 219.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lay, ——, ii., 183.</li> - -<li class="indx">Leeds, ——, ii., 351, 352.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lepers, i., <a href='#Page_164'>164</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Letters Written by the English Residents in Japan, 1611-1623,” i., <a href='#Page_178'>178</a>, <a href='#Page_207'>207</a>, <a href='#Page_219'>219</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lew Chew Islands, i., <a href='#Page_31'>31</a>, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a>, <a href='#Page_181'>181</a>, <a href='#Page_281'>281</a>; ii., 312, 355.</li> - -<li class="indx">Liano, Spanish gentleman, i., <a href='#Page_142'>142</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Linschooten, Hugh, i., <a href='#Page_168'>168</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Liverwort used as charm, i., <a href='#Page_401'>401</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Log of a Japanese Journey,” ii., 345.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lowell, P., ii., 344.</li> - -<li class="indx">Loyola, Ignatius, i., <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">“L’univers, ou Histoire et Description de tout les Peuples,” ii., 254.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Macartney, Lord, ii., 164.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mackay, ——, ii., 345.</li> - -<li class="indx">Maclay, A. C., ii., 345.</li> - -<li class="indx">Maffei, ——, i., <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mahay, Jacques, i., <a href='#Page_169'>169</a>, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Maize, ii., 317.</li> - -<li class="indx">Makino Bingo-no-Kami, ii., 84.</li> - -<li class="indx">Malela, Father, i., <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Malva Mauritiana</i>, ii., 124.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Mamori</i>, ii., 179.</li> - -<li class="indx">Manchu dynasty, i., <a href='#Page_274'>274</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Manjū</i>, a cake, ii., 13, 98.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Mankoku</i>, i., <a href='#Page_240'>240</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Manners, ii., 174.</li> -<li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> Civility of Japanese.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Manners and Customs of the Japanese in the Nineteenth Century,” ii., 254.</li> - -<li class="indx">Manufactures, i., <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">of Miyako, ii., 63, 64;</li> -<li class="isub1">of Suruga, ii., 71.</li> - -<li class="indx">Manuscript history, ii., 168.</li> - -<li class="indx">Maple-trees, ii., 141.</li> - -<li class="indx">Maps, ii., 157, 251, 252.</li> - -<li class="indx">Marco Polo, i., <a href='#Page_1'>1</a>-6, 13.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Mariner</i>, English ship, ii., 272, 273.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Marriage Ceremonies,” ii., 170, 172.</li> - -<li class="indx">Marriages, i., <a href='#Page_259'>259</a>; ii., 174-183, 225.</li> - -<li class="indx">Marsden, ——, translator, i., <a href='#Page_2'>2</a>, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Matheson, Commander, ii., 272, 273.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mats, Floor, i., <a href='#Page_391'>391</a>; ii., 5, 52, 89, 91, 131, 152.</li> - -<li class="indx">Matsumae, ii., 220, 226.</li> - -<li class="indx">Matsumae Island.</li> -<li class="isub1"><i>See</i> Matsumaye Island.</li> - -<li class="indx">Matsumaye (Yezo or Matsumae) Island, i., <a href='#Page_123'>123</a>, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a>, <a href='#Page_220'>220</a>, <a href='#Page_221'>221</a>, -<a href='#Page_262'>262</a>-265; ii., 222.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Matsuri</i> (public spectacle at Nagasaki), i., <a href='#Page_296'>296</a>, <a href='#Page_356'>356</a>-365.</li> - -<li class="indx">Matsuura Hoin.</li> -<li class="isub1"><i>See</i> Hirado, Prince of.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Matthew Galbraith Perry,” ii., 324.</li> - -<li class="indx">May, Henry, i., <a href='#Page_178'>178</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">McClatchie, ——, ii., 345.</li> - -<li class="indx">McCoy, American seaman, ii., 270, 271.</li> - -<li class="indx">McDonald, Ranald, American seaman, ii., 271, 272.</li> - -<li class="indx">Meals, ii., 39, 133.</li> - -<li class="indx">Measures and weights, i., <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>, <a href='#Page_249'>249</a>, <a href='#Page_272'>272</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Medhurst, Mr., ii., 210.</li> - -<li class="indx">Medicine and surgery, i., <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>; ii., 68, 93, 94, 118, 122, 145-147.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Melea azedarach</i>, ii., 125.</li> - -<li class="indx">Melis, Thomas, i., <a href='#Page_169'>169</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Memoir on the Trade of Japan, and the Causes of its Decline,” i., <a href='#Page_272'>272</a>; ii., 110.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Mémoires concernant les Chinois,” i., <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Memoirs of the Shōguns” (or Djoguns), i., <a href='#Page_98'>98</a>; ii., 168.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Memorable Embassies of the Dutch to the Emperors of Japan,” i., <a href='#Page_266'>266</a>, <a href='#Page_272'>272</a>; ii., 88.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Memorials of the Empire of Japan,” i., <a href='#Page_225'>225</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Mentha piperita</i>, ii., 124.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Mercator</i>, American whaler, ii., 260, 261.</li> - -<li class="indx">Merchant class, ii., 139, 174, 243, 244.</li> - -<li class="indx">Merchant marine of Japan, i., <a href='#Page_180'>180</a>, <a href='#Page_181'>181</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> Trade.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mermaids, ii., 53.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Mespillus japonica</i>, ii., 159.</li> - -<li class="indx">Messengers, ii., 2.</li> - -<li class="indx">Meylan, G. F., ii., 248-250.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mimitsuka Chapel, ii., 108.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mindanao, Island of, i., <a href='#Page_55'>55</a>, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mines, ii., 111, 112, 250.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Mirror of Yedo,” i., <a href='#Page_257'>257</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mirrors, ii., 133.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Miseratsie</i>, or wall adornments, ii., 4, 6-8.</li> - -<li class="indx">Missionaries, Catholic, other than Jesuit, i., <a href='#Page_147'>147</a>-149, 151, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a>, <a href='#Page_155'>155</a>-160, <a href='#Page_163'>163</a>, -<a href='#Page_164'>164</a>, <a href='#Page_179'>179</a>, <a href='#Page_223'>223</a>, <a href='#Page_228'>228</a>-232, <a href='#Page_241'>241</a>-248, <a href='#Page_268'>268</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Missionaries, Jesuit, i., <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>-41, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>-56, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a>, <a href='#Page_63'>63</a>-65, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>, -<a href='#Page_70'>70</a>-72, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>-91, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>-98, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a>-103, <a href='#Page_116'>116</a>-121, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a>-136, -<a href='#Page_138'>138</a>, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a>, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a>, <a href='#Page_145'>145</a>-149, <a href='#Page_151'>151</a>-160, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a>-164, -<a href='#Page_175'>175</a>, <a href='#Page_179'>179</a>, <a href='#Page_205'>205</a>, <a href='#Page_222'>222</a>, <a href='#Page_227'>227</a>-234, <a href='#Page_241'>241</a>-248, -<a href='#Page_263'>263</a>, <a href='#Page_264'>264</a>, <a href='#Page_268'>268</a>, <a href='#Page_269'>269</a>, <a href='#Page_279'>279</a>, <a href='#Page_280'>280</a>; -ii., 169, 259.</li> - -<li class="indx">Missionaries, Protestant, i., <a href='#Page_147'>147</a>; ii., 255, 259, 266.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Mississippi</i>, American frigate, ii., 281, 282, 287, 291, 314, 315.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mitford, A. B. F., ii., 344.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Mito Yashiki,” ii., 345.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mitsukuri, Dr., ii., 210.</li> - -<li class="indx">Miya (Atsuta), ii., 69.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Miya</i> (Shintō temples), i., <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>-69, <a href='#Page_398'>398</a>, <a href='#Page_399'>399</a>; ii., 302.</li> - -<li class="indx">Miyako, i., <a href='#Page_61'>61</a>, <a href='#Page_83'>83</a>, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>, <a href='#Page_155'>155</a>, -<a href='#Page_161'>161</a>, <a href='#Page_163'>163</a>, <a href='#Page_164'>164</a>, <a href='#Page_192'>192</a>, <a href='#Page_222'>222</a>; -ii., 58, 62-66, 104-108, 140.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mongols, i., <a href='#Page_2'>2</a>, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>-10.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Moniteur des Indes,” ii., 274.</li> - -<li class="indx">Monsoons, i., <a href='#Page_316'>316</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Moor, Captain, ii., 228, 229, 236.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mōri Motonari, i., <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Morrison</i>, American brig, ii., 255-258, 284.</li> - -<li class="indx">Morse, E. S., ii., 344.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Morus papyrifira</i>, ii., 132.</li> - - -<li class="indx">Mossman, ——, ii., 345.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mountain priests, i., <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>; ii., 23-25, 72.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mountains, i., <a href='#Page_386'>386</a>, <a href='#Page_387'>387</a>; ii., 134, 255.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mourning, ii., 178, 185-187.</li> - -<li class="indx">Moxa, ii., 126, 145, 146.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mulberry-trees, i., <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>; ii., 132.</li> - -<li class="indx">Munro, ——, ii., 310.</li> - -<li class="indx">Murakami, N., i., <a href='#Page_225'>226</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Murakawn, K., i., <a href='#Page_178'>178</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Murray, D., ii., 158, 344.</li> - -<li class="indx">Murray, Lieut., ii., 302.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mushrooms, ii., 159.</li> - -<li class="indx">Music and musicians, i., <a href='#Page_212'>212</a>, <a href='#Page_213'>213</a>, <a href='#Page_357'>357</a>, <a href='#Page_362'>362</a>; ii., 28, 315.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Nabores, Hieronymo de, i., <a href='#Page_270'>270</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Nagasaki, i., <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a>, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a>, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a>, -<a href='#Page_145'>145</a>, <a href='#Page_156'>156</a>-160, <a href='#Page_164'>164</a>, <a href='#Page_234'>234</a>, <a href='#Page_235'>235</a>, <a href='#Page_244'>244</a>, -<a href='#Page_275'>275</a>, <a href='#Page_284'>284</a>, <a href='#Page_285'>285</a>, <a href='#Page_291'>291</a>-294, <a href='#Page_337'>337</a>-353, <a href='#Page_355'>355</a>-365, -<a href='#Page_397'>397</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Naibun</i>, ii., 241.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Namida</i> (Sanscrit prayer), i., <a href='#Page_344'>344</a>; ii., 27, 73.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Narrative of a Japanese, The,” ii., 346.</li> - -<li class="indx">Natural history researches, ii., 251-253.</li> - -<li class="indx">Nettles, ii., 124.</li> - -<li class="indx">“New Japan,” ii., 345.</li> - -<li class="indx">“New Life of Toyotomi Hideyoshi,” i., <a href='#Page_150'>150</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">New Moon ceremonies, ii., 316.</li> - -<li class="indx">New Year’s Day (European), ii., 126.</li> - -<li class="indx">New Year’s Day (Japanese), i., <a href='#Page_357'>357</a>; ii., 127, 225, 226.</li> - -<li class="indx">“New York Times,” ii., 310.</li> - -<li class="indx">“New York Tribune,” ii., 301, 316.</li> - -<li class="indx">Newbury, John, ii., 351, 352.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Niagara</i>, U. S. frigate, ii., 337.</li> - -<li class="indx">Nicholson, Lieut., ii., 302.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Nihombashi</i>, or great bridge at Yedo, i., <a href='#Page_380'>380</a>; ii., 78, 200.</li> - -<li class="indx">Nikkō Temple, i., <a href='#Page_230'>230</a>, <a href='#Page_253'>253</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ningpo, i., <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ni-ō-mon, “gate of the two kings,” ii., 108.</li> - -<li class="indx">Nippon, i., <a href='#Page_1'>1</a>, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Nippon Ōdai Ichiran,” ii., 165.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Nippon, or Archives for the Description of Japan,” ii., 254.</li> - -<li class="indx">Nitobe, I. O., ii., 273, 344.</li> - -<li class="indx">Nobles, i., <a href='#Page_240'>240</a>, <a href='#Page_256'>256</a>-260; ii., 70, 81, 149-153.</li> - -<li class="indx">Nobunaga (Oda Nobunaga), i., <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>-98, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a>, <a href='#Page_116'>116</a>, <a href='#Page_117'>117</a>, 139.</li> - -<li class="indx">Noises of the town, i., <a href='#Page_344'>344</a>; ii., 189.</li> - -<li class="indx">Noort, Oliver, i., <a href='#Page_169'>169</a>, <a href='#Page_171'>171</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Norimono</i>, i., <a href='#Page_347'>347</a>, <a href='#Page_377'>377</a>-379; ii., 327.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Noshi</i>, ii., 177.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Notes on the Intercourse between Japan and Siam in the Seventeenth Century,” ii., 354.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Notices et Extraits des Manuscrits,” ii., 165.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Noto, an Unexplored Corner of Japan,” ii., 344.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Nouveau Journal Asiatique,” i., <a href='#Page_181'>181</a>; ii., 112.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Nouveau Mélanges Asiatique,” ii., 146, 165.</li> - -<li class="indx">Nugnes Barreto, Father, i., <a href='#Page_88'>88</a>-90.</li> - -<li class="indx">Nuyts, Peter de, i., <a href='#Page_252'>252</a>-254; ii., 355.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Oaks, ii., 142.</li> - -<li class="indx">Oars, i., <a href='#Page_389'>389</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ōbaku, papal residence of Ingen, i., <a href='#Page_276'>276</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Odawara, ii., 73.</li> - -<li class="indx">Official life at Nagasaki, i., <a href='#Page_345'>345</a>-350.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ōgosho-Sama, i., <a href='#Page_163'>163</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> Iyeyasu.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Oharai</i>, or indulgence, ii., 21.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ōigawa, River, i., <a href='#Page_384'>384</a>, <a href='#Page_385'>385</a>; ii., 71.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ōita, i., <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Okakara, ——, ii., 345.</li> - -<li class="indx">Okasaki, ii., 69.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ōmura, town and bay, ii., 45.</li> - -<li class="indx">Opium war, ii., 259.</li> - -<li class="indx">Order of Jesuits, i., <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>-46, 54.</li> -<li class="isub1"><i>See</i> Missionaries, Jesuit.</li> - -<li class="indx">Orfanel, Father Fray Jacinto, i., <a href='#Page_246'>246</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Oriental Translation Fund, ii., 165.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Oriental Travels,” Marco Polo, i., <a href='#Page_1'>1</a>-6.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Origin of Spanish and Portuguese Rivalry in Japan, The,” i., <a href='#Page_135'>135</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Origin of the Riches of Japan,” ii., 112.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Oryris japonica</i>, ii., 142.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ōsaka, i., <a href='#Page_118'>118</a>, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a>, <a href='#Page_155'>155</a>, <a href='#Page_161'>161</a>, <a href='#Page_164'>164</a>, -<a href='#Page_175'>175</a>, <a href='#Page_195'>195</a>, <a href='#Page_214'>214</a>, <a href='#Page_215'>215</a>, <a href='#Page_230'>230</a>, <a href='#Page_382'>382</a>; -ii., 49-54, 324, 334.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ōshima, Island of, ii., 305.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ōtsu, town and lake, ii., 63, 67.</li> - -<li class="indx">Outcast Japanese, i., <a href='#Page_249'>249</a>; ii., 192, 258.</li> - -<li class="indx">Oxen, ii., 59, 137.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ozaki, Miss, ii., 344.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Pacheco, Father, i., <a href='#Page_245'>245</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pack-horses and travellers’ equipment, i., <a href='#Page_370'>370</a>-377.</li> - -<li class="indx">Palaces, i., <a href='#Page_188'>188</a>, <a href='#Page_189'>189</a>, <a href='#Page_340'>340</a>; ii., 80.</li> -<li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> Castles <i>and</i> Emperor, Castle of.</li> - -<li class="indx">Palanquins, i., <a href='#Page_216'>216</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Paper, ii., 132, 133.</li> - -<li class="indx">Paper-hangings, i.,340, 392; ii., 52.</li> - -<li class="indx">Parish priests, i., <a href='#Page_180'>180</a>, <a href='#Page_229'>229</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Parker, Dr., ii., 255.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Parli, the Last of the Missionaries,” ii., 345.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Past and Present of Japanese Commerce, The,” ii., 345.</li> - -<li class="indx">Paul of the Holy Faith.</li> -<li class="isub1"><i>See</i> Anjirō.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pazio, Father Francis, i., <a href='#Page_163'>163</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pearls, ii., 45, 46.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pears, ii., 140.</li> - -<li class="indx">Peel’s Island, ii., 282.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pellew, Captain, ii., 204, 205.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Peregrinations in the East,” i., <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a>; ii., 348-350.</li> - -<li class="indx">Perry, Commodore, ii., 238, 276-324.</li> - -<li class="indx">Persecution of Catholic missionaries, i., <a href='#Page_119'>119</a>, <a href='#Page_120'>120</a>, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a>, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a>, -<a href='#Page_155'>155</a>-160, <a href='#Page_164'>164</a>, <a href='#Page_205'>205</a>, <a href='#Page_222'>222</a>, <a href='#Page_227'>227</a>-234, -<a href='#Page_240'>240</a>-251, <a href='#Page_261'>261</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Phaeton</i>, English frigate, ii., 204, 205, 208.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Phascolus</i>, ii., 124, 159.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Philadelphia</i>, U. S. steamer, ii., 336.</li> - -<li class="indx">Philippine Islands, i., <a href='#Page_56'>56</a>, <a href='#Page_134'>134</a>, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a>, -<a href='#Page_152'>152</a>, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Physicians, i., <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>; ii., 68, 93, 94, 103, 144-147, 157, 172, 250.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Pictorial Arts of Japan, The,” ii., 345.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pilgrimages, i., <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>; ii., 20-22, 69.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pillows, ii., 5, 133.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pilotage rates, ii., 311.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pilots, i., <a href='#Page_387'>387</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pinkerton’s collection, i., <a href='#Page_261'>261</a>, <a href='#Page_267'>267</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pinto, Fernam Mendez, i., <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>-31, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>-38, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>, -<a href='#Page_88'>88</a>, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>, <a href='#Page_91'>91</a>, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a>;</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Pinus abies</i>, ii., 144.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Pinus silvestris</i>, ii., 142.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Pisum sativum</i>, ii., 124.</li> - -<li class="indx">Plane-trees, ii., 82.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ploughing, i., <a href='#Page_216'>216</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Plymouth</i>, American sloop, ii., 282.</li> - -<li class="indx">Police protection, i., <a href='#Page_188'>188</a>, <a href='#Page_214'>214</a>, <a href='#Page_349'>349</a>-353, 356.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Pologonum</i>, ii., 124.</li> - -<li class="indx">Population, i., <a href='#Page_186'>186</a>, <a href='#Page_190'>190</a>, <a href='#Page_192'>192</a>, <a href='#Page_195'>195</a>, <a href='#Page_257'>257</a>; ii., 53, 57, 65, 74.</li> - -<li class="indx">Portraits, i., <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Portuguese in the East, i., <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>-34, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a>-41, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>, -<a href='#Page_58'>58</a>, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a>, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a>, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>, <a href='#Page_91'>91</a>, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a>, -<a href='#Page_120'>120</a>, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a>, <a href='#Page_134'>134</a>-136, <a href='#Page_138'>138</a>, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a>, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a>, <a href='#Page_145'>145</a>, -<a href='#Page_147'>147</a>, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a>, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a>, <a href='#Page_158'>158</a>, <a href='#Page_159'>159</a>, <a href='#Page_164'>164</a>, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a>, -<a href='#Page_167'>167</a>, <a href='#Page_174'>174</a>-176, <a href='#Page_179'>179</a>, <a href='#Page_181'>181</a>, <a href='#Page_182'>182</a>, <a href='#Page_196'>196</a>-199, <a href='#Page_208'>208</a>, <a href='#Page_209'>209</a>, -<a href='#Page_221'>221</a>, <a href='#Page_228'>228</a>, <a href='#Page_248'>248</a>-251, <a href='#Page_255'>255</a>, <a href='#Page_261'>261</a>-265, <a href='#Page_269'>269</a>-271, <a href='#Page_278'>278</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Post-houses, ii., 1, 2.</li> - -<li class="indx">Potatoes, ii., 124, 317.</li> - -<li class="indx">Poverty, i., <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a>, <a href='#Page_395'>395</a>; ii., 162.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Powhatan</i>, United States ship, ii., 297, 324, 336.</li> - -<li class="indx">Prayers for the dead, i., <a href='#Page_344'>344</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Preble</i>, American ship, ii., 265-269, 271, 272.</li> - -<li class="indx">Precious metals, Export of, ii., 112, 113.</li> - -<li class="indx">Presents, i., <a href='#Page_217'>217</a>, <a href='#Page_367'>367</a>, <a href='#Page_368'>368</a>; ii., 59, 85, 96, 97, 104, 141, 175.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pring, Martin, i., <a href='#Page_237'>237</a>-239.</li> - -<li class="indx">Printing, ii., 157.</li> - -<li class="indx">Prisons, ii., 217, 220-222.</li> - -<li class="indx">Protestants in Japanese missions.</li> -<li class="isub1"><i>See</i> Missionaries, Protestant.</li> - -<li class="indx">Provinces, as found by Portuguese, i., <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">division by “Circuits, “vii., 343.</li> - -<li class="indx">Purcell, ——, ii., 345.</li> - -<li class="indx">Purchas, ——, i., <a href='#Page_165'>165</a>, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a>, <a href='#Page_184'>184</a>, <a href='#Page_220'>220</a>, <a href='#Page_225'>225</a>, -<a href='#Page_232'>232</a>, <a href='#Page_236'>236</a>, <a href='#Page_240'>240</a>; ii., 349, 354.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Pure Shintō,” i., <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">“Quarterly Review,” ii., 247.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Radishes, i., <a href='#Page_286'>286</a>, <a href='#Page_383'>383</a>; ii., 215.</li> - -<li class="indx">Raffles, Sir Stamford, i., <a href='#Page_272'>272</a>; ii., 110-112, 195, 196, 202, 208-210.</li> - -<li class="indx">Rain-coats, i., <a href='#Page_375'>375</a>; ii., 143.</li> - -<li class="indx">Rain-maker, Priestly, i., <a href='#Page_276'>276</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Rank, The distinction of, i., <a href='#Page_60'>60</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Rationalists.</li> -<li class="isub1"><i>See</i> Jūdo.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Rebecca</i>, American ship, ii., 206.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Recollections of Japan,” ii., 194, 195.</li> - -<li class="indx">Reed, ——, ii., 345.</li> - -<li class="indx">Regamey, ——, ii., 345.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Relation du Japon,” i., <a href='#Page_224'>224</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Religions of Japan, The,” i., <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>; ii., 344.</li> - -<li class="indx">Religious sects and beliefs, i., <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>-74, <a href='#Page_138'>138</a>, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a>, <a href='#Page_194'>194</a>, <a href='#Page_195'>195</a>, -<a href='#Page_207'>207</a>, <a href='#Page_261'>261</a>, <a href='#Page_291'>291</a>; ii., 65.</li> - -<li class="indx">Rémusat, Abel, i., <a href='#Page_70'>70</a>; ii., 146, 165, 169.</li> - -<li class="indx">Resanoff, Count, ii., 196-199.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Rhus succedanea</i>, ii., 125.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Rhus vernix</i>, i., <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>; ii., 125.</li> - -<li class="indx">Rice, i., <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>, <a href='#Page_257'>257</a>, <a href='#Page_343'>343</a>; -ii., 47, 59, 136, 159.</li> - -<li class="indx">Riess, Dr. L., i., <a href='#Page_178'>178</a>, <a href='#Page_240'>240</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Rikord, Captain, ii., 226-243.</li> - -<li class="indx">Riordan, R., and Takayanagi, T., ii., 344.</li> - -<li class="indx">Rivers, i., <a href='#Page_384'>384</a>, <a href='#Page_385'>385</a>; ii., 50, 63.</li> - -<li class="indx">Road-books, i., <a href='#Page_376'>376</a>; ii., 13.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Roanoke</i>, U. S. steamer, ii., 336.</li> - -<li class="indx">Rodriguez, Father, i., <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a>, <a href='#Page_63'>63</a>, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a>, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>, -<a href='#Page_156'>156</a>, <a href='#Page_158'>158</a>, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a>, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Roofs, i., <a href='#Page_339'>339</a>, <a href='#Page_392'>392</a>; ii., 52, 130, 303, 306, 321.</li> - -<li class="indx">Rowing, Method of, i., <a href='#Page_389'>389</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Rubia cordata</i>, ii., 124.</li> - -<li class="indx">Rundall, ——, i., <a href='#Page_225'>225</a>, <a href='#Page_230'>230</a>, <a href='#Page_240'>240</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Russian American Company, ii., 203.</li> - -<li class="indx">Russian relations with Japan, ii., 190-192, 196-199, 203, 212-244, 323.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ryōzayemon, a Russian prisoner, ii., 226-229.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Saddles, i., <a href='#Page_371'>371</a>, <a href='#Page_377'>377</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sadono-Kami, president of Prince Hideyori’s council, i., <a href='#Page_201'>201</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Saga, capital of Hizen, ii., 46, 47, 129.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sagami, Cape, ii., 283.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Saguer</i>, a rare tree, ii., 11.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Saikaidō</i>, i., <a href='#Page_381'>381</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sakai, i., <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a>, <a href='#Page_215'>215</a>; ii., 49.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Sakana</i>, ii., 38.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Sake</i>, i., <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>, <a href='#Page_216'>216</a>, <a href='#Page_343'>343</a>; ii., 54, 324.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sakhalin, i., <a href='#Page_123'>123</a>, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a>, <a href='#Page_265'>265</a>; ii., 212.</li> - -<li class="indx">Salt butter as a remedy, ii., 127.</li> - -<li class="indx">Salutation, Ceremony of, i., <a href='#Page_210'>210</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Samisen, i., <a href='#Page_212'>212</a>; ii., 315.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sancian Island, i., <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">“San Francisco Herald,” ii., 313.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>San Jacinto</i>, American steamer, ii., 325.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>San Philip</i>, Spanish galleon, i., <a href='#Page_151'>151</a>, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a>, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a>, <a href='#Page_159'>159</a>, -<a href='#Page_160'>160</a>, <a href='#Page_180'>180</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Santvoort, Melichor von, i., <a href='#Page_203'>203</a>, <a href='#Page_244'>244</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sao harbor, ii., 70.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Saramang</i>, English frigate, ii., 259.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Saratoga</i>, American sloop, ii., 282.</li> - -<li class="indx">Saris, Captain John, i., <a href='#Page_196'>196</a>, <a href='#Page_207'>207</a>-225, <a href='#Page_229'>229</a>, <a href='#Page_232'>232</a>, <a href='#Page_343'>343</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Satow, ——, i., <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a>; ii., 354.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sawaas (or Sowas), i., <a href='#Page_330'>330</a>, <a href='#Page_344'>344</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sayer, agent of English East India Company, i., <a href='#Page_230'>230</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Scherer, J. A. B., ii., 344.</li> - -<li class="indx">Scheuchzer, Dr. I. G., i., <a href='#Page_290'>290</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Schools, ii., 135.</li> - -<li class="indx">Science, Study of, i., <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Scurvy, ii., 229.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sea-weeds, Edible, ii., 213.</li> - -<li class="indx">Segaki, ii., 26.</li> - -<li class="indx">Seimei, and the table of unfortunate days, ii., 41-44.</li> - -<li class="indx">Seminary at Goa, i., <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Serfs, i., <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Serqueyra, Father Louis (Bishop of Japan), i., <a href='#Page_227'>227</a>, <a href='#Page_242'>242</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Servants, i., <a href='#Page_354'>354</a>; ii., 177.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Sesamum orientale</i>, ii., 125.</li> - -<li class="indx">Settsu-no-Kami, governor of Nagasaki, i., <a href='#Page_347'>347</a>; ii., 100.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Seven Gods of Happiness,” i., <a href='#Page_359'>359</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Shaëp, Captain, i., <a href='#Page_263'>263</a>, <a href='#Page_265'>265</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Shigemi, S., ii., 344.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Shikimi</i> (anise-tree), ii., 126.</li> -<li class="isub1"><i>See also Hanashikimi</i>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Shikoku Island, i., <a href='#Page_123'>123</a>, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1"><i>Same as</i> Sikoku Island.</li> - -<li class="indx">Shimabara Fortress, i., <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>, <a href='#Page_248'>248</a>, <a href='#Page_261'>261</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Shimada, ii., 71.</li> - -<li class="indx">Shimo, i., <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>, <a href='#Page_98'>98</a>, <a href='#Page_119'>119</a>, -<a href='#Page_124'>124</a>, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a>, <a href='#Page_145'>145</a>, <a href='#Page_164'>164</a>, <a href='#Page_213'>213</a>, <a href='#Page_228'>228</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Shimoda, town and river, ii., 301, 302, 305, 316-324, 326.</li> - -<li class="indx">Shimonoseki, i., <a href='#Page_368'>368</a>, <a href='#Page_381'>381</a>; ii., 48, 49.</li> - -<li class="indx">Shinagawa, ii., 75, 247, 248.</li> - -<li class="indx">Shintō, i., <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>-70, <a href='#Page_138'>138</a>, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a>, <a href='#Page_342'>342</a>, <a href='#Page_359'>359</a>, <a href='#Page_360'>360</a>, <a href='#Page_399'>399</a>; ii., 65.</li> - -<li class="indx">Shintō clergy, i., <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>, <a href='#Page_342'>342</a>, <a href='#Page_359'>359</a>, <a href='#Page_360'>360</a>, <a href='#Page_398'>398</a>; ii., 65.</li> - -<li class="indx">Shintō temples (Miya), i., <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>, <a href='#Page_342'>342</a>, <a href='#Page_399'>399</a>; ii., 65.</li> - -<li class="indx">Shiota, ii., 129.</li> -<li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> Shiwota.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ships and Harbor Guard, Nagasaki, i., <a href='#Page_312'>312</a>, <a href='#Page_348'>348</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ships and boats, i., <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>, <a href='#Page_387'>387</a>-390; ii., 72.</li> - -<li class="indx">Shōgun-Sama, i., <a href='#Page_230'>230</a>, <a href='#Page_247'>247</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Shōguns, The, i., <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>; ii., 158, 166-173.</li> - -<li class="indx">Shooting of birds, ii., 308.</li> - -<li class="indx">Shops, i., <a href='#Page_394'>394</a>; ii., 11, 52, 77, 247, 319-323.</li> - -<li class="indx">Shotten, Timothy, i., <a href='#Page_169'>169</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Sidney Gazette,” ii., 258.</li> - -<li class="indx">Siebold, Dr. Philipp Franz von, i., <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a>, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a>, -<a href='#Page_338'>338</a>, <a href='#Page_351'>351</a>; ii., 43, 46, 125, 149, 237, 248, 250-254, 274, 310.</li> - -<li class="indx">Signs, ii., 320, 323.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sikoku Island, i., <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>, <a href='#Page_119'>119</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1"><i>Same as</i> Shikoku.</li> - -<li class="indx">Silk, i., <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>, <a href='#Page_321'>321</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sitting posture, ii., 133, 303.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sloane, Sir Hans, i., <a href='#Page_290'>290</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Small-pox, i., <a href='#Page_400'>400</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Smilax China</i>, ii., 124.</li> - -<li class="indx">Smoke-holes, i., <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Smoking articles, ii., 37, 38.</li> - -<li class="indx">Smuggling, i., <a href='#Page_300'>300</a>, <a href='#Page_314'>314</a>, <a href='#Page_328'>328</a>, <a href='#Page_332'>332</a>, <a href='#Page_333'>333</a>, -<a href='#Page_353'>353</a>, <a href='#Page_397'>397</a>; ii., 115, 116, 275.</li> - -<li class="indx">Soap, ii., 126.</li> - -<li class="indx">Soil, i., <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Soldiers, ii., 223, 224.</li> -<li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> Armies and Soldiery.</li> - -<li class="indx">Solis, Jean de, i., <a href='#Page_135'>135</a>, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a>, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sotelo, Father Louis, i., <a href='#Page_203'>203</a>-205, <a href='#Page_245'>245</a>, <a href='#Page_246'>246</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Soul of the Far East, The,” ii., 344.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sowaas.</li> -<li class="isub1"><i>See</i> Sowas.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sowas (<i>or</i> Sawaas), i., <a href='#Page_330'>330</a>, <a href='#Page_344'>344</a>, <a href='#Page_377'>377</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Soy, ii., 13, 119, 159.</li> - -<li class="indx">Spanish in the East, i., <a href='#Page_56'>56</a>, <a href='#Page_134'>134</a>-136, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a>, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a>, <a href='#Page_147'>147</a>, -<a href='#Page_148'>148</a>, <a href='#Page_151'>151</a>-154, <a href='#Page_159'>159</a>, <a href='#Page_160'>160</a>, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a>, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a>, <a href='#Page_179'>179</a>, -<a href='#Page_180'>180</a>, <a href='#Page_191'>191</a>, <a href='#Page_197'>197</a>, <a href='#Page_199'>199</a>, <a href='#Page_202'>202</a>-204, <a href='#Page_208'>208</a>, <a href='#Page_209'>209</a>, -<a href='#Page_221'>221</a>, <a href='#Page_228'>228</a>, <a href='#Page_237'>237</a>, <a href='#Page_241'>241</a>, <a href='#Page_261'>261</a>, <a href='#Page_270'>270</a>, <a href='#Page_271'>271</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Spex, Jacob, i., <a href='#Page_197'>197</a>, <a href='#Page_198'>198</a>, <a href='#Page_202'>202</a>, <a href='#Page_203'>203</a>, <a href='#Page_206'>206</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Spinola, ——, i., <a href='#Page_241'>241</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Spirea</i>, ii., 142.</li> - -<li class="indx">Springs, ii., 46, 129.</li> - -<li class="indx">Spy Guard, Nagasaki, i., <a href='#Page_312'>312</a>, <a href='#Page_348'>348</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">State’s Island, i., <a href='#Page_124'>124</a>, <a href='#Page_265'>265</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sterling, Admiral, ii., 323.</li> - -<li class="indx">Stevens, Thomas, ii., 350, 351.</li> - -<li class="indx">Stewart, Captain, ii., 193-196.</li> - -<li class="indx">St. Michael, patron saint of Japan, i., <a href='#Page_98'>98</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Stockings, ii., 143.</li> - -<li class="indx">Story, ——, ii., 351.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Story of Japan,” ii., 158, 344.</li> - -<li class="indx">Street-government of cities, i., <a href='#Page_188'>188</a>, <a href='#Page_349'>349</a>-353, <a href='#Page_356'>356</a>, <a href='#Page_361'>361</a>-363; - ii., 51, 80, 330.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Suburb of Yedo, A,” ii., 345.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sugar, ii., 117, 275.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sun-Goddess (Tenshō-daijin), i., <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>, <a href='#Page_224'>224</a>, <a href='#Page_357'>357</a>-359.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Sunrise Stories,” ii., 344.</li> - -<li class="indx">Superstitions, i., <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>, <a href='#Page_207'>207</a>, <a href='#Page_401'>401</a>; ii., 68, 223.</li> - -<li class="indx">Suruga, i., <a href='#Page_163'>163</a>, <a href='#Page_186'>186</a>, <a href='#Page_190'>190</a>, <a href='#Page_217'>217</a>; ii., 71.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Susquehanna</i>, American frigate, ii., 282, 291, 314, 315.</li> - -<li class="indx">Suwa, Festivals of, i., <a href='#Page_296'>296</a>, <a href='#Page_356'>356</a>-365.</li> - -<li class="indx">Suwa, Temple of, i., <a href='#Page_356'>356</a>, <a href='#Page_357'>357</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Suyematsu, ——, ii., 345.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sweetmeats, ii., 13, 29, 331.</li> - -<li class="indx">Swine, ii., 138.</li> - -<li class="indx">Swords, i., <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>, <a href='#Page_106'>106</a>, <a href='#Page_185'>185</a>, <a href='#Page_210'>210</a>, <a href='#Page_290'>290</a>, -<a href='#Page_349'>349</a>, <a href='#Page_369'>369</a>; ii., 149, 155, 168, 243.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Taikō-Sama. <i>See</i> Hashiba.</li> - -<li class="indx">Taikō-Sama, Castle of, i., <a href='#Page_118'>118</a>; ii., 54.</li> - -<li class="indx">Taikō-Sama, Temple and Tomb of, i., <a href='#Page_193'>193</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Takayanagi, T., and Riordan, R., ii., 344.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Tales of Old Japan,” ii., 344.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tanners, i., <a href='#Page_334'>334</a>, <a href='#Page_349'>349</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tartars, i., <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>-10.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tashima, Legend of, ii., 42.</li> - -<li class="indx">Taxes, i., <a href='#Page_258'>258</a>, <a href='#Page_355'>355</a>, <a href='#Page_356'>356</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tea, i., <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>, <a href='#Page_216'>216</a>; ii., 13, 14, 128, 158, 220.</li> - -<li class="indx">Teisuke, Murakami, ii., 221, 223, 226, 239.</li> - -<li class="indx">Temples, i., <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a>, <a href='#Page_161'>161</a>, <a href='#Page_193'>193</a>, -<a href='#Page_194'>194</a>, <a href='#Page_216'>216</a>, <a href='#Page_218'>218</a>, <a href='#Page_222'>222</a>, <a href='#Page_275'>275</a>, -<a href='#Page_342'>342</a>, <a href='#Page_356'>356</a>, <a href='#Page_357'>357</a>, <a href='#Page_397'>397</a>-399; -ii., 59, 69, 75, 79, 104-108, 304, 307, 316.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Temples of Riches,” i., <a href='#Page_275'>275</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tennōji, ii., 54.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tenriū, River, i., <a href='#Page_385'>385</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tenshō-daijin.</li> -<li class="isub1"><i>See</i> Sun-Goddess.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tenza, The, i., <a href='#Page_164'>164</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Tera</i> (Buddhist temples), i., <a href='#Page_71'>71</a>, <a href='#Page_275'>275</a>, <a href='#Page_342'>342</a>, <a href='#Page_397'>397</a>, -<a href='#Page_398'>398</a>; ii., 65, 304.</li> - -<li class="indx">Terazawa, i., <a href='#Page_145'>145</a>, <a href='#Page_146'>146</a>, <a href='#Page_156'>156</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Theatrical representations, i., <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>, <a href='#Page_212'>212</a>, <a href='#Page_213'>213</a>, <a href='#Page_360'>360</a>-365; -ii., 53, 160.</li> - -<li class="indx">Thevenot, ——, i., <a href='#Page_243'>243</a>, <a href='#Page_261'>261</a>, <a href='#Page_265'>265</a>; ii., 354.</li> - -<li class="indx">Threshing, ii., 158.</li> - -<li class="indx">Thunberg, Charles Peter, i., <a href='#Page_60'>60</a>, <a href='#Page_290'>290</a>, <a href='#Page_376'>376</a>, <a href='#Page_391'>391</a>, -<a href='#Page_392'>392</a>; ii., 16, 114-163, 169, 210, 213, 254.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Thuya dolebrata</i>, ii., 141.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Tiger</i>, English ship, ii., 353, 354.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tillage of the soil, i., <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>, <a href='#Page_381'>381</a>, <a href='#Page_386'>386</a>, <a href='#Page_387'>387</a>; -ii., 134, 136-138, 317.</li> - -<li class="indx">Time, Division of, i., <a href='#Page_351'>351</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Time-measurers, ii., 126, 251.</li> - -<li class="indx">Titsingh, Isaac, i., <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>, <a href='#Page_98'>98</a>, <a href='#Page_230'>230</a>, -<a href='#Page_240'>240</a>, <a href='#Page_257'>257</a>, <a href='#Page_276'>276</a>, <a href='#Page_281'>281</a>, <a href='#Page_351'>351</a>, -<a href='#Page_357'>357</a>, <a href='#Page_376'>376</a>; ii., 43, 81, 85, 112, 146, 147, 163-189.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tobacco culture, ii., 123.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Tōkaidō</i>, i., <a href='#Page_382'>382</a>; ii., 15, 23.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Toko</i>, or cupboard, ii., 4, 7, 178.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Tokowaki</i>, or side cupboard, ii., 5.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tolls, i., <a href='#Page_385'>385</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Tomb of Ears,” ii., 108.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tomb of Taikō-Sama, i., <a href='#Page_193'>193</a>, <a href='#Page_194'>194</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Torey (Stewart, Captain), ii., 196.</li> - -<li class="indx">Torment of the Fosse, i., <a href='#Page_246'>246</a>, <a href='#Page_247'>247</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Torres, Cosme de, i., <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>-56, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a>, <a href='#Page_91'>91</a>, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Toshitoku</i>, i., <a href='#Page_359'>359</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Towns and villages, i., <a href='#Page_394'>394</a>, <a href='#Page_395'>395</a>; ii., 57, 74.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Townsend Harris,” ii., 325.</li> - -<li class="indx">Toyohashi (Yoshida), ii., 70.</li> - -<li class="indx">Toyotomi Hideyoshi, ii., 54.</li> -<li class="isub1"><i>See also</i> Hashiba.</li> - -<li class="indx">Trade, i., <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>; ii., 202, 274, 275.</li> - -<li class="indx">Transactions and Proceedings of the Japan Society, London, i., <a href='#Page_376'>376</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan, i., <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>, <a href='#Page_117'>117</a>, -<a href='#Page_135'>135</a>, <a href='#Page_145'>145</a>, <a href='#Page_178'>178</a>, <a href='#Page_204'>204</a>, <a href='#Page_225'>226</a>, <a href='#Page_257'>257</a>, -<a href='#Page_290'>290</a>, <a href='#Page_352'>352</a>, <a href='#Page_359'>359</a>; ii., 7, 77, 112, 144, 149, 154, 174, 183, 199, 206, 210, 315, 346, 354.</li> - -<li class="indx">Translations, i., <a href='#Page_121'>121</a>, <a href='#Page_122'>122</a>, <a href='#Page_158'>158</a>, <a href='#Page_222'>222</a>, <a href='#Page_223'>223</a>, <a href='#Page_280'>280</a>; -ii., 122, 123, 164, 165, 210, 222.</li> - -<li class="indx">Transportation in the interior, i., <a href='#Page_216'>216</a>, <a href='#Page_347'>347</a>, <a href='#Page_371'>371</a>-385.</li> - -<li class="indx">Travellers on the highways, ii., 15-36, 41, 42, 45, 58, 329.</li> - -<li class="indx">Trays, ii., 333.</li> - -<li class="indx">Trial by torture, i., <a href='#Page_353'>353</a>, <a href='#Page_354'>354</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Trials, i., <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>, <a href='#Page_355'>355</a>; ii., 218.</li> - -<li class="indx">Trigault, Nicholas, i., <a href='#Page_232'>232</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tsadanil trees, ii., 57.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Tsubaki</i>, ii., 125.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tsuchi Yama, ii., 69.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Tsuitachi</i>, or first day of the month, ii., 58.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tsuni Yoshi, Emperor, ii., 85.</li> - -<li class="indx">Turks, i., <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Ukondono, i., <a href='#Page_117'>117</a>-119, 129, 229.</li> - -<li class="indx">Umenoki, ii., 68.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Unbeaten Tracks in Japan,” ii., 344.</li> - -<li class="indx">Unicorns’ horns, ii., 117, 118.</li> - -<li class="indx">United States’ relations with Japan, ii., 193-196, 206, 255-258, 260-273, 276-339.</li> - -<li class="indx">Uraga, i., <a href='#Page_218'>218</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Utensils and dishes, ii., 8.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst"><i>Vaccinia</i>, ii., 142.</li> - -<li class="indx">Valignani, Father Alexander, i., <a href='#Page_100'>100</a>-103, <a href='#Page_121'>121</a>, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a>-136, <a href='#Page_138'>138</a>, -<a href='#Page_143'>143</a>, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a>, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a>; ii., 349.</li> - -<li class="indx">Van Braam, ——, ii., 164.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Vandalia</i>, ii., 293.</li> - -<li class="indx">Van Linschoten, John Huigen, ii., 351, 352.</li> - -<li class="indx">Van Sturlen, director of the Company, ii., 250.</li> - -<li class="indx">Varnish-tree, i., <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>; ii., 125.</li> - -<li class="indx">Vasco da Gama, i., <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Vault, for fire protection, ii., 52.</li> - -<li class="indx">Vaz, Alvares, i., <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Vega, Lopo de, Spanish poet, i., <a href='#Page_231'>231</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Vegetables, i., <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>; ii., 124, 159, 317.</li> - -<li class="indx">Verhagen’s fleet (Dutch), i., <a href='#Page_169'>169</a>-177.</li> - -<li class="indx">Verhœven fleet (Dutch), i., <a href='#Page_182'>182</a>, <a href='#Page_196'>196</a>, <a href='#Page_198'>198</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Viburna</i>, ii., 142.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Vicia faba</i>, ii., 124.</li> - -<li class="indx">Vilela, Father Gaspard, i., <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a>, -<a href='#Page_165'>165</a>; ii., 189.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Vincennes</i>, American frigate, ii., 261-265, 283.</li> - -<li class="indx">Vivero, Don Rodrigo de, governor of Manila, i., <a href='#Page_180'>180</a>, <a href='#Page_185'>185</a>-261, <a href='#Page_265'>265</a>, 266; ii., 118, 355.</li> - -<li class="indx">Volcanoes, ii., 46, 170, 173, 305.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Voyage around the World, A,” ii., 203.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Voyages au Nord,” i., <a href='#Page_250'>250</a>, <a href='#Page_254'>254</a>, <a href='#Page_261'>261</a>, <a href='#Page_265'>265</a>, <a href='#Page_266'>266</a>; -ii., 118, 355.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Voyages Curieuse,” i., <a href='#Page_261'>261</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Voyages des Indes,” i., <a href='#Page_243'>243</a>, <a href='#Page_252'>252</a>, <a href='#Page_254'>254</a>, <a href='#Page_261'>261</a>; ii., 355.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Waardenaar, Heer, ii., 207, 208.</li> - -<li class="indx">Wada Iga-no-kami, i., <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Wadenaar, Heer, ii., 195.</li> - -<li class="indx">Waganaar, of the Dutch East India Company, i., <a href='#Page_265'>265</a>, <a href='#Page_266'>266</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Walnuts, ii., 144.</li> - -<li class="indx">Warm drinks, i., <a href='#Page_216'>216</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Water-clocks, ii., 251.</li> - -<li class="indx">Water supply, i., <a href='#Page_293'>293</a>, <a href='#Page_343'>343</a>; ii., 54.</li> - -<li class="indx">Weapons, ii., 149.</li> - -<li class="indx">Webster, Daniel, ii., 276-281.</li> - -<li class="indx">Weddell, Admiral, i., <a href='#Page_255'>255</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Wee Ones of Japan, The,” 344.</li> - -<li class="indx">Weights and measures, i., <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>, <a href='#Page_249'>249</a>, <a href='#Page_272'>272</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Whale fishery, i., <a href='#Page_255'>255</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Wheat, i., <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>, <a href='#Page_216'>216</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Wheeled vehicles, ii., 137, 138.</li> - -<li class="indx">Whiskey, ii., 206.</li> - -<li class="indx">Whiting, Lieut., ii., 302.</li> - -<li class="indx">Whitney, Dr., ii., 144.</li> - -<li class="indx">Williams, S. W., ii., 255, 258, 284, 310, 318-323.</li> - -<li class="indx">Windows, i., <a href='#Page_391'>391</a>; ii., 4, 130, 131, 322.</li> - -<li class="indx">Wine, ii., 206.</li> - -<li class="indx">Wittert, Admiral, i., <a href='#Page_197'>197</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Women, i., <a href='#Page_98'>98</a>, <a href='#Page_120'>120</a>, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a>, <a href='#Page_149'>149</a>, <a href='#Page_161'>161</a>, -<a href='#Page_211'>211</a>, <a href='#Page_212'>212</a>, <a href='#Page_214'>214</a>, <a href='#Page_243'>243</a>, <a href='#Page_259'>259</a>, <a href='#Page_260'>260</a>, -<a href='#Page_279'>279</a>, <a href='#Page_292'>292</a>, <a href='#Page_340'>340</a>, <a href='#Page_341'>341</a>, <a href='#Page_345'>345</a>, <a href='#Page_361'>361</a>; -ii., 23, 24, 29, 30, 47, 58, 70, 91, 96, 97, 120-122, 127, 153-156, 161, 167, 169, 174-183, 211, 225, 231-233, 242, 249, 304, 315, 329, 330.</li> - -<li class="indx">Wormwood, ii., 125, 146.</li> - -<li class="indx">Written language, i., <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Xavier, Francis, i., <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a>, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>-43, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>-55, -<a href='#Page_64'>64</a>, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a>, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a>, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>-88, <a href='#Page_98'>98</a>; ii., 353.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Yakushi, patron of physicians, ii., 68.</li> - -<li class="indx">Yamabu.</li> -<li class="isub1"><i>See</i> Yamabushi.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Yamabushi</i>, or mountain priests, i., <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>; ii., 23-25, 72.</li> - -<li class="indx">Yamaguchi, capital of Nagato, i., <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Yams, ii., 124.</li> - -<li class="indx">Yebisu, patron of fishermen, i., <a href='#Page_359'>359</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Yebumi</i> (figure-treading, <i>which see</i>), i., <a href='#Page_352'>352</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Yedo, i., <a href='#Page_163'>163</a>, <a href='#Page_186'>186</a>, <a href='#Page_187'>187</a>, <a href='#Page_218'>218</a>, -<a href='#Page_230'>230</a>, <a href='#Page_265'>265</a>, <a href='#Page_380'>380</a>; ii., 76-83, 324, 326, 330.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Yedo Kagami” (“Mirror of Yedo”), i., <a href='#Page_257'>257</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Yezo Island.</li> -<li class="isub1"><i>See</i> Matsumaye Island.</li> - -<li class="indx">Yodo, ii., 50, 57.</li> - -<li class="indx">Yokkaichi, ii., 69.</li> - -<li class="indx">Yokohama.</li> -<li class="isub1"><i>See</i> Kanagawa.</li> - -<li class="indx">Yoritomo, Prince, ii., 28-30.</li> - -<li class="indx">Yoshida, ii., 70.</li> - -<li class="indx">Yoshimune, i., <a href='#Page_119'>119</a>, <a href='#Page_120'>120</a>, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a>, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a>, -<a href='#Page_144'>144</a>, <a href='#Page_145'>145</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Young Japan” (Black), ii., 345.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Young Japan” (Scherer), ii., 344.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Zelandia, Fort, in Formosa, i., <a href='#Page_262'>262</a>, <a href='#Page_302'>302</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Zeni</i>, i., <a href='#Page_372'>372</a>, <a href='#Page_373'>373</a>; ii., 309.</li> - -<li class="indx">Zipangu, i., <a href='#Page_1'>1</a>, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>-6, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>.</li> -</ul> -</div> - - - -<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1" href="#FNanchor_1" class="label">[1]</a> Omitted in this edition.—<span class="smcap">Edr.</span></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_2" href="#FNanchor_2" class="label">[2]</a> Omitted in this edition.—<span class="smcap">Edr.</span></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_3" href="#FNanchor_3" class="label">[3]</a> The true distance is about five hundred miles; but, possibly, by -miles Marco Polo may have intended Chinese <i>li</i>, of which there are -nearly three in our mile.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_4" href="#FNanchor_4" class="label">[4]</a> A name applied to part of China, south of the Hoang-ho, held by -the Sung Dynasty till <span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1276.—K. M.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_5" href="#FNanchor_5" class="label">[5]</a> Marsden, the English translator and annotator of Marco Polo, -supposes that <i>Zaitun</i> was the modern <i>Amoy</i>, and <i>Kinsai</i> either <i>Ningpo</i> -or <i>Chusan</i>. The Chinese annalists, on the other hand, seem to make -the expedition start from Corea, which is much more probable, as that -province is separated from Japan by a strait of only about a hundred -miles in breadth. It was by this Corean strait that, three hundred -years later, the Japanese retorted this invasion.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_6" href="#FNanchor_6" class="label">[6]</a> Marsden remarks upon this date as evidently wrong. Indeed, it -is given quite differently in different early editions of the travels. -Marsden thinks it should be 1281. This is the date assigned to the -invasion by the Chinese books. The older Japanese annals place it in -1284. In the chapter of Marco Polo which follows the one above -quoted, and which is mainly devoted to the islands of southeastern -Asia, he seems to ascribe to the Japanese the custom of eating their -prisoners of war—a mistake which, as his English translator and commentator -observes, might easily arise from transferring to them what -he had heard of the savage inhabitants of some of the more southern -islands.</p> - -<p>The Mongol invasion took place in the fourth year of Kōan [<span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> -1281].—K. M.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_7" href="#FNanchor_7" class="label">[7]</a> As this chronicle, which is the oldest Japanese history, is stated to -have been originally published <span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 720, it must be from a continuation -of it that Siebold, or rather his assistant, Hoffman, translates.</p> - -<p>[A translation by W. G. Aston is published by the Japan Society, -London.—<span class="smcap">Edr.</span>]</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_8" href="#FNanchor_8" class="label">[8]</a> This is the equivalent, it is to be supposed, of the Japanese date -mentioned in the chronicle.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_9" href="#FNanchor_9" class="label">[9]</a> Hildreth is here too skeptical. All the events mentioned in the -text really took place between <span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1268 and 1281.—K. M.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_10" href="#FNanchor_10" class="label">[10]</a> Galvano’s book in the translation, published by Hackluyt, in 1601, -may be found in the supplement to Hackluyt’s collection of voyages, -London, 1811. The original work was printed by the pious care of -Francis de Sousa Tauares, to whom Galvano left it, on his death-bed.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_11" href="#FNanchor_11" class="label">[11]</a> See Appendix, Note D.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_12" href="#FNanchor_12" class="label">[12]</a> A Portuguese coin, as corresponding to which in value the Spanish -translator of Pinto gives ducats, which, of silver, were about equal to -a dollar of our money.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_13" href="#FNanchor_13" class="label">[13]</a> This Portuguese colony was of no long continuance. It was soon -broken up by the Chinese, as Pinto intimates, through the folly of the -Portuguese residents.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_14" href="#FNanchor_14" class="label">[14]</a> It is difficult to understand by what mistake Charlevoix, in his -“Histoire du Japan,” ascribes this discovery to the same year, 1542, as -that of the three Portuguese mentioned by Galvano. Pinto’s chronology -is rather confused, but it is impossible to fix this voyage to Japan -earlier than 1545.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_15" href="#FNanchor_15" class="label">[15]</a> Probably a corruption of <i>Tenjikujin</i>, or the people of <i>Tenjiku</i> -(India).—<span class="smcap">Edr.</span></p> - -</div> -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_16" href="#FNanchor_16" class="label">[16]</a> The terms <i>Chengecu</i> and <i>Chenghequu</i> are represented in two letters, -one dated in 1651 (“Selectarum Epistolarum ex India,” Lib. i.), addressed -to Xavier by a companion of his; the other, dated in 1560, -and written by Lawrence, a converted Japanese and a Jesuit (<i>Ibid.</i>, -Lib. ii), as commonly employed in Japan to designate Europe.</p> - -<p>Golownin mentions that at the time of his imprisonment (1812) he -found a prophecy in circulation among the Japanese that they should -be conquered by a people from the north. Possibly both these prophecies—that -mentioned by Pinto and that by Golownin—might be a -little colored by the patriotic hopes of the European relaters.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_17" href="#FNanchor_17" class="label">[17]</a> A tael is about an ounce and a third English. The tael is divided -into ten mas; the mas into ten kandarins; the kandarin into ten kas; -and these denominations (the silver passing by weight) are in general -use throughout the far East. Sixteen taels make a katty (about a -pound and a third avoirdupois), and one hundred katties a picul,—these -being the mercantile weights in common use.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_18" href="#FNanchor_18" class="label">[18]</a> See Appendix, Note C.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_19" href="#FNanchor_19" class="label">[19]</a> The kingdom or province of Bungo is situated on the east coast -of the second in size and southernmost in situation of the three larger -Japanese islands, off the southeast extremity of which lies the small -island of Tanegashima, where Pinto represents himself as having first -landed.</p> - -<p>The name “Bungo” was frequently extended by the Portuguese to -the whole large island of which it formed a part, though among them -the more common designation of that island, after they knew it to -be such (for they seem at first to have considered it a part of Nippon), -was Shimo.[A] This name, Shimo, appears to have been only a -modification of the term <i>shima</i> (or, as the Portuguese wrote it, <i>xima</i>), -the Japanese word for island, and as such terminating many names -of places. On our maps this island is called Kiūshiū, meaning, as -Kämpfer tells us, “Country of Nine,” from the circumstance of its -being divided into nine provinces, which latter appears to be the correct -interpretation. There are in use in Japan Chinese as well as -Japanese names of provinces and officers (the Chinese probably a -translation of the Japanese); and not only the names Nippon and -Kiūshiū, but that of Bungo (to judge from the terminal n of the first -syllable), are of Chinese origin.</p> - -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">A: <i>Shimo</i> is not the modification of <i>Shima</i> (Island), but a word meaning “lower”</span><br /> -geographically.—K. M. - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_20" href="#FNanchor_20" class="label">[20]</a> The Japanese date by the years of the reign of the Dairi, or -Mikado (of whom more hereafter), and they also, for ordinary purposes, -employ the Chinese device of <i>nengō</i>. These are periods, or eras, -of arbitrary length, from one year to many, appointed at the pleasure of -the reigning Dairi, named by him, and lasting till the establishment -of a new nengō. For convenience, every new nengō, and also every -new reign, begins chronologically with the new year, the old nengō and -old reign being protracted to the end of the year in which it closes. -[See Notes G and H in Appendix.—<span class="smcap">Edr.</span>]</p> - -<p>The Japanese month is alternately twenty-nine and thirty days, of -which every year has twelve, with a repetition of one of the months, in -seven years out of every nineteen, so as to bring this reckoning by -lunar months into correspondency with the course of the earth round -the sun; this method being based on a knowledge of the correspondency -of two hundred and thirty-five lunations with nineteen solar years. -According to Titsingh, every thirty-third month is repeated, so as to -make up the necessary number of intercalary months, the number of -days in these intercalary months being fixed by the almanacs issued at -Miyako. The commencement of the Japanese year is generally in -February. The months are divided into two distinct portions, of fifteen -days, each having a distinct name, and the first day of each of which -serves as a Sunday, or holiday. This regulation of the Japanese calendar -is borrowed from the Chinese, as also the use of the period of sixty -years corresponding to our century. -[See also paper on “Japanese Calendars,” in vol. xxx of the Transactions -of the Asiatic Society of Japan.—<span class="smcap">Edr.</span>]</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_21" href="#FNanchor_21" class="label">[21]</a> No such province is mentioned in the lists of Japanese provinces -by Father Rodriguez, Kämpfer, and Klaproth. [Name of a bay.—<span class="smcap">Edr.</span>]</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_22" href="#FNanchor_22" class="label">[22]</a> Regarding the portrait of the Portuguese, we know not on what -authority Siebold based his statement.—K. M.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_23" href="#FNanchor_23" class="label">[23]</a> “They wished to have our portraits taken at full length, and -<i>Teisuke</i>, who knew how to draw, was appointed to execute them. He -drew them in India ink, but in such a style that each portrait would -have passed for that of any other individual as well as of him it was -intended for. Except the long beard, we could trace no resemblance -in them. The Japanese, however, sent them to the capital, where they -were probably hung up in some of their galleries of pictures.”—<i>Golownin’s</i> -“<i>Captivity in Japan</i>,” vol. i, ch. 4.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_24" href="#FNanchor_24" class="label">[24]</a> In the Latin version of the Jesuit letters he is called Cosmus -Turrianus.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_25" href="#FNanchor_25" class="label">[25]</a> Nippon is the name of the whole country; Kondo, of the main -island.—<span class="smcap">Edr.</span></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_26" href="#FNanchor_26" class="label">[26]</a> It appears from Golownin that there are also smaller packages, of -which three make the large one. The price of rice varied, of course; -but Kämpfer gives five or six taels of silver as the average value of -the koku. Titsingh represents the koku as corresponding to the gold -koban, the national coin of the Japanese. The original koban weighed -forty-seven kandarins, or rather more than our eagle; but till the year -1672 it passed in Japan as equivalent to about six taels of silver. The -present koban contains only half as much gold; and yet, as compared -with silver, is rated still higher. The koban is figured by Kämpfer -as an oblong coin rounded at the ends, the surface, on one side, marked -with four rows of indented lines, and bearing at each end the arms or -symbol of the Dairi, and between them a mark showing the value, and -the signature of the master of the mint. The other side was smooth, -and had only the stamp of the inspector-general of gold and silver -money. Kämpfer also figures the <i>ōban</i>, which even in his time had -become very rare, similar to the koban, but of ten times the weight -and value. A third gold coin was the <i>ichibu</i>, figured by Kämpfer as -an oblong square. According to Thunburg, it was of the value of a -quarter of the koban. Silver passed by weight. The Japanese do not -appear to have had any silver coins, unless lumps of irregular shape -and weight, but bearing certain marks and stamps, were to be so considered. -In ordinary retail transactions copper <i>zeni</i>, or <i>kas</i>, as the Chinese -name was, were employed. They were round, with a square hole in the -middle, by which they were strung. Some were of double size and -value, and some of iron. For further information on the Japanese -monetary system, and on the present state and value of the Japanese -circulating medium, see Chapters XXV, XXXVIII, and XLV.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_27" href="#FNanchor_27" class="label">[27]</a> Dairi, in its original sense, is said by Rodriguez, in his Japanese -grammar, to signify rather the court than the person of the theocratic -chief to whom it is applied; and so of most of the titles mentioned in -the text.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_28" href="#FNanchor_28" class="label">[28]</a> According to Rodriguez, there had been also an ancient military -nobility, called <i>buke</i>; but in the course of the civil wars many families -of it had become extinct, while other humble families, who had risen -by way of arms, mostly formed the existing nobility.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_29" href="#FNanchor_29" class="label">[29]</a> According to the Japanese historical legends, the office of Kubō-Sama, -originally limited to the infliction of punishments and the suppression -of crimes, was shared, for many ages, between the two families -of Genji and Heiji, till about 1180, when a civil war broke out between -these families, and the latter, having triumphed, assumed such power -that the Dairi commissioned Yoritomo, a member of the defeated family -of Genji, to inflict punishment upon him. Yoritomo renewed the -war, killed Heiji, and was himself appointed Kubō-Sama, but ended -with usurping a greater power than any of his predecessors.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_30" href="#FNanchor_30" class="label">[30]</a> See Satow’s papers on “Pure Shintō” and “Japanese Rituals,” in -the Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan.—<span class="smcap">Edr.</span></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_31" href="#FNanchor_31" class="label">[31]</a> The word <i>Kami</i> is also doubly used as a title of honor conferred -with the sanction of the Dairi, somewhat equivalent, says Kämpfer, in -one case, to the European title of chevalier, and in the other, to that of -count. Golownin insists that it implies something spiritual.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_32" href="#FNanchor_32" class="label">[32]</a> The Sun-Goddess, also called Ama-terasu-no-Mikoto.—<span class="smcap">Edr.</span></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_33" href="#FNanchor_33" class="label">[33]</a> The following system of Japanese cosmogony is given by Klaproth, -as contained in an imperfect volume of Chinese and Japanese -chronology, printed in Japan, in Chinese characters, without date, but -which for more than a hundred years past has been in the Royal -Library of Paris: “At first the heaven and the earth were not separated, -the perfect principle and the imperfect principle were not disjoined; -chaos, under the form of an egg, contained the breath [of life], -self-produced, including the germs of all things. Then what was pure -and perfect ascended upwards, and formed the heavens (or sky), while -what was dense and impure coagulated, was precipitated, and produced -the earth. The pure and excellent principles formed whatever is light, -whilst whatever was dense and impure descended by its own gravity; -consequently the sky was formed prior to the earth. After their completion, -a divine being (<i>Kami</i>) was born in the midst of them. Hence, -it has been said, that at the reduction of chaos, an island of soft earth -emerged, as a fish swims upon the water. At this period a thing resembling -a shoot of the plant <i>ashi</i> [<i>Eryanthus Japonicus</i>] was produced -between the heavens and the earth. This shoot was metamorphosed -and became the god [first of the seven superior gods] who bears the -honorific title of Kuni-toko-dachi-no-mikoto, that is to say, the venerable -one who constantly supports the empire.”</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_34" href="#FNanchor_34" class="label">[34]</a> In reading the accounts of the bonzes, and of the delusions which -they practised on the people, contained in the letters of the Catholic -missionaries, and the denunciations levelled against them in consequence, -in those letters, one might almost suppose himself to be reading -a Protestant sermon against Popery, or an indignant leader against -the papists in an evangelical newspaper. The missionaries found, however, -at least they say so, among other theological absurdities maintained -by the bonzes, a number of the “damnable Lutheran tenets.”</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_35" href="#FNanchor_35" class="label">[35]</a> Buddha, or the sage (which the Chinese, by the metamorphosis -made by their pronunciation of most foreign proper names, have -changed first into <i>Fuh-hi</i>, and then into <i>Fuh</i>, or <i>Ho</i>), is not the personal -name of the great saint, the first preacher of the religion of the -Buddhists, but a title of honor given to him after he had attained to -eminent sanctity. According to the concurrent traditions of the Buddhists -in various parts of Asia, he was the son of a king of central India, -Suddho-dana, meaning in Sanscrit pure-eating king, or eater of pure -food, which the Chinese have translated into their language by <i>Zung-fung-wang</i>. -His original name was <i>Lêh-ta</i>; after he became a priest he -was called <i>Sakia-mouni</i>, that is, devotee of the race of Sakia, whence -the appellation <i>Shaka</i>, by which he is commonly known in Japan, and -also the name <i>Shaku</i>, applied to the patriarch or head of the Buddhist -church. Another Sanscrit patronymic of Buddha is <i>Gautama</i>, which -in different Buddhist nations has, in conjunction with other epithets -applied to him, been variously changed and corrupted. Thus among -the Siamese he is called <i>Summana-kodom</i>.</p> - -<p>The Buddhist mythology includes several Buddhas who preceded -Sakia-mouni, and the first of whom, <i>Adi-Buddha</i>, or the first Buddha, -was, when nothing else was, being in fact the primal deity and origin -of all things. It seems to be this first Buddha who is worshipped in -Japan under the name of <i>Amida</i>, and whose priests form the most -numerous and influential of the Buddhist orders. Siebold seems inclined -to regard them as pure monotheists.</p> - -<p>The birth of Shaka is fixed by the Japanese annalists, or at least by -the book of chronology quoted in a previous note, in the twenty-sixth -year of the emperor Chaou-wang, of the Chinese Chew Dynasty, -1027 <span class="allsmcap">B. C.</span> 1006 <span class="allsmcap">B. C.</span>, he fled from his father’s house to become a priest; -998 <span class="allsmcap">B. C.</span>, he reached the highest step of philosophical knowledge; -949 <span class="allsmcap">B. C.</span>, being seventy-nine years of age, he entered into <i>Nirvana</i>, -that is, died. He was succeeded by a regular succession of Buddhist -patriarchs, of whom twenty-eight were natives of Hindustan. The -twenty-eighth emigrated to China, <span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 490, where he had five Chinese -successors. Under the second of these, <span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 552, Buddhism was introduced -into Japan. <span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 713, the sixth and the last Chinese patriarch -died, since which the Chinese Buddhists, and those who have received -the religion from them, seem not to have acknowledged any general, -but only a local, head in each country.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_36" href="#FNanchor_36" class="label">[36]</a> In connection with this chapter, read “The Religions of Japan” -(Griffis).—<span class="smcap">Edr.</span></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_37" href="#FNanchor_37" class="label">[37]</a> For an account of the Japanese language, literature, etc., see “A -Handbook of Modern Japan” (Clement).—<span class="smcap">Edr.</span></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_38" href="#FNanchor_38" class="label">[38]</a> “All military men, the servants of the Shōgun, and persons holding -civil offices under the government, are bound, when they have committed -any crime, to rip themselves up, but not till they have received an order -from the court to that effect; for, if they were to anticipate this -order, their heirs would run the risk of being deprived of their places -and property. For this reason all the officers of government are provided, -in addition to their usual dress, and that which they put on in the -case of fire, with a suit necessary on such occasions, which they carry -with them whenever they travel from home. It consists of a white -robe and a habit of ceremony, made of hempen cloth, and without -armorial bearings.</p> - -<p>“As soon as the order of the court has been communicated to the -culprit, he invites his intimate friends for the appointed day, and regales -them with sake. After they have drank together some time, he -takes leave of them, and the order of the court is then read to him once -more. The person who performs the principal part of this tragic scene -then addresses a speech or compliment to the company, after which he -inclines his head towards the floor, draws his sabre, and cuts himself -with it across the belly, penetrating to the bowels. One of his confidential -servants, who takes his place behind him, then strikes off his -head. Such as wish to display superior courage, after the cross-cut, -inflict a second longitudinally, and then a third in the throat. No disgrace -attaches to such a death, and the son succeeds to his father’s -place.</p> - -<p>“When a person is conscious of having committed some crime, and -apprehensive of being thereby disgraced, he puts an end to his own -life, to spare his family the ruinous consequences of judicial proceedings. -This practice is so common that scarcely any notice is taken of -such an event. The sons of all persons of quality exercise themselves -in their youth, for five or six years, with a view that they may perform -the operation, in case of need, with gracefulness and dexterity; and -they take as much pains to acquire this accomplishment, as youth -among us to become elegant dancers or skilful horsemen; hence the -profound contempt of death which they imbibe in their earliest years. -This disregard of death, which they prefer to the slightest disgrace, -extends to the very lowest classes among the Japanese.”—<i>Titsingh</i>, -“<i>Illustrations of Japan</i>,” p. 147.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_39" href="#FNanchor_39" class="label">[39]</a> His family name was Ōtomo, and his given name was Yoshishige.—<span class="smcap">Edr.</span></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_40" href="#FNanchor_40" class="label">[40]</a> Pinto gives a long account of this dispute, which has been substantially -adopted by Lucina, the Portuguese biographer of Xavier, -whose life of the saint was published in 1600, and who, in composing -it, had the use of Pinto’s yet unpublished manuscript. Tursellini’s -Latin biography of Xavier was published at Rome and Antwerp, 1596. -From these was compiled the French life, by Bouhours, which our -Dryden translated. Tursellini published also four books of Xavier’s -epistles, translated into Latin. Eight books of new epistles afterwards -appeared. Charlevoix remarks of them, “that they are memoirs, of -which it is not allowable to question the sincerity, but which furnish -very little for history, which was not the writer’s object.” They are -chiefly homilies.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_41" href="#FNanchor_41" class="label">[41]</a> See Satow’s paper in vol. vii of the Transactions of the Asiatic -Society of Japan.—<span class="smcap">Edr.</span></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_42" href="#FNanchor_42" class="label">[42]</a> For some further remarks on Pinto and his book, see Appendix, -Note D.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_43" href="#FNanchor_43" class="label">[43]</a> Of Father de Torres we have four letters rendered into Latin, and -of Vilela, in the same collections, seven, giving, among other things, a -pretty full account of his visit to and residence at Miyako. For the -description, however, of that capital, and the road to it, I prefer to rely -on lay travellers, of whose observations, during a series of visits extending -through more than two centuries, a full abstract will be found -in subsequent chapters.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_44" href="#FNanchor_44" class="label">[44]</a> The following passage, from Titsingh’s “Memoirs of the Shōguns,” -may serve to shed some light upon the civil war raging in Japan when -first visited by the Portuguese, and which continued down to the time -of Nobunaga: “Takauji was of the family of Yoshiiye, who was descended -from Seiwa-tennō, the fifty-sixth Dairi. He divided the -supreme power between his two sons, Yoshi-nori and Motouji, giving -to each the government of thirty-three provinces. The latter, who -ruled over the eastern part, was styled Kamakura-no-Shōgun, and -kept his court at Kamakura, in the province of Sagami. Yoshi-nori, -to whom were allotted the western provinces, resided at Miyako, with -the title of Fuku-Shōgun.</p> - -<p>“Takauji, in dividing the empire between his two sons, was influenced -by the expectation that, in case either of them should be attacked, -his brother would afford him assistance. This partition, on the -contrary, only served to arm them one against the other; the country -was involved in continual war, and the princes, though brothers, were -engaged in frequent hostilities, which terminated only with the destruction -of the branch of Miyako.”</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_45" href="#FNanchor_45" class="label">[45]</a> See note on page 84.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_46" href="#FNanchor_46" class="label">[46]</a> For a particular description of the dress of Japanese, see Chap. -XLI.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_47" href="#FNanchor_47" class="label">[47]</a> His reception of the Japanese and his reformation of the calendar -are both recorded together in his epitaph.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_48" href="#FNanchor_48" class="label">[48]</a> The Letters, Briefs, and the Discourse on Obedience, above quoted, -may be found at length in Latin, in the very valuable and rich collection, -<i>De Rebus Japonicis Indicis</i> and <i>Peruvianis Epistolæ Recentiores</i>, edited by -John Hay, of Dalgetty, a Scotch Jesuit, and a sharp controversialist, -published in 1605; in Spanish, in Father Luys de Gusman’s <i>Historia -de los Missiones, que han hecho los Religioses de la Compania de Jesus, etc.</i>, -published in 1601, of which the larger part is devoted to the Japanese -mission; in Italian, in Father Daniel Batoli’s “Historia de la Compagnia -de Gesu”; and in French, in Charlevoix’s “Histoire du Japon.” -An Italian history of the mission was printed at Rome, 1585,—the -same, I suppose, of which a Latin translation is given in Hay’s collection; -and still rarer and more valuable one at Macao, in 1590, of which -a further account will be found in a note at the end of the next -chapter.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_49" href="#FNanchor_49" class="label">[49]</a> The princes and nobles of Japan, and indeed most private individuals, -have certain devices embroidered on their gowns, etc., which -the Portuguese and the missionaries compared to the armorial bearings -of Europe. [See paper on “Japanese Heraldry” in vol. v of the -Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan.—<span class="smcap">Edr.</span>]</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_50" href="#FNanchor_50" class="label">[50]</a> During this residence at Macao the Japanese ambassadors were -not idle. They were engaged upon a very remarkable work, printed -at Macao in 1590 in Japanese and Latin, purporting to be composed by -the ambassadors, and giving, by way of dialogue, an account not only -of the embassy, but of Japan and of all the countries, European and -Oriental, which they had visited. The Latin title is <i>De Missione Legatorum -Japonensium ad Romanam curiam, rebusque in Europa ac toto in -itinere animadversis, Dialogus, etc.</i>—“A Dialogue concerning the Japanese -Embassy to the Court of Rome, and the things observed in Europe -and on the whole journey, collected from the journal of the ambassadors, -and rendered into Latin by Ed. de Laude, priest of the Society of -Jesus.” It is from this work, though he does not give the title of it, -that Hackluyt extracted the “Excellent Treatise of the Kingdom of -China and of the Estate and Government thereof,” contained in his -second volume, and of which he speaks in his epistle dedicatory to that -volume, first published in 1599, as “the most exact account of those -parts that is yet come to light.” “It was printed,” he tells us, “in -Latin, in Makoa, a city of China, in China paper, in the year 1590, and -was intercepted in the great carac Madre de Dios, two years after, -enclosed in a case of sweet cedar wood, and lapped up almost a hundred -fold in fine Calicut cloth, as though it had been some incomparable -jewel.”</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_51" href="#FNanchor_51" class="label">[51]</a> This letter, with the reply in the next chapter, is given by Froez, -from whom Gusman has copied them.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_52" href="#FNanchor_52" class="label">[52]</a> Letters from the ambassadors to Sixtus V, written at Nagasaki -after their arrival there, and giving an account of their voyage home, -may be found in Hay’s collection.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_53" href="#FNanchor_53" class="label">[53]</a> Valignani was not the first European to obtain an imperial audience. -The same favor had been granted, as already mentioned, by -Yoshiteru to Father Vilela in 1559. Louis Froez had also been admitted, -in 1565, to an audience of the same emperor, of which he has -given a short but interesting account.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_54" href="#FNanchor_54" class="label">[54]</a> See Satow’s paper on “The Origin of Spanish and Portuguese -Rivalry in Japan,” in the Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan.—<span class="smcap">Edr.</span></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_55" href="#FNanchor_55" class="label">[55]</a> We regret that the original of this letter has been lost, and we -cannot, therefore, compare the translation with the original. But, at -any rate, the date here given is erroneous. Valignani’s departure from -Japan being in 1592, as is mentioned at the end of the next chapter, -this letter must have been written in 1592 (first year of Bunroku).—K. -M.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_56" href="#FNanchor_56" class="label">[56]</a> The number of troops here set down is too small.—K. M.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_57" href="#FNanchor_57" class="label">[57]</a> According to the letters of Louis Froez, the prince of Ōmura -joined the army against Corea with one thousand men, the king of -Arima with two thousand, and the king of Bungo with ten thousand, -besides mariners and mean people to carry the baggage. The entire -number of men-at-arms in the empire, at this time, is stated to have -been, by a written catalogue, three hundred thousand. The victories -mentioned in the text were gained by an advanced body of fifteen -thousand men. The Coreans are described by Froez as different from -the Chinese in race and language, and superior to them in personal -prowess, yet as in a manner tributary to China, whose laws, customs, -and arts they had borrowed. They are represented as good bowmen, -but scantily provided with other weapons, and therefore not able to -encounter the cannon, lances, and swords of the Japanese, who had -been, beside, practised by continual wars among themselves. But in -nautical affairs Froez reckons the Chinese and Coreans as decidedly -superior to the Japanese. Translations from several Jesuit letters -relating to the Corean war will be found in Hackluyt, vol. iv, near the -end. Siebold, relying upon Japanese authorities, insists that it was -through Corea that the arts, knowledge, language, and written characters -of China were introduced into Japan.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_58" href="#FNanchor_58" class="label">[58]</a> See Aston’s papers on “Hideyoshi’s Invasion of Korea,” in the -Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan.—<span class="smcap">Edr.</span></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_59" href="#FNanchor_59" class="label">[59]</a> Yet Taikō-Sama was not in general cruel. A curious letter of -Father Organtino Brixiano, written in 1594, enumerates, among the -reasons of Taikō’s great success, his clemency to the conquered princes, -whom he never put to death after having once promised them their -lives, and to whom he granted a revenue, small, but sufficient to maintain -them, and which served to keep them quiet. Another reason was -his having established for his soldiers during war a commissariat, of -which he paid the expense, by which they were rendered much more -efficient. He also kept them employed, for, besides the army maintained -in Corea, he set them to work in building or repairing palaces and fortresses, -or in other public works. At this time he had thirty thousand -men at work upon one castle near Miyako, one hundred thousand at -Fushimi. He also broke the power of the princes by transferring -them to distant parts, while he inspired general respect by his strict -justice, from which he was swerved by no considerations of relationship, -family, or influence, secular or religious. Another reason mentioned -by the missionary does not correspond so well with Taikō’s letter to -the viceroy of Goa. He is said not only to have disarmed the country -people, by whose strength and wealth the petty kingdoms had been -sustained, but also to have reduced them to extreme poverty; but this, -perhaps, applies rather to the petty lords than to the actual cultivators. -This letter is in Hay’s collection, and a part of it, in English, may be -found in Hackluyt’s fourth volume.</p> - -<p>[Dening’s “New Life of Toyotomi Hideyoshi” is the best work -dealing with the career of “the Napoleon of Japan.”—<span class="smcap">Edr.</span>]</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_60" href="#FNanchor_60" class="label">[60]</a> Some curious information respecting the Philippines is contained -in a letter dated Mexico, 1590, intercepted on its way to Spain by some -English cruiser, and translated and published by Hackluyt in his fourth -volume. This letter represents the country as very unhealthy “for us -Spaniards,” of whom not more than one thousand were left alive out -of fourteen thousand who had gone there in the twenty years preceding. -It seems, too, that the Spaniards at Manila, not less than the -Portuguese at Macao, had succeeded in opening a trade with China. -“There is a place in China, which is an harbor called Macaran, which -the king has given to the Spaniards freely; which shall be the place -where the ships shall come to traffic. For in this harbor there is a great -river, which goeth up into the main land, unto divers towns and cities, -which are near to this river.” Where was this Spanish Chinese port?</p> - -<p>The annual galleons to New Spain were to Manila what the annual -carac to Japan was to Macao,—a main support of the place. The privilege -of putting a certain amount of goods on board was distributed -among all the resident merchants, offices, and public institutions.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_61" href="#FNanchor_61" class="label">[61]</a> That any Japanese had been in America earlier than 1610 <span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> is -not to be found in any Japanese sources.—K. M.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_62" href="#FNanchor_62" class="label">[62]</a> The fathers resident at this college had been by no means idle. -They had printed there, in 1593, a Japanese grammar, prepared by -Father Alvarez, and, in 1595, in a thick quarto of upwards of nine hundred -pages, a Portuguese, Latin, and Japanese Lexicon. A vocabulary -entirely Japanese was printed at Nagasaki, 1598.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_63" href="#FNanchor_63" class="label">[63]</a> Yet the Japanese are said to maintain to this day a garrison on the -coast (Golownin, vol. iii, ch. 9), and to receive tribute from Corea; but -this seems doubtful.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_64" href="#FNanchor_64" class="label">[64]</a> Go-kirai, including Yamashiro, Yamato, Kawachi, Izumi, and -Settsu.—<span class="smcap">Edr.</span></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_65" href="#FNanchor_65" class="label">[65]</a> Father Valignani died in 1606, at Macao, whither he had gone to -look after the Chinese missions, a few Jesuits having at length got admission -into that empire. Father Rodriguez, in his annual letter of -1606, from Miyako, in noticing Valignani’s death, speaks of him as -justly entitled to be called the apostle of the missions of Japan and -China,—a title, indeed, which he had already received from the king -of Portugal. Purchas, who published a few years later, mentions him -as the “great Jesuit.” He enjoyed in his own day, and deservedly, a -reputation quite equal to that of our most famous modern missionaries; -but these missionary reputations are apt not to be very long-lived. -Five of his letters are in the collection of Hay, “De Rebus -Japonicis,” etc.</p> - -<p>The death of Father Louis Froez has been mentioned in the previous -chapter. We have of his letters, in Maffei’s “Select Epistles,” nine, -written between the years 1563 and 1573; and in Hay’s collection, eight, -written between 1577 and 1596. Many of these are of great length. -That of February, 1565, contains a curious account of what he saw at -Miyako, on his going thither with Almeida to aid Vilela, who had -labored there alone for six years with only Japanese assistants. The -translation of it in Hackluyt has an important passage in the beginning, -giving a general account of the Japanese, not in the Latin editions -that I have seen. Those in Hay’s collection are rather reports -than letters. That of 1586 contains an account of Valignani’s first interview -with Taikō-Sama, that of 1592 a full account of Valignani’s -embassy, the second of 1595 the history of Taikō-Sama’s quarrel with -his nephew, and the two of 1596 a full account of the first martyrdoms -and of the state of the church at the time.</p> - -<p>Almeida had died in 1583, after a missionary life of twenty-eight -years. We have five of his letters, which show him a good man, but -exceedingly credulous, even for a Portuguese Jesuit.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_66" href="#FNanchor_66" class="label">[66]</a> This chapter, also the twenty-second, is taken, with alterations and -additions, from an article (written by the compiler of this work) in -“Harper’s Magazine” for January, 1854.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_67" href="#FNanchor_67" class="label">[67]</a> See Appendix, Note E.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_68" href="#FNanchor_68" class="label">[68]</a> An account of Adams’ voyage, in two letters of his from Japan, -may be found in Purchas, “His Pilgrimes,” part i, book iii, sect. 5. -Purchas also gives, book ii, chap. v, Captain Wert’s adventures and -return; and in book iii, chap. i, sect. 4, a narrative by Davis, who acted -as chief pilot of the first Dutch voyage to the East Indies, under Houtman. -Hackluyt gives, in his second volume, a narrative of Lancaster’s -voyage, taken down from the mouth of Edmund Baker, Lancaster’s -lieutenant. Henry May’s narrative of the same voyage is given in -Hackluyt’s second volume. What is known of the English expedition, -fitted out in 1594, will be found in Hackluyt, vol. iv, and “Pilgrimes,” -book iii, chap. i, sect. 2. The English East India Company was -formed in 1600, and Lancaster was immediately despatched on a second -voyage “with four tall ships and a victualler,” and by him the English -trade was commenced.—<i>Pilgrimes</i>, book iii, chap. iii, sect. 1. [Ten -extant letters of Will Adams may be found in “Letters written by -the English Residents in Japan,” edited by K. Murakawn, and published -in Tōkyō. See also paper by Dr. L. Riess on the “History of -the English Factory at Kirado,” in the Transactions of the Asiatic -Society of Japan.—<span class="smcap">Edr.</span>]</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_69" href="#FNanchor_69" class="label">[69]</a> See Klaproth’s translation (“Nov. Journal Asiatique,” tom. ii), of -a curious Japanese tract on the Wealth of Japan, written in 1708.</p> - -<p>See note on page 152.—<span class="smcap">Edr.</span></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_70" href="#FNanchor_70" class="label">[70]</a> This letter is given by Purchas, vol. i, p. 406. It has neither date -nor signature, nor does it appear who is responsible for the correctness -of the translation.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_71" href="#FNanchor_71" class="label">[71]</a> It must have been in the next year (1609).—K. M.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_72" href="#FNanchor_72" class="label">[72]</a> Most likely this “box” was formed by movable screens. See -Chapter XXXVIII.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_73" href="#FNanchor_73" class="label">[73]</a> Iyeyasu was sixty-six years old in 1609.—K. M.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_74" href="#FNanchor_74" class="label">[74]</a> It is customary among the Japanese, on receiving a present from -a superior, to touch the top of the head with it. This custom is alluded -to in the king of Bungo’s letter to the Pope, pages 107 and 108.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_75" href="#FNanchor_75" class="label">[75]</a> Descriptions of it will be found in Chapter XXXV, and also a -census taken in 1690.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_76" href="#FNanchor_76" class="label">[76]</a> This image was first set up in the year 1576 by the Emperor Taikō. -The temple in which it was placed was destroyed by the great earthquake -of 1596. The rebuilding was commenced in 1602. The colossus, -however, was seriously injured by another earthquake in 1662, after -which it was melted down, and a substitute prepared of wood covered -with gilt paper. For a description of it, see Chapter XXXVII.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_77" href="#FNanchor_77" class="label">[77]</a> The total number of baptisms in Japan, in 1606, according to the -annual letter of that year, was almost three thousand. According to -the letter of 1603, the number of confessions heard that year was -eighty thousand. It appears from these letters that many female converts -were made, among the higher classes, by the reputed efficacy of -relics and the prayers of the church in cases of difficult labor.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_78" href="#FNanchor_78" class="label">[78]</a> Don Rodrigo published in Spanish a narrative of his residence in -Japan. Of this very rare and curious work an abstract, with extracts, -is given in the “Asiatic Journal,” vol. ii, new series, 1830. The Spaniard -is rather excessive in his estimates of population, but appears to -have been sensible and judicious. His accounts are well borne out, as -we shall see, by those of Saris, Kämpfer, and others. His whole title -was Don Rodrigo de Vivero y Velasco.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_79" href="#FNanchor_79" class="label">[79]</a> There is a narrative of this journey, rather a perplexed one, apparently -written by Spex himself, added to the Relation of Verhœven’s -voyage in <i>Recueil des Voyages qui out servi a l’establisement de la Compagnie -des Indes Oriental dans les Provinces Unies</i>. A full abstract of it -is in the great collection, “Hist. Gen. des Voyages,” vol. viii.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_80" href="#FNanchor_80" class="label">[80]</a> They had about four hundred, and the Spaniards about twice as -many.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_81" href="#FNanchor_81" class="label">[81]</a> Kämpfer gives this translation, and also a fac-simile of the original -Japanese. The same translation is also given by Spex.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_82" href="#FNanchor_82" class="label">[82]</a> The Franciscan martyrology says he was born at Seville of the -blood royal.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_83" href="#FNanchor_83" class="label">[83]</a> See paper on “Date Masamune,” in vol. xxi of the Transactions of -the Asiatic Society of Japan.—<span class="smcap">Edr.</span></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_84" href="#FNanchor_84" class="label">[84]</a> An account in Italian of Sotelo’s embassy, <i>Historia del Regno de -Voxu del Giaponi, etc., e del Ambasciata, etc.</i>, was published at Rome -the same year, 1615. There is no Japanese letter of later date than -1601, in the collection of Hay, or, as perhaps it ought rather to be -called, of Martin Nutius (at least so his name was written in Latin), -citizen and bookseller of Antwerp, at the sign of the two storks, “a -man zealous for the Catholic faith,” so Hay says, and by whom the collection -was projected. He applied to the rector of the Jesuit college -at Antwerp for an editor, and Hay was appointed. A few of the letters -were translated by Hay; the greater part had already appeared as -separate pamphlets, translated by others. Hay’s vehement Scotch -controversial spirit breaks out hotly in some of the dedicatory letters -which he has introduced. Of the Japanese letters subsequent to 1601 -there is no collection. They were published separately as they were -received, translated into Italian, from which were made French and -Spanish translations.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_85" href="#FNanchor_85" class="label">[85]</a> See “Letters written by the English Residents in Japan, 1611-1623.”—<span class="smcap">Edr.</span></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_86" href="#FNanchor_86" class="label">[86]</a> “I am called in the Japanese tongue <span class="smcap">Angin Sama</span>. By that name -am I known all the coast along.”—<i>Letters of Adams</i>, Jan. 12, 1614.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_87" href="#FNanchor_87" class="label">[87]</a> This is difficult to decipher, except <i>kokoro warui</i> (“heart bad”), -and may not refer at all to Coreans.—<span class="smcap">Edr.</span></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_88" href="#FNanchor_88" class="label">[88]</a> Properly the spirit enshrined in the temple.—<span class="smcap">Edr.</span></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_89" href="#FNanchor_89" class="label">[89]</a> Saris makes no mention of tea, not yet known to the Europeans, -and which, perhaps, he confounded with this hot water. All subsequent -travellers have noted this practice of the Japanese of drinking -everything warm even to water. Cold drinks might tend too much to -check the digestion of their vegetable food; at any rate, they are -thought to be frequently the occasion of a violent colic, one of the -endemic diseases of Japan.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_90" href="#FNanchor_90" class="label">[90]</a> London had at that time a population of two hundred and fifty -thousand.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_91" href="#FNanchor_91" class="label">[91]</a> Probably the one at Kamakura.—<span class="smcap">Edr.</span></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_92" href="#FNanchor_92" class="label">[92]</a> See “Letters written by the English Residents in Japan, 1611-1623.”—K. M.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_93" href="#FNanchor_93" class="label">[93]</a> This word, though not to be found in any of our dictionaries, was -in current use, at this time, in the signification of head merchant of a -factory ship, or trading post,—<i>cape</i> being, probably, a contraction of -captain.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_94" href="#FNanchor_94" class="label">[94]</a> Yezo, otherwise called Matsumae, the island north of Nippon. -There is in Purchas, “Pilgrimes,” vol. i., p. 364, a short account of this -island, obtained from a Japanese, who had been there twice. It was -visited in 1620 by Jerome de Angelis, who sent home an account of its -gold-washings, which reads very much like a California letter. It was -also then as now the seat of extensive fisheries. The gold which it produced -made the Dutch and English anxious to explore it. The Dutch -made some voyages in that direction and discovered some of the southern -Kuriles; but the geography of those seas remained very confused -till the voyages of La Perouse. Matsumae was the scene of Golownin’s -captivity in 1812. [See chap. xliii.] One of the ports granted to -the Americans (Hakodate) is on the southern coast of this island.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_95" href="#FNanchor_95" class="label">[95]</a> These privileges are given by Purchas, “Pilgrimes,” vol. i., p. 357, -with a fac-simile of the original Japanese.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_96" href="#FNanchor_96" class="label">[96]</a> The old Gothic edifice, afterwards destroyed in the great fire of -1666, is the one here referred to.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_97" href="#FNanchor_97" class="label">[97]</a> This is the same temple and idol seen and described by Don -Rodrigo.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_98" href="#FNanchor_98" class="label">[98]</a> Captain Saris states that the New Testament had been translated -into Japanese for their use; but this is doubtless a mistake. A -number of books of devotion were translated into Japanese, but we -hear nowhere else of any New Testament, nor were such translations a -part of the Jesuit missionary machinery.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_99" href="#FNanchor_99" class="label">[99]</a> Of another festival, on the 23d of October, Cocks gives the following -account: “The kings with all the rest of the nobility, accompanied -with divers strangers, met together at a summer-house, set up before -the great pagoda, to see a horse-race. Every nobleman went on horseback -to the place, accompanied with a rout of slaves, some with pikes, -some with small shot, and others with bows and arrows. The pikemen -were placed on one side of the street, and the shot and archers on -the other, the middest of the street being left void to run the race; -and right before the summer-house, where the king and nobles sat, was -a round buckler of straw hanging against the wall, at which the archers -on horseback, running a full career, discharged their arrows, both -in the street and summer-house where the nobles sat.” This, from the -date, would seem to be the festival of Tenshō Daijin. See p. 359. -Caron, “Relation du Japon,” gives a similar description.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_100" href="#FNanchor_100" class="label">[100]</a> Captain Saris’ account of his voyage and travels in Japan (which -agrees remarkably with the contemporaneous observations of Don -Rodrigo, and with the subsequent ones of Kämpfer and others), may -be found in Purchas, “His Pilgrimes,” part i, book iv, chap. i, sect. 4-8. -Cocks’ not less curious observations may be found in chap. iii, -sect. 1-3, of the same book and part. There is also a readable summary -of what was then known of Japan, in Purchas, “His Pilgrimage,” -book v, chap. xv.</p> - -<p>Rundall, in his “Memorials of the Empire of Japan,” printed by the -Hackluyt Society, 1850, has republished Adams’ first letter, from two -MSS. in the archives of the East India Company; but the variations -from the text, as given by Purchas, are hardly as important as he represents. -He gives also from the same records four other letters from -Adams, not before printed. It seems from these letters, and from certain -memoranda of Cocks, that there were three reasons why Adams -did not return with Saris, notwithstanding the emperor’s free consent -to his doing so. Besides his wife and daughter in England, he had -also a wife, son, and daughter in Japan. Though he had the estate -mentioned as given him by the emperor (called Hemmi, about eight -miles from Uraga), on which were near a hundred households, his vassals, -over whom he had power of life and death, yet he had little -money, and did not like to go home with an empty purse. He had -quarrelled with Saris, who had attempted to drive a hard bargain with -him. The East India Company had advanced twenty pounds to his -wife in England. Saris wanted him to serve the company for that sum -and such additional pay as they might see fit to give. But Adams, -whom the Dutch, Spanish, and Portuguese, were all anxious to engage -in their service, insisted upon a stipulated hire. He asked twelve -pounds a month, but consented to take a hundred pounds a year, to be -paid at the end of two years.</p> - -<p>See “History of the English Factory at Hirado,” in vol. xxvi. of -the Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan, and “Diary of Richard -Cocks,” edited by Mr. N. Murakami, and published in Tōkyō in -1899.—<span class="smcap">Edr.</span></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_101" href="#FNanchor_101" class="label">[101]</a> He was deified, and is still worshipped under the name of Gongen-Sama, -given to him after his death. It is from him that the reigning -emperors of Japan trace their descent. He is buried at the temple of -Nikkō, three days’ journey from Yedo, of the splendor of which marvellous -stories are told. Caron, who wrote about the time it was built, -speaks as if he had seen it. In 1782, M. Titsingh, then Dutch director, -solicited permission to visit this temple, but was refused, as there was -no precedent for such a favor.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_102" href="#FNanchor_102" class="label">[102]</a> These modified privileges have been printed for the first time by -Rundall.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_103" href="#FNanchor_103" class="label">[103]</a> Lopo de Vega, the poet, who held the office of procurator fiscal to -the apostolic chamber of the archbishopric of Toledo, celebrated the -constancy of the Japanese martyrs, in a pamphlet entitled “Triumpho -de la Fe en los Regnos del Japon, pas los annos de 1614 y 1615,” -published in 1617. “Take away from this work,” says Charlevoix, -“the Latin and Spanish verses, the quotations foreign to the subject, -and the flourish of the style, and there will be nothing left of it.” The -subject was much more satisfactorily treated by Nicholas Trigault, -himself a very distinguished member of the Chinese mission, which he -had joined in 1610. He returned to Europe in 1615, travelling on foot -through Persia, Arabia, and Egypt, to obtain a fresh supply of laborers. -Besides an account of the Jesuit mission to China (from which, next to -Marco Polo’s travels, Europe gathered its first distinct notions of that -empire), and a summary of the Japanese mission from 1609 to 1612, -published during this visit to Europe, just before his departure, in -1618 (taking with him forty-four missionaries, who had volunteered to -follow him to China), he completed four books concerning the triumphs -of the Christians in the late persecution in Japan, to which, while at -Goa, on his way to China, he added a fifth book, bringing down the -narrative to 1616. The whole, derived from the annual Japanese letters, -was printed in 1623, in a small quarto of five hundred and twenty -pages, illustrated by numerous engravings of martyrdoms, and containing -also a short addition, bringing down the story to the years -1617-1620, and a list of Japanese martyrs, to the number of two hundred -and sixty-eight. There is also added a list of thirty-eight houses -and residences (including two colleges, one at Arima, the other at -Nagasaki) which the Jesuits had been obliged to abandon; and of five -Franciscan, four Dominican, and two Augustinian convents, from -which the inmates had been driven. These works of Trigault, published -originally in Latin, were translated into French and Spanish. -Various other accounts of the same persecution appeared in Spanish, -Italian, and Portuguese. “A Brief Relation of the Persecution lately -made against the Catholic Christians of Japan” was published at -London, 1616. Meanwhile Purchas, in the successive editions of his -“Pilgrimage,” gave an account of the Japanese missions, which is the -best and almost the only one (though now obsolete and forgotten) in -the English language. That contained in the fourth edition (annexed -as a fifth part to the “Pilgrimes”), and published in 1625, is the fullest. -Captain Saris, according to Purchas, ascribed the persecution to the -discovery, by the Japanese, that the Jesuits, under the cloak of religion, -were but merchants.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_104" href="#FNanchor_104" class="label">[104]</a> Such was the charge of the English. The Dutch narratives, however, -abound with similar charges against the English. Both probably -were true enough, as both nations captured all the Chinese junks they -met.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_105" href="#FNanchor_105" class="label">[105]</a> The date, as given by Purchas (evidently by a misprint), is 1610.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_106" href="#FNanchor_106" class="label">[106]</a> The “Swan” and the “Attendance.” The number of English -runaways was three, not six.—K. M.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_107" href="#FNanchor_107" class="label">[107]</a> From Jacatra Pring proceeded to England with a cargo of pepper. -It would seem that he had not forgotten his early voyages to the coast -of America, for while his ship lay in the road of Saldanha, near the -Cape of Good Hope, a contribution of seventy pounds eight shillings -and sixpence was raised among the ship’s company to endow a school, -to be called the <i>East India</i> School, in the colony of Virginia. Other -contributions were made for this school, and the Virginia Company -endowed it with a farm of a thousand acres, which they sent tenants to -cultivate; but this, like the Virginia University, and many other public-spirited -and promising enterprises, was ruined and annihilated by the -fatal Indian massacre of 1622.</p> - -<p>The “Royal James” carried also to England a copy in Japanese, -still preserved in the archives of the East India Company, of Adams’ -will. With commendable impartiality he divided his property, which, -by the inventory annexed, amounted to nineteen hundred and seventy-two -tael, two mas, four kandarins (two thousand four hundred and -sixty-five dollars and twenty-nine cents), equally between his Japanese -and his English family,—the English share to go, one half to the -wife and the other half to the daughter, it not being his mind, so -Cocks wrote, “his wife should have all, in regard she might marry -another husband, and carry all from his child.” By the same ship -Cocks made a remittance to the English family, having delivered -“one hundred pounds sterling to diverse of the ‘Royal James’Company, -entered into the purser’s books, to pay in England, two for one,”—a -very handsome rate of exchange, which throws some light on the -profits of East India trade in those days. Adams’ Japanese estate -probably descended to his Japanese son; and who knows but the family -survives to this day? The situation of this estate was but a very -short distance from the spot where the recent American treaty was -made; nor is the distance great from Shimoda, one of the ports granted -by that treaty. The command of the fleet left behind, on Pring’s departure, -devolved on Captain Robert Adams. According to Cocks’ -account, the crews, both Dutch and English, inferior officers as well as -men, were a drunken, dissolute, quarrelsome set. Rundall gives a curious -record of the trial by jury and execution of an Englishman of this -fleet for the murder of a Dutchman; and it seems the Dutch reciprocated -by hanging a Dutchman for killing an Englishman. Master -Arthur Hatch was chaplain of this fleet. Purchas gives (vol. i, part ii, -book x, ch. i) a letter from him, written after his return, containing -a brief sketch of his observations in Japan. Purchas also gives a letter -from Cocks, which, in reference to the koku of rice, agrees very well -with Titsingh’s statement quoted on page fifty-nine. Cocks represents -the revenues of the Japanese princes as being estimated in mankoku -of rice, each containing ten thousand koku, and each koku containing -one hundred gantas (gantings), a ganta being a measure equal to three -English ale pints.</p> - -<p>Cocks states the revenue of the king of Hirado at six mankoku. -He maintained four thousand soldiers, his quota for the emperor’s service -being two thousand. The income of Kodzuke-no-Suke, formerly -three, had lately been raised to fifteen mankoku. That of the king of -Satsuma was one hundred, and that of the prince next in rank to the -emperor, two hundred mankoku. The value of the mankoku was calculated -at the English factory at nine thousand three hundred and -seventy-five pounds, which would make the koku worth eighteen shillings -and sixpence sterling, or four dollars and fifty cents, and agrees -very well with Caron’s estimates of the koku, which he calls <i>cokien</i>, as -worth ten Dutch florins, or four dollars. The estimates of Kämpfer and -Titsingh, given on page fifty-nine, are higher.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_108" href="#FNanchor_108" class="label">[108]</a> Dr. Riess estimates the loss at less than ten thousand pounds.—<span class="smcap">Edr.</span></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_109" href="#FNanchor_109" class="label">[109]</a> See Appendix F.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_110" href="#FNanchor_110" class="label">[110]</a> 1624 ought to be 1616.—K. M.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_111" href="#FNanchor_111" class="label">[111]</a> It may be found in Thevenot’s Collection of Voyages, also in -“Voyages des Indes,” tom. v.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_112" href="#FNanchor_112" class="label">[112]</a> A candid and conclusive answer to Sotelo, or the false Sotelo, as -the Jesuits persisted in calling him, was published at Madrid immediately -after the appearance of his letter, by Don Jean Cevicos, a commissary -of the holy office, who was able to speak from personal -observation. Cevicos had been captain of the galleon “St. Francis,” -the ship in which Don Rodrigo de Vivero had been wrecked on the -coast of Japan, as related in a former chapter. After a six months’ -stay in Japan, and an acquaintance there with Sotelo, Cevicos sailed -for Manila, was captured on the passage by the Dutch, but recaptured -by a Spanish fleet. Arrived at Manila, he renounced the seas, commenced -the study of theology, was ordained priest, and became provisor -of the archbishopric of the Philippines. The business of this -office brought him to Spain, and being at Madrid when the letter ascribed -to Sotelo appeared, he thought it his duty to reply to it. A full -abstract of this answer, as well as of Sotelo’s charges, may be found at -the end of Charlevoix’s “Histoire du Japon.” It appears, from documents -quoted in it, that the missionaries of the other orders agreed -with the Jesuits in ascribing the persecution mainly to the idea, which -the Dutch made themselves very busy in insinuating, that the independence -of Japan was in danger from the Spaniards and the Pope, -who were on the watch to gain, by means of the missionaries, the mastery -of Japan, as they had of Portugal and so many other countries.</p> - -<p>The charges made in the name of Sotelo against the Jesuits are of -more interest from the fact that, at the time of the Jansenist quarrel, -they were revived and reurged with a bitterness of hatred little short -of that which had prompted their original concoction.</p> - -<p>A Spanish history of the Franciscan mission, full of bitter hatred -against the Jesuits, was published at Madrid in 1632, written down to -1620, by Father Fray Jacinto Orfanel, who was arrested that year, and -burnt two years after, and continued by Collado, who was also the -author of a Japanese grammar and dictionary.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_113" href="#FNanchor_113" class="label">[113]</a> Shōgun-Sama seems to be only a title, not a name. This is -Lyemitsu, the “third Shōgun.”—<span class="smcap">Edr.</span></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_114" href="#FNanchor_114" class="label">[114]</a> A shuet of silver weighs about five ounces, so that the reward -offered was from $2,000 to $2,500.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_115" href="#FNanchor_115" class="label">[115]</a> A narrative of this transaction was published at Rome in 1643. -A short but curious document, purporting to be a translation of a -Japanese imperial edict, commanding the destruction of all Portuguese -vessels attempting to approach the coasts of Japan, is given in “Voyages -au Nord,” tom. iv. Ships of other nations were to be sent under -a strong guard to Nagasaki. [See Appendix, Note 1.]</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_116" href="#FNanchor_116" class="label">[116]</a> This curious piece may be found in French, in the “Voyages des -Indes,” tom. v.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_117" href="#FNanchor_117" class="label">[117]</a> Haganaar’s travels may be found in “Voyages des Indes,” tom. v., -and a narrative of Nuyts’ affair in “Voyages au Nord,” tom. iv.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_118" href="#FNanchor_118" class="label">[118]</a> According to Titsingh, they amounted in his time (1780) to eighty -thousand in number. Apparently they are the Dōshin, or imperial -soldiers, of whom we shall have occasion hereafter to speak.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_119" href="#FNanchor_119" class="label">[119]</a> This quantity of rice would suffice for the support of twelve -million persons or more. The cultivators of the imperial domains -retained, according to Kämpfer, six-tenths of the produce, and those -who cultivated the lands of inferior lords four-tenths. Hence it may -be conjectured that the estimate of twenty-five millions of people for -Japan is not excessive.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_120" href="#FNanchor_120" class="label">[120]</a> These lists were doubtless copied from the <i>Yedo Kagami</i> (Mirror -of Yedo), a kind of Blue Book, still published twice a year, and containing -similar lists. See “Annals des Empereurs du Japon” (Titsingh -and Klaproth), p. 37, note.</p> - -<p>[See paper on Japanese feudalism, in vol. xv of the “Transactions -of the Asiatic Society of Japan.”—<span class="smcap">Edr.</span>]</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_121" href="#FNanchor_121" class="label">[121]</a> There are two versions of Caron’s account of Japan, materially -different from each other; one with the original questions, as furnished -by Caron himself to Thevenot, the other in the form of a continuous -narrative, with large additions by Haganaar. The first may be found -in Thevenot’s “Voyages Curieuse,” also in “Voyages au Nord,” tom. iv. -The other in “Voyages des Indes,” tom. v, and an English translation -of it in Pinkerton’s collection, vol. vii.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_122" href="#FNanchor_122" class="label">[122]</a> A curious contemporary narrative of this affair is given, among -other tracts relating to Japan, in “Voyages au Nord,” tom. iv. It is -not unlikely that the military operations of the Dutch in the neighboring -island of Formosa, and their strong fort of Zelandia, recently -erected there, might have aroused the suspicions of the Japanese.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_123" href="#FNanchor_123" class="label">[123]</a> There is an account of the voyage of the “Castricoom” in Thevenot’s -collection. It is also contained in “Voyages au Nord,” tom. iii. -Charlevoix gives a full and interesting abstract of the adventures of -Captain Schaëp and his companions, derived from two different French -versions of a Dutch original; but I know not where either the versions -or the original can be found.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_124" href="#FNanchor_124" class="label">[124]</a> The journals of these embassies of Waganaar, Frisius, and others, -generally pretty dry documents, with extracts from Caron, furnished -the basis for the “Memorable Embassies of the Dutch to the Emperors -of Japan,” a splendid folio, with more than a hundred copper plates, -published at Amsterdam in 1669, purporting to be compiled by Arnold -Montanus, of which an English translation, made by Ogilvy, with the -same cuts, appeared the next year at London, under the title of <i>Atlas -Japonensis</i>, and a French translation, with some additions and alterations, -ten years later at Amsterdam.</p> - -<p>The materials are thrown together in the most careless and disorderly -manner, and are eked out by drawing largely upon the letters of -the Jesuit missionaries. The cuts, whence most of the current prints -representing Japanese objects are derived, are destitute of any authenticity. -Those representing Japanese idols and temples evidently were -based on the descriptions of Froez, whose accounts do not seem quite to -agree in all respects with the observations of more recent travellers.</p> - -<p>The dedication of Ogilvy’s translation outdoes anything Japanese -in the way of prostration, nor can the language of it hardly be called -English. It is as follows: “To the supreme, most high and mighty -prince, Charles II., by the grace of God, of Great Britain, France and -Ireland, king, defender of the faith, &c. These strange and novel relations -concerning the ancient and present state of the so populous and -wealthy empire of Japan, being a book of wonders, dedicated with all -humility, lies prostrate at the sacred feet of your most serene majesty, -by the humblest of your servants, and most loyal subject, John -Ogilvy.”</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_125" href="#FNanchor_125" class="label">[125]</a> This letter, with the instructions and a memoir of Caron’s on the -subject, may be found in “Voyages au Nord,” tom. iv. Caron, who -spent several years in the French service in the East Indies, perished -by shipwreck, near Lisbon, on his return to France in 1674. He was -president of the Dutch factory at the time of its removal to Deshima; -and Kämpfer undertakes to represent his mismanagement as in some -degree the cause of that removal. This story was doubtless current at -Deshima in Kämpfer’s time, but probably it grew out of disgust of the -Dutch at Caron’s having passed into the French service.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_126" href="#FNanchor_126" class="label">[126]</a> A curious narrative of this visit is printed in Pinkerton’s great -collection, vol. vii.</p> - -<p>[See also “Diary of Richard Cocks.”—K. M.]</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_127" href="#FNanchor_127" class="label">[127]</a> For a further account of Fitch and his travels, see Appendix, -Note E.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_128" href="#FNanchor_128" class="label">[128]</a> The China trade was shared at this time between the Portuguese -of Macao and the Spaniards of the Philippines. On the Spanish trade, -and the profits of it, some light is thrown by extracts from letters -found on board Spanish prizes taken by the English, which Hackluyt -translated and published in his fourth volume. Thus Hieronymo de -Nabores writes from Panama (August 24, 1590), where he was waiting -for the ship for the Philippines: “My meaning is to carry my commodities -thither, for it is constantly reported that for every one hundred -ducats a man shall get six hundred ducats clearly.” This, -however, was only the talk at Panama; but Sebastian Biscanio had -made the voyage, and he writes to his father from Acapulco (June 20, -1590): “In this harbor here are four great ships of Mexico, of six hundred -or eight hundred tons apiece, which only serve to carry our commodities -to China, and so to return back again. The order is thus. -From hence to China is about two thousand leagues further than from -hence to Spain; and from hence the two first ships depart together to -China, and are thirteen or fourteen months returning back again. -And when these ships are returned, then the other twain, two months -after, depart from hence. They go now from hence very strong with -soldiers. I can certify you of one thing: that two hundred ducats in -Spanish commodities, and some Flemish woods which I carried with -me thither, I made worth fourteen hundred ducats there in that country. -So I make account that with those silks and other commodities -with me from thence to Mexico, I got twenty-five hundred ducats by -the voyage; and had gotten more, if one pack of fine silks had not -been spoiled with salt water. So, as I said, there is great gain to be -gotten, if that a man return in safety. But the year 1588, I had great -mischance coming in a ship from China to New Spain; which, being -laden with rich commodities, was taken by an Englishman [this was -Cavendish, then on his voyage round the world], which robbed us and -afterwards burnt our ship, wherein I lost a great deal of treasure and -commodities.”</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_129" href="#FNanchor_129" class="label">[129]</a> The tael, reckoning the picul at one hundred and thirty-three and -one-third pounds avoirdupois, contains five hundred and eighty-three -grains troy. Our dollar weighs four hundred and twelve and a half -grains; and supposing the Japanese silver to be of equal fineness, the -tael is worth just about one dollar and forty cents. Kämpfer reckons -it as equivalent to three and a half florins, which is precisely one dollar -and forty cents, taking the florin at the usual valuation of forty -cents. This, however, was rather above the valuation of the Dutch -East India Company. There were, it seems, two kinds of Japanese -silver, known among the Dutch as heavy and light money, the latter -sometimes distinguished as bar-silver. Both kinds were carried to -account without distinction down to the year 1635, at the rate of sixty-two -and a half silvers, or one dollar and twenty-five cents per tael. -After that period the bar-silver was reckoned at fifty-seven stivers, or -one dollar and fourteen cents per tael. Reckoning the tael, as the -Dutch commonly did, at one dollar and twenty-five cents of our money, -and the mas is precisely equivalent to the Spanish eighth of a dollar. -This statement is derived from a Dutch memoir by Imhoff, quoted by -Raffles (“History of Java,” Appendix B), and found by him, it would -seem, among the Dutch records at Batavia. Of the chests of silver and -gold, particularly the former, so often mentioned in the old accounts of -the Dutch and Portuguese trade, I have met with no description, except -in Montanus’ “Memorable Embassies.” Unreliable and worthless as -that huge volume generally is, its compilers certainly had access to valuable -Dutch papers, and it is apparently from that source that they have -drawn what they say of the moneys, weights, and measures of Japan. -Of the chests of silver and gold they speak as follows: “Moreover, -their paying of money is very strange; for the Japanese, having great -store of gold and silver, observe a custom to receive their money without -telling or seeing it. The mint-master puts the gold in papers, -which contain the value of two hundred pounds sterling; these, sealed -up, pass from one to another without being questioned. They also use -little wooden boxes, in which they put twenty sealed papers of gold, -which is as much as a man can handsomely carry; every box amounts -to four thousand pounds sterling; and the like boxes, but of another -fashion, they use for their silver, in every one of which is twelve hundred -crowns, and is sealed with the coiner’s seal. But doth it not seem -strange that never any deceit is found in that blind way of paying -money?” “The silver, though weighed and coined, is of no certain -value. The coiners put it together into little packs worth sixty -crowns,”—I suppose taels. Caron says, however, that these packages -contained fifty taels.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_130" href="#FNanchor_130" class="label">[130]</a> These temples, built in Japan by the Chinese merchants, remind -one of the temples built in Egypt by the Greek merchants, who first -opened a trade with that country. See Grote’s “History of Greece,” -chap. xx.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_131" href="#FNanchor_131" class="label">[131]</a> The <i>kamishimo</i> is a state dress, composed of two garments (<i>kami</i> -signifies what is above, and <i>shimo</i> what is below), a short cloak, without -sleeves, called <i>kataginu</i>, and breeches, called <i>hakama</i>. Both are of -a particular form (the breeches being like a petticoat sewed up between -the legs), and of colored stuffs. They are used only on days of ceremony -and at funerals.—<i>Titsingh.</i></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_132" href="#FNanchor_132" class="label">[132]</a> Unfortunately for the English, their attempt at a revival of intercourse, -mentioned in the last chapter, was made the very year of the -introduction of this new check on foreign trade. The appraisement extended -as well to the Chinese as the Dutch cargoes, as is apparent from -the following closing paragraph of the English narrative: “During the -time (July and August, 1673) we were in port, there came twelve junks -in all, eight from Batavia, two from Siam, one from Canton, one from -Cambodia, and six Dutch ships of the Company’s. They had not any -from Taiwan (Formosa), by reason the year before they put the price -upon their sugar and skins; and so they intend to do for all other -people, for whatsoever goods shall be brought to their port; which -if they do, few will seek after their commodities on such unequal -terms.”</p> - -<p>There is strong reason to suppose that these new restrictions on foreign -trade grew out of the diminished produce of the mines, which -furnished the chief article of export. The working of these mines -seems to have greatly increased after the pacification of Japan by its -subjection to the imperial authority. Such is the statement in the -Japanese tract on the wealth of Japan, already referred to. According -to this tract the first gold coins were struck by Taikō-Sama. This increase -of metallic product seems to have given, about the time of the -commencement of the Dutch trade, a new impulse to foreign commerce. -Though the Portuguese trade had been stopped, it had been -a good deal more than replaced by the increase of the Chinese traffic, -and already the metallic drain appears to have been seriously felt. -This is a much more likely reason for the policy now adopted than the -mere personal hostility of certain Japanese grandees, to which the -Dutch at Deshima, and Kämpfer as their echo, ascribed it.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_133" href="#FNanchor_133" class="label">[133]</a> According to Titsingh, the Chinese factory was removed, in 1780, -to a new situation, the site of an ancient temple. He gives a plan of -the new factory after a Japanese draft.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_134" href="#FNanchor_134" class="label">[134]</a> Thunberg notices an odd mistake by the engravers, in representing -the Japanese as wearing their swords as we do, with the edge -downward, whereas their custom is just the reverse, the edge being -turned upwards.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_135" href="#FNanchor_135" class="label">[135]</a> See also an “Abstract” of Kämpfer’s History in vol. ii of the -“Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan.”—<span class="smcap">Edr.</span></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_136" href="#FNanchor_136" class="label">[136]</a> A translation of one of these tablets is given by Kämpfer as -follows:</p> - -<p>“Courtesans only, but no other women, shall be admitted. Only -the ecclesiastics of the mountain Kōya shall be admitted. All other -priests, and all Yamabushi, shall stand excluded.” (Note by Kämpfer. -—Kōyais stated to be a mountain near Miyako, a sanctuary and asylum -for criminals, no officers of justice being suffered to come there. -Its inhabitants, many thousand in number, lead an ecclesiastical life. -All are admitted that desire it, or who fly there for shelter, and are -afterwards maintained for life, if they can but bring in thirty taels for -the use of the convent, and are otherwise willing to serve the community -in their several capacities. These monks are not absolutely -confined to this mountain, but many travel up and down the country -in what manner or business they please. Very many of them betake -themselves to trade and commerce.)</p> - -<p>“All beggars, and all persons that live on charity, shall be denied -entrance.</p> - -<p>“Nobody shall presume with any ship or boat to come within the -palisades of Deshima. Nobody shall presume with any ship or boat to -pass under the bridge of Deshima.</p> - -<p>“No Hollander shall be permitted to come out, but for weighty -reasons.”</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_137" href="#FNanchor_137" class="label">[137]</a> For a full account of this journey, see Chap. XXXI, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_138" href="#FNanchor_138" class="label">[138]</a> For an account of this festival, see Chap. XXIX.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_139" href="#FNanchor_139" class="label">[139]</a> The custom of using an emblem, or device, instead of a signature, -or to certify it, prevails with the Japanese, as with so many other -nations.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_140" href="#FNanchor_140" class="label">[140]</a> See further, in relation to this ceremony, Chap. XXIX.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_141" href="#FNanchor_141" class="label">[141]</a> Properly kuriki, but abbreviated to kuri, to approximate “coolie.” -See note on page 309.—<span class="smcap">Edr.</span></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_142" href="#FNanchor_142" class="label">[142]</a> See also “Formosa under the Dutch” (Campbell), and “The -Island of Formosa” (Davidson).—<span class="smcap">Edr.</span></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_143" href="#FNanchor_143" class="label">[143]</a> The smuggling affair mentioned on page 327.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_144" href="#FNanchor_144" class="label">[144]</a> This is, evidently, the word coolie, employed in India and China -to designate laborers of the lowest class. [See note on page 300.—<span class="smcap">Edr.</span>]</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_145" href="#FNanchor_145" class="label">[145]</a> Along the east coast of Asia, and as far north as the southern -coasts of Japan, the winds, during the six months from April to September -inclusive, blow from southwest to northeast This is called the -southwest monsoon. During the other six months they blow from -northeast to southwest. This is called the northeast monsoon.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_146" href="#FNanchor_146" class="label">[146]</a> Ambergris is a substance thrown up from the stomachs of whales -suffering from dyspepsia or some other disease. It is much employed -in the East in the preparation of perfumes and sweetmeats, and once -had considerable reputation in Europe. Its true nature was for a long -time in dispute. The Japanese understood it, as appears from their -name of the articles, <i>Kujira-no-fun</i>, that is, whale’s excrements.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_147" href="#FNanchor_147" class="label">[147]</a> This corresponds with Siebold’s description, who goes quite into -raptures at the first sight he had, in 1825, of the hills about Nagasaki.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_148" href="#FNanchor_148" class="label">[148]</a> It would seem that Europe had derived the idea of paper-hangings, -as a substitute for tapestry, from Japan.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_149" href="#FNanchor_149" class="label">[149]</a> According to Haganaar this sake is flavored with honey or sugar. -It is very heating and heavy. Saris describes it as almost as strong as -aqua vitæ. It appears to be very various in quality and strength, quite -as much so as European ale or beer. The yeast from this sake is largely -used for preserving fruit and vegetables. The acid of it penetrates the -fruit or vegetable, giving it a peculiar flavor, of which the Japanese -are very fond.</p> - -<p>The Japanese are very fond of social drinking parties; but, according -to Caron, no drunken brawls occur, each person taking himself -quietly off as soon as he finds that he has enough or too much.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_150" href="#FNanchor_150" class="label">[150]</a> This prayer, or invocation, unintelligible to the Japanese, is, as -our modern Orientalists have discovered, good Sanscrit.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_151" href="#FNanchor_151" class="label">[151]</a> Another change, simultaneous with the restrictions upon Dutch -and Chinese trade, was the selection of the governors from the military -and noble class, instead of from the mercantile class, as had previously -been the case.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_152" href="#FNanchor_152" class="label">[152]</a> These Yoriki and Dōshin seem to be the same officers spoken of -in the subsequent Dutch narratives as <i>Gobanjoshu</i> (said to mean government -overseeing officers), or by corruption, banjoses, upper and -under. The Dōshin seem to be the same with the imperial soldiers.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_153" href="#FNanchor_153" class="label">[153]</a> The Japanese division of time is peculiar. The day, from the -beginning of morning twilight to the end of evening twilight (so says -Siebold, correcting former statements, which give instead sunrise and -sunset), is divided into six hours, and the night, from the beginning to -the end of darkness, into six other hours. Of course the length of -these hours is constantly varying. Their names (according to Titsingh) -are as follows: <i>Kokonotsu</i> [<i>nine</i>], noon, and midnight; <i>Yatsu</i> [<i>eight</i>], -about our two o’clock; <i>Nanatsu</i> [<i>seven</i>], from four to five; <i>Mutsu</i> [<i>six</i>], -end of the evening and commencement of morning twilight; <i>Itsutsu</i> -[<i>five</i>], eight to nine; <i>Yotsu</i> [<i>four</i>], about ten; and then Kokonotsu -again. Each of these hours is also subdivided into four parts, thus: -<i>Kokonotsu</i>, noon or midnight; <i>Kokonotsu-han</i> [<i>nine and a half</i>], quarter -past; <i>Kokonotsu-han-sugi</i> [<i>past nine and a half</i>], half past; <i>Kokonotsu-han-sugi-maye</i> -[<i>before past nine and a half</i>], three quarters past; commencement -of second hour: <i>Yatsu-han</i>, etc., and so through all the -hours.</p> - -<p>The hours are struck on bells, <i>Kokonotsu</i> being indicated by nine -strokes, preceded (as is the case also with all the hours) by three warning -strokes, to call attention, and to indicate that the hour is to be -struck, and followed, after a pause of about a minute and a half, by -the strokes for the hour, between which there is an interval of about -fifteen seconds,—the last, however, following its predecessor still more -rapidly, to indicate that the hour is struck. <i>Yatsu</i> is indicated by -eight strokes, <i>Nanatsu</i> by seven, <i>Mutsu</i> by six, <i>Itsutsu</i> by five, and -<i>Yotsu</i> by four. Much speculation has been resorted to by the Japanese -to explain why they do not employ, to indicate hours, one, two, and -three strokes. The obvious answer seems to be, that while three strokes -have been appropriated as a forewarning, their method of indicating -that the striking is finished would not be available, if one and two -strokes designated the first and second hours. [See paper on “Japanese -Calendars,” in vol. xxx of the Transactions of the Asiatic Society -of Japan.—<span class="smcap">Edr.</span>]</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_154" href="#FNanchor_154" class="label">[154]</a> Caron implies that it was only as to state offences that this mutual -responsibility exists. According to Guysbert, in his account of the -persecution at Nagasaki, if a converted priest was discovered, not only -the householder concealing him was held responsible, but the two -nearest householders on either side, though not only ignorant of the -fact, but pagans. This strict system was very effectual for the purposes -of the persecution.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_155" href="#FNanchor_155" class="label">[155]</a> Better <i>fumiye</i> or <i>fumie</i>.—<span class="smcap">Edr.</span></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_156" href="#FNanchor_156" class="label">[156]</a> It would seem from Guysbert, that the participation by young -children in the death decreed against the parents, was rather the act of -those parents who had the power of life and death over their children, -and who did not choose to part with them in this extremity.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_157" href="#FNanchor_157" class="label">[157]</a> The Japanese year begins at the new moon nearest to the fifth of -February (the middle point between the winter solstice and the spring -equinox).</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_158" href="#FNanchor_158" class="label">[158]</a> According to Klaproth’s statement of Japanese legend, in his -“Histoire Mythologique,” introductory to Titsingh’s “Annals of the Dairi,” the first three of the celestial gods were solitary males. The -next three had female companions, yet produced their successors by -the force of mutual contemplation only. The seventh pair found out -the ordinary method of generation, of which the first result was the -successive production of eight islands, those of Japan (the number -eight being selected simply because it is esteemed the most perfect), -after which they gave birth also to mountains, rivers, plants, and trees. -To provide a ruler and governor for these creations, they next produced -<i>Tenshō daijin</i>, or, in Japanese (for <i>Tenshō daijin</i> is Chinese), <i>Ama -terasu-no-kami</i> (Celestial Spirit of Sunlight); but, thinking her too -beautiful for the earth, they placed her in the heavens, as they did, -likewise, their second born, a daughter, also, <i>Tsuki-no-kami</i>, goddess of -the moon. Their third child, <i>Ebisu saburō</i>, was made god of the sea; -their fourth child, <i>Susanoō</i>, also a son, god of the winds and tempest. -He was agreeable enough when in good humor, and at times had his -eyes filled with tears, but was liable to such sudden outbreaks and -caprices of temper as to render him quite unreliable. It was concluded -to send him away to the regions of the north; but before going he got -leave to pay a visit to his sisters in heaven. At first he had a good -understanding with them, but soon committed so many outrages,—in -the spring spoiling the flower borders, and in the autumn riding -through the ripe corn on a wild horse,—that in disgust <i>Tenshō daijin</i> -hid herself in a cavern, at the mouth of which she placed a great stone. -Darkness forthwith settled over the heavens. The eight hundred -thousand gods, in great alarm, assembled in council, when, among -other expedients, one of their number, who was a famous dancer, was -set to dance to music at the mouth of the cavern. <i>Tenshō daijin</i>, out -of curiosity, moved the stone a little, to get a look at what was going -on, when immediately <i>Te chikara o-no kami</i> (god of the strong hand) -caught hold of it, rolled it away, and dragged her out, while two others -stretched ropes across the mouth so that she could not get in again. -Finally, the matter was compromised by clipping the claws and hair of -<i>Susanoō</i>, after which he was sent off to the north, though not till he -had killed a dragon, married a wife, and become the hero of other -notable adventures. This legend makes it clear what <i>Anjirō</i>, the first -Japanese convert, meant by speaking of the Japanese as worshippers -of the sun and moon. See <i>ante</i>, p. 49. The annual festival of <i>Tenshō -daijin</i> falls on the sixteenth day of the ninth month, immediately after -that of <i>Suwa</i>, and is celebrated throughout the empire by matsuri -much like that described in the text. The sixteenth, twenty-first, and -twenty-sixth days of every month are likewise sacred to her, but not -celebrated with any great solemnity. [Also see “Kojiki.”—<span class="smcap">Edr.</span>]</p> - -<p>Kämpfer mentions as the gods particularly worshipped by the mercantile -class: 1. <i>Yebisu</i>, the Neptune of the country, and the protector -of fishermen and seafaring people, said to be able to live two or three -days under water. He is represented sitting on a rock, with an angling-rod -in one hand, and the delicious fish, <i>Tai</i>, or <i>Steinbrassin</i> (<i>Sparus -Aurata</i>, the Japanese name, signifies <i>red lady</i>), in the other. 2. <i>Dai-koku</i>, -commonly represented sitting on a bale of rice, with his fortunate -hammer in his right hand, and a bag laid by him to put in what he -knocks out; for he is said to have the power of knocking out, from -whatever he strikes with his hammer, whatever he wants, as rice, -clothes, money, etc. Klaproth states him to be of Indian origin, and -that this name signifies Great Black. 3. <i>Toshitoku</i>, represented standing, -clad in a large gown with long sleeves, with a long beard, a huge -forehead, large ears, and a fan in his right hand. Worshipped at the -beginning of the new year, in hopes of obtaining, by his assistance, -success and prosperity. 4. <i>Hotei</i>, represented with a huge belly, and -supposed to have in his gift, health, riches, and children. [These are -four of the “Seven Gods of Happiness.” See also paper on that subject, -in vol. viii of the Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan.—<span class="smcap">Edr.</span>]</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_159" href="#FNanchor_159" class="label">[159]</a> On the whole, and from the play-bills presently given, the performance -would seem to be a good deal like that of Pyramus and Thisbe, -in the Midsummer Night’s Dream.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_160" href="#FNanchor_160" class="label">[160]</a> Certainly there is nothing of which the Japanese stood, and -still stand, more in need than some contrivance for extinguishing -fires. Caron, in his memorial addressed to Colbert, had recommended -a present of fire-extinguishers.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_161" href="#FNanchor_161" class="label">[161]</a> See p. 265.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_162" href="#FNanchor_162" class="label">[162]</a> These zeni were of various values, a thousand of them being -worth, according to Caron, from eight to twenty-six mas, that is, from -a dollar to three dollars and a quarter; the zeni varying, therefore, -from a mill to three mills and a quarter. Of the existing copper coinage -we shall speak hereafter. See vol. ii, p. 309.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_163" href="#FNanchor_163" class="label">[163]</a> “Though it may sound extraordinary to talk of a soldier with a -fan, yet the use of that article is so general in Japan that no respectable -man is to be seen without one. These fans are a foot long, and -sometimes serve for parasols; at others instead of memorandum books. -They are adorned with paintings of landscapes, birds, flowers, or ingenious -sentences. The etiquette to be observed in regard to the fan requires -profound study and close attention.”—<i>Titsingh</i>. “At feasts -and ceremonies the fan is always stuck in the girdle, on the left hand, -behind the sabre, with the handle downward.”—<i>Thunberg</i>. [See paper -on “Japanese Fans,” in vol. ii of the Transactions and Proceedings of -the Japan Society, London.—<span class="smcap">Edr.</span>]</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_164" href="#FNanchor_164" class="label">[164]</a> This is exclusive of the central tract or imperial domain (consisting -of five provinces), and also of the two island provinces of Iki and -Tsushima. [See also Note A in the Appendix.—<span class="smcap">Edr.</span>]</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_165" href="#FNanchor_165" class="label">[165]</a> For a part of the distance across Kiūshiū (or Shimo), different -routes were taken in the first and second of Kämpfer’s journeys. In -the first he crossed the gulf of Ōmura; in the second, the gulf of Shimabara, -these two gulfs enclosing the peninsula of Ōmura, the one on -the north, the other on the east.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_166" href="#FNanchor_166" class="label">[166]</a> The distance is reckoned by the Japanese at three hundred and -thirty-two to three hundred and thirty-three leagues; but these Japanese -leagues are of unequal length, varying from eighteen thousand to -about thirteen thousand feet, and the water-leagues generally shorter -than those by land in the proportion of five to three. Kämpfer makes -the whole distance two hundred German or about eight hundred English -miles.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_167" href="#FNanchor_167" class="label">[167]</a> Three or four inches thick (according to Thunberg), and made of -rushes and rice straw.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_168" href="#FNanchor_168" class="label">[168]</a> Japanese feet, that is, for, according to Klaproth (“Annales des -Emp. du Japon”) page 404, note, the <i>ken</i> is equal to seven feet four -inches and a half, Rhineland (which does not differ much from our -English) measure.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_169" href="#FNanchor_169" class="label">[169]</a> These windows are of light frames, which may be taken out, and -put in, and slid behind each other at pleasure, divided into parallelograms -like our panes of glass, and covered with paper. Glass windows -are unknown.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_170" href="#FNanchor_170" class="label">[170]</a> Thunberg says, “tiles of a singular make, very thick and heavy.”</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_171" href="#FNanchor_171" class="label">[171]</a> In a Japanese map brought home by Kämpfer the number of -castles in the whole empire is set down at a hundred and forty-six.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_172" href="#FNanchor_172" class="label">[172]</a> The whole number of towns in the empire, great and small, is set -down in the above-mentioned map at more than thirteen thousand.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_173" href="#FNanchor_173" class="label">[173]</a> Kämpfer’s meaning seems to be only that the Shintō priests were -not monks living together in convents, like the Buddhist clergy, but -having houses and families of their own.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_174" href="#FNanchor_174" class="label">[174]</a> According to a memorandum annexed to the Japanese map already -mentioned, there were in Japan twenty-seven thousand seven hundred -Kami temples, one hundred and twenty-two thousand five hundred and -eighty Buddhist temples, in all forty-nine thousand two hundred -and eighty. By the census of 1850, there were in the United States -thirty-eight thousand one hundred and eighty-three buildings used for -religious worship.</p> - -<p>It would appear that though the Shintō temples did not want worshippers -who freely contributed alms to the support of the priests, yet -that since the abolition of the Catholic worship, and as a sort of security -against it, every Japanese was required to enroll himself as belonging -to some Buddhist sect or observance.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_175" href="#FNanchor_175" class="label">[175]</a> These oharai, or indulgence-boxes, are little boxes made of thin -boards and filled with small sticks wrapped in bits of white paper. -Great virtues are ascribed to them, but a new one is necessary every -year. They are manufactured and sold by the Shintō priests.</p> - -</div> -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin-top:4em'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HILDRETH'S "JAPAN AS IT WAS AND IS", VOLUME I (OF 2) ***</div> -<div style='text-align:left'> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will -be renamed. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part -of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project -Gutenberg™ electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG™ -concept and trademark. 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