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diff --git a/old/66913-0.txt b/old/66913-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 311662e..0000000 --- a/old/66913-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,15163 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of Hildreth's "Japan as it was and is", Volume -I (of 2), by Richard Hildreth - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: Hildreth's "Japan as it was and is", Volume I (of 2) - A Handbook of Old Japan - -Author: Richard Hildreth - -Editor: Ernest W. Clement - -Contributor: W. M. Elliot Griffis - -Release Date: December 9, 2021 [eBook #66913] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -Produced by: MFR, Les Galloway and the Online Distributed Proofreading - Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from - images generously made available by The Internet Archive) - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HILDRETH'S "JAPAN AS IT WAS AND -IS", VOLUME I (OF 2) *** - - Transcriber’s Notes - -Obvious typographical errors have been silently corrected. Variations -in hyphenation have been standardised but all other spelling and -punctuation remains unchanged. - -Italics are represented thus _italic_, and superscripts thus y^{en}. - -On page 168, 2nd paragraph of Chapter XIX, refers to a Papal Bull -promulgated by Pope Clement VII in 1860. This has been corrected to -Pope Clement VIII who was pope when the Bull was promulgated in 1600. - -Volume II contains a complete index to both volumes. This has been copied into -this volume. - - - - - “JAPAN AS IT WAS AND IS” - - A HANDBOOK OF OLD JAPAN - - I - - - - - _Uniform with this Work_ - - - A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN. - -By ERNEST W. CLEMENT. With two maps and seventy-two illustrations from - photographs. _Sixth edition._ Price, $1.40 _net._ - - - A. C. MCCLURG & CO. - _Chicago_ - - -[Illustration: IMAGE OF DATE MASAMUNE] - - - - - HILDRETH’S - “JAPAN AS IT WAS AND IS” - - A HANDBOOK OF OLD JAPAN - - EDITED, WITH SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES, BY - - ERNEST W. CLEMENT - - AUTHOR OF “A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN,” ETC. - - INTRODUCTION BY - WM. ELLIOT GRIFFIS - - _With One Hundred Illustrations and Maps_ - - VOLUME I - - [Illustration: A·C·M^cCLURG - & CO] - - CHICAGO - A. C. McCLURG & CO. - 1906 - - - - - COPYRIGHT - A. C. MCCLURG & CO. - 1906 - - Published September 29, 1906 - - THE UNIVERSITY PRESS, CAMBRIDGE, U.S.A. - - - - - CONTENTS - - VOLUME I. - - - PAGE - - “ADVERTISEMENT” TO ORIGINAL EDITION. RICHARD HILDRETH xiii - EDITOR’S INTRODUCTION ERNEST W. CLEMENT xix - FOREWORD WM. ELLIOT GRIFFIS xxv - JAPANESE PRONUNCIATION xxxi - - - CHAPTER I - - Earliest European Knowledge of Japan—Japanese Histories—Marco - Polo’s Account of the Mongol or Tartar Invasion—Accounts - of the Same Event given by the Chinese and Japanese - Annalists—A. D. 1281 or 1283 1 - - - CHAPTER II - - Portuguese Empire in the East—Discovery of Japan—Galvano’s - Account of it—Fernam Mendez Pinto’s Account of his First - Visit to Japan, and Adventures there—Japanese Account of - the First Arrival of Portuguese—A. D. 1542-1545 11 - - - CHAPTER III - - Pinto’s Second Visit to Japan—Anjirō, or Paul of the Holy Faith—A. - D. 1547-1548 34 - - - CHAPTER IV - - Religious Faith Three Centuries ago—Zeal of the Portuguese - Conquerors—Antonio Galvano—Missionary Seminaries at - Ternate and Goa—Order of the Jesuits—Francis Xavier—His - Mission to India—His Mission to Japan—His Companion, - Cosme de Torres—The Philippine Islands—A. D. 1542-1550 40 - - - CHAPTER V - - Political and Religious Condition of Japan, as found by the - Portuguese—The Yakatas, or Kings, and their - Vassals—Revenues—Money—Distinction of Ranks—The Kubō-Sama—The - Dairi—Shintō—Buddhism—Judō—A. D. 1550 57 - - - CHAPTER VI - - Civilization of the Japanese—Animals—Agriculture—Arts—Houses - —Ships—Literature—Jurisprudence—Character of the Japanese—Their - Custom of cutting themselves open—A. D. 1550 75 - - - CHAPTER VII - - Preaching of Xavier—Pinto’s Third Visit to Japan—A. D. 1550-1551 81 - - - CHAPTER VIII - - Progress of the Missions under Fathers De Torres and Nugnes - Barreto—Mendez Pinto a Fourth Time in Japan—A. D. 1551-1557 87 - - - CHAPTER IX - - Louis Almeida—The Missionaries establish themselves at Miyako - [Kyōtō]—Louis Froez—Princes converted in Shimo—Rise - of Nobunaga—Prosperity of the Missions—Noble and Princely - Converts—Nagasaki built—Nobunaga makes himself Emperor—A. D. - 1557-1577 93 - - - CHAPTER X - - Father Valignani—State of the Missions—Conversion and Baptism - of the King of Bungo—Growth of Nagasaki—Embassy - to the Pope—Documents relating to this Embassy—A. D. 1577-1586 100 - - - CHAPTER XI - - Events meanwhile in Japan—Downfall of Nobunaga—Accession - of Hashiba, afterwards known as Kwambacudono, and, finally, - as Taikō-Sama—Edict against the Jesuits—Return of the - Ambassadors—A. D. 1582-1588 116 - - - CHAPTER XII - - Recapitulation—Extent of the Japanese Empire—Valignani - arrives at Nagasaki—Progress hitherto of the Catholic Faith—The - Emperor’s Projects against China—Valignani’s Visit to - the Emperor at Miyako—Ukondono—The returned Japanese - Ambassadors—Audience given to Valignani—The Viceroy’s - Letter—The Interpreter Rodriguez—A. D. 1588-1593 123 - - - CHAPTER XIII - - New Troubles of the Missionaries from their own Countrymen—The - Emperor claims Homage of the Governor of the Philippines—Mutual - Jealousies of the Portuguese and Spaniards—Spanish - Adventurers in Japan—The Emperor’s Suspicions - excited—His Reply to the Viceroy of Goa—A. D. 1591-1592 134 - - - CHAPTER XIV - - The Expedition against Corea—The Emperor associates his - Nephew—City of Fushimi—Correspondence of the Emperor - with the Governor of Manila—The Jesuits denounced by - the Spanish Envoys—Consequences thereof—Departure of - Valignani—A. D. 1592 140 - - - CHAPTER XV - - Progress of the Corean War—Success of the Japanese—Konishi - Settsu-no-Kami, Viceroy of Corea—Edict of the Emperor for disarming - the Converts in Shimo—Disgrace and Downfall of the - Royal Family of Bungo—Terazawa, Governor of Nagasaki—His - Conversion and Friendly Acts—A. D. 1592-1593 144 - - - CHAPTER XVI - - Jealousy on the Part of the Dominicans and Franciscans towards - Jesuits—This Jealousy coöperates with the Mercantile Jealousy - of the Spaniards at Manila—Franciscan Friars establish themselves - at Miyako, Ōsaka, and Nagasaki—Edicts against them—Deposition - and Death of the Emperor’s Nephew—A. D. 1593-1595 147 - - - CHAPTER XVII - - Great Earthquake—Mission from China—Arrival of a Spanish - Galleon—Friars on Board her—New Accusations on her Account - against the Jesuits—Connection of the Jesuits with the - Trade to Japan—Arrest of Missionaries and Converts—First - Martyrs—A. D. 1595-1597 151 - - - - - CHAPTER XVIII - - New Edict for the Deportation of the Jesuits—Its Partial Evasion—New - Correspondence between the Philippines and Japan—Taikō-Sama’s - Justification of his Recent Proceedings—New - Destruction of Churches in Shimo—Taikō-Sama’s Death—His - Preceding Efforts to secure his own Deification and the Succession - of his Infant Son, Hideyori—Regency—Iyeyasu, its - Head, with the Title of Daifu-Sama—A. D. 1597-1599 158 - - - CHAPTER XIX - - Evacuation of Corea—Return of the Converted Princes—Favorable - Disposition of Daifu-Sama—Third Visit of Father - Valignani—Civil War between Daifu-Sama and his Co-Regents—His - Triumph—Disgrace and Execution of Settsu-no-Kami—Daifu-Sama - takes the Title of Ōgosho-Sama and still - favors the Converts—Influx of Dominican and Franciscan - Friars—Flourishing Condition of the Church—Local - Persecutions—A. D. 1599-1609 162 - - - CHAPTER XX - - Attempt of the English and Dutch to discover a New Route to the - Far East—Voyages round the World—Attempted English - Voyage to Japan—English and Dutch Voyages to India—First - Dutch Voyage to Japan—Adams, the English Pilot—His - Adventures and Detention in Japan—A. D. 1513-1607 166 - - - CHAPTER XXI - - Spanish Friars in Japan—Extension of Japanese Trade—Progress - of the Dutch in the Eastern Seas—They open a Trade - with Japan—Emperor’s Letter—Shipwreck of Don Rodrigo - de Vivero on the Japanese Coast—His Reception, Observations, - and Departure—Destruction of a Portuguese Carac by - the Japanese—Another Dutch Ship arrives—Spex’s Charter—Embassies - from Macao and New Spain—Father Louis - Sotelo and his Projects—A. D. 1607-1618 179 - - - CHAPTER XXII - - Origin and Commencement of English Intercourse with Japan—Captain - Saris’ Voyage thither, and Travels and Observations - there—New Spanish Embassy from the Philippines—Commercial - Rivalry of the Dutch and English—Richard Cocks, - Head of the English Factory—A. D. 1611-1613 206 - - - CHAPTER XXIII - - Ecclesiastical Retrospect—New Persecution—Edict of Banishment - against the Missionaries—Civil War between Hideyori - and Ōgosho-Sama—Triumph of Ōgosho-Sama—His Death—Persecution - more Violent than ever—Mutual Rancor of the - Jesuits and the Friars—Progress of Martyrdom—The English - and Dutch—A. D. 1613-1620 227 - - - CHAPTER XXIV - - Collisions of the Dutch and English in the Eastern Seas—The - English retire from Japan—The Spaniards repelled—Progress - of the Persecution—Japanese Ports, except Hirado and - Nagasaki, closed to Foreigners—Charges in Europe against - the Jesuits—Fathers Sotelo and Collado—Torment of the - Fosse—Apostasies—The Portuguese confined to Deshima—Rebellion - of Shimabara—The Portuguese excluded—Ambassadors - put to Death—A. D. 1621-1640 236 - - - CHAPTER XXV - - Policy of the Dutch—Affair of Nuyts—Haganaar’s Visits to - Japan—Caron’s Account of Japan—Income of the Emperor - and the Nobles—Military Force—Social and Political Position - of the Nobles—Justice—Relation of the Dutch to the Persecution - of the Catholics—The Dutch removed from Hirado and - confined in Deshima—Attempts of the English, Portuguese, - and French at Intercourse with Japan—Final Extinction of - the Catholic Faith—A. D. 1620-1707 251 - - - CHAPTER XXVI - - Portuguese Trade to Japan—Dutch Trade—Silver, Gold, and - Copper the Chief Articles of Export—Export of Silver - prohibited—Chinese Trade—Its Increase after the Accession of - the Manchu Dynasty—Chinese Temples at Nagasaki—A - Buddhist Doctor from China—Edict on the Subject of Household - Worship—Restrictions on the Dutch Trade—Increase - in the Number of Chinese Visitors to - Nagasaki—Their Objects—Restrictions on the Chinese Trade—The - Chinese shut up in a Factory—Trade with Lew Chew - [Riūkiū]—A. D. 1542-1690 269 - - - CHAPTER XXVII - - Engelbert Kämpfer—His Visit to Japan—Deshima and its - Inhabitants as described by him—A. D. 1690 282 - - - CHAPTER XXVIII - - Particular Statement as to the Dutch Trade as it existed in - Kämpfer’s Time—Arrival of the Ships—Unlading—Passes—Imports—Company - and Private Goods—Kambans, or - Public Sales—Duties—Profits—Exports—Departure of - the Ships—Smuggling—Execution of Smugglers 316 - - - CHAPTER XXIX - - Nagasaki and its Vicinity as seen by Kämpfer—Imperial Governors—Their - Officers and Palaces—Municipal System—Street - Government—Mutual Responsibility—Administration - of Justice—Taxes—Government of other Towns—Adjacent - Country—The God Suwa and his Matsuri—A. D. 1690-1692 337 - - - CHAPTER XXX - - Kämpfer’s Two Journeys to Court—Preparations—Presents—Japanese - Attendants—Packing the Baggage and Riding on - Horseback—Japanese Love of Botany—Accoutrements—Road-Books—Norimono - and Kago—A. D. 1690-1692 366 - - - CHAPTER XXXI - - Highways—Rivers—Fords—Ferries—Bridges—Water Part - of the Journey—Coast and Islands—Frail Structure of - Japanese Vessels—Description of them—Buildings on the - Route—Proclamation Places—Places of Execution—Tera, - or Buddhist Temples—Miya, or Shintō Temples—Idols and - Amulets 380 - - INDEX - - - - - LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS - - VOLUME I. - - - PAGE - - Image of Date Masamune _Frontispiece_ - - The Invasion of the Mongol Tartars 2 - - Entrance to the Temple of Jimmu Tennō 8 - - Portrait of St. Francis Xavier, One of the Earliest Missionaries to - Japan 42 - - Image of Yoritomo 64 - - Ise Temple 68 - - A Shintō Priest 70 - - Pilgrims returning from a Temple 72 - - A Buddhist Sermon 74 - - Performance of Harakiri 78 - - The Kintai Bridge, Snō 90 - - Image of Oda Nobunaga 96 - - Painting of Taikō-Sama 124 - - The Expedition against Corea 140 - - Feudal Strongholds: Himeji Castle; Nagoya Castle 160 - - Image of Iyeyasu 164 - - Temple of Hideyoshi, Kyōtō 182 - - A Scene in the Palace Gardens, Kyōtō 196 - - Performers on the Koto and the Samisen 212 - - The Tomb of Iyeyasu, Nikkō 230 - - Facsimile of an Anti-Christian Edict 242 - - Dutch Candelabrum at Nikkō 256 - - Attack on Fort Zeelandia in Formosa 302 - - Nagasaki Harbor 312 - - Examination of a Prisoner by Torture 354 - - Festival with Mikoshi 358 - - Musical Instruments: Two Styles of Drums; A Flute-player 362 - - Transportation Methods: A Buddhist Priest in a Norimono; - Ancient Imperial Carriages; Lady in a Kago 366 - - A Bridge spanning the River Ōigawa; View of Fujikawa 378 - - The River Ōi 384 - - Japanese Craft: Sailboats; Rowboats; Junks 386 - - A Merchant Ship 390 - - A Dry-goods Shop 396 - - - MAPS - - Sketch Map of Old Japan 1 - - Map of Feudal Japan 272 - - - - - ADVERTISEMENT - - TO ORIGINAL EDITION - - -In collecting materials for a biography of the first explorers and -planters of New England and Virginia, I was carried to Japan, where I -happened to arrive (in the spirit) almost simultaneously with Commodore -Perry’s expedition. My interest thus roused in this secluded country -has produced this book, into which I have put the cream skimmed, or, -as I might say, in some cases, the juices laboriously expressed, from -a good many volumes, the greater part not very accessible nor very -inviting to the general reader, but still containing much that is -curious and entertaining, and, to most readers, new; which curiosities, -novelties, and palatable extracts, those who choose will thus be -enabled to enjoy without the labor that I have undergone in their -collection and arrangement—the former, indeed, a labor of love for my -own satisfaction; the latter, one of duty—not to say of necessity—for -the pleasure of the reading and book-buying public. - -Instead of attempting, as others have done, to cast into a systematic -shape observations of very different dates, I have preferred to -follow the historic method, and to let the reader see Japan with -the successive eyes of all those who have visited it, and who have -committed their observations and reflections to paper and print. The -number of these observers, it will be found, is very considerable; -while their characters, objects, and points of view, have been widely -different; and perhaps the reader may reach the same conclusion that I -have: that, with all that is said of the seclusion of Japan, there are -few countries of the East which we have the means of knowing better, or -so well. - -The complete history of the Portuguese, Spanish, and Dutch relations -with the Japanese is not to be found elsewhere in English; nor in any -language, in a single work; while in no other book have the English and -American relations been so fully treated. Many extraordinary characters -and adventures make their appearance on the scene, and the reader will -have no ground to complain at least of want of variety. - -How little the history of Japan and of its former relations with -Portugal and Holland are known—even in quarters where information on -the subject might be said to constitute an official duty—is apparent in -the following passage in a letter addressed from the State Department -at Washington to the Secretary of the Navy, in explanation of the -grounds, reasons, and objects, of our late mission to Japan, and -intended as instruction to the envoy: “Since the islands of Japan were -first visited by European nations, efforts have _constantly_ been made -by the various maritime powers to establish commercial intercourse with -a country whose large population and reputed wealth hold out great -temptations to mercantile enterprise. Portugal was the first to make -the attempt, and her example was followed by Holland, England, Spain, -and Russia, and finally by the United States. _All these attempts, -however, have thus far been unsuccessful_; the permission enjoyed for -a short period by the Portuguese, and that granted to Holland _to send -annually a single vessel_ to the port of Nagasaki, hardly deserving to -be considered exceptions to this remark.” - -From Kämpfer, whose name has become so identified with Japan, but into -whose folios few have the opportunity or courage to look, I have made -very liberal extracts. Few travellers have equalled him in picturesque -power. His descriptions have indeed the completeness, and finish, and, -at the same time, the naturalness, and absence of all affectation, -with much of the same quiet humor, characteristic of the best Dutch -pictures. I have preferred to introduce entire the work of such an -artist, rather than to run the risk of spoiling it by attempting -a paraphrase; only, as I had so many other volumes on hand, the -substance, or at least the spirit, of which was to be transferred to -mine, and as folios are no longer in fashion, I have found it necessary -in quoting him to retrench a little the superabundance of his words. -It is from his work also that the ornamental title-page[1] is copied, -stated by his editor to be after a style fashionable in Japan, where -dragons are held in great repute. Kämpfer says, that heads of these -imaginary animals are placed over the doors of houses all over the -East—among the Mahometans of Arabia and Persia, as well as in China and -Japan—to keep off, as the Mahometans say, the envious from disturbing -the peace of families. Perhaps the Japanese authors surround their -title-pages with them in hopes to frighten away the critics. - -The outline map,[2] copied principally from that given in the atlas -of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, contains, with -the observations annexed to it, and the note H[2] of the appendix, -about all that we know of the geography of Japan—all at least that -would interest the general reader. The contour of the coast is that -delineated in our sea-charts, and though probably not very correct, is -much more so than that of the Japanese maps; which, however large and -particular, are not much to be relied upon, at least in this respect. -The division into provinces of course rests upon Japanese authority. - -In giving Japanese names and words, I have aimed at a certain -uniformity; but, like all other writers on Japan, have failed to attain -it. The Portuguese missionaries, or at least their translators into -Latin, in representing Japanese names, employed _c_ with the force of -_k_ before the vowels _a_, _o_, and _u_, and with the force of _s_ -before _e_ and _i_; which same sound of _s_, in common with that of -_ts_, they sometimes represented by _x_. In the earlier part of the -book I have, in relation to several names known only, or chiefly, -through these writers, followed their usage; though generally, in the -representation of Japanese names and words, I have avoided the use of -these ambiguous letters, and have endeavored to conform to the method -of representing the Japanese syllables proposed by Siebold, and of -which an account is given in the Appendix.[2] - -The daguerreotype views and portraits taken by the artists attached -to Commodore Perry’s expedition, the publication of which may soon -be hoped for, will afford much more authentic pictures of the -externals of Japan than yet have appeared; and, from the limited stay -and opportunities of observation enjoyed by those attached to that -expedition, must constitute their chief contribution to our knowledge -of the Japanese empire. - - R. H. - - BOSTON, June 1st, 1855. - - - - - EDITOR’S INTRODUCTION - - -Hildreth’s “Japan as it Was and Is” was published in three editions,—in -1855, 1856, and 1861. In the last edition a new chapter was added -to bring the book down to that date. The value of the book, as a -compilation from all the important European writings on Old Japan, -has always been acknowledged, but has been somewhat diminished by the -various old-fashioned styles of transliteration, which rendered many -Japanese words difficult of recognition. Therefore the present writer, -more than ten years ago, conceived the idea of a revision of Hildreth’s -work, especially by harmonizing the spelling of Japanese words with -the modern system of Romanization, and by adding such other notes and -explanations as might be necessary. This he has been doing gradually, -as leisure afforded opportunity. In the meantime Mr. K. Murakawa, an -alumnus of the Imperial University, Tōkyō, has issued, in two small -limited editions, in 1902 and 1905, a reprint somewhat along that -line. But as his work was done with the needs of Japanese in view, it -does not entirely satisfy the needs of foreigners. The present writer -acknowledges his indebtedness to Mr. Murakawa in some points, but he -had done almost all his work before he saw the Japanese edition. He now -offers an edition which is not merely a reprint, but also a revision, -and is well illustrated. Of course the text of the original has been -followed as closely as possible, and yet not only additions, but also -excisions, have been made whenever necessary. For instance, some of -the footnotes and several of the long notes in the Appendix have -been omitted because they have become either wholly or comparatively -valueless. The writer’s additional notes are signed “Edr.,” and where -Mr. Murakawa’s notes have been used the initials “K. M.” are signed. - -Mr. Murakawa says that Hildreth’s book “contains many errors,” because -it was “written by an _author_ who was not in a position to avail -himself of the Japanese sources, at a _time_ when Japan was yet closed -against foreign intercourse, and at a _place_ far away from Japan.” -This statement is partly true but somewhat unjust, because it fails -to take into consideration the fact that Hildreth’s work is chiefly a -compilation, including lengthy quotations, from _authors_ who did avail -themselves as much as possible of Japanese sources, at the very _time_ -when they themselves were living in the very _place_, Japan itself. -But these writers were, of course, far from infallible and made errors -of fact or inference which Hildreth followed. And yet it is really -remarkable that, with so many limitations and hindrances, they gained -so good an insight into Japanese life. - -It goes without saying that the present editor has not attempted to -correct all the errors of details,—a task which would be as impossible -as unprofitable. He has corrected the most flagrant mistakes so far -as he has discovered them, but he may have overlooked errors needing -attention. He would here call special attention to a few mistakes which -were so frequent and so closely interwoven in the narrative as to -render correction impracticable. The word “Nippon,” which is really -the name of the whole country, is applied by the old writers to the -main island, the real name of which is Hondo. The word “Emperor” almost -always refers to the Shōgun, while the true Emperor is mentioned under -the name of “Dairi.” - -It is quite likely that the transliteration of Japanese words is not -absolutely uniform, even in this revision. There is still difference -of opinion among the best authorities on some points. But in this book -there is not so much variety as to be confusing. On this subject see -also the Introduction to the editor’s “Handbook of Modern Japan.” - -A word of explanation may be needed concerning some of the -illustrations of Japanese manners and customs. They are produced, of -course, from modern photographs; but as there has been comparatively -little change in those particulars, the illustrations practically -represent the olden times under consideration in this volume. - -The map in the original was so crude and inaccurate that it was not -worth reproducing; therefore an entirely new map has been prepared to -show Japan as it was during those days. In the map of Sakhalin a dotted -line shows also the present division of the island between Russia and -Japan, because it was the old one. - -The editor is under obligations to his friend, Dr. Wm. Elliot Griffis, -himself both an author and an authority on Japan and the Japanese, for -his Introduction to this volume. Dr. Griffis, in “The Mikado’s Empire,” -was the first to give in America a full account of the land and people -of Japan. - -The numerous references here and there and the bibliographical list in -the Appendix ought to add considerably to the value of this edition. -Many of the old books on Japan are out of print and difficult of -access, but even those are included for the sake of any who may be so -fortunate as to have access thereto. A few books ought without fail -to be read in connection with this revision, because they give more -accurate information than was possible in Hildreth’s day. These are -“The Mikado’s Empire,” by Griffis, Rein’s “Japan” and “The Industries -of Japan,” Brinkley’s eight encyclopædic volumes on Japan, and “History -of Japan during the Earlier Century of Foreign Intercourse (1542-1651)” -by Murdock and Yamagata. Frequent references have been made to the -valuable papers in the Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan, -which are easily accessible in whole or in parts. - -The bibliography is not complete, but contains the most important works -in English. More extensive and specific bibliographies may be found -in the editor’s “Handbook of Modern Japan,” Chamberlain’s “Things -Japanese,” and especially Wenckstern’s (revised) “Bibliography of -Japan.” Poole’s Index is also valuable. In the bibliography of this -edition of Hildreth it has not been practicable, in all cases, to -distinguish exactly between Old Japan and New Japan. There is still -so much of the old remaining in this transition period that some -writings of modern days may describe quite accurately conditions of -olden days. With the increased facilities of the present it is possible -to understand better the old conditions, especially as they were -stereotyped for several centuries. - -The original title of Hildreth’s work, “Japan as it Was and Is,” was -proper in 1855 and 1856, but it is rather unsuitable in its entirety -fifty years later. However, this revision of Hildreth, together with -the editor’s “Handbook of Modern Japan,” may not unwarrantably be -considered to cover _Japan as it Was and Is_. - - ERNEST WILSON CLEMENT. - - TŌKYŌ, July 1, 1906. - - - - - FOREWORD - - BY THE AUTHOR OF “THE MIKADO’S EMPIRE” - - -The first American teacher in Echizen (1870-1872) feels honored at the -request of the first American teacher in Mito (1887-1891) to write -for his revised and annotated edition of Hildreth’s “Japan” a few -words concerning the author and his book and his most recent editor’s -work. In the days of Townsend Harris and the premier Ii (1858), the -feudal lords of Mito and Echizen, besides being blood relatives, had -misunderstandings with the Yedo authorities, and, with unswerving -loyalty to the Emperor and the most patriotic of motives, were linked -together in strange experiences while manifesting a common desire to -promote their country’s good. - -After so long a time the pioneer American educator in Echizen salutes -his fellow-worker who has done so much to make known to us the -illustrious character of the lords of the house of Mito as patrons of -literature and their unwearied devotion to the Imperial and national -cause. I am sure that we are both proud of having been the servants of -the Japanese people in helping to bring to pass that vision of Japan’s -greatness, so tangible in A. D. 1906, to which Hildreth looked, yet -died without ever seeing. - -The personality of Richard Hildreth, the historian of the United States -and the unquailing opponent of African slavery in America, was one -of the very first that appealed to me when my own boyish literary -aspirations were first awakened. His intensely powerful novel, “Archy -Moore,” which had been published in 1837, reprinted in England and -again republished in the United States in 1852, under the title of “The -White Slave,” appeared just when Commodore Matthew C. Perry was making -his preparations to sail for Japan. Philadelphia was agog with interest -about the expedition, and many of her citizens were keenly interested, -among them my father, John L. Griffis, who, like my grandfather, -Captain John Griffis, had voyaged to the Philippines, China, and the -Far East. He had built a platform in his coalyard, which directly -adjoined the shiphouse and dock of the United States Navy Yard, wherein -was building the United States steam frigate “Susquehanna,” which later -in Japanese waters became the flagship of Commodore Perry. It is not -so many miles from the upper waters of this noble river of the three -States, New York, Pennsylvania, and Maryland, that this “foreword” is -written. - -As a little boy, on the morning of April 6, 1850, at 8.35 A.M., I -saw the graceful “Susquehanna” slide down the ways, float on the -Delaware, and, like a bird of calm, “sit brooding on the charmèd -wave.” I remember how, when sitting on my father’s knee, he put me -down suddenly to rise and call for “three cheers for the future of the -‘Susquehanna.’” We could not then foresee what a noble part the frigate -was to play in the annals of both peace and war. She bore the olive -branch to Japan and she unchained her thunders in the destruction of -slavery. - -Richard Hildreth of Massachusetts, author, journalist, economist, and -historian, was born in 1807. He graduated from Harvard College in 1826 -and studied law in Newburyport, entering upon practice in Boston. He -left the law for journalism, and, as an editor of the “Boston Atlas,” -lifted up the moral world. In 1834, in poor health, he went South and, -in order to get unbiassed ideas, lived on a slave plantation to study -the workings of the system of unpaid African labor. It was during this -time that he wrote his famous novel, “Archy Moore, The White Slave.” -Returning North he became, with pen and voice, the tireless opponent -of slavery. From 1840 to 1848 Hildreth lived in Demerara, British -Guiana, editing two newspapers, in which he advocated the system of -free instead of slave labor, writing there also his “Theory of Morals” -and his “Theory of Politics.” In the perspective of history we can now -note clearly that he was one of the potent forces in destroying human -slavery in America, and in helping, as an ex-Confederate officer, now -president of the first Woman’s College in the Southern States, told me -a few days ago, “to emancipate eleven million white men.” - -Hildreth’s “History of the United States,” though not of great literary -interest, is an amazingly honest picture of the real character of -the makers of the American Republic. He shows our fathers without -transfiguration of their virtues or disguise of their faults or errors. -How he came to write his book on Japan is told by him with sufficient -fulness in his own introduction. Those who know his book best are those -who appreciate it most. - -It was while we were fellow-workers in the Imperial University in -Tokio, from 1872 to 1874, that Mr. Edward H. House, who afterwards -found a grave in the land he loved, gave me the details of Hildreth’s -life and personality. Mr. House had been engaged with Mr. Hildreth on -the staff of the “New York Tribune” from the completion of “Japan as -it Was and Is” until the inauguration of Abraham Lincoln. Instead of -appointing Hildreth as Minister to Japan, Mr. Lincoln did but follow -the precedents of political succession, since Perry, Harris, Van -Valkenburg, and Depew (who declined) were all citizens of the Empire -State, and hence nominated the Hon. Robert H. Pruyn of Albany. It was -my own beloved professor in Rutgers College, Dr. David Murray, also -a native of New York State, later chief adviser to the Educational -Department in Japan, who in Tokio first loaned me a copy of Hildreth’s -valuable compilation, and I studied it with care. Notable among the -many benefits which made the volume a boon to foreign students was the -discovery, with its aid, in May, 1872, by Mr. James Walter of Yokohama, -of the tomb of Will Adams at Yokosuka (p. 139). - -Hildreth’s scarcely veiled satire on the ignorance of the Americans of -1852 concerning Japan in his “advertisement” is keen. None knew more -than he how steadily the Hollanders had maintained commercial relations -with the Japanese, had fertilized their minds for over two centuries, -and had finally paved the way for American success. - -In gratitude to Professor Clement for his unwearied researches and -for his work as editor in this new presentation of the perennially -interesting volume of Hildreth, in commendation of the publishers for -issuing this uniquely valuable work, and in the faith that in its new -dress “Japan as it Was and Is” will receive a warm welcome at the hands -of the American public, we raise our cheer at this hopeful launch on -the waters of literature. How the spirit of Hildreth must rejoice at -free America and free Japan, with slavery and feudalism gone forever -and the two nations in mutually beneficial rivalry for the uplifting of -mankind. - - WM. ELLIOT GRIFFIS. - - ITHACA, N. Y., July 15, 1906. - - - - - JAPANESE PRONUNCIATION - - - _a_ like _a_ in _father_ - _e_ ” _e_ ” _men_ - _i_ ” _i_ ” _pin_ - _o_ ” _o_ ” _pony_ - _u_ ” _oo_ ” _book_ - _ai_ as in _aisle_ - _ei_ ” _weigh_ - _au_ } - _ō_ } as _o_ in _bone_ - _ū_ as _oo_ in _moon_ - -_i_ in the middle of a word and _u_ in the middle or at the end of a -word are sometimes almost inaudible. - -The consonants are all sounded, as in English: _g_, however, has only -the hard sound, as in _give_, although the nasal _ng_ is often heard; -_ch_ and _s_ are always soft, as in _check_ and _sin_; and _z_ before -_u_ has the sound of _dz_. In the case of double consonants, each one -must be given its full sound. - -There are as many syllables as vowels. There is practically no accent; -but care must be taken to distinguish between _o_ and _ō_, _u_ and _ū_, -of which the second is more prolonged than the first. - -Be sure to avoid the flat sound of _a_, which is always pronounced -_ah_. - - -[Illustration: _The Japanese islands are studded by lofty volcanic -mountains, especially Nipon, which is traversed through its whole -length by a chain which forms the water shed of the island and the -highest peaks of which are covered with perpetual snow. There are seven -active volcanoes, three in Kiusiu and four in Nipon, besides four other -mountains sending out hot springs; along the coast there are several -burning islands, the rivers are numerous but short. The empire includes -eight great subdivisions, called Do, or Ways, viz.: 1. Saikaidō, west -sea way, nine provinces; 2. Nankaido, south sea way, six provinces; -3. Sanyodo, south mountain way, eight provinces; 4. Sanindo, north -mountain way, eight provinces; 5. Gokinaido, five provinces, imperial -domain; 6. Tōkaidō, east sea way, fifteen provinces; 7. Tosando, -east mountain way, eight provinces; 8. Hokurokudo, way of the north -districts, seven provinces. Tsu, Iki and Jezo are not included in this -arrangement._ - - -_NOTE_ - - _In the pronunciation of Japanese names and words, and in their - representation in European letters, an n is frequently added at the - end of a syllable; as, Nangasaki for Nagasaki, Fingo for Figo, etc._ - - - SKETCH MAP OF OLD JAPAN - -Adapted from map in original edition of Hildreth] - - - - - JAPAN - - AS IT WAS AND IS - - - - -CHAPTER I - - _Earliest European Knowledge of Japan—Japanese Histories—Marco Polo’s - Account of the Mongol or Tartar Invasion—Accounts of the same Event - given by the Chinese and Japanese Annalists, A. D. 1281 or 1283._ - - -The name JAPAN, pronounced in the country itself _Nippon_ or _Nihon_, -is of Chinese origin—in the Mandarin dialect _Jih-pun_, that is, -sun-source, or Eastern Country. - -The first account of Japan, or allusion to its existence, to be found -in any European writer, is contained in the “Oriental Travels” of the -Venetian, Marco Polo, first reduced to writing in the Latin tongue, -about A. D. 1298, while the author was detained a prisoner of war at -Genoa. Zipangu, Zipangri, Cyampagu, Cimpagu, as different editions -of his work have it, is his method of representing the Chinese -_Jih-pun-quo_, sun-source kingdom, or kingdom of the source of the sun. -The Japanese chronicles go back for many centuries previous; but these -chronicles seem to be little more than a bare list of names and dates, -with some legendary statements interwoven, of which the authority does -not appear very weighty, nor the historical value very considerable. - -Marco Polo resided for seventeen years (A. D. 1275-1292) at the court -of Kublai Khan (grandson of the celebrated Ghingis Khan,) and ruler, -from A. D. 1260 to A. D. 1294, over the most extensive empire which -the world has ever seen. This empire stretched across the breadth -of the old continent, from the Japanese, the Yellow, the Blue, and -the China Seas (embosoming the Caspian and the Black Seas), to the -Levant, the Archipelago, the river Dniester, and beyond it. Not content -with having added Anatolia and Russia to the western extremity of -this vast kingdom,—the Greek empire being reduced, at this moment, -to the vicinage of Constantinople and the western coasts of the -Archipelago,—Kublai Khan, after completing the conquest of Southern -China, sent an expedition against Japan; in which, however, the Mongols -were no more successful than they had been in their attempts, a few -years before, to penetrate through Hungary and Poland (which they -overran and ravaged, to the terror of all Europe) in Germany, whence -Teutonic valor repelled them. - -The accounts given by Marco Polo, and by the Chinese and Japanese -annalists, of this expedition, though somewhat contradictory as to the -details, agree well enough as to the general result. As Marco Polo’s -account is short, as well as curious, we insert it at length, from the -English translation of his travels by Marsden, subjoining to it the -statements which we have of the same event derived from Chinese and -Japanese sources. We may add that Columbus was greatly stimulated to -undertake his western voyages of discovery by the constant study of -Marco Polo’s travels, confidently expecting to reach by that route the -Cathay and Zipangu of that author—countries for which he sedulously -inquired throughout the Archipelago of the West Indies, and along the -southern and western shores of the Caribbean Sea. - -[Illustration: THE INVASION BY THE MONGOL TARTARS - From _Official History of Japan_] - -“Zipangu,” says Marco Polo, “is an island in the eastern ocean, -situated at the distance of about fifteen hundred miles[3] from the -mainland, or coast of Manji.[4] It is of considerable size; its -inhabitants have fair complexions, are well made, and are civilized -in their manners. Their religion is the worship of idols. They are -independent of every foreign power, and governed only by their own -kings. They have gold in the greatest abundance, its sources being -inexhaustible; but as the king does not allow of its being exported, -few merchants visit the country, nor is it frequented by much shipping -from other parts. To this circumstance we are to attribute the -extraordinary richness of the sovereign’s palace, according to what -we are told by those who have access to the place. The entire roof is -covered with a plating of gold, in the same manner as we cover houses, -or, more properly, churches, with lead. The ceilings of the halls are -of the same precious metal; many of the apartments have small tables -of pure gold, considerably thick; and the windows, also, have golden -ornaments. So vast, indeed, are the riches of the palace, that it is -impossible to convey an idea of them. In this island there are pearls, -also, in large quantities, of a pink color, round in shape, and of -great size, equal in value to white pearls, or even exceeding them. It -is customary with one part of the inhabitants to bury their dead, and -with another part to burn them. The former have a practice of putting -one of these pearls into the mouth of the corpse. There are also found -there a number of precious stones. - -“Of so great celebrity was the wealth of this island, that a desire -was excited in the breast of the grand Khan Kublai, now reigning, to -make the conquest of it, and to annex it to his dominions. In order -to effect this, he fitted out a numerous fleet, and embarked a large -body of troops under the command of two of his principal officers, one -of whom was named Abbacatan, and the other Vonsancin. The expedition -sailed from the ports of Zaitun and Kinsai,[5] and crossing the -intermediate sea, reached the island in safety; but, in consequence of -a jealousy that arose between the two commanders, one of whom treated -the plans of the other with contempt, and resisted the execution of his -orders, they were unable to gain possession of any city or fortified -place, with the exception of one only, which was carried by assault, -the garrison having refused to surrender. Directions were given for -putting the whole to the sword, and, in obedience thereto, the heads -of all were cut off except of eight persons, who, by the efficacy of a -diabolical charm, consisting of a jewel or amulet introduced into the -right arm, between the skin and the flesh, were rendered secure from -the effects of iron either to kill or to wound. Upon this discovery -being made, they were beaten with a heavy wooden club, and presently -died. - -“It happened, after some time, that a north wind began to blow with -great force, and the ships of the Tartars, which lay near the shore -of the island, were driven foul of each other. It was determined -thereupon, in a council of the officers on board, that they ought to -disengage themselves from the land; and accordingly, as soon as the -troops were disembarked, they stood out to sea. The gale, however, -increased to so violent a degree, that a number of the vessels -foundered. The people belonging to them, by floating upon pieces of the -wreck, saved themselves upon an island, about four miles from the coast -of Zipangu. The other ships, which, not being so near to the land, did -not suffer from the storm, and on which the two chiefs were embarked, -together with the principal officers, or those whose rank entitled -them to command a hundred thousand or ten thousand men, directed their -course homeward, and returned to the grand Khan. Those of the Tartars -who remained upon the island where they were wrecked, and who amounted -to about thirty thousand men, finding themselves without shipping, -abandoned by their leaders, and having neither arms nor provision, -expected nothing less than to become captives or to perish; especially -as the island afforded no habitations where they could take shelter -and refresh themselves. As soon as the gale ceased, and the sea became -smooth and calm, the people from the main island of Zipangu came over -with a large force, in numerous boats, in order to make prisoners of -these shipwrecked Tartars; and, having landed, proceeded in search of -them, but in a straggling, disorderly manner. The Tartars, on their -part, acted with prudent circumspection; and, being concealed from view -by some high land in the centre of the island, whilst the enemy were -hurrying in pursuit of them by one road, made a circuit of the coast by -another, which brought them to the place where the fleet of boats was -at anchor. Finding these all abandoned, but with their colors flying, -they instantly seized them; and, pushing off from the island, stood -for the principal city of Zipangu, into which, from the appearance of -the colors, they were suffered to enter unmolested. Here they found -few of the inhabitants besides women, whom they retained for their own -use, and drove out all others. When the king was apprised of what had -taken place, he was much afflicted, and immediately gave directions -for a strict blockade of the city, which was so effectual that not any -person was suffered to enter or to escape from it during six months -that the siege continued. At the expiration of this time, the Tartars, -despairing of succor, surrendered upon the condition of their lives -being spared. This event took place in the course of the year 1264.”[6] - -The above account Marco Polo no doubt derived from the Mongols, who -endeavored, as far as possible, to gloss over with romantic and -improbable incidents a repulse that could not be denied. The Chinese -annalists, who have no partiality for their Mongol conquerors, tell -a much less flattering story. According to their account, as given -by Père Amiot, in his “Mémoires concernant les Chinois,” the fleet -consisted of six hundred ships, fitted out in the provinces of -Kiang-nan, Fou-kien, Ho-nan, and Chan-tong. The army, sailing from -Corea, landed first on the island of Kuchi [?], whence they proceeded -to that of Tsushima, where they learned that the Japanese had long been -expecting them with a great army. On approaching the coast of Japan, -they encountered a furious tempest, which sunk their vessels; so that -of the whole army scarcely one or two in every ten persons escaped. - -In the “Histoire Général de la China,” compiled by Father Malela from -Chinese sources, the story is thus told: “The sixth month (1281) Alahan -set out on the expedition against Japan; but scarcely had he reached -the port of embarkation when he died. Atahai, appointed to succeed him, -did not arrive till the fleet had already set sail. In the latitude of -the isle of _Pinghou_ [Hirado], it encountered a violent tempest, by -which most of the vessels were driven on shore. The officers, selecting -those least damaged, themselves returned, leaving behind them in -that island more than a hundred thousand men. The soldiers, finding -themselves thus abandoned, chose a leader, and set themselves to work -to cut down trees to build new vessels, in which to escape. But the -Japanese, apprised of their shipwreck, made a descent upon the island -with a powerful army, and put them to the sword. They spared only ten -or twelve thousand Chinese soldiers, of whom they made slaves; and, of -the whole formidable invading army, hardly three persons returned to -China.” - -Father Gaubil, in his “Histoire de la Dynastie des Mongoux,” compiled -also from Chinese sources, states the number of Chinese and Corean -prisoners at eighty thousand, and of the Mongols who were slain at -thirty thousand. - -Kämpfer, in his elaborate work on Japan, gives the following as from -the Japanese chronicles, _Nippon Ōdaiki_, and _Nippon Ōkeizu_: “Go-Uda -succeeded his father in the year of Jimmu 1985, of Christ 1275.” -“In the ninth year of his reign, the Tartar general, Mōko, appeared -on the coasts of Japan, with a fleet of four thousand sail, and two -hundred and forty thousand men. The then reigning Tartarian emperor, -Lifsu [Kublai Khan], after he had conquered the empire of China, sent -this general to subdue also the empire of Japan. But this expedition -proved unsuccessful. The _Kami_, that is, the gods of the country, -and protectors of the Japanese empire, were so incensed at the insult -offered them by the Tartars, that, on the first day of the seventh -month, they excited a violent and dreadful storm, which destroyed all -this reputed invincible armada. Mōko himself perished in the waves, and -but few of his men escaped.” - -[Illustration: ENTRANCE TO THE TEMPLE OF JIMMU TENNŌ] - -Siebold, in his recently published “Archives of Japan,” gives the -following as the account of this invasion contained in the esteemed -Japanese chronicle, _Nikongi_:[7] “So soon as Kublai Khan had -ascended the Mogul throne, he turned his eyes upon distant Japan. -This nation, like _Kaou-le_ (one of the kingdoms of Corea), must -become tributary. Accordingly, in the year 1268,[8] he summoned the -ruler of Nippon to acknowledge his sovereignty. No notice was taken of -this summons, nor of others in 1271 and 1273, the Mongol envoys being -not admitted to an audience, but always dismissed by the governor of -Dazaifu. Hereupon a Mongol fleet, with a Corean contingent, appeared -off Tsushima [a small island half-way from Corea to Japan]. The Mikado -[ecclesiastical sovereign] appointed prayer days, but the Shōgun [the -temporal sovereign] had previously made along the coast every necessary -preparation for defence. The hostile army did not venture upon a -decisive attack. Its movements were governed neither by energy nor by -consistency; and after hovering about a while, without any apparent -definite purpose, the squadron disappeared from the Japanese seas, -merely committing some hostilities upon Kiūshiū at its departure.” - -A Japanese encyclopædia, of quite recent date, quoted in Siebold’s -work, besides giving Kublai Khan’s letter of summons, asserts that -the Mongol fleet was met and defeated, after which, other Mongol -envoys being sent to Japan, they were summoned into the presence of -the Shōgun, by whom a decree was promulgated that no Mongol should -land in Japan under pain of death. And it is even pretended that -under this decree the persons composing two subsequent missions sent -by Kublai Khan, in 1276 and 1279, were all put to death. This was -followed, according to the same authority, by the appearance of a new -Mongol-Corean fleet, in 1281, off the island of Hirado. This fleet -was destroyed by a hurricane. Those who escaped to the shore were -taken prisoners and executed, only three being saved to carry to -Kublai Khan the news of this disaster. All these additions, however, -to the story—the letter of Kublai Khan, the murder of the ambassadors, -and the double invasion—may safely enough be set down as Japanese -inventions.[9] - - - - -CHAPTER II - - _Portuguese Empire in the East—Discovery of Japan—Galvano’s Account - of it—Fernam Mendez Pinto’s Account of his First Visit to Japan, and - Adventures there—Japanese Account of the First Arrival of Portuguese, - A. D. 1542-1545._ - - -Vasco da Gama, by the route of the Cape of Good Hope, entered the -Indian Ocean in November, 1497, and, after coasting the African -continent as far north as Melinda, arrived in May, 1498, at Calicut, -on the Malabar or southwestern coast of the peninsula of Hindustan,—a -discovery speedily followed, on the part of the Portuguese, by -extensive Eastern explorations, mercantile enterprises, and conquests. -The trade of Europe with the East in silks, spices, and other luxuries, -chiefly carried on for two or three centuries preceding, so far as -related to their distribution through Europe, by the Venetians, aided -in the north by the Hanse towns, and, so far as the collection of the -articles of it throughout the East was concerned, by the Arabs (Cairo, -in Egypt, being the point of exchange), was soon transferred to the -Portuguese; and Lisbon, enriched by this transfer, which the Mahometan -traders and the Venetians struggled in vain to prevent, rose rapidly, -amid the decline of numerous rivals, to great commercial wealth and -prosperity, and the headship of European commerce. - -The Portuguese, from the necessity of the case, traded sword in hand; -and their intercourse with the nations of the East was much more -marked by the insolence of conquest, than by the complaisance of -traders. Goa, some three hundred miles to the north of Calicut, which -fell into their power in 1510, became a splendid city, the vice-royal -and archiepiscopal seat, whence were governed a multitude of widespread -dependencies. The rule of the Portuguese viceroy extended on the west -by Diu, Ormus, and Socotra (commanding the entrances into the Gulf of -Cambay, the Persian Gulf, and the Red Sea), along the east coast of -Africa by Melinda to Sofala, opposite the south part of Madagascar. -Malacca, near the extremity of the peninsula of Further India, occupied -in 1511, became the capital of their possessions and conquests in -the far East, and soon rose into a magnificent seat of empire and -commerce, second only to Goa. Among the most valuable dependencies of -Malacca were the Moluccas or Spice Islands. The islands of Sumatra, -Java, and Borneo,—in the occupation of which the Mahometans had -preceded them,—Celebes, Mindanao, and even New Guinea were coasted, and -commercial and political relations established, to a greater or less -degree, with the native chiefs. The coasts of Pegu, Siam, Cambodia, -and the southern parts of China, were visited as early as 1516; but -the usual insolence of the Portuguese, in attempting to establish a -fortified post not far from Canton, resulted in the imprisonment and -miserable death of an ambassador of theirs, then on his way to Pekin, -while it gave a new impulse to the suspicious policy of the Chinese, -which allowed no intercourse with foreigners, and even forbade the -Chinese junks to trade to foreign ports. In spite, however, of this -prohibition, numerous Chinese merchants, self-exiled from home, were -established in the principal trading marts of the southeastern seas; -and with their aid, and sometimes that of the corsairs, by whom the -coasts of China were then, as now, greatly infested, and by bribing -the mandarins, a sort of commerce, a cross between smuggling and -privateering, was carried on along the Chinese coast. The principal -marts of this commerce were Ningpo (known to the Portuguese as Liampo, -on the continent, opposite the isle of Chusan, in the suburbs of which -city the Portuguese managed to establish a trading settlement) and -Sancian, an island near the entrance of the bay of Canton, where the -Chinese merchants from Canton met the Portuguese traders, who, during -a few months in each year, sojourned there in temporary huts while the -trade was going on. Down, however, to the year 1542 nothing had yet -been heard of Japan, beyond Marco Polo’s mention and brief account of -it. - -The first visit of the Portuguese to Japan is ascribed to that year, -1542, by Antonio Galvano, in his little book, first published, after -his death, in 1557, containing a brief chronological recital of -discoveries by sea and land, from the flood to the year of grace -1555, particularly the recent ones of the Spanish and Portuguese, -in which Galvano had been an active participator, having greatly -distinguished himself as the Portuguese governor of the Moluccas. With -a disinterestedness as uncommon then as now, more intent upon the -public service than his own enrichment, after repeatedly refusing the -regency of the Moluccas tendered to him by the natives, and putting -into the public treasury the rich presents of spices which were made to -him, he had returned to Portugal, in 1540, a poor man; and so vain was -his reliance on the gratitude of the court that he was obliged to pass -the last seventeen years of his life as the inmate of a charitable -foundation, solacing his leisure by composing the history of exploits -in which he no longer participated. His account of the discovery of -Japan, which he must have obtained at second hand, as it happened after -he had left the Indies, is thus given in Hackluyt’s translation[10]: - -“In the year of our Lord 1542, one Diego de Freitas being in the realm -of Siam, and in the city of Dodra, as captain of a ship, there fled -from him three Portuguese in a junco (which is a kind of ship) towards -China. Their names were Antony de Moto, Francis Zimoro, and Antonio -Perota. Directing their course to the city of Liampo [Ningpo], standing -in 30° odd of latitude, there fell upon their stern such a storm, that -it set them off the land; and in a few days they saw an island towards -the east, standing in 32°, which they do name Japan, which seemeth to -be the isle of Zipangry whereof Paulus Venetus [Marco Polo] maketh -mention, and of the riches thereof. And this island of Japan hath gold, -silver, and other riches.” - -Upon the strength of this statement of Galvano’s, Maffei in his elegant -Latin “Indian History,” first printed in 1589, and whom subsequent -writers have generally followed, ascribes to the three Portuguese above -mentioned the honor of the discovery of Japan, though it was claimed, -he says, by several others. Of these others the only one known to -us is Fernam Mendez Pinto, who in his “Peregrinations in the East,” -first published in 1614, about thirty-six years after his death, seems -to represent himself and two companions as the original Portuguese -discoverers. - -Pinto’s veracity has been very sharply called in question[11]; but -the main facts of his residence in the East and early visits to Japan -are amply established by contemporary letters, written from Malacca -as early as 1564, and published at Rome as early as 1566, including -one from Pinto himself. In the introduction to his “Peregrinations” he -describes himself as the child of poor parents, born in the city of -old Montemayor, in Portugal, but placed in the year 1521, when he was -about ten or twelve years old,—he fixes the year by the breaking of the -escutcheons on the death of King Manuel, a ceremony which he witnessed, -and the oldest historical fact he could remember,—through the interest -of an uncle, in the service of a noble lady of Lisbon. Having been with -her for a year and a half, some catastrophe occurred—he does not tell -what—which led him to fly in terror for his life; and, finding himself -upon a pier, he embarked on a vessel just about to leave it. That -vessel was taken by French pirates, who threatened at first to sell -him and the other captives to the Moors of Barbary; but having taken -another richer prize, after much ill treatment they put him and several -others ashore on the Portuguese coast. After this he passed into the -service successively of two noblemen; but finding their pay very small, -he was prompted to embark to seek his fortune in the East, and, in -pursuit of that object, landed at Diu in 1537. - -It was by the daring and enterprise of just such adventurers as Pinto -that the Portuguese, who, up to this time, had few regular troops -in the East, had already acquired so extensive an empire there; just -as a similar set of Spanish adventurers had acquired, and still were -extending, a vast Spanish empire in America; the two nations, in their -circuit round the globe, meeting at the Moluccas, the possession of -which, though about this very time, as we shall see, contested by the -Spaniards, the Portuguese succeeded in maintaining, as indeed they had -been the first to visit and occupy them. - -The Turks at this time were the terror and dread of all the Christian -nations. In the West they had lately occupied Hungary, laid siege to -Vienna, and possessed themselves of all the fortresses hitherto held -by the Venetians in the Archipelago and the Morea. Having acquired -the superiority over Egypt by dethroning the Mameluke sultans, and -by the renunciation of the caliphs of Bagdad (long exiles in Egypt), -the headship of the Mahometan church, they were now carrying on, -with renewed energy, by way of the Red Sea, the perpetual war waged -in the East, as well as in the West, by the Mussulmans against the -infidels; and had, indeed, just before Pinto’s arrival at Diu, besieged -that city in great force. Going to cruise against these Mussulman -enemies, after various adventures and a visit to Abyssinia,—with -which secluded Christian or semi-Christian kingdom the Portuguese had -opened a communication,—Pinto was captured at the entrance of the Red -Sea, carried to Mocha, and there sold to a Greek renegado, and by -him to a Jew, from whom he was redeemed by the Portuguese governor -of Ormus, who furnished him with the means of reaching Goa. At this -centre of Portuguese enterprise and adventure Pinto entered into the -service of Dom Pedro de Faria, captain-general of Malacca. Perceiving -his superior intelligence and adroitness, Faria sent him on numerous -missions to the native princes of those parts, by intermeddling in -whose domestic affairs the Portuguese generally contrived to find a -foothold for themselves. Despatched on one of these missions, he was -shipwrecked, made a slave of, and sold to a Mussulman, who carried -him to Malacca, whence he was again sent on a new mission, provided -with money to redeem certain Portuguese captives, and taking with him -also a small sum, which he had borrowed at Malacca, to trade upon -for himself. While occupied with this mission, Pinto met, at Patana -[present Patany] (on the east shore of the Malay peninsula, and some -four hundred miles to the north of Malacca), with Antonio de Faria, a -kinsman of his patron’s, sent thither on a political mission, but who -had also improved the opportunity for trade, by borrowing at Malacca -twelve thousand crusados,[12] which he had invested in cloths. Finding -no market there for these goods, Faria was induced to despatch them -to Lugor, on the same coast, further north; and Pinto, with his small -adventure, was led by the hope of a profitable trade to embark in the -same vessel. He arrived safely near Lugor; but the vessel, while lying -in the river below that city, was boarded by a Saracen corsair. Pinto -with two others plunged into the water and escaped, wounded, to the -shore; and having succeeded in reaching Patana, he communicated to -Antonio de Faria information of their mutual loss. - -Overwhelmed by this news, and afraid to face his creditors at Malacca, -Faria, with the remnant of his fortune and the assistance of his -friends, fitted out a small cruiser, in which he embarked in May, -1540, with several Portuguese, and Pinto among the rest, nominally to -seek out the pirate who had robbed him, but in fact to recruit his -fortune as he might. After many adventures—the acquisition of great -wealth by numerous captures of richly laden corsairs and others, its -loss by shipwreck, the getting of a new vessel, the meeting with -the corsair who had robbed them at Lugor, the taking of his vessel, -another shipwreck, and the sack of a Chinese town, where some of their -shipwrecked companions were detained as prisoners—they put into Liampo -(Ningpo), finding on some islands at no great distance from that city, -and known as the Gates of Liampo, a Portuguese settlement of a thousand -houses, with six or seven churches, and with regular Portuguese -officers and laws—as much so, says Pinto, as if the place had been -situated between Lisbon and Santarem.[13] Here they met with a Chinese -corsair, who told them a marvellous story of the island of Calempui, -not far from Pekin, in which lay buried seventeen Chinese kings, and -whose tombs, guarded and watched over by priests, contained vast -treasures. Under the pilotage of this corsair, Faria set out in May, -1542, to rob these tombs. Pinto’s account of the voyage thither, and -of the tombs themselves, from which, terrified by the alarm that was -raised, they fled away, with their object only partially accomplished, -forms one of the most questionable, and at all events the most -distorted, portions of his narrative. - -Shortly after, they were shipwrecked again on the Chinese coast. Faria -with most of his countrymen were drowned; but Pinto with thirteen -others escaped to the shore, where they lived a while by begging, -but were presently taken up as vagabonds, harshly treated, sent to -Nankin, and there, on suspicion of being thieves, condemned to lose -their thumbs. They appealed from this sentence by the aid of certain -officers appointed to look after the poor, and were taken to Pekin, -where, after a residence of two months and a half, the charge of theft -was dismissed for want of proof, the prosecutors being obliged to pay -them damages; but still they were sent in confinement to the frontier -town of Quansi for eight months, there to work in the maintenance of -the great wall. From this imprisonment they were delivered by an inroad -of Tartars, who laid siege to Pekin, and to whom one of the Portuguese, -the party reduced by this time to nine, rendered essential military -service. Accompanying these invaders back to Tartary, they were sent, -except one, who remained behind, as attendants upon the train of an -ambassador to Cochin China, by whose procurement they were conveyed to -the island of Sancian, in hopes of finding a passage thence to Malacca. -But the Portuguese ships had departed five days before; and so they -proceeded on some leagues further to the island of Lampacau (the same -upon which the Portuguese town of Macao was not long afterwards built, -and already a resort for merchants and rovers). Here they found no -other resource except to enlist in the service of a Chinese corsair, -who arrived shortly after they did, with two ships, of which the crews -were mostly wounded, having just escaped, with the loss of many other -ships, from a recent engagement with a Chinese fleet off Chincheo, -a great city, about half-way from Canton to Ningpo. The Portuguese -had got into a quarrel among themselves, which they carried out, as -Pinto says, with true Portuguese obstinacy. Five of them embarked in -one of the corsair’s ships, and Pinto, with two companions, named -Diego Zeimoto and Christopher Borello, in the other. The five, with -the vessel in which they sailed, were soon after lost in a desperate -naval engagement, which lasted a whole day, with seven large corsair -junks, in which that vessel was burnt. The other, in which Pinto was, -escaped with the greatest difficulty, by favor of the breeze, which -freshened at night. This breeze changed soon into a gale, before which -the corsair ran for the Lew Chew islands (Riū-Kiū), with which he was -familiar; but being without a pilot, and the wind shifting to the -northeast, they had to beat against it for twenty-three days before -they made land. After running along the coast for some distance they -anchored off an island in seventy fathoms.[14] “Immediately,” says -Pinto, “two little skiffs put off the shore to meet us, in which were -six men, who, on coming on board, after having saluted us courteously, -asked us whence our junk came; and being answered that it came from -China, with merchandise to trade there, if permission should be -obtained, one of the six said to us that the Nantaquim (?), the lord -of that island, which was called Tanegashima, would willingly permit -us to trade if we would pay the duties customarily paid in Japan; -‘which,’said he, ‘is that great island which you see there over against -us.’” Whereupon the ship was piloted into a good harbor, on which -was situated a considerable town, and was soon surrounded with boats -bringing provisions to sell. - -In a short time they were visited by the Nantaquim (?) himself, -accompanied by many gentlemen and merchants, with chests of silver. As -he approached the ship, the first persons who attracted his attention -were Pinto and his companions. Perceiving how different they were in -complexion, features, and beard from the others, he eagerly inquired -who they were. “The corsair captain made answer to him,” says Pinto, -“that we were from a land called Malacca, to which many years before we -had gone from another very distant country, called Portugal; at which -the prince, greatly astonished, turning to those about him, said, ‘May -I die, if these be not the Chenchicogins,[15] of whom it is written in -our ancient books, that, flying on the tops of the waves, they will -subdue all the lands about them until they become masters of all the -countries in which God has placed the riches of the world! Wherefore -we should esteem it a great piece of good fortune if they come to -us with offers of friendship and good will.’[16]” And then calling -in the aid of a woman of Lew Chew, whom he employed as interpreter, -he proceeded to make very particular inquiries of the captain as to -where he had found these men, and why he had brought them thither. “To -whom,” says Pinto, “our captain replied, that without doubt we were -merchants and trusty people, whom, having found shipwrecked on the -island of Lampacau, he had received on board his junk, as it was his -custom to do by all whom he found in such case, having himself been -saved in the same way from the like disaster, to which all were liable -who ventured their lives and property against the impetuous fury of the -waves.” Satisfied with this answer, the prince came on board; not with -his whole retinue, though they were all eager for it, but with only a -select few. After examining the ship very curiously, he seated himself -under an awning, and asked the Portuguese many questions about their -country, and what they had seen in their travels. Highly delighted -with their answers and the new information they were able to give him, -he invited them to visit him on shore the next day, assuring them -that this curious information was the merchandise he most wished for, -and of which he never could have enough. The next morning he sent to -the junk a large boat loaded with grapes, pears, melons, and a great -variety of vegetables, for which the captain returned a present of -cloths and Chinese jewels. The next day, having first moored the ship -securely, the captain went on shore with samples of his goods, taking -with him the three Portuguese and ten or twelve of the best-looking of -the Chinese. Their reception was very gracious, and the prince having -called together the principal merchants, the samples were exhibited, -and a tariff of prices agreed upon. - -This matter arranged, the prince began to requestion the Portuguese; to -which inquiries Pinto, who acted as spokesman, made answers dictated, -as he confesses, less by strict regard to the truth than by his desire -to satisfy the prince’s appetite for wonders, and to magnify the -king and country of Portugal in his eyes. The prince wished to know -whether it were true, as the Chinese and Lew Chewans had told him, that -Portugal was larger and richer than China? Whether (a matter as to -which he seemed very certain) the king of Portugal had really conquered -the greater part of the world? And whether he actually had more than -two thousand houses full of gold and silver? All which questions Pinto -answered in the affirmative; though, as to the two thousand houses, he -confessed that he had never actually counted them—a thing by no means -easy in a kingdom so vast. - -Well pleased with his guests, the king caused the Portuguese to be -entertained, by a wealthy merchant, in a house near his own; and he -assigned also warehouses to the Chinese captain to facilitate his -trade, which proved so successful that a cargo, which had cost him in -China twenty-five hundred taels[17] of silver, brought him in twelve -times as much in Japan; thus reimbursing all the loss he had lately -suffered by the capture of his vessels. - -“Meanwhile we three Portuguese,” says Pinto, “as we had no merchandise -to occupy ourselves about, enjoyed our time in fishing, hunting, -and visiting the temples, where the priests, or bonzes, as they are -called, gave us a very good reception, the Japanese being naturally -well disposed and very conversable.” Diego Zeimoto went often forth to -shoot with an espingarda [a large hand-gun or musket], which he had -brought from Tartary, and in the use of which he was very dexterous. -One day, at a lake where were many kinds of birds, he killed at various -shots six-and-twenty ducks. Some Japanese, observing this new method -of shooting, which they had never seen before, reported it to the -prince, who was busy at the moment in observing the running of some -horses, which had been brought to him from a distance. Zeimoto, being -called, came into his presence, with the gun on his shoulder, and two -Chinamen loaded with the game; and as the thing was entirely novel in -this country, and as the Japanese knew nothing of the secret of the -powder, they all ascribed it to enchantment,—an astonishment which -Zeimoto increased by shooting on the spot a kite and two doves. The -prince caused Zeimoto to be mounted on a horse, himself sitting behind -him, and to be conducted through the town, followed by a great crowd, -preceded by a herald, who proclaimed him an adopted kinsman of the -prince, to be treated by all as such; and having taken him to his own -palace, he assigned him an apartment there next his own, doing many -favors also to the other Portuguese for his sake. Zeimoto responded by -making the prince a present of the gun, who sent him, in return, a -thousand taels of silver, beseeching him much to teach him how to make -the powder; with which request Zeimoto complied. The prince, greatly -delighted with his acquisition, caused other guns to be made like it; -“so that,” says Pinto, “when we left, which was in five months and -a half, there were more than six hundred; and when I visited Japan, -in 1556, as ambassador from the Portuguese viceroy, Don Alonzo de -Noronha, to the king of Bungo, the Japanese told me that in the city -of Fuchū [or Funni], the capital of that kingdom, there were more than -thirty thousand guns. And when I expressed my astonishment at this as -incredible, some very respectable merchants positively assured me that -in the whole land of Japan there were more than three hundred thousand, -and that they themselves, in six voyages to Lew Chew, had carried -thither five-and-twenty thousand. From which it may be known what this -nation is, and how naturally inclined to military exercises, in which -it delights itself more than any other of these distant nations yet -discovered.”[18] - -At the end of three-and-twenty days, a ship arrived from the kingdom -of Bungo, in which came many merchants, who, as soon as they had -landed, waited on the prince with presents, as was customary. Among -them was an old man, very well attended, and to whom all the rest paid -great respect. He made prostrations before the prince, presenting him -a letter, and a rich sword garnished with gold, and a box of fans, -which the prince received with great ceremony. The reading of this -letter seemed to disturb the prince, and, having sent the messengers -away to refresh themselves, he informed the Portuguese, through the -interpreter, that it came from the king of Bungo and Hakata, his -uncle, father-in-law, and liege lord, as he was also the superior of -several other principalities. This letter—which, as is usual with him -in such cases, Pinto, by a marvellous stretch of memory, undertakes to -give in precise words—declared that the writer had heard by persons -from Satsuma that the prince had in his city “three Chenchicogins -[_Tenjikujin_], from the end of the world, very like the Japanese, -clothed in silk and girded with swords; not like merchants, whose -business it is to trade, but like lovers of honor, seeking to gild -their names therewith, and who had given great information, affirming, -on their veracity, that there is another world, much larger than this -of ours, and peopled with men of various complexions”; and the letter -ended with begging that, by Hizen dono, his ambassador, the prince -would send back one of these men, the king promising to return him safe -and soon. It appeared from this letter, and from the explanations which -the prince added to it, that the king of Bungo was a severe sufferer -from a gouty affection and from fits of melancholy, from which he -hoped, by the aid of these foreigners, to obtain some diversion, if not -relief. The prince, anxious and bound as he was to oblige his relative -and superior, was yet unwilling to send Zeimoto, his adopted kinsman, -but one of the others he begged to consent to go; and when both -volunteered, he chose Pinto, as he seemed the more gay and cheerful -of the two, and so best fitted to divert the sick man’s melancholy; -whereas the solemn gravity of the other, though of great account in -more weighty matters, might, in the case of a sick man, rather tend -to increase his ennui. And so, with many compliments, to which, says -Pinto, the Japanese are much inclined, he was given in charge to the -ambassador, with many injunctions for his good treatment, having first, -however, received two hundred taels with which to equip himself. - -They departed in a sort of galley; and stopping in various places, -arrived in four or five days at Usuki, a fortress of the king of -Bungo,[19] seven leagues distant from his capital of Fuchū (present -Ōita), to which they proceeded by land. Arriving there in the middle -of the day (not a proper time to wait upon the king), the ambassador -took him to his own house, where they were joyfully met, and Pinto was -well entertained by the ambassador’s wife and two sons. Proceeding to -the palace on horseback, they were very graciously received by a son -of the king, some nine or ten years old, who came forth richly dressed -and with many attendants. After many ceremonies between the young -prince and the ambassador, they were taken to the king, who, though -sick abed, received the ambassador with many formalities. Presently -Pinto was introduced, and by some well-turned compliments made a -favorable impression, leading the courtiers to conclude—and so they -told the king—that he could not be a merchant, who had passed his life -in the low business of buying and selling, but rather some learned -bonze, or at least some brave corsair of the seas. In this opinion the -king coincided; and, being already somewhat relieved from his pains, -proceeded to question the stranger as to the cure of the gout, which he -suffered from, or at least some remedy for the total want of appetite -by which he was afflicted. Pinto professed himself no doctor, but -nevertheless undertook to cure the king by means of a sovereign herb -which he had brought with him from China (ginseng, probably); and this -drug he tried on the patient with such good effect that in thirty days -he was up and walking, which he had not done for two years before. -The next twenty days Pinto passed in answering an infinite number of -questions, many of them very frivolous, put to him by the king and -his courtiers, and in entertaining himself in observing their feasts, -worship, martial exercises, ships of war, fisheries, and hunting, to -which they were much given, and especially their hunting with hawks and -falcons, quite after the European fashion. - -A gun, which Pinto had taken with him, excited as much curiosity as it -had done at Tanegashima, especially on the part of a second son of the -king, named Arichandono (?), about seventeen or eighteen years old, -who was very pressing to be allowed to shoot it. This Pinto declined to -permit, as being dangerous for a person without experience; but, at the -intercession of the king, he appointed a time at which the experiment -should be made. The young prince, however, contrived beforehand to -get possession of the gun while Pinto was asleep, and having greatly -overloaded it, it burst, severely wounding his hand and greatly -disabling one of his thumbs. Hearing the explosion, and running out to -see what might be the matter, Pinto found the young prince abandoned -by his frightened companions, and lying on the ground bleeding and -insensible; and by the crowd who rushed in he was immediately accused -of having murdered the king’s son, hired to do so, as was suspected, by -the relations of two noblemen executed the day before as traitors. His -life seemed to be in the most imminent danger; he was so frightened as -not to be able to speak, and so beside himself that if they had killed -him he hardly thinks he would have known it; when, fortunately, the -young prince coming to, relieved him from all blame by telling how the -accident had happened. The prince’s wounds, however, seemed so severe, -that none of the bonzes called in dared to undertake the cure; and it -was recommended, as a last resource, to send to Hakata, seventy leagues -off, for another bonze, of great reputation, and ninety-two years old. -But the young prince, who declared that he should die while waiting, -preferred to entrust himself to the hands of Pinto, who, following the -methods which he had seen adopted by Portuguese surgeons in India, in -twenty days had the young prince able to walk about again; for which -he received so many presents that the cure was worth to him more than -fifteen hundred crusados. Information coming from Tanegashima that the -Chinese corsair was ready to sail, Pinto was sent back by the king in a -galley, manned by twenty rowers, commanded by a gentleman of the royal -household, and provided with abundant supplies. - -The corsair having taken him on board, they sailed for Liampo (Ningpo), -where they arrived in safety. The three survivors of Antonio de Faria’s -ship were received at that Portuguese settlement with the greatest -astonishment, and many congratulations for their return; and the -discovery they had made of the rich lands of Japan was celebrated by a -religious procession, high mass, and a sermon. - -These pious services over, all hastened with the greatest zeal and -contention to get the start of the rest in fitting out ships for this -new traffic, the Chinese taking advantage of this rivalry to put up -the prices of their goods to the highest rates. In fifteen days nine -junks, not half provided for the voyage, put to sea, Pinto himself -being on board one of them. Overtaken on their passage by a terrible -storm, seven of them foundered, with the loss of seven hundred men, -of whom a hundred and forty were Portuguese, and cargoes to the value -of three hundred thousand crusados. Two others, on board one of which -was Pinto, escaped, and arrived near the Lew Chew Islands; where, in -another storm, that in which Pinto was, lost sight of the other, nor -was it ever afterwards heard of. “Towards evening,” says Pinto, “the -wind coming east-northeast, the waves ran so boisterous, wild, and -high, that it was most frightful to see. Our captain, Gaspar de Melo, -an hidalgo and very brave, seeing that the junk had sprung a leak -in her poop, and that the water stood already nine palms deep on the -lower deck, ordered, with the advice of his officers, to cut away both -masts, as, with their weight and the rolling, the junk was opening very -fast. Yet, in spite of all care he could not prevent the mainmast from -carrying away with it fourteen men, among whom were five Portuguese, -crushed in the ruins,—a most mournful spectacle, which took away -from us survivors all the little spirits we had left. So we suffered -ourselves to be drifted along before the increasing tempest, which we -had no means to resist, until about sunset, when the junk began to open -at every seam. Then the captain and all of us, seeing the miserable -condition in which we were, betook ourselves for succor to an image of -our Lady, whom we besought with tears and groans to intercede for us -with her blessed Son to forgive our sins.” - -The night having passed in this manner, about dawn the junk struck -a shoal and went to pieces, most of the crew being drowned. A few, -however, escaped to the shore of what proved to be the Lew Chew -Islands, now first made known to the Portuguese. Here happened many -new dangers and adventures; but at last, by female aid, always a great -resource with Pinto, he found his way back in a Chinese junk to Liampo, -whence, after various other adventures, he again reached Malacca. - -To these Portuguese accounts of the European discovery of Japan may -be added the following, which Siebold gives as an extract from a -Japanese book of annals: “Under the Mikado Go-Nara and the Shōgun -Yoshiharu, in the twelfth year of the _Nengō_ [era] Tembun,[20] on -the twenty-second day of the eighth month [October, 1543], a strange -ship made the island Tanegashima, near Koura, in the remote province -Nishimura.[21] The crew, about two hundred in number, had a singular -appearance; their language was unintelligible, their native land -unknown. On board was a Chinese, named Gohow [Gobō], who understood -writing. From him it was gathered that this was a _nam-ban_ (Japanese -form of the Chinese _nan-man_), that is, ‘southern barbarian,’ship. -On the twenty-sixth this vessel was taken to Akuopi harbor on the -northwest side of the island, and Tokitaka, governor of Tanegashima, -instituted a strict investigation concerning her, the Japanese bonze, -Tsyn-sigu-zu, acting as interpreter by means of Chinese characters. -On board the _nam-ban_ ship were two commanders, Mura-synkya and -Krista-muta. They had fire-arms, and first made the Japanese acquainted -with shooting arms and the preparation of shooting powder.” It is added -that the Japanese have preserved portraits of these two distinguished -strangers[22]; but, if so, it is much to be feared that the likenesses -cannot be relied upon, as Fischer, one of the most recent writers on -Japan, and who has himself published the finest specimens which have -yet appeared of Japanese graphic art, says he never knew nor heard of a -tolerable Japanese portrait-painter; while Golownin declares that the -portraits taken of himself and his companions, prisoners on the island -of Matsumai, in 1812, to be forwarded to Yedo, bore not the least -resemblance to the originals.[23] - - - - -CHAPTER III - - _Pinto’s Second Visit to Japan_—_Anjirō, or Paul of the Holy - Faith_—_A. D. 1547-1548._ - - -After a great variety of haps and mishaps in Pegu, Siam, Java, and -elsewhere, Fernam Mendez Pinto represents himself as having embarked -a second time for Japan, in a ship commanded by George Alvarez, which -sailed from Malacca in the year 1547. In twenty-six days they made the -island of Tanegashima, nine leagues south of the mainland of Japan; and -on the fifth day afterwards reached Fuchū, in the kingdom of Bungo, a -hundred leagues to the north. The king and the inhabitants gave them a -very friendly reception; but very shortly after their arrival a civil -commotion broke out, in which the king was murdered with most of his -family and a number of Portuguese who were in his service; the city -being set on fire during the outbreak, and great numbers killed on both -sides. - -One of the king’s sons, who, when this event occurred, happened to be -at the fortress of Usuki, seven leagues distant, would have proceeded -at once to Fuchū but for the advice of his tutor, Hizen dono, the same -name borne by the ambassador of the king of Bungo, under whose guidance -Pinto, according to his former narrative, had first visited Fuchū. This -person advised the young prince first to collect a sufficient army; and -of the Japanese method of calling to arms Pinto gives the following -account: Every housekeeper, high and low, was required to keep by him -a conch-shell, which, under severe penalties, could be sounded on four -occasions only,—tumults, fire, thieves, and treason. To distinguish -what the alarm was for, the shell was sounded once for tumult, twice -for fire, three times for thieves, and four times for treason. So soon -as the alarm of treason was sounded, every householder who heard it was -obliged to repeat it. And upon the signal thus given, and which spread -from house to house and village to village, all were obliged to march -armed to the spot whence it came, the whole population of the district -being thus very soon collected. - -By this means, in the course of seven days, during three of which the -young prince lamented his murdered relatives at a convent of bonzes -in a grove near the city, after which he proceeded to confiscate the -estates of the rebels, Pinto collects for him an army,—he is generally -pretty liberal in such matters,—estimated at one hundred and thirty -thousand men, of whom seventeen thousand were cavalry. The multitude -thus collected breeding a famine, the prince marched upon Fuchū, where -he was received with great demonstrations of loyalty. But, before -repairing to the palace, he stopped at the temple where the body of his -father was lying, whose obsequies he celebrated with much pomp, the -observance lasting through two nights, with a great display of torches -and illuminations. The closing ceremony was the presentation to the son -of the bloody garments of the father, on which he swore that he would -show no mercy to the traitors, even though to save their lives they -might turn bonzes; but that, rather than allow them to escape, he would -destroy every convent or temple in which they might take refuge. - -On the fourth day, having been inaugurated as king, but with little -pomp, he marched with a still-increasing army against the rebels, -who, to the number of ten thousand, had entrenched themselves on a -neighboring hill, where, being surrounded by the royal forces, rather -than surrender, they were cut off to a man. - -The city of Fuchū was left almost in ruins by this civil war; and the -Portuguese, despairing of being able to find purchasers for their -goods, proceeded to the city of Hamanoichi [or Miyakonojō], ninety -leagues to the southward, on the bay of Kagoshima, where they remained -for two months and a half, unable to sell their cargo, as the market -was completely overstocked by Chinese merchandise, which had been -poured in such quantities into the Japanese ports as to be worth much -less than it was in China. Pinto and his company were entirely at a -loss what to do; but from this dilemma they were delivered, as Pinto -will have it, by the special providence of the Most High; for at the -new moon of December a terrible storm occurred, in which almost the -whole of these foreign traders were destroyed, to the incredible -number, as Pinto relates, of near two thousand vessels, including -twenty-six belonging to the Portuguese. Of the whole number, only -ten or a dozen escaped, among them that in which Pinto was, which -afterwards disposed of her lading to very good profit. So they got -ready to depart, well pleased to see themselves so rich, but sad -at having made their gains at the cost of so many lives, both of -countrymen and strangers. Three times, however, they were detained -by accidents, the last time barely escaping—by the help of the -Virgin Mary, as Pinto insists—being carried by the strong current -upon a dangerous reef; just at which moment they saw approaching the -shore, in great haste, two men on horseback, making signs to them -with a cloth. The preceding night four slaves, one of whom belonged -to Pinto, had escaped from the vessel; and, thinking to receive some -news of them, Pinto went in the boat with two companions. “Coming -to the shore,” he says, “where the two men on horseback awaited us, -one of them, who seemed the principal person, said to me, ‘Sir, as -the haste I am in admits of no delay, being in great fear of some -people who are in pursuit of me, I beg of you, for the love of God, -that, without suggesting doubts or weighing inconveniences, you will -receive me at once on board your ship.’At which words of his I was -so much embarrassed,” says Pinto, “as hardly to know what to do, and -the more so as I recollected having twice seen him in Hamanoichi, in -the company of some merchants of that city. Scarcely had I received -him and his companion into the boat, when fourteen men on horseback -made their appearance, approaching at full speed and crying out to me, -‘Give up that traitor, or we will kill you!’Others soon after came -up, both horsemen and on foot; whereupon I put off to the distance of -a good bow-shot, and inquired what they wanted. To which they made -answer, ‘If thou dost carry off that Japanese, know that a thousand -heads of fellows like thee shall pay the forfeit of it.’To all which,” -says Pinto, “I replied not a word, but, pulling to the ship, got on -board with the two Japanese, who were well received, and provided by -the captain and the other Portuguese with everything necessary for so -long a voyage.” The name of this fugitive was Anjirō, “an instrument -selected by the Lord,” so Pinto piously observes, “for his praise and -the exaltation of the holy faith.” - -In fourteen days the ship reached Chincheo, but found the mouth of the -river leading to it blockaded by a famous Chinese corsair with a great -fleet, to avoid whom they turned aside and sailed for Malacca. - -In this city Pinto met, apparently for the first time, with Master -Francis Xavier, general superior or provincial of the order of the -Jesuits in India, in all parts of which occupied by the Portuguese he -had already attained a high reputation for self-devotion, sanctity, -and miraculous power; and who was then at Malacca, on his return to -Goa, from a mission on which he had lately been to the Moluccas. “The -father,” says Pinto, “had received intelligence of our arrival, and -that we had brought with us the Japanese Anjirō. He came to visit -George Alvarez and myself in the house of one Cosmo Rodriguez, where we -lodged, and passed almost a whole day with us in curious inquiries (all -founded on his lively zeal for the honor of God) about the countries -we had visited; in the course of which I told him, not knowing that -he knew it already, that we had brought with us two Japanese, one of -whom appeared to be a man of consideration, well skilled in the laws -and religion of Japan. Whereupon he expressed great desire to see him; -in consequence of which we brought him to the hospital, where the -father lodged, who received him gladly and took him to India, whither -he was then on his way. Having arrived at Goa, Anjirō there became -a Christian, taking the name of Paulo de Santa Fe [Paul of the Holy -Faith], and in a short time learned to read and write Portuguese, and -mastered the whole Christian doctrine; so that the father only waited -for the monsoon to go to announce to the heathen of the isle of Japan, -Christ, the Son of the living God, nailed to the cross for our sins -(as he was accustomed to do), and to take this man with him as an -interpreter, as he afterwards did, and his companion also, who, as well -as himself, professed the Christian faith, and received from the father -the name of John.” - - - - -CHAPTER IV - - _Religious Faith Three Centuries ago—Zeal of the Portuguese - Conquerors—Antonio Galvano—Missionary Seminaries at Ternate and - Goa—Order of the Jesuits—Francis Xavier—His Mission to India—His - Mission to Japan—His Companion, Cosme de Torres—The Philippine - Islands—A. D. 1542-1550._ - - -Three centuries ago the religious faith of Europe was much more -energetic and active than at present. With all imaginative minds, even -those of the highest order, the popular belief had at that time all -the force of undoubted reality. Michael Angelo and Raphael embodied it -in marble and colors; and it is difficult to say which impulse was the -stronger with the Portuguese and Spanish adventurers of that age,—the -fierce thirst for gold and glory, which they felt as we feel it now, or -passionate desire for the propagation of their religious faith, such -indeed as is still talked about, and feebly exhibited in action, but in -which the great bulk of the community, especially the more cultivated -part of it, takes at present either no interest, or a very slight one. - -The Portuguese adventurers in the East, wherever they went, were -accompanied by friars, mostly Franciscans, and the building of -magnificent churches was one of the first things attended to. - -Of all these adventurers, few, if indeed a single one, have left so -respectable a character as Antonio Galvano, already mentioned, governor -of the Moluccas from 1536 to 1540, which islands, from a state of -violent hostility to the Portuguese, and rebellion against them, he -brought back to quiet and willing submission. Not less distinguished -for piety than for valor and disinterestedness, Galvano made every -effort to diffuse among the natives of the Oriental archipelago a -knowledge of the Catholic faith; and with that view he established at -Ternate, seat of the Portuguese government of the Moluccas, a seminary -for the education of boys of superior abilities, to be collected from -various nations, who, upon arriving at maturity, might preach the -gospel, each in his own country,—an institution which the Council of -Trent not long after warmly approved. - -By the efforts of Galvano and others a similar seminary, sometimes -called “Paul’s,” and sometimes “Of the Holy Faith,” had been erected at -Goa, lately made the seat of an Indian bishopric; and it was at this -seminary, endowed and enriched by the spoils of many heathen temples, -that the Japanese Anjirō was placed by Xavier for his education. The -name which he adopted at his baptism, Paul of the Holy Faith, was, as -it thus appears, taken from the seminary at which he had been educated. - -But the efforts hitherto made in India on behalf of the Catholic faith, -if earnest, had been desultory. The establishment of the order of -Jesuits in 1540 laid the foundation for a systematic attack upon the -religious systems of the East, and an attempt at a spiritual revolution -there, neither less vigorous nor less pertinacious than that which, -for the forty years preceding, had been carried on by the new-comers -from the West against political, commercial, and social institutions of -those countries. - -The leader in this enterprise was Francis Aspilcota, surnamed -Xavier, one of the seven associates of whom the infant Society of -Jesus, destined soon to become so powerful and so famous, originally -consisted. He was born in 1506, in Navarre, at the foot of the -Pyrenees, the youngest son of a noble and numerous family, of whom the -younger members, and he among the rest, bore the surname of Xavier. Not -inclining to the profession of arms embraced by the rest of the family, -after preliminary studies at home he went to Paris, and was first a -student at the College of St. Barbe, and afterwards, at the age of -twenty-two, professor of philosophy in that of Beauvais. It was in this -latter station that he first became acquainted with Ignatius Loyola, -who, fifteen years older than Xavier, had come to Paris to pursue, as -preparatory to a course of theology, those rudimentary studies which -had not been thought necessary for the military destination of his -earlier days. This remarkable Spaniard, whose military career had been -cut short by a wound which made him a cripple, had already been for -years a religious devotee; and having been from his youth thoroughly -impregnated with the current ideas of romantic chivalry, he was already -turning in his mind the formation of a new monastic order, which -should carry into religion the spirit of the romances. Xavier, with -whom he lived at Paris on intimate terms,—they slept, indeed, in the -same bed,—was one of Loyola’s first disciples; and on the day of the -Assumption, August 16, 1534, they two, with five others, of whom three -or four were still students, in a subterranean chapel of the church of -the abbey of Montmartre, united at a celebration of mass by Le Fèvre, -who was already a priest, and in the consecration of themselves by -a solemn vow to religious duties. This rudimentary order included, -along with Loyola and Xavier, three other Spaniards, Lainez, Salmaron, -and Boabdilla, Rodriguez, a Portuguese, and Le Fèvre, a Savoyard,—all -afterwards distinguished. A mission to Jerusalem, which Loyola had -already visited, was at that time their leading idea. - -[Illustration: ST. FRANCIS XAVIER -One of the Earliest Missionaries to Japan] - -Loyola then returned home, the others remaining at Paris; but with -an agreement to meet at Venice before the close of the year 1536, at -which meeting three more were added to their number. A scheme of the -order was subsequently drawn up, which, besides the vows of chastity -and poverty, and of absolute obedience, as to God, to a general of -the order, to be elected for life, included, instead of the mission -to Jerusalem, which the war with the Turks made impracticable, a vow -to go wherever the Pope might send them for the salvation of souls. -To procure the sanction of the Pope, Loyola, with Lainez and Le -Fèvre, spent several years at Rome. The scheme, having been referred -to a commission, was approved by Paul III., by a bull, bearing date -September 27, 1540, in which the name of “Clerks of the Society of -Jesus” was bestowed upon the order, which was limited, however, to -sixty members. Loyola was elected, early in 1541, the first general; -and by a subsequent bull of Julian III., dated March 15, 1543, the -society was allowed to increase its members indefinitely. Its object -was the maintenance of the absolute authority of the church as -personified in the Pope, not only by resisting the rebellion against -it, then lately set on foot by Luther in Germany, but by extending the -domination of the Pope into all parts of the world. To guard against -the corruptions of preceding orders, the members were not to accept -of any church preferment, except by the positive command of the Pope, -nor of any fees for religious services; nor could the houses of the -professed and the coadjutors (the two highest ranks of the order) have -any endowments, though the colleges and novitiates might. - -That which gave the Jesuits their first success was their introduction -of good works, acts of charity and humanity, a care for the salvation -of others as well as their own, into the first class of duties. -Instead of being bound, like the other Catholic orders, to a peculiar -garb and the stated repetition of formal prayers and ceremonies, they -wore the ordinary clerical dress, and their time was to be divided -between mental prayers and good works, of which the education of -youth, the direction of consciences, and the comfort and care of the -poor and sick, were the principal. In this latter service novices, or -probationers, who must be at least fourteen years of age, of sound -body, of good abilities and fair character, were to be tried for two -years. From the novitiate, after taking the vows, the neophytes passed -into the colleges, to which also were attached schools for lay pupils. -From the colleges they might be admitted coadjutors and professed, -which latter class must have studied theology for four years. These -two latter ranks were to live in professed houses, which, unlike the -colleges and novitiates, could have no property, but must be supported -by alms. The coadjutors were of two classes: those admitted to holy -orders, from which class the rectors of the colleges were appointed; -and the lay coadjutors, furnishing cooks, stewards, agents, and the -business men generally of the society. The professed and the coadjutors -must renounce all claim to hereditary succession, not for themselves -only, but for the society also. There were, however, a class of lay -coadjutors who simply took the vows, yet continued to enjoy their -property and lived in the world. - -What added to the efficiency of the order was its strict military -organization. It had nothing about it of the republican cast of the -other Catholic orders, in which rotation in office occurred, chapters -were frequent, and many points were decided by a majority of votes. The -general of the Jesuits, chosen for life by a select congregation, had -absolute authority, as had also, under him, each in his sphere, the -provincials, the vice-provincials, the superiors of professed houses, -and the rectors of colleges, all of whom the general might appoint -and remove at pleasure. The general received monthly reports from the -provincials and vice-provincials, quarterly ones from the superiors -of professed houses and rectors of colleges, and half-yearly ones -from every professed member. Every member was bound to report to his -immediate superior his own misconduct or that of any of his companions. - -John III, of Portugal, though very desirous of sending out a competent -supply of spiritual laborers to his dominions in the East, could hardly -find the means for it at home. There was but a single university—that -of Coimbra—in all Portugal, and that not much frequented. John, it is -true, had exerted himself in behalf of that institution, by inviting -professors not only from Spain, but from Germany and Italy; but as -yet the few Portuguese who devoted themselves to study sought their -education for the most part at Complutum or Salamanca, and some of them -at Paris. In this dearth of Portuguese laborers, having heard some -rumor of the new order of the Jesuits, John charged his ambassador at -Rome to request the founder, Ignatius, to send him for service in India -not less than six members of it. Loyola, who had other schemes on foot, -could spare only two, one of whom, Rodriguez, the original Portuguese -of the order, remained behind in Portugal to organize the society -there, where he established at Coimbra the first Jesuit college. -The other was Xavier, to whom, as a test of his obedience,—though, -the order being as yet not formally authorized, Loyola had no legal -authority over him,—the command for his departure was communicated only -the day beforehand, leaving him scarcely time before setting out upon -so distant a journey to say farewell to his friends, and to get the -rents mended in his tattered and threadbare cloak. He was indeed able -to get ready the easier, not having, like our modern missionaries, the -incumbrance or the comfort of a wife and children, and no baggage to -impede his movements beyond his prayer-book and the clothes on his back. - -Arriving at Lisbon, he waited on the king, but immediately upon -leaving the palace proceeded, as was his wont, to the public hospital, -devoting all his time, till the ships were ready, to the care and -consolation of the sick and dying. While here he received from the -Pope the appointment of apostolic nuncio for India, with full powers. -Of all the offers made to him of an outfit for the voyage he would for -a long time accept of nothing; but at last, lest he should seem too -obstinate, he consented to receive some coarse cloaks, to be used in -passing the Cape of Good Hope, one for himself, and one for each of -the two companions who were to accompany him; likewise a few books, of -which he understood there was a great scarcity in India. To the offer -pressed upon him of the service of a boy to attend to his daily wants -during the voyage, he replied, “While I have hands and feet of my own I -shall need no servant.” The matter being still urged, with the remark -that it was unfitting for a man in his position to be openly seen among -the crowd of sailors and passengers washing his clothes or cooking -his daily food, “You see,” he answered, “to what a pass this art of -preserving one’s dignity has brought the commonwealth of Christendom! -For my part, there is no office, however humble, which, provided there -be no sin in it, I cannot upon occasion perform.” This was a specimen -of his whole conduct throughout the voyage, which commenced April 7, -1541, giving rise to a remark of the captain of the fleet that it was -even harder to make Xavier accept anything than it was to get rid of -other men’s importunities. - -All this self-sacrifice, accompanied as it was by a most careful -attention to the wants of others, was not without its reward. It gave -Xavier—not to mention his subsequent canonization—an immense reputation -with his fellow-voyagers, and a great influence over them, which he -did not fail to exercise. Already, amid all this early austerity, -the principles of Jesuitism were fully developed. Xavier addressed -everybody, even the most notorious profligates, with mild familiarity, -no severity in his face, no harshness in his words. He even volunteered -himself as a sociable companion, and thus acquired an influence all -the greater because it was hardly perceived by those who submitted to -it, so that he was generally said by those who knew him best to have -accomplished much more by his familiar conversation than even by his -public preaching,—of the effects of which, however, very extraordinary -stories were told. - -He arrived at Goa in May, 1542, and, taking lodgings at a hospital, -entered at once with great zeal on the duties of his office as Pope’s -nuncio, provincial in India of the order of Jesuits, and apostolical -missionary, professing, however, entire submission to the bishop of -Goa. Passing through the streets, bell in hand, he called the children, -women, and servants to be catechised, and to help the memory and -catch the ear he put the catechism into rhyme. But it was not merely -to the Christian population that he confined his labors. He had to -encounter the scornful fanaticism of the Mahometans, who, setting out -from Arabia, had preceded the Portuguese by centuries in commercial -and military visits to the coasts of India and the eastern islands, -and who had in many places largely diffused their religion. He had to -meet the insolent bigotry of the twice-born Brahmins, who, through the -system of castes, held society fast bound, helpless and stationary, -in the fetters of an all-pervading superstition. Jewish scoffers were -also to be met. In fact, all sects seemed to be brought together in -southern India, including even an ancient form of Christianity, a -remnant of the followers of Zoroaster, from Persia, and in Ceylon, -Buddhists. After a year’s stay at Goa, Xavier proceeded to the southern -point of Hindustan, about Cape Comorin, the pearl-fishers of which -region had, for the sake of Portuguese protection, professed the -Christian religion, of which, however, they knew nothing but the name. -Having preached for a year or more in this district, he passed to the -neighboring territories of the Coromandel coast, where there already -existed the remains, before referred to, of an ancient Christianity, -originally propagated, it seems probable, by Nestorian missionaries -of the fifth or sixth century, but which the Portuguese insisted upon -ascribing to St. Thomas, the apostle, about whose life and labors in -the East a whole volume of fables was, between them and the native -Christians, speedily manufactured. - -Incapable of staying long in one place, from India Xavier soon -proceeded to Malacca, where he arrived towards the close of 1545, and -whence the next Spring he set out on a missionary journey through the -Moluccas. It was on his return from this last expedition that he first -met with the Japanese Anjirō, at Malacca,—as related, after Pinto, in -the preceding chapter,—with whom he arrived at Goa in March, 1548. The -Japanese were placed, as has been mentioned, in the seminary of St. -Paul; and so delighted was Xavier with their progress and fervor, as to -resolve to undertake, after visiting his churches at Cape Comorin, a -new mission to Japan. - -We have seen the account given by Pinto of the origin of the -acquaintance between Xavier and Anjirō. The biographers of the saint -and the Jesuit historians of the Japanese mission embellish this story -by the addition of several romantic particulars. Anjirō, they tell us, -had long been troubled with remorse of conscience, for which he could -find no remedy, and which he only aggravated in the attempt to cure -it by retiring for a time to a Japanese monastery of bonzes. Having -made the acquaintance of some of the earliest Portuguese adventurers -to Japan, he consulted them as to this malady, one of whom, by name -Alvares Vaz, having heard the fame of Xavier, strongly advised the -inquiring Japanese to seek his assistance. Anjirō was much inclined -to do so; but the danger and distance of the voyage deterred him, -till, having killed a man in a rencontre, the fear of arrest drove him -to embark on the first vessel he could find, which happened to be a -Portuguese ship bound for Malacca, and commanded by George Alvarez, a -great admirer of Xavier’s. The good example and edifying discourse of -this pious sea-captain brought Anjirō to the determination to become a -Catholic; but being disappointed in finding Xavier as he had expected, -or, according to other accounts, being refused baptism by the vicar -of the bishop of Goa resident at Malacca, he thought no more but of -returning home again, and with that object, not meeting with any ship -bound direct for Japan, he embarked for Chincheo, in China. Thence he -sailed for home; but a terrible storm drove him back to the port he -had left, reviving also his almost forgotten resolution to become a -Catholic, in which he was the more confirmed by happening to find in -the harbor his old Portuguese friend, Alvares Vaz, in command of a -ship on her way back to India. Yielding to the persuasions of this old -friend, Anjirō sailed in his ship for Malacca; and, on landing there, -the very first person whom he met was George Alvarez, who immediately -took him to Xavier. These accounts also give him two Japanese -servants, both of whom are stated to have accompanied him to Goa, and -to have been baptized, one by the name of John, the other by that of -Anthony. And this last part of the story is confirmed by a letter of -Xavier’s, dated July, 1549, and written from Malacca on his way to -Japan, in which letter he gives an interesting, and at the same time -characteristic, account of his converts, very much in substance, and -even in expression, like what we may read in the very latest missionary -reports. - -“No sooner,” he writes, “had they been cleansed by the waters of -baptism, than the divine goodness shed upon them such delight, and -brought them to such a sense of God’s beneficence towards them, -that through pious and spiritual joy they melted into tears. In all -the virtues they made such a progress as to afford us a pleasant -and useful subject of conversation. They also learned to read and -write, and diligently attended at the appointed seasons of prayer. -When inquired of by me what subject of contemplation affected them -most, they answered, the sufferings of our Lord; and, therefore, to -this contemplation they chiefly applied themselves. They studied -also the articles of faith, the means of redemption, and the other -Christian mysteries. To my frequent inquiries what religious rites -they found profited them the most, they always answered, confession -and communion; adding, also, that they did not see how any reasonable -man could hesitate to assent to and obey the requirements of Christian -discipline. Paul of the Holy Faith, one of the number, I once heard -bursting out, with sighs, into these exclamations: ‘O miserable -Japanese! who adore as deities the very things which God has made for -your service!’And when I asked him to what he referred, he answered, -‘Because they worship the sun and the moon, things made to serve those -who know the Lord Jesus; for to what other end are they made, except to -illuminate both day and night, in order that men may employ that light -in the worship and to the glory of God and his Son?’” - -He mentions, in the same letter, that the voyage to Japan was so -dangerous, that not more than two vessels out of three were expected -to arrive there in safety. He even seems to have had some temptations -to abandon the enterprise; but in spite of numerous obstacles put -in his way, as he will have it, by the great adversary of mankind, -he determined to persevere, especially as letters from Japan gave -encouraging information of the desire there for Christian instruction, -on the part of a prince of the country who had been much impressed -by the efficacy of the sign of the cross, as employed by certain -Portuguese merchants, in driving the evil spirits from a haunted house. - -Another letter of Xavier’s, written from Kagoshima, in Japan, and dated -in November, 1549, about three months after his arrival, gives an -account of his voyage thither. - -Taking with him the three Japanese, Cosme de Torres, a priest, and Jean -Fernandes, a brother of the society,—of which, besides several who had -joined it in India, some ten or twelve members had followed Xavier -from Portugal, and had been distributed in various services,—he sailed -in the ship of Chinese merchants, who had agreed with the Portuguese -commander at Malacca to carry him to Japan. As Pinto tells the story, -this merchant was a corsair, and so notorious a one as to go by the -name of the Robber. Xavier says nothing of that, but complains of the -levity and vacillation natural to barbarians, which made the captain -linger at the islands where he touched, at the risk of losing the -monsoon and being obliged to winter in China. Xavier was also greatly -shocked at the assiduous worship paid by the mariners to an idol which -they had on board, and before which they burnt candles and odoriferous -wood, seeking oracles from it as to the result of the voyage. “What -were our feelings, and what we suffered, you can well imagine,” he -exclaims, “at the thought that this demon should be consulted as to the -whole course of our journey.” - -After touching at Canton the Chinese captain, instead of sailing thence -to Japan, as he had promised, followed the coast north toward Chincheo; -but hearing, when he approached that port, that it was blockaded by a -corsair, he put off in self-defence for Japan, and arrived safe in the -port of Kagoshima. - -Anjirō, or Paul as he was now called, was well received by his -relations, and forty days were spent by Xavier in laborious application -to the rudiments of the language, and by Paul in translating into -Japanese the ten commandments, and other parts of the Christian faith, -which Xavier determined, so he writes, to have printed as soon as -possible, especially as most of the Japanese could read. Anjirō also -devoted himself to exhortations and arguments among his relations -and friends, and soon made converts of his wife and daughter, and -many besides, of both sexes. An interview was had with the king of -Satsuma,—in which province Kagoshima was situated,—and he presently -issued an edict allowing his subjects to embrace the new faith. This -beginning seemed promising; but Xavier already anticipated a violent -opposition so soon as his object came to be fully understood. He drew -consolation, however, from the spiritual benefits enjoyed by himself, -“since in these remote regions,” so he wrote, “amid the impious -worshippers of demons, so very far removed from almost every mortal -aid and consolation, we almost of necessity, as it were, forget and -lose ourselves in God, which hardly can happen in a Christian land, -where the love of parents and country, intimacies, friendship and -affinities, and helps at hand both for body and mind, intervene, as it -were, between man and God, to the forgetfulness of the latter.” And -what tended to confirm this spiritual state of mind was the entire -freedom in Japan “from those delights which elsewhere stimulate the -flesh and break down the strength of mind and body. The Japanese,” he -wrote, “rear no animals for food. Sometimes they eat fish;—they have a -moderate supply of rice and wheat; but they live, for the most part, -on vegetables and fruits; and yet they attain to such a good old age, -as clearly to show how little nature, elsewhere so insatiable, really -demands.” - -Anjirō himself wrote at the same time a short letter to the brethren at -Goa, but it adds nothing to the information contained in Xavier’s. - -The following account, which Cosme de Torres,[24] a Spaniard by birth, -Xavier’s principal assistant, and his successor at the head of the -mission, gives of himself in a letter written from Goa to the society -in Europe, just before setting out, shows, like other cases to be -mentioned hereafter, that it was by no means merely from the class -of students that the order of the Jesuits was at its commencement -recruited. - -Though always inclined, so Cosme writes, to religion, yet many things -and various desires for a long time distracted him. In the year 1538, -in search he knew not of what, he sailed from Spain to the Canaries, -whence he visited the West Indies and the continent of New Spain, -where he passed four years in the greatest abundance, and satiety -even, of this world’s goods. But desiring something greater and more -solid, in 1542 he embarked on board a fleet of six ships, fitted out by -Mendosa, the viceroy of New Spain, to explore and occupy the islands of -the Pacific, discovered by Magellan in 1521. Standing westward, on the -fifty-fifth day they fell in, so Cosme writes, with a numerous cluster -of very small, low islands, of which the inhabitants lived on fish -and the leaves of trees. Ten days after they saw a beautiful island, -covered with palms, but the wind prevented their landing. In another -ten or twelve days the ships reached the great island of Mindanao, two -hundred leagues in circumference, but with few inhabitants. Sailing -thence to the south they discovered a small island abounding in meat -and rice; but having, during half a year’s residence, lost four hundred -men in contests with the natives, who used poisoned arrows, they sailed -to the Moluccas, where they remained about two years, till it was -finally resolved, not having the means to get back to New Spain, to -apply to the Portuguese governor to forward them to Goa. At Amboina, -Cosme met with Xavier, whose conversation revived his religious -inclinations; and, proceeding to Goa, he was ordained a priest by the -bishop there, who placed him in charge of a cure. But he found no peace -of mind till he betook himself to the college of St. Paul (which seems -by this time to have passed into the hands of the Jesuits), being the -more confirmed in his resolution to join the order, by the return of -Xavier to Goa, whose invitation to accompany him to Japan he joyfully -accepted, and where he continued for twenty years to labor as a -missionary. - -Cosme, in his letter above quoted, says nothing of any hostile -collision of the Spanish ships, in which he reached the East, with the -Portuguese; but it appears, from Galvano’s account of this expedition, -that such collision did take place. He also gives, as the reason why -the Spaniards did not land on Mindanao, the opposition they experienced -from some of the princes of it, who, by his own recent efforts, had -been converted to Catholicism; and who, owing their obedience to -him, would by no means incur his displeasure by entertaining these -interloping Spaniards. - -One of the Spanish ships was sent back to New Spain with news of -their success thus far. This ship passed among the northern islands -of the group, which seem now first to have received the name of the -_Philippines_. Another fleet sailed from Seville, in the year 1544, to -coöperate with Rui Lopes; but none of the ships succeeded in passing -the Straits of Magellan, except one small bark, which ran up the coast -to Peru. The Spaniards made no further attempts in the East till the -expiration of ten years or more, when the Philippines were finally -colonized—an event not without its influence upon the affairs of Japan. - - - - -CHAPTER V - - _Political and Religious Condition of Japan, as found - by the Portuguese—The Yakatas, or Kings, and their - Vassals—Revenues—Money—Distinction of Ranks—The Kubō-Sama—The - Dairi—Shintō—Buddhism—Judō—A.D. 1550._ - - -Japan, as found by the Portuguese, embraced three large islands, -besides many smaller ones. Shimo (or Kiūshiū), the most southern and -western of the group, and the one with which the Portuguese first -became acquainted, is separated at the north, by a narrow strait, -from the much larger island of Nippon,[25] forming with its western -portion a right angle, within which the third and much smaller island -of Sikoku is included. These islands were found to be divided into -sixty-six separate governments or kingdoms, of which Nippon contained -fifty-three, Shimo (or Kiūshiū) nine, and Sikoku four—the numerous -smaller islands being reckoned as appurtenant to one or another of the -three larger ones. These kingdoms, grouped into eight, or rather nine, -larger divisions, and subdivided into principalities, of which, in all, -there were not less than six hundred, had originally (at least such was -the Japanese tradition) been provinces of a consolidated empire; but -by degrees and by dint of civil wars, by which the islands had been, -and still were, very much distracted, they had reached at the period -of the Portuguese discovery a state of almost complete independence. -Indeed, several of the kingdoms, like that of Hizen, in the west -part of Shimo, had still further disintegrated into independent -principalities. - -It still frequently happened, however, that several provinces were -united under one ruler; and such was especially the case with five -central provinces of Nippon, including the great cities of Miyako, -Ōsaka and Sakai, which five provinces formed the patrimony of a prince -who bore the title of Kubō-Sama—Sama meaning lord, and Kubō general -or commander. This title the Portuguese rendered into _Emperor_, -and it was almost precisely equivalent to the original sense of the -_Imperator_ of the Romans, though still more exactly corresponding to -Cromwell’s title of _Lord-general_. - -This Kubō or Shōgun, as he was otherwise called, was acknowledged by -all the other princes as in some respect their superior and head. The -other rulers of provinces bore the title of Shugo, or Yakata, which -the Portuguese rendered by the term _King_. Reserving to themselves, -as their personal domain, a good half of the whole extent of their -territories, these chiefs divided the rest among certain great vassals, -called Tono, Kunishū, or Kunidaimiō, who were bound to military service -in proportion to the extent of the lands which they held; which lands, -after reserving a portion for their private domain, these nobles -distributed in their turn to other inferior lords, called Yoriki, who -held of them upon similar conditions of military service, and who had -still beneath them, upon the same footing, a class of military vassals -and tenants, called Dōshin, and corresponding to the men-at-arms of the -feudal times of Europe. The actual cultivators of the lands—as had -also been, and still to a considerable extent was, the case in feudal -Europe—were in the condition of serfs. - -Thus it happened, that, as in feudal Europe, so in Japan, great armies -might be very suddenly raised; and war being the chief employment of -the superior classes, and the only occupation, that of the priesthood -excepted, esteemed honorable, the whole country was in a constant state -of turbulence and commotion. - -All the classes above enumerated except the last enjoyed the highly -prized honor of wearing two swords. One sword was worn by certain -inferior officials; but merchants, traders, and artisans, were -confounded, as to this matter, with the peasants, not being permitted -to wear any. The revenue of the princes and other proprietors was, and -still is, reckoned in _koku_ of rice, each of three sacks or bales, -each bale containing (according to Titsingh) thirty-three and one-third -gantings [_shō_],—the universal Japanese measure for all articles, -liquid or dry,—and weighing from eighty-two to eighty-three katties, or -somewhat more than a hundred of our pounds.[26] Ten thousand koku make -a mankoku, in which the revenues of the great princes are reckoned. -The distinction of rank was very strictly observed, being even -ingrained into the language. Inferiors being seated on their heels, -according to the Japanese fashion, testified their respect for their -superiors by laying the palms of their hands on the floor, and bending -their bodies so low that their foreheads almost touched the ground, -in which position they remained for some seconds. This is called the -_kitō_. The superior responded by laying the palms of his hands upon -his knees, and nodding or bowing, more or less low, according to the -rank of the other party. - -As to everything that required powers of analysis, or the capacity -of taking general views, the Portuguese missionaries were but poor -observers; yet they could not but perceive in the Dairi the surviving -shadow, and indeed, in the earlier days of the missions, something more -than a mere shadow, of a still more ancient form of government, in -which the civil and ecclesiastical authority had both been united under -one head. - -The Dairi,[27] Ō, or Mikado, as he was otherwise designated, had -for his residence the northeast quarter of Miyako (a great city not -far from the centre of Nippon, but nearest the southern shore). This -quarter was of vast extent, surrounded by a wall, with a ditch and -rampart, by which it was separated from the rest of the city. In the -midst of this fortified place, in a vast palace, easily distinguished -from a distance by the height of its tower, the Dairi dwelt, with his -empress or chief wife; his other eleven wives had adjoining palaces -in a circle around, outside of which were the dwellings of his -chamberlains and other officers. These Dairi claimed to be descended -from Jimmu, who, it was said, had, A. D. 660, introduced civilization -into Japan, and first established a regular government, and commencing -with whom, the Japanese annals show a regular series of Dairi, who are -represented as having been for many ages the sole lords and imperial -rulers of Japan, till at length they had been insensibly set aside, as -to the actual exercise of authority, by the Kubō-Sama, or commanders -of the armies. Yet these gradually eclipsed and finally superseded -emperors—equivalents of the “idle kings” of the Carlovingian race of -France, or to the present nominal sovereign of the British empire—were, -and still are, treated (as Queen Victoria is) with all the ceremonial -of substantial power, and even with the respect and reverence due to -the spiritual head of the national church, descended from a race of -divinities, and destined at death to pass by a regular apotheosis into -the list of the national gods. - -All the revenue drawn from the city of Miyako and its dependencies was -appropriated to their support, to which the Kubō-Sama added a further -sum from his treasury. He himself treated the Dairi with as much -ceremonious respect and semi-worship as the British prime minister -bestows upon the British queen. He paid an annual visit to the court -of the Dairi in great state, and, withal, the carriage of an inferior; -but took care to maintain a garrison at Miyako, or its neighborhood, -sufficient to repress any attempt on the part of the Dairi or his -partisans to reëstablish the old order of things,—an idea which, when -the islands first became known to the Portuguese, seems not yet to have -been entirely abandoned. - -We may trace a still further resemblance between the position of the -Dairi of Japan and the Queen of England, in the circumstance that all -public acts are dated by the years of his reign, and that all titles of -honor nominally emanate from him, though of course obliged, as to this -matter, to follow the suggestions of the Kubō-Sama. Even the Kubō-Sama -himself condescends, like a British prime minister, to accept such -decorations at the hands of the Dairi, affecting to feel extremely -honored and flattered at titles which had been, in fact, dictated by -himself. - -The whole court of the Dairi, and all the inhabitants of the quarter of -Miyako in which he dwelt, consisted of persons who plumed themselves -upon the idea of being, like the Dairi himself, descended from -Tenshō-daijin, the first of the demigods, and who in consequence looked -down, like the Indian Brahmins, upon all the rest of the nation as an -inferior race, distinguishing themselves as Kuge, and all the rest -of the nation as Gege. These Kuge, who may be conjectured to have -once formed a class resembling the old Roman patricians, all wore a -particular dress, by which was indicated, not only their character -as members of that order, but, by the length of their sashes, -the particular rank which they held in it; a distinction the more -necessary, since, as generally happens with these aristocracies of -birth, many of the members were in a state of poverty, and obliged to -support themselves by various handicrafts.[28] - -Of the magnificence of the court of the Dairi, and of the ceremonials -of it, the missionaries reported many stories, chiefly, of course, on -the credit of hearsay. It was said that the Dairi was never allowed -to breathe the common air, nor his foot to touch the ground; that he -never wore the same garment twice, nor ate a second time from the same -dishes, which, after each meal, were carefully broken,—for, should any -other person attempt to dine from them, he would infallibly perish -by an inflammation of the throat. Nor could any one who attempted to -wear the Dairi’s cast-off garments, without his permission, escape a -similar punishment. The Dairi, as we are told, was, in ancient times, -obliged to seat himself every morning on his throne, with the crown -on his head, and there to hold himself immovable for several hours -like a statue. This immobility, it was imagined, was an augury of the -tranquillity of the empire; and if he happened to move ever so little, -or even to turn his eyes, war, famine, fire, or pestilence was expected -soon to afflict the unhappy province toward which he had squinted. But -as the country was thus kept in a state of perpetual agitation, the -happy substitute was finally hit upon of placing the crown upon the -throne without the Dairi—a more fixed immobility being thus assured; -and, as Kämpfer dryly observes, one doubtless producing much the same -good effects. - -At the time of the arrival of Xavier in Japan the throne of the Dairi -was filled by Go-Nara, the hundred and sixth, according to the Japanese -chronicles, in the order of succession; while the throne of the -Kubō-Sama was occupied by Yoshiharu, who was succeeded the next year by -his son Yoshiteru, the twenty-fourth of these officers, according to -the Japanese, since their assumption of sovereign power in the person -of Yoritomo, A. D. 1185. - -The Japanese annals, which are scarcely more than a chronological -table of successions, cast little light upon the causes and progress -of this revolution;[29] but, from the analogy of similar cases, we -may conjecture that it was occasioned, at least in part, by the -introduction into Japan, and the spread there, of a new religion, -gradually superseding, to a great extent, the old system, of which the -Dairi was the head. - -[Illustration: IMAGE OF YORITOMO - From _Official History of Japan_] - -One might have expected from the Portuguese missionaries a pretty -exact account of the various creeds and sects of Japan, or, at least, -of the two leading religions, between which the great bulk of the -people were divided; instead of which they confound perpetually the -ministers of the two religions under the common name of bonzes, -taking very little pains to distinguish between the two systems, -both of which they regarded as equally false and pernicious. Their -attention, indeed, seems to have been principally fixed on the new -religion, that of Buddha, or Ho, of which the adherents were by far -the most numerous, and the hierarchy the most compact and formidable, -presenting, in its organization and practices (with, however, on some -points a very different set of doctrines), a most singular counterpart -to the Catholic Church,—a similarity which the missionaries could -only explain by the theory of a diabolical imitation; and which some -subsequent Catholic writers have been inclined to ascribe, upon very -unsatisfactory grounds, to the ancient labors of Armenian and Nestorian -missionaries, being extremely unwilling to admit what seems, however, -very probable, if not, indeed, certain,—little attention has as yet -been given to this interesting inquiry,—that some leading ideas of -the Catholic Church have been derived from Buddhist sources, whose -missionaries, while penetrating, as we know they did, to the East, -and converting entire nations, may well be supposed not to have been -without their influence also on the West. - -Notwithstanding, however, the general prevalence, at the time when -Japan first became known to Europeans, of the doctrine of Buddha,—of -which there would seem to have been quite a number of distinct -observances, not unlike the different orders of monks and friars in the -Catholic Church,—it appears, as well from the memoirs of the Jesuit -missionaries, as from more exact and subsequent observations made by -residents in the Dutch service, that there also existed another and -more ancient religious system, with which the person and authority of -the Dairi had been and still were closely identified. This system[30] -was known as the religion of _Shintō_, or of the _Kami_,—a name given -not only to the seven mythological personages, or celestial gods, -who compose the first Japanese dynasty, and to the five demigods, or -terrestrial gods, who compose the second (two dynasties which, as in -the similar mythology of the Egyptians and Hindus, were imagined to -have extended through immense and incomprehensible ages preceding the -era of Jimmu), but including also the whole series of the Dairi, who -traced their descent from the first of the demigods, and who, though -regarded during their lives as mere men, yet at their deaths underwent, -as in the case of the Roman Cæsars, a regular apotheosis, by which they -were added to the number of the Kami, or Shin,—words both of which -had the same signification, namely, inhabitants of heaven.[31] A like -apotheosis was also extended to all who had seemed to deserve it by -their sanctity, their miracles, or their great benefactions. - -The Kami of the first dynasty, the seven superior gods, being regarded -as too elevated above the earth to concern themselves in what is -passing on it, the chief object of the worship of the adherents of this -ancient system was the goddess Tenshō-daijin,[32] already mentioned as -the first of the demigods, and the supposed progenitor of the Dairi, -and of the whole order of the Kuge. Of this Tenshō-daijin, and of her -heroic and miraculous deeds, a vast many fables were in circulation. -Even those who had quitted the ancient religion to embrace the new -sects paid a sort of worship to the pretended mother of the Japanese -nation; and there was not a considerable city in the empire in which -there was not a temple to her honor. On the other hand, the religion -of the Kami, by its doctrine of the apotheosis of all great saints -and great heroes, gave, like the old pagan religions, a hospitable -reception to all new gods, so that even the rival demigod, Buddha, came -to be regarded by many as identical with Tenshō-daijin,—a circumstance -which will serve to explain the great intermixture of religious ideas -found in Japan, and the alleged fact, very remarkable, if true, that, -till after the arrival of the Portuguese missionaries, religious -persecution had never been known there. - -Each of these numerous demigods was supposed by the adherents of the -religion of Shintō to preside over a special paradise of his own; -this one in the air, that one at the bottom of the sea, one in the -moon and another in the sun, and so on; and each devotee, choosing -his god according to the paradise that pleased him best, spared no -pains to gain admission into it. For what St. Paul had said of the -Athenians, might, according to the missionaries, be applied with equal -truth to the Japanese,—they were excessively superstitious, and this -superstition had so multiplied temples, that there was scarcely a city -in which, counting all the smaller chapels, the number did not seem at -least equal to that of the most pious Catholic countries. - -The temples of the Shintō religion, called _Miya_, were and are—for in -this respect no change has taken place—ordinarily built upon eminences, -in retired spots, at a distance from bustle and business, surrounded -by groves and approached by a great avenue having a gate of stone or -wood, and bearing a tablet or door-plate of a foot and a half square, -which announces, in gilded letters, the name of the Kami to whom the -temple is consecrated. These exterior appendages would seem to foretell -a considerable structure; but within there is usually found only a -wretched little building of wood, half hid among trees and shrubbery, -about eighteen feet in length, breadth, and height, all its dimensions -being equal, and with only a single grated window, through which the -interior may be seen, empty, or containing merely a mirror of polished -metal, set in a frame of braided straw, or hung about with fringes of -white paper. Just within the entrance of the enclosure stands a basin -of water, by washing in which the worshippers may purify themselves. -Beside the temple is a great chest for the reception of alms, partly -by which, and partly by an allowance from the Dairi, the guardians of -the temples are supported, while at the gate hangs a gong, on which -the visitant announces his arrival. Most of these temples have also -an antechamber, in which sit those who have the charge, clothed in -rich garments. There are commonly also in the enclosure a number of -little chapels, or miniature temples, portable so as to be carried in -religious processions. All of these temples are built after one model, -the famous one of _Ise_, near the centre of the island of Nippon, and -which within the enclosure is equally humble with all the rest. - -[Illustration: ISE TEMPLE] - -The worship consists in prayers and prostrations. Works of religious -merit are, casting a contribution into the alms-chest, and avoiding or -expiating the impurities supposed to be the consequence of being -touched by blood, of eating of the flesh of any quadruped except -the deer, and to a less extent even that of any bird, of killing -any animal, of coming in contact with a dead person, or even, among -the more scrupulous, of seeing, hearing of, or speaking of any such -impurities. To these may be added, as works of religious merit, the -celebration of festivals, of which there are two principal ones in each -month, being the first and fifteenth day of it, besides five greater -ones distributed through the year, and lasting, some of them, for -several days, in which concerts, spectacles, and theatrical exhibitions -form a leading part. We must add the going on pilgrimages, to which, -indeed, all the religious of Japan are greatly addicted. The pilgrimage -esteemed by the adherents of Shintō as the most meritorious, and which -all are bound to make once a year, or, at least, once in their life, -is that of _Ise_, the name of a central province on the south coast -of Nippon, in which Tenshō-daijin was reported to have been born and -to have died, and which contains a Miya, exceedingly venerated, and -already mentioned as the model after which all the others are built. - -Though it is not at all easy to distinguish what, either of ceremony -or doctrine, was peculiar or original in the system of Shintō,[33] yet -in general that system seems to have been much less austere than the -rival doctrine of Buddha, which teaches that sorrow is inseparable from -existence, the only escape from it being in annihilation. The adherents -of Shintō were, on the other hand, much more disposed to look upon the -bright side of things, turning their religious festivals into holidays, -and regarding people in sorrow and distress as unfit for the worship of -the gods, whose felicity ought not to be disturbed by the sight of pain -and misery. And this, perhaps, was one of the causes that enabled the -religion of Buddha, which addresses itself more to the sorrowing hearts -of which the world is so full, to obtain that predominance of which the -Portuguese missionaries found it in possession. - -[Illustration: A SHINTŌ PRIEST] - -Of this religion of Buddha, by no means peculiar to Japan, but -prevailing through the whole of central and southeastern Asia, and -having probably more adherents than any other religious creed, it is -not necessary here to speak at any length. A much more correct idea -of it is to be obtained from the recorded observations of our modern -missionaries, and from the elaborate investigations of Abel Rémusat, -and several other learned Orientalists, who have shed a flood of -light upon this interesting subject, than can be gathered from the -letters of the Portuguese missionaries, whose comprehension of the -Buddhist doctrine was, on many important points, especially as to the -cardinal one of annihilation, exceedingly confused, contradictory, -and erroneous; and, indeed, the same confusion and error exists in -almost all European travellers in the East, down to a very recent -period. Suffice it to say, that in the austerities and contempt for -the world and its pleasures, practised and professed by the bonzes -of the Buddhists, even Xavier and his brother Jesuits found their -match; while, in the hierarchy into which those bonzes were arranged; -the foreign language, imperfectly known even to themselves, of their -sacred books and their liturgy, and which recent investigations -have detected to be, with the bonzes of China and Japan, not Pali -alone, but also pure Sanscrit; their doctrine of celibacy; the -establishment of monasteries and nunneries; their orders of begging -devotees; their exterior of purity and self-denial, but supposed -secret licentiousness;[34] their fasts; their garbs; the tinkling -of bells; the sign of the cross; the rosaries on which they counted -their prayers; the large number of persons of noble birth who entered -upon the clerical life; their manner of preaching; their religious -processions; their pilgrimages; the size, splendor, and magnificence -of their temples, known as Tera, the roofs supported by tall pillars -of cedar; the altar within, and the lamps and incense burning there; -the right of asylum possessed by the Tera; and even the practice of -confession, prayers for the dead, and the sale of merit;—in all these -respects, this system presented a complete counterpart at least to -the show and forms and priestly devices of that very scheme of Roman -Catholic worship which Xavier and his brother missionaries sought to -introduce into Japan. The only striking difference was in the images, -often of gigantic size, to be found in the Tera, but which, after -all, were no more than a set-off against the pictures of the Catholic -churches. - -At the head of the Buddhist hierarchy was a high priest called _Shaku_, -resident at Miyako, and having much the same spiritual prerogative with -the Pope of Rome, including the canonization of saints. With him rested -the consecration of the _Jūji_, corresponding to the bishops, or rather -to the abbots, of the Catholic Church—all the Buddhist clergy being, -in the language of Rome, regulars (similar, that is, to the monks and -friars), and living together in monasteries of which the Jūji were -the heads. These Jūji, however, could not enter upon their offices, -to which great revenues were attached, except by the consent of the -temporal authorities, which took care to limit the interference of the -Shaku and the Jūji strictly to spiritual matters.[35] - -[Illustration: PILGRIMS RETURNING FROM A TEMPLE] - -There was this further resemblance also to the regular orders of the -Romish church, that the Buddhist clergy were divided into a number of -observances, hardly less hostile to each other than the Dominicans to -the Franciscans, or both to the Jesuits. But as the church and state -were kept in Japan perfectly distinct,—as now in the United States,—and -as the bonzes possessed no direct temporal power, there was no appeal -to the secular arm, no civil punishments for heresy, and no religious -vows perpetually binding, all being at liberty, so far as the civil law -was concerned, to enter or leave the monasteries at pleasure. It was -also another result of this separation of state and church—as here in -the United States—that there was only needed a Jo Smith, a man hardy -or self-deceived enough to pretend to inspiration, to set up a new -observance; an occurrence by which the theology of Japan had become -from time to time more and more diversified. - -There were also, besides the more regular clergy, enthusiasts, or -impostors, religious vagabonds who lived by beggary, and by pretending -to drive away evil spirits, to find things lost, to discover robbers, -to determine guilt or innocence of accused parties, to interpret -dreams, to predict the future, to cure desperate maladies, and other -similar feats, which they performed chiefly through the medium, not -of a table, but of a child, into whom they pretended to make a spirit -enter, able to answer all their questions. Such, in particular, were -the Yamabushi, or mountain priests, an order of the religion of Shintō. - -Yet, exceedingly superstitious as the Japanese were, there was not -wanting among them a sect of Rationalists, the natural result of -freedom of opinion, who regarded all these practices and doctrines, -and all the various creeds of the country, with secret incredulity, -and even contempt. These Rationalists, known as Jiudōshiu, and their -doctrine as Judō, and found chiefly among the upper classes, looked up -to the Chinese Confucius as their master and teacher. They treated the -system of Buddha with open hostility, as mere imposture and falsehood; -but, in order to avoid the odium of being destitute of all religion, -conformed, at least so far as external observances were concerned, to -the old national system of Shintō.[36] - -[Illustration: A BUDDHIST SERMON] - - - - -CHAPTER VI - - _Civilization of the - Japanese—Animals—Agriculture—Arts—Houses—Ships—Literature—Jurisprudence - —Character of the Japanese—Their Custom of cutting themselves - open—A. D. 1550._ - - -The doctrine of the transmigration of souls, one of the most -distinguishing tenets of the Buddhist faith, had not failed to confirm -the Japanese in a distaste for animal food, which had originated, -perhaps, from the small number of animals natives of that insular -country [_sic_],—an abstinence, indeed, which even the ancient religion -of Shintō had countenanced by denouncing as impure the act of killing -any animal, or being sprinkled with the slightest drop of blood. Of -domestic tame animals, the Japanese possessed from time immemorial -the horse, the ox, the buffalo, the dog, and the cat; but none of -these were ever used as food. The Portuguese introduced the deer and -the goat; but the Japanese, not eating their flesh nor understanding -the art of working up their wool or hair, took no pains to multiply -them. The Chinese introduced the hog; but the eating of that animal -was confined to them and to other foreigners. The deer, the hare, and -the wild boar were eaten by some sects, and some wild birds by the -poorer classes. The fox was hunted for its skin, the hair of which -was employed for the pencil used in painting and writing. The animal -itself, owing to its roguery, was believed to be the residence of -particularly wicked souls—an idea confirmed by many strange stories -in common circulation. The tortoise and the crane were regarded in -some sort as sacred animals, never to be killed nor injured. Whales -of a small species were taken, then as now, near the coast, and were -used as food, as were many other kinds of fish, the produce of the sea -and rivers. Shell-fish and certain seaweeds were also eaten in large -quantities. - -The soil of Japan, being of volcanic origin, was in some places -very fertile; but in many parts there were rugged and inaccessible -mountains, the sides of which, not admitting the use of the plough, -were built up in terraces cultivated by hand. Agriculture formed -the chief occupation of the inhabitants, and they had carried it to -considerable perfection, well understanding the use of composite -manures. The chief crops were rice, which was the great article of -food; barley, for the horses and cattle; wheat, used principally for -vermicelli; and several kinds of peas and beans. They cultivated, also, -a number of seeds, from which oils were expressed; likewise cotton, -hemp, the white mulberry for the feeding of silkworms (silk being the -stuff most in use), and the paper mulberry for the manufacture of -paper. To these may be added the camphor-tree, which grew, however, -only in the southwestern parts of Shimo, the _Rhus vernix_, which -produces the celebrated Japanese varnish, and the tea-plant, spoken -of by one of the early Portuguese missionaries as “a certain herb -called Cha, of which they put as much as a walnut shell may contain -into a dish of porcelain, and drink it with hot water.” From rice they -produced by fermentation an intoxicating drink, called _sake_, which -served them in the place of wine, and which was consumed in large -quantities. A yeast, or rather vinegar, produced from this liquor, was -largely employed in the pickling of vegetables. Their most useful woods -were the bamboo, the fir of several species, and the cedar. - -They understood in perfection the arts of weaving silks and of moulding -porcelain, and excelled in gilding, engraving, and especially in -the use of lacquer or varnish. They also were able to manufacture -sword-blades of excellent temper. - -As in other Eastern countries, the greater nobles exhibited an extreme -magnificence; but trade and the arts were held in low esteem, and the -mass of the people were excessively poor. Their buildings, though -they had some few solid structures of stone, were principally light -erections of wood, to avoid the effects of frequent earthquakes; but -this and the varnish employed exposed them to conflagrations, which, in -the towns, were very frequent and destructive. These towns consisted, -for the most part, of very cheap structures (like most of those -throughout the East), so that cities were built and destroyed with -equal ease and celerity. - -Their commerce was limited almost entirely to the interchange of -domestic products, a vast number of vessels, of rather feeble -structure, being employed in navigating the coasts of the islands, -which abounded with deep bays and excellent harbors. - -Of the sciences, whether mathematical, mixed, or purely physical, they -knew but little. They had, however, a considerable number of books -treating of religion, medicine, and their history and traditions. -The young were instructed in eloquence, poetry, and a rude sort of -painting and music, and they had a great fondness for theatrical -representations, in which they decidedly excelled. Their writing, -in which they greatly studied brevity, was in columns, as with the -Chinese, from the top to the bottom of the page, for which they gave -this reason: that writing ought to be a true representation of men’s -thoughts, and that men naturally stood erect. These columns read from -right to left. They employed, besides the Chinese ideographic signs, -a syllabic alphabet of their own, though in many works the Chinese -characters were freely introduced.[37] - -Jurisprudence, as in most Eastern countries, was a very simple affair. -The laws were very few. Heads of families exercised great power over -their households. Most private disputes were settled by arbitration; -but where this failed, and in all criminal cases, a decision was made -on the spot by a magistrate, from whom there was seldom any appeal. -The sentences were generally executed at once, and often with very -great severity. Whether from their temperament, or their belief in the -doctrines of transmigration and annihilation, it was observed that the -Japanese met death with more courage than was common in Europe. It was, -indeed, a point of honor, in many cases, to inflict it on themselves, -which they did in a horrid manner, by cutting open their bowels by -two gashes in the shape of a cross. The criminal who thus anticipated -execution secured thereby the public sympathy and applause, saving his -property from confiscation, and his family from death; and, upon the -death of superiors or masters, the same fate was often, as a mark of -personal devotion and attachment, self-inflicted; and sometimes, also, -in consequence of a disgrace or affront, to escape or revenge which -no other means appeared.[38] The missionaries especially noted in the -Japanese a pride, a self-respect, a haughty magnanimity, a sense of -personal honor, very uncommon in the East, but natural characteristics -enough of a people who had never been conquered by invaders from -abroad; while the great vicissitudes to which they were exposed—all -vassals generally sharing the fate of their superiors—made them look -upon the goods and evils of fortune in a very philosophical spirit. - -[Illustration: PERFORMANCE OF HARAKIRI] - -Such was the condition in which Japan was found when it first became -known to Europe through the letters and relations of Xavier and the -other Portuguese missionaries, his successors. - - - - -CHAPTER VII - -_Preaching of Xavier—Pinto’s Third Visit to Japan—A. D. 1550-51._ - - -It is not our purpose to trace minutely the progress and fluctuating -fortunes of the Jesuit missionaries; nor, indeed, would it always -be easy to extract the exact truth from relations into which the -marvellous so largely enters. Xavier’s letters throw very little -light on the subsequent history of his mission, which mainly depends -upon accounts derived from an inquisition into the particulars of -the apostle’s ministry and miracles in the East, ordered to be made -shortly after his death by John III., of Portugal, and which resulted -in a large collection of duly attested depositions, containing -many marvellous statements, most of them purporting to come from -eye-witnesses, from which source the Jesuit historians of the Eastern -missions and the biographers of the saint have drawn most of their -materials. - -If we are to believe them, Xavier was not only always victorious in his -disputes with bonzes; he went even so far, shortly after his arrival in -Japan, as to raise the dead—a miracle which furnished Poussin with a -subject for a celebrated picture. Xavier, we are told, had been charged -in India with a similar interference with the laws of nature; it is -true he attempted to explain it away, as, perhaps, he would have done -this Japanese miracle; but that denial the historian Maffei thinks, -instead of disproving the miracle, only proves the modest humility of -Xavier. - -Though at first well received, as we have seen, by the king of Satsuma, -and though, in the course of near a year he remained there, the -immediate family and many of the relations of Anjirō were persuaded -to be baptized, yet the remonstrances of the bonzes, followed by the -transfer of the Portuguese trade, for the sake of a better harbor, -from Kagoshima to Hirado, caused the king of Satsuma to issue an edict -forbidding his subjects, under pain of death, to renounce the worship -of their national gods. In consequence of this edict, Xavier departed -for Hirado, which island, off the west coast of Shimo, having separated -from the kingdom of Hizen, had become independent under a prince of its -own. Anjirō was left behind, but soon afterwards was obliged to fly to -China, where, as Pinto informs us, he was killed by robbers. - -At Hirado, in consequence of the representations of the Portuguese -merchants, Xavier was well received; but, desirous to see the chief -city of Japan, leaving Torres behind, he set out with Fernandez and two -Japanese converts on a visit to Miyako. - -Proceeding by water, he touched first at Hakata, a considerable town on -the northwest coast of Shimo, and capital of the kingdom of Chikuzen, -and then at Yamaguchi, at that time a large city, capital of Nagato, -the most western kingdom or province of the great island of Nippon, -separated at this point from Shimo by a narrow strait. - -The populace of Yamaguchi, ridiculing Xavier’s mean appearance as -contrasted with his pretensions, drove him out of the city with curses -and stones. Winter had now set in, and the cold was severe. The coast -was infested by pirates, and the interior by robbers, which obliged -the saint to travel as servant to some merchants, who, themselves on -horseback, required him, though on foot, and loaded with a heavy box -of theirs, to keep up with them at full gallop. This, however, seems a -little exaggerated, as Japanese travellers on horseback never exceed a -walk; while the box which Xavier carried is represented by the earlier -writers as containing the sacred vessels for the sacrifice of the mass. - -Arriving thus at Miyako in rather sad plight, Xavier found that capital -almost ruined by civil wars, and on the eve of becoming the field of a -new battle. He could obtain no audience, as he had hoped, either of the -Kubō-Sama or of the Shaku, nor any hearing except from the populace, so -that he judged it best to return again to Hirado. - -There are two means of working upon the imagination, both of which are -employed by turns alike by the Romish and by the Buddhist clergy. One -is by showing a contempt not merely for elegances, but even for common -comforts and ordinary decencies: the other, by pomp, show, and display. -Xavier, on his way to Miyako, entered the city of Yamaguchi barefoot -and meanly clad, and had, as we have stated, been hooted and stoned -by the populace. He now returned thither again from Hirado handsomely -clothed, and taking with him certain presents and recommendatory -letters from the Portuguese viceroy of the Indies and the governor of -Malacca, addressed to the Japanese princes, but of which as yet he had -made no use. Demanding an audience of the king, he was received with -respect, and soon obtained leave to preach, and an unoccupied house -of the bonzes to live in. Here, being soon surrounded by crowds, he -renewed, say his biographers, the miracle of tongues, not only in -preaching fluently in Japanese and in Chinese to the numerous merchants -of that nation who traded there, but in being able by a single answer -to satisfy a multitude of confused questions which the eager crowd -simultaneously put to him. Such was his success that, in less than two -months, five hundred persons, most of them of consideration, received -baptism; and, though the king soon began to grow less favorable, the -converts increased, during less than a year that he remained there, to -three thousand. - -The seed thus planted, Xavier resolved to return to the Indies for -a fresh supply of laborers; and, having heard of the arrival of a -Portuguese vessel at Fuchū, in the kingdom of Bungo, leaving De Torres -and Fernandez at Yamaguchi, he proceeded to Fuchū for the purpose of -embarking. - -Among the merchants in this ship was Fernam Mendez Pinto, now in Japan -for the third time, and who gives at some length the occurrences that -took place after Xavier’s arrival at Fuchū, where he was received with -great respect by the Portuguese, of whom more than thirty went out on -horseback to meet him. - -The young king, whose name was Kiuan,[39] had already obtained, -through intercourse with Portuguese merchants, some knowledge of their -religion. He invited Xavier to an audience, to which the Portuguese -merchants accompanied him with so grand a display as somewhat to shock -the modesty of the saint, but which strongly impressed in his favor -the people of Bungo, to whom he had been represented by the bonzes -as so miserable a vagabond as to disgust the very vermin with which -he was covered. The young king received him very graciously; and he -preached and disputed with such success as greatly to alarm the bonzes, -who vainly attempted to excite a popular commotion against him as an -enchanter, through whose mouth a demon spoke, and a cannibal, who fed -on dead bodies which he dug up in the night. - -Finally, after conquering, in a long dispute before the king of -Bungo, the ablest and most celebrated champion of the bonzes,[40] and -converting several of the order to the faith, Xavier embarked for -Goa on the 20th of September, 1551, attended by two of his Japanese -converts. Of those one died at Goa. The other, named Bernard, proceeded -to Europe, and, after a visit to Rome, returned to Portugal, and, -having entered the Society of Jesus, closed his life at the Jesuit -college of Coimbra, a foundation endowed by John III for the support of -a hundred pupils, to be prepared as missionaries to the East. - -At Yamaguchi, after Xavier’s departure, the bonzes, enemies of -Catholicity, were more successful. An insurrection which they raised -so alarmed the king, that he shut himself up in his palace, set it -on fire, and, having slain his only son with his own hand, ended by -cutting himself open. The missionaries, however, were saved by an -unconverted princess, who even induced certain bonzes to shelter them; -and a brother of the king of Bungo having been elected king of Nagato, -the Catholics, not one of whom, we are told, had been killed in the -insurrection, were soon on a better footing than ever.[41] - - - - -CHAPTER VIII - - _Progress of the Missions under Fathers De Torres and Nugnes - Barreto—Mendez Pinto a Fourth Time in Japan—A. D. 1551-1557._ - - -The apostle of the Indies returned no more to Japan. He died in -December, 1552, at the age of forty-six, on his way to China, at the -island of Sancian, a little way from Macao, partly, it would seem, -through vexation at having been disappointed, by the jealousy and -obstinacy of the governor of Malacca, in a more direct mission to that -empire, on which he had set his heart, and for which he had made every -arrangement. - -But already, before leaving for China, he had despatched from Malacca -three new missionaries to Japan, Balthaza Gago, a priest, and two -brothers, Peter d’Alcaceva and Edward de Sylva, who landed at -Kagoshima, in August, 1552, whence they proceeded to Bungo, where, -as well as at Yamaguchi, a site had been granted for a residence -and a church. Father de Torres, now at the head of the mission, in -a sort of general assembly of the faithful, to which the principal -converts were admitted, regulated the policy of the infant church. -To meet the objection of the bonzes, that the new converts had left -their old religions to escape the usual contributions of alms, it was -resolved to establish hospitals for the sick and poor, as well pagan -as converted,—and the more so as poverty in Japan was regarded as -peculiarly despicable, and the poor as condemned by the gods. To suit -the taste of the Japanese for spectacles, an impressive burial service -was agreed upon. - -Great attention, according to the policy of the Catholic Church, -and especially of the Jesuits, was bestowed on the education of the -young. Not to be outdone by the bonzes, the missionaries practised -great austerities; regular whipping of themselves in church by all the -converts made a stated part of their religious exercises; but what most -contributed to the spread of the new faith was, so we are told, the -exceeding zeal, self-denial, and disinterestedness of the new converts, -including among the number several bonzes of the old religions, some of -whom were made Jesuits, and even ordained priests, and who soon gave -examples of sublime piety, which even the missionaries themselves found -it difficult to imitate. - -Meanwhile, Peter d’Alcaceva, one of the newly arrived Jesuits, having -been sent back to Goa for further aid, on his way to that capital found -at Malacca the body of Xavier, preserved in quicklime, and also on -its way to Goa, whither he attended it. At Goa he encountered Fernam -Mendez Pinto, who, having amassed great wealth in the Indies, was -about to return to Portugal. Preliminary to this voyage Pinto made a -general confession to Father Nugnes Barreto, the vice-provincial of the -Jesuits; after which, falling upon the subject of Xavier, whose dead -body lying at Goa was reported to work numerous miracles, he related -to his confessor many wonderful stories of the prodigies which he -himself had witnessed while with Xavier at Bungo. Passing thence to -the zeal and merits of the Japanese converts, he strongly urged Nugnes -to proceed thither to take Xavier’s place, even offering himself to -go as his companion, and to devote the whole of his fortune (except -two thousand crowns to be sent to some poor relations in Portugal), -partly to the founding of a seminary at Yamaguchi, whence the faith -might be diffused through the whole of Japan, and partly in purchasing -magnificent presents for the princes of the country, which he thought -would be a good means of securing their favor for the new religion. - -Pinto was accordingly appointed ambassador from the Portuguese viceroy -to the king of Bungo, and Nugnes sailed for Malacca in his company, -taking with him Father Gaspard Vilela, four brothers, not yet priests, -and five young orphans from the Seminary of the Holy Faith, to act as -catechists. Before setting out, Nugnes and his brother Jesuits renewed -their vows, according to a rule of the order, which required such a -renewal once every six months. Pinto was present at this ceremony, -and his excitable temperament was so wrought upon by it, that, seized -with a sudden impulse, he insisted upon himself repeating the vows, -with an additional one to consecrate his person and his goods to the -Japanese mission. As he was the viceroy’s ambassador, it was resolved -that he should not adopt the Jesuit habit till after he had fulfilled -his mission—a delay which proved a lucky thing for Pinto, whose zeal -speedily began to evaporate. He served, indeed, for some time in the -hospitals of Malacca, where they arrived in June, 1554, and where, by -the sickness of Nugnes and other accidents, they were detained upwards -of a year; and, according to the letters of Nugnes, he gave great -edification, the people admiring to see so rich a man, and one lately -so fond of display and good living, clothed in rags and begging alms -from door to door, having given up all his wealth that he might the -better obey the Lord. - -Sailing from Malacca, Nugnes and his company, after perils from -pirates, were driven by storms first to Sancian, and then to Macao, -whence, in the spring of 1556, Nugnes proceeded to Canton, where he -made many unavailing efforts for the introduction of Catholicism into -China. Meanwhile, he received letters from Goa, urging his return, -enclosing one from Loyola himself, disapproving of such long voyages by -the vice-provincials of the order; but he was still induced to Japan by -a pressing letter from the prince of Hirado, who hoped by this means -to attract the Portuguese trade from Bungo to that port. He sailed -accordingly for Hirado, but was compelled by stress of weather to find -a harbor in Bungo. - -Meanwhile, the parts of Japan occupied by the missionaries had -been the seats of serious commotions. The king of Bungo had indeed -confirmed his power by suppressing an insurrection; but his brother, -the king of Nagato, had been driven from his throne and defeated and -slain by Mōri Motonari, a relative of the late king; and during this -civil war the city of Yamaguchi had been sacked and burnt, and the -missionaries obliged to flee for their lives to Bungo. There, too, -a new insurrection had been attempted, but again without success; -though the king still kept himself shut up in a fortress at a distance -from his capital. He returned, however, to receive Nugnes, which he -did very graciously, but resisted, on grounds of expediency, all -his exhortations to make an open profession of Catholicism. Thus -disappointed, Nugnes, after sending Gago to establish himself at -Hirado, thought it best to return to Goa. - -[Illustration: THE KINTAI BRIDGE, SNŌ] - -On arriving in Japan, the zeal of Pinto had speedily declined, and -he had begun to sigh for his liberty. Perhaps he was alarmed at the -appearance of Cosme de Torres, who, from being plump and portly, had, -under the thin diet of the country, and the labors of the mission, -grown to be exceedingly lean and haggard. At all events, it was -found impossible to revive his fervor, and, as the Jesuits wanted no -unwilling members, it was decided to release him from his vows. He -returned with Nugnes to Goa, whence, not long after, he sailed for -Lisbon. In his book he relates his last visit to Japan, but with no -mention of his having joined the Jesuits,—of which our knowledge is -drawn from the published letters of the missionaries, including one -dated in 1554, and written by Pinto himself, from the college at -Malacca, addressed to the scholars of the college of Coimbra, and -giving a sketch of his travels in the East. - -Having arrived at Lisbon, September 22, 1558, he delivered to the -queen regent a commendatory letter from the viceroy of Goa, and had -the honor to explain to her what his long experience suggested as of -most utility for the affairs of Portugal in the East, not forgetting -also some private application for himself. The queen referred him to -the minister, who gave him high hopes; but at the end of four or five -years of tedious solicitation, which became more insupportable than -all his past fatigues, he concluded to content himself with the little -fortune which he had brought from India, and for which he was indebted -to nobody but himself. Yet he piously and loyally concludes that, if -he had been no better rewarded for twenty-one years’ services, during -which he had been thirteen times a slave, and seventeen times sold, -it could only be attributed to the divine justice, which disposes of -all things for the best, and rather to his own sins than to any want -of royal discernment. He died about 1580, leaving his narrative behind -him, which was not printed till 1614, and which was written, as he -says at the beginning of it, in his old age, that he might leave it -a memorial and heritage to his children to excite their confidence -in the aid of Heaven by the example of his own sufferings and -deliverances.[42] - - - - -CHAPTER IX - - _Louis Almeida—The Missionaries establish themselves at - Miyako (Kyōto)—Louis Froez—Princes converted in Shimo—Rise - of Nobunaga—Prosperity of the Missions—Noble and Princely - Converts—Nagasaki built—Nobunaga makes himself Emperor—A. D. - 1557-1577_. - - -The loss of Pinto and Nugnes, and even that of Father Gago, who, three -or four years later, after a very zealous career as a missionary, grew -weary of the work, and obtained permission to return to Goa, was more -than made up for by the accession of William and Ruys Pereyra, two -of the catechists brought by Nugnes, and whom, before his departure, -he admitted into the order, and especially by that of Louis Almeida, -who had arrived in Japan as surgeon to a trading vessel, and who, -after amassing a large fortune, gave it all to pious uses,—of which a -hospital for abandoned infants was one,—and, joining the Jesuits, soon -became distinguished for his zeal and assiduity as a missionary. - -The extension which, in the fluctuating condition of affairs, shortly -afterwards took place of the dominions of the king of Bungo over -the greater part of the island of Shimo, was very favorable to the -new religion. The prince of Hirado was obliged to pay him tribute, -and, notwithstanding the double-faced policy of that prince, the new -doctrine continued to spread in his territories, where some of the -members of the ruling family became converts. A new church was planted -at Hakata, and the old original one at Kagoshima was reëstablished. -Presently the new faith gained a footing also in the kingdoms of Arima -and Gotō, which, as well as Hirado, had been dissevered from the -ancient province of Hizen. The lord of Shimabara (afterwards famous -as the last stronghold of the Catholics) invited the missionaries -to his city. The king of Arima was also very friendly; he gave -the missionaries an establishment, first at Yokoseura, and, after -that city had been burned by the bonzes, at a port of his called -Kuchinotsu, on the southern coast of the southwestern peninsula of -Shimo. The prince of Ōmura, a dependency of Arima, and the prince of -the island of Tanegashima, the same at which Pinto had first landed, -then a dependency of Hirado, were both among the converts, and -exceedingly zealous to induce their subjects to follow their example; -and, notwithstanding the hostility of the bonzes, the frequent wars -between the princes, and repeated internal commotions, by which the -missionaries were often in danger, the new religion continued to spread -in all parts of Shimo, and in fact to be carried by native converts to -many parts of Nippon, which no missionary had yet reached. Meanwhile, -new establishments also had been gained on the island of Nippon, in -addition to that at Yamaguchi, at its western extremity. The fame of -the missionaries had induced an old Jūji, or superior of a Buddhist -monastery near Miyako (Kyōto), to send to Yamaguchi to ask information -about the new religion. Father Vilela was despatched, in 1559, for -his instruction, and though the Jūji died before the arrival of the -missionary, his successor and many of the bonzes listened with respect -to the words of Vilela. As none, however, were willing to receive -baptism, he departed for Miyako, where he found means to approach -Yoshiteru, the Kubō-Sama, and to obtain from him permission to preach. -Having secured the favor of Miyoshi, the emperor’s principal minister, -and presently that of Matsunaga, the chief judge, he converted many -bonzes and nobles, and built up a large and flourishing church. - -An attack upon the emperor by Mōri Motonari, king of Nagato, who -forced the city of Miyako, and set it on fire, detained Vilela for -a while in the neighboring town of Sakai, the most commercial place -in Japan, which seems, at that time, to have been a free city, as it -were, with an independent government of its own; and there also a -church was planted. But the emperor soon reëstablished his affairs; -and although, from the hostility of Mōri, the church at Yamaguchi was -very much depressed, everything went on well at Miyako, where Vilela -was joined, in 1565, by Louis Almeida, and by a young missionary, Louis -Froez, lately arrived from Malacca. Of their journey from Kuchinotsu to -Miyako we have a detailed account in a long and very interesting letter -of Almeida’s. His visit to Miyako was only temporary. Froez remained -there, and from him we have a long series of letters, historical and -descriptive, as well as religious, which, for a period of thirty years -following, throw great light on the history and internal condition of -Japan. - -At this time the entire empire, since and at present so stable, was -the scene of constant revolutions. Very shortly after Froez’s arrival -Miyoshi and Matsunaga conspired against their patron (_i. e._ the -Shōgun Yoshiteru), dethroned him, and drove him to cut himself open, -as did great numbers of his relatives and partisans. These nobles, -hitherto favorable to the missionaries, now published an edict against -them, probably to secure the favor of the bonzes; and Vilela and -Froez were thus again driven to take refuge at Sakai, where they had -a few converts. But the believers at Miyako stood firm, and a new -revolution soon occurred, headed by a noble called Wada Iga-no-kami, -and by Nobunaga (Oda Nobunaga), king of Owari,—which province adjoined -the emperor’s special territory on the east, a prince whose military -prowess had already made him from a petty noble the master of eighteen -provinces in the eastern part of Nippon. - -In 1566 Wada and Nobunaga proclaimed as emperor a brother of the late -one—a bonze who had escaped from the rebels. Miyako was regained, -and the new emperor established there A. D. 1567. All real authority -remained, however, with Nobunaga, who showed himself very hostile to -the Buddhist bonzes, they having generally taken the side of the late -rebels. He even destroyed many of their temples, using the idols which -they contained as materials for a new palace. He easily granted to -Wada, who was himself a sort of half convert, the reëstablishment of -the missionaries at Miyako, which was soon confirmed by an imperial -edict, issued in 1568; and, in spite of an attempt at interference on -the part of the Dairi, the new religion, under the protection of Wada, -who was appointed governor of Miyako, soon reached a very flourishing -condition. - -[Illustration: IMAGE OF ODA NOBUNAGA - From Dening’s _New Life of Toyotomi Hideyoshi_] - -To this prosperity at Miyako a strong contrast was, however, -presented by the state of things at Yamaguchi, whence the missionaries -were expelled by the king of Nagato, though the church there was still -kept alive by the zeal and constancy of some of the converts. In the -island of Shimo the new religion continued to spread. Indeed, the -baptized prince of Ōmura, not content with hacking idols to pieces, and -refusing to join in the old national festivals, wished also to prohibit -all the old ceremonies, and to compel his subjects to adopt the new -ones,—an excess of zeal which, by displaying the intolerant spirit of -the new sect, fostered a union of all the old ones against it, such as -at last occasioned its destruction. - -This prince had allowed certain Portuguese merchants to establish -themselves at Nagasaki, then a mere fishing village, but having a -capacious harbor, the port of Japan nearest to China and the Indies, -at the head of a deep bay, opening to the west. Presently he built -a church there, and, A. D. 1568, invited the missionaries to make -it their headquarters, with a promise that no religion but theirs -should be allowed. This invitation was accepted; many converts flocked -thither, and Nagasaki soon became a considerable city. Fathers de -Torres and Vilela both died in 1570,[43] worn out with years and -labors, the latter being succeeded as head of the mission by Father -Cabral, sent out from Goa as vice-provincial of the order, and -accompanied by Father Gnecchi, who soon became an efficient laborer. - -Meanwhile, an insurrection in the imperial provinces, on the part of -the old rebels, which it cost the life of Wada to suppress, so provoked -Nobunaga that he wreaked his vengeance anew upon the bonzes (who had -again aided the insurgents), by destroying a great number of their -monasteries on the famous mountain of Japan (Hieizan), and putting -the inmates to death. This occurrence took place A. D. 1571, as the -missionaries remarked, on the day of St. Michael, whom Xavier had -named the patron saint of Japan. Cabral, the vice-provincial, having -made a visit to Miyako, was very graciously received by Nobunaga. -Shortly after the titular Kubō-Sama made a vain attempt to regain -the exercise of authority. The defeated prince was still left in -possession of his title, but Nobunaga was thenceforth regarded as, -in fact, himself the emperor. This was in 1573. In 1576 the church -received new and important accessions in Shimo. The king of Bungo, -though from the beginning favorable to the missionaries, had, from -reasons of policy, and through the influence of his wife, who was very -hostile to the new religion, declined baptism; none of the courtiers -had submitted to it, and the converts in that kingdom had consisted as -yet of an inferior class. But the second son of the king having taken -the resolution to be baptized, in spite of the violent opposition of -the queen, his mother,—who had great influence over Yoshimune, the -king’s eldest son, associated, according to a usual Japanese custom, -in the government,—his example was followed by many persons of rank in -the kingdom of Bungo, and even by the neighboring king of Arima, who -died, however, shortly after, leaving his kingdom to an unbelieving -successor.[44] - - - - -CHAPTER X - - _Father Valignani—State of the Missions—Conversion and Baptism of - the King of Bungo—Growth of Nagasaki—Embassy to the Pope—Documents - relating to this Embassy—A. D. 1577-1586._ - - -Such was the state of things on the arrival, at the beginning of -1577, of Father Alexander Valignani, visitor-general of the Jesuit -establishments in the East, and who in that capacity came to inspect -the missions of Japan. He found there, in addition to a large number of -native catechists, fifty-nine professed Jesuits (including twelve who -had arrived but a short time before), of whom twenty-six were native -Japanese; but, as only twenty-three of the whole number were ordained -priests, it was found very difficult to meet the demand for ministers -qualified to baptize and to administer the other sacraments. Hence -the visitor was the more convinced of the necessity of establishing a -novitiate of the order (a project already started by Father Cabral, the -vice-provincial), and seminaries for the education of the children of -the converts designed for the priesthood, especially those of superior -rank; and in his letter to the general of the order and to the Pope, he -recommended the appointment of a bishop, so that ordination might be -had without the necessity of going to Malacca. He also settled, at a -general assembly of the missionaries, who met him at Kuchinotsu, many -points of discipline, and especially a difficult and much disputed -question as to the wearing of silk garments, which, as being the stuff -in use by all persons of consideration in Japan, some of the Jesuits -wished to wear. The ground taken was that it would only be a new -application of the policy, which had been agreed upon, of conforming -as far as innocently might be to the customs of the country. This -argument, however, had not satisfied Father Cabral; he had prohibited -the wearing of silk, which the rule of the order did not allow; and -that decision was now confirmed by the visitor. - -There were, however, other points upon which the vice-provincial and -the visitor did not so well agree. Of Cabral, Charlevoix draws the -following character, one for which many originals might be found: -“He was a holy professor, a great missionary, a vigilant and amiable -superior; but he was one of those excellent persons who imagine -themselves more clear-headed than other men, and who, in consequence, -ask counsel of nobody but themselves; or rather, who believe themselves -inspired, when they have once prayed to be so, regarding as decrees -of Heaven, expressed by their mouth, all the resolutions which they -have taken at the foot of the cross, where the last thing to be laid -down is one’s own judgment.” Cabral had taken up the idea that persons -of such vigorous understanding as the Japanese must be duly held in -check; and the whole twenty-six of them received, up to this time, -into the company, and almost all of whom aspired to the priesthood, he -strictly limited to such studies as would suffice to qualify them for -the subordinate parts of divine service. This policy Valignani did not -approve; but when he sought to alter it, he encountered such opposition -from Father Cabral, to be obliged to send him off to Goa, appointing -Father Gaspard Cuello in his place. - -Shortly after the arrival of Valignani, the church gained a new and -distinguished accession in Kiuan,[45] king of Bungo, who, having -repudiated his old pagan wife, to whom the Catholics gave the name of -Jezebel, married a new one, and was baptized with all his household, -taking the name of Francis, according to the custom of the missionaries -in giving European names to their converts. There were even strong -hopes of gaining over his eldest son and colleague, Yoshimune, when -a war broke out with the king of Satsuma for the possession of the -intervening kingdom of Hyūga, which resulted in the loss of all -Kiuan’s conquests, and his reduction to his original province of -Bungo, which also he was in danger of losing,—a change by no means -favorable to the missionaries. Kuchinotsu was ruined in this war; and -the spectacle of the vicissitudes to which everything in Japan was -exposed induced Valignani to urge upon the Portuguese merchants and -residents to fortify Nagasaki. This was done in 1579, and that port -became thenceforward almost the sole one resorted to by the Portuguese. -The converted king of Gotō having died, the guardian of his infant son -showed himself hostile to the missionaries; but this circumstance was -an advantage to Nagasaki, which received many fugitives from these -islands. - -The new king of Arima being brought, by the labors of the visitor, to -a better disposition, was baptized, and became one of the most zealous -of the converts. Both the emperor Nobunaga and his three sons still -continued very well disposed to the missionaries, allowing Father -Gnecchi, who was a favorite with him, to establish a house, a church, -and a seminary at Azuchiyama, his local capital, which he had greatly -beautified, and between which and Miyako he had caused a highway to -be built, at great expense and with immense labor. His evident design -to make his authority absolute had indeed led to a league against -him, which, however, proved of no avail, this attempt at resistance -resulting in the subjection of all the kings of the western half of -Nippon, except Mōri of Nagato. The good service which the missionaries -rendered, in persuading the Christian princes, and the Christian -vassals of the unconverted ones, to submit to the emperor, as their -superior lord, caused Valignani to be very graciously received, both at -Miyako and also at Azuchiyama. - -On the visitor’s return to Shimo, the converted kings of Bungo and -Arima, and the prince of Ōmura, determined to send ambassadors to be -the bearers of their submission to the Pope. For this purpose two young -nobles were selected, scarcely sixteen years of age: one, prince of -Hyūga, the son of a niece of the king of Bungo, the other, prince of -Arima, cousin of the king of Arima, and nephew of the prince of Ōmura. -They were attended by two counsellors somewhat older than themselves, -by Father Diego de Mesquita, as their preceptor, and interpreter, and -by a Japanese Jesuit, named George Loyola, and, in company with Father -Valignani, they sailed from Nagasaki February 20, 1582, in a Portuguese -ship bound for Macao, now the headquarters of the Portuguese trade to -Japan. They arrived at Macao after a very stormy and dangerous passage -of seventeen days; but the season of sailing for Malacca being past, -they had to wait there six months. When at length they did sail, -they encountered very violent storms; but at last, after twenty-nine -days’ passage (January 27, 1583), they reached Malacca, passing, as -they entered the harbor, the wreck of another richly laden Portuguese -vessel, which had sailed from Macao in their company. After resting at -Malacca eight days, they embarked for Goa, which third voyage proved -not less trying than the two others. Delayed by calms, they ran short -of provisions and water, and by the ignorance of the pilot were near -being run ashore on the island of Ceylon. They disembarked at length at -Travancore, at the southeastern extremity of the peninsula of India, -whence they proceeded by land to the neighboring port of Cochin. Here, -owing to the unfavorable monsoon, they had to wait six months before -they could sail for Goa, at which capital of Portuguese India they -arrived in September. The viceroy of the Indies received them with -great hospitality, and furnished them with a good ship, in which they -had a favorable passage round the Cape of Good Hope, arriving at Lisbon -August 10, 1584. - -Four years before, Portugal had passed under the rule of Philip II, of -Spain, who had thus united on his single head the crowns of both the -East and the West Indies; and to him these ambassadors were charged -with a friendly message. The viceroy of Portugal received them at -Lisbon with every attention. At Madrid they were received by Philip II -himself with the greatest marks of distinction. Having traversed Spain, -they embarked at Alicante, but were driven by a storm into the island -of Majorca, thereby escaping an Algerine fleet and a Turkish squadron, -both of which were cruising in that neighborhood. Sailing thence they -landed at Leghorn, where Pierro de’ Medici, brother of the grand duke -of Tuscany, was waiting to attend them. They spent the carnival at -Pisa, and thence by Florence proceeded towards Rome. - -Aquiviva, general of the Jesuits (the fourth successor of Loyola), -was very pressing with the Pope for a reception without display; but -Gregory XIII (the same to whom we owe the reform of the calendar) had -determined in consistory that the honor of the church and of the holy -see required a different course. The ambassadors were met at Viterbo -by the Pope’s light horse, and were escorted into the city by a long -cavalcade of Roman nobles. The whole of the corso up to Jesus, the -church and house of the Jesuits, where the ambassadors were to lodge, -was crowded with people, who greeted their arrival with deafening -shouts. As they alighted from their carriage, they were received -by Father Aquiviva, attended by all the Jesuits then at Rome, who -conducted them to the church, where _Te Deum_ was chanted. - -The next day a magnificent procession was formed to escort them to the -Vatican. It was headed by the light horse, followed by the Pope’s Swiss -guard, the officers of the cardinals, the carriages of the ambassadors -of Spain, France, Venice, and the Roman princes, the whole Roman -nobility on horseback, the pages and officers of the ambassadors, with -trumpets and cymbals, the chamberlains of the Pope, and the officers of -the palace, all in red robes. Then followed the Japanese on horseback, -in their national dress,[46] three silken gowns of a light fabric, -one over the other, of a white ground, splendidly embroidered with -fruits, leaves, and birds. In their girdles they wore the two swords, -symbols of Japanese gentility. Their heads, shaven, except the hair -round the ears and neck, which was gathered into a cue bent upwards, -had no covering. Their features were hardly less divergent from the -European standard than their dress, yet their whole expression, air, -and manner, modest and amiable, but with a conscious sentiment of -nobility, was such as impressed the bystanders very favorably. The -prince of Hyūga came first, between two archbishops. The prince of -Arima followed, between two bishops. Of their counsellors, one was kept -away by sickness, the other followed between two nobles, and after him -Father de Mesquita, the interpreter, also on horseback. A great number -of richly dressed courtiers closed the procession. The crowds, which -filled the streets and the windows, looked on in almost breathless -silence. As the ambassadors crossed the bridge of St. Angelo, all -the cannon of the castle were fired, to which those of the Vatican -responded, at which signal all the bands struck up, and continued to -play till the hall of audience was reached. - -The ambassadors approached the foot of the papal throne, each with the -letter of his prince in his hand. Prostrating themselves at the Pope’s -feet, they declared in Japanese, in a voice loud and distinct, that -they had come from the extremities of the earth to acknowledge in the -person of the Pope the vicar of Jesus Christ, and to render obedience -to him in the name of the princes of whom they were the envoys, and -also for themselves. The Father de Mesquita expressed in Latin what -they had said; but the appearance of the young men themselves, who -had essayed so many dangers and fatigues to come to pay their homage -to the holy see, was more expressive than any words; and it drew tears -and sobs from the greater part of the audience. The Pope himself, -greatly agitated, hastened to raise them up, kissed their foreheads, -and embraced them many times, dropping tears upon them. They were then -conducted to an alcove, while the secretary of the consistory read -the letters from the Japanese princes, which Father de Mesquita had -translated into Italian, and of which the following may serve as a -specimen: - - - “LETTER OF THE KING OF BUNGO, - - “_To him who ought to be adored and who holds the place of the King of - Heaven, the great and most holy Pope_. - - “Full of confidence in the grace of the supreme and almighty God, - I write, with all possible submission, to your Holiness. The Lord, - who governs heaven and earth, who holds under his empire the sun and - all the celestial host, has made his light to shine upon one who was - plunged in ignorance and buried in deep darkness. It is more than - thirty years since this sovereign Master of nature, displaying all the - treasures of his pity in favor of the inhabitants of these countries, - sent thither the fathers of the Company of Jesus, who have sowed - the seed of the divine Word in these kingdoms of Japan; and he has - pleased, in his infinite bounty, to cause a part of it to fall into my - heart: singular mercy, for which I think myself indebted, most holy - Father of all the faithful, as well to the prayers and merits of your - Holiness as to those of many others. If the wars which I have had to - sustain, my old age, and my infirmities had not prevented me, I should - myself have visited the holy places where you dwell, to render in - person the obedience which I owe you. I would have devotedly kissed - the feet of your Holiness, I would have placed them on my head, and - would have besought you to make with your sacred hand the august - sign of the cross on my heart. Constrained, by the reasons I have - mentioned, to deprive myself of a consolation so sweet, I did design - to send in my place Jerome, son of the king of Fiunga [Hyūga], and - my grandson; but as he was too far distant from my court, and as the - father-visitor could not delay his departure, I have substituted for - him Mancio, his cousin and my great-nephew. - - “I shall be infinitely obliged if your Holiness, holding upon earth - the place of God himself, shall continue to shed your favor upon me, - upon all Christians, and especially upon this little portion of the - flock committed to your care. I have received from the hand of the - father-visitor the reliquary with which your Holiness honored me, - and I have placed it on my head with much respect. I have no words - in which to express the gratitude with which I am penetrated for a - gift so precious. I will add no more, as the father-visitor and my - ambassador will more fully inform your Holiness as to all that regards - my person and my realm. I truly adore you, most holy Father, and I - write this to you trembling with respectful fear. The 11th day of - January, in the year of our Lord 1582. - - “FRANCIS, King of Bungo, - “prostrate at the foot of your Holiness.” - -The reading of this and of the other letters, translated into Italian, -was followed by a “Discourse on Obedience,” pronounced, in the name of -the princes and the ambassadors, by Father Gaspard Gonzales, a model of -rhetorical elegance and comprehensive brevity—whatever may be thought -of its ethical or theological doctrines—which some of the long-winded -speakers of the present day, both lay and clerical, would do well to -imitate. We give, as a specimen, a passage from the beginning: - - “Nature has separated Japan from the countries in which we now are, - by such an extent of land and sea, that, before the present age, - there were very few persons who had any knowledge of it; and even now - there are those who find it difficult to believe the accounts of it - which we give. It is certain, nevertheless, most holy Father, that - there are several Japanese islands, of a vast extent, and in these - islands numerous fine cities, the inhabitants of which have a keen - understanding, noble and courageous hearts, and obliging dispositions, - politeness of manners, and inclinations disposed towards that which - is good. Those who have known them have decidedly preferred them to - all the other people of Asia, and it is only their lack of the true - religion which prevents them from competing with the nations of Europe. - - “For some years past this religion has been preached to them, under - the authority of the holy see, by apostolical missionaries. Its - commencements were small, as in the case of the primitive church; but - God having given his blessing to this evangelical seed, it took root - in the hearts of the nobles, and of late, under the pontificate of - your Holiness, it has been received by the greatest lords, the princes - and kings of Japan. This, most holy Father, ought to console you, for - many reasons; but principally because, laboring as you do with an - indefatigable zeal and vigor to reëstablish a religion, shaken and - almost destroyed by the new heresies here in Europe, you see it take - root and make great progress in the most distant country of the world. - - “Hitherto your Holiness has heard, and with great pleasure, of the - abundant fruits borne by this vine newly planted, with so much labor, - at the extremities of the earth. Now you may see, touch, taste them, - in this august assembly, and impart of them to all the faithful. - What joy ought not all Christians to feel, and especially the Roman - people, at seeing the ambassadors of such great princes come from - the ends of the earth to prostrate themselves at the feet of your - Holiness, through a pure motive of religion,—a thing which has never - happened in any age! What satisfaction for them to see the most - generous and valiant kings of the East, conquered by the arms of the - faith and by the preaching of the gospel, submitting themselves to the - empire of Jesus Christ, and, as they cannot, from their avocations, - come in person to take the oath of obedience and fidelity to the holy - see, acquitting themselves of this duty by ambassadors so nearly - related to them, and whom they so tenderly love!” - -In the following passage the orator alludes more at length to the -revolt in Europe against the authority of the Pope, which Philip II, no -less than the Pope, was at this moment vigorously laboring to put down, -by the recent introduction of the Jesuits into the Netherlands, where -the Protestant rebels had been suppressed, by war against Holland, by -aiding the French leaguers, by countenancing the retrograde movement -then in rapid progress in Germany, and by preparing to carry out -against Elizabeth of England the sentence of deposition which the Pope -had fulminated against her. - - “O immortal God! What a stroke of thine arm! What an effect of thy - grace! In places so distant from the holy see, where the name of - Jesus had never been heard, nor his gospel ever preached, as soon - as the true faith shed there the first rays of the truth, men of - temperaments quite different from ours, kings illustrious by their - nobility, redoubtable for their power, happy in the abundance of their - possessions, conquerors and warriors signalized by their victories, - acknowledge the greatness and dignity of the Roman church, and hold - it a great honor to kiss the feet of the church’s head by the lips - of persons infinitely dear to them; all this happens while we see - men at our very gate blind and impious enough to wish to cut off - with a parricidal hand the head of the mystic body of Jesus Christ, - and to call in doubt, to their own ruin, the authority of the holy - see, established by Jesus Christ himself, confirmed by the course - of so many ages, defended by the writings of so many holy doctors, - recognized and approved by so many councils! - - “But it is not proper that I should give way to grief, or trouble the - joys of this day by the recollection of our miseries!” - -To this address, on behalf of the Japanese princes and their -ambassadors, Monseigneur Antony Bocapaduli replied in Latin, in the -Pope’s name, as follows: - - “His Holiness commands me, most noble lords, to say to you that - Dom Francis, king of Bungo, Dom Protais, king of Arima, and Dom - Barthelemi, prince of Ōmura, have acted like wise and religious - princes in sending you from the extremities of Asia to acknowledge - the power with which God’s bounty hath clothed him on the earth, - since there is but one faith, one church universal, and but a single - chief and supreme pastor, whose authority extends to all parts of the - earth where there are Christians, which pastor and only head is the - bishop of Rome, the successor of St. Peter. He is charmed to see that - they believe firmly and profess aloud this truth, with all the other - articles that compose the Catholic faith. He gives ceaseless thanks - to the divine goodness which has wrought these marvels; and this joy - appears to him so much the more legitimate, as it has its foundation - in the zeal by which he is animated for the glory of the Almighty, and - the salvation of souls which the incarnate Word has purchased with his - blood. This is why this venerable pontiff and all the sacred college - of the cardinals of the Roman church receive, with a truly paternal - affection, the protestation which you make to the vicar of Jesus - Christ of faith, filial devotion, and obedience, on the part of the - princes whom you represent. His Holiness earnestly desires and prays - to God that all the kings and princes of Japan, and all those who - rule in other parts of the world, may imitate so good an example, may - renounce their idols and all their errors, may adore in spirit and in - truth the sovereign Lord who has created this universe, and his only - son, Jesus Christ, whom he has sent into the world; since it is in - this knowledge and this faith that eternal life consists.” - -The reply finished, the ambassadors were conducted around to the foot -of the throne, and again kissed the feet of the Pope; after which the -cardinals, drawing near, embraced them, and put to them many questions -as to their travels and the rarities of their country: questions to -which they replied with so much sense and acuteness as to cause no -little admiration. - -At length the Pope rose, exclaiming, _Nunc dimittis servum tuum, -Domine_ (which might by a pious Catholic be taken as a prophecy of -his approaching death). The two chief ambassadors, who were of the -blood royal, were directed to lift up the train of his robes,—an -honor monopolized, as far as the princes of Europe were concerned, -by the ambassador of the emperor. The holy father having been thus -conducted to his apartment, the cardinal St. Sixtus, his nephew, the -cardinal Guastavillani, and the duke of Sora entertained the Japanese -at a magnificent dinner. A private audience followed, in which the -ambassadors delivered the presents they had brought, and the Pope -announced that he had endowed the proposed new seminary at Fuchū with -an annual dotation of four thousand Roman crowns. - -Gregory XIII died a few days after;[47] but his successor, Sixtus V, -who, as cardinal of Monte Alto, had taken greatly to the Japanese, was -not less favorable to them as Pope. They assisted, among the other -ambassadors of kings, at his coronation, bearing the canopy and holding -the basin for his Holiness to wash in when he said mass. They had the -same honors when the pontiff was enthroned at Saint John Lateran. The -holy father afterwards invited them to visit his country-house, where -they were splendidly entertained and regaled on his behalf by his -steward and four-and-twenty prelates. - -Finally, on the eve of the Ascension, in the presence of all the Roman -nobility, they were dubbed knights of the gilded spurs. The Pope -himself girded on their swords, while the spurs of the two princes -were buckled on by the ambassadors of France and Venice, and those of -the two others by the Marquis Altemps; after which the Pope placed -about their necks chains of gold, to which his medal was attached, -and kissed and embraced them. The next day his Holiness said mass in -person, and they communicated from his hand. He dismissed them with -briefs, addressed to their princes, of which the following may serve as -a sample: - - - “BRIEF OF POPE SIXTUS V TO THE KING OF ARIMA - - “_Noble prince and our well-beloved son, salvation and apostolical - benediction._ - - “Our well-beloved son Dom Michael, your ambassador to this court, - delivered to Pope Gregory XIII, our predecessor, of holy and happy - memory, now, as we must presume, in glory, the letters with which your - majesty had charged him; and after these letters had been publicly - read, he rendered to that pontiff the obedience due to the vicar of - Jesus Christ, and which all Catholic kings are accustomed to render - to him. This was done in presence of all the cardinals of the holy - church, then assembled at Rome, of which number we were. A greater - concourse of persons of all conditions, and a greater public joy, had - never been seen. Shortly after, it having pleased God to charge us, - without our having in the least merited it, with the government of - His church, we have also received with entirely paternal tenderness - the same duties of obedience which Dom Michael has renewed to us, in - the name of your majesty; whereupon we have thought proper to add - you to the number of our very dear children, the Catholic kings of - the holy church. We have seen, with much joy and satisfaction, the - testimonies of your piety and religion; and, to give you the means of - increasing these in your heart, we have sent you, by your before-named - ambassador, inclosed in a cross of gold, a piece of the cross to which - was nailed Jesus Christ, King of kings and eternal Priest, who, by - the effusion of his blood, has made us also kings and priests of the - living God. We send you, also, a sword and hat, which we have blessed, - such as it is the custom of the Roman pontiff to send to all the - Catholic kings, and we pray the Lord to be the support of your majesty - in all your enterprises. According to the usage in the courts of the - kings of Europe, the sword and hat should be received at the end of - a mass, to which we shall attach a plenary indulgence for all sins - for the benefit of all who may assist thereat, and who, after having - confessed themselves, shall pray for the tranquillity of the Catholic - church, the salvation of the Christian princes, and the extirpation of - heresies—provided they have a true confidence in the divine mercy, in - the power which has been given to the holy apostles Peter and Paul, - and in that with which we are clothed. Given at Rome, at St. Peter’s, - under the seal of the fisherman,” etc. - -From Rome, escorted out of the city with all honors, the ambassadors -went by way of Loretto, where they paid their devotions, to Venice, -and thence to Milan and Genoa, at which latter place they embarked -for Barcelona. They declined, as they had been so long from home, a -pressing invitation from Henry III to visit France, and, after a new -audience with Philip II, they hastened to sail from Lisbon on their -return voyage, embarking April 13, 1586.[48] - - - - -CHAPTER XI - - _Events meanwhile in Japan—Downfall of Nobunaga—Accession of Hashiba, - afterwards known as Kwambacudono, and, finally, as Taikōsama—Edict - against the Jesuits—Return of the Ambassadors—A. D. 1582-1588._ - - -While the ambassadors were on their way to Europe, great changes had -taken place in the Japanese islands. A few months after they had sailed -from Nagasaki, Akechi Mitsuhide, a favorite general of Nobunaga’s, -had marched from Miyako to join Hashiba Hideyoshi, another favorite -general, employed in prosecuting the war against Nagato. The stern -severity of Nobunaga had rendered him very unpopular, of which Akechi -took advantage to turn about and attack him, left as he was at Miyako -almost without troops. Nobunaga, thus betrayed and surprised, having -no other resource, set fire to his palace, and perished in it, June -15, 1580, with his eldest son. His second son, overwhelmed by this -disaster, went mad, and in that condition set fire to his father’s -patrimonial palace at Azuchiyama, thus kindling a conflagration which -consumed almost the entire city, including a splendid temple, which -Nobunaga had lately erected there, and in which, suspending all other -worship by edict, he had required divine honors to be paid to a stone -graven with his arms[49] and other devices. To the missionaries, who -had all along counted upon making a convert of Nobunaga, this step -had caused no less horror than surprise; and they found in it a ready -explanation of the sudden ruin which had overtaken himself and his -family, especially as his eldest son had been the first to pay the -required worship. - -Akechi now aspired to succeed the master he had betrayed and -overthrown; but he was defeated by Ukondono [Kōyama Ukon], another -general, a nephew of the Wada, who had played so conspicuous a part in -previous revolutions, and a convert to the Catholic faith, who united -with Hashiba to revenge their master’s death, the latter marching upon -Miyako in the name of the late emperor’s third son, whom he proclaimed -as Kubō-Sama, reserving, however, to himself all real authority; and -thus again was Japan, as during part of Nobunaga’s reign, furnished -with two “idle kings,”—a Dairi and a titular Kubō-Sama,—while the real -power was in the hands of a third party. - -Hashiba’s own very humble birth made him the more willing to begin, at -first, with ruling in the name of another. Originally he was but a mere -private soldier, who, having attracted the attention of Nobunaga, as -well by his wit and drollery as by his courage and sagacity, had been -gradually raised by him to the highest commands. This founder of the -Japanese imperial authority, as it now exists, is described as having -been short, but quite fat, and exceedingly strong, with six fingers on -each hand, and something frightful in his face, his eyes protruding in -a strange manner. It was he who completed what Nobunaga had begun, and -who first gave to Japan, at least in modern times, a real and effective -emperor, ruling supreme over the whole territory. - -The son of Nobunaga, being restless under the humiliation to which he -was reduced, was deprived of his place as Kubō-Sama, and obliged to be -satisfied with the island of Shikoku, the smaller of the three larger -Japanese islands which his father had assigned him as an appanage, -while Hashiba declared himself the guardian of an infant child of -Nobunaga’s eldest son, whom he set up as titular Kubō-Sama. - -He showed at first the same favor to the Catholics as his predecessor -had done, and the more so as Ukondono, his confederate against the -rebel Akechi, was himself a convert, as were others of his great -vassals and principal officers of his court and army. - -As the son of Nobunaga could not keep quiet, he was presently stripped -of all authority, though his life was spared, and Hashiba, assuming -to himself the high title of Kwambakudono, strengthened himself still -further by marrying a daughter of the Dairi. - -Desirous to outdo his predecessor in everything, he converted Ōsaka, -which had, till lately subdued by Nobunaga, been under the rule of a -bonze, into a great city, and he built in its neighborhood a great -stone castle. To this city, made his capital, the Jesuit seminary, -originally established in the now ruined Azuchiyama, was removed, -another being also set up in the neighboring city of Sakai. The king -of Nagato was even induced to allow the reintroduction of missionaries -into his territories. The king of Bungo having appealed to Hashiba for -aid against his neighbors, the converted general Kodera Yoshitaka, the -chief commander of his cavalry, whom he sent to Shimo, not only rescued -the young king, Yoshimune, from his enemies, the kings of Chikuzen and -Satsuma, who had taken his capital and ravaged his territories, but -succeeded also in bringing up to the point of baptism that fickle and -inconstant prince, who had long been a great trial to the missionaries, -as well as to his pious father Civan, who, having given up to him the -reins of government, had been treated thenceforth with very little -respect. The result of this interference also was to reduce the whole -of Shimo to the power of the emperor, who now reigned supreme over -Shimo, Sikoku, and all the western part of Nippon, though still obliged -to pay a certain deference and respect to the pretensions and power of -the local kings and princes, whom, however, he required to be frequent -attendants on his court, and to leave their wives and children there as -hostages, and whose authority and consequence he sought by all means to -diminish. - -Peace thus reëstablished, everything seemed to favor the spread of -Catholicity, when, all of a sudden, and in the most unexpected manner, -in the month of July, 1587, the emperor signed an order for the -banishment of the missionaries; and because Ukondono would not renounce -his religion (at least such was the ostensible cause), stripped him at -once of his place and his property. Father Cuello, the vice-provincial, -was ordered to assemble all the missionaries at Hirado; and, in -obedience to his order, they collected there to the number of about -one hundred and twenty, only Father Gnecchi remaining concealed at -Ōsaka, and one brother in Bungo. But when the emperor commanded them -to embark on board a Portuguese vessel about to sail, they resolved -not to obey. A few indeed went on board and sailed for China; but the -greater part remained, a message being sent to the emperor that the -vessel could not carry the others; to which he responded by ordering -all the churches in Miyako, Ōsaka, and Sakai to be destroyed. The -converted princes, however, in general, stood firm, except Yoshimune, -king of Bungo; and even the unconverted ones are said to have protested -against the emperor’s edict as in violation of the freedom of religious -opinion heretofore allowed. The missionaries, in disguise, were -distributed through the territories of their adherents. The emperor’s -grand admiral, Konishi Settsu-no-Kami, who was viceroy of Shimo, -though himself a convert, still kept the confidence of the emperor, as -did also Kodera, the chief commander of his cavalry. The Portuguese -merchants were admitted as before. After a little while the emperor -seemed disposed to wink at the conduct of the converted princes, and -the missionaries soon began to conceive hopes that, by caution on -their part, the work of conversion might still go on, the stimulus of -a prohibition not very strictly enforced, more than supplying all the -benefits hitherto derived from the _éclat_ of imperial favor. - -Some difficulty about obtaining recruits for the imperial seraglio, -especially from the province of Hizen, celebrated for its handsome -women, but in which the converts were numerous, was said to have -provoked the emperor, in a fit of drunken fury, to put forth so -suddenly his edict of persecution. But, in fact, his policy brooked -no power but his own. He did not fancy a religion which taught his -subjects to look up with implicit reverence to a distant and foreign -potentate; nor probably was his hostility to the Jesuits much different -in substance from that sentiment which had caused Henry VIII, of -England, fifty years earlier, to break with the holy see—a breach also -ascribed by the Catholics to amorous passion. - -But the cautious and artful emperor, who, however he might give way to -sudden fits of violence and caprice, was a perfect master of all the -arts of dissimulation, knowing, as well as Bonaparte, if not better, -how to wait till the pear was ripe, was not yet wholly prepared to -break with the converted kings and nobles, whom he found, perhaps, as -well as the humbler converts, more attached to their faith than he -had supposed. There were too many inflammable materials in his yet -unconsolidated empire for him to run the risk of provoking a rebellion; -and, besides, there still remained to be subdued eight independent -provinces in the east and north of Nippon, including a kingdom of five -provinces, in which were situated the great cities of Suruga and Yedo. - -The conquest of this kingdom was speedily achieved, partly by arts and -partly by arms. A new palace was erected for the Dairi, in place of -the old one, which had been burnt during the late troubles at Miyako. -A splendid temple had also been built near that city, in which it was -suspected that the emperor intended to cause himself to be worshipped, -as his predecessor had done; when, in August, 1588, Father Valignani, -appointed ambassador to the emperor and kings of Japan, from the -Portuguese viceroy of Goa, arrived at Macao, on his way to Nagasaki, -having in his company the returning ambassadors to the Pope, who had -touched at Goa on their way home, and who had stopped there a whole -year before proceeding for Japan.[50] - - - - -CHAPTER XII - - _Recapitulation—Extent of the Japanese Empire—Valignani arrives - at Nagasaki—Progress hitherto of the Catholic Faith—The Emperor’s - Projects against China—Valignani’s Visit to the Emperor at - Miyako—Ukondono—The returned Japanese Ambassadors—Audience given - to Valignani—The Viceroy’s Letter—The Interpreter Rodriguez—A. D. - 1588-1593._ - - -The Japanese islands had been found by Xavier and his successors -divided into numerous principalities, which, though they acknowledged -a nominal subordination to one imperial head, were substantially -independent, and engaged in perpetual wars with each other. The -superior abilities of two successive military usurpers,—Nobunaga, -who ruled from 1567 to 1582, and Hashiba Hideyoshi, who took first -the title of Kwambacudono, and subsequently that of Taikō-Sama—had -consolidated these numerous states into a real empire, embracing then -as now the three principal islands of Nippon, Shimo (or Kiūshiū), and -Shikoku, with many smaller ones, and some claims also of authority over -parts, at least, of the large northerly island of Matsumaye, or Yezo, -the latter the aboriginal name. - -Among the dependencies, at present, of the Japanese empire, are -reckoned at the north, besides this island, the southern half of the -large island or peninsula of Sakhalin, called by the Japanese Oku Yezo -(upper Jeso), or, as Siebold says, Karafuto, and the three smaller -Kurile islands, Kunajiri, Etoropu, and Uruppu, numbered on the Russian -charts as the 20th, 19th, and 18th Kurile islands, and the two latter -called by the Dutch _State’s Island_ and _Company’s Island_. On the -south, the Lew Chew Islands form, or did form (for the Japanese seem -lately to have renounced their claim of sovereignty), a dependency -of the kingdom of Satsuma. But all these are of comparatively recent -acquisition, subsequent to the accession of Hashiba. It is said, -indeed, on Japanese authority, that Yezo was first invaded in 1443 by -the Japanese family of Matsumae; but it is apparent from missionary -letters that in 1620 it was a recent settlement. The Japanese annals -date the conquest of the Lew Chew Islands from the year 1610; and, -according to Golownin, the Japanese settlements on Sakhalin have been -subsequent to the voyage of La Perouse in 1782. - -Of Nippon, at least equal in extent to Great Britain, and with a -population nearer, it would seem, to that of Great Britain now -than to what that island could boast in the reign of Elizabeth, -the missionaries were as yet acquainted only with the southwestern -part—their establishments being confined to the kingdom of Nagato, at -its western extremity, where it is separated from Shimo by a narrow -strait, and to the great cities of Miyako, Ōsaka, and Sakai, situated -towards the middle of the southern coast. Many princes, nobles, and -large landed proprietors had fallen under the influence of the Jesuits, -and had professed the new faith; but it does not appear that either in -Nippon or in the adjoining island of Shikoku (about equal in extent -to Sicily) any considerable progress had been made in converting the -rural population. It was in the island of Shimo, the westernmost in -situation and the second in size (two-thirds as large as Ireland), that -the new religion had taken the firmest root. The kingdom of Bungo, -indeed almost the whole of the eastern portion of that island, was -thoroughly indoctrinated with the new faith; and such was still more -the case with the kingdom of Arima and the principality of Ōmura, -embracing that great southwestern peninsula itself, divided into three -smaller peninsulas by two deep bays, one opening to the south and the -other to the west, at the head of the latter of which is situated the -city of Nagasaki. - -[Illustration: PAINTING OF TAIKŌ SAMA] - -Founded in 1579 by converts to the new faith, and made the centre of -the Portuguese trade to Japan, as well as of the Jesuit missions, -Nagasaki had grown up with great rapidity; nor was any other worship -practised in it except that of the new religion. It had become the -largest and most important town in Shimo; and, since the recent -subjection of that island to the imperial authority, according to the -new policy of weakening the local princes, the emperor had assumed the -appointment of its governor,—Nagasaki being placed, along with Miyako, -Ōsaka, and Sakai in the list of imperial towns. - -At the date of the edict, so unexpectedly issued in 1587, for the -banishment of the Jesuits, there were in Japan three hundred members -of the company, a novitiate, a college, two preparatory seminaries for -the education of young nobles designed for the church, two hundred -and fifty churches, and a number of converts, amounting, probably, to -between two and three hundred thousand, though the estimate of the -Jesuits was much larger. Notwithstanding the apostasy of Yoshimune, -the young king of Bungo (whose father, Civan, had died just before the -emperor’s edict had appeared), the numerous converts in that kingdom -remained firm in the faith. That zealous Catholic, the prince of -Ōmura, had also lately deceased; but the young prince, his only son -and successor, who had been educated by the Jesuits, was hardly less -zealous than his father had been. The king of Arima also continued -steady in the faith. It was this king who, along with the deceased king -of Bungo and the deceased prince of Ōmura, had sent the ambassadors -to the Pope, of whose visit to Europe an account has been given in a -preceding chapter, and whom the last chapter left at Macao, on their -return to Japan, in company with Father Valignani, who had been deputed -by the viceroy of Goa as his ambassador to the emperor. - -It was at Macao that Valignani and his companions learned the news of -the edict for the banishment of the Jesuits. It was said at Macao that -the emperor was a good deal mollified, and seemed inclined to wink -at the general disregard of his edict; yet as Valignani was himself -a Jesuit, and had once already visited Japan in that character, he -did not judge it best to proceed to Japan till he had first obtained -express permission to do so. On the representations of the Christian -princes, who put forward Valignani’s character as ambassdor, the -emperor readily consented to receive him; and, accompanied by the -returning Japanese envoys and some twenty Jesuits, he landed at -Nagasaki, in June, 1590, where he was received with great affection -by the converted princes of Shimo, and by Father Gomez, who, on the -death of Cuello, had succeeded to the post of vice-provincial. The -emperor, in the late redistribution of the kingdoms of that island, -had liberally provided for Konishi Settsu-no-kami, the grand admiral, -and for Kodera, his general of horse, both of whom, notwithstanding -their continued adhesion to the new faith, still retained his favor. -To Konishi he had given the kingdom of Higo, and to Kodera that of -Buzen, so that almost the whole of the island of Shimo was now ruled -by converted princes. Even the changeable Yoshimune, not finding his -apostasy so advantageous as he had expected, soon sought and presently -obtained a reconciliation to the church. The king of Hirado was not -friendly, but he was kept in check by the number of converts among -his subjects, especially by a very zealous converted wife, a sister -of the prince of Ōmura—whom he complained of as having more influence -over his kingdom than himself,—and also by his fear of driving off the -Portuguese merchants, who still occasionally visited his island. - -Notwithstanding the emperor’s edict of expulsion, there still remained -in Japan a hundred and forty Jesuits, including those lately brought -by Valignani. The seminary of nobles at Ōsaka had been broken up, most -of the pupils retiring with their teachers; but the other seminary -in the kingdom of Arima was still maintained, being, for greater -security, removed to a retired spot surrounded with wood. The college -and novitiate, for similar reasons, were transferred to the island -of Amakusa. Besides these, the Jesuits had twenty other houses of -residence. Those districts in which the missionaries had no settled -establishments they supplied by frequent journeys, which they made -secretly, and generally in disguise, being assisted also by a great -number of adroit and zealous native catechists, who not only maintained -the fervor of the old converts, but daily added new ones to the number. -This employment of catechist was held in great honor in the church of -Japan. None were admitted into it except persons of approved virtue, -generally young men of family and promise, devoted by their parents -from their infancy to a service upon which they entered for life, -being ordained with much ceremony, and wearing a garb similar to that -of the missionaries with whom they lived in community, observing the -same rules. Conversions still continued to be made among the upper -as well as among the lower classes, and the numerous adherents to -the new faith, or favorers of it, in the court and household of the -emperor, including even the empress, carefully watched and reported -to the missionaries every word or hint dropped by him, from which his -disposition and intentions might be conjectured. - -At this moment the emperor’s thoughts seemed a good deal withdrawn from -domestic affairs, being engrossed by a war, which he had determined to -commence by invading Corea, a dependency of the Chinese empire, and the -part of the continent of Asia nearest to Japan. For this purpose he was -constructing a fleet at a port of Shimo, on the strait of Corea. Not -long after Valignani’s arrival at Nagasaki, leave was obtained for him -to visit the emperor’s court at Miyako; but his friends there advised -that, instead of ecclesiastics, his retinue should be composed as much -as possible of Portuguese merchants. The merchants at Nagasaki entered -zealously into the affair, and not less than twenty-seven of them -accompanied Valignani, in the style of great lords, sparing no expense -to give magnificence to the ambassador’s train. He took with him also -four priests, some young Japanese Jesuits not yet ordained, and the -four returned youthful ambassadors. These ambassadors had learned to -sing in the European style, and chanted church music tolerably well. -They also had with them a great show of maps, globes, clocks, watches, -and other European curiosities, which attracted much attention. Their -description of what they had seen and heard made a deep impression -upon the princes and nobles, who flocked from all quarters to see them. -And there was ample leisure for this, as the approach of the ambassador -to Miyako was delayed for more than two months by the death of the -emperor’s only son. - -In this interval Valignani had the pleasure of a visit from the -disgraced Ukondono, whose face he was rejoiced to see lighted up with -an air of content rarely seen among those on whom the favors of fortune -are most prodigally showered. He protested that the happiest day in -his life was that on which he had lost everything for Jesus Christ. He -communicated to Father Valignani a design he had formed of quitting -the world altogether, and consecrating himself entirety to the service -of God; but besides that he had a wife and a numerous family, whom his -retreat would have left without resource, the father considered that -he was much younger than the emperor; that if reëstablished in his -offices and his possessions, he might render much greater services to -the church by remaining in the world than by quitting it, and on that -ground he advised Ukondono not to withdraw from that station in life in -which Providence had placed him. - -At last the emperor consented to admit Valignani to an audience, but -only on condition that he should say nothing about religion or the -revocation of the edict against the Jesuits. Through the care of -Kodera, to whom that business had been entrusted, the embassy was -received at Miyako with all honor, and was able to make a display -which strongly impressed the inhabitants, and even the emperor in its -favor. On the day of audience, Gon-dainagon Hidetsugu, the emperor’s -nephew and presumptive heir, attended by a great number of lords, -met the ambassador, and conducted him to the hall of audience. This -hall, which opened upon a magnificent balcony, before which spread a -parterre of great beauty, consisted of five several divisions, rising, -like steps, one above the other. The first served as an antechamber, or -hall of waiting, for the gentlemen in attendance. In the two next were -assembled the lords of the court and the great officers of the empire, -arranged in order, according to their rank. In the fourth, there were -only two persons, a priest who held the first dignity in the household -of the Dairi, and the chief counsellor of that same dignitary; by the -side of whom Gon-dainagon also took his place, after introducing the -ambassador to the fifth and highest apartment, in which the emperor was -seated alone, on his heels, in the Japanese fashion upon an elevated -throne, approached by steps on all sides. Father Valignani was preceded -by one of the Portuguese gentlemen of his suite, bearing the letter of -the Indies, written in gilded letters upon fine vellum, with a golden -seal attached to it, the whole enclosed in a little box beautifully -wrought. That letter was as follows: - - -LETTER OF THE VICEROY OF GOA TO THE EMPEROR OF JAPAN. - - “MOST SERENE EMPEROR: Though the great space that separates us has - not hitherto allowed me much communication with your majesty, yet - fame and the religious men who labor in your empire to make known - the law of the true God to your subjects, have informed me of the - great deeds done by you, and of the victories which have made you - the greatest monarch who has reigned in Japan for ages; and I have - therefore thought it my duty to congratulate your majesty on the happy - successes with which the God of heaven has favored you. The same - religious men, who are, for the most part, natural-born subjects of - the great prince whom the Indies obey, and who go through the earth - with a truly heroical courage to teach men to know and to adore the - Author of nature, have also informed me of the distinguished favors - with which your majesty has uniformly honored them, and have begged me - to convey to you their thanks, which I willingly do, conjointly with - my own; and that, indeed, is the particular object of this embassy, - with which I have charged the Father Alexander Valignani, who has the - honor to be already known to you. After rendering to your majesty - his humblest thanks for your past favors, he will supplicate you, in - my name, to vouchsafe to continue them; and I dare to assure your - majesty that subjects for your favors cannot be found who will merit - them better. Favors to them I shall esteem as favors to me, and shall - take every opportunity to acknowledge them as such. I have charged my - ambassador to present you with two Arabian genets, with their housings - and harness, two swords, and two guns of a new fashion, two webs of - tapestry embroidered with gold, and two complete suits of wrought - steel armor, a dagger, which serves also as a pistol, and a tent for - country excursions. - - “At Goa, this year of Redemption, 1587. - - DOM EDWARD DE MENESEZ.”[51] - -The presents seemed greatly to please the emperor, by whom they were -carefully examined. A signal being given, Valignani was led up the -steps of the throne to the emperor’s feet, whom, on bended knee, he -saluted, after the European fashion, by kissing his hand,—a privilege -to which all the members of his suite were admitted in succession, the -ambassador being meanwhile seated in the third compartment among the -grandees of the court. Tea was then served to the emperor in a gilded -cup, which, after sipping from it a little, he sent to the ambassador, -who, at the same time, received, by way of present, a hundred silver -platters and four silk dresses. Presents were also distributed among -the members of his suite. The emperor then retired, first directing his -nephew to entertain the ambassador at dinner, which he did, but with -more of ceremony than good cheer. The guests consisted of three members -of the imperial family and eight other great lords, all eating, each -from his own little table or salver, in profound silence, many persons -of inferior rank standing about them. The ambassador’s suite were -entertained at the same time in a separate apartment. - -After dinner the emperor again made his appearance in undress, and, -seating himself beside Father Valignani, conversed with him for some -time. He also conversed freely with the four returned Japanese, and -seemed much pleased at hearing them sing and play in the European -fashion. He made great offers to one of them; but they had all made up -their minds to enter the company of the Jesuits, which, in spite of a -good deal of opposition on the part of their friends and relations, -they presently did.[52] Passing into the hall where the ambassador’s -suite had dined, the emperor addressed them with great familiarity, -and they improved the opportunity to complain of some oppressions, on -the part of the collector of the port of Nagasaki, which he promised -should be redressed.[53] In the evening, Rodriguez, a young Portuguese -Jesuit, who acted as one of Valignani’s interpreters, was sent for -to show the emperor how to wind up a clock which the ambassador had -presented to him. The emperor seemed much pleased with Rodriguez’s -conversation, detaining him till late at night. On dismissing him he -bade him say to Father Valignani that he was at liberty to remain at -Miyako or wherever he pleased, till an answer to the viceroy’s letter -was prepared, but that he must take care that the ecclesiastics who -accompanied him comported themselves with discretion, so as not to -drive him into striking disagreeable blows. Not long after Rodriguez -was selected as the emperor’s interpreter, in which capacity he became -attached to the court, and, by his access to the emperor and influence -with him, had opportunities of rendering essential service to his -order. - - - - -CHAPTER XIII - - _New Troubles of the Missionaries from their own Countrymen—The - Emperor claims Homage of the Governor of the Philippines—Mutual - Jealousies of the Portuguese and Spaniards—Spanish Adventurers in - Japan—The Emperor’s Suspicions excited—His Reply to the Viceroy of - Goa.—A. D. 1591-1592._ - - -Valignani’s gracious reception greatly raised the hopes of the Japanese -converts. But much annoyance was soon experienced from two pagan -lords, who had been appointed joint governors of Nagasaki. Nor was it -pagan hostility alone which the Jesuits had to dread. Enemies even -more dangerous were found among their own countrymen in Japan, many -of whom had ceased to exhibit that zeal for the faith, at first so -universal. The irregular conduct of certain Portuguese merchants, in -frequenting ports where there were no missionaries, and where they -could freely follow their own devices, had greatly troubled the Jesuit -fathers. A Japanese adventurer, by name Harada Kiyemon, having gone -to the Philippines to trade, had taken it into his head to suggest to -the emperor of Japan to require the Spanish governor of those islands -to acknowledge him as sovereign. This idea, conveyed to the emperor -through a Japanese courtier with whom Harada was intimate, was eagerly -caught at by a prince rendered vain by the elevation to which he had -attained, and whose head was filled with schemes for still further -extending his empire. He wrote an imperious letter to the governor -of the Philippines, demanding his homage, and despatched it by the -hand of Harada, who applied to Father Valignani, to write to the -Jesuits at Manila, and to the Spanish governor, in furtherance of this -project. Valignani refused to write any such letters, alleging as an -ostensible reason, that he had no acquaintance with the governor of -the Philippines, nor authority over the Jesuits of Manila; and, in -consequence of this refusal, Harada did not venture to carry the letter -himself, but sent it by another hand. Valignani wrote, however, by a -simultaneous opportunity, to the Jesuits of Manila, informing them of -this affair, suggesting its delicate character, and the expediency, -while due care was had of the honor of the Spanish crown, of not giving -to the emperor of Japan any pretence for renewing his persecution of -the missionaries. - -Notwithstanding the union of the crowns of Spain and Portugal upon the -head of Philip II, a very fierce jealousy and hatred continued to exist -between the two nations; and this feeling was particularly violent at -Manila, which city, founded in 1572, was almost contemporaneous in -its origin with Nagasaki, and whose merchants looked very enviously -at the monopoly of the trade to Japan secured to the Portuguese, -and to the city of Macao, by the terms of the union between the two -crowns.[54] This express exclusion of all Spanish merchants from Japan -had been indeed already broken through, in at least two instances, by -the arrival of one Jean de Solis from Peru, by way of Macao, and of -another Spanish merchant from the Philippines, both of whom, after -various adventures, and receiving aid and services from the Jesuit -missionaries, had reached Nagasaki. Solis soon after proceeded to -Satsuma on the southern coast of Shimo, where he commenced building -a vessel in which to trade to China and thence to Peru,—a project in -which he was presently joined by the other Spaniard. But to carry out -this scheme it became necessary for Solis to get back a sum of money -which he had been compelled to deposit in the hands of the Portuguese, -at Nagasaki, as security for certain debts which he had contracted at -Macao; and because Father Valignani would not help them in this matter, -the two Spaniards threatened to give information to the emperor of the -large number of Jesuits still in Japan, in violation of his edict, and -to denounce the princes who gave them shelter. - -The emperor, meanwhile, had been a good deal soured and his suspicions -excited by some suggestions, thrown out by the enemies of the Jesuits, -that Valignani was no real ambassador, that being a mere pretence -to secure his entry into Japan. Means, indeed, had been found to -quiet him upon this head, to which the representations of Rodriguez -greatly contributed; but the answer which he caused to be prepared -to the viceroy’s letter, took so high a tone, and was so filled with -invectives against the missionaries, that Valignani was unwilling to be -the bearer of it. - -Finally, by the persuasions of the governor of Miyako, an idolater, but -favorable to the new religion, the emperor was induced to modify his -letter; and he even adopted a crafty suggestion of Rodriguez that the -Jesuits whom Valignani had brought with him should remain at Nagasaki -as hostages, till the authenticity of his mission was placed beyond -question. The letter, as finally modified, a frank exposition of -Taikō’s policy, was in the following terms: - - -TAIKŌ-SAMA TO THE VICEROY OF GOA. - - “MOST ILLUSTRIOUS LORD: I received with pleasure the letter which you - wrote me, and in reading it seemed to realize that great distance - between us of which you speak. Japan contains more than sixty realms - or principalities, which have been for a long time agitated by - troubles and civil wars, growing out of the refusal of the princes - to render to their sovereign lord the obedience which they owe him. - The sight of so many evils sensibly afflicted me from my earliest - age, and I resolved in my mind a remedy for them; and with that view - I laboriously applied myself to the acquisition of three virtues - the most necessary for so great an undertaking. In the first place, - I studied affability, so as to gain all hearts. Next I strove to - accustom myself to judge soundly of all things, and to comport myself - at all times with prudence and discretion. In the third place, I have - omitted no occasion of inspiring a high idea of my valor. Thus have - I succeeded in subjecting all Japan to my authority, which I govern - with a mildness equal to the courage displayed in subduing it. I have - especially caused the effects of my tenderness to be felt by the - laborers who cultivate the earth. All my severity is reserved for - those who deviate from the paths of virtue. Nothing is more tranquil - than Japan at this moment, and it is this tranquillity which makes - it strong. This vast monarchy is like a firmly fixed rock; all the - efforts of its enemies cannot shake it. So, not only am I at peace at - home, but even very distant countries send to render me the obedience - which is my due. I expect soon to conquer China, and as I have no - doubt of succeeding in it, I hope we shall soon be much nearer to each - other, and that the communication between us will not be so difficult. - - “As to what regards religion, Japan is the realm of the Kami, that - is, of Shin, the beginning of all things; and the good order of the - government depends upon the exact observance of the ancient laws of - which the Kami are the authors. They cannot be departed from without - overturning the subordination which ought to exist, of subjects to - their sovereign, wives to their husbands, children to their parents, - vassals to their lords, and servants to their masters. These laws are - necessary to maintain good order within and tranquillity without. - The fathers, called the Company, have come to these islands to teach - another religion; but as that of the Kami is too deeply rooted to - be eradicated, this new law can only serve to introduce into Japan - a diversity of worship very prejudicial to the state. It is on that - account that, by an imperial edict, I have forbidden these strange - doctors to continue to preach their doctrine. I have even ordered - them to leave Japan, and I am determined not to allow anybody to come - thither to retail new opinions. But I still desire that commerce, as - between you and me, may continue on its old footing. I shall keep the - way open to you both by sea and land, by freeing the one from pirates - and the other from robbers. The Portuguese may trade with my subjects - in all security, and I shall take care that nobody harms them. All the - presents mentioned in your letter have been faithfully delivered; and - I send you in return some rarities of this country, of which a list is - annexed. For other matters I refer you to your ambassador, and will - therefore say no more. Dated the 25th year of the era Tenshō, and the - 25th of the 7th month.”[55] - -It would seem from this letter and from what we know of the actual -policy adopted by Taikō-Sama and his predecessor Nobunaga that, in -seeking to reëstablish the imperial authority on its old traditional -basis, they had aimed also at reëdifying the old national religion. -Nobunaga had treated the Buddhist bonzes with very great severity; and, -though the policy of Taikō was less bloody, they do not appear to have -enjoyed any share of his favor; and it is to be observed that in his -letter he speaks exclusively of the religion of the Kami as the creed -proper to Japan. The assurances on the subject of commerce seemed the -more necessary on account of a dispute which had arisen between the -governors of Nagasaki and the commander of the annual Portuguese ship, -which, however, on appeal to the emperor, had been settled against -the governors. The presents that accompanied this letter were two -suits of Japanese armor, not so strong as the armor of Europe, but -very handsome, a kind of esponton or halbert, enclosed in a scabbard -of gold, and a sabre and poniard of the highest temper, and richly -ornamented. - - - - -CHAPTER XIV - - _The Expedition against Corea—The Emperor associates his Nephew—City - of Fushimi—Correspondence of the Emperor with the Governor of - Manila—The Jesuits denounced by the Spanish Envoys—Consequences - thereof—Departure of Valignani—A. D. 1592._ - - -Meanwhile, an army of eighty thousand men,[56] divided into four -corps, had been raised for the war against Corea; and not to leave the -country without a head, should the emperor choose himself to lead the -invading forces, he took his nephew [Hidetsugu by name] as an associate -in the empire, resigning to him the title of Kwambacudono, while he -assumed for himself that of Taikō-Sama, the title by which this most -illustrious of the Japanese emperors is commonly known. - -Though much engaged in this foreign enterprise, he still found time to -lay the foundations of the new city of Fushimi, which he designed to -make his capital, but the nearness of which to Miyako ultimately placed -it in the position of a sort of suburb to that ancient city. - -The first division of the invading army, which at length set sail, -was led by the grand admiral, king of Higo [Konishi Yukinaga], whose -troops, as well as those of the second division, led by the son of -Kodera, the king of Buzen [Kuroda Nagamasa], were drawn from the -island of Shimo, and were composed almost entirely, officers as well -as men, of Catholic converts. And, indeed, the suspicion soon began to -be entertained that Corea had been invaded, not so much to add new -provinces to the Taikō-Sama’s empire, as to keep the converted princes -employed away from home. - -[Illustration: THE EXPEDITION AGAINST COREA - _From Official History of Japan_] - - While the emperor, to look after and to second the invasions, -hastened to Shimo, where his presence caused no little alarm to the -missionaries, the grand admiral was already making rapid progress. -Having taken two places by assault, all the others, as far as the -capital, opened their gates. To save their capital, the Coreans fought -and lost a pitched battle. A second victory, on the part of the grand -admiral, drove the Corean king to seek refuge in China, while the -capital opened its gates to the triumphant Japanese.[57] - -But the joy of the missionaries at the success of an army led by one of -their adherents, and so largely composed of converts, was not a little -damped by a side blow from another and an unexpected quarter. So -anxious was the Spanish governor of Manila to improve every chance for -opening a trade with Japan, that, in spite of the imperious character -of the emperor’s letter, he sent an answer to it by a Spanish gentleman -named Liano, in which, indeed, he evaded its demands by suggesting -that the mean quality of the person who had brought it, and his not -having heard anything on the subject from the Jesuits at Nagasaki, had -led him to suspect its authenticity. Liano, accompanied by a Dominican -friar, landed in Satsuma, where he met with Solis, the Spaniard from -Peru, still busy with his ship-building enterprise, and in no very good -humor with the Portuguese and the Jesuits. To confer with Harada, the -envoys proceeded to Nagasaki, which city they left again without any -communication with the Portuguese merchants, or the missionaries; and, -accompanied by Harada, and his Japanese friend, Hasegawa, they hastened -to the northern coast of Shimo, where the emperor then was. Hasegawa -and Harada translated so ill the letter of the governor of Manila, -as to make it express something of a disposition to comply with the -emperor’s pretensions, who thereupon wrote a second letter, declaring -the other to be genuine, and renewing the demand which it had contained -of submission and homage. The envoys, without fully understanding its -contents, consented to receive this letter; and in the hope that, if -the Portuguese were driven away, the commerce of Japan might fall into -the hands of the Spaniards of Manila, they proceeded to suggest heavy -complaints against the Portuguese at Nagasaki, whom they not only -charged as guilty of great harshness in support of their commercial -monopoly, but also with protecting the Jesuits, great numbers of whom, -in spite of the emperor’s edicts, still continued to be sheltered in -that city and its neighborhood. The emperor either was, or had affected -to be, ignorant of the extent to which his edicts had been disregarded. -This information put him into a great rage; and he issued instant -orders for the destruction of the splendid church at Nagasaki, hitherto -untouched, and also of the house of the Jesuits, who had now no place -of residence left there except the hospital of Misericordia. But these -wicked Spaniards did not long go unpunished. Solis, on his way back -to Satsuma, perished by shipwreck, as did the Spanish envoys on their -return voyage to Manila. It was stated, too, that the emperor’s mother -died at Miyako, at the very moment of his signing the order for the -destruction of the church,—judgments so striking as to become, so we -are told by the missionaries, the occasion of many conversions. - -Such was the state of affairs when Father Valignani, leaving Japan for -the second time, sailed for Macao in October, 1592. - - - - -CHAPTER XV - - _Progress of the Corean War—Success of the Japanese—Konishi - Settsu-no-kami, Viceroy of Corea—Edict of the Emperor for disarming - the Converts in Shimo—Disgrace and Downfall of the Royal Family of - Bungo—Terazawa, Governor of Nagasaki—His Conversion and Friendly - Acts—A. D. 1592-1593._ - - -Though the emperor did not himself pass into Corea, he sent thither -such reinforcements as to raise his army there to the number of -two hundred thousand men. But the Coreans having abandoned their -cities and fled to inaccessible places, burning everything, even to -provisions which they could not carry away (thus setting an example -long afterwards followed by the Russians on a similar occasion), this -great force was soon reduced to extremities, by which its numbers were -rapidly diminished. The Chinese also came to the assistance of the -Coreans; and the grand admiral, with forces so reduced as to be greatly -inferior in numbers, was obliged to encounter these new enemies in -several desperate engagements. Compelled at last to retreat, he fell -back upon a garrison which he had left to keep up his communications -with the coast, the command of which he had entrusted to Yoshimune, -king of Bungo. But that feeble prince, in a moment of terror, had -abandoned his post; and, the grand admiral’s communications thus cut -off, nothing but his distinguished firmness and courage saved his army -from total destruction. After a drawn battle under the walls of the -Corean capital, terms of peace were agreed upon, according to which -five of the eight provinces of Corea were assigned to the Japanese; and -the commerce between China and Japan, which by the act of the former -had for some time been broken off, was again renewed.[58] - -The admiral was named viceroy of Corea, and the converted princes were -still detained there at the head of their troops. The missionaries, -thus separated from their protectors, were filled with new alarms by -an order of the emperor for disarming all their converts in Shimo. The -king of Bungo, as a punishment for his cowardice, was stripped of his -estates; and in the end he and his family, reduced to absolute poverty, -were obliged to retire to Nagasaki, and to live there on the charity -of the Jesuits. His territories were assigned to pagan lords, and the -converted inhabitants soon felt the consequences of the change. Indeed, -throughout Shimo the converts suffered greatly by the absence of their -princes, of whom several died about this time. But, in general, the -Catholics stood firm; and several of the Jesuit fathers having made -their way to Corea, new converts were made in the ranks of the army. - -The missionaries also found a new friend in Terazawa, a young man -appointed governor of Nagasaki, and who, not long after, was secretly -baptized. He represented to the emperor that, if the Portuguese -merchants were still to be admitted to trade at Nagasaki, they ought to -be allowed some priests, since it was the influence and authority of -the priests that kept the merchants in order, settled their quarrels, -and obliged them to strict justice in their commercial transactions; -and, upon the strength of these plausible representations, Terazawa -obtained leave for the Jesuits to rebuild their house and church -at Nagasaki. Father Gnecchi, also, in consideration of his age and -infirmities, was allowed to remain at Miyako, though without any -church, or permission to celebrate divine service openly. - - - - -CHAPTER XVI - - _Jealousy on the Part of the Dominicans and Franciscans towards - Jesuits—This Jealousy coöperates with the Mercantile Jealousy of the - Spaniards at Manila—Franciscan Friars establish themselves at Miyako, - Ōsaka, and Nagasaki—Edicts against them—Deposition and Death of the - Emperor’s Nephew—A. D. 1593-1595._ - - -It was not alone against the emperor’s hostility and the mercantile -envy of the Spanish that the Jesuits had to contend. The rapid rise -and great successes of the Company of Jesus had excited against them -not only the dread and deadly hatred of the Protestants (which might -naturally enough have been expected), but feelings also of envy and -jealousy, scarcely less hostile, and by no means very scrupulous, -on the part of their monastic brethren of the Catholic church,—the -Dominicans, and especially the numerous bodies of Franciscans, who had -attempted, by various reforms and modifications, to revive and purify -that ancient order so as to make it equal to compete with the Jesuits. - -A brief of Pope Gregory XIII, dated in 1585, had forbidden, under pain -of the greater excommunication, any but Jesuits to proceed to Japan -with the view of exercising any ecclesiastical function there; and -this bull was not less disagreeable to the Dominicans and Franciscans, -than the Portuguese monopoly of the Japanese trade was to the Spanish -merchants. At Manila these feelings of dissatisfaction, both mercantile -and ecclesiastical, combined in a common focus, giving rise to the -most injurious and unfounded reports, which were even embodied in -print, of extensive apostasies among the Japanese converts, and of -the great jeopardy into which Catholicism had been brought by the -misconduct of the Jesuits, who, at this moment, were out of favor in -Spain. - -The same Harada, already mentioned, having gone in person to Manila, -inflamed the zeal of some Franciscans whom he found there, by -representing that it was to the Jesuit missionaries personally, and not -to their religion, that the emperor was opposed. The Spanish governor, -not having received the emperor’s answer to his former letter, was -induced, in the hope of opening the door to commercial intercourse, to -write a new one; and four Franciscans attached themselves to the bearer -of it, eagerly seizing upon this opportunity to gain admission into -Japan. - -When the emperor found that these new deputies had not brought the -submission which he had demanded, at first he was very angry, but -was finally persuaded to allow them to travel through the empire in -order to see and to report its greatness. The Franciscans were even -suffered to build or buy a house at Miyako, to which they presently -added a church; and, being joined by others of their order, a convent -was established at Ōsaka. Two of them having gone to Nagasaki, took -possession of a church in the environs of that city, which had remained -closed since the commencement of the persecution; and here, as well as -in the other two cities, they performed their religious functions with -an ostentation and publicity which greatly alarmed the Jesuits, whom -the Franciscans accused of an unworthy timidity. - -The Jesuits, under these circumstances, thought proper to call the -attention of these new-comers to the bull of Gregory XIII, above -referred to, prohibiting the entry into Japan of any ecclesiastics -except those of the Company of Jesus; to which the Franciscans replied, -that they had entered Japan not as ecclesiastics, but as envoys from -the governor of Manila; and that being there without any violation of -the bull, nobody had any right to prevent them from exercising their -ecclesiastical functions,—a piece of casuistry which not even a Jesuit -could have outdone. Very soon, however, the governor of Nagasaki -closed the church of the Franciscans, and, before long, an edict -appeared threatening the punishment of death to all who frequented -the convent and church at Miyako,—procedures which the Franciscans -were uncharitable enough to ascribe to the intrigues of the Jesuits. -It seems probable, however, that decisive steps would still earlier -have been taken against these over-zealous Franciscans, had not the -emperor’s attention been engrossed by other more pressing matters. He -had conceived a jealousy against his nephew and colleague, whom, by -slow and cautious steps, he stripped of all his authority, sending him -at length to a monastery of bonzes, where he soon received an order to -cut himself open. The thirty-one wives of the deposed prince, with all -their children, were publicly beheaded, and all his closest adherents -shared his disgrace, and many of them his tragical fate.[59] An -infant son, by name Hideyori, borne to the emperor from his new wife -[Yodo-gimi by name], and to whom he desired to secure the succession, -was the innocent cause of these cruelties. No sooner was the nephew -out of the way than that infant received from the Dairi the title of -Kwambacudono. - - - - -CHAPTER XVII - - _Great Earthquake—Mission from China—Arrival of a Spanish - Galleon—Friars on Board her—New Accusations on her Account against the - Jesuits—Connection of the Jesuits with the Trade to Japan—Arrest of - Missionaries and Converts—First Martyrs—A. D. 1595-1597._ - - -The emperor, now at the height of his power and glory, was making -great preparations to receive an embassy from China, when Japan was -visited by a frightful earthquake, which almost ruined his new city of -Fushimi. The sea rose to an extraordinary height, especially in the -strait between Nippon and Shikoku, attended with a terrible destruction -of life and property. Nor did the mission from China at all answer the -expectation of the emperor, since the ambassadors demanded nothing less -than the entire evacuation of Corea,—a demand which speedily led to a -renewal of the war. - -In 1596, a richly laden Spanish galleon, from the Philippines, disabled -and driven by adverse winds to the coast of Japan, was induced, partly -by persuasions and partly by a show of force, to enter a harbor on -the south coast of Shikoku, where she was immediately seized by the -local authorities as forfeited. The commander of the vessel sent two -of his officers to Miyako to solicit a remission of this forfeiture, -which mission was charged to have nothing to do with the Jesuits, but -to consult only with the Franciscans established in that city. It had, -however, no success. The prize seemed to the emperor too valuable to -be given up. Driven at length by extremity to seek the aid of the -Jesuits, the ship’s company, after being for some time supported by -their charity, were shipped off by their assistance to Manila, all -except four Augustine friars, a Dominican and two Franciscans, who -remained in Japan as missionaries. But, instead of getting any thanks -from the inhabitants of Manila, the Jesuits were accused of having by -their intrigues caused the forfeiture of the ship and her cargo.[60] - -A narrative of the affair, written by a monk, and full of charges -against the Jesuits, was printed there, and sent to Spanish America, -whence it was carried to Europe, and widely diffused by the enemies of -the order, being soon followed by violent memorials to the same effect, -addressed to the Pope and the king of Spain. These charges, however, -did not remain unanswered, a reply to them being published at Acapulco, -signed by a number of Japanese who traded thither,[61] and by several -Spaniards and Portuguese who had been in Japan. - -It was the Manila pamphlet above referred to which first brought -against the Jesuits the charges, ultimately so damaging to the order, -of an uncanonical connection with commerce. The account of this trade, -so far as Japan was concerned, as given by the Jesuits themselves, is -as follows. The revenues of the mission had consisted at first only -of the charities of some individuals, aided by a sum of five hundred -ducats, paid yearly at Macao by the king of Portugal—a donation doubled -in 1574, to facilitate the foundation of a college. Some considerable -amounts had been received at different times from the wealthier native -converts; but almost the whole of these sums had been expended in the -founding and support of hospitals and other charities. For several -years the chief resource of the fathers for their own support had been -the proceeds of a fund of four thousand ducats, which Louis Almeida, -on entering the order in 1556, and devoting himself to the Japanese -mission, as mentioned in a former chapter, had set aside for that -purpose out of his own private fortune, all the rest of which he had -bestowed in the founding of hospitals. This fund had been entrusted by -Almeida to certain Portuguese merchants to trade upon for the benefit -of the Jesuits. But, though this trust had been faithfully executed, -the proceeds of it had been quite too small to support the increasing -number of the missionaries. Some small pensions, allowed them by the -Popes Gregory XIII and Sixtus V, failed to make up the deficiency; and, -at length, it was agreed by the commercial company at Macao, by whom -the annual Portuguese carac was fitted out for Japan, and by means of -which the chief trade between Japan and the Portuguese was now carried -on, that out of the sixteen hundred packages of silks, which formed -a part of her cargo, fifty (afterwards increased to eighty) packages -should be shipped on account of the Jesuits,—an arrangement to which -the viceroy of the Indies assented. For this business two commercial -agencies were maintained by the Jesuits,—one at Macao, the other at -Nagasaki. The enemies of the Jesuits insisted that they sent to Japan -yearly goods to the value of a hundred and sixty thousand ducats, on -which their profits were sixty thousand. This was probably exaggerated; -yet, when Charlevoix pretends that the whole annual Portuguese trade -and profits did not amount to those sums, his statement is refuted as -well by other known facts as by the vastly larger value of the cargoes -of such of the annual caracs as some years later fell into the hands of -the Dutch. - -While the unlucky affair of the forfeited Spanish galleon caused Europe -to resound with accusations against the Jesuits, in Japan itself it -had results more speedily and more fatal. The Spanish pilot, finding -that entreaties did not succeed, had attempted to make an impression -upon those who had seized the ship by expatiating on the power of the -king of Spain, the extent of whose dominions in Europe, Asia, Africa, -and America, he exhibited on a map of the world. To the inquiry how -such an extent of dominion had been obtained, the pilot replied that -nothing was easier; that the king began by sending missionaries into -the countries he wished to conquer, who, as soon as they had converted -a part of the inhabitants, were followed by troops, which troops, being -joined by the converts, easily succeeded in subduing the country. This -statement, it is said, was immediately reported to the emperor, who -no sooner heard it than he ordered guards to be placed at the doors -of the Franciscan converts at Miyako and Ōsaka, at which latter city, -since the earthquake, the emperor had made his residence. Guards were -also placed at the houses of the Jesuits; but in that at Ōsaka there -was only one young priest with two proselytes, and in that at Miyako -only the aged Father Gnecchi, who soon, through the dexterity of some -of his friends, was conveyed out of it unobserved by the guards. There -were taken in the convents of the Franciscans three priests, a clerk, -and two lay brothers, one of them a Spanish creole of Mexico, the other -a Portuguese creole of the East Indies. A list was also ordered to be -taken of the persons who frequented the Franciscan churches at Miyako -and Ōsaka. A great many names were originally placed on it, but the -governor of Miyako, desirous to limit as much as possible the number of -victims, finally struck off all but fifteen, who also were put under -arrest. - -On the 3d of January, 1597, these twenty-four prisoners were taken to -a public square in Miyako, where each of them had the tip of his left -ear cut off, after which they were placed in carriages and paraded -through the streets. A similar ceremony soon after took place in Sakai -and Ōsaka, whence the prisoners were sent to Nagasaki to be executed. -At all the towns and cities on the way they were made a spectacle of, -as if to terrify those of the same faith. But they exhibited, we are -told, great fervor and firmness, making many new converts and inspiring -many old ones with the desire of martyrdom. On the way their number -was increased to twenty-six by the addition of two others who had -greatly busied themselves in ministering to the wants of the prisoners, -and who, upon being asked if they were Catholics, replied that they -detested the gods of Japan. - -Fortunately for himself, Terazawa, the secretly converted governor -of Nagasaki, had been ordered to Corea, his place being supplied by -a pagan brother of his, by whom an edict was issued threatening with -death all who should embrace the foreign religion. At the same time -he intimated to the Jesuits that he should allow no Japanese to enter -their church in that city, nor themselves to traverse the country, as -they had done, preaching and baptizing. He exhibited, however, every -disposition to be as indulgent as possible in the execution of his -orders; for though the prisoners were denied the privilege of hearing -mass, they were permitted on their way to the place of execution to -stop at the hermitage of St. Lazarus, where the Jesuits confessed to -Father Rodriguez and another of their order, who met them there, and -the Franciscans to each other. - -The place of execution was not that made use of for ordinary -malefactors, but a hill bordering on the sea, one of those by which -the city of Nagasaki is surrounded, and thenceforth known among the -converts as the _Holy Mountain_, or _Mount of Martyrs_, to which -name it gained still further claim by becoming the scene of many -subsequent executions, continuing also, as long as the new religion -lasted in Japan, a place of pilgrimage for its adherents. The prisoners -were followed to this hill by an excited crowd, who, with tears and -benedictions, besought their prayers. They were put to death by -crucifixion, which, however, according to the Japanese method, is -not a lingering punishment. The sufferer is bound, not nailed, to the -cross, and his body is immediately pierced by a lance, or sometimes by -two lances, thrust in at the sides, and coming out at the shoulders. - -The earth, wet with the martyr’s precious blood, was sedulously -gathered up by the bystanders, and, in spite of the care with which the -bodies were guarded, those of the three Jesuits were conveyed away to -Macao; or, at least, bodies alleged to be the same were preserved in -the churches there with great veneration as relics. Many miracles were -alleged to have attended and followed the death of these martyrs, as to -which duly authenticated affidavits may be found recorded in the great -collection of Bolandus, affording grounds for the canonization of these -twenty-six Japanese proto-martyrs, decreed, thirty years after, by Pope -Urban VIII. - - - - -CHAPTER XVIII - - _New Edict for the Deportation of the Jesuits—Its Partial Evasion—New - Correspondence between the Philippines and Japan—Taikō-Sama’s - Justification of his Recent Proceedings—New Destruction of - Churches in Shimo—Taikō-Sama’s Death—His Preceding Efforts to - secure his own Deification and the Succession of his Infant Son - Hideyori—Regency—Iyeyasu, its Head, with the Title of Daifu-Sama—A. D. - 1597-1599._ - - -Even a more serious blow than the execution of the first martyrs, -which seems rather to have warmed than to have cooled the zeal of the -converted Japanese, was an order from the emperor to the governor of -Nagasaki to collect all the missionaries, and to ship them off to -China, except only his interpreter, Rodriguez, and two or three other -Jesuits, who might be permitted to remain at Nagasaki for the benefit -of the Portuguese traders. - -There were still in Japan as many as a hundred and twenty-five members -of the Company, of whom forty-six were priests. To blind the emperor -by an apparent submission to his will, it was agreed that the newly -arrived bishop of Japan (the fourth appointed to this diocese, but the -first who had arrived there) should depart in the same vessel in which -he had come, especially as he might improve his absence to represent to -the viceroy of the Indies the pressing necessities of his diocese. The -novitiate, the college in the island of Amakusa,[62] and the seminary -for young nobles hitherto kept on foot in Arima, were all given up, -and most of the fathers connected with them set out for Nagasaki. Of -the whole number, however, there remained behind eight in the island -of Amakusa, twelve in Arima and Ōmura, four in Bungo, and as many more -in Hirado and Gotō, while two others passed into Corea; but it was -understood that these priests thus left behind, while ministering to -the faithful, should avoid doing anything that might draw attention -upon them. - -The aged Father Gnecchi, with two priests and five or six other -Jesuits, remained at Miyako, Father Matthew de Couros being appointed -to fill the place of Father Louis Froez, lately deceased, in the -office of sending to Rome memoirs for the history of Japan. With these -exceptions all the rest of the Jesuits assembled at Nagasaki, making -a show of getting ready to depart. Indeed, the poop of a Portuguese -vessel, which sailed shortly after, appeared to be full of them; but -most of these seeming Jesuits were only Portuguese merchants, dressed -for the occasion in the habit of the order; while, to account for the -staying behind of any who might happen to be detected in the provinces, -it was given out that some had been left because the vessel was not -large enough to take all. - -Soon after the departure of this vessel, a Spanish gentleman arrived -from Manila with presents and a letter to the emperor from a new -governor of the Philippines, remonstrating, though in measured terms, -against the confiscation of the “San Philip” and the execution of -the Spanish ecclesiastics, several of whom had entered Japan in the -character of envoys from his predecessor. The letter requested the -bodies of those martyrs, and, for the future, safety and kind treatment -to all Spanish vessels driven accidentally to Japan. Taikō-Sama, in -reply, justified his proceedings against the missionaries, not only -because they had disregarded his repeated orders to leave Japan, but -because, insinuating their creed into the minds of his subjects, they -designed finally to get possession of the country as the Spaniards had -done of Manila. His excuse for the confiscation of the “San Philip” was -that she had attempted to enter a port of Japan in violation of law. -He refused to give up any part of her cargo, but offered to restore a -number of slaves which had belonged to her, at the same time expressing -a willingness to consent to a regulated trade with the Spaniards, -provided they would promise to bring no priests. - -A report that the emperor was about to visit Nagasaki led to the -destruction in the adjoining provinces of not less than a hundred -and thirty-seven churches and of many houses which had belonged to -the Jesuits; and, to appease the authorities, a new embarkation of -missionaries became necessary, limited, however, by reason of the -smallness of the vessel, to eleven persons. - -[Illustration: FEUDAL STRONGHOLDS: HIMEJI CASTLE; NAGOYA CASTLE] - -In the midst of these alarms news arrived that the emperor had been -seized with a sudden and violent sickness, apparently a dysentery, -which, after two months’ struggles against it, brought him to his end. -He died in September, 1598, at the age of sixty-four, retaining his -absolute authority to the last. During his latter years two thoughts -seem principally to have engrossed him,—the securing divine honors -to himself, and the transmission of his authority to his infant -son, Hideyori, not yet above three or four years old. With the first -object in view, though really (at least, so the missionaries concluded) -without any religion at all, he had rebuilt, in a magnificent manner, -many temples and Buddhist monasteries destroyed by Nobunaga, by -himself, or by the accidents of war. He also had erected, in a new -quarter which he had added to Miyako, a splendid temple, which he -caused to be consecrated to himself in the character of the new -Hachiman, that being the title of a Kami celebrated for his conquests, -and regarded as the god of war. - -To secure the succession of his infant son, the expiring emperor -established, on his death-bed, a council of regency, composed of nine -persons, at the head of which he placed Tokugawa Iyeyasu, king of -the Bandō, which, besides the five provinces of the Kwantō, in which -were the great cities of Suruga and Yedo, embraced, also, three other -kingdoms. Iyeyasu had been king of Mikawa, a more westerly province, -which he had lost by adhering to the fortunes of the third son of -Nobunaga, he being allied to that family by marriage. But afterwards, -by some means, he had recovered the favor of Taikō-Sama, who had even -bestowed upon him the newly conquered Bandō, and who, the better to -secure his fidelity, had caused his infant son and destined successor -to be married to a young granddaughter of Iyeyasu. - -The strong castle of Ōsaka had been chosen by Taikō-Sama as the -residence of his son during his minority, and there he dwelt with his -baby wife, in charge of his mother, while the administration of affairs -passed into the hands of Iyeyasu, who, as head of the regency, governed -with the title of Daifu-Sama. - - - - -CHAPTER XIX - - _Evacuation of Corea—Return of the Converted Princes—Favorable - Disposition of Daifu-Sama—Third Visit of Father Valignani—Civil - War between Daifu-Sama and his Co-regents—His Triumph—Disgrace and - Execution of Settsu-no-Kami—Daifu-Sama takes the Title of Ōgosho-Sama - and still favors the Converts—Influx of Dominican and Franciscan - Friars—Flourishing Condition of the Church—Local Persecutions—A. D. - 1599-1609._ - - -The first act of the regency was to put an end to the war in Corea. -That country was abandoned,[63] and the return of so many converted -princes greatly strengthened the lately suffering church. Father -Rodriguez had always been on good terms with Daifu-Sama, with whom he -had become acquainted at the court of the late emperor. This head of -the regency was even thought to be well disposed to the new religion, -and the converted princes, in conjunction with Father Valignani, -who, just before the death of Taikō-Sama, had reached Japan for the -third time, in company with a new bishop, proceeded gradually and -unostentatiously to re-establish the missionaries, to rebuild the -churches, and to set up again the college and seminaries, till soon -the Catholic faith seemed to be replaced on almost as firm a basis as -ever. For a time, indeed, things were thrown into confusion by a civil -war which soon broke out between Daifu-Sama and his co-regents. Some of -the Catholic princes lost their provinces as adherents of the defeated -party, and among the rest, that distinguished pillar of the church, -Konishi Settsu-no-Kami, the grand admiral, king of Higo and conqueror -of Corea, who, for his share in this business, perished by the hand -of the executioner,—his religious opinions not allowing him to adopt -the Japanese alternative of cutting himself open. But the victorious -regent, who presently took the title of Ōgosho-Sama, and with it the -entire imperial authority (though the boy, Hideyori, still enjoyed the -title of Kubō-Sama), showed himself so far favorable to the Jesuits -(to the headship of whom Father Francis Pazio had lately succeeded -as vice-provincial) as to permit their reëstablishment at Nagasaki, -Miyako, and Ōsaka. Yet an edict of his, restraining the missionaries -to their ancient seats, and forbidding the accession of new converts, -though little regarded, showed the necessity of caution. - -Pope Clement VIII, having promulgated a bull in December, 1600, by -which all the mendicant orders were allowed to go as missionaries -to Japan, provided they proceeded by way of Portugal, and not by -the Philippines, Dominican and Franciscan friars took advantage of -this favorable disposition of the emperor to enter that empire, the -Franciscans reoccupying their old station at Miyako, and setting up a -new one at Yedo, where the Jesuits had never been. This was the seat -of the emperor’s son, whom, according to the Japanese custom, he had -associated with him in the empire. He himself had his residence at -Suruga, no great distance to the west. The young Hideyori, the titular -Kubō-Sama, still dwelt in the castle of Ōsaka, Miyako being given up -exclusively to the Dairi, or ecclesiastical emperor. The prohibition to -pass from the Philippines to Japan was little regarded. As there was -no civil arm to enforce it, the friars laughed at the excommunication -denounced by the Pope’s bull. The Jesuits, on the other hand, did not -submit to this invasion without loud complaints. - -In the Tenza, or five provinces[64] nearest to Miyako, and including, -also, the cities of Sakai and Ōsaka, the ancient imperial domain, the -adherents of the new religion were seldom molested, and the governor -of Miyako even built a magnificent church for the Jesuits in the upper -city, in addition to one which they already possessed in the lower -city. An observatory at Ōsaka had gained additional credit for their -religion by displaying their scientific knowledge. A seminary for -nobles was reopened at Nagasaki, and, by the special zeal of Father -Gnecchi, hospitals for lepers, which had been from the first a favorite -charity, were set up at Ōsaka and in several other cities. By the favor -of particular princes, Jesuit missionaries even penetrated into the -more remote and hitherto unvisited provinces. Persecution, however, -still went on within the jurisdiction of several of the local rulers, -especially in the island of Shimo; and some of the converted princes, -having apostatized, became themselves persecutors. But the bishop, -having made a journey to Miyako in 1606, was very favorably received -by the Kubō-Sama,—a circumstance not without its influence in all the -local courts. - -Such was the state of things in Japan when the hold of the Portuguese -and the Jesuits upon that country, already shaken by the consolidation -of the empire under one head, and by the intrusion of Dominican and -Franciscan friars and Spanish merchants and negotiators, encountered -a still more alarming disturbance from the appearance of the Dutch flag -in the eastern seas.[65] - -[Illustration: IMAGE OF IYEYASU - From _Official History of Japan_] - - - - -CHAPTER XX - - _Attempt of the English and Dutch to discover a New Route to the Far - East—Voyages round the World—Attempted English Voyage to Japan—English - and Dutch Voyages to India—First Dutch Voyage to Japan—Adams, the - English Pilot—His Adventures and Detention in Japan[66]—A. D. - 1513-1607._ - - -For a full century subsequent to the discovery of the passage to India -by the Cape of Good Hope, the commerce of the Indian seas, so far as -Europe was concerned, remained almost a complete monopoly in the hands -of the Portuguese. The ancient Venetian commerce with India, by the Red -Sea, had been speedily brought to an end, while the trade carried on -overland, by way of Aleppo and the Persian Gulf, was mainly controlled -by the Portuguese, who held possession of Ormus, through which it -mostly passed. Nor did the Spanish discovery of another passage to -India, by the Straits of Magellan, and the lodgment which the Spaniards -made about the year 1570, in the Philippine Islands, very materially -interfere with the Portuguese monopoly. The passage by the Straits -of Magellan was seldom or never attempted, the Spanish trade being -confined to two annual ships between Acapulco and Manila. - -It was the desire to share in this East India commerce (which made -Lisbon the wealthiest and most populous city of Europe) that led to -so many attempts to discover a northeastern, a northwestern, and even -a northern passage to India (directly over the pole), not only as -shorter, but as avoiding any collision with the Portuguese and Spanish, -who did not hesitate to maintain by force their respective exclusive -claims to the passages by the Cape of Good Hope and the Straits of -Magellan. These attempts were at first confined to the English, -beginning with that made by Sebastian Cabot, on his third and last -voyage from England. The Dutch and Belgians were long content to buy -Indian merchandise at Lisbon, which they resold in the north of Europe; -but after the union of the Spanish and Portuguese dominions, in 1580, -and the seizure, which soon followed, of the Dutch ships at Lisbon, -and their exclusion from any trade with Portugal, the Dutch began to -entertain, even more ardently than the English, the desire of a direct -commerce with the far East. Drake, in his voyage round the world -(1577-80), outward by the Straits of Magellan and homeward by the Cape -of Good Hope, a track in which he was speedily followed by Cavendish -(1586-88), led the way to the Indian seas; but the failure of Cavendish -in a second attempt to pass the Straits of Magellan, and the capture, -A. D. 1594, by Spanish-American cruisers in the Pacific, of Sir Richard -Hawkins, a son of the famous Sir John Hawkins, who had attempted a -voyage to Japan by the same route, served to keep up the terrors of -that passage. - -Meanwhile, Captain Lancaster, as early as 1592, accomplished the first -English voyage to India by the Cape of Good Hope. After a rather -disastrous voyage, he returned in 1594, having been greatly delayed by -his ignorance of the monsoons. A second expedition, destined for China, -sailed in 1596, but perished miserably at sea. It is to the Dutch that -the credit mainly belongs of first breaking in upon the Portuguese and -Spanish monopoly of Indian commerce.[67] - -Among other Dutch ship captains and merchants who had been thrown into -prison at Lisbon was Cornelius Houtman, who improved that opportunity -to acquire, by conversation with Portuguese seamen, a knowledge of -the Indian seas; and it was by his persuasion that the merchants of -Amsterdam, associating as an East India Company, fitted out, in 1595, -eight vessels,—four to renew the experiment of a northeastern passage, -and four to proceed to India by the Cape of Good Hope. The voyage of -the first four, under the direction of Hugh Linschooten,[67] who had -lately returned from Goa, where he had resided six years in the service -of the archbishop, resulted in the discovery of Nova Zembla, beyond -which neither this expedition nor two subsequent ones were able to -proceed. The four other ships, under the charge of Houtman, reached -the west coast of Java, and in spite of the arts and opposition of the -Portuguese, whom they found established at Bantam, in that island, they -opened a trade with the natives, not without an occasional intermixture -of hostilities, in which they lost more than half their numbers, -besides being obliged to abandon and burn one of their vessels. The -other three ships returned to Holland in 1598. This voyage had not -been profitable; yet the actual commencement of the long-desired -Indian traffic greatly stimulated the hopes of the merchants, and that -same year not less than four distinct India squadrons were fitted -out,—one of two vessels, under Houtman; another, under Jacques Mahay, -of five vessels, known as Verhagen’s fleet, from the chief promoter -of the enterprise; a third, of three vessels, under Oliver Noort; and -a fourth, of not less than eight vessels, set forth by a new East -India association, including not only the merchants of Amsterdam, but -those of the other cities of the province of Holland, rudiment of the -afterwards so celebrated DUTCH EAST INDIA COMPANY. The first and last -of these expeditions proceeded by the Cape of Good Hope. The other two -were to attempt the passage by the Straits of Magellan. - -The Dutch merchants were at this time much richer than those of -England, and for these enterprises of theirs to India they obtained -the assistance of quite a number of adventurous Englishmen. Houtman -had an English pilot named Davis; Noort carried, in the same capacity, -Thomas Melis, who had made the voyage round the world with Cavendish. -The fleet of Mahay had two English pilots, William Adams and Timothy -Shotten, with the former of whom, as being the first Englishman who -ever reached Japan, and long a resident there, our narrative has -chiefly to do. - -Born, according to his own account, on the banks of the Medway, between -Rochester and Chatham, Adams, at the age of twelve, had commenced a -seafaring life, apprentice to Master Nicholas Diggins, of Limehouse, -near London, whom he served for twelve years. He acted afterward as -master and pilot in her Majesty’s (Queen Elizabeth’s) ships. Then for -eleven or twelve years he was employed by the worshipful company of the -Barbary merchants. The Dutch traffic with India beginning, desirous, as -he tells us, “to make a little experience of the small knowledge which -God had given him,” he was induced to enter that service. - -Mahay’s squadron, in which Adams sailed as chief pilot, consisted of -the “Hope,” of two hundred and fifty tons and one hundred and thirty -men, the “Faith,” of one hundred and fifty tons and one hundred and -nine men, the “Charity,” of one hundred and sixty tons and one hundred -and ten men, the “Fidelity,” of one hundred tons and eighty-six men, -and the “Good News,” of seventy-five tons and fifty-six men; but these -names of good omen did not save these small and overcrowded vessels -from a succession of disasters, too common in the maritime enterprises -of those days. They left the Texel the 24th of June, and on the 21st of -August reached the Cape Verde Islands, where they remained twenty-one -days to refresh the men, of whom many were sick with scurvy, including -Mahay, their chief commander, who died soon after they had recommenced -their voyage. Encountering contrary winds and heavy rains, they were -forced to the coast of Guinea, and landed on Cape Gonsalves, just south -of the line. The sick were set on shore, and soon after a French sailor -came aboard, who promised to do them all favor with the negro king. The -country could furnish very few supplies; and as the sick recovered from -the scurvy, those hitherto well began to suffer from fever. - -In this state of distress they set sail for the coast of Brazil; but -falling in soon after with the island of Annabon, in the Gulf of -Guinea, they landed, took the town, which contained eighty houses, and -obtained a supply of oxen, and of oranges and other fruits; but still -the men continued to die, of whom they buried more than thirty on this -island. - -Two months were thus spent on the African coast. The ships, setting -sail again about the middle of November, were greatly delayed by one -of the vessels losing her mainmast, and it was five months before they -reached the Straits of Magellan, the crews during most of that time on -short allowance, and driven to such extremity as to eat the calf-skins -with which the ropes were covered. - -Having entered the straits the beginning of April, 1599, they obtained -a good supply of penguins for food; but the commander stopping to wood -and water, they were overtaken by the winter then just setting in, -during which they lost more than a hundred men by cold and hunger, and -were thus detained—though, according to Adams, there were many times -when they might have gone through—till the 24th of September, when at -last they entered the South Sea. - -A few days after, they encountered a violent storm, by which the ships -were separated. Captain Wert, with the “Faith” and “Fidelity,” was -driven back into the straits, where he fell in with Oliver Noort, who -had left Holland a few days after the Verhagen fleet, had followed in -the same track, had encountered many of the same difficulties, but who, -more fortunate, not only passed the strait, but succeeded in completing -the fourth circumnavigation of the globe,—a feat accomplished before -his voyage only by the ships of Magellan, Drake, and Cavendish. As -Noort was unable to afford him any aid, Wert abandoned the enterprise, -and returned with his two ships to Holland. - -The other three ships steered separately for the coast of Chili, where -a rendezvous, in the latitude of forty-six degrees, had been appointed. -The “Charity,” in which Adams was, on reaching the place of rendezvous -found some Indian inhabitants, who at first furnished sheep in -exchange for bells and knives, with which they seemed well satisfied, -but who shortly after disappeared, probably through Spanish influence. -Having waited twenty-eight days, and hearing nothing of her consorts, -the “Charity” ran by Valdivia to the island of Mocha, and thence toward -the neighboring island of Santa Maria. Seeing on the mainland near by -a number of people, boats were sent for a parley; but the people would -suffer none to land from the boats, at which they shot a multitude of -arrows. “Nevertheless,” says Adams, “having no victuals in our ship, -and hoping to find refreshing, we forcibly landed some seven-and-twenty -or thirty of our men, and drove the wild people from the water-side, -having the most of our men hurt with their arrows. Having landed, we -made signs of friendship, and in the end came to parley, with signs -that our desire was to have victuals for iron, silver, and cloth, -which we showed them. Whereupon they gave our folks wine, with batatas -(sweet potatoes) and other fruits, and bade them, by signs and tokens, -to go aboard, and the next day to come again, and they would bring us -victuals.” - -The next day, after a council, in which it was resolved not to land -more than two or three men at once, the captain approached the shore -with all the force he had. Great numbers of people were seen, who made -signs for the boats to land; and in the end, as the people would not -come near the boats, twenty-three men landed with muskets, and marched -up toward four or five houses; but before they had gone the distance -of a musket-shot they found themselves in an ambush, and the whole, -including Thomas Adams, a brother of William, the chief pilot, were -slain or taken. “So our boats waited long,” says Adams, “to see if any -of them would come again; but seeing no hope to recover them, our boats -returned, with this sorrowful news, that all our men that landed were -slain, which was a lamentable thing to hear, for we had scarce so many -men left as could wind up our anchor.” - -After waiting a day longer, they went over to the neighboring island -of Santa Maria, where they found the “Hope,” which had just arrived, -but in as great distress as themselves, having, at the island of Mocha, -the day before the “Charity” had passed there, lost their commander -and twenty-seven men in an attempt to land to obtain provisions. Some -provisions were finally got by detaining two Spaniards, who came to -visit the ships, and requiring them to pay a ransom in sheep and oxen. -It was proposed to burn one of the ships, as there were not men enough -for both; but the new captains, of whom the one in command of the -“Charity” was named Quackernack, could not agree which of the ships to -burn. - -At length, the men being somewhat refreshed, a council was called -to consider what should be done to make the voyage as profitable as -possible to the merchants. It was stated by one of the sailors, who had -been to Japan in a Portuguese ship, that woollen cloth, of which they -had much on board, was good merchandise there; and considering that -the Moluccas, and most parts of the East Indies, were not countries in -which woollen cloths would be likely to be very acceptable; hearing -also from the people on shore that Spanish cruisers were after -them,—by whom, in fact, their third vessel was captured, news of -their intentions and force having been sent from Spain to Peru about -the time of their departure from Holland,—it was finally resolved -to stand away for Japan. Leaving the coast of Chili on the 27th of -November, and standing northwesterly across the equator for three or -four months, they had the trade-wind and pleasant weather. In their way -they encountered a group of islands somewhere about sixteen degrees of -north latitude (perhaps the Sandwich Islands), to which eight of their -men ran off with the pinnace, and were eaten, as was supposed, by the -islanders, who, by the report of one who was taken, were cannibals. - -In the latitude of twenty-seven degrees north, the vessels, -encountering variable winds and stormy weather, were separated. The -“Hope” was never more heard of; the “Charity” still kept on her course, -though with many of her men sick and others dead, when, on the 11th of -April, being then in great misery, with only four or five men out of a -company of four-and-twenty able to walk, and as many more to creep on -their knees, the whole expecting shortly to die, at last they made the -hoped-for land, which proved to be the eastern coast of Shimo. They -were immediately boarded by numerous boats, which they had no force to -resist; but the boatmen offered no injury beyond stealing what they -could conveniently lay their hands on. This, however, was put a stop -to the next day by the governor of the neighboring district, who sent -soldiers on board to protect the cargo, and who treated the crew with -great kindness, furnishing them with all necessary refreshments, and -giving them a house on shore for their sick, of whom nine finally died. - -For some days the only conversation was by signs; but before long a -Portuguese Jesuit, with some other Portuguese, arrived from Nagasaki, -on the opposite western coast of the island. - -The Dutch now had an interpreter; but, what with religious and what -with national antipathies, little was to be hoped from a Jesuit and -a Portuguese. In fact, the Portuguese accused them of being pirates, -and two of their own company, in hopes to get control of the cargo, -turned traitors, and plotted with the Portuguese. After nine days the -emperor [Iyeyasu] sent five galleys, in which Adams, attended by one -of the sailors, was conveyed to Ōsaka, distant about eighty leagues. -Here he found the emperor, “in a wonderful costly house, gilded with -gold in abundance,” who, in several interviews, treated him with great -kindness, and was very inquisitive as to his country and the cause of -his coming. Adams replied that the English were a people who had long -sought out the East Indies, desiring friendship, in the way of trade, -with all kings and potentates, and having in their country divers -commodities which might be exchanged to mutual advantage. The emperor -then inquired if the people of Adams’ country had no wars. He answered -that they had with the Spanish and Portuguese, but were at peace with -all other nations. He also inquired as to Adams’ religious opinions, -and the way in which he got to Japan; but when Adams, by way of answer, -exhibited a chart of the world, and pointed out the passage through the -Straits of Magellan, he showed plain signs of incredulity. - -Notwithstanding this friendly reception, Adams was ordered back to -prison, where he was kept for nine-and-thirty days, expecting, though -well treated, to be crucified, which he learned was the customary mode -of execution in that country. - -In fact, as he afterwards discovered, the Portuguese were employing -this interval in poisoning the minds of the natives against these -new-comers, whom they represented as thieves and common sea-robbers, -whom it was necessary to put to death to prevent any more of their -freebooting countrymen from coming, to the ruin of the Japanese trade. -But at length the emperor gave this answer: that, as these strangers -had as yet done no damage to him nor to any of his people, it would be -against reason and justice to put them to death; and, sending again -for Adams, after another long conversation and numerous inquiries, -he set him at liberty, and gave him leave to visit the ship and his -companions, of whom, in the interval, he had heard nothing. He found -them close by, the ship having in the interval been brought to Sakai, -within seven or eight miles of Ōsaka. The men had suffered nothing, but -the ship had been completely stripped, her whole company being thus -left with only the clothes on their backs. The emperor, indeed, ordered -restitution; but the plundered articles were so dispersed and concealed -that nothing could be recovered, except fifty thousand rials in silver -(five thousand dollars), which had formed a part of the cargo, and -which was given up to the officers as a fund for their support and that -of the men. Afterward the ship was taken still eastward to a port near -Yedo. All means were used to get her clear, with leave to depart, in -which suit a considerable part of the money was spent; till, at the -end of two years, the men refusing any longer to obey Adams and the -master, the remaining money was, “for quietness’ sake,” divided, and -each was left to shift for himself. The emperor, however, added an -allowance to each man of two pounds of rice a day, besides an annual -pension in money amounting to about twenty-four dollars. In Adams’ case -this pension was afterward raised to one hundred and forty dollars, -as a reward for having built two ships for the emperor on the European -model. Adams’ knowledge of mathematics also proved serviceable to him, -and he was soon in such favor as to be able, according to his own -account, to return good for evil to several of his former maligners. -The emperor acknowledged his services, and endeavored to content him -by giving him “a living like unto a lordship in England, with eighty -or ninety husbandmen as his servants and slaves”; but he still pined -for home, and importuned for leave to depart, desiring, as he says, “to -see his poor wife and children, according to conscience and nature.” -This suit he again renewed, upon hearing from some Japanese traders -that Dutch merchants had established themselves at Acheen in Sumatra, -and Patania on the east coast of Malacca. He promised to bring both -the Dutch and English to trade in Japan; but all he could obtain was -leave for the Dutch captain and another Dutchman to depart. This they -presently did, for Patania, in a Japanese junk, furnished by the king -or prince of Hirado, whence they proceeded to Jor, at the southern -end of the peninsula of Malacca, where they found a Dutch fleet of -nine sail. In this fleet the Dutch captain obtained an appointment as -master, but was soon after killed in a sea-fight with the Portuguese, -with whom the Dutch were, by this time, vigorously and successfully -contending for the mastership of the eastern seas.[68] - - - - -CHAPTER XXI - - _Spanish Friars in Japan—Extension of Japanese Trade—Progress of the - Dutch in the Eastern Seas—They open a Trade with Japan—Emperor’s - Letter—Shipwreck of Don Rodrigo de Vivero on the Japanese - Coast—His Reception, Observations, and Departure—Destruction of a - Portuguese Carac by the Japanese—Another Dutch Ship arrives—Spex’s - Charter—Embassies from Macao and New Spain—Father Louis Sotelo and his - Projects—A. D. 1607-1618._ - - -The Dutch and English, though they had not yet reached Japan, were -already, especially the Dutch, making great progress in the Indian -seas; but it was not by them alone that the Portuguese monopoly of -Japanese commerce and Japanese conversion was threatened. - -Taking advantage of the bull of Clement VII, already referred to, a -multitude of Spanish friars from Manila poured into Japan, whose first -and chief business it was, according to the Jesuit letter-writers -and historians, to declaim with vehemence against the conduct of -the fathers of the company, whom they represented as altogether too -circumspect, reserved, and timid in the publication of the gospel. The -fanaticism of these Spanish friars was excessive, in illustration of -which the Jesuit historians relate, with malicious satisfaction, the -following story: One of them, in a dispute with one of the shipwrecked -Hollanders of Adams’ company (perhaps with Adams himself), to sustain -the authority of the Catholic church, appealed to its miraculous -power, and when this obstinate Dutch heretic questioned the reality -of any such power, and challenged an exhibition of it, the fanatical -missionary undertook to convince him by walking himself on the sea. A -day was appointed for the miracle. The Spaniard prepared himself by -confession, prayer, and fasting. A crowd of Japanese assembled to see -it, and the friar, after a confident exhortation to the multitude, -stepped, crucifix in hand, into the water, certain of being buoyed up -by faith and providence. But he was soon floundering over his head, -and was only saved from drowning by some boats sent to his assistance; -nor did this experiment add much either to the faith of the Dutchman -or to the docility of the Japanese. About this same time, also, the -institution of parish priests was introduced; but this, like the -admission of friars, led only to new disputes and collisions. - -The merchants of Manila, no less than the monks, still looked with -longing eyes in the direction of Japan, anxious to share in its -commerce; and Don Rodrigo de Vivero, upon his accession to that -government, by way of conciliation discharged from confinement and sent -home some two hundred Japanese, whom he found imprisoned there, either -by way of retaliation for the confiscation of the “San Philip” and the -execution of the Spanish missionaries, or for some other cause. - -Besides these European rivals, a dangerous competition in the way -of trade seems to have been threatened on the part of the Japanese -themselves, who appear to have been much more adventurous at this time, -whether in point of navigation or the visiting of foreign countries, -than the present jealous policy of their government permits. Japanese -vessels frequented Manila for the purchase of rich China silks, which -formed the chief article of export from Macao to Japan, the policy of -China and the relations of Japan towards her not allowing a direct -trade. Japanese vessels appeared even in the Pacific Spanish-American -ports. It is to this period that the Japanese ascribe the conquest by -the king of Satsuma of the Lew Chew Islands; and Macao, Siam, and Annam -are enumerated, on Japanese authority, as additional places to which -Japanese vessels traded.[69] - -The Portuguese seem, on the other hand, to have had little left of that -courage and spirit by which their forefathers of the preceding century -had been so distinguished. The Dutch cruisers in the East Indies proved -a great annoyance to them. In 1603 they blockaded Goa, and the same -year Hemkirk took the carac of Macao, a prize of fourteen hundred tons, -and valued, with her cargo, at several millions of florins. When the -Dutch, under Matelief, attacked Malacca, in 1606, the Portuguese were -greatly indebted to a small body of Japanese, who formed a part of the -garrison, for their success in repelling the assault. On the other -hand, in 1608 a large number of Japanese, obliged to winter at Macao, -got into collision with the Portuguese authorities of that city, who -suspected them of a design to seize the place, and who, in consequence, -put a number of them to death. During this and the two preceding years -the annual Portuguese carac had been prevented from sailing from Macao -by fear of Dutch cruisers; and, with the effect of this interruption -of intercourse and of the bad feeling produced by the collision at -Macao, still other circumstances coöperated to endanger the Portuguese -ascendency. - -The first was the arrival at Hirado, in July, 1609, of the Dutch -vessel, the “Red Lion,” attended by the yacht “Griffon.” They belonged -to the fleet of Verhœven, who had left Holland December 12, 1607, with -thirteen ships (of which several were of a thousand tons burden), -nineteen hundred men, and three hundred and seventy-seven pieces of -artillery. The Portuguese fleet, which sailed about the same time -from Lisbon, to take out a new viceroy to Goa, was composed of eight -great caracs and six galleons. This fleet was scattered by a storm -off the Canaries, and one of the galleons, mounting ten cannon, and -with one hundred and eighty men, fell into Verhœven’s hands. He had -previously made an unsuccessful attack on Mozambique; but had taken, -however, in the harbor a carac, mounting thirty-four guns and loaded -with merchandise. Off Goa another carac was burned by the Portuguese, -to prevent its falling into the hands of the Dutch, who proceeded to -Calicut, where a treaty of alliance against the Portuguese was entered -into with the king. The Dutch then proceeded by Cochin to Johor, on the -peninsula of Malacca (whence the two ships were despatched to Japan) -and finally to Bantam and the Moluccas, where the Dutch expected that a -truce with Spain, announced by a ship late from Holland, would enable -them to devote all their strength to guard against the English, who -were also aiming at an establishment in those islands. - -[Illustration: TEMPLE OF HIDEYOSHI, KYŌTŌ] - -The ships detached from Johor, equally equipped for trading and for -fighting, as were all the Indiamen of that period, having missed, by -being a few days too late, the carac of Macao, proceeded to carry out -their instructions for opening a commercial intercourse with Japan. -They were very kindly received at Hirado, whence they sent a -deputation to the emperor’s court, with presents, in the name of the -Stadtholder, and were successful in obtaining leave to establish a -factory at Hirado, for the supply of which with goods the Dutch were to -send a ship or two yearly. The “Red Lion,” arriving in the Texel, July, -1610, carried back the following letter: - -THE EMPEROR OF JAPAN TO THE KING OF HOLLAND. - - “I, emperor and king of Japan, wish to the king of Holland [prince of - Orange] who hath sent from so far countries to visit me, greeting. - - “I rejoice greatly in your writing and sending unto me, and wish that - our countries were nearer the one to the other, whereby we might - continue and increase the friendship begun betwixt us, through your - presence, whom I imagine in earnest to see; in respect I am unknown - unto your majesty, and that your love towards me is manifested through - your liberality in honoring me with four presents, whereof, though I - had no need, yet, coming in your name, I received them in great worth, - and hold them in good esteem. - - “And further, whereas the Hollanders, your majesty’s subjects, desire - to trade with their shipping in my country (which is of little value - and small), and to traffic with my subjects, and desire to have - their abiding near unto my court, whereby in person I might help and - assist them, which cannot be as now, through the inconvenience of the - country; yet, notwithstanding, I will not neglect, as already I have - been, to be careful of them, and to give in charge to all my governors - and subjects that, in what places and havens, in what port soever they - shall arrive, they shall show them all favor and friendships to their - persons, ships, and merchandise; wherein your majesty or your subjects - need not to doubt or fear aught to the contrary. For they may come as - freely as if they came into your majesty’s own havens and countries, - and so may remain in my country to trade. And the friendship begun - between me and my subjects with you shall never be impaired on my - behalf, but augmented and increased. - - “I am partly ashamed that your majesty (whose name and renown - through your valorous deeds is spread through the whole world) - should cause your subjects to come from so far countries into a - country so unfitting as this is, to visit me, and to offer unto me - such friendships as I have not deserved. But considering that your - affection hath been the cause thereof, I could not but friendly - entertain your subjects, and yield to their requests, whereof this - shall serve for a testimony; that they in all places, countries, and - islands under mine obedience, may trade, and traffic, and build houses - serviceable and needful for their trade and merchandises, where they - may trade without any hindrance at their pleasure, as well in time to - come as for the present, so that no man shall do them any wrong. And I - will maintain and defend them as mine own subjects. - - “I promise, likewise, that the persons whom I understand shall be left - here, shall now and at all times be held as recommended unto me, and - in all things to favor them, whereby your majesty shall find us as - your friends and neighbors. - - “For other matters passed between me and your majesty’s servants, - which would be too long here to repeat, I refer myself unto them.”[70] - -The Dutch were greatly indebted for their success to Matsuura Hōin, -king of Hirado, who interested himself greatly in the establishment of -a Dutch factory in his island. In fact, it had been at his expense -that the two Dutchmen, shipmates of Adams, had some years before been -sent to Patania upon their promise to induce their countrymen to open -a trade to Japan. In addition to this outlay, which had amounted to -fifteen hundred taels, he had furnished the Dutch belonging to the two -recently arrived vessels with a galley manned with fifty-six rowers, -for their visit to court, of which they had the use for two months; and -he had, besides, accommodated them by purchasing all their pepper and -silk, the latter article at a considerable loss to himself. - -Some time previous to the arrival of these Dutch ships, in the autumn -of 1608, Don Rodrigo de Vivero, the late governor of Manila, returning -to New Spain in the galleon the “St. Francis,” was wrecked on the -southeast coast of Nippon.[71] At first it was not known what land it -was, but a Japanese Catholic on board soon recognized it. The crew, -who had escaped to the shore, proceeded to a neighboring village, -the people of which evinced much compassion for them, the women even -shedding tears. They gave them clothing and food (consisting of rice, -pulse, and a little fish), and sent word to the Tono, or lord of the -district, who issued orders that they should be well treated, but not -suffered to remove. - -They were soon visited by the Tono, who came in great pomp, preceded -by three hundred men; some bearing banners, others armed with lances, -matchlocks, and halberts. He saluted Don Rodrigo with much politeness, -by a motion of his head and hand, and placed him on his left, that -being considered the place of honor among the Japanese, because the -swords are worn on that side. He made Don Rodrigo several presents, -and took upon himself the subsistence of the party, allowing two -Spanish officers to proceed to the emperor’s court, to communicate to -him and to his son and, according to the Japanese custom, colleague, -the details of the case. - -Yedo, where the emperor’s son resided, was about forty leagues distant, -and Suruga, where the emperor held his court, still forty leagues -further. The messengers returned in twenty-four days, with an officer -of the prince, charged with a message of condolence from the emperor, -and leave to visit their courts. All the property that could be saved -from the wreck was given up to the Spaniards. - -The first place on their route was a town of ten or twelve thousand -inhabitants. The Tono took Don Rodrigo to his castle, situated on -a height, and surrounded by a ditch fifty feet deep, passed by a -drawbridge. The gates were of iron; the walls of solid masonry, -eighteen feet high, and the same in thickness. Near the first gate -stood a hundred musketeers, and between that and the second gate, which -opened through a second wall, were houses, gardens, orchards, and -rice-fields. The dwelling rooms were of wood, exquisitely finished and -adorned with a profusion of gold, silver, varnish, etc. - -All the way to Yedo the density of the population greatly surprised -the Spaniards, who were everywhere well lodged and entertained. They -entered that city amid such a crowd, that the officers of police had to -force a way for them,—and yet the streets were very broad. Such crowds -collected about the house which the prince had ordered to be prepared -for them, that they had no rest; till at last a guard was placed about -it, and a tablet set up, prohibiting the populace from molesting them. -Of the city Rodrigo gives this description: “Yedo contains seven -hundred thousand inhabitants, and is traversed by a considerable river -which is navigable by vessels of moderate size. By this river, which -divides in the interior into several branches, the inhabitants are -supplied with provisions and necessaries, which are so cheap that a man -may live comfortably for a rial (five cents) a day. The Japanese do not -make much wheaten bread, though what they do make is excellent. The -streets and squares of Yedo are very handsome, clean, and well kept. -The houses are of wood, and mostly of two stories. The exterior is less -imposing than with us, but they are far handsomer and more comfortable -within. Towards the street the houses have covered galleries, and each -street is occupied by persons of the same calling; carpenters in one, -jewellers in another, tailors in another, including many trades unknown -in Europe. The merchants and traders dwell together in the same way. -Provisions also are sold in places appointed for each sort. I observed -a market where game was sold; there was a great supply of rabbits, -hares, wild boars, deer, and other animals which I never saw before. -The Japanese rarely eat any flesh but that of game, which they hunt. -The fish market, very extensive and extremely neat and clean, affords -a great variety of fish, sea and river, fresh and salt; and there were -large tubs containing live fish. Adjoining the inns are places where -they let and sell horses, and these places are so numerous, that the -traveller, who, according to custom, changes his horse every league, -is only embarrassed where to choose. The nobles and great men inhabit -a distant part of the city, and their quarter is distinguished by the -armorial ornaments, sculptured, painted, or gilt, placed over the doors -of the houses,—a privilege to which the Japanese nobles attach great -value. The political authority is vested in a governor, who is chief of -the magistracy, civil and military. In each street resides a magistrate -who takes cognizance, in the first instance, of all cases, civil and -criminal, submitting the more difficult to the governor. The streets -are closed at each end by a gate, which is shut at nightfall. At each -gate is placed a guard of soldiers, with sentinels at intervals; so -that, if a crime is committed, notice is conveyed instantly to each -end of the street, and, the gates being closed, it rarely happens that -the offender escapes. This description is applicable to all the other -cities in the kingdom.” - -After an interval of two days, the prince sent his secretary, whose -name was Honda Kōzuke-no-Suke, to invite Don Rodrigo to visit him. -The palace he describes as enclosed by a wall of immense blocks of -freestone, put together without cement, with embrasures, at equal -distances, well furnished with artillery. At the foot of this wall -was a deep wet ditch, crossed by a drawbridge of a peculiar and very -ingenious construction. Don Rodrigo passed through two ranks of -musketeers, about one thousand in number, to the second wall, distant -from the first three hundred paces. At the gate four hundred lancers -and pikemen were stationed. A third wall, about twelve feet high, was -guarded by three hundred halberdiers. Within was the palace, with the -royal stables on one side, containing three hundred horses, and on -the other an arsenal with arms for one hundred thousand men. Rodrigo -affirms that from the entrance to the palace were more than twenty -thousand men, not assembled for the occasion, but constantly employed -and paid for the daily service of the court. - -The first apartment of the palace was entirely covered with rich -ornaments, carpets, stuffs, velvet, and gold. The walls were hung with -pictures representing hunting subjects. Each apartment exceeded the -preceding in splendor, till the further one was reached, in which the -prince was seated on a superb carpet of crimson velvet, embroidered -with gold, placed upon a kind of platform, raised two steps, in the -centre of the apartment. He wore three dresses, one over the other, -the exterior one green and yellow; in his girdle were his longer and -shorter swords. His hair was tied up with ribbons of different colors, -and his head had no other ornament. He was about thirty-five years of -age; of a brown complexion, a pleasing figure, and good height. Don -Rodrigo was conducted to a seat on the left hand of the prince, who -conversed with him on a variety of indifferent subjects. - -Four days after, the travellers set off for Suruga, on a visit to the -emperor. The road is thus described: “On whatsoever side the traveller -turns his eyes, he perceives a concourse of people passing to and fro, -as in the most populous cities of Europe. The roads are lined on both -sides with superb pine-trees, which keep off the sun. The distances -are marked by little eminences planted with two trees.” In the hundred -leagues between Suruga and Miyako, several towns were passed, estimated -to contain one hundred thousand inhabitants, and a village occurred at -every quarter of a league. Rodrigo declares himself so delighted with -Japan, that, “if he could have prevailed upon himself to renounce his -God and his king, he should have preferred that country to his own.” - -He estimated Suruga to contain from five to six hundred thousand -inhabitants. The climate was more agreeable than that of Yedo, but the -city not so handsome. As at Yedo, a convenient residence was provided -for him, which the crowd besieged as they had done there. The emperor -sent a secretary to compliment him on his arrival, with a present of -rich dresses, and in about a week he had his presentation. He was -conveyed in an elegant litter to the palace, which was a fortress -like that at Yedo. On the whole, there was less display than at the -prince’s court, but more marks of power and fear. The interview with -the emperor is thus described: “I followed the minister, who conducted -me into the presence of the sovereign, whom I saluted. He was in a kind -of square box, not very large, but astonishingly rich. It was placed -two steps above the floor, and surrounded at four paces’ distance by a -gold lattice-work, six feet high, in which were small doors, by which -the emperor’s attendants went in and out, as they were called from the -crowd, prostrate on their hands and knees around the lattice.[72] The -monarch was encircled by nearly twenty grandees, ministers or principal -courtiers, in long silk mantles, and trousers of the same material, -so long that they entirely concealed the feet. The emperor was seated -on a kind of stool, of blue satin, worked with stars and half-moons -of silver. In his girdle he wore a sword, and had his hair tied up -with ribbons of different colors, but had no other head-dress. His age -appeared to be about sixty.[73] He was of the middle stature, and of -a very full person. His countenance was venerable and gracious; his -complexion not near so brown as that of the prince.” - -As if to magnify the emperor, Don Rodrigo was detained during the -introduction of a Tono of high rank, who brought presents in gold, -silver, and silk, worth twenty thousand ducats. At a hundred paces -from the throne he prostrated himself with his face to the floor, -and remained in this posture for several minutes in perfect silence, -neither the emperor nor either of the ministers vouchsafing a word. -He then retired with his suite, consisting of three thousand persons. -After other exhibitions of the same sort, Don Rodrigo, having been -directed to make what requests he would, was conducted by two ministers -to a third apartment, whence other great officers escorted him out of -the palace with all ceremony. - -Afterwards he was entertained by Kōzukedono, the prime minister, at -a magnificent collation, the host pledging his health in exquisite -Japanese wine [_sake_?] by placing the glass upon his head.[74] The -Spaniard presented at this time a memorandum of his requests translated -into Japanese. They were three: first, that the royal protection might -be granted to Christian priests of different orders who then resided -in the empire, and that they might not be molested in the free use -and disposal of their houses and churches; secondly, that amity might -continue between the emperor and the king of Spain; and, lastly, that, -as an evidence of that friendship, the emperor would not permit the -Dutch (whose arrival has already been mentioned) to reside in his -territories, but would drive them out—since, besides being enemies of -Spain, they were little better than pirates and sea-rovers. - -The minister, the next day, after another collation, reported the -emperor’s answer, who had remarked, with admiration, that Don Rodrigo, -though destitute, had asked nothing for himself, but had regarded only -the interests of his religion and his king. The two first requests were -granted. As to the expulsion of the Hollanders, that, the emperor said, -“will be difficult this year, as they have my royal word for permission -to sojourn in Japan; but I am obliged to Don Rodrigo for letting me -know what characters they are.” The emperor offered the shipwrecked -Spaniard one of the ships of European model, which the pilot Adams had -built for him, in which to proceed to New Spain; and he begged him to -request King Philip to send to Japan fifty miners, as he understood -those of New Spain to be very skilful, whereas those of Japan did not -obtain from the ore half the silver it was capable of yielding. - -Don Rodrigo soon after set out for Shimo, where he was to take ship. -From Suruga to Miyako, estimated at one hundred leagues, the country -was mostly level and very fertile. Several considerable rivers were -crossed in large ferry-boats by means of a cable stretched from bank -to bank. Provisions were very cheap. His idea of the population of the -country grew more and more exaggerated. He insists that he did not -pass a town of less population than one hundred and fifty thousand; -and Miyako, which he considers the largest city in the world, he sets -down at one million five hundred thousand.[75] Situated upon a highly -cultivated plain, its walls were ten leagues in circuit, as Don -Rodrigo ascertained by riding round them on horseback. It took him an -entire day. He enters into a number of details about the Dairi and -his court. He was powerless, and lived in splendid poverty. The court -of the governor of Miyako, who had six vice-governors under him, was -scarcely less splendid than that of the emperor. He told Don Rodrigo -that this city contained five thousand temples and more than fifty -thousand public women. He showed him a temple, the largest building he -had seen in Japan, containing statues of all the gods, and another in -which was an immense bronze statue, the size of which filled him with -astonishment. “I ordered,” he says, “one of my people to measure the -thumb of the right hand; but, although he was a person of the ordinary -size, he could not quite encircle it with both arms. But the size -of the statue is not its only merit; the feet, hands, mouth, eyes, -forehead, and other features are as perfect and expressive as the most -accomplished painter could make a portrait. When I first visited this -temple it was unfinished; more than one hundred thousand men were daily -employed upon it. The devil could not suggest to the emperor a surer -expedient to get rid of this immense wealth.”[76] - -The temple and tomb of Taikō-Sama, raised since his death to the rank -of the gods, is thus described by Rodrigo, who deplores the dedication -of such an edifice to one whose “soul is in hell for all eternity.” -The entrance was by an avenue paved with jasper four hundred feet by -three hundred. On each side, at equal distances, were posts of jasper, -on which were placed lamps lighted at night. At the end of this passage -was the peristyle of the temple, ascended by several steps, and having -on the right a monastery of priests. The principal gate was encrusted -with jasper and overlaid with gold and silver ornaments skilfully -wrought. The nave of the temple was supported by lofty columns. There -was a choir, as in European cathedrals, with seats and a grating -all round. Male and female choristers chanted the prayers, much as -in Catholic churches, and the surplices put Rodrigo in mind of the -prebends of Toledo. The church was filled with silent devotees. Four of -the priests accosted him, and seem to have put him to great uneasiness -by conducting him to the altar of their “infamous relics,” surrounded -with an infinite number of lamps. After raising five or six curtains, -covering as many gratings, first of iron, then of silver, and the last -one of gold, a kind of chest was exposed, in which were contained the -ashes of Taikō-Sama. Within this enclosure none but the chief priests -could enter. All the Japanese prostrated themselves. - -Hastening to quit “this accursed spot,” Rodrigo was accompanied by the -priests to their gardens, exceeding, he says, those of Aranjuez. - -Of the religion of Japan he makes the following observation: “The -Japanese, like us, use holy, or rather unholy, water, and chaplets -consecrated to their false gods, Shaka [Buddha] and Nido [Amida], -which are not the only ones that they worship, for there are no less -than thirty-five different sects or religions in Japan. Some deny -the immortality of the soul, others adore divers gods, and others -yet the elements. All are tolerated. The bonzes of all the sects -having concurred in a request to the emperor that he would expel our -monks, the prince, troubled with their importunities, inquired how -many different religions there were in Japan. ‘Thirty-five,’was the -reply. ‘Well,’said he, ‘where thirty-five sects can be tolerated, -we can easily bear with thirty-six;—leave the strangers in peace.’” -He estimates the Christians at three hundred thousand,—a much more -probable number than the eighteen hundred thousand at which they were -reckoned by the missionaries,[77] whose reckoning was the same now that -it had been ten years before. - -From Miyako Don Rodrigo proceeded to Fushimi, adjoining, where -he embarked for Ōsaka, ten leagues down a river, as large as the -Guadalquivir at Seville, and full of vessels. Ōsaka, built close to the -sea, he reckons to contain one million inhabitants. Here he embarked -in a junk for Nagasaki. Not finding his vessel in proper repair, he -accepted an invitation from the emperor to return to Suruga, where he -renewed his endeavors to persuade that prince to expel the Dutch, but -without effect. At last, with presents and despatches for the king of -Spain, he set sail August 1, 1610, after a stay in Japan of nearly two -years.[78] - -Meanwhile an event occurred of which Rodrigo makes no mention, but -for which the Portuguese were inclined to hold him responsible, no -less than the Dutch. The annual carac from Macao had arrived, as we -have seen, in the autumn of 1609, after an interval of three years, -commanded, as it happened, by the very same person who had been chief -magistrate there on occasion of the late seizure and execution of -certain Japanese. The emperor, strengthened, as it was thought, by -the expectation of Dutch and Spanish trade, encouraged the prince of -Arima to revenge the death of his subjects who had perished at Macao; -and when the carac was ready to sail on her return voyage she was -attacked by a fleet of Japanese boats. They were two or three times -repulsed, but, taking the carac at a disadvantage, becalmed and drifted -into a narrow passage, they succeeded in setting her on fire, and in -destroying her with all her crew. - -Both the Dutch factors who had been left in Japan, and the king of -that island, Hōin-Sama, who had exerted himself greatly for the -establishment of Dutch commerce, were not a little annoyed at the -non-appearance of any Dutch vessels at Hirado during the year 1610. -The Dutch in the East Indies had, indeed, at this moment other things -to attend to. Verhœven, after his return to the Moluccas, had been -entrapped and treacherously slain at Banda, by the natives of that -island, along with many of his principal officers. This, however, -did not prevent the Dutch from soon after making a treaty with these -islanders, by which they obtained the sole right of purchasing their -nutmegs and mace, and which they followed up by the establishment -of not less than seven forts in the Molucca Islands, and by vigorous, -though as yet unsuccessful, attempts to drive away the Spaniards who -had come to the aid of the Portuguese. - -[Illustration: A SCENE IN THE PALACE GARDENS, KYŌTŌ] - -The Moluccas thus occupied, Admiral Wittert, who had succeeded to the -command of the Dutch fleet, sailed with part of the ships for Manila; -for though the truce between Spain and Holland was known, it had not -been proclaimed in the East Indies, and was not regarded by either -party. Here, unfortunately, Wittert suffered himself to be surprised by -a much superior Spanish force, and though he fought with the greatest -courage till he fell, his own ship and two others were taken, and -another blown up, two only making their escape. - -Immediately upon the arrival of the “Red Lion” in Holland, a number -of ships had been fitted out for Japan; but the first to arrive was a -small yacht, called the “Brach,” in July, 1611, with only a trifling -cargo of cloths, silks, pepper, ivory, and lead. Presently a government -officer came on board to demand a manifest of the cargo to be sent -to the emperor; but this the Dutch did not like to submit to, as the -Portuguese were free from it, and especially as the present cargo was -so trifling. These demands being renewed, finally, though somewhat -perplexed by the small means they had of making presents, they resolved -upon a new mission to the emperor’s court. The king of Hirado advised -them also to extend their visit to the hereditary prince at Yedo, and -not to omit paying their respects to Hideyori at Ōsaka, son of the -late emperor, and who might yet mount the throne. The king of Hirado -furnished a galley, in addition to one belonging to the factories, and -two commissioners, of whom the principal was Jacob Spex, set out for -Suruga, July 17, with an interpreter and a Japanese gentleman as a -guide or conductor[79]. - -The 6th of August they reached Ōsaka, defended by a fine castle, in -which dwelt Hideyori, now eighteen years of age. He had always been -kept secluded, but enjoyed a large revenue, and had many adherents, by -whom, as the Dutch learned, the hope of placing him on the throne was -zealously entertained. - -Arriving at Miyako, they learned that a Portuguese embassy had passed -through it four days preceding. They were deputies from Macao, who had -landed at Kagoshima, in a small vessel, and had gone with rich presents -to the emperor to solicit a renewal of trade and indemnification for -the vessels destroyed at Nagasaki two years before. Accompanied by a -large number of trumpeters and other musicians, they marched, with -great pomp, to the sound of the instruments, the whole of them, even -their black slaves, clothed in velvet of a uniform color. The governor -of Miyako, to whom they had made rich presents, had furnished them with -eighty-eight horses, which they had equipped at their own expense. - -Nor was this governor (the same apparently who had entertained Don -Rodrigo) less bountiful to the Dutch. He furnished them with horses, -a passport, and letters to the chief of the emperor’s council, but -refused their presents, not being accustomed, he said, to take anything -from strangers. When they pressed him, he still refused to accept -anything now, but promised, if they had anything left at their return, -to allow them to remember him,—a piece of disinterestedness by which -the economical Dutch were greatly charmed. - -Just before reaching Suruga they encountered Adams, the English pilot, -to whom they had written, and who, upon arriving at Suruga, hastened to -Kōzukeno-Suke, the same secretary of the emperor seen by Don Rodrigo, -but whom the Dutch call president of the council, to solicit for them a -speedy audience. While waiting for it, they learned that the Portuguese -ambassadors had not been very successful; nor had a Spanish embassy, -which had just arrived from New Spain, with thanks to the emperor for -his courtesies to Don Rodrigo. The presents of this ambassador were -very splendid; but his carriage was so haughty as to displease the -Japanese. He demanded leave for the Spaniards to build ships, for which -the forests and workmen of Japan afforded greater facilities than -either Manila or New Spain, and to explore the coasts, the Spaniards’ -ignorance of which had cost them the loss of some valuable vessels. -This was agreed to; but the emperor declined the request for the -expulsion of the Dutch, saying that he had nothing to do with these -European quarrels. Adams was present at these interviews; nor did he -fail by his representations to excite the suspicions of the emperor -against the Spaniards. - -Gotō Shōzaburō, the emperor’s treasurer, freely told the Dutch that the -Spaniards and Portuguese had represented him as coming to Japan rather -as privateersmen than as traders, and that, as might be seen by the -smallness of their present cargo, their chief resource for trade was -in the prizes they took. But Adams entered with great zeal into their -defence, insisting upon their honesty and fairness as the qualities -which had given them such success in trade, referring to the recent -truce with Spain as showing that plunder was not their object, and -excusing the smallness of the present venture by the lack, as yet, of -any regular treaty. - -These representations were not without their effect. Kōzukeno-Suke -received the Dutch very graciously, approved the requests which they -made on the subject of trade, and promised to lay them before the -emperor pending their visit to Yedo, for which he furnished them with -vessels, horses, and guides. With much persuasion he was at last -induced to accept a present, which the Dutch regarded as a special -favor, as he had positively declined any from the Portuguese and -Spaniards. Before their departure, they were admitted to an audience -from the emperor, who inquired of them how many soldiers they had in -the Moluccas[80]; whether they traded to Borneo; whether it were true -that the best camphor came from that island; what odoriferous woods the -Dutch had in their country; and other similar questions, to which they -replied through their interpreter. After they had taken their leave, -Kōzukedono and Gotō Shōzaburō reconducted them out of the hall, at the -same time felicitating them on their favorable audience. It was very -unusual, they said, for the emperor to make himself so familiar; he did -not bestow such a favor even on the greatest lords of the empire, who -brought him presents of the value of ten, twenty, and thirty thousand -taels; nor had he said a single word to the Portuguese and Spanish -ambassadors. To Adams, who was called back to the royal apartments, -the emperor expressed himself greatly delighted with the presents, as -showing that the Dutch were “past masters” in arts as well as in arms. - -The Dutchmen, having caused their propositions to be written out in -Japanese, placed them in the hands of Kōzukedono, and on the 18th -they were furnished with an order for ten horses, and a letter to the -hereditary prince at Yedo. Adams, who was in as great favor at this -court as at Suruga, lodged them in a house of his own, and undertook to -give notice of their arrival to Sadono-Kami, president of the prince’s -council and father of Kōzukedono, who sent an officer in return to make -his compliments to the Dutchmen. - -They made him a visit the next day, with a present, which, as a great -favor, he condescended to accept. He inquired of them particularly the -cause of the war which had lasted so long between the Spaniards and -the Dutch, and the history of the negotiations which had brought about -the recent truce. The Dutch did not conceal the small extent of their -country, and the Japanese minister expressed great astonishment that -so feeble a state should have resisted with such success so powerful a -king. Finally, he treated them to a collation of fruit. Though very old -and infirm, he conducted them to the passage, and promised to accompany -them the next day to the palace. Admitted to the imperial palace, the -prince thanked them for the journey they had undertaken to see him; -but when (pretending orders from Holland to that effect) they besought -his favor and protection, he dismissed them with a nod. An officer, -however, conducted them over the palace, and the prince sent them some -presents, though not very magnificent ones. They themselves made many -presents, principally cloth and glass bottles, to many lords of the -court, among whom they found, in high favor, a brother of the young -king of Hirado. - -From Yedo they proceeded to a port eighteen leagues distant (probably -Uraga), where Adams had another house, and where they found the Spanish -ship which had brought the ambassador from New Spain. The ambassador -himself was also there. He sent them a very civil message, to which -they responded with equal civility. Pressing invitations for a visit -passed between them, but neither party would be the first to call on -the other. By some Flemings, however, attached to the ambassador’s -suite, they were assured that the ambassador had no authority to demand -the exclusion of the Dutch, which he had done on his own authority. The -embassy, they said, had been fitted out at an expense of fifty thousand -dollars. - -Upon their return to Suruga, October 1, Adams brought them the patent -which the emperor had granted for their commerce, and which, being -translated, proved to be in the following words: - - “All Dutch ships that come into my empire of Japan, whatever place - or port they put into, we do hereby expressly command all and every - one of our subjects not to molest the same in any way, nor to be a - hindrance to them; but, on the contrary, to show them all manner of - help, favor, and assistance. Every one shall beware to maintain the - friendship in assurance of which we have been pleased to give our - imperial word to these people; and every one shall take care that our - commands and promises be inviolably kept. - - “Dated (according to the Japanese calendar equivalent to) August 30, - 1611.”[81] - -The Dutch were very much troubled to find that the clause guaranteeing -freedom from the visits of inspectors and guards, and interference -with their trade by the government, which had been the great object of -their mission, was omitted. They made representations on the subject to -Kōzukeno-Suke, who advised them not to press it. But as they conceived -it of the greatest importance, they drew up a Japanese memorial, which -Adams presented to the emperor and the request of which Kōzukedono -seconded with such effect that the emperor ordered an edict granting -the wishes of the Dutch to be drawn up, which he immediately proceeded -to sign. Such is the statement of Spex’s narrative; but no such -document appears to be preserved in the archives of the Dutch factory, -the short one already given being everywhere cited and relied upon as -the charter of the Dutch trade to Japan, without any mention anywhere -else of any such supplement to it. - -The return of the Dutchmen, by way of Miyako, to Hirado, does not -offer anything remarkable, except their meeting at Sakai (whither they -went to learn the price of goods and the course of trade there), with -Melichor von Santvoort, one of the Dutchmen who had reached Japan at -the same time with Adams. After selecting factors to stay behind, -ordering the erection of warehouses, and making such presents as their -small means admitted to their Japanese friends, their vessel set sail -on her return the 28th of September. - -The Dutch, as we have seen, had been greatly assisted by Adams. The -Spanish envoy, in his negotiations, relied chiefly, as Don Rodrigo had -done before him, on the advice and assistance of Father Louis Sotelo, -a Franciscan friar of noble descent[82], established at Miyako, who -entered with great zeal into the project of a regular trade between -Japan and Mexico. But the old jealousy which the Japanese had long -entertained of the Spaniards soon broke out afresh. Some soundings made -along the coast by the vessel which brought out the Spanish ambassador -were looked upon with great suspicion and jealousy, which Adams is said -to have aggravated. Sotelo, despairing of success with the emperor, -though at first he had seemed to favor his projects, subsequently -proposed the same scheme to Date Masamune, who ruled over a part, or -the whole, of the kingdom of Ōshū, or Mutsu, in the north of Japan, -hitherto almost unknown, but to which a few missionaries had lately -made their way. The prince of Ōshū adopted Sotelo’s project with zeal, -affecting also quite a leaning towards the new faith, and, at Sotelo’s -suggestion, he sent an ambassador to the Pope and the king of Spain[83]. - -After many disappointments, Sotelo with this ambassador set sail at -length for New Spain, about the end of the year 1613, in a vessel -belonging to Masamune; and, by way of the city of Mexico, proceeded -to Seville and Madrid, where they arrived in October, 1614. Thence -they proceeded to Rome, and had an audience of the Pope, November 30, -1615, by whom Sotelo was nominated bishop for the north and east parts -of Japan, and his legate for the whole of it[84]. Having reached New -Spain on his return, he found in the port of Acapulco a Japanese -vessel belonging to Masamune, which, having disposed of a cargo of -Japanese goods, took on freight for Manila a part of the suite of a new -Spanish governor of the Philippines, intending to purchase at Manila -a cargo of Chinese silks. But the Council of the Indies, under the -influence of the Jesuits, and on the plea that the nomination of all -Eastern bishops belonged to the king, opposed Sotelo’s consecration; -and the merchants of Manila, alarmed at the rivalry of New Spain for -the Japanese trade, made such representations that, on his arrival -there, his papers were seized, and he himself was sent back to the -superiors of his order in New Mexico. - -But long before the occurrence of these events—in fact, previous to the -departure of Sotelo from Japan—the Catholic faith there had received -a blow from which it never recovered, and which brought it to speedy -ruin. - - - - -CHAPTER XXII - - _Origin and Commencement of English Intercourse with Japan—Captain - Saris’ Voyage thither, and Travels and Observations there—New Spanish - Embassy from the Philippines—Commercial Rivalry of the Dutch and - English—Richard Cocks, Head of the English Factory—A. D. 1611-1613._ - - -The pilot, Adams, having heard from Spex that certain English merchants -had established themselves in the island of Java, he wrote to them, -under date of October 22, 1611, giving an account of himself, and -enclosing a letter to his wife, which he besought these unknown -countrymen of his to convey to his friends at Limehouse or in Kent, -so that his wife, “in a manner a widow,” and his fatherless children, -might hear of him, and he of them, before his death. “You shall -understand,” wrote Adams, “that the Hollanders have here an Indies of -money, so that they need not to bring silver out of Holland to the -East Indies, for in Japan there is much gold and silver to serve their -turn in other places where need requireth.” He enumerated as vendible -in Japan for ready money, raw silk, damask, black taffetas, black and -red cloth of the best kinds, lead, etc. To a somewhat exaggerated, and -otherwise not very correct account of the extent and the geography -of the Japanese dominions, he added the following description of -the inhabitants: “The people of this island of Japan are good of -nature, courteous above measure, and valiant in war. Their justice is -severely executed, and without partiality, upon transgressors. They -are governed in great civility. I think no land in the world better -governed by civil policy. The people are very superstitious in their -religion, and are of diverse opinions. There are many Jesuit and -Franciscan friars in this land, and they have converted many to be -Christians, and have many churches in the island.” - -This letter, which was given in charge to the master’s mate of the -Dutch vessel, must have reached the English East India Company’s -factory at Bantam, in Java, previous to the first of June, 1612, for on -that day an answer to it was despatched by the “Globe,” which had just -arrived from England, and which, sailing from Bantam to Patania, met -there the same master’s mate who had brought Adams’ letter, and who, -being just about to return to Japan in a Dutch pinnace, promised to -deliver the answer. - -Already, however, independently of Adams’ letter, a project had been -started in England for opening a trade with Japan, founded upon a -knowledge of Adams’ being there, derived from the crew of the Dutch -ship, the “Red Lion.” The “Globe,” which left England January 5, -1611, carried letters to Adams to that effect, and she was followed -in April by the “Clove,” the “Thomas,” and the “Hector,” under the -command of Captain John Saris, an old adventurer in the East, and a -former resident of Bantam, with letters from the king of England to the -emperor of Japan[85]. - -After touching, trading, negotiating and fighting, at Socotra, Mocha, -and other ports of the Red Sea, Saris arrived at Bantam in October, -1612. Soon after his arrival the letter of Adams was re-read in -presence of the assembled merchants; and doubtless it encouraged Saris -in his project of visiting Japan. Having taken in seven hundred sacks -of pepper, in addition to the broadcloths, gunpowder, and other goods -brought from England, Saris sailed on the 14th of January, 1618, in the -“Clove,” his crew consisting of seventy-four English, one Spaniard, -one Japanese, to serve as an interpreter, he speaking also the Malay -language, which Captain Saris understood, and five Swarts, probably -Malays. - -Passing in sight of the south coast of Celebes, Saris touched at -several of the ports in the group of the Moluccas, occupied at that -time, some of them by Dutch and others by Spanish factories,—the -Spaniards from Manila having come to the rescue of the Portuguese, whom -the Dutch had driven out. Regarding all new comers (if of any other -nation than their own) with scarcely less suspicion and hostility than -they did each other, and both of them joining to oppress and plunder -the unhappy natives, “who were wrought upon,” so Saris says, “to spoil -one another in civil war,” the Dutch and Spaniards, secure in strong -forts, sat by and looked on, “prepared to take the bone from him that -would wrest it from his fellow.” The Dutch fort at Buchian had a -garrison of thirty Dutch soldiers, and eleven Dutch women, “able to -withstand the fury of the Spaniard, or other nation whatsoever, being -of a very lusty, large breed.” - -The Dutch commander would not allow the natives to trade with the -English, even to the extent of a single _katty_ of cloves, threatening -with death those who did so, and claiming all the Spice Islands held by -them as “their country, conquered by the sword they having, with much -loss of blood and money, delivered the inhabitants from the tyranny of -the Portuguese, and having made a perpetual contract with them for the -purchase of all their spices at a fixed rate,” in the case of cloves -at about eight cents the pound. This claim of exclusive right of trade -Captain Saris declined to acknowledge; at the same time he professed -his readiness to give the Dutch, “as neighbors and brethren in Christ,” -a preference in purchasing any part of his cargo of which they might -happen to stand in need. - -The English and Dutch had been ready enough to join together in -breaking up the Portuguese and Spanish monopoly, and in forcing a trade -in the Indian seas; but it was already apparent that the Dutch East -India Company, which in the amount of capital at its command very far -surpassed the English Company, was bent on establishing a monopoly -of its own, not less close than that formerly maintained by the -Portuguese. The Spaniards, on the other hand, professed friendship, and -made some offers of trade; but Captain Saris, suspecting treachery, did -not choose to trust them. - -On the 14th of April, he left the Moluccas, and stood on his course -for Japan. On the 10th of June, having been in sight of land for a day -or two, his ships were boarded by four great fishing-boats, fitted -with both sails and oars, from whose crews they learned that they were -off the harbor of Nagasaki. In fact, one of these boats belonged to -the Portuguese, and was manned by “new Christians,” who had mistaken -the ships of Captain Saris for the annual Portuguese carac. Finding -their mistake, no entreaty could prevail upon them to stay; but two of -the other boats, for thirty dollars each in money, and rice for food, -agreed to pilot the ship to Hirado, by the pilot’s reckoning some -thirty leagues to the north, and the boatmen coming on board began to -assist in working the vessel, showing themselves not less handy than -the English sailors. - -No sooner had the ship anchored off Hirado, than she was visited by the -king or hereditary governor of that island, by name Hōin Sama,—the same -who had shown so much favor to the Dutch,—upward of seventy years old, -attended by his nephew or grandchild, a young man of two-and-twenty, -who governed under him. They came with forty boats or galleys, with -from ten to fifteen oars a side; but on approaching the vessel, all -fell back, except the two which carried the princes, who came on board -unattended, except by a single person each. They were bareheaded and -barelegged, wearing shoes, but no stockings; the fore-part of their -heads shaven to the crown, and their hair behind, which was very long, -gathered up into a knot. They were clad in shirts and breeches, over -which was a silk gown girt to them, with two swords of the country at -their side, one half a yard in length, the other half as long. Their -manner of salutation was to put off their shoes, and then stooping, -with their right hand in their left, and both against their knees, to -approach with small sidling steps, slightly moving their hands at the -same time, and crying _Augh! Augh!_ - -Captain Saris conducted them to his cabin, where he had a banquet -spread, and a concert of music, with which they seemed much delighted. -The old king received with much joy a letter from the king of England, -but put off reading it till “_Ange_” (or, according to Adams’ way -of writing it, Angin [Anjin[86]]) should come —that word being the -Japanese for pilot, and the name by which Adams was known, to whom, -then at Yedo, letters were sent the same night, as also to the emperor. - -As soon as the king had gone on shore, all his principal people, -attended by a multitude of soldiers, entered the ship, each man of -consequence bringing a present of venison, wild boar, large and fat -wild fowl, fruits, fish, etc.; but as the crowd proved troublesome, -King Hōin sent an officer on board to keep order and prevent mischief. -The next day came some threescore great boats or galleys, very well -manned, which towed the vessel into the harbor, of which the entrance -was narrow and dangerous. Here they anchored in five fathoms, so close -to the shore that they could talk with the people in the houses, -saluting the town with nine pieces of ordnance—a compliment which -the inhabitants were unable to return, having no cannon, only pieces -for small shot. The ship was speedily surrounded with boats full of -people, who seemed much to admire her head and stern, and the decks -were so crowded with men, women, and children, that it was impossible -to move about. The captain took several of the better sort of women -into his cabin, where a picture of Venus and Cupid “did hang somewhat -wantonly, set out in a large frame, which, mistaking it for the Virgin -and her Son, some of those women kneeled to and worshipped with great -devotion,” at the same time whispering in a low tone, that they might -not be overheard by their companions, that they were _Christianos_; -by which it was understood that they were converts of the Portuguese -Jesuits. - -Soon after, King Hōin came again on board, and brought with him four -women of his family. They were barelegged, except that a pair of -half-buskins were bound by a silk ribbon about their insteps, and were -clad in a number of silk gowns, one skirt over another, bound about -their waists by a girdle, their hair very black and long, and tied in -a comely knot on the crown of the head, no part of which was shaven, -like the men’s. They had good faces, hands, and feet, clear-skinned and -white, but wanting color; which, however, they supplied by art. They -were low in stature and very fat, courteous in behavior, of which they -well understood the ceremonials according to the Japanese fashion. At -first they seemed a little bashful; but the king “willing them to be -frolic,” and all other company being excluded except Captain Saris and -the interpreter, they sang several songs, playing on an instrument much -like a guitar, but with four strings only, which they fingered very -nimbly with the left hand, holding in the other a piece of ivory, with -which they touched the strings, playing and singing by book, the tunes -being noted on lines and spaces, much the same as European music. - -Not long after, desirous to be “frolic,” the king brought on board a -company of female actors—such as were common in Japan, little better, -it would seem, than slaves and courtesans, being under the control of a -master, who carried them from place to place, selling their favors, and -“exhibiting comedies of war, love, and such like, with several shifts -of apparel for the better grace of the matter acted.” - -[Illustration: PERFORMERS ON THE KOTO AND THE SAMISEN] - -It appeared, however, on a subsequent occasion, on which several of -the English were present, that, besides these professional actors, the -king and his principal courtiers were accustomed, on certain great -festivals, at which the whole country was present, to present a -play, of which the matter was the valiant deeds of their ancestors, -from the beginning of their kingdom or commonwealth, intermixed, -however, with much mirth, “to give the common people content.” On that -occasion they had as musical instruments, to assist their voices, -little tabors or stringed instruments, small in the middle and large at -both ends, like an hour-glass; also fifes; but though they kept exact -time, the whole performance was very harsh to English ears. - -While waiting for Adams, who presently arrived, after being seventeen -days on his way, a house on shore for a factory was hired, furnished -with mats, according to the custom of the country, for a rent of about -ninety-five dollars for six months. Not long after, leaving Mr. Richard -Cocks in charge of the factory and the trade, Captain Saris set out on -a visit to the emperor, attended by Adams and seventeen persons of his -own company, including several mercantile gentlemen, a tailor, a cook, -the surgeon’s mate, the Japanese interpreter, the coxswain, and one -sailor. He was liberally furnished by old King Hōin with a conductor -for the journey, a large galley, of twenty-five oars a side, manned -with sixty men, and also with a hundred taels in Japanese money (equal -to one hundred and twenty-five dollars), to pay his expenses, which, -however, Captain Saris directed Cocks to place to King Hōin’s credit as -so much money lent. - -The galley being handsomely fitted up with waist-cloths and ensigns, -they coasted along the western and northern shores of the great island -of Shimo (or Kiūshiū), off the northwest coast of which the small -island of Hirado lay. As they coasted along, they passed a number of -handsome towns. Hakata, distant two days’ rowing from Hirado, had -a very strong castle of freestone, with a wide and deep ditch and -drawbridge, kept in good repair, but without cannon or garrison. -Here, finding the current too strong, they stopped to dine. The town -seemed as large as London within the walls, very well built, with -straight streets. As they landed, they had experience, repeated almost -wherever they went, of that antipathy to foreigners, so characteristic -a trait of the country; for the boys, children, and worser sort of -idle people, would gather about them, crying out _Coré, Coré, Cocoré, -Waré_[87], taunting them by these words as Coreans with false hearts, -whooping, hallowing, and making such a noise, that the English could -hardly hear each other speak, and even in some places throwing stones -at them—all which went on without any interference on the part of the -public officers. In general, however, the police was very strict, and -punishments very prompt and bloody. Saris saw several executions in -the streets, after which, every passer-by was allowed to try his sword -on the dead bodies, which thus are chopped into small pieces, and left -for the birds of prey to devour. All along the coast they noticed many -families living in boats upon the water, as in Holland, the women being -very expert fishers, not only with lines and nets, but by diving, which -gave them, however, blood-shot eyes. - -Coasting through the Strait of Shimonoseki, and the channel which -separates Nippon from the two more southern islands, on the twentieth -day after leaving Hirado they reached the entrance of a river, a -short distance up which lay the town of Ōsaka, which, however, they -could only reach in a small boat. This town, which seemed as large -as Hakata, had many handsome timber bridges across a river as wide as -the Thames at London. It had, also, a great and very strong castle of -freestone, in which, as they were told, the son of the late emperor, -left an infant at his father’s decease, was kept a close prisoner. Some -nine miles from Ōsaka, on the other side of the river, lay the town -of Sakai, not so large, but accessible to ships, and a place of great -trade. - -Leaving their galley at Ōsaka, Captain Saris and his company passed in -boats up a river or canal, one day’s journey, to Fushimi, where they -found a garrison of three thousand soldiers, maintained by the emperor -to keep in subjection Ōsaka and the still larger neighboring city of -Miyako [Kyōto]. The garrison being changed at that time, the old troops -marching out, and new ones marching in, a good opportunity was afforded -to see their array. They were armed with a species of fire-arms, pikes, -swords, and targets, bows and arrows, and _wakizashi_, described as -like a Welsh hook. They marched five abreast, with an officer to every -ten files, without colors or musical instruments, in regiments of from -a hundred and fifty to five hundred men, of which one followed the -other at the distance of a league or two, and were met for two or three -days on the road. Captain Saris was very favorably impressed with the -discipline and martial bearing of these troops. The captain-general, -whom they met in the rear, marched in very great state, hunting and -hawking all the way, the hawks being managed exactly after the European -fashion. The horses were of middle size, small-headed, and very full of -mettle. - -At Fushimi, Captain Saris and his company quitted their bark, and were -furnished each man with a horse to travel overland to Suruga, where -the emperor held his court. For Captain Saris a palanquin was also -provided, with bearers to carry it, two at a time, six in number where -the way was level, but increased to ten when it became hilly. A spare -horse was led beside the palanquin for him to ride when he pleased, -and, according to the custom of the country with persons of importance, -a slave was appointed to run before him, bearing a pike. - -Thus they travelled, at the rate of some forty-five miles a day, over -a highway for the most part very level, but in some places cut through -mountains; the distances being marked, in divisions of about three -miles, by two little hillocks on each side of the way, planted at the -top with a fair pine-tree, “trimmed round in fashion of an arbor.” -This road, which was full of travellers, led by a succession of farms, -country-houses, villages, and great towns. It passed many fresh rivers -by ferries, and near many _hotoke_[88], or temples, situated in groves, -“the most pleasantest places for delight in the whole country.” - -Every town and village was well furnished with taverns, where meals -could be had at a moment’s warning. Here, too, lodgings were obtained, -and horses and men for the palanquin were taken up by the director of -the journey, like post-horses in England. The general food was observed -to be rice. The people ate also fish, wild fowl of various kinds, -fresh and salted, and various picked herbs and roots. They ploughed -with horses and oxen, as in Europe, and raised good red wheat. Besides -_sake_, made from rice, they drank with their food warm water[89]. - -The entrance of the travellers into Suruga, where the emperor held -his court, and which they reached on the seventh day, was not very -savory, as they were obliged to pass several crosses, with the dead -and decaying bodies of the malefactors still nailed to them. This city -they judged to be as large as London with all the suburbs[90]. The -handicraftsmen dwelt in the outskirts of the town, so as not to disturb -with their pounding and hammering the richer and more leisurely sort. - -After a day or two spent in preparations, Saris, accompanied by the -merchants and others, went in his palanquin to the palace, bearing -his presents, according to the custom of the country, on little -tables, or rather salvers, of a sweet-smelling wood. Having entered -the castle, he passed three drawbridges, each with its guard, and, -ascending a handsome stone staircase, he was met by two grave, comely -men, Kōzuke-no-Suke, the emperor’s secretary, and Hyōgo-no-Kami, the -admiral, who led him into a matted antechamber. Here they all sat down -on the mats, but the two officers soon rose again, and took him into -the presence-chamber, to bestow due reverence on the emperor’s empty -chair of state. It was about five feet high, the sides and back richly -ornamented with cloth of gold, but without any canopy. The presents -given in the name of the king, and others by Captain Saris in his own -name (as the custom of the country required), were arranged about this -room. - -After waiting a little while longer in the antechamber, it was -announced that the emperor had come, when the officers motioned Saris -into the room, but without entering themselves. Approaching the -emperor, he presented, with English compliments (on his knee, it may be -presumed), the king’s letter, which the emperor took and raised toward -his forehead, telling the interpreter to bid them welcome after their -wearisome journey, and that in a day or two his answer would be ready. -He invited them in the mean time to visit his son, who resided at Yedo. - -The country between Suruga and Yedo, which were two days’ journey -apart, was found to be well inhabited. They saw many temples on the -way, one of which contained a gigantic image of Buddha[91], made of -copper, hollow within, but of very substantial thickness. It was, as -they guessed, twenty-two feet high, in likeness of a man kneeling on -the ground, and seated on his heels, clothed in a gown, his arms of -wonderful size, and the whole body in proportion. The echo of the -shouts of some of the company, who went into the body of it, was very -loud. Some of the English left their names written upon it, as they saw -was customary. - -Yedo was found to be a city much larger than Suruga, and with much -handsomer buildings, making a very glorious appearance as they -approached, the ridge tiles and corner tiles, and the posts of the -doors, being richly gilded and varnished. There were, however, no glass -windows, but window-shutters instead, opening in leaves, and handsomely -painted. - -From Yedo, where our travellers were received much as they had been -at Suruga, they proceeded some forty miles, by boats, to Uraga, -an excellent harbor on the sea-side, whence, in eight days, they -coasted round a projecting point of land back to Suruga, where they -received the emperor’s answer to the king’s letter, also an engrossed -and official copy of certain privileges of trade, a draught of which -they had furnished to the emperor’s secretary, and which, having been -condensed as much as possible, to suit the Japanese taste for brevity, -and thus reduced from fourteen articles to eight, were expressed in the -following terms[92]: - - “1. _Imprimis._ We give free license to the subjects of the king of - Great Britain, namely, Sir Thomas Smith, governor, and the company - of the East India merchants and adventurers, forever, safely to come - into any of the ports of our empire of Japan, with their ships and - merchandises, without any hindrance to them or their goods, and to - abide, buy, sell and barter, according to their own manner, with all - nations: to tarry here as long as they think good, and to depart at - their pleasures. - - “2. _Item._ We grant unto them freedom of custom for all such - merchandises as either now they have brought or hereafter they shall - bring into our kingdoms, or shall from hence transport to any foreign - part; and do authorize those ships that hereafter shall arrive and - come from England, to proceed to present sale of their commodities, - without further coming or sending up to our court. - - “3. _Item._ If any of their ships shall happen to be in danger of - shipwreck, we will our subjects not only to assist them, but that such - part of ship and goods as shall be saved be returned to their captain - or cape-merchant[93], or their assigns: and that they shall or may - build one house or more for themselves, in any part of our empire - where they shall think fittest, and at their departure to make sale - thereof at their pleasure. - - “4. _Item._ If any of the English, merchants or other, shall depart - this life within our dominions, the goods of the deceased shall remain - at the dispose of the cape-merchant: and all offenses committed by - them shall be punished by the said cape-merchant, according to his - discretion; our laws to take no hold of their persons or goods. - - “5. _Item._ We will that ye our subjects, trading with them for any - of their commodities, pay them for the same according to agreement, - without delay, or return of their wares again unto them. - - “6. _Item._ For such commodities as they have now brought, or shall - hereafter bring fitting for our service and proper use, we will - that no arrest be made thereof, but that the price be made with the - cape-merchant, according as they may sell to others, and present - payment upon the delivery of the goods. - - “7. _Item._ If, in discovery of other countries for trade, and return - of their ships, they should need men or victuals, we will that ye our - subjects furnish them for their money as their need shall require. - - “8. And that, without further passport, they shall and may set out - upon the discovery of Yezo[94], or any other part in and about our - empire[95].” - -The letter from the emperor to the king of England did not differ very -materially from that to the prince of Orange, already given. [See -Appendix, Note 1.] - -In the original draught of the Privileges, there had been an additional -article, to the effect that, as the Chinese had refused to trade with -the English, in case the English should capture any Chinese ships, they -might be allowed the privilege of selling such prizes in the Japanese -ports; but this article, upon consideration, the emperor refused to -grant. - -While these documents were under consideration, a Spanish ambassador -from the Philippines had arrived at Suruga with the request that -such Portuguese and Spaniards as were in the emperor’s territories -without authority from the king of Spain might be delivered up to be -transported to the Philippines—a request occasioned by the great want -of men to defend the Spanish posts in the Moluccas against the Dutch, -who were then preparing to make an absolute conquest of the whole of -those islands. But to this demand the emperor replied that his country -was a free country, and nobody should be forced out of it; but if the -ambassador could persuade any of his countrymen to go, they should -not be prevented; whereupon the ambassador departed, not a little -discontented. - -The day after receiving the emperor’s letter and the Privileges, being -the 9th of October, Captain Saris and his company set out by land for -Miyako, where the presents were to be delivered to him, over the same -road by which they had travelled from Ōsaka to Suruga; but, owing to -the heavy rains and the rising of the river, their progress was much -delayed. - -Miyako they found to be the greatest and most commercial city of Japan. -Here, too, was the largest hotoke, or temple, in the whole country, -built of freestone, begun by the late emperor, and just finished by -the present one, as long, they estimated, as the part of St. Paul’s, -in London, westerly from the choir, being as high-arched, and borne -upon pillars like that[96]. This temple was attended upon by a great -many bonzes or priests, who thus obtained their living, being supported -by the produce of an altar, on which the worshippers offered rice and -small pieces of money, and near which was a colossal copper image, like -that already described, but much larger, reaching to the very arch of -the temple, which itself stood on the top of a hill, having an avenue -of approach on either side of fifty stone pillars, ten paces apart, on -each of which was suspended a lantern, lighted every night[97]. - -Here, also, the Jesuits had a very stately college, in which many of -them reside, both Portuguese and natives, and in which many children -were trained up in the Christian religion according to the Romish -church. In this city alone there were not less than five or six -thousand professing Christians[98]. - -But already that persecution was commenced which ended in the -banishment of the Jesuits from Japan, and, indeed, in the exclusion of -all Europeans, with a slight exception in favor of the Dutch. Following -up an edict of the previous year, against the Franciscans, the emperor -had issued a proclamation, about a month before Captain Saris’ arrival -at Suruga, that no church should stand, nor mass be sung, within ten -leagues of his court, upon pain of death. - -Having at length received the emperor’s presents for the king of -England, being ten byōbu [screen] or “large pictures to hang a chamber -with,” they proceeded the same day to Fushimi and the next to Ōsaka, -where they reëmbarked in the galley which had been waiting for them, -and returned to Hirado, having spent just three months on the tour. - -Captain Saris found that, during his absence, seven of his crew had -run away to Nagasaki, where they had complained to the Portuguese of -having been used more like dogs than men. Others, seduced by drink -and women, and sailor boarding-house keepers,—just the same in Japan -as elsewhere,—had committed great irregularities, quarrelling with -the natives and among themselves, even to wounding, and maiming, and -death. What with these troubles, added to a “_tuffon_,” [typhoon]—a -violent storm,—which did a good deal of damage (though the ship rode it -out with five anchors down), and alarms of conflagration, founded on -oracles of the bonzes, and numerous festivals and entertainments, at -which Cocks had been called upon to assist,—one of which was a great -feast, lasting three days and three nights, to which the Japanese -invited their dead kindred, banqueting and making merry all night at -their graves[99],—but little progress had been made in trade. The cargo -consisted largely of broadcloths, which the Dutch had been selling, -before the English came, at seventeen dollars the yard. Captain Saris -wished to arrange with them to keep up the price, but the head of -their factory immediately sent off to the principal places of sale -large quantities, which he disposed of at very low prices, in order to -spoil the market. The natives, also, were the more backward to buy, -because they saw that the English, though very forward to recommend -their cloth, did not much wear it themselves, the officers being -clothed in silks, and the men in fustians. So the goods were left in -charge of the factory, which was appointed to consist of eight English, -including Cocks and Adams (who was taken into the service of the East -India Company on a salary of one hundred pounds a year), three Japanese -interpreters, and two servants, with charge, against the coming of the -next ships, to search all the neighboring coasts to see what trade -might be had with any of them. - -The matter arranged, and having supplied the place of those of his crew -who had died or deserted, by fifteen Japanese, and paid up a good many -boarding-house and liquor-shop claims against his men, to be deducted -out of their wages, Captain Saris sailed on the 5th of December for -Bantam, where he arrived the 3d of January, 1614. Having taken in a -cargo of pepper, he sailed for home on the 13th of February, anchored -off the Cape of Good Hope on the 16th of May, and, on the 27th of -September, arrived at Plymouth, having in the preceding six weeks -experienced worse weather and encountered more danger than in the whole -voyage beside[100]. - - - - -CHAPTER XXIII - - _Ecclesiastical Retrospect—New Persecution—Edict of Banishment against - the Missionaries—Civil War between Hideyori and Ōgosho-Sama—Triumph of - Ōgosho-Sama—His death—Persecution more Violent than ever—Mutual Rancor - of the Jesuits and the Friars—Progress of Martyrdom—The English and - Dutch, A. D. 1613-1620._ - - -Between the edict of Taikō-Sama against the Catholics, and those the -issue of which by Ōgosho-Sama is briefly alluded to in the preceding -chapter, sixteen years had elapsed, during the whole of which time the -missionaries and the Catholic Japanese had been kept in a state of -painful uncertainty. - -It is true that the new emperor had greatly relaxed from the hostility -of his predecessor, and seemed at times decidedly favorable. In many -parts of Japan the Catholic worship was carried on as openly as ever. -Many new laborers, both Jesuits and other, had come into the field, -and conversion still continued to be made among persons of the highest -rank. There was scarcely any part of the empire in which converts were -not to be found, and the missionaries occasionally penetrated into the -most remote provinces. The general of the Jesuits had been encouraged -to raise Japan to the dignity of a province, of which China and the -neighboring regions had been made a part, and of which Father Valentine -Carvilho was made provincial. Japan had also a resident bishop, or at -least coadjutor, in the person of Father Louis Serqueyra, himself taken -from the order of the Jesuits; and under the bishop, as we have seen, -were a few secular clergy. By a brief of Pope Paul V., just published -in Japan, that empire had been opened to the members of all the -religious orders of the church, with liberty to proceed thither by way -of Manila as well as of Macao. - -Yet, during these sixteen years, the Catholics of the different -subordinate kingdoms had been more or less exposed to persecution, -especially in the island of Shimo, where they were most numerous, and -which, from being mainly ruled by converted princes, was now chiefly -governed by apostates or infidels; nor could the favor of the emperor -be at any time certainly relied upon. - -The new Dutch and English visitors were prompted no less by religious -than by mercantile jealousies and hatreds to do all they could to -diminish the credit of the Catholic missionaries; and it is by no -means improbable that, as the Portuguese asserted, their suggestions -had considerable weight in producing the new persecuting edicts of -Ōgosho-Sama. Indeed, they had only to confirm the truth of what the -Portuguese and Spanish said of each other to excite in the minds of the -Japanese rulers the gravest distrust as to the designs of the priests -of both nations. - -The edicts already mentioned were followed by another, about the -beginning of the year 1614, of which the substance was that all priests -and missionaries of the Catholic faith should forthwith depart the -empire, that all their houses and churches should be destroyed, and -that all the Japanese converts should renounce the foreign faith. - -There were in Japan when this edict was issued about a hundred and -thirty Jesuits, in possession of some fifty schools, colleges, and -convents, or houses of residence, also some thirty friars of the three -orders of St. Augustin, St. Dominic and St. Francis, besides a few -secular ecclesiastics, or parish priests. Most of them were shipped -off at once. Some found means to return in disguise; but the new -persecution speedily assumed a character far more alarming than any -of the former ones. Severe measures were now taken against the native -converts. Those who refused to renounce their faith were stripped of -their property, those of the most illustrious rank, among whom was -Ukondono [Kōyama Ukon], being shipped off to Manila and Macao, and -others sent into a frightful sort of Siberian banishment among the -mountains of Northern Japan, now first described in the letters of -some of the missionaries who found their way thither to console and -strengthen these exiles. Many, also, were put to death, most of whom -exhibited in the midst of torments all the firmness of the national -character. - -The violence of this persecution was interrupted for a moment by an -attempt on the part of Hideyori now grown to man’s estate, to recover -his father’s authority—a rebellion in which many of the converts joined -in hopes of gaining something by the change. - -On the 10th of December, 1614, Cocks, the English resident at Hirado, -wrote to Saris that, since his departure, the emperor had banished all -Jesuits, priests, friars, and nuns out of Japan, and had pulled down -and burned all their churches and monasteries, shipping them away, -some for Macao and others for Manila; that old King Hōin was dead, on -which occasion three of his servants had cut themselves open to bear -him company, according to a common Japanese fashion of expressing -attachment and gratitude; that a civil war had broken out between -the emperor and his imprisoned son-in-law; and that all Ōsaka, except -the castle, where the rebels were entrenched and besieged, had been -burned to the ground. Yedo had also suffered exceedingly by a terrible -“tuffon” or hurricane, which the Christians ascribed to the judgment -of God, and the pagan Japanese to the conjurations of the Jesuits. -Sayer, another of the English Company, wrote, December 5, 1615, that -the emperor had got the victory, with the loss—doubtless exaggerated—of -four hundred thousand men on both sides. - -The death of Ōgosho-Sama,[101] in 1616, left his son Shōgun-Sama -sole emperor. He continued to reside at Yedo, which, thenceforth, -became the capital. He diligently followed up the policy of his three -predecessors,—that of weakening the particular kings and princes so -as to reduce them to political insignificance; nor does it appear -that, from that time to this, the empire, formerly so turbulent, has -ever been disturbed by civil wars, or internal commotions. He also -began that system of foreign policy since pushed to such extremes. The -English, by a new version of their privileges,[102] were restricted to -the single port of Hirado, while the new emperor positively refused to -receive a present from the viceroy of New Spain, or to see the persons -who brought it. - -[Illustration: THE TOMB OF IYEYASU, NIKKŌ] - -At the commencement of the new reign, there were yet concealed within -the empire thirty-three Jesuits, sixteen friars of the three orders, -and seven secular priests, who still continued to minister to the -faithful with the aid of a great number of native catechists. Seven -Jesuits and all the friars but one were in Nagasaki and its environs. -Of the other Jesuits, several resided in the other imperial cities -where they still found protectors, while the rest travelled from -place to place, as their services were needed. Those at Nagasaki were -disguised as Portuguese merchants, who were still allowed full liberty -to trade; while those in the provinces adopted the shaven crowns and -long robes, the ordinary guise of the native bonzes. After a while -some of them even ventured to resume the habits of their order, and -to preach in public; but this only drew out from the emperor a new -and more formal and precise edict. It was accompanied with terrible -menaces, such as frightened into apostasy many converts who had -hitherto stood out, and even drove some of them, in order to secure -favor for themselves, to betray the missionaries, who knew no longer -whom to trust. - -The missionaries sent home lamentable accounts of their own sufferings -and those of their converts, and all Catholic Europe resounded with -lamentations over this sudden destruction of what had long been -considered one of the most flourishing and encouraging provinces of -missionary labor, not unmingled, however, with exultations over the -courage and firmness of the martyrs.[103] - -Such, indeed, was the zeal for martyrdom on the part of the Japanese, -in which they were encouraged by the friars, and which the Jesuits -strove in vain to keep within some reasonable limits, as to lead -to many acts of imprudence, by which the individual was glorified, -but the church damnified. Henceforth, the missionary letters, which -still found their way to Rome, though in diminishing numbers and -with decreasing regularity, contain little but horrible accounts of -tortures and martyrdoms, mingled, indeed, with abundant exultations -over the firmness and even the jubilant spirit with which the victims -met their fate, now by crucifixion, now by the axe, and now by fire. -Infinite were the prayers, the austerities, the fasts, the penitential -exercises, to which the converts resorted in hopes to appease the wrath -of Heaven. Even infants at the breast were made to bear their share in -them, being allowed to nurse but once a day, in the hope that God would -be moved by the cries of these innocents to grant peace to his church. -But, though many miraculous things are told of the martyrs, many of -them, it is said, distinctly pronouncing the name of Jesus and Mary -after their heads were cut off, the persecution continued to rage with -unabated fury. - -While the persecution of the Catholics was thus fiercely pursued in -Japan, the Dutch, not in those islands only, but throughout the eastern -seas, were zealously pushing their mercantile enterprises; and in -Japan, as elsewhere, they got decidedly the advantage of the English, -their companions and rivals, in these inroads upon the Portuguese and -Spaniards. - -The English at Hirado brought junks and attempted a trade with Siam, -where they already had a factory, one of their first establishments -in the East; and with Cochin China and Corea; but without much -advantage. In 1616, two small vessels arrived from England, one of -which was employed in trading between Japan and Java. The operations -of the Dutch were on a much larger scale. Not content with driving the -Spaniards from the Moluccas, they threatened the Philippines, and -sent to blockade Manila a fleet, which had several engagements with -the Spaniards. Five great Dutch ships arrived at Hirado in 1616, of -which one of nine hundred tons sailed for Bantam, fully laden with raw -silk and other rich China stuffs; and another, of eight hundred tons, -for the Moluccas, with money and provisions. Several others remained -on the coast to watch the Spanish and Portuguese traders, and to carry -on a piratical war against the Chinese junks, of which they captured, -in 1616, according to Cocks’ letters, not less than twenty or thirty, -pretending to be English vessels, and thus greatly damaging the English -name and the chance of a trade with China.[104] - -On a visit to Miyako, in 1620, Cocks, as appears by his letters, saw -fifty-five Japanese martyred, because they would not renounce the -Christian faith; among them little children of five or six years old, -burned in their mother’s arms, and crying to Jesus to receive their -souls. Sixteen others had been put to death for the same cause at -Nagasaki, five of whom were burned, and the rest beheaded, cut in -pieces, and cast into the sea in sacks; but the priests had secretly -fished up their bodies and preserved them for relics. There were many -more in prison, expecting hourly to die; for, as Cocks wrote, very few -turned pagans. - -Nagasaki had been from its foundation a Catholic city. Hitherto, -notwithstanding former edicts for their destruction, one or two -churches and monasteries had escaped; but, in 1621, all that were -left, including the hospital of Misericordia, were destroyed. The very -graves and sepulchres, so Cocks wrote, had been dug up: and, as if to -root out all memory of Christianity, heathen temples were built on -their sites. - -One of the Jesuits wrote home that there was not now any question as -to the number of Jesuit residences in Japan, but only as to the number -of prisons. Even those who had not yet fallen into the hands of the -persecutors had only caves and holes in the rocks for their dwellings, -in which they suffered more than in the darkest dungeons. - -It is not necessary to give implicit credit to all which the -contemporary letters and memoirs related, and which the Catholic -historians and martyrologists have repeated, of the ferocity of the -persecutors, the heroism of the sufferers, and especially of the -miracles said to be wrought by their relics. Yet there can be no -question, either of the fury of the persecution, or of the lofty spirit -of martyrdom in which it was unavailingly met. Catholicism lingered on -for a few years longer in Japan, yet it must be considered as having -already received its death-blow in that same year in which a few -Puritan pilgrims landed at Plymouth, to plant the obscure seeds of a -new and still growing Protestant empire. - - - - -CHAPTER XXIV - - _Collisions of the Dutch and English in the Eastern Seas—The - English retire from Japan—The Spaniards repelled—Progress of the - Persecution—Japanese Ports, except Hirado and Nagasaki, closed to - Foreigners—Charges in Europe against the Jesuits—Fathers Sotelo and - Collado—Torment of the Fosse—Apostasies—The Portuguese confined to - Deshima—Rebellion of Shimabara—The Portuguese excluded—Ambassadors put - to Death—A. D. 1621-1640._ - - -Already the relation of the Dutch and English in the East had assumed -the character of open hostility. A letter from Cocks, of March 10, -1620,[105] complains that the Hollanders, having seven ships, great and -small, in the harbor of Hirado, had, with sound of trumpet, proclaimed -open war against the English, both by sea and land, to take their -ships and goods, and kill their persons as mortal enemies; that they -had seized his boat, fired at his barks, and had beset the door of his -factory,—a hundred Dutchmen to one Englishman,—and would have entered -and cut all their throats but for the interference of the Japanese: all -because Cocks had refused to give up six Englishmen who had escaped -from two English ships[106] which the Dutch had captured, and whom -they claimed to have back, representing them to the Japanese as their -“slaves.” - -To sustain the English interest in the eastern seas, the English East -India Company, by great efforts, had fitted out, in 1617, the largest -expedition yet sent from England to the East Indies. It consisted of -the “Royal James,” of one thousand tons; the “Royal Anne,” of nine -hundred; the “Gift,” of eight hundred; the “Bull,” of four hundred; and -the “Bee,” of one hundred and fifty tons; and sailed from London under -the command of Martin Pring, who, twelve years before, following up the -discoveries of Gosnold, had entered and explored—the first Englishman -to do so—Penobscot bay and river, on the coast of what had since begun -to be known as New England. Pring sailed first for Surat, where the -Company had a factory, and where he assisted the native prince against -the Portuguese, with whom he was at war. On the 17th of June, 1618, he -arrived at Bantam, whence he proceeded, in September, to Jacatra, a -city of the natives, the site of the present Batavia. There he received -news that the Dutch in the Moluccas, not content with driving out the -Spaniards, had attacked the English also, making prisoners of the -merchants, whom they had treated with great harshness. News had also -reached England of these Dutch outrages, and to make head against them, -the Company, not long after Pring’s departure, despatched Sir Thomas -Dale—also well known to readers of American history as high-marshal of -the colony of Virginia, one of its first legislators, and for three or -four years its deputy governor—with a fleet of six large ships, with -five of which he joined Pring in November, 1618, in the Bay of Bantam, -assuming the command of the whole, including others which he found -there. - -Both fleets were in a very leaky condition, and after some skirmishing -with the Dutch, and the capture of a richly laden Dutch ship from -Japan, the English sailed for the coast of Coromandel, to refit and -to obtain provision, which could not be had on the coast of Java. -Having arrived at Musilapatam, Dale died there August 9, 1619. Toward -the end of the year, Pring, who succeeded in the command, returned -again towards the Straits of Sunda, and on the 25th of January, 1620, -met, off the coast of Sumatra, three English ships of a new fleet, -from which he learned that four others of the squadron to which they -belonged had been surprised while at anchor off the coast of Java, and -taken by the Dutch; that another had been wrecked in the Straits of -Sunda; and that the Dutch were in pursuit of two others, with every -prospect of taking them. - -As the Dutch at Jacatra were three times as strong as the three -squadrons now united under Pring, and as three of his largest ships -were very leaky, and the whole fleet short of provisions, it was -resolved to send part of the vessels to a place at the north end of -Sumatra, in hopes to meet with the Company’s ships on their way with -rice from Surat, while Pring himself, with his leaky vessels, should -proceed to Japan,—reported to be a good place for repairs as well as -for obtaining provisions. Just at this time the happy news arrived, -brought by two vessels despatched for that purpose from Europe, of an -arrangement of the pending dispute, and of the union of the Dutch and -English East India Companies into one body. - -Shortly after this welcome information, Pring sailed for Japan with -two of his leaky vessels, having made an arrangement to be followed in -a month by a united fleet of five English and five Dutch ships. These -ships were intended partly, indeed, for trade, but their principal -object appears to have been attacks upon Manila and Macao. - -All these vessels, the “Unicorn” excepted, arrived safely at Hirado. -She was stranded on the coast of China, and her crew were the first -Englishmen known to have landed there. A joint embassy was sent to -the emperor with presents, which, notwithstanding the privileges of -trade, were expected from every vessel that came. Having completed his -repairs, and leaving the other vessels behind him, Pring sailed on the -7th of December, 1620, in the “Royal James,” for Jacatra, carrying with -him the news of the death of Adams, who, having remained in the service -of the Company, had never again visited England.[107] - -The arrangement with the Dutch was but of short duration. Fresh -quarrels broke out. In 1623 occurred the famous massacre of Amboyna, -followed by the expulsion of the English from the Spice Islands; and -about the same time the Company abandoned the trade to Japan, after -having lost forty thousand pounds in the adventure.[108] This massacre -of Amboyna consisted in the execution, by the Dutch, of ten or twelve -factors of the English East India Company, on the charge of having -conspired with some thirty Japanese residents to seize the Dutch fort. -One of these Japanese having put some questions to a Dutch sentinel -about the strength of the fort, he and others of his countrymen were -arrested on suspicion, and by torture were compelled to accuse the -English, who were then tortured in their turn into accusing each other. -The residence of these Japanese at Amboyna is a proof, in addition to -those already mentioned, of the adventurous spirit of the Japanese of -that day, who had indeed a reputation for desperate daring, such as -might give some color to the suspicions of the Dutch.[109] - -Meanwhile the persecution continued as violently as ever. In the year -1622 fourteen Jesuits were burnt at the stake, including Spinola, a -missionary of illustrious birth, who had been twenty years in Japan. -Two friars were also burnt, who had been found on board a Japanese -vessel from the Philippines, captured in 1620, by one of the English -ships, the Elizabeth, employed in the blockade of Macao, and by her -commander carried to Hirado. The master and crew of the Japanese vessel -and many other native converts were executed at the same time. The -Spaniards were suspected of smuggling in missionaries, and were wholly -forbidden the islands. As a greater security against this danger, by an -edict, issued in 1624,[110]—shortly previous to which there had been -a very severe inquisition in Yedo and its neighborhood for concealed -priests,—all the ports of Japan were closed against foreigners, except -Hirado and Nagasaki, of which Hirado remained open to the Dutch and -English, Nagasaki to the Portuguese, and both to the Chinese. At the -same time was introduced the custom of requiring an exact muster roll, -and making a strict inspection of the crews of all foreign vessels. -By the same edict all the subjects of the Catholic king, whether -Portuguese or Spaniards, were banished the country, however long they -might have been settled there, and even though they might have families -by Japanese wives. - -What aggravated the misfortunes of the Japanese church, and greatly -diminished the dignity of its fall, was the still hot jealousy and -mutual hatred of the Jesuits and of the friars, inflamed rather than -quenched by all this common danger and suffering. The bishop of Japan -having died (it was said of grief, at the peril of his flock) just -as the persecution broke out, a most unseemly quarrel arose, which -was carried on for several years with great virulence, as to the -administration of the bishopric. It was claimed, on the one hand, by -Father Corvailho, the provincial of the Jesuits, under an authority -from the Pope; and, on the other, by Father Pierre Baptiste, a -Franciscan, as vicar-general of the archbishop of Manila, to whose -jurisdiction it was pretended the bishopric of Japan appertained. This -quarrel about the administration of the bishopric was finally settled -by the Pope in favor of the Jesuits. - -[Illustration: FACSIMILE OF AN ANTI-CHRISTIAN EDICT] - -The Jesuit seminaries in Japan being broken up, they had organized one -at Macao for the education of Japanese ecclesiastics; but the severe -penalties denounced against all priests coming into Japan, and against -all, whether natives or foreigners, who should shelter them after -their arrival, made the existence of the church and the celebration of -divine service every day more precarious. From year to year it grew -more and more difficult for new missionaries to get landed, great as -was the zeal for that service. Of those who did land, the greater part -were immediately seized and put to death. Large rewards were offered to -any person who would betray or take a missionary. Those already in the -country lived in hourly danger of arrest, forced to conceal themselves -in cellars, holes and caverns and the huts of lepers, exposing to -tortures and death all who might bring them food, or in any way assist -in concealing them. The greatness of their sufferings does not depend -merely upon the testimony of their own letters. Roger Gysbert, a Dutch -Protestant and a resident in Japan, between the years 1622 and 1629, -wrote an affecting narrative of it, and the general fact is strongly -stated in Caron’s account of Japan, written a few years later. - -Gysbert, in his narrative[111], relates the martyrdom of more than -five hundred persons; but there was a still larger amount of suffering -which terminated not in martyrdom, but in recantation. The Japanese -officers seldom exhibited any personal malice against the Catholics. -Their sole object was the extinction of that faith. They made it a -study to deny the crown of martyrdom so enthusiastically sought, -and by a series of protracted and ingenious tortures to force a -renunciation. For this purpose the prisoners were sprinkled with water -from the boiling sulphur springs, not far from Nagasaki, and exposed to -breathe their stifling odor. The modesty of the women was barbarously -assailed, and numerous means of protracted torture were resorted to, -such as in general proved sooner or later successful. Other means -were employed still more efficacious. All natives engaged in foreign -trade were required to give in an exact statement of their property, -which, unless the proprietors would conform to the national faith, -was declared forfeited. It was even forbidden that European merchants -should lodge in the houses of any who were or had been Catholics. At -Hirado and Nagasaki all heads of families were obliged to swear, in -the presence of an idol, that there were no Catholics in their houses, -and, according to the Japanese usage, to sign this declaration with -their blood. From Melchior Santvoort, an old Dutchman, one of the -companions of Adams in the first Dutch voyage to Japan, and a resident -at Nagasaki, the authorities were indeed satisfied to take instead a -declaration that he was a Hollander,—a circumstance which gave occasion -to the scandal at which Kämpfer is so indignant, that the Hollanders -were accustomed to report themselves to the Japanese authorities as not -Christians, but Dutchmen. All who refused to conform to the national -worship were deprived of their employments, and driven out to live as -they could among the barren mountains. The seafaring people had been -mostly Catholics, but no Catholic was henceforth to be permitted to -sail on board any ship. So successful were these means, that although -when Gysbert first visited Nagasaki, in 1626, it was said to contain -forty thousand native Christians, when he left it, in 1629, there was -not one who admitted himself to be such. - -In the midst of these martyrdoms the Jesuits were called upon to suffer -still severer torments, in new attacks upon their policy and conduct in -Japan, published throughout Europe. Father Collado, a Dominican, for -some time resident at Nagasaki, who returned to Europe in 1622, was -known to have gone home charged with accusations against the Jesuits; -by way of answer to which a memorial was transmitted, prepared by the -provincial Father Pacheco, who, four years after, himself suffered -martyrdom at the stake. Nor was Collado their only assailant. Among -those arrested in 1622 was Father Sotelo, that same enterprising -Franciscan of whom already we have had occasion to make mention. -Insisting upon his character of legate from the Pope, he had disobeyed -the orders of his superiors, had sailed from New Spain to Manila, -and had contrived to get a passage thence to Nagasaki, in a Chinese -vessel, under the character of a merchant. But the captain detected and -betrayed him; he was immediately arrested and thrown into prison, and -in 1624 was put to death. - -In 1628 there was published at Madrid what purported to be a letter -from Sotelo to Pope Urban VIII, written in Latin, dated just before his -martyrdom, and containing, under the form of a narrative of his own -proceedings, a violent attack upon the Jesuits, and their conduct in -Japan. Not liking to be thus attacked as it were by a martyr from his -grave, they denied its authenticity. A memorial of Collado, printed -in 1633, reiterated the same charges, to most of which it must be -admitted that the replies made on behalf of the Jesuits are entirely -satisfactory[112]. - -Finding that the means as yet employed had little effect upon the -missionaries and their native assistants, a new and more effectual, -because more protracted, torture was resorted to, known in the -relations of the missionaries as the _Torment of the Fosse_. A hole was -dug in the ground, over which a gallows was erected. From this gallows -the sufferer, swathed in bandages, was suspended by his feet, being -lowered for half his length, head downward, into the hole, which was -then closed by two boards which fitted together around the victim so -as to exclude the light and air. One hand was bound behind the back, -the other was left loose, with which to make the prescribed signal of -recantation and renunciation of the foreign creed; in which case the -sufferer was at once released. - -This was a most terrible trial, indeed. The victim suffered under a -continual sense of suffocation, the blood burst from the mouth, nose -and ears, with a twitching of the nerves and muscles, attended by the -most intolerable pains. Yet the sufferer, it was said, lived sometimes -for nine or ten days. The year 1633, in which this punishment was first -introduced, the second year of a new emperor, son of Shōgun Sama[113], -proved more fatal than any previous one to the new religion. In the -month of August of that year forty-two persons were burnt alive in -various parts of Japan, eleven decapitated, and sixteen suspended in -the fosse. The Dutchman Hagenaar, who was at Hirado in 1634, states, -in his printed voyages, that during the time of his visit thirty-seven -persons lost their lives at that place on the charge of being -Catholics. Five of these perished by the torment of the fosse, others -were beheaded, others cut to pieces, and others burnt. - -What at last struck the deepest horror to the souls of the few -surviving Jesuits, and was greatly improved in Europe to the damage of -the Company, by its enemies, was the apostasy of Father Christopher -Ferreyra, a Portuguese, an old missionary, the provincial of the -order, and the administrator of the bishopric. He was taken in 1633 -at Nagasaki, and being suspended in the fosse, after five hours he -gave the fatal signal of renunciation. After having been kept some -time in prison, and given what information he could for the detection -of those of his late brethren still concealed in Japan, he was set -at liberty; and, having assumed the Japanese dress and a Japanese -name, he lived for several years at Nagasaki. He had been compelled -to marry a Japanese woman, who was very rich, being the widow of a -Chinese goldsmith, who had been executed for some offence; but the -Jesuits comforted themselves with the idea that the marriage was never -consummated; and they even got up a report that in his old age this -renegade brother recovered his courage, and having, on his death-bed, -confessed himself a Christian, was immediately hurried off to perish a -martyr by that very torment of the fosse, the terror of which had first -made and had so long kept him an apostate. But for this fine story -there seems to have been no foundation except the wishes and hopes of -those who circulated it. - -As a further security against the surreptitious introduction of -missionaries, the policy was adopted, in 1635, of confining the -Portuguese sailors and merchants to the little artificial island of -Deshima, in the harbor of Nagasaki, a spot but just large enough to -hold the necessary residences and warehouses. Shortly after the issue -of this edict, the people of the kingdom of Arima, all of them still -Catholic except the king and the nobility, seeing no other hope, -broke out into open revolt. They were headed by a descendant of their -ancient kings, and mustering, it is said, to the number of thirty-seven -thousand, took possession of the fortress of Shimabara, situated about -due east from Nagasaki, on the gulf of the same name. Here they were -besieged; and the place being taken in 1638, those who held it were cut -off to a man. - -The Portuguese were accused of having encouraged this revolt; in -consequence of which an edict was issued, in 1638, not only banishing -all the Portuguese, but forbidding also any Japanese to go out of the -country. That edict, as given by Kämpfer, was as follows: - - “No Japanese ship or boat whatever, nor any native of Japan, shall - presume to go out of the country: who acts contrary to this shall die, - and the ship with the crew and goods aboard shall be sequestered till - further order. - - “All Japanese who return from abroad shall be put to death. - - “Whoever discovers a priest shall have a reward of 400 to 500 _shuets_ - of silver, and for every Christian in proportion[114]. - - “All persons who propagate the doctrine of the Christians, or bear - this scandalous name, shall be imprisoned in the _Ombra_, or common - jail of the town. - - “The whole race of the Portuguese, with their mothers, nurses, and - whatever belongs to them, shall be banished to Macao. - - “Whoever presumes to bring a letter from abroad, or to return after - he hath been banished, shall die with all his family; also whoever - presumes to intercede for them shall be put to death. - - “No nobleman nor any soldier shall be suffered to purchase anything of - a foreigner.” - -The Portuguese ships of 1639 were sent back with a copy of this edict, -without being suffered to discharge their cargoes. The corporation -of the city of Macao, greatly alarmed at the loss of a lucrative -traffic, on which their prosperity mainly depended, sent deputies -to solicit some modification of this edict. But the only reply made -by the emperor was to cause these deputies themselves, with their -attendants, to the number of sixty-one persons, to be seized and put -to death, as violators of the very edict against which they had been -sent to remonstrate. Thirteen only, of the lowest rank, were sent -back to Macao, August, 1640, with this account of the fate of their -company[115]. - - - - -CHAPTER XXV - - _Policy of the Dutch—Affair of Nuyts—Haganaar’s Visits to - Japan—Caron’s Account of Japan—Income of the Emperor and the - Nobles—Military Force—Social and Political Position of the - Nobles—Justice—Relation of the Dutch to the Persecution of - the Catholics—The Dutch removed from Hirado and confined in - Deshima—Attempts of the English, Portuguese, and French at Intercourse - with Japan—Final Extinction of the Catholic Faith—A. D. 1620-1707._ - - -Throughout the whole of the long and cruel persecution of the -Catholics, the Dutch had striven by extreme subserviency to recommend -themselves to the favor of the Japanese, in hopes of exclusively -engrossing a trade which appears at this time to have been more -extensive and more lucrative than at any former period. The Japanese, -however, seem not to have been insensible to the advantages of -competition; and, so long as the Portuguese commerce continued, they -extended to the vessels of that nation a certain protection against the -Dutch, and even preference over them. The danger from Dutch cruisers -appears to have caused the substitution, for the single great carac -of Macao, of a number of smaller vessels; nor were the Dutch, however -urgent their solicitations, allowed to leave Hirado till such a number -of days after the departure of the Portuguese from Nagasaki as would -prevent all danger of collision. - -Yet, however cringing the general policy of the Dutch East India -Company, their trade, through the folly of a single individual, was -near being exposed to a violent interruption. In the year 1626, Conrad -Kramer, the head of the Dutch factory, was extremely well received on -his visit to Yedo, and was allowed to be present at Miyako during the -visit of the emperor to the Dairi,—an occasion which drew together an -immense concourse, and which, according to the account that Kramer has -left of it, was attended with vast confusion[116]. The annual visit to -Yedo was made the next year by Peter de Nuyts, who gave himself out as -ambassador from the king of Holland, and at first was treated as such; -but the Japanese having discovered that he had no commission except -from the council of Batavia, sent him away in disgrace. - -Shortly after, Nuyts was appointed governor of Formosa. The Dutch, -following in the footsteps of some Japanese adventurers, had formed -an establishment on that island, about the year 1620, with a view to -a smuggling trade with China; and, by erecting a fort at the mouth of -the harbor, had speedily obtained the exclusive control of it. Not -long after Nuyts’ appointment as governor, there arrived two Japanese -vessels, on a voyage to China. They merely touched at Formosa for -water, but Nuyts, to gratify the spite he had conceived against the -Japanese nation, contrived to detain them so long that they missed -the monsoon; and having required them, as the sole condition on which -he would allow their entrance, to give up their sails and rudders, -upon one pretence and another, he refused to return them, till at -length the patience of the Japanese was entirely exhausted. They -numbered five hundred men; and at last, all their reiterated and -urgent applications for leave to depart being refused, they attacked -the governor by surprise, overpowered his household, and made him -prisoner; nor did the garrison of the neighboring fort dare to fire -upon them for fear of killing their own people. Thus the brave Japanese -extorted liberty to depart and indemnity for their losses, to which -the Dutch assented, notwithstanding their superior force, for fear of -reprisals in Japan. These, however, they did not avoid, for, as soon -as the Japanese reached home, the emperor put under sequestration nine -vessels with their cargoes, then at Hirado, belonging to the Dutch -East India Company, and forbade any further trade with their agents. -Things remained in this state for three years, the Japanese, however, -receiving as usual Dutch vessels which came from Batavia, under the -assumed character of belonging not to the East India Company, but to -private merchants. At last it was resolved to seek an accommodation by -surrendering up Nuyts to the mercy of the Japanese, which was done in -1634. - -Having obtained his unconditional surrender, they treated him with -great clemency; for, though detained in custody, he was not kept a -close prisoner; and, in return for this concession, the Company’s -ships were released and their trade reëstablished. The liberation of -Nuyts was granted two years afterwards as a mark of the emperor’s -satisfaction, with a splendid chandelier among the annual presents of -the Company, and which was used as an ornament for the temple-mausoleum -of the emperors of the race of Gongen-Sama [at Nikkō], completed about -that time. - -In the solicitation for the release of Nuyts both Haganaar and Caron -were employed, to each of whom we are indebted for some curious memoirs -of the state of Japan in their time. Haganaar made three visits -thither. The first included the last four months of 1634. The second -extended from September, 1635, to November, 1636; during which he made -a visit to Yedo, and was at the head of the factory. The third was -limited to three months in the autumn of 1637. Of each of these visits -he has given brief notes in his printed travels[117], besides adding -some observations of his own to Caron’s account of Japan. Hirado, which -he describes as a town of thirty-six streets, had grown up suddenly, -in consequence of the Dutch trade,—a single street producing more -revenue to the lord than the whole town formerly had done; yet there -were hardly any merchants in the place, except those who lodged at the -factory, and who were drawn thither from all parts by the Dutch trade. - -During Haganaar’s second visit, the Dutch were called sharply to -account for having presumed to sell their silk at a higher rate than -that asked by the Portuguese, and a price was prescribed, which they -were not to exceed. Being deputed to visit Yedo, on the business of -Nuyts’ release, Haganaar proceeded thither by sea, and took lodgings -at the house of a Japanese bonze, who was the usual host of the Dutch. -The agency of the lord of Hirado and of his secretary was employed with -several of the imperial counsellors, but owing, as it would seem, to -a deficiency of presents, without success. Caron arranged this matter -more successfully the next year. From Yedo to Ōsaka Haganaar travelled -by land, and from Ōsaka by water to Hirado, where, during his absence, -thirteen or fourteen persons had suffered death because they belonged -to Catholic families. He notes that the Japanese whale fishery for the -season of 1636 resulted in the capture of two hundred and seventy-four -whales; which, however, were much smaller and less fat than the -Greenland whales, and were taken more for food than oil. Shortly after -his return to Hirado, news came of an order from court that all the -Portuguese half-castes—that is, descendants of Portuguese by Japanese -women—should be shipped off with their wives and children to Macao. - -Returning to Japan a third time, in 1637,—in the seventh Dutch ship -which arrived that year,—Haganaar heard that Admiral Weddell was at -Nagasaki with four richly laden English ships. They had been refused -entrance into Macao, and had come thence to Japan, but could not obtain -permission to trade, nor even to land. Six Portuguese galliots had also -arrived from Macao with full cargoes of rich silks, which were sold, -however, at little profit. Yet they were reported to have carried back, -in return, two thousand six hundred chests of silver, or more than -three millions of dollars. - -To relieve the necessities of the Dutch governor of Formosa, who was -engaged in hostilities with the natives, and had been obliged to borrow -of Chinese traders, at the rate of three per cent a month, Haganaar was -despatched thither with four ships and four hundred and fifty chests of -silver, of which two hundred had been borrowed at Miyako of Japanese -capitalists, at twenty-four per cent per annum. The following year he -returned to Holland, where he soon after printed his voyages, and along -with them the answers made by Francis Caron to a series of questions -which had been submitted to him by the director of the Company, and -which throw not a little light upon the condition of Japan at this time. - -Caron, born in Holland of French parents, had originally gone to Japan -quite young, Kämpfer says, as cook of a Dutch ship. Bad treatment -caused him to quit the ship in Japan, where he was presently taken -into the service of the Dutch factory, and taught reading, writing, -and accounts. He gave evidence of remarkable abilities, and rose in -time to the head of the establishment. He spoke the language fluently, -had married a Japanese wife, and from the liberty of intercourse then -allowed, and his long residence in the country, enjoyed means of -information which no European has since possessed. - -In describing the political state of Japan, Caron gives the names, -residences, and revenues of thirty-two princes, that is, rulers of one -or more provinces (spoken of in the earlier relations as kings), of -whom the prince of Kaga, who was also ruler of two other provinces, -had a revenue of one hundred and nineteen mankoku, and the others -revenues varying from seventy to eighteen mankoku. He adds the mimes, -residences, and incomes of one hundred and seven other lords, twenty of -whom had revenues of from fifteen to seven mankoku, and the others of -from six to two mankoku. Another list contains the names of forty-one -lords, with revenues of from one to two mankoku; and in a fourth list -he enumerates sixteen lords attached to the imperial court, of whom the -first four had from fifteen to nine mankoku, and the others from six -to one mankoku. The total revenues of these one hundred and ninety-six -great nobles amounted to nineteen thousand three hundred and forty-five -mankoku, exclusive of nine thousand mankoku of imperial revenue, of -which four thousand were employed in the maintenance of the court, -and the remainder in the support of the imperial guard, all of whom -were nobles, many of them children of the concubines of the emperors -and great princes, and excluded on that account from the prospect of -succession[118]. Thus the total annual revenues of the great landed -proprietors of Japan amounted to twenty-eight million three hundred and -forty-five thousand koku of rice, equal to about ninety million cwt., -or one hundred and thirty-three million five hundred thousand bushels; -nor is it probable that in this respect there has been much change from -that time to this[119]. Caron gives as the current value of the koku, -or, as he calls it, cokien, ten guilders (or four dollars), which would -make the mankoku equal to one hundred thousand florins (forty thousand -dollars), or what the Dutch called a ton of gold. The prince of -Satsuma, who was lord also of four other provinces, is put down in the -above lists at sixty-four mankoku, the prince of Hizen at thirty-six, -and the lord of Hirado at six[120]. - -[Illustration: DUTCH CANDELABRUM AT NIKKŌ] - -These revenues arose in part from mines of gold, silver, copper, -iron, tin, and lead, from timber, hemp, cotton, and silk, and from -fisheries; but chiefly from the rice and other crops. There were no -taxes or duties in Japan, except ground rents for lands and houses, -payable in produce or money and in personal services. All these nobles -had residences at Yedo, in the precinct of the imperial palace, in -which their children resided as hostages for their fidelity. For -each thousand koku of revenue these lords furnished on demand twenty -foot-soldiers and two horsemen, and maintained them during the -campaign, exclusive of the necessary servants and camp followers. The -whole of their quotas, or of the feudal militia of Japan, thus amounted -to three hundred and sixty-eight thousand foot and thirty-eight -thousand eight hundred horse, in addition to a standing army of one -hundred thousand foot and twenty thousand horse, maintained by the -emperor from his own revenues, as garrisons and guards. The princes, -however, prided themselves on keeping up many more troops than their -regular quotas. To every five men there was an officer. Five of these -sections composed a platoon, which had its commander. Two platoons made -a company, which had its captain. Five of these companies, of fifty -privates and thirteen officers, composed a battalion of two hundred and -fifty rank and file, with its special officer; and ten battalions, a -division of two thousand five hundred men. The civil division was much -the same. Every five houses had an inspector, who kept a register of -all births and deaths, and every street its magistrate and watch. - -Though the revenues of the nobles were great, their expenses were -still more so. They were obliged to pass six months at the imperial -court; those of the northern and eastern provinces during one half the -year, those of the southern and western provinces during the other -half. They travelled in great state, some of them with not less than -four or five thousand men in their suite, and, on their arrival and -departure, gave great entertainments. The prince of Hirado, though one -of the lesser class, was always attended in his journeys by at least -three hundred men, and entertained in his two houses at Yedo more than -a thousand persons. What with their households, the clothing of their -followers, their women, of whom they entertained a great number, their -children,—the prince of Mito, the emperor’s uncle, had fifty-four -boys, and daughters still more numerous,—presents and festivals, their -expenses generally exceeded their incomes; and, besides, they were -often required to furnish workmen, at the demand of the emperor, for -building new castles, temples, or anything he might undertake. The -honor of a visit from the emperor was very highly esteemed. He seldom -paid more than one to the same house. No expense was spared, and years -were spent in preparations, which often ruined those who enjoyed this -honor. The visit made by the emperor to the Dairi at Miyako, once in -seven years, was a still more magnificent affair. - -The emperor maintained on the estate of each noble a secretary, in -fact a spy, sent nominally to assist and advise him in the management -of his affairs. Those selected for this service were generally persons -educated at court, and of known fidelity, who, before their departure, -signed with their blood a promise to keep the emperor fully informed of -the affairs and actions of the prince to whom they were sent. - -The marriages of the nobles were arranged by the emperor. The wife -thus given was entitled to great respect. Her sons alone succeeded to -the lordship, which, in case she had none, was generally transferred -to some other family. The children by the numerous concubines of the -nobles had no share in the inheritance, and were often reduced to -beggary. Besides concubines, free indulgence was allowed with the -courtesans maintained by the lords of each district for public use. The -lawful wives lived in splendid seclusion, attended by troops of female -servants. Of women’s rights the Japanese nobles had no very high idea. -Not only the strictest chastity was expected from them, but entire -devotion to their husbands, and abstinence from any intermeddling with -business or politics; the Japanese opinion being—in which Caron seems -fully to coincide—that women are only made for the pleasure of the -men and to bring up children. The children, though treated with great -indulgence, were exceedingly respectful to their parents. - -The emperor had in every city and village officers for the -administration of justice; but every householder had the right to -dispense punishments in his own family. Justice was very strict and -severe, especially in cases of theft; and for crimes against the state -the punishment extended to the whole family of the offender. The -nobles and military, in case they were convicted of crimes, enjoyed -the privilege of cutting themselves open. Merchants and mechanics were -held in mean esteem,—the former as cheats and tricksters, the latter as -public servants. The cultivators were little better than slaves. - -The account which Caron gives of domestic manners corresponds -sufficiently well with the more extended observations to be quoted -hereafter from subsequent observers. He did not regard the Japanese -as very devout. The persecution against the Catholics he describes -as equal to anything in ecclesiastical history. He particularly -admired the steadiness and constancy of many young children of ten or -twelve years. All the inhabitants were required once a year to sign -a declaration that they were good Japanese, and that the Catholic -religion was false. The Catholics had amounted to four hundred -thousand; and their number was still considerable[121]. - - * * * * * - -The Dutch had all along stimulated the Japanese against the Portuguese. -All missionaries bound for Japan, found on board of Portuguese and -Spanish prizes taken in the neighboring seas, had been delivered into -the hands of the Japanese authorities. The Dutch had even assisted -at the siege of Shimabara, for which they had furnished a train of -artillery, conducted thither by Kockebecker, the head, at that time, of -the Dutch factory. But they were far from realizing all the advantages -which they had expected from the expulsion of their rivals. They, too, -had excited suspicions by replacing their dilapidated wooden factory at -Hirado by a strong stone warehouse, which had something of the aspect -of a fortress. In spite of their submissiveness in pulling down[122] -this erection, their establishment at that place was suddenly closed, -and in 1641 the Dutch factors were transferred to Nagasaki, where they -were shut up in the same little artificial island of Deshima, which had -been constructed to be the prison-house of the Portuguese. And to this -narrow island they have ever since been confined, with the exception -of some occasional visits to Nagasaki and its environs, and an annual -journey, by the chief officers of the factory, to pay their homage to -the emperor at Yedo,—a ceremony which seems to have been coeval with -the first arrival of the Dutch. Hitherto the Portuguese and the Dutch -also had freely intermarried with the Japanese; but this intimacy now -came wholly to an end, and even the Dutch were thenceforth regarded -rather as prisoners than as friends. - -What contributed to increase this jealousy of the Dutch was the peace -between Holland and the Portuguese, which followed the assumption of -the crown of Portugal by the house of Braganza, and the separation of -Portugal from Spain, in the year 1640. - -Evidence of this very soon appeared. In the year 1643 the Dutch sent -two ships from Batavia, the “Castricoom” and the “Breskens,” to -explore the yet little-known northern coast of Japan, the island of -Yezo, and the adjacent continent, and especially to search out certain -fabled islands of gold and silver, whence the Japanese were said to -derive large supplies of those metals. These vessels, when off Yedo, -were separated in a storm, and the “Breskens,” in need of supplies, -touched at a fishing village in about forty degrees of north latitude. -The lord of the village, and a principal person of the neighboring -district, visited the ship with great show of friendship, and having -enticed the captain, Shaëp, and his chief officers on shore, made -them prisoners, bound them, and sent them off to Nambu, near by. They -were permitted to communicate with the ship, and to obtain their -baggage, but at first were treated with much rigor on suspicion of -being Spaniards or Portuguese. It being found, however, that they paid -no respect to the sign of the cross or to pictures of the Virgin, it -was concluded that they were Hollanders, and they were treated with -less severity. At Nambu they were splendidly entertained, and in their -twenty days’ journey thence to Yedo, in which they passed through a -hundred well-built villages, they had nothing to complain of except -the inconvenience of the crowds that flocked to see them. In every -village they saw rewards posted up for the discovery of Christians. -Not being willing to reveal the true object of their voyage, they -stated themselves to have been driven to the north in an attempt to -reach Nagasaki. It was plain, however, that their story about having -come from Batavia, and being in the service of the East India Company, -was not believed. It was suspected that they had come from Macao or -Manila for the purpose of landing missionaries, and they were subjected -in consequence to numerous fatiguing cross-examinations, in which a -bonze assisted, who spoke Spanish, Portuguese, English, and Flemish, -and whom they conjectured to be some apostate European. What increased -the suspicions of Japanese was, that five Jesuits from Manila had -recently, in an attempt to reach Japan, been arrested at the Lew Chew -Islands, and sent thence to Yedo. The Dutchmen were confronted with -these Jesuits, to their great alarm. They also feared, if the true -object of the voyage came out, being exposed to punishment not only for -undertaking unauthorized explorations, but for falsehood in concealing -and misrepresenting their object; but when the Japanese had learned -from Nagasaki that two Dutch ships had been sent on a voyage for the -exploration of Tartary, of which the factors represented theirs as -probably one, they excused their silence on that subject on the ground -of not having been properly understood and interpreted. The factors at -Nagasaki had been not less careful than themselves to say nothing about -the search for mines. - -New interpreters were brought from Nagasaki, among them another -apostate, whom there are grounds for supposing was the ex-provincial -Ferreyra, between whom and the Jesuit prisoners they witnessed a bitter -scene of mutual reproaches. A great many rigorous cross-examinations -followed. The Dutchmen were required to sign a paper by which all -the Company’s property was pledged for their reappearance before -the imperial tribunals at any time that it might be discovered that -they had landed missionaries. Their having discharged some pieces of -artillery from the ship was insisted upon as a crime; also their ship -having sailed off without waiting for them. The recent peace between -Holland and Portugal was pointedly alluded to, and even the search -for mines seems to have been suspected. The appearance of a ship on -the east coast of Japan, which proved to be the “Castricoom,” some of -whose people who landed were seized and sent to Yedo, gave rise to many -new interrogations. Elserak, the director, at length arrived, and, -after a separate examination, was confronted with them and signed the -paper above described, when the Dutch were finally released, after an -imprisonment of upwards of four months[123]. - -The “Castricoom,” more successful, discovered the Kurile Islands, -Yetorofu and Uruppu, to which were given the names of _State’s Islands_ -and _Company’s Islands_, and made some explorations of the east coast -of Yezo, and of Sakhalin, taken to be a part of it. The information -thus obtained, together with the two relations of Father de Angelis, -written in 1616 and 1621, was all that was known of these regions till -the explorations of Broughton and La Perouse, towards the close of the -last century. Golownin’s adventures and experience there, as related in -a subsequent chapter, bear a very remarkable and curious resemblance -to those of Captain Schaëp and his companions. Their release was -acknowledged in a solemn embassy from the Company,—that of Frisius. -About the same time, in 1647, a Portuguese embassy arrived in Japan, -in hopes, since the separation from Spain, of reviving the ancient -commercial intercourse; but, though the ambassador was treated with -respect, his request was peremptorily declined. - -A new emperor, a minor, having succeeded in 1651, the Dutch Company -sent Waganaar to congratulate him. Among other presents he brought -a Casuar, a strange bird of the ostrich kind, from Banda, but the -officers at Nagasaki would not suffer it to be forwarded. During this -visit there happened a terrible fire at Yedo, by which two-thirds of -that city were laid in ruins. Some violent disputes having arisen, -and the Japanese having gone so far as to take away the rudders of the -Dutch ships, Waganaar went on a second embassy to Yedo, in 1659[124]. - -The establishment of the French East India Company by Colbert led to -some projects for a French trade with Japan, especially as Caron in -some disgust had quitted the Dutch service, and enlisted into that of -France. A letter from Louis XIV to the emperor of Japan, dated in 1666, -was prepared, and instructions for Caron, who was to be the bearer of -it; but the project does not appear to have been prosecuted[125]. [See -Appendix, Note 1.] - -In 1673, the English East India Company made an attempt at the -renewal of the trade with Japan, by despatching a ship thither. The -Japanese, through the medium of the Dutch, kept themselves informed, -as they still do, of the affairs of Europe; and the first question -put to the new-comers was, how long since the English king (Charles -II) had married a daughter of the king of Portugal. Though otherwise -courteously enough received and entertained, the vessel was not allowed -to sell her cargo. This refusal of intercourse the English ascribed to -Dutch jealousy; but it probably was a step, as will be seen in the next -chapter, to which the Japanese did not need any urging.[126] - -Though the Catholics of Japan were effectually cut off from all -intercourse with Europe, the Catholic faith still lingered for a good -while in those parts of Shimo in which it had taken the deepest root. -So late as 1690, there were, according to Kämpfer, fifty persons, -men, women, and children (of whom three had been arrested in 1683), -imprisoned at Nagasaki for life, or until they should renounce the -Catholic faith and conform to the religious usages of the country. -These were peasants who knew little more of the faith which they -professed except the name of the Saviour and the Virgin Mary, which, -indeed, according to the Dutch accounts, was all that the greater part -of the Japanese converts had ever known. - -To land in Japan, to strengthen and comfort the faithful there, or at -least to secure the crown of martyrdom in the attempt, long continued -an attractive enterprise to the more romantic spirits among the -religious orders of the Catholic church. Most of those who undertook -this adventure were known to have been seized and executed soon after -landing. The last effort of this sort appears to have been made in -1707. From that time, and notwithstanding the great revival, within -fifty or sixty years past, of the missionary spirit, Japan has remained -even less attempted by missionary than by mercantile enterprise. - - - - -CHAPTER XXVI - - _Portuguese Trade to Japan—Dutch Trade—Silver, Gold, and Copper the - Chief Articles of Export—Export of Silver prohibited—Chinese Trade—Its - Increase after the Accession of the Manchu Dynasty—Chinese Temples - at Nagasaki—A Buddhist Doctor from China—Edict on the Subject of - Household Worship—Restrictions on the Dutch Trade—Increase in the - Number of Chinese Visitors to Nagasaki—Their Objects—Restrictions on - the Chinese Trade—The Chinese shut up in a Factory—Trade with Lew Chew - [Riūkiū]—A. D. 1542-1690._ - - -Of the real value and extent of the trade which for some ninety years -the Portuguese carried on with Japan, and which was brought to a final -close in the year 1638, we have no means of forming any very exact -estimate. When we read in writers of two or three centuries ago glowing -accounts of immense commercial profits, we must also recollect that, -compared with the commerce of the present day, the trade upon which -these great profits were made was exceedingly limited in amount. - -For more than half of the above period of ninety years the intercourse -of the Portuguese with Japan seems to have been reduced, or nearly -so, to a single annual ship, known as the great carac of Macao, sent -annually from that city, and laden chiefly with China silks, every -Portuguese citizen of Macao having the right, if he chose to exercise -it, of putting on board a certain number of packages, as did also the -Society of Jesus, which had a college and a commercial agency in that -city. Of this traffic the following account is given by Ralph Fitch, -an intelligent Englishman, who was in Malacca in the year 1588[127]: -“When the Portuguese go from Macao in China to Japan, they carry much -white silk, gold, musk, and porcelains, and they bring from thence -nothing but silver. They have a great carac, which goeth thither -every year, and she bringeth from thence every year about six hundred -thousand crusados (not far from as many dollars); and all this silver -of Japan, and two hundred thousand crusados more in silver, which they -bring yearly out of India, they employ to their advantage in China; and -they bring from thence gold, musk, silk, porcelains, and many other -things very costly and gilded.”[128] - -If we allow to the Portuguese an annual average export of half a -million of dollars, that will make in ninety years forty-five millions -of dollars of silver carried away by the Portuguese; for, according to -all accounts, they brought away nothing else. - -Though the Spaniards were never allowed to trade to Japan, at one -period, as we have seen, a considerable number of Japanese junks -frequented Manila for the purchase of Chinese goods; but this trade was -brought to an end in 1624, in consequence of the facilities which it -afforded for the introduction of Catholic priests into Japan. - -[Illustration: MAP OF FEUDAL JAPAN] - -The Dutch trade began in 1609. We have seen that in a short time it -gained a very considerable extent; and it increased, as the trading -establishment which the Dutch gradually obtained in India and Persia, -and that on the island of Formosa, whence they had access to China, -furnishing them with a supply of rich silks, the great article of -import into Japan. As the Portuguese trade was carried on from Macao, -so the Dutch trade was carried on, not from Holland, but from Batavia. -The year preceding the shutting up of the Dutch in Deshima is stated -to have been the most profitable of any. The previous average sales -in Japan had been about sixty tons of gold; but that year the Dutch -had imported and disposed of goods to the value of eighty tons of gold -(that is, three million two hundred thousand dollars, a Dutch ton of -gold being one hundred thousand florins, or forty thousand dollars). -Among the exports were fourteen hundred chests of silver, each chest -containing one thousand taels, or near two million dollars in silver -alone[129]. About this time, however, owing to the comparative -exhaustion of the silver, or the comparative increase of gold, that -metal became a leading, as, indeed, it seems to have been before a -considerable article of export with the Dutch. The gold koban, the -national coin of the Japanese, weighed at this time forty-seven -kanderins, that is, two hundred and seventy-four grains troy, which is -sixteen grains more than our present eagle. But, if superior in weight, -the koban was inferior in fineness, containing of pure gold only two -hundred and twenty-four grains, whereas the eagle contains two hundred -and thirty-two grains. It passed in Japan and was purchased by the -Dutch for six taels or less in silver, which enabled them to dispose -of it to good advantage on the coast of Coromandel, where the relative -value of gold was much higher. In the two years, 1670, 1671, more than -one hundred thousand koban were exported, at a profit of a million -florins; and down to that time the Dutch sent annually to Japan five -or six ships a year. In 1644, the export of copper began, and went on -gradually increasing. In 1671, an edict was issued, prohibiting the -further export of silver; but this gave no concern to the Dutch, who -had already ceased to export it. Its principal operation was against -the Chinese, who at this time carried on a great trade to Japan. - -Of the early commercial relations of China and Japan our knowledge is -very limited. As the Japanese at an early era, according to their own -annals (constructed, it is probable, by Buddhist priests), as early as -A. D. 600, had received from China Buddhist missionaries, and through -them the language, graphic characters, science, etc., of the Chinese, -it would seem probable that some commercial intercourse must have early -existed between these two nations. If so, however, the threatened -Mongol invasion, towards the end of the thirteenth century, would have -been likely to have interrupted it. The native Chinese dynasty, which -succeeded after the expulsion of the Mongols, was exceedingly jealous -of all strangers and hostile to intercourse with them. No foreign trade -was allowed, and every Chinese who left his country incurred a sentence -of perpetual banishment. It is true that the Chinese colonists, that -had emigrated, perhaps on the invasion of the Mongols, and had settled -in the neighboring maritime countries (as others did afterwards on the -invasion of the present Manchu dynasty), still contrived to keep up -some intercourse with China, while they carried on a vigorous trade -with the adjacent islands and countries; but, at the time of the -Portuguese discovery, no such trade would seem to have existed with -Japan. - -The Manchu dynasty (the same now reigning), which mounted the throne -in 1644, was much less hostile to foreigners; and under their rule -the Chinese trade to Japan appears to have rapidly increased. This -was partly by vessels direct from China, and partly by the commercial -enterprise of the Chinese fugitives who possessed themselves of -Formosa, from which, in 1662, they drove out the Dutch, or who had -settled elsewhere on the islands and coasts of southeastern Asia. - -“They come over,” says Kämpfer, “when and with what numbers of people, -junks, and goods they pleased. So extensive and advantageous a liberty -could not but be very pleasing to them, and put them upon thoughts of -a surer establishment, in order to which, and for the free exercise of -their religion, they built three temples at Nagasaki, according to the -three chief languages spoken by them (those of the northern, middle, -and southern provinces), each to be attended by priests of their own -nation, to be sent over from China.”[130] - -These temples, called, each in the special dialect of its frequenters, -“Temples of Riches,”—the god which the Chinese chiefly worship,—are -described by Kämpfer, from his own observation, as remarkable for their -handsome structure and the number of monks or Buddhist clergy attached -to them. As soon as any Chinese ships arrived in the harbor, the crews -immediately took on shore the idols which formed a part of the ship’s -outfit, and placed them in some small chapels, built for that purpose, -near by the large temples, or convents as in fact they rather were. -This was done with uncommon respect and particular ceremonies, playing -upon cymbals and beating of drums, which same ceremonies were repeated -when, upon the departure of the junks, the idols were carried on board -again. - -Encouraged by this favorable reception of his countrymen, Ingen, who -was at that time at the head of the Buddhist priesthood of China, -claiming to be the twenty-eighth in succession from the founder of -the Chinese Buddhist patriarchate, surrendered to a successor his -high dignity at home, and in the year 1653 came over to Japan, there -to establish a sort of caliphate or archiepiscopal see, as Kämpfer -expresses it, of the particular branch or sect of the Buddhist faith -to which he belonged. “The princes and lords of several provinces came -to compliment him, clad in their _kamishimo_,[131] or garments of -ceremony. The emperor offered him for his residence a mountain in the -neighborhood of the holy city of Miyako, which he called _Ōbaku_, the -name of his former papal residence in China. An incident which happened -soon after his arrival contributed very much to forward his designs, -and raised an uncommon respect for his person, and a great opinion -of his holiness. After a very great drought, the country people, his -neighbors, desired him to say a _kitō_, or extraordinary solemn prayer, -in order to obtain rain. He answered that it was not in his power -to make rain, and that he could not assure them that his kitō would -obtain it. However, at their pressing instances, he promised to do his -utmost. Accordingly, he went up to the top of the mountain and made -his kitō. The next day there fell such profuse showers as even to wash -away the smaller bridges in the city of Miyako, which made both the -city and country believe that his kitō had been rather too strong. His -companions, who came over with him from China, had likewise very great -respect paid them, as more immediate partakers of his glory; so that -even a cook, who came over with this learned and sanctified company, -was raised to the dignity of superior of one of the three convents -of Nagasaki, where, by his sublime understanding and reputed great -knowledge, he obtained,” and in Kämpfer’s time still held, “the name -and repute of a _Godō_, that is, a person blessed with divine and most -acute understanding, whom they suppose to be able to find out by his -_Satori_, or Enthusiastic Speculations, such mysterious truths as are -far beyond the reach of common knowledge.” - -What tended to favor Ingen’s design was an edict lately issued by the -emperor, aimed at the few remaining Catholics, and also at the sect -of the _Judō_, or Moralists, requiring everybody to belong to some -sect of the recognized religions of Japan, and to have a _Zushi_ in -their houses,—that is, a corner or altar consecrated to some idol. -Nevertheless, in spite of his favorable reception and eminent learning -and sanctity, Ingen failed to gain the submission of the various -Buddhist sects in Japan; nor was his spiritual headship acknowledged, -except by the three Chinese convents. - - * * * * * - -Though the prohibition of the export of silver, mentioned as having -taken place in 1671, did not affect the Dutch, the very next year the -Japanese commenced a system of measures which, within a quarter of a -century, reduced the Dutch commerce to the very narrow limit at which -it has ever since remained. The first step was to raise the value of -the koban to six tael eight maas of silver; nor was this by any means -the worst of it. The Dutch were no longer allowed to sell to the native -merchants. The government appointed appraisers, who set a certain value -on the goods, much less than the old prices, at which valuation the -Dutch must sell, or else take the goods away. Anything which the goods -sold for to the Japanese merchants, over the appraisement, went into -the town treasury of Nagasaki.[132] These appraisements grew lower and -lower every year, till at last the Dutch, threatening, if things went -on in this way, to abandon the trade altogether, petitioned the emperor -to be restored to their ancient privileges, assured to them by the -concession of Gongen-Sama [Iyeyasu]. After waiting three years, they -got a gracious answer. The appraisements were abolished, but at the -same time, in 1685, an order was suddenly issued, limiting the amount -which the Dutch might sell in any one year to the value of a hundred -thousand taels, or in Dutch money to ten tons and a half of gold, -equal to four hundred and twenty thousand dollars. All the goods of any -one year’s importation, remaining after that amount had been realized, -were to lie over till the next annual sale. At the same time, the -annual export of copper was limited to twenty-five thousand piculs; and -so matters stood at the time of Kämpfer’s visit. - -The Chinese trade had meanwhile gone on increasing “to that degree”—we -quote again from Kämpfer—“as to make the suspicious and circumspect -Japanese extremely jealous of them. In the years 1683 and 1684 there -arrived at Nagasaki, in each year, at least two hundred junks, every -junk with not less than fifty people on board, making for each year -more than ten thousand Chinese visitors.” Nor was it trade alone that -drew the Chinese thither. In China, the women, except those of servile -condition, are kept in perfect seclusion. No man sees even the woman he -is to marry till she has actually become his wife; and courtesanship -is strictly forbidden and punished. The case, as we have seen, is -widely different in Japan, and numerous young and wealthy Chinese -were attracted to Nagasaki, “purely for their pleasure,” as Kämpfer -observes, “and to spend some part of their money with Japanese wenches, -which proved very beneficial to that town,”—truly a very mercantile -view of the matter! - -“Not only did this increasing number of Chinese visitors excite -jealousy, but what still more aroused the suspicion of the Japanese -was, that the Jesuits, having gained the favor of the then reigning -monarch of China, (the celebrated Kanghi), with the liberty of -preaching and propagating their religion in all parts of the empire, -some tracts and books, which the Jesuit fathers had found the means -to print in China, in Chinese characters, were brought over to Japan -among other Chinese books, and sold privately, which made the Japanese -apprehensive that by this means the Catholic religion, which had been -exterminated with so much trouble and the loss of so many thousand -persons, might be revived again in the country.” And they even -suspected that the importers of these books, if not actual converts, -were at least favorers of the Catholic doctrine. - -These reasons combined to produce, in 1684, at the same time with the -restrictions placed upon the Dutch, an edict, by which the Chinese were -limited to an annual importation, double the value of that allowed the -Dutch; namely, six hundred thousand taels, equivalent to eight hundred -and forty thousand dollars, the annual number of junks not to exceed -seventy, of which a specific number was assigned to each province and -colony, and each to bring not more than thirty persons. Chinese books -were, at the same time, subjected to a censorship, two censors being -appointed, one for theological, the other for historical and scientific -works, none to be imported without their approval. - -This was followed up, in the year 1688, by another order, by which the -Chinese were, like the Dutch, shut up in a sort of prison, for which, -like the Dutch, they were compelled to pay a heavy rent. The site -chosen for this spot was a garden, pleasantly situated, just outside of -the town, on the side of the harbor opposite Deshima. It was covered -with several rows of small houses, each row having a common roof, and -the whole was surrounded with a ditch and a strong palisade, from which -the only exit was through well-guarded double gates[133]. Even here -the Chinese had no permanent residence, like the Dutch. They arrived in -detachments, twenty junks in spring, thirty in summer, and twenty in -autumn; and, after selling their goods, went away, leaving the houses -empty. - -Besides the trade with the Dutch and the Chinese, the Lew Chew Islands -[Riūkiū] were also permitted to carry on a particular trade with the -province of Satsuma, the prince of which they acknowledged as in some -respects their sovereign. The import and sale of their goods was -limited to the annual amount of one hundred and twenty-five thousand -taels, though, in Kämpfer’s time, a much larger amount was smuggled in, -large quantities of Chinese goods being thus introduced. - - - - -CHAPTER XXVII - - _Engelbert Kämpfer—His Visit to Japan—Deshima and its Inhabitants as - described by him—A. D. 1690._ - - -Engelbert Kämpfer was the first scientific and systematic observer who -visited Japan. Of those who have since followed him, but one or two -had either his zeal, his assiduity, or his qualifications, and it is -to him that we remain indebted for no inconsiderable part of what we -yet know of that country, especially of its natural history, and its -social, religious, and political institutions. Subsequent visitors, -correcting him in some few particulars, have generally confirmed him. -The Japanese, according to the most recent observations, appear to have -changed very little since his time. - -Kämpfer was born September, 1651, in the northwest of Germany, in -the county of Lippe, at Lemgow, a small town of which his father was -minister. He was early destined for the profession of physic, and, -after the best school education his father could give him, spent three -years at the university of Cracow, in Poland, and four years more at -that of Koningsburg, in Prussia. Thence he passed to Sweden, where, -inspired with a desire of seeing foreign countries, he obtained the -place of secretary to an embassy about to be sent to the king of -Persia. That country he reached by way of Moscow, Astracan, and the -Caspian Sea, arriving at Ispahan in 1684. During his residence there, -he employed himself chiefly in researches into the natural history of -the country; and for the sake of continuing those researches, when the -embassy was the next year about to return home, he obtained, through -the recommendation of the Swedish ambassador, the place of chief -surgeon to the Dutch East India Company’s fleet, then cruising in the -Persian Gulf. “It agreed best with my inclination,” so he says in the -preface to his work on Japan, “to undertake a further journey, and I -chose rather to lead the restless and troublesome life of a traveller, -than by coming home to subject myself to a share in that train of -calamities my native country was then involved in. Therefore, I took -my leave of the ambassador and his retinue (who did me the honor to -attend me a mile out of Ispahan) with a firm resolution to spend some -years longer in seeing other Eastern courts, countries, and nations. -I was never used to receive large supplies of money from home. ’T was -by my own industry I had till then supported myself, and the very same -means maintained me afterwards, as long as I stayed abroad, and enabled -me to serve the Dutch East India Company, though in a less honorable -employment. - -“This offspring of Japhet enjoys, more than any other European nation, -the blessing of Noah to live in the tents of Shem, and to have Canaan -for their servant. God hath so blessed their valor and conduct, that -they have enlarged their trade, conquests and possessions, throughout -Asia, to the very extremities of the East, and there hath never been -wanting among them a succession of prudent and able men, who have -promoted their interests and welfare to the utmost of their capacity. -But to come to the point. It was by the gracious leave, and under the -protection of this honorable Company, that I have often obtained my end -in the Indies, and have had the satisfaction at last to see the remote -empire of Japan, and the court of its powerful monarch.” - -Kämpfer remained at Gamroon, on the Persian Gulf, for near three years, -employing his leisure in scientific researches. Leaving that unhealthy -station in June, 1688, he proceeded in the fleet along the coasts of -Persia and India to Ceylon, and thence by Sumatra to Batavia, where -he arrived in September, 1689. Having obtained the appointment of -physician to the factory in Japan, he left Batavia in May, 1690, and -having touched at Siam, of which he has given an account in his book, -on the 22d of September, about noon, he came in sight of the high -mountainous country about Nagasaki. As soon as the land was seen, all -on board were required, as the usage was, to give up their prayer-books -and other books of divinity, as also all the European money they had -about them, to the captain, who, having taken a memorandum of them, -packed away all these surrendered articles in an old cask, to be -hid away from the Japanese, but to be surrendered to the owners on -leaving Japan. At sunset, Nagasaki was six or seven leagues distant. -At midnight they reached the entrance of the bay, in which they found -fifty fathoms of water. This entrance was full of rocks and islands, -which obliged them to wait till morning; and then, being becalmed, they -fired cannon to notify their arrival. These were heard at the Dutch -factory, six miles distant, and in the afternoon four small vessels -came out with some persons from the factory, accompanied by swarms of -Japanese officers, clerks and soldiers, and the chief interpreter, who, -on boarding the ship, demanded all writings and letters, in the hands -of whomsoever they might be. They soon left, and the ship followed -slowly, making her way by kedging, till by ten at night she dropped -anchor within half a league of the city. The next morning she was towed -in still further by a fleet of Japanese boats. - -The harbor was found to be well protected, and completely enclosed by -rocks, islands and mountains, on the tops of which were guard-houses, -from which those on the look-out, by means of their spy-glasses, -detected the ship shortly after she had made the land, and had given -notice of her arrival to the authorities. Along the shore several -bastions were seen, with palisades painted red, but no cannon; and on -the hills several fortifications, screened by cloths, so as to prevent -what was in them from being visible. - -Having dropped anchor within three hundred yards of the island of -Deshima, they were again boarded by two Japanese officers, with -a host of attendants, who made a careful examination of all on -board, according to a list given them, writing down their names and -business. Five or six of the number were then subjected to a strict -cross-examination as to all the particulars of the voyage. It so -happened that the steward had died, the day before their arrival, of a -fit of apoplexy, consequent upon his being denied any more arrack, or -brandy—apart from his drinking, an able man, and, as Kämpfer tells us, -the son of a noted divine at the Hague, but who, by early indulgence, -had fallen into debaucheries and a dissolute life. Many questions were -asked about the dead man, and his breast and other parts of the corpse -were carefully examined to see if there were any cross or other mark of -the popish religion upon it. After much urging, the Japanese consented -to the immediate removal of the body; but none of the ship’s company -were allowed to attend, or to see what was done with it. - -As soon as this roll-calling and examination were over, Japanese -soldiers and revenue officers were put into every corner, and the ship -was, as it were, completely taken out of the hands of the Dutch. For -that day only, they were left in possession of the boats to look after -the anchor; but all their arms and gunpowder were taken away. “In -short,” says Kämpfer, “had I not been beforehand acquainted with their -usual proceedings, I could not have helped thinking that we had got -into a hostile country, and had been taken for spies.” That evening was -received from the factory a supply of fowls, eggs, fish, shell-fish, -turnips, radishes [daikon],—which, as Kämpfer afterwards observed, were -largely cultivated, and formed a great part of the food of the country -people,—onions, fresh ginger, pumpkins, watermelons, white bread, and a -barrel of sake, or Japanese rice-beer. - -On the twenty-ninth the officers of the factory came on board, and -calling the ship’s company together, read to them the orders of the -Dutch East India Company, and of the governor of Nagasaki, to the -effect that every one was to behave soberly and discreetly with respect -to the natives and to the laws and customs of the country. A paper -containing these orders, written in Dutch, was, according to the -Japanese custom, left on board for everybody to read. No one, except -the captain of the ship and the director, or head officer (in Dutch, -_Opperhoofd_), of the factory, could leave the ship for Deshima, or -return on board again, without a written passport, in the one case -granted by the Japanese officers on board, in the other by those upon -the island. On the twenty-sixth Kämpfer took his goods and landed for -his two years’ residence on the island. It was his object to get all -the knowledge he possibly could of the present state and past history -of Japan; but in this he encountered many difficulties. The Japanese -officers, with whom the Dutch came in contact, were all bound by an -oath, renewed every year, not to talk with the Dutch, nor to make any -disclosures to them, respecting the domestic affairs of the country, -its religion, or its politics; and not only that, they were also bound -by oath to watch and report each other—which fear of being informed -against was indeed their chief dread and restraint. “Naturally the -Japanese were,” in Kämpfer’s opinion, “their pride of warlike humor -being set aside, as civil, as polite and curious a nation as any in the -world, naturally inclined to commerce and familiarity with foreigners, -and desirous to excess to be informed of their histories, arts and -sciences. But,” he adds, “as we are only merchants, whom they place -in the lowest class of mankind, and as the narrow inspection we are -kept under must naturally lead them to some jealousy and mistrust, so -there is no other way to gain their friendship, and to win them over -to our interest, but a willingness to comply with their desire, a -liberality to please their avaricious inclinations, and a submissive -conduct to flatter their vanity. ’Twas by this means I worked myself -into such a friendship and familiarity with my interpreters, and the -officers of our island, who daily came over to us, as I believe none -before me could boast of, ever since we have been put under such narrow -regulations. Liberally assisting them as I did with my advice and -medicines, with what information I was able to give them in astronomy -and mathematics, and with a cordial and plentiful supply of European -liquors, I could also in my turn freely put to them what questions I -pleased about the affairs of their country, whether relating to the -government in civil or ecclesiastical affairs, to the customs of the -natives, to the natural and political history; and there was none that -ever refused to give me all the information he could, when we were -alone, even of things which they are strictly charged to keep secret. -The private informations thus procured from those who came to visit me -were of great use to me in collecting materials for my intended history -of this country; but yet they fell far short of being altogether -satisfactory, and I should not, perhaps, have been able to compass that -design, if I had not by good luck met with other opportunities, and -in particular the assistance of a discreet young man, by whose means -I was richly supplied with whatever information I wanted concerning -the affairs of Japan. He was about twenty-four years of age, well -versed in the Chinese and Japanese languages, and very desirous of -improving himself. Upon my arrival, he was appointed to wait upon me -as my servant, and at the same time to be by me instructed in physic -and surgery. The Otona, who is the chief officer of our island (of -Deshima), having been attended by him under my inspection in a serious -illness, suffered him to continue in my service during the whole time -of my abode in the country, which was two years, and to attend me in -our two journeys to court, consequently four times, almost from one end -of the empire to the other—a favor seldom granted to young men of his -age, and never for so long a time. As I could not well have obtained -my end without giving him a competent knowledge of the Dutch language, -I instructed him therein with so much success that in a year’s time -he could write and read it better than any of our interpreters. I -also gave him all the information I could in anatomy and physic, and -further allowed him a handsome yearly salary to the best of my ability. -In return I employed him to procure me as ample accounts as possible -of the then state and condition of the country, its government, the -imperial court, the religions established in the empire, the history of -former ages, and remarkable daily occurrences. There was not a book I -desired to see on these and other subjects, which he did not bring to -me, and explain to me out of it whatever I wanted to know. And because -he was obliged, in several things, to inquire, or to borrow, or to -buy of other people, I never dismissed him without providing him with -money for such purposes, besides his yearly allowance. So expensive, so -difficult a thing is it to foreigners, ever since the shutting up of -the Japanese empire, to procure any information about it.” - -After two years thus spent, Kämpfer left Japan in November, 1692, and -reached Amsterdam, by way of Batavia, the October following, bringing -with him a very rare collection of Japanese books, maps, coins, etc. It -had been his intention immediately on his return to prepare his notes -and memoirs for publication; but being appointed physician to the count -of Lippe, his native prince, and speedily obtaining a large private -practice, and assuming also the responsibility and cares of a family, -this purpose was long delayed. His “Amoenitates Exoticae,” notes of his -eastern travels, did not appear till 1712, and he died in 1716, leaving -his “History of Japan” still unpublished. It first appeared in 1727, -translated from the German into English, and published in two folios, -with numerous engravings[134], under the patronage of Sir Hans Sloane -and the Royal Society. There was prefixed to it by the translator, Dr. -I. G. Scheuchzer, a valuable introduction, containing a catalogue of -works upon Japan which Charlevoix, in the similar catalogue at the end -of his History of Japan, has mainly copied; as was done also by his -publishers, as to most of Kämpfer’s engravings. - -Kämpfer’s work is divided into five books[135]. The first book -contains, first, a general and particular geographical description -of the empire, derived mainly from Japanese writers; second, a -disquisition on the origin of the Japanese,—whom Kämpfer thinks, from -the evidence as well of language as of character, not to be a Chinese -colony, nor even to belong to the same stock; third, the stories, -evidently mythical, which the Japanese give of their own origin; and -fourth, an account of the climate of Japan, its minerals and metals, -plants, animals, reptiles, fish and shells. - -The second book devoted to the political state of Japan contains, -first, their mythological history; second, the annals of the Dairi, -with a description of their court and residence; and third, a list -of the Kubō-Sama. This part of the work, at least the annals, is -sufficiently dry; but it contains the substance of all that the -Japanese know or believe as to the chronology of their own history. - -The third book describes the religious state of Japan, giving an -analytical view of the different creeds prevailing there, such as -throws great light upon the confused and mixed up view taken in the -letters of the Jesuit missionaries. - -The fourth book treats of foreign relations and trade. The rise and -fall of the Portuguese missions, although the most interesting portion -of the history of Japan, is very slightly touched upon, as it seems to -have been no part of Kämpfer’s plan to revamp old materials, but to -collect new ones. - -The fifth book, and much the largest, is devoted, to his two journeys -from Nagasaki to Yedo and back—those journeys having furnished him with -the principal opportunity he enjoyed of seeing Japan as it was. - -“The place where the Dutch live,” says Kämpfer, “is called Deshima, -that is, the Fore Island, the island situated before the town; also, -Deshimamachi, or the Fore Island Street, it being reckoned as one of -the streets of Nagasaki. It has been raised from the bottom, which -is rocky and sandy, lying bare at low water. The foundation is of -freestone, and it rises about half a fathom above high water mark. In -shape it nearly resembles a fan without a handle, being of an oblong -square figure, the two longer sides segments of a circle. It is joined -to the town by a small stone bridge, a few paces long, at the end of -which is a guard-house, where there are soldiers constantly upon duty. -On the north, or seaward side, are two strong gates, never opened but -for lading and unlading the Dutch ships. The island is enclosed with -pretty high deal boards, covered with small roofs, on the top of which -is planted a double row of pikes, like a Cheval de Frise but the whole -very weak, and unable to hold out against any force. - -“Some few paces off, in the water, are thirteen posts, standing at -proper distances, with small wooden tablets at the top, upon which is -written, in large Japanese characters, an order from the governors, -strictly forbidding all boats or vessels, under severe penalties, to -come within these posts, or to approach the island. - -“Just by the bridge, towards the town, is a place where they put up the -imperial mandates and proclamations, and the orders of the governors. - -“Besides this, the Otona, or chief officer of the street, chiefly -at the time of the sale, causes orders of his own, much to the same -purpose with those of the governors, to be put up on the other side of -the bridge, just by the entry into the island[136]. - -“By my own measuring I found the breadth to be eighty-two common -paces, and the longest side two hundred and thirty-six. The surface is -commonly estimated at a stadium (about three acres). There is a narrow -walk to go round along the deal boards which enclose it. The houses -are on both sides of a broad street that runs across the island. These -houses, and the whole island, were built at the expense of some of -the inhabitants of Nagasaki, to whom, or their heirs, the Dutch pay a -yearly rent of six thousand five hundred taels—a price far beyond the -real value. The houses, built of wood, and very sorry and poor, are -two stories high, the lower stories serving as warehouses, and the -uppermost to live in. - -“The other buildings are three guard-houses, one at each end and one -in the middle of the island, and a place by the entrance, where are -kept all the necessary instruments to extinguish fires. Water for the -kitchen and for common use, which is a separate charge in addition -to the rent, comes from the river which runs through the town, being -brought over in pipes made of bamboos, into a reservoir within the -island. - -“Behind the street is a convenient house for the sale of goods, and -two warehouses, strong enough to hold out against fire, built by the -Company at their own expense; also, a large kitchen; a house for the -deputies of the governors of Nagasaki, who have the regulation of the -trade; a house for the interpreters, made use of only at the time of -the sale; a kitchen and pleasure-garden; a place to wash linen and -other things; some small private gardens, and a bath. The Otona, or -chief officer of the street, has also a house and garden of his own. - -“Such,” says Kämpfer, “is the state of island,” and such it continues -to the present time, “to that small compass of which the Dutch have -been confined by the Japanese; and as things now stand, we must be -so far satisfied with it, there being no hopes that we shall ever -be better accommodated or allowed more liberty by so jealous and -circumspect a nation. - -“Our ships, which put into this harbor once a year, after they have -been thoroughly visited by the Japanese, and proper lists taken of -all the goods on board, have leave to put their men on shore on this -island to refresh them, and to keep them there so long as they lie in -the harbor, commonly two or three months. After they have left, the -director of our trade remains in the island, with a small number of -people, about seven, or more if he thinks proper. - -“Thus we live all the year round little better than prisoners, -confined within the compass of a small island, under the perpetual and -narrow inspection of our keepers. ’Tis true, indeed, we are now and -then allowed a small escape, an indulgence which, without flattering -ourselves, we can by no means suppose to be an effect of their love -and friendship, for as much as it is never granted to us, unless it -be to pay our respects to some great men, or for some other business, -necessary on our side and advantageous for the natives. Nor doth the -coming out, even upon these occasions, give us any greater liberty than -we enjoy on our island, as will appear, first, by the great expenses of -our journeys and visits, great or small, and by the number of guards -and inspectors who constantly attend us, as if we were traitors and -professed enemies of the empire. - -“After the departure of our ships, the director of our trade, or -resident of the Dutch East India Company, sets out with a numerous -retinue on his journey to court, to pay his respects to the emperor, -and to make the usual yearly presents. This journey must be made once -a year, not only by the Dutch, but, also, by all the lords and princes -of the empire, as being the emperor’s vassals; and our own embassy -is looked upon at court as an homage paid by the Dutch nation to the -emperor of Japan, as their sovereign lord. Upon the journey we are not -allowed any more liberty than even close prisoners could reasonably -claim. We are not suffered to speak to anybody, not even (except by -special leave) to the domestics and servants of the inns we lodge at. -As soon as we come to an inn, we are without delay carried up stairs, -if possible, or into the back apartments, which have no other view but -into the yard, which, for a still greater security, and to prevent any -thoughts of escape, is immediately shut and nailed up. Our retinue, -which, by special command from the governors of Nagasaki, guards, -attends, and assists us in our journey, is composed of the interpreters -and cooks of our island, and of a good number of soldiers, servants, -bailiffs, porters, and people, to look after our horses and baggage, -which must be conveyed on horseback. All these people, though never so -needless, must be maintained at the Company’s expense[137]. - -“Before our departure from Yedo, and again upon our return, our -director, with one of his Company, goes to make a visit to the -governors of Nagasaki, at their palace, to return them thanks for their -protection, and to entreat its continuance. Nor can even this visit be -made without a numerous train of guards, soldiers, and bailiffs. - -“Another visit, and with the like numerous attendants, is made to the -governors by the director of our factory, upon the first day of the -eighth month, when it is usual to make them a present. - -“The few Dutchmen who remain at Deshima, after the departure of our -ships, are permitted, once or twice a year, to take a walk into -the adjacent country, and in particular to view the temples about -Nagasaki. This liberty is oftener granted to physicians and surgeons, -under pretence of going to search for medicinal plants. However, this -pleasure-walk falls very expensive to us, for it must be made in -company of the Otona, of our ordinary interpreters, and other officers -in our service, who are handsomely treated by us at dinner in one of -the temples of the Ikkoshiu sect; and we must on this occasion, and -that with seeming satisfaction, see our purses strongly squeezed for -the most common civilities shown us by the priests of the temple. - -“The festival of Suwa, the patron and protector of Nagasaki, falling -just upon the time when our ships lie in the harbor, our people are -permitted to view this solemnity from a scaffold, built at our own -expense, our presence being not only thought honorable to their -saint, but, what they value still more, advantageous to many of his -worshippers. It may be easily imagined that our train and guards are -not lessened upon such an occasion. On the contrary, we are examined -and searched four times before we come to the place where the solemnity -is performed, and again afterwards counted over several times with -all possible accuracy, when we go up and when we come down from the -scaffold, as if it were possible for some of us to slip out between -their fingers. Our slaves, also, are admitted to this solemnity, as -black Dutchmen[138]. - -“Another day is set apart for viewing five large boats, which must be -constantly kept, at the expense of the Dutch East India Company, for -the lading and unlading of our ships. This is again done with the same -numerous retinue, which we afterwards entertain at dinner at one of the -neighboring temples. - -“When one of our ships hath been discovered to steer towards the -harbor, some of the Dutchmen left at Deshima are sent to meet her, in -order to get a preliminary information of her cargo and condition. The -Company for this purpose constantly keeps two barges in readiness, -large enough to take on board our usual numerous attendants, which, -together with the commissioners for victualling, attending in their -own barge, with a good provision of victuals and refreshments, must be -treated in the neighboring small island, Iwō-ga-shima, the whole again -at the Company’s expense. - -“These are the days allowed us for our recreation, if it may be -called a recreation to be led about, like prisoners, under the narrow -inspection of so many attentive eyes; for, as to the several officers -concerned in the management of our island and trade, and permitted -on that account to converse with us, no sincere friendship, good -understanding, or familiarity, can be by any means expected of them; -for, before they are admitted into our service, they must oblige -themselves, by a solemn oath, to deny us all manner of communication, -credit, or friendship, any ways tending to support or promote our -interest. - -“The person who takes this oath prays the vengeance of the supreme -gods of the heavens and the chief magistrates of the country upon him, -his family, his domestics, his friends and near relatives, in case he -doth not sincerely fulfil and satisfy to all and every article, as -they are read and specified to him after the form of the oath, which, -together with these articles, must be signed by him, and sealed with -his seal[139], dipped in black ink, pouring, for a still stronger -confirmation, some drops of his own blood upon it, which he fetches -by pricking one of his fingers behind the nail. This must be repeated -twice a year, at least: first, about the beginning of the year, at the -time when they perform the solemn act of theirs of trampling upon the -image of our blessed Saviour, pendent from the cross, of the Virgin -Mary, and of other holy persons, as a public and unquestionable proof -that they forever renounce the Christian religion[140]; and again, -after the arrival of our ships in the harbor, in order to remind -them of the solemn obligation they lay under, and to renew their -hatred towards us. The persons who are to attend us in our journey -to court must, immediately after their departure, take a third oath, -promising that they will have a strict hand and watchful eye over us -and our conduct all along the road, and that they will not show us any -particular acts of friendship, or enter into any kind of familiarity -with us. - -“This oath, however, though never so terrible and binding, would be but -little regarded by this nation, were it not for the severe punishment -put by the civil magistrate upon the least transgression thereof,—a -crime that is not to be expiated but by shedding the very same blood -the oath hath been confirmed by. - -“Thus much I cannot forbear owning, in justice to the natives, that, -even amidst all the troubles and hardships we are exposed to in this -country, we have at least this comfort, that we are treated by our -numerous guardians and overseers with apparent civility, with caresses, -compliments, presents of victuals, and other marks of deference, so -far as it is not inconsistent with their reasons of state. But this, -their gentle and reasonable behavior on our behalf, is owing more to -the custom of the country, and to the innate civility and good manners -of the natives, than to any particular esteem they have for us, or any -favor they are willing to show us. - -“No Japanese, who seems to have any regard or friendship for the Dutch, -is looked upon as an honest man and true lover of his country. This -maxim is grounded upon the principle that it is absolutely contrary -to the interests of the country, against the pleasure of their -sovereign,—nay, by virtue of the oath they have taken, even against the -supreme will of the gods, and the dictates of their conscience,—to show -any favor to foreigners. Nay, they pursue this false reasoning still -further, and pretend that a friend of foreigners must of necessity -be an enemy to his country, and a rebel to his sovereign; for, they -say, if the country should happen to be attacked or invaded by these -foreigners, the laws and ties of friendship would oblige him to stand -by them, and, consequently, to become a traitor to his country and -sovereign. - -“Hence, to overreach a Dutchman; to ask extravagant prices of him; -to cheat and defraud him (so much as they think will not prove -prejudicial to their reputation, which they have a very tender regard -for); to lessen the liberties and advantages of the Dutch; to propose -new projects for making their servitude and condition still worse, -and the like, are looked upon as good, handsome, and lawful things in -themselves, and unquestionable proofs of a good patriot. - -“If anybody steals anything of the Dutch, and it be found upon him -(which the kuri[141], or porters, we employ at the time of our sale are -very dexterous at), there is seldom any other punishment inflicted upon -him but restitution of the stolen goods, and a few lashes from soldiers -upon duty at our gate. Sometimes he is banished from the island for a -short time, or, if the crime be very notorious, from the town, though -that is done but seldom. But the penalty inflicted upon smugglers is -no less than an unavoidable death, either by beheading or the cross, -according to the nature of the crime, and the degree of guilt. - -“The lading and unlading of our ships, and other business of this kind, -must not be done by our own people, but by the natives, who are well -paid for their work, whilst our people stand idle, and have nothing to -do but to look at them. But this is not the only grievance, for they -always hire at least twice as many people as there is occasion for, -and, if they work but one hour, we must, nevertheless, pay them a whole -day’s wages. - -“All the people who have anything to do for or with us, though never so -numerous, and mere meddlers, must be maintained by us, either directly -by appointed salaries, or indirectly by the money which the governors -of the town detain from the price of our commodities. - -“No Dutchman can send a letter out of the country, unless the contents -be first entered into a register-book kept for this purpose, and a -copy of it left with the governors. As to letters from abroad, all -the public ones must be sent directly to the governors, before they -are opened. As to the private ones, there are ways and means secretly -to convey them to us, which the government connives at, though it be -contrary to law. - -“No Japanese is permitted to send any letters or presents to their -relatives abroad (there being still some left from former marriages -with the Dutch), or to receive any from them, unless they be first -carried to the governors, to be by them opened, and left entirely at -their disposal. - -“Formerly, when a Dutchman died at Nagasaki, his body, deemed unworthy -of their ground, was thrown into the sea, somewhere without the harbor. -But, of late, an empty spot of waste ground was assigned us, and leave -given us decently to bury our dead there. - -“It is an easy matter for anybody, whether native or foreigner, to make -his claims upon the Dutch; but we find it very difficult to obtain -justice from others. In the first case, the government is always -willing to give the complaining party damages, without so much as -considering whether the claim be upon the whole Company, or some of its -officers and servants, and whether it be just to make the former suffer -for the misdemeanors of the latter. But, if we have any complaint to -make, we generally meet with so many difficulties and tedious delays as -would deter anybody from pressing even the most righteous cause. One -instance out of many will be sufficient. The famous Chinese pirate, -_Koxinga_ [Kokusenya], having made himself master of the island of -Formosa, and of our fortress, Tayouan or Zelandia thereon, we took an -opportunity, by way of reprisals, to attack a large junk of his, bound -for that island, with about three hundred men on board, and to disable -her with our fire, so that, although she drove for about thirteen days -after the attack, yet not above nine of the whole company saved their -lives. Upon this, heavy complaints were made by the Chinese to the -government of Nagasaki, and with so good an effect that the same year -twenty-seven thousand taels damages were assigned to them out of our -treasury. Some time after, about the year 1672, one of our ships having -unfortunately stranded upon the coast of Formosa, the ship’s company -was barbarously murdered, and the whole cargo taken possession of by -the Chinese subjects of _Koxinga_; whereupon we made our complaints, -before the very same court, against this act of hostility, but with so -little success that, far from having any damages assigned us, we could -not obtain the restitution of so much as one farthing[142]. - -“The chief and most extensive company or corporation of the officers -of our island, is that of the Interpreters, or, in the literal sense, -_through-mouths_. Those of the first order, called _true Interpreters_, -are eight in number. By virtue of their office they are obliged to -assist and attend us whenever there is occasion; and so far, indeed, -they execute their duty with great preciseness, that we can scarce ever -one moment get rid of their importunate presence; for as they are made -answerable for our conduct, so they spare no pains nor trouble to have -a watchful eye over us. - -[Illustration: ATTACK ON FORT ZEELANDIA IN FORMOSA - _From Verwaerloosde Formosa_] - -“Four of these are high interpreters, of whom one is Nemban, signifying -a yearly guardian, or person appointed to report upon another. This -officer is only annual, and to him all petitions and complaints, and -whatever else relates to us and to our commerce, must be delivered, and -by him, with the consent of his brethren, to the commanding governor or -his deputy. He hath the greatest share in the management of our island, -in the direction of our trade, and in all our affairs in general. The -four other interpreters, though of the same order, are called inferior -interpreters. They have not near the authority of the first four, whom -they are to assist in the performance of their duties. They, too, have -a Nemban, or president of their own, who is a sort of deputy to the -chief Nemban. Both Nembans attend us in our journey to the court, their -year of office terminating with their return. - -“They are paid by fees and presents (to buy their favor), and by -profits on the hire of laborers for the Company, and horses for the -journey to court. The whole income of a chief interpreter may amount to -three thousand taels and upwards, and that of an inferior interpreter -is seldom less than one thousand five hundred taels; and yet, with -all this income, they live but sparingly, because they must maintain -out of this money numerous families, and sometimes poor relations, -whom, according to the innate pride of this nation, they won’t suffer -to appear necessitous. Some part, also, of their revenue is spent in -presents to the governors of Nagasaki and their deputies. - -“Next to the chief interpreters, must be mentioned the _learning -interpreters_, or _apprentices_. They are never less than eight, -but sometimes more, all sons to the chief interpreters, by birth or -adoption. They come over to us every day, in order to learn the Dutch -and Portuguese languages, as well as the art and mystery of dealing -with foreigners. They are employed as spies upon several occasions, as -also to inspect the lading and unlading of our ships, to search the -sailors, and such others as go on board or leave the vessels. They -also examine the goods imported, and exported, and are allowed for -these services a salary of forty taels a year, besides a share in the -boarding wages and other perquisites. - -“After these come the _house interpreters_, employed by private -Dutchmen within their own houses. They have nothing to do on our -island, unless it be at the time of our yearly fair, or sale, when, -after having taken a solemn oath to avoid all communication, intimacy, -and familiarity with us, they are by the Otona admitted into our -service. From two to six are assigned to every Dutchman, during the -whole time of our fair, nominally as interpreters, but in fact as spies -to watch his actions; for there is scarce one in ten of them that -understands a Dutch word, excepting some few who have been servants to -the Dutch formerly. - -“There are upwards of a hundred of these house interpreters, who all -stand under the command of the chief interpreters, and particularly the -Nemban, or president for the time being. Their salaries, an uncertain -sum, taken out of the taxes laid upon the Dutch trade, are supposed, -one year with another, to amount about six thousand taels, which they -divide among themselves, according to their rank and office, and as -it is computed that the twelve chiefs among them get at furthest two -hundred taels apiece, the rest must take up with half that money, and -sometimes with less. This company of interpreters have four treasurers -and two clerks to keep their cash and an account of what is paid in and -out. - -“Two fundamental maxims they go upon: to do what lies in their power, -insensibly to increase the yearly expenses of the Dutch, to the -advantage of their countrymen, as becomes true patriots; to conceal -as much as possible all the tricks and cheats they perpetually play -us, lest the natives should come to know them. Both these ends they -endeavor to obtain by confining us still more and more, looking upon -this as the surest means to keep us ignorant of the language of the -country, and to prevent all conversation and familiarity with the -natives. If there be any of our people that hath made any considerable -progress in the Japanese language, they are sure, under some pretext -or other, to obtain an order from the governors to expel him from the -country. - -“The only thing wherein the captains, as they are here called, or -directors of our trade (a province the Japanese will suffer them to -have very little to do with), can be useful to the Company and show -their zeal for their master’s service, is to act contrary to these -principles, and to find out ways and means civilly to refuse what new -requests are from time to time made to them. For if any one of these -demands be granted but once, or any new charge, though never so small, -be suffered to be laid upon us, they make it a precedent forever after. -And herein they particularly endeavor to deceive new directors, who -never have been in the country before, and whom they suppose to be -not fully apprised of their ways of proceeding. On this account they -will often, on the first year of their presence help them to a very -profitable trade, knowing, in case their demands be not admitted, how -to balance it the next with a more chargeable and less profitable one. - -“The officer next in rank to the president of the interpreters, -and having jurisdiction over everybody on the island except the -interpreters, is the Otona, or magistrate of the street. He has the -inspection of our trade, and of the yearly sale of our goods, jointly -with the company of interpreters. He keeps a particular list of those -of our goods that belong to private persons, keeps those goods in his -custody, and gives orders when and how they are to be disposed of. He -takes care that our street, houses and other buildings, be kept in good -repair, and likewise, as much as lies in his power, that they be not -injured by thieves, fire, or other accidents. He protects our servants, -cooks, daily laborers, and all persons who are within his jurisdiction, -composes the difference arising between them, admits and swears them -into their respective employments, and dismisses them as he pleases. He -gives passports and tickets to come to Deshima, nobody being permitted -to enter this island without them. He is obliged, by virtue of his -office and by the oath he hath taken, narrowly to examine into the -conduct, life and behavior, not only of our servants and officers, but -also of ourselves, and to keep us to a strict obedience to the imperial -orders, though he is very cautious of laying any commands upon us of -his own sole authority, knowing that we would refuse to obey them. - -“However, he hath so much power over us that in case any considerable -crime be committed, or any disregard shown to the imperial orders, by -any one of us, he can arrest him, and lay him in irons, of which there -are many and almost daily instances. - -“Our present Otona, Yoshikawa Gibuyemon, as on one side he worked -himself into no small esteem and favor with the government by his great -severity in the execution of his office, but chiefly by having betrayed -us and our interest in a late affair[143], so much is he, on the other -side, hated by us. I will not take upon me to examine what reasons -he hath to allege for his conduct in that affair, though I have been -credibly informed he had very good ones. Thus far I must do justice -to his character, and own that he shows a great deal of prudence in -his conduct, that he is no ways given to covetousness or falsehood, -as, also, that he is an enemy to ignorance and brutality, and so well -versed in the moral doctrine of Kōshi (or Confucius), and in the -history, laws, and religion of his country, that he hath been desired -to write the history of the province of Hizen. - -“The Otona has under him a Nichigyōshi, or messenger, whose business -it is daily to examine into the condition and safety of the locks at -the water-gates, to look into the state of our warehouses and other -buildings, and to give his master notice of what he finds out of -repair; also several clerks, who are to make lists of all the movable -goods belonging to private persons, which may be disposed of, to seal -them up in the Otona’s name, and to take them into safe custody. - -“The Otona hath the same salary allowed him by the Dutch East India -Company as the chief interpreter, and the same share in the money -detained by the order of the government from the price of our goods, -besides several other advantages, as, for instance, his salary as -Otona of another street in the town, many presents and gratifications -made him by the proprietors of our island, and a considerable part -of the yearly rents we pay for the same, he having already purchased -about a third of our houses. His greatest profits arise from the Dutch -goods bought up for him at a cheap rate in other people’s names, and -afterwards sold by him for much more than their prime cost. - -“Next to the Otona are our twenty-four landlords, or proprietors of our -island. They visit us but seldom, except at the time of our sale, when -they make their appearance daily, to look after the condition of our -houses, to be present and lend a helping hand in making a list of all -our commodities, household goods, and other things, and, what is more, -to have a watchful eye over us, their tenants, and to examine into -our behavior and conduct, as being, by virtue of the laws and customs -of the country, answerable for the same, and, in case of accidents -and misdemeanors, sentenced to bear a share either in the loss or -punishment. - -“Next come the five secretaries of the island, a sort of deputies to -the chief interpreters. Their business is to keep an account of the -presents made by the Dutch, of their ordinary expenses, the expenses -of their journey to court, and other things of this kind, which are -thought beneath the dignity of the chief interpreters. Nay, they -themselves being not always willing to despatch their business in -person, keep also their deputies. The Company allows a constant salary -only to two, and these are to attend us in our journey to court. The -others are rewarded by handsome gratuities at the time of our sale. - -“The inspectors of our kuri[144], or workmen, consist of fifteen -persons. One of the fifteen is quartermaster, who must be present in -person to encourage and look after them when there is any work to -be done. The whole company is to take care that we be not robbed by -these kulis, they being very dexterous at it, whenever a favorable -opportunity occurs. For this reason our East India Company allows them -a constant salary. - -“The kulis, who are employed in lading and unlading of our ships, are -people unknown to us, and taken out of the town. All we know of them -is, that we must pay them well for their trouble. In order to make it -beneficial to the whole town, the Otona of each street keeps a list of -what people in his street are willing or able to serve as kulis, that -in their turn they may be sent over to Deshima. - -“The _treasury officers_ are a company of thirty-six persons, superior -and inferior, who receive the money for the goods we have disposed of, -change it into kobans of gold, and deliver them to our interpreters, -who count them before us. These treasurers retain one per cent, for -their trouble, and fifteen per cent or more for the benefit of the -town, according to the yearly value of the koban, which varies from -fifty-five to fifty-nine mas in silver, besides which, the director of -this Company receives a hundred taels a year salary from the Dutch, and -the rest of the number fifty taels. - -“Our commissioners for victualling are a company of about seventeen -house-keepers of Nagasaki with their families. Their business is to -provide our island with victuals, drink, household goods, and what else -we want, or have leave to buy, of this kind. Nobody but the members of -this corporation is permitted to sell us any victuals or goods, though -they exact so much upon us that they make us pay at least twice or -thrice as much as things are sold for at the market. They also furnish -our people, on demand, with courtesans; and, truly, our young sailors, -unacquainted as they commonly are with the virtue of temperance, are -not ashamed to spend five rix dollars for one night’s pleasure, and -with such wenches, too, as a native of Nagasaki might have for two -or three mas, they being none of the best and handsomest; nor do the -masters of the women get more than a tael. The rest is laid up in the -cash of this Company for their own private use, or, as they pretend, to -hire proper servants to conduct the damsels over to our island. - -“The officers of the kitchen consist of three cooks, who serve by -turns, each a month, of two grooms of the kitchen, an apprentice or -two, who are generally the cook’s own sons, likely to succeed their -fathers in time, lastly of some laborers to carry water. This is the -reason that our table is so very expensive, since the best part of the -year, the time of our sale only excepted, there are actually more cooks -than people to provide victuals for. And yet we have strict commands -from the governors of the town, not in the least to alter this number, -nor to get our victuals dressed by our own people. We are obliged to -allow one hundred and fifty taels a year to the first, one hundred and -thirty to the second, and one hundred to the third. There are, besides, -some other people who now and then do some little service in and for -our kitchen, such as a man to look after our cattle,—though but very -few in number, and of very little use to us, the males being generally -secretly poisoned, or their legs broken in the night, to prevent -their multiplying too much, which, ’tis apprehended would turn to the -disadvantage of the commissioners of victualling,—a gardener and some -other menial servants. This being looked upon by the meaner sort of -people at Nagasaki as a perquisite, which every one is glad to have a -share of in his turn, these servants are relieved once a month, and -others sent in their stead, to do their business, out of every street -of Nagasaki. But the chief reason why they relieve them so often is -because they apprehend a longer stay might make them too familiar with -us, and perhaps too favorable for our interest. - -“The Dutch, out of a particular favor, are permitted to have some -young boys to wait upon them in the daytime. They are entered in the -Otona’s book in quality of messengers. They are commonly sons of the -inferior interpreters and other officers of our island, who, by this -opportunity of learning the Dutch language, qualify themselves in time -to succeed their fathers. However, care is taken that they stay in our -service only so long as they are looked upon as simple, and ignorant of -the state and interest of their country, or else so long as the Otona -pleases to give them leave; but never without sufficient security, -given upon oath, by a respectable inhabitant of Nagasaki, who obliges -himself to be answerable for their misbehavior. Thus much must be owned -in justice to these young boys, that more readiness to do what they are -commanded, and a greater fidelity in the custody of the goods they are -entrusted with by their masters, is hardly to be met with in any other -nation. - -“Some tradesmen and artificers of several companies in Nagasaki, are -also permitted to come over to our island, when sent for, provided they -have leave of the governors, which must be obtained every time they are -wanted. - -“The guards employed to watch us are two within the island, and three -without. Six of the poorer inhabitants of Nagasaki, furnished by turns -from all the streets, and relieved once a month, have their appropriate -stations within the island, whence they go over to one another all -night, and indicate, according to the custom of the country, both their -vigilance and the hours, by beating two wooden cylinders, one against -the other. They are also to watch thieves, accidents of fire, and the -like. - -“During the sale, another guard, on purpose to watch accidents of fire, -is kept by our Otona, his clerks, our landlords, the officers of our -exchequer, and the cooks. In their first round they knock at every -door, to ask whether there be no Japanese hid within, and to recommend -to the occupants to take care of the fire. The Otona must be present at -least once in the night, when, according to the custom of the country, -his fire-staff, hung about with iron rings, as the badge of his -authority, is carried rattling after him. The Dutch also keep, at the -same time, a watch of their own people, to take care that their masters -be not robbed by their Japanese guards. - -[Illustration: NAGASAKI HARBOR] - -“The _Ship and Harbor Guard_, appointed to have a general inspection -over all foreigners, Chinese as well as Dutch, goes the round of the -harbor all night, particularly about our island. The _Spy Guard_ -watches from the mountains back of the town the approach of foreign -ships. The _Gate Guard_ keeps the gate towards the town, that being the -only passage in and out. It is mounted daily by five persons, their -servants not computed. At the time of the sale of our goods there are -never less than ten, but sometimes twelve or more, and to these, its -regular members, are added at that time two persons from the ship -and harbor guard, two from the spy guard, four furnished by the town of -Nagasaki, four by the silk merchants, and two on the part of the two -chief magistrates or burgomasters of the lower town of Nagasaki, one of -whom keeps the journal of the guard, wherein (for the information of -the governors of the town, who, at least once a month, call for this -record and look it over) is entered what passes from hour to hour, and -what persons and things go in or out. Yet, without express orders from -the governors, or leave given by the Otona, nothing is suffered to -pass through but what is sent in by those appointed to provide us with -necessaries and unprohibited goods. For a still greater security, three -sworn searchers are added to this guard, one or two of whom attend -constantly hard by the gate, to search whoever goes in or out. Nor is -anybody exempted from being searched but the governors, their deputies -or commissioners, with their retinues, and our ordinary interpreters -and their sons, who are entered as apprentices. - -“Such a variety of people of different ranks and characters being to do -duty upon one guard, it obliges on the one side everybody to discharge -their duty to the utmost of their power, and on the other it puts the -government out of all apprehensions of their plotting or conspiring -together; for, in fact, they are not only to watch us, and the people -who have business with us, and, on this account, go in and out of our -island, but each other also. Among the things which stand by, or are -hung upon the walls of the guard-house, are irons to put on criminals, -ropes to bind them, heavy staffs to beat them, and a particular sort of -an instrument, a kind of hook or rake, which they make use of to catch -thieves and deserters, and which is commonly carried about at their -public execution. - -“All these people, although they maintain themselves and their families -entirely by what they get by us and our service, yet from their conduct -one would think them to be our sworn enemies, always intent to do us -what mischief they can, and so much the more to be feared, as their -hatred and enmity is hid under the specious color of friendship, -deference, and good-will. - -“Considering that there are so very few Dutchmen left in the island, -one would imagine that the Japanese had no reason to be uneasy, or -anyways apprehensive of our conduct. Surely such a small number of -people, and those, too, deprived of arms and ammunition (the very first -thing which the Japanese take into their custody upon the arrival of -our ships), would never take it into their heads to make any attempt -against the peace and tranquillity of the empire. As to smuggling, -they have too well prevented any attempts of that kind, by taking -not only an exact inventory of all our goods and commodities, but by -locking them up under their own locks and seals. Even the cloth and -stuffs which are brought over for our own use must be delivered into -the custody of the Otona, till one of their own tailors, sworn for this -purpose, cuts them, allowing each of us just so much as will make him -a good suit. But what they have still less reason to be apprehensive -of, is the subversion of their pagan doctrine and religion, so little -conspicuous are the principles of Christianity in our lives and -actions. Nevertheless, so many guards, corporations, societies, with -their numerous attendants, all upon oath, and themselves jealous and -mistrustful one of another, are set to guard and narrowly to watch us, -as if we were the greatest malefactors, traitors, spies—in a word, -the worst and most dangerous set of people; or, to make use of a very -significant expression of the Japanese, as if we were, what I think we -really are, Hitodichi, that is, the emperor’s hostages.” - -It is to be observed that in different parts of his book Kämpfer -appears in two distinct characters. Sometimes he seems to be the mere -surgeon of the Dutch factory, fully sharing and giving voice to all the -feelings and prejudices of that establishment, bringing before us, in -a very lively manner, the angry Dutch factors grumbling over the new -restrictions lately put upon the Dutch trade, and especially the new -precaution against smuggling. Elsewhere he shows himself perfectly able -to enter into all the views and feelings of the Japanese; and however -angry he may occasionally get at the obstacles encountered by himself, -especially on the part of the old chief interpreter, in his efforts to -obtain a full knowledge of Japanese affairs, he had evidently conceived -a strong liking for the Japanese people, and never fails to do them -justice, whether as individuals or as a nation. He composed, indeed, a -formal dissertation, originally published in his “Amœnitates,” in which -he enters into an elaborate defence of the policy of the Japanese in -their jealous exclusion of foreigners; nor can any one who calls to -mind the consequences of that intercourse to the natives of Eastern -Asia and America, and especially the history of the late Anglo-Chinese -opium war, deny the plausibility at least of the argument. - - - - -CHAPTER XXVIII - - _Particular Statement as to the Dutch Trade as it existed in Kämpfer’s - Time—Arrival of the Ships—Unlading—Passes—Imports—Company and Private - Goods—Kambans, or Public Sales—Duties—Profits—Exports—Departure of the - Ships—Smuggling—Execution of Smugglers._ - - -“The Dutch ships,” says Kämpfer, “are expected some time in September, -towards the latter end of the southwest monsoon, that being the only -time proper for this navigation.[145] As soon as the spy guards with -their glasses discover a ship steering towards the harbor, and send -notice of her approach to the governors of Nagasaki, three persons of -our factory are sent with the usual attendance to meet her about two -miles without the harbor, and to deliver to the captain the necessary -instructions, from the director of our trade, with regard to his -behavior. - -“The interpreter and the deputies of the governors demand forthwith the -list of the cargo and crew, as also the letters on board, which are -carried to Nagasaki, where the governors first examine and then deliver -them to our director. - -“The ship follows as soon as possible, and, having entered the harbor, -salutes both imperial guards with all her guns, and casts anchor -opposite to the town, about a musket-shot from our island. If the wind -be contrary, rowing-boats (kept for this purpose by the common people -of the town) are sent at our expense, but not at our desire, to tow her -in by force. In still weather they send about ten of these boats; if it -be stormy, and the wind contrary, they increase the number to fifty, -and sometimes to a hundred—so many as they think necessary—that is, at -least twice the number there is occasion for. - -“When the ship has entered the harbor, two guard-boats, with a good -number of soldiers, are put one on each side of her, and continued, -being mounted with fresh troops every day, till she leaves. As soon -as the ship drops anchor, great numbers of officers come on board -to demand our guns, cutlasses, swords and other arms, as also the -gunpowder packed up in barrels, which are taken into their custody, and -kept in a store-house, built for this purpose, till her departure. They -attempted, also, in former times, to take out the rudder, but, having -found it impracticable, they now leave it in. - -“The next day after her arrival, the commissioners of the governor -come on board, with their usual attendance of soldiers, interpreters, -and subordinate officers, to make an exact review, in presence of our -director, of all the people on board, according to the list which hath -been given them, and wherein is set down every one’s name, age, birth, -place of residence, and office, examining them from top to toe. Many -questions are asked, as to those who died on the voyage, when and of -what distemper they died. Even now and then a dead monkey or parrot may -occasion a strict inquiry to be made after the cause and manner of -their death, and they are so scrupulous that they will not give their -verdict, without sitting upon the body itself, and carefully examining -it. - -“After this, the orders of our director, and likewise of the governors -of Nagasaki, relating to our behavior with regard to the natives, are -read in Low Dutch, and afterwards, for every one’s inspection, stuck up -in several places on board the ship, and at Deshima. The same rules are -observed with all our ships, of which there are two, three, or four, -sent from Batavia to Japan every year, according to the quantity of -copper they have occasion for; one of which goes first to Siam, to make -up part of her cargo with the commodities of that country. Formerly, -when the Dutch as yet enjoyed a free trade, they sent seldom less than -six or seven ships, and sometimes more. - -“The review being over, they proceed to unlade the ships, during which, -several of the governors’ officers, a chief interpreter, a deputy -interpreter, and an apprentice, besides several clerks and inferior -officers, remain on board, taking possession of every corner, to see -that nothing be carried away privately. The water gates of our island, -through which the cargo is to be brought in, are opened in presence of -the _karō_, that is, high commissioners of the governors, and their -retinue. So long as the gates are kept open, the karō, with their -deputies and other assistants, stay in a room built for this purpose, -not far off. The whole body of interpreters, as also our landlords, -clerks, and other officers of our island, give their attendance, and -also their assistance, at that time. They fall to work with three -hundred or more kuri, or workmen—always at least twice the number there -is occasion for. The unlading of every ship ought to be performed -in two days, but notwithstanding the number of men they employ, they -generally make a three days’ work of it, in order to make it so much -the more beneficial to the town. - -“The goods are brought from the ship in boats, kept for this purpose -only, at the Company’s expense. Being brought within the water gates, -they are laid before the commissioners, who set them down in writing, -count them, compare them with the list that hath been given in (opening -a bale or two of each sort, picked out from among the rest), and -then order them to be locked up, under their seal, in the Company’s -warehouse, until the day of sale. The trunks belonging to private -persons are set down at the entry of the island, and there opened and -examined. If the owner doth not forthwith appear with the key, they -proceed, without any further ceremony, to open them with axes. All -vendible goods are taken out and locked up under their seals. Some -other things, also, which they do not approve of, as, for instance, -arms, stuff, and cloth wrought with gold and silver, as also all -contraband goods, are taken into custody by the Otona, who returns them -to the owner upon his departure. - -“No European, nor any other foreign money, and, in general, nothing -that hath the figure of a cross, saint, or beads, upon it, is suffered -to pass. If any such thing should be found upon any of our people, it -would occasion such a confusion and fright among the Japanese as if -the whole empire had been betrayed. I have already taken notice that, -upon our drawing near the harbor, every one is obliged to deliver his -prayer-books, and other books of divinity, as also all European money, -to the captain, who packs them all up in an old cask, and hides them. - -“Those who are newly arrived must suffer themselves, in going in or -coming out of our island, to be searched, whether or no they have any -contraband goods about them. Every one who wishes to go on board, -whether it be for his own private business, or in the Company’s -service, is obliged to take out a pass-board from the commissioners at -the water gates, and, in like manner, when he returns on shore, he must -take out another from those on the ship. - -“At night, when the commissioners sent on board the ship return with -their retinue to Nagasaki, the cabin is sealed up in their presence, -and all the Dutchmen accurately counted over, to see that there be none -wanting, which would occasion a very great confusion. During my stay -in Japan it happened that a common sailor unfortunately was drowned in -the night, nobody perceiving his falling into the water. At the review -made the next morning (for it is constantly made every morning and -night) the fellow was missed. This unlucky accident suddenly stopped -all proceedings, and the fear lest it should be a Roman Catholic -priest, who had made his escape into the country, occasioned such a -consternation among the Japanese, that all the officers ran about, -scratching their heads, and behaving as if they had lost their senses, -and some of the soldiers in the guard-ships were already preparing to -rip themselves open, when at last the unlucky fellow’s body being taken -up from the bottom of the harbor put an end to their fears. - -“At all other times, that for lading and unlading our ships excepted, -the water gates are shut, by which means all communication is cut off -between those that stay on board and those that remain on shore. The -ship’s cargo having been placed in the warehouses, the goods lie there -till they are pleased, in two or three days of sale, which they call -_Kamban_, to sell them. What remains unsold is carried back to the -warehouses, and kept there against the next year’s sale. - -“The following goods are imported by us: raw silk, from China, Tonquin, -Bengal, and Persia; all sorts of silks, woollen, and other stuffs -(provided they be not wrought with gold and silver); Brazil wood; -buffalo, and other hides; raw skins, wax, and buffalo horns from Siam; -tanned hides from Persia, Bengal, and other places, but none from Spain -and Manila, under pain of incurring their utmost displeasure; pepper; -sugar, in powder and candied; cloves; nutmegs; camphor, from Borneo -and Sumatra; quicksilver; cinnabar; saffron; lead; saltpetre; borax; -alum; musk; gum benzoin; gum lac; rosmal, or _storax liquida_; catechu, -commonly called Terra Japonica; fustic; corals; amber; right antimony -(which they use to color their china ware); looking-glasses, which -they cut up to make spy-glasses, magnifying glasses, and spectacles, -out of them. Other things of less note are snakewood; mangoes, and -other unripe East India fruits, pickled with Turkish pepper, garlic, -and vinegar; black lead and red pencils; sublimate of mercury (but no -calomel); fine files; needles; spectacles; large drinking-glasses of -the finest sort; counterfeit corals; strange birds, and other foreign -curiosities, both natural and artificial. Some of these are often sold -in private, by sailors and others, without being produced upon the -_Kamban_, and in this case the Dutch make no scruple to get as much for -them beyond their real value as possibly they can. - -“Of all the imported goods, raw silk is the best liked, though it -yields the least profit of any. All sorts of stuffs and cloths yield -a considerable and sure profit, and should there be never so much -imported, the consumption in so populous a country would be still -greater. Brazil wood and hides are also to be disposed of to very good -advantage. The most profitable commodities are sugar, catechu, storax -liquida, camphor of Borneo (which they covet above all other sorts), -looking-glasses, etc., but only when they have occasion for them, and -when the Chinese have imported in small quantities. Corals and amber -are two of the most valuable commodities in these eastern parts; but -Japan hath been so thoroughly provided by smugglers, that at present -there is scarce fifty per cent to be got upon them, whereas formerly we -could sell them, ten, nay, a hundred times dearer. The price of these -things, and of all natural and artificial curiosities, varies very -much, according to the number and disposition of the buyers, who may be -sure to get cent per cent clear profit by them, at what price soever -they buy them. - -“The yearly sum to the value of which the Dutch are permitted to sell -goods imported by them is, by Japanese reckoning, three hundred chests -of silver, each of a thousand taels, or in gold fifty thousand kobans; -the highest value of the koban, as current in Japan, being sixty mas, -or six taels. But the Japanese having obliged the Dutch East India -Company to accept payment in gold kobans, each reckoned at sixty-eight -mas, the sales of the Company, though made to the amount of three -hundred thousand taels in silver, produced only forty-four thousand one -hundred and eighteen kobans.” - -A chance was thus afforded, as Kämpfer expresses it “to make the -officers concerned in carrying on the Dutch trade some amends for their -trouble and hard usage, by allowing them to dispose of goods on their -own private account,” to the value of five thousand six hundred and -eighty-two kobans, equivalent, at the reckoning of fifty-eight mas, to -forty thousand taels, thus making up the fifty thousand kobans, to the -amount of which the annual sale of Dutch goods was limited; and as this -arrangement for private trade had been made by the Japanese, the East -India Company did not venture to interfere with it. - -At the head of these officers stands the Director, or, as he is called -by the Japanese, Captain of the Dutch (_Hollanda Capitan_), who has -the command, inspection, and care of the trade. The same person is -the head of the embassy sent to court once every year; and, according -to the custom of the country, he must be relieved after the year is -expired. The ships from Batavia bring over his successor, with some few -merchants and clerks, to assist during the sale, after which, the old -director goes on board, to return to Batavia. The privilege of private -trade was, in Kämpfer’s time, divided as follows: The acting director -could sell to the extent of ten thousand taels; the new director to the -extent of seven thousand; his deputy, or the next person after him, to -the extent of six thousand. The captains of the ships, the merchants, -clerks, &c., shared the remainder, as they happened to be in favor with -the chief managers, and the Japanese interpreters. - -“The day of the _Kamban_ (as they call our sale), which must be -determined by the court, drawing near, a list of all the goods is hung -up at the gates without our island, written in very large characters, -that everybody may read it at a due distance. Meanwhile, the -government signifies to the several Otonas of the town, and these to -the merchants, who are come hither from diverse parts of the empire, -what duty per cent will be laid for the benefit of the inhabitants of -Nagasaki, upon each description of our goods, in order to enable them -to determine what price they can afford to offer. The day before the -_Kamban_, papers are put up at all the gates of the streets, to invite -the merchants to make their appearance the next morning at Deshima, -where, for their further information, they find before every house -a list of the goods laid up in it. As the direction of our trade is -entirely in the hands of the government of Nagasaki, so, particularly, -the _Kamban_ cannot be held but in presence of two Stewards of the -governors, authorized by them to assist at it. The chief officers of -our island must likewise be present. The first interpreter presides, -and directs everything, while our own triumvirs—I mean the two -directors, the old and new—and the deputy director, have little or -nothing to say. - -“All persons who must be present at the sale having met together, our -directors order samples of all our goods to be exposed to view, and -then give a signal with a _gum-gum_, a sort of flat bell, not unlike a -basin, for the merchants to come in. The house where the sale is kept -is a very neat building, built at the Company’s expense, and is then, -by removing the shutters, laid open towards the street for people to -look in. There is a small gallery round it, and it is divided within -into several partitions, very commodiously contrived for this act. - -“The sale itself is performed in the following manner. Only one sort -of goods is put up at a time. Those who have a mind to buy them give -in some tickets, each signed by feigned names, and signifying how much -they intend to give for a piece, or a katti, of the article on sale. I -took notice that every merchant gives in several tickets. This is done -in order to see how matters are like to go, and to keep to a less price -in case he repents of the greater, for which purpose they are signed -only by feigned names; and, because of the great number and subdivision -of the small coin, it seldom happens that two tickets exactly agree. -After all the bidders have given in their tickets, our directors -proceed to open and assort them. They are then delivered to the -presiding chief interpreter, who reads them aloud, one after another, -beginning with the highest. He asks after the bidder three times, and, -if there is no answer made, he lays that ticket aside and takes the -next to it. So he goes on, taking always a less, till the bidder cries -out, ‘Here I am,’and then draws near to sign the note, and to put -his true name to it with black ink, which the Japanese always carry -about them. The goods first put up being sold, they proceed to others, -which they sell in the same manner; and so they go on till the sum -determined by the emperor hath been raised, which is commonly done in -two or three, seldom in four, days of sale. The day after each _Kamban_ -the goods are delivered to the buyer, and carried off. A company of -merchants of the five imperial cities have obtained the monopoly for -buying and selling raw silks, of which they would fain oblige us to -make up at least one-third of our cargoes. - -“The duty or custom levied upon goods has been introduced at Nagasaki, -merely with an intent to take off part of the vast profits which -foreigners get upon their commodities, and to assign them for the use -and maintenance of the poorer inhabitants of the town, among whom -it is distributed in proportion to the trouble they must be at, on -account of the public offices they must serve by turns. They commonly -receive in this distribution from three to fifteen taels each. The -duty laid upon the goods belonging to the Company is fifteen per cent, -producing forty-five thousand taels. The goods belonging to private -persons, which are commonly sold at the end of the _Kamban_, pay much -more—no less than sixty-five per cent upon goods sold by the piece, and -sixty-seven per cent on goods sold by weight. Rating each sort at half -the whole amount, and the whole produce is twenty-seven thousand taels. -The reason they give for the difference in the rate of duty is, because -private goods are brought over in the Company’s ships, at the Company’s -expense, and, consequently, deserve less profit. The Chinese, for the -like reason,—that is, because they are not at the expense of such long -and hazardous voyages as the Dutch, but are nearer at hand,—pay a -duty of sixty per cent for all their goods, which brings in a sum of -three hundred and sixty thousand taels duty. If to this be added the -yearly rent for our houses and factories, which is five thousand five -hundred and eighty taels, and that of the Chinese factory, which is -sixteen thousand taels, it makes up in all a sum of four hundred and -fifty-three thousand five hundred and eighty taels (upwards of half a -million of dollars) which the foreign commerce produces annually to the -magistrates and inhabitants of Nagasaki. - -“The profits our goods produce may be computed to amount, one year with -another, to sixty per cent, though, if all the charges and expenses of -our sale be taken into consideration, we cannot well get above forty -or forty-five per cent clear gain. Considering so small a profit, it -would scarcely be worth the Company’s while to continue this branch of -our trade any longer, were it not that the goods we export from thence, -and particularly the refined copper, yield much the same profit, so -that the whole profit may be computed to amount to eighty or ninety per -cent. - -“The goods belonging to private persons being brought over and sold -without any expense to the owner, the gain therefrom, notwithstanding -the great duty laid upon them, is no ways inferior to that of the -Company. The two chief directors have the greater share of it. They -cannot hold their offices longer than three years, and that not -successively, being obliged, after they have served one year, to return -with the homeward-bound ships to Batavia, whence they are sent back -again, either by the next ships, or two years after. If the directors -stand upon good terms with the chief interpreter, and have found -ways and means to secure his favor, by making him large presents at -the Company’s expense, he can contrive things so that some of their -goods be put up and sold upon the first or second _Kamban_, among -the Company’s goods, and so, by reason of the small duty, produce -sixty-five to seventy per cent profit. This, too, may be done without -any prejudice to the Company; for, in casting up the sums paid in for -goods, these articles are slipped over. If they have any goods beyond -the amount they are legally entitled to, chiefly red coral, amber, and -the like, it is an easy matter to dispose of them in private, by the -assistance of the officers of the island, who will generally themselves -take them off their hands. The Otona himself is very often concerned in -such bargains, they being very advantageous. Formerly, we could sell -them by a deputy to the persons who came over to our island at the -time of our _Kamban_, and that way was far the most profitable for us. -But one of our directors, in 1686, played his cards so awkwardly that -ten Japanese were beheaded for smuggling, and he himself banished the -country forever. - -“The residing director, who goes also as ambassador to the emperor’s -court, hath, besides, another very considerable advantage, in that -such presents as the governors of Nagasaki desire to be made to the -emperor, not to be found in the Company’s warehouses, and therefore -to be bought, can be furnished by him out of his own stock, if it so -happens that he hath them, in which case he takes all the profit to -himself, without doing any prejudice to the Company. Nay, they might -possibly go still further in pursuit of their own private advantages, -were it not that they endeavor to pass for men of conscience and -honor, or, at least, aim to appear fearful lest they should be thought -too notoriously to injure both the confidence and interest of their -masters. I do not pretend hereby to charge them with any indirect -practices as to the annual expenses, though perhaps even those are -sometimes run up to an unnecessary height; nor is it in the least my -intention to detract from the reputation and character of probity of -so many worthy gentlemen, who have filled this station with honor, and -discharged their duty with the utmost faithfulness to their masters. -Thus much I can say without exaggeration, that the directorship of the -Dutch trade in Japan is a place which the possessor would not easily -part with for thirty thousand guilders (twelve thousand dollars). -’Tis true, it would be a great disadvantage to the director, and -considerably lessen his profits, if he hath not a good cash in hand to -provide himself, before his departure from Batavia, with a sufficient -stock of goods, but must take them upon credit, and upon his return -share the profits with his creditors. Besides, he must not presume -to leave Batavia, much less to return thither, without valuable -consideration to his benefactors, unless he intends to be excused -for the future the honor of any such employment. The goods he brings -back to Batavia are silk gowns, which he receives as presents from -the emperor and his ministers, and whereof he makes presents again to -his friends and patrons, victuals, china ware, lackered or japanned -things, and other manufactures of the country, which he can dispose -of at Batavia at fifty per cent profits; and besides some kobans in -gold; though if he have any left it is much more profitable to buy -ambergris,[146] or refined copper, and to send the latter, if possible, -on board the Company’s ships to Malacca. I say if possible, because -there are strict orders from the Company against it. - -“But it is time at last to send our ships on their return. To make up -their cargoes we buy from twelve thousand to twenty thousand piculs of -refined copper, cast in small cylinders, a span long and an inch thick, -each picul packed in a fir box. We buy, likewise a small quantity of -coarse copper, delivered to us in broad flattish round cakes, and -sometimes we take in some hundred piculs or chests of copper kasies -or farthings, but not unless they be asked for at Tonquin and other -places. All the copper is sold to us by a company of united merchants, -who, by virtue of a privilege from the emperor, have the sole refining -and selling of it to foreigners. - -“The other part of our cargo is made up of Japanese camphor, from six -thousand to twelve thousand, and sometimes more, pounds a year, packed -up in wooden barrels; of some hundred bales of china ware packed up -in straw; of a box or two of gold thread, of an hundred rolls to the -box; of all sorts of japanned cabinet-boxes, chests of drawers, and the -like, all of the very best workmanship we can meet with; of umbrellas, -screens, and several other manufactures, made of canes, wood, buffalo -and other horns, hard skins of fishes, which they work with uncommon -neatness and dexterity, stone, copper, gold and _Sowas_ (?), which is -an artificial metal, composed of copper, silver and gold, and esteemed -at least equal in value to silver. To these may be added paper made -transparent with oil and varnish; paper printed and colored with false -gold and silver for hanging of rooms; rice, the best to be had in Asia; -sake, a strong liquor brewed from rice; soy, a sort of pickle, fit to -be eat at table with roasted meat; pickled fruits packed in barrels; -indented tobacco; tea and marmalades; besides some thousand kobans of -gold in specie. The exportation of the following articles is strictly -forbidden. All prints, pictures, goods or stuffs, bearing the emperor’s -coat of arms. Pictures and representations, printed and others, of -soldiers and military people, of any person belonging to the court of -the Dairi, or of Japanese ships; maps of the empire or any part of it; -plans of towns, castles, temples, and the like; all sorts of silk, -cotton, and hempen stuffs; all sorts of arms, including those made in -Japan after European patterns; carpenters’ knives; silver. - -“Our ships cannot be laden, nor set sail, till special leave has been -given, and the day of their departure determined by the court. When -they are laden, all our private goods and what else we have to bring on -board, must be again narrowly searched. For this purpose, two of our -landlords, two apprentices of the interpreters, and two clerks, with -some kuri, or workmen, about two or three days before the departure of -the ships, call upon every one in his room, as well those who stay at -Deshima as those who are to return, and who, during the time of sale, -have been lodged in our empty houses. These people visit every corner, -and examine all our things piece by piece, taking an exact memorandum -of what they find; then they bind them together with straw ropes, and -put their seals to them, along with a list of what the parcel contains, -for the information of the gate-guard, who would else open them again. -All contraband goods are seized at this search. Should any of these be -found upon any Dutchman, the possessor would be at least banished the -country for life, and the interpreters and servants appointed for his -service and all other suspected persons would be put to the rack, till -the seller and all his accomplices were discovered, by whose blood only -is such crime to be expiated. Of this we had a late instance in the -imperial steward’s own secretary, who, having endeavored to send over -some scymitar blades to China, was executed for it, with his only son, -not above eight years old. Upon my own departure, although my things, -for good reasons, were visited but slightly, and over a bottle, yet -they seized upon an old Japanese razor and a few other things, just -because they happened to see them. - -“The day determined for the departure of our ships drawing near, they -proceed to lade their cargoes one after another. Last of all, the arms -and powder are brought on board, followed by the ship’s company, who -must again pass in review according to the list which was given in upon -ship’s arrival. The ship being ready, she must weigh her anchors that -instant and retire two leagues off the town towards the entrance of -the harbor, where she rides till the other ships are laden in the same -manner. When all the homeward-bound ships are joined, they proceed on -their voyage and after they have gotten to the main sea, to a pretty -considerable distance from the harbor, the Japanese ship-guard, which -never quitted them from their first arrival till then, leave them and -return home. If the wind proves contrary to the ship’s going out, a -good number of Japanese rowing boats, fastened to a rope, tow them out -by force one after another. For the emperor’s orders must be executed -in spite of wind and weather, should even afterwards all the ships run -the hazard of being wrecked. - -“All these several strict orders and regulations of the Japanese have -been made chiefly with an intent to prevent smuggling. The penalty -put upon this crime is death without hope of reprieve; but it extends -only to the person convicted and his accomplices, and not to their -families, as the punishment of some other crimes does. And yet the -Japanese are so addicted to it, that, according to computation, no less -than three hundred persons have been executed in six or seven years’ -time for smuggling with the Chinese, whose departing junks they follow -to the main sea, and buy of them at a low price what goods they could -not dispose of at their sale at Nagasaki. But these unhappy wretches -are almost as frequently caught by the Japanese boats particularly -appointed for that purpose, and delivered up to justice at Nagasaki, -which constantly proves severe and unmerciful enough.” - -Not long after Kämpfer’s arrival in Japan, eleven smugglers were -caught in one boat, and brought to Nagasaki, where they were executed -a few days after. On the 28th of December, 1691, twenty-three persons -suffered death for smuggling, ten of whom were beheaded, and the others -crucified. Among the latter were five who, upon being taken, made away -with themselves, to avoid the shame of an unavoidable public execution; -but their bodies were nevertheless preserved in salt, on purpose to be -afterwards fixed to the cross. During Kämpfer’s stay in Japan, which -was not above two years, upwards of fifty smugglers lost their lives. - -“Though there are not many instances of people executed for smuggling -with the Dutch, yet such a case occurred in 1691, when,” says Kämpfer, -“two Japanese were executed on our island for having smuggled from -a Dutchman one pound of camphor of Borneo, which was found upon the -buyer just as he endeavored to carry it off from our island. Early in -the morning on the day of execution the acting governor of Nagasaki -sent notice by the Otona to our director to keep himself with the rest -of the Dutchmen in readiness to see the criminals executed. About -an hour after came over the numerous flocks of our interpreters, -landlords, cooks and all the train of Deshima, with the sheriffs and -other officers of justice, in all to the number of at least two hundred -people. Before the company was carried a pike with a tablet, whereupon -the crime for which the criminals were to suffer was specified in large -characters. Then followed the two criminals, surrounded with bailiffs. -The first was the buyer, a young man of twenty-three years of age, -very meanly clad, upon whom the camphor was found. The second was a -well-looking man, well clad, about forty years of age, who suffered -only for having lent the other, formerly a servant of his, the money to -buy it with. - -“One of the bailiffs carried an instrument upright, formed like a -rake, but with iron hooks instead of teeth, proper to be made use of -if any of the malefactors should attempt to make his escape, because -it easily catches hold of one’s clothes. Another carried another -instrument proper to cut, to stab, and to pin one fast to a wall. Then -followed two officers of the governor’s court, with their retinues, -as commissioners to preside at this act, and at some distance came -two clerks. In this order they marched across our island to the place -designed for this execution. - -“We Dutchmen, only seven in number (our ship being already gone), -resolved not to come near. But our director advised us to go, as he had -heard that on our refusal we would be compelled by force. I followed -this advice, and went without delay to see the execution done. I found -the two criminals in the middle of the place, one behind the other, -kneeling, their shoulders uncovered, and their hands tied to their -backs. Each had his executioner standing by him, the one a tanner (for -tanners in this country do the office of executioners), the other his -best friend and comrade, whom he earnestly desired, as the custom is -in this country, by doing him this piece of service, to confirm the -friendship he had always had for him. At about twenty paces from the -criminals sat the two commissioners upon one bench, and the two clerks -upon another. A third was left empty for our director, who, however, -did not appear. The rest of the people stood promiscuously where they -pleased. I myself crowded with my Japanese servant as near one of the -malefactors as possibly we could. While they were waiting for the rest -of the Dutchmen I overheard a very extraordinary discourse between the -two criminals; for as the elderly man was grumbling between his teeth -his Kwannongyō, or short prayer to the hundred-hand idol Kwannon, the -other, to whom I stood nearest, rebuked him for it. ‘Fy!’said he. ‘For -shame, to appear thus frightened out of your wits!’‘Ah, ah!’ says the -other, ‘I only pray a little.’‘You have had time enough to pray,’ -replied the first; ‘it serves no purpose now, but to expose yourself -and to show the Dutch what a coward you are!’and this discourse so -wrought upon the other that he actually left off praying. - -“The minute that the Dutch were all assembled at the place of -execution, a signal was given, and that instant both executioners -cut off each his criminal’s head, with a short scymitar, in such a -manner that their bodies fell forward to the ground. The bodies were -wrapped up, each in a coarse rush mat, and both their heads together -in a third, and so carried away from Deshima to the ordinary place of -execution, a field not far from Nagasaki, where, it was said, young -people tried their strength and the sharpness of their scymitars upon -the dead bodies, by hacking them into small pieces. Both heads were -fixed upon a pole, according to custom, and exposed to view for seven -days. The execution being over, the company marched off from Deshima -without any order. Our director went to meet the two commissioners, and -afterwards the two clerks upon the street, as they were returning home, -thanked them for the trouble they had been at on this occasion, and -invited them to his house to smoke a pipe; but he had nothing in return -for this kind invitation but a sharp reprimand, with an admonition to -take care of his people, that no more such accidents should happen for -the future. This was the first time criminal blood was shed upon our -island.” - -The proceedings at the Chinese sales, and the articles imported and -exported by them, were according to Kämpfer, much the same as in the -case of the Dutch, except that they were not allowed to take away any -money, but merchandise only. - - - - -CHAPTER XXIX - - _Nagasaki and its Vicinity as seen by Kämpfer—Imperial Governors—Their - Officers and Palaces—Municipal System—Street Government—Mutual - Responsibility—Administration of Justice—Taxes—Government of other - Towns—Adjacent Country—The God Suwa and his Matsuri—A. D. 1690-1692._ - - -Kämpfer describes Nagasaki as situated upon an indifferent and barren -soil, amid rocks and steep hills or mountains. The harbor, which has -its head at the north of the city, where it is narrow and shallow with -a sandy bottom, soon grows broader and deeper. When about half a mile -broad and five or six fathoms deep, it turns to the southwest, and so -runs on between high land and mountains for about a mile (narrowing -again to a quarter of a mile in breadth), till it reaches an island or -rather mountain surrounded by water, which the Dutch call Pappenburg. -This, properly speaking, is the entrance of the harbor, and here -vessels lie at anchor to watch a favorable opportunity of getting -out, which would be easily done in two hours were it not for the many -banks, shoals, and cliffs, which make the passage equally difficult and -dangerous. - -“There are seldom less than fifty Japanese ships in this harbor, -besides some hundred fishing-vessels and small boats. Of foreign ships -there are seldom, some few months of the winter excepted, less than -thirty, most of which are Chinese junks. The Dutch ships never stay -longer than three months in autumn; very seldom so long. The anchorage -is about a musket-shot from the town, where ships ride at anchor upon -the soft clay, with about six fathom at high tide, and four and a half -at low water. - -“The town—situated where the harbor is broadest, and where, from the -change in its direction, it forms a nearly semi-circular shore—has the -shape of a half-moon, somewhat inclining to a triangle. Built along -the shore in a narrow valley, formed by the opening of the neighboring -mountains, it is about three quarters of a mile long and nearly as -broad, the chief and broadest street running nearly that distance -up the valley. The mountains which encompass it are not very high, -but steep, green to their tops, and of a very agreeable aspect. Just -behind the city, in going up the mountains, are many stately temples, -beautifully adorned with fine gardens and terrace-walks. Higher up -are innumerable burying-places. In the distance appear other high -mountains, fruitful and well-cultivated. In short, the whole situation -affords to the eye a most delicious and romantic view[147].” - -The town is open, as are most other towns in Japan, without either -castle, walls, or fortifications. Some bastions are built along the -harbor, as it were for defence, but they have no cannon. About two -miles from the town, seaward, just beyond the anchorage, are two -guard-houses, opposite each other, and enclosed by palisades. They are -held each by about seven hundred men, including those who do duty in -the harbor guard-boats. - -“Three fresh-water rivers come down from the neighboring mountains, and -run through the town. For the greater part of the year they have scarce -water enough to irrigate some rice-fields and to drive a few mills, -though in rainy weather they are apt to increase so as to wash away -whole houses. They are crossed by thirty-five bridges, great and small, -twenty of stone and fifteen of wood, very simple in their structure, -being made more for strength than show. - -“The city is divided into two parts. _Uchimachi_ (the inner town) -consists of twenty-six _Chō_, or streets, all very irregular, as if -built in the infancy of the city; _Sotomachi_ (or the outer town) -contains sixty-one streets, so that there are eighty-seven in all. - -“The streets of Nagasaki and other towns in Japan have borrowed their -name, _Chō_, from that of a Japanese measure of sixty fathoms (three -hundred and sixty feet); but, though generally short, they are not all -precisely of that length. These streets or divisions of streets, seldom -containing more than sixty or less than thirty houses, have gates at -each end, which are always closed at night, and often in the day, when -there is the least occasion for it. The streets of Nagasaki are neither -straight nor broad, but crooked, dirty, and narrow, leading some up and -others down hill, on account of the irregularity of the ground upon -which the town is built. Some of the steepest have staircases of stone. -They are full stocked with inhabitants, as many as ever they will hold. - -“The houses of the common people are mean, sorry buildings, small -and low, seldom above one story high. If there be two stories, the -uppermost is so low that it scarce deserves the name. The roof is -covered with shavings of fir wood [shingles?] fastened by other pieces -of wood laid across. Indeed, the whole structure is of wood, as are -most buildings throughout the empire. The walls within are wainscoted -and hung with painted and variously-colored paper[148]. The floor is -covered with mats wove of a considerable thickness, which they take -care to keep exceedingly clean and neat. The rooms are separated from -each other by movable paper screens. Seats and chairs they have none, -and only some few household goods, chiefly such as are absolutely -necessary for daily use in the kitchen and at meals. Behind every house -is a back yard, which, though never so small, yet contains always some -curious and beautiful plants, kept with a great deal of care. - -“The houses of eminent merchants and of other rich people, are of a -far better structure, commonly two stories high, and built after the -Chinese manner, with a large court-yard before them and a garden behind. - -“The palaces of the two resident governors take in a large spot of -ground, standing something higher than the rest of the town. The -buildings are very neat and handsome, and all uniform; strong gates and -well guarded lead into the court about which they are arranged. - -“Besides the governors’ palaces there are some twenty other houses in -Nagasaki belonging to the principal nobility of the island of Kiūshiū, -always occupied by some of their vassals, who take care of them, and in -which the owners lodge when they come to town. - -“The handsomest buildings belonging to townspeople are two streets -all occupied by courtesans. The girls in these establishments, which -abound throughout Japan, are purchased of their parents when very -young. The price varies in proportion to their beauty and the number of -years agreed for, which is, generally speaking, ten or twenty, more -or less. They are very commodiously lodged in handsome apartments, and -great care is taken to teach them to dance, sing, play upon musical -instruments, to write letters, and in all other respects to make them -as agreeable as possible. The older ones instruct the young ones, and -these in their turn serve the older ones as their waiting-maids. Those -who make considerable improvement, and for their beauty and agreeable -behavior are oftener sent for, to the great advantage of their masters, -are also better accommodated in clothes and lodging, all at the expense -of their lovers, who must pay so much the dearer for their favors. -The price paid to their landlord or master is from one _mas_ to two -_ichibu_ (twelve and a half cents to four dollars), for a night, -beyond which they are forbid to ask under severe penalties. One of the -sorriest must watch the house over night in a small room near the door, -free to all comers upon the payment of one mas. Others are sentenced to -keep the watch by way of punishment for their misbehavior. - -“After having served their time, if they are married, they pass among -the common people for honest women, the guilt of their past lives -being by no means laid to their charge, but to that of their parents -and relations who sold them in their infancy for so scandalous a way -of getting a livelihood, before they were able to choose a more honest -one. Besides, as they are generally well bred, that makes it less -difficult for them to get husbands. The keepers of these houses, on the -contrary, though possessed of never so plentiful estates, are forever -denied admittance into honest company.” - -Kämpfer enumerates of public buildings three large wooden ship-houses, -in which are kept three imperial junks or men-of-war, equipped and -ready for launching; a powder-magazine on a hill opposite the town, and -a city prison. There are also sixty-two temples, within and without the -town—five for the worship of the _Kami_, or ancient national gods of -Japan, seven of the Yamabushi, or mountain priests, and fifty _Tera_, -temples of four different Buddhist sects or observances, including -the three temples erected by the Chinese, as mentioned in a previous -chapter. - -“These temples are sacred not only to devotion and worship, but serve -also for recreation and diversion, being for this purpose curiously -adorned with pleasant gardens, elegant walks, and fine apartments, and -by much the best buildings of the town. The Buddhist temples are not -so much to be commended for their largeness or splendor as for their -pleasant and agreeable situations, being moreover adorned within with -fine raised altars, gilt images as big as life, lackered columns, gates -and pillars, the whole very neat and pretty rather than magnificent. - -“Those who attend the service of the Kami temples, though not collected -into monasteries, like the Buddhist clergy, but secular and married -persons, yet assume to themselves a far higher degree of holiness and -respect than they think the common bulk of secular persons deserve. -They live with their families in houses built for them in the descent -of the mountains. Their way of life, as well as their common dress -at home and abroad, is no ways different from that of the other -inhabitants, except that they do not shave their heads, but let their -hair grow, and tie it together behind. When they go to the temple they -dress in an ecclesiastical habit, with various head-dresses, according -to every one’s office and quality. They maintain themselves by the -alms and offerings given them by those who come to worship in their -temples, or at their appearance in solemn processions. - -“The ecclesiastics of the Buddhist religion have no processions nor -other public solemnities, like the Shintō clergy. They always keep -within the district of their convent, where they mind little else but -their prayers in the temple at certain stated hours. Their maintenance -arises from the fees given them for prayers to be said in their -temples, or at funerals for the relief of departed souls, as also from -voluntary and charitable contributions.” - -The gardens in and about the city and the neighboring villages -abundantly furnish it with all sorts of fruits, vegetables and roots, -with firewood, and also with some venison and poultry; but the domestic -supply of rice is insufficient, and that capital article has to be -imported from the neighboring provinces. The harbor and neighboring -coast yield plenty of fish and crabs. The rivers that run through -the town provide it with clear and sweet water, “very fit,” says -Kämpfer, “for daily drink; the sake, or rice beer, as it is brewed in -Japan, being too strong, and that in particular made at Nagasaki of a -disagreeable taste[149].” - -Except articles made of gold, silver and _Sawaas_ (?),—a mixture of -gold, silver, and copper,—for the foreign trade, manufactures at -Nagasaki are not so good as in other parts of the empire; and yet -everything is sold dearer, chiefly to foreigners. - -The inhabitants are mostly merchants, shop-keepers, tradesmen, -handicraftsmen, artificers, brewers, besides the numerous retinue of -the governors, and the people employed in the Dutch and Chinese trade, -by which, in fact, the town is mainly supported. There are many poor -people and beggars, most of them religious mendicants. - -“The town,” says Kämpfer, “is never without a great deal of noise. -In the day, victuals and other merchandise are cried up and down -the streets. Day-laborers and the seamen in the harbor encourage -one another to work with a certain sound. In the night the watchmen -and soldiers upon duty, both in the streets and harbor, show their -vigilance, and at the same time indicate the hours of the night, by -beating two pieces of wood against each other. The Chinese contribute -their share chiefly in the evening, when they burn some pieces of gilt -paper, and throw them into the sea, as an offering to their idol, or -when they carry their idol about its temple; both which they do with -beating of drums and cymbals. But all this is little compared with -the clamor and bawling of the priests and the relations of dying or -dead persons, who, either in the house where the corpse lies, or else -upon certain days sacred to the deceased’s memory, sing a _Namida_ -[Namu-amida-butsu], that is, a prayer, to their god _Amida_[150], -with a loud voice, for the relief of his soul. The like is done by -certain fraternities or societies of devout neighbors, friends, or -relations, who meet by turns in their houses, every day, in the morning -or evening, in order to sing the Namida by way of precaution for the -future relief of their own souls.” - -Nagasaki, down to the year 1688, had, like the other imperial cities, -two governors, commanding by turns; the one not in the immediate -exercise of authority being resident meanwhile at Yedo. In 1688, the -policy was adopted of having three governors; two to be always resident -at Nagasaki, to watch each other, and presiding alternately for two -months, while the third was to come in each alternate year from Yedo to -relieve the senior resident[151]. The resident governors leave their -families at Yedo as hostages for their good behavior, and, during the -time of their absence from court, are strictly prohibited, so it is -stated, to admit any woman within their palaces. The establishments -of these imperial governors, as described by Kämpfer, may probably be -taken as a specimen of the ordinary way of life with the higher order -of Japanese officials. Their salary did not exceed fifteen hundred -or two thousand _koku_ of rice (in money, the price of the article -being very variable, from seven thousand to ten thousand taels); but -the perquisites were so considerable that in a few years they might -get vast estates, did not the presents which must be made to the -emperor and the grandees of the court consume the greater part of -their profits. Out of their allowance they were obliged to maintain -an extensive retinue,—two _Karō_, or stewards of the household, ten -_Yoriki_, all noblemen of good families, who acted both as civil and -military officers, and thirty _Dōshin_, likewise military and civil -officers, but of inferior rank. - -The business of the _Yoriki_ was to assist the governor with their -advice, if required, and to execute his commands, either as military -officers or as magistrates. They had, besides their food and a new -suit annually, an allowance of one hundred taels a year; but this -hardly sufficed to enable them to keep the servants necessary to their -dignity, such as a pike-bearer, a keeper of their great sword, and a -shoe or slipper bearer, and much less to maintain a family. The Dōshin -were a sort of assistants to the Yoriki. They served as guards, and did -duty on board ship, especially in the guard-boats, either as commanding -officers or as privates. Sometimes they did the office of bailiffs or -constables, and put people under arrest, for which purpose they always -carried a halter about them. Their yearly allowance, beside their -board, did not exceed fifty taels, out of which they must maintain each -a servant.[152] The governors had still other domestics, of inferior -rank, to dress and undress them, to introduce visitors, and to bring -messages, besides numerous menial servants. - -At the entrance of their palaces, within the court-yard, a guard was -kept of four or five Dōshin. No domestic could leave the house without -taking from its place in the guard-room a square wooden tablet, which -he hung up again on his return, so that it could be known at a glance -how many and who were absent. Within the great door or main entrance -into the house, another guard was kept by some of the Yoriki, one of -whom had charge of a book, in which he entered, as the custom is at the -houses of persons of rank, the names of all who go in or out, for the -information of the master of the house, who sometimes at night examines -the entries. - -The governor’s equipage and attendance when going abroad consisted of -a led horse, a Norimono, in which he was carried, by the side of which -walked four of the gentlemen of his bedchamber, and behind it two -pike-bearers, followed by a train of Karō, Yoriki, and Dōshin, with -their own servants and attendants. - -Kämpfer thus describes the persons who held the office of governors -of Nagasaki at his arrival in Japan—“_Kawaguchi Settsu-no-Kami_ is -a handsome, well-shaped man, about fifty years of age, cunning and -malicious, and a great enemy of the Dutch (who ascribed to him the -authorship of the new arrangement for their trade), an unjust and -severe judge, but an agreeable, liberal and happy courtier, with an -income from his private estates of four thousand seven hundred koku. -_Yamaoka Tsushima-no-Kami_ had formerly been a high constable, and had -been rewarded with his present office for his services in clearing Yedo -of thieves and pickpockets. He had a private revenue of two thousand -koku. He is about sixty, short, sincere, humble, and very charitable -to the poor, but with so much of his old profession about him, that he -often orders his domestics to be put to death without mercy for very -trifling faults. _Miyagi Tonomo_, also about sixty, is a man of great -generosity and many good qualities, with a private estate of four -thousand koku of yearly revenue.” - -To watch the governors, an imperial officer, called _Daikwan_, was -appointed to reside at Nagasaki, and a like service was required of all -the chief lords of the island of Shimo. - -To secure the harbor and town these same lords were bound to march -with their vassals at the first alarm. The princes of the provinces -of Hizen and Chikuzen were obliged to furnish alternately, each for a -year, the guard at the entrance of the harbor, which was independent of -the governors. The inhabitants of the water-side streets of Nagasaki -supplied the _Funaban_ or ship-guard with its guard-boats to watch -foreign ships in the harbor. There was another fleet of boats employed -ordinarily in whale-fishing but whose business it also was to see all -foreign vessels well off the coast, to guard against and to arrest -smugglers, and to prevent any foreign vessels from touching elsewhere -than at Nagasaki. Finally, there was the spy-guard, stationed on the -top of neighboring mountains, to look out for the approach of foreign -vessels; and on one of these hills was a beacon, which, being fired, -served, in connection with other similar beacons, to telegraph alarms -to Yedo. - -Next in rank to the governors were four mayors or burgomasters, whose -office, like most others, had become hereditary, and two deputy-mayors, -principally for the affairs of the new town. They would seem to have -once been the actual chief magistrates, but their authority had been -greatly eclipsed by that of the imperial governors. There were also -four other officers annually appointed to solicit the interests of the -town’s people at the court of the governors, and to keep them informed -of the daily proceedings of the mayors, for which purpose they had a -small room at the governor’s palace, where they were always in waiting. - -There was no town-house nor other public place of assembly. When the -magistrates met on business, it was at the presiding mayor’s house. -Besides the various bodies of interpreters and others, connected with -the foreign trade, there was a particular corporation of constables and -bailiffs, consisting of about thirty families, who lived in a street by -themselves. Their office was reputed military and noble, and they had -the privilege of wearing two swords,—a privilege which the mayors and -mercantile people did not possess. - -The tanners, obliged to act also as public executioners, were held in -execration, yet they also wore two swords. They lived in a separate -village near the place of execution, placed as everywhere in Japan at -the west end of the town. - -But the most remarkable thing in the municipal government of Nagasaki -(and the same thing extended to all the other Japanese towns) was -the system of street government, mentioned in the narratives of Don -Rodrigo, Caron, and others, but which Kämpfer more particularly -describes. - -The house-owners of every street were arranged in companies, or -corporations, of five _Goningumi_, or sometimes a few more, each street -having from ten to fifteen such companies. None but house-owners were -admitted into these corporations; mere occupants were looked upon as -dependants on their landlords with no voice in the affairs of the -street, nor right to claim any share in the public money, though -they paid high rents. Each street company had one of its number for -a head, who was responsible for the conduct of his four companions, -and obliged, in certain cases at least, to share the punishment of -their crimes. The members of these corporations chose from among -themselves an _Otona_, or chief magistrate of the street. The choice -was by ballot, and the name of the person having the greatest number -was presented to the governor, with a humble petition that he might be -appointed to the office, of which the salary in Nagasaki was a ten-fold -share of the annual distribution to the inhabitants, derived from the -duties on the foreign trade. - -[Illustration: DIAL OF OLD CLOCK.] - -The duty of the Otona was to give the necessary orders in case of fire; -to have the oversight of the watch; to keep a register of the deaths, -births, marriages, arrivals, departures, &c.; to arrest criminals, -and to punish those of smaller magnitude; to compose, if he could, -all disputes among the people of his street; and generally to be -personally answerable for their good behavior. He had for assistants -three lieutenants, the heads of the corporations of house-owners, -a secretary, a treasurer, and a messenger. A guard was kept every -night, of three or more house-owners, while the street was paced by -two sentinels, walking from each gate till they met, and then back. -The hours were regularly in the daytime struck on a bell hung for -that purpose on the ascent of the mountains, and during the night the -street-watch indicated them by beating two sticks together[153]. - -The street officers were held responsible for the offences of the -house-owners; the house-owners for the offences of their lodgers, -domestics, and families; masters for servants; children for parents, -each corporation for its individual members; neighbors for each -other[154]. It was naturally a part of this system that no new -inhabitant was admitted into any street, except by consent of all the -house-owners in it, which thus became necessary to every purchase and -sale of a house. - -Every year, a list was made out by the street officers of all the -inhabitants in each street, with their religion, shortly after which -came the ceremony of _Yebumi_[155], or _figure-treading_—that is, -trampling upon the crucifix, an image of the Virgin Mary, and other -saints—a ceremony which appears to be observed, at least at Nagasaki, -down even to the present day. The images used in Kämpfer’s time were -about a foot long, cast in brass, and kept in a particular box for -that purpose. The ceremony took place in the presence of the street -officers. Each house was entered by turns, two messengers carrying the -box. The images were laid upon the bare floor, and, the list of the -household being called over, they were required, one by one, to tread -upon them. Young children, not yet able to walk, were held in their -mothers’ arms, so as to touch the images with their feet. It has been -asserted that the Dutch were obliged to submit to this ceremony; but -the fact was not so. - -To prevent smuggling, whenever the foreign ships or junks set sail the -street gates of Nagasaki were shut, and kept closed till the ships were -out of the harbor, strict searches being made, at uncertain times, on -which occasions every inhabitant of the street was obliged to report -himself. The same thing took place when criminals were searched for, -or other investigations, sometimes very frivolous ones, were made. On -these and other occasions of alarm, no one could go from one street -into another, except with a written pass, and attended by an officer; -nor could an inhabitant of Nagasaki at any time leave the city without -a similar pass and an undertaking on the part of his neighbors for his -return within a specified time. - -Accused persons were often made to confess by torture. Capital -punishments were either by beheading or crucifixion. Other -punishments—and this class was often inflicted for the misdemeanors of -others—were imprisonment, for longer or shorter periods, banishment -to certain desolate spots, and islands, and forfeiture of property -and office. Punishments were prompt and severe; yet great regard was -had to the nature of the offence, the condition of the person who -committed it, and the share of guilt to be reasonably laid to the -charge of his superiors, relations, or neighbors. The practice of -making young children suffer with their parents was possibly intended -as much in mercy to them as to aggravate the punishment of the real -offenders[156]. It is by this same motive of humanity, that the -Japanese justify their practice of exposing such infants as they have -not the means or inclination to support and educate. - -Persons sentenced to death could not be executed without a warrant -signed by the council of state at Yedo, which must likewise be -consulted in all affairs of moment, provided they admit of the delay -necessary to send a courier and receive an answer. This, however, did -not prevent the governors of Nagasaki, and other high officers, from -liberally exercising the right of life and death in the case of their -own immediate servants and retainers. All servants, indeed, were so -far at the disposal of their masters, that, if they were accidentally -killed while undergoing punishment, the master was not answerable. Yet, -in general, as in China, homicide, even in self-defence or undesigned, -must be expiated by the blood of the offender, and even his neighbors -were, in many cases, held to a certain extent responsible. - -[Illustration: EXAMINATION OF A PRISONER BY TORTURE] - -“Some will observe,” says Kämpfer, “that the Japanese are wanting in -a competent knowledge of the law. I could heartily wish, for my part, -that we Europeans knew as little of it as they, since there is such -an abuse made of a science highly useful in itself, that innocence, -instead of being relieved, is often still more oppressed. There is a -much shorter way to obtain justice in Japan, and, indeed, all over -the East;—no necessity for being at law for many years together, no -occasion for so many writings, answers, briefs, and the like. The -case is, without delay, laid before the proper court of judicature, the -parties heard, the witnesses examined, the circumstances considered, -and judgment given without loss of time. Nor is there any delay to be -apprehended from appealing, since no superior court hath the power to -mitigate the sentence pronounced in another, though inferior. And, -although it cannot be denied but that this short way of proceeding is -liable to some errors and mistakes in particular cases, yet I dare -affirm that in the main it would be found abundantly less detrimental -to the parties concerned than the tedious and expensive law-suits in -Europe.” - -Certain yearly contributions, under the name of free gifts, were -paid by all the house-owners and office-holders of Nagasaki, partly -as perquisites to the governor and other officers, and partly for -municipal purposes. So far as the house-owners were concerned, it -amounted to a regular tax, levied according to the size of the lots; -but this sort of levy was said to be unknown in other cities of the -empire, and at Nagasaki was much more than made up for by the surplus -share of the house-owners in the duty levied on the foreign trade, -which, after paying all particular services and municipal expenses, -was divided among them. The only other tax was an imperial ground-rent -on the house-lots—four mas (fifty cents), in the old town, and six mas -(seventy-five cents) in the upper town, for every _ken_ (very nearly -six English feet) of frontage, where the depth was not more than -fifteen ken. On every lot exceeding that depth the tax was double. -This is stated by Kämpfer to be the only town tax levied throughout -the empire, whether in the towns of the imperial domain, or in those -belonging to particular lords, and the city of Miyako, by a particular -privilege, was exempt even from this. - -A municipal police, similar to that of Nagasaki, was established in -all the other towns, boroughs, and villages, with this difference -only, that the magistrates, though invested with the same power, were, -perhaps, known by different names, and that their administration was, -in general, much less strict than at Nagasaki. - -The adjacent country was under the control of an imperial steward (the -same forming a part of the imperial domains), who collected the rent, -forming, with the house-tax, the entire imperial revenue. This rent -amounted to four parts in ten of the crop; whereas inferior landlords -exacted six parts in ten. Grain was delivered in kind; garden grounds, -orchards and woods, paid a compensation in money. - -We may close this account of Nagasaki with a description of the -_Matsuri_, or public spectacle exhibited on the birthday of the god -_Suwa_, the patron of the city, one of the occasions on which the Dutch -were permitted to leave the island of _Deshima_, for the purpose of -witnessing the spectacle. This festival was, and still is, celebrated -at the expense of ten or eleven streets uniting each year for that -purpose; so that every street is called upon thus to contribute once in -seven or eight years, except that in which the courtesans reside, which -must pay every year. The celebration consists in processions, plays, -dances, etc., and as something new must always be got up, at least in -the way of dress, it is attended with heavy expense. - -The temple of _Suwa_, according to Kämpfer’s description, stands not -far from the town, upon the mountain _Tutla_ (?). A fine staircase, -of two hundred stone steps, leads up to it. The temple court, somewhat -lower than the Miya itself, extends down the declivity of the mountain. -At the entry of this court, next the gate, is a long, open room, or -gallery, where plays are acted, for the diversion both of _Suwa_ and -his worshippers. This room is curiously adorned with many pictures -and carved images, placed there by devout worshippers in fulfilment -of vows made in some moment of exigency. Further off stand some small -chapels of wood, clean and neat, but without ornaments. In the same -court stand the temples of _Morisaki Gongen_, and _Sumiyoshi_, each of -whom has also his _Mikoshi_, or small eight-angular shrine, curiously -adorned, and hanging in beautiful polls, wherein their images or relics -are carried about upon festivals. Kämpfer also observed, in the same -enclosure, another small chapel, built in honor of the god and lord of -thousand legs, hung about with numbers of his clients, that is, with -legs of all sorts and sizes, given by his worshippers. - -There are several festivals sacred to _Suwa_, of which the chief is on -the seventh, eighth, and ninth days of the ninth month[157]. On the -eighth the god is diverted in his temple, at the expense of rich and -devout people, with a musical concert, performed by boys beating upon -drums and bells—the very same music made use of to appease the supreme -kami _Tenshō Daijin_, when, out of disdain and anger, she hid herself -in a cavern, and thereby deprived the world of light and sunshine[158]. - -The great festival of the ninth consists of processions through the -principal streets, and spectacles exhibited in a temporary building of -bamboo, with a thatched roof, open towards the square on which it is -erected. “The whole building,” says Kämpfer, “scarcely deserves to be -compared to one of our barns, it is so mean and simple, for it must be -purposely built according to the sorry architecture of their indigent -ancestors.” A tall fir is planted on each side of the front of this -temple, and three sides of the square are built round with benches and -scaffolds for the convenience of spectators. - -[Illustration: FESTIVAL WITH MIKOSHI] - -“Everything being ready, the Shintō clergy of the city appear in -a body, with a splendid retinue, bringing over in procession the -_Mikoshi_ of their great _Suwa_, as, also, to keep him company, that of -_Sumiyoshi_. _Morisaki Gongen_ is left at home, as there is no instance -in the history of his life and actions from which it could be inferred -that he delighted in walking and travelling. - -“The Shintō clergy, upon this occasion, style themselves -_Ōtomo_(?)—that is, the _high great retinue_—which pompous title -notwithstanding, the alms-chest is one of the principal things they -carry in the procession, and, indeed,” says Kämpfer, “to very good -purpose, for there is such a multitude of things thrown among them by -the crowds of superstitious spectators, as if they had a mind out of -mere charity to stone them. - -“When they come to the place of exhibition, the ecclesiastics seat -themselves, according to their quality, which appears in good measure -by their dress, upon three benches, built for them before the front -of the temple. The two superiors take the uppermost bench, clad in -black, with a particular head ornament, and a short staff, as a badge -of their authority. Four others, next in rank, sit upon the second -bench, dressed in white ecclesiastical gowns, with a black lackered -cap, something different from that worn by their superiors. The main -body takes possession of the third and lowermost bench, sitting -promiscuously, and all clad in white gowns, with a black lackered cap, -somewhat like those of the Jesuits. The servants and porters appointed -to carry the holy utensils of the temple, and other people who have -anything to do at this solemnity, stand next to the ecclesiastics, -bareheaded. - -“On the other side of the square, opposite to the ecclesiastics, sit -the deputies of the governors, under a tent, upon a fine mat, somewhat -raised from the ground. For magnificence’ sake, and out of respect for -this holy act, they have twenty pikes of state planted before them in -the ground. - -“The public spectacles on these occasions are a sort of plays, acted -by eight, twelve, or more persons. The subject is taken out of the -history of their gods and heroes. Their remarkable adventures, heroic -actions, and sometimes their love intrigues, put in verse, are sung -by dancing actors, whilst others play upon musical instruments. If -the subject be thought too grave and moving, there is now and then a -comic actor jumps out unawares upon the stage, to divert the audience -with his gestures and merry discourse in prose. Some of their other -plays are composed only of ballets, or dances, like the performance -of the mimic actors on the Roman stage. For the dancers do not speak, -but endeavor to express the contents of the story they are about to -represent, as naturally as possible, both by their dress and by their -gestures and actions, regulated according to the sound of musical -instruments. The chief subjects of the play, such as fountains, -bridges, gates, houses, gardens, trees, mountains, animals, and the -like, are also represented, some as big as the life, and all in general -contrived so as to be removed at pleasure, like the scenes of our -European plays[159]. - -“The actors are commonly girls, taken out of the courtesans’ houses, -and boys from those streets at whose expense the solemnity is -performed. They are all magnificently clad, in variously colored -silken gowns, suitable to the characters they are to present; and it -must be owned that, generally speaking, they act their part with an -assurance and becoming dexterity, not to be exceeded, nay, scarce to be -paralleled, by the best European actors. - -“The streets which bear the expense make their appearance in the -following order: First of all is carried a rich canopy, or else -an umbrella, made of silk, being the palladium of the street. Over -it, in the middle, is placed a shield, whereupon is writ, in large -characters, the name of the street. Next to the canopy follow the -musicians, masked, and in proper liveries. The music is both vocal -and instrumental. The instruments are chiefly flutes of different -sorts, and small drums; now and then a large drum, cymbals and bells, -are brought in among the rest. The instrumental music is so poor -and lamentable that it seems much easier to satisfy their gods than -to please a musical ear. Nor is the vocal part much preferable to -the instrumental, for although they keep time tolerably, and sing -according to some notes, yet they do it in so very slow a manner that -the music seems to be rather calculated to regulate their action, and -the motions of their body in their ballets and dances, wherein they -are very ingenious and dexterous, and little inferior to our European -dancers, excepting only that they seem to want a little more action and -swiftness in their feet. - -“The musicians are followed by the necessary machines and the whole -apparatus for the ensuing representations, the largest being carried -by laboring people, the lesser—as benches, staffs, flowers, and the -like—by the children of the inhabitants, neatly clad. Next follow -the actors themselves, and after them all the inhabitants of the -street in a body in their holiday clothes and garments of ceremony. -To make the appearance so much the greater the procession is closed -by a considerable number of people who carry stools and other things, -walking two and two. - -[Illustration: MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS: TWO STYLES OF DRUMS; A -FLUTE-PLAYER] - -“The dances and shows of each street commonly last about three quarters -of an hour, and being over, the company marches off in the same order -they came in, to make way for the appearance and shows of another -street, which is again followed by another, and so on. All the streets -strive to outdo each other in a magnificent retinue and surprising -scenes. The processions and shows begin early in the morning, and the -whole ends about noon.” - -The following were among the presentations by the different streets at -the _matsuri_ at which Kämpfer was present. - -1. “Eight young girls, clad in colored gowns, interwove with large -white flowers, with broad hats, as if to defend them from the heat of -the sun, with fans and flowers in their hands, dancing by turns. They -were from time to time relieved by a couple of old women dancing in -another dress. - -2. “A garden, with fine flowers on each side of the place where the -act was performed, a thatched house in the middle, out of which jumped -eight young girls, dressed in white and red, dancing, with fans, canes, -and flower-baskets. They were relieved by a very good actress, who -danced by herself. - -3. “Eight triumphal chariots, with oxen before them, of different -colors, the whole very naturally represented, and drawn by young boys, -well clad. Upon them stood a _Tsubaki_ [camellia] tree, in flower; -a mountain, covered with trees; a thicket of bamboos, with a tiger -lurking; a load of straw, with an entire tree, with its root and -branches; a whale, under a rock, half covered with water. Last of all, -another mountain appeared, with a real boy, magnificently clad, who -stood at the top, under an apricot-tree in full blossom. This mountain -was again drawn by boys. - -4. “Some dancers, acting between six flower-beds, which, and a green -tree, were drawn upon the place by boys. Nine other boys, in the same -dress, and armed each with two swords and a musket; a peasant, dancing. - -5. “A mountain, carried upon men’s shoulders; a fountain, with a walk -round it; a large cask, and a house, were severally set upon the place. -Then two giants, masked, with prodigious great heads representing some -Indian deities, began a dance. They were met soon after by a third, of -a still more monstrous size, who came forth out of the mountain, armed -with a great broadsword. He was followed by seven Chinese, jumping out -of the same mountain, though to all appearance quite small, and dancing -about in company with the giants. After some time spent in dances, the -great monstrous giant beat the cask to pieces, out of which came a -young boy, very handsomely clad, who, after a fine long speech, which -he delivered in a very graceful manner, danced with the giant alone. -Meanwhile, three monkeys, with roe’s heads, crept out of the fountain, -and, jumping on the walk round it, performed a dance, mimicking that of -the giant and boy. This done, every one returned to his place, and so -the scene ended. - -6. “The pompous retinue of a prince, travelling with his son, very -naturally represented by boys. - -7. “Several huge machines, accurately resembling, both in size and -color, the things they were to represent, but made of a thin substance, -so that one man could easily carry one upon his back. But, besides this -load on the back, every one of these men had a very large drum hanging -before him, which some others played upon with bells. After this manner -they crossed the stage, dancing, though not very high, because of -their load. The things which they carried were, a well, with all the -implements for extinguishing fires; a large church-bell, with the -timber work belonging to it, and a dragon wound round it for ornament’s -sake; a mountain, covered with snow, and shaped like a dragon, with an -eagle on the top; a brass gun, weighing twenty-four pounds, with all -the tackle belonging to it; a heavy load of traveller’s trunks, packed -up in twelve straw balls, according to the country fashion; a whale in -a dish; several shell fish and fruits, as big as the life, carried each -by one person.” - - - - -CHAPTER XXX - - _Kämpfer’s Two Journeys to Court—Preparations—Presents—Japanese - Attendants—Packing the Baggage and Riding on Horseback—Japanese Love - of Botany—Accoutrements—Road-Books—Norimono and Kago—A. D. 1690-1692._ - - -Mention has already been made of the custom established in Japan, that -all the governors of imperial cities and of provinces, and, indeed, -all the _Daimiō_ and _Shōmiō_—that is, nobles of the first and second -rank—should, once a year, make a journey to court; those of the first -rank to pay their respects and make presents to the emperor in person, -and those of the second rank to salute his chief ministers, assembled -in council. - -In this respect the director of the Dutch trade is placed on the -same footing with the superior nobility, and his journey to court, -accompanied by a physician, a secretary or two, and a flock of Japanese -attendants of various ranks, affords the Dutch the only opportunity -they have of knowing anything by their own personal observation, beyond -the vicinage of Nagasaki. - -[Illustration: TRANSPORTATION METHODS: A BUDDHIST PRIEST IN A NORIMONO; -ANCIENT IMPERIAL CARRIAGES; LADY IN A KAGO] - -Kämpfer made this journey twice—the first time in 1691, and again in -1692—and, notwithstanding the strict surveillance under which the Dutch -are kept, his observations were highly curious. Besides a journal of -his daily route, he gives a general summary of all that he observed, -containing a great deal of curious information, the most interesting -part of which is copied in this and the following chapters, nearly in -his own words: - -“The first thing to be done, is to look out proper presents for his -imperial majesty, for his privy councillors, and some other great -officers at Yedo, Miyako, and Ōsaka, the whole amounting, as near -as possible, to a certain sum, to assort them, and particularly to -assign to whom they are to be delivered. Afterwards they must be put -up into leather bags, which are carefully wrapped up in mats, in order -to preserve them from all accidents in so long a journey; and, for a -further security, several seals are affixed to them. - -“It is the business of the governors of Nagasaki to judge and determine -what might prove acceptable to the court. They take out of the goods -laid up in our warehouse what they think proper, and give instructions -to the departing director about such things as should be sent over from -Batavia the next year. Sometimes some of their own goods they have -been presented with by the Chinese are put in among these presents, -because by this means they can dispose of them to the best advantage, -either by obliging us to buy them at an excessive and their own price, -or by exchanging them for other goods. Now and then some uncommon -curiosities, either of nature or art, are brought over from Europe, and -other parts of the world, on purpose to be presented to the emperor; -but it often happens that they are not approved of by these rigid -censors. Thus, for instance, there were brought over, in my time, two -brass fire-engines of the newest invention, but the governors did not -think them proper to be presented to the emperor, and so returned -them to us, after they had first seen them tried, and taken a pattern -of them.[160] Another time the bird Casuar[161] was sent over from -Batavia, but likewise disliked and denied the honor of appearing before -the emperor, because they heard he was good for nothing but to devour a -large quantity of victuals. - -“These presents are placed on board a barge, three or four weeks before -our departure, and sent by water to _Shimonoseki_, a small town at the -southwestern extremity of the great island of Nippon, where they wait -our arrival by land. Formerly our ambassador, with his whole retinue, -embarked at the same time, whereby we saved a great deal of trouble -and expense we must now be at in travelling by land; but a violent -storm having once put the whole company into eminent danger, and the -voyage having been often, by reason of the contrary winds, too long -and tedious, the emperor has ordered that for the future we should go -by land. The presents for the imperial court, and other heavy baggage, -being sent before us, the rest of the time till our departure is -spent in preparations for our journey, as if we designed some great -expedition into a remote part of the world. - -“The first and most essential part consists in nominating, and giving -proper instructions to, the several officers, and the whole retinue -that is to go with us to court. The governors appoint one of their -Yoriki, to be _Bugiō_, that is, head and commander-in-chief. He is to -represent the authority of his masters, as a badge whereof he hath a -pike carried after him. A Dōshin is ordered to assist him in quality -of his deputy. Both the Yoriki and Dōshin are taken from among the -domestics of one of the governors, who stays that year at Nagasaki. -To these are added two beadles, who, as well as the Dōshin, carry, by -virtue of their office, a halter about them, to arrest and secure, at -command or wink from the Yoriki, any person guilty or suspected of any -misdemeanor. All these persons are looked upon as military men, and as -such have the privilege of wearing two swords;—all persons that are not -either noblemen by birth, or in some military employment, being by a -late imperial edict denied this privilege. - -“I have already stated that our interpreters are divided into two -companies, the upper consisting of the eight chief interpreters, and -the inferior including all the rest. The _Nemban,_ or president for -the time being, of each of these companies is appointed to attend us -in this journey. To these is now added a third, as an apprentice, whom -they take along with them to qualify him for the succession. All the -chief officers, and all other persons that are able to do it, take some -servants along with them, partly to wait upon them, partly for state. -The _Bugiō_ and the principal interpreter take as many as they please, -the other officers, each two or three, as they are able, or as their -office requires. The Dutch captain, or ambassador, may take three, and -every Dutchman of his retinue is allowed one. The interpreters commonly -recommend their favorites to us, and the more ignorant they are of the -Dutch language, the better it answers their intention. - -“I omit to mention some other persons, who, by order or by special -leave of the governors and interpreters, make the journey in company -with us, and at our expense, too, though otherwise they have no manner -of business upon our account. - -“All these future companions of our voyage have leave to make us -some friendly visits at Deshima, in order to get beforehand a little -acquainted with us. There are many among them who would willingly be -more free and open, were it not for the solemn oath they must all take -before their departure, but much more for the fear of being betrayed -by others, since, by virtue of the same oath, they are obliged all and -every one of them to have a strict and watchful eye, not only over -the Dutch, but also over the conduct of each other, particularly with -regard to the Dutch. - -“Another branch of preparations for our journey is the hiring of horses -and porters. This is the chief interpreter’s business, as keeper of -our purse, who is also appointed to take care that whatever is wanted -during the whole journey be provided for. ’Tis he, likewise, that gives -orders to keep everything in readiness to march the minute the Bugiō is -pleased to set out. - -“Two days before our departure every one must deliver his cloak, bag, -and portmantle, to proper people, to be bound up;—this not after -our European manner, but after a particular one of their own, which -deserves to be here described. - -“A plain wooden saddle, not unlike the pack-saddles of the Swedish -post-horses, is girded on the horse with a breast-leather and crupper. -Two latchets are laid upon the saddle, which hang down on both sides -of the horse, in order to their being conveniently tied about two -portmantles, which are put on each side in a due balance; for when -once tied together, they are barely laid on the horse’s back, without -any other thong or latchet to tie them faster. However, to fasten them -in some measure, a small, long box, or trunk, called by the Japanese -_Atotsuke_, is laid over both portmantles upon the horse’s back, and -tied fast to the saddle with thongs; and over the whole is spread the -traveller’s covering and bedding, which are tied fast to the _Atotsuke_ -and side trunks. The cavity between the two trunks, filled up with -some soft stuff, is the traveller’s seat, where he sits, as it were, -upon a flat table, commodiously enough, either cross-legged or with -his legs extended hanging down by the horse’s neck, as he finds it -most convenient. Particular care must be taken to sit in the middle, -and not to lean too much on either side, which would either make the -horse fall, or else the side trunks and rider. In going up and down -hills the footmen and stable grooms hold the two side trunks fast, for -fear of such an accident. The traveller mounts the horse, and alights -again, not on one side, as we Europeans do, but by the horse’s breast, -which is very troublesome for stiff legs. The horses are unsaddled and -unladen in an instant; for having taken the bed-clothes away, which -they do first of all, they need but untie a latchet or two, which they -are very dexterous at, and the whole baggage falls down at once. The -latchets, thongs, and girths, made use of for these several purposes, -are broad and strong, made of cotton, and withal very neatly worked, -with small, oblong, cylindrical pieces of wood at both ends, which are -of great use to strain the latchets, and to tie things hard. - -“The saddle is made of wood, very plain, with a cushion underneath and -a caparison behind, lying upon the horse’s back, with the traveller’s -mark, or arms, stitched upon it. Another piece of coarse cloth hangs -down on each side as a safeguard to the horse, to keep him from being -daubed with dirt. These two pieces are tied together loosely under the -horse’s belly. His head is covered with a net-work of small but strong -strings, to defend it, and particularly the eyes, from flies, which are -very troublesome. The neck, breast, and other parts are hung with small -bells. - -“The side portmantles, which are filled only with light stuff, and -sometimes only with straw, are a sort of square trunk, made of stiff -horse leather, mostly four feet long, a foot and a half broad, and as -many deep. The cover is made somewhat larger, and so deep as to cover -the lower part down to the bottom. Though they hold out rain very well, -yet for a greater security, they are wrapt up in mats, with strong -ropes tied about them; for which reason, and because it requires some -time to pack them up, they are seldom unpacked till you are come to -the journey’s end, and the things which are the most wanted upon the -road are kept in the _Atotsuke_. This is a small, thin trunk or case, -about four feet and a half in length, nine inches broad, and as many -deep. It contains one single drawer, much of the same length, breadth -and depth. It hath a little door or opening on one side, which can -be locked up, and by which you can come conveniently at the drawer, -without untying the _Atotsuke_. What things are daily wanted upon the -road must be kept in this trunk. It serves likewise to fasten the two -portmantles, or side trunks, which would otherwise require a stick. It -is made of thick, strong, gray paper, and, further to secure it against -all accidents of a long journey, strings are tied about it in form of a -net, very neatly. - -“To complete our traveller’s equipage, some other things are requisite, -which are commonly tied to the portmantles. Such are, 1. A string with -_Zeni_, a brass money with a hole in the middle, they being more -proper to buy what necessaries are wanted on the road than silver -money, which must be weighed. People that travel on horseback tie -this string behind them to one of the sashes of their seats. Foot -travellers carry it in a basket upon their back[162]. 2. A lantern, -of varnished and folded paper, with the possessor’s arms painted upon -its middle. This is carried before travellers by their footmen, upon -their shoulder, in travelling by night. It is tied behind one of the -portmantles, put up in a net or bag, which again hath the possessor’s -arms, or marks, printed upon it, as have in general the clothes and all -other movables travellers of all ranks and qualities carry along with -them upon their journeys. 3. A brush made of horse’s hairs, or black -cock feathers, to dust your seat and clothes. It is put behind your -seat, on one side, more for show than use. 4. A water-pail, which is -put on the other side of the seat, opposite to the brush, or anywhere -else. 5. Shoes, or slippers, for horses and footmen. These are twisted -of straw, with ropes likewise of straw, hanging down from them, whereby -they are tied about the horse’s feet, instead of our European iron -horse-shoes, which are not used in this country. They are soon worn -out in stony, slippery roads, and must be often changed for new ones. -For this purpose, the men that look after the horses always carry a -competent stock along with them, tied to the portmanteaus, though they -are to be met with in every village, and are offered for sale by poor -children begging the road. - -“I must beg leave to observe that, besides the several things hitherto -mentioned, which travellers usually carry along with them in their -journeys, I had for my own private use a very large Javan box, which I -had brought with me from Batavia. In this box I privately kept a large -mariner’s compass, in order to measure the directions of the roads, -mountains, and coasts; but open and exposed to everybody’s view, was -an inkhorn; and I usually filled it with plants, flowers, and branches -of trees, which I figured and described (nay, under this pretext -whatever occurred to me remarkable). Doing this, as I did it free and -unhindered, to everybody’s knowledge, I should be wrongly accused to -have done anything which might have proved disadvantageous to the -Company’s trade in this country, or to have thereby thrown any ill -suspicion upon our conduct from so jealous and circumspect a nation. -Nay, far from it, I must own that, from the very first day of our -setting out, till our return to Nagasaki, all the Japanese companions -of our journey, and particularly the Bugiō or commander-in-chief, -were extremely forward to communicate to me what uncommon plants they -met with, together with their names, characters, and uses, which they -diligently inquired into among the natives. The Japanese, a very -reasonable and sensible people, and themselves great lovers of plants, -look upon botany as a study both useful and innocent, which, pursuant -to the very dictates of reason and the law of nature, ought to be -encouraged by everybody. Thus much I know, by my own experience, that -of all the nations I saw and conversed with in my long and tedious -travels, those the least favored botanical learning who ought to have -encouraged it most. Upon my return to Nagasaki, _Tōnemon_, secretary -and chief counsellor to the governors, being at Deshima, sent for me, -and made me, by the chief interpreter, the following compliment: That -he had heard with great pleasure from our late Bugiō, how agreeably -I had spent my time, and what diversion I had taken upon our journey -in that excellent and most commendable study of botany, whereof he, -_Tōnemon_, himself was a great lover and encourager. But I must -confess, likewise, that at the beginning of our journey I took what -pains and tried what means I could to procure the friendship and -assistance of my fellow-travellers, obliging some with a submissive -humble conduct and ready assistance, as to physic and physical advice, -others with secret rewards for the very meanest services and favors. - -“A traveller must not forget to provide himself with a cloak, against -rainy weather, made of double-varnished oiled paper, and withal so very -large and wide that it covers and shelters at once man, horse, and -baggage. It seems the Japanese have learned the use of it, together -with the name _Kappa_, from the Portuguese. - -“To keep off the heat of the sun, travellers must be provided with a -large hat, which is made of split bamboos or straw, very neatly and -artfully twisted, in form of an extended sombrero, or umbrella. It is -tied under the chin with broad silk bands, lined with cotton. It is -transparent and exceedingly light, and yet, if once wet, will let no -rain come through. Not only the men wear such hats upon their journeys, -but also the women in cities and villages, at all times, and in all -weathers, and it gives them no disagreeable look. - -“The Japanese upon their journeys wear very wide breeches, tapering -towards the end, to cover the legs, and slit on both sides to put -in the ends of their large, long gowns, which would otherwise be -troublesome in walking or riding. Some wear a short coat or cloak over -the breeches. Some, instead of stockings, tie a broad ribbon around -their legs. Ordinary servants, chiefly Norimono-men and pike-bearers, -wear no breeches, and, for expedition’s sake, tuck their gowns quite up -to their belt, exposing their naked bodies, which they say they have no -reason at all to be ashamed of. - -“The Japanese of both sexes never go abroad without fans, as we -Europeans seldom do without gloves[163]. Upon their journeys they make -use of a fan which hath the roads printed upon it, and tells them how -many miles they are to travel, what inns they are to go to, and what -price victuals are at. Some, instead of such a fan, make use of a -road-book, which are offered them for sale by numbers of poor children, -begging along the road. The Dutch are not permitted, at least publicly, -to buy any of these fans, or road-books. - -“A Japanese on horseback, tucked up after this fashion, makes a very -comical figure at a distance; for, besides that they are generally -short and thick, their large hat, wide breeches and cloaks, together -with their sitting cross-legged, make them appear broader than long. -Upon the road they ride one by one. Merchants have their horses, -with the heavy baggage packed up in two or three trunks or bales, -led before them. They follow, sitting on horseback, after the manner -above described. As to the bridle, the traveller hath nothing to do -with that, the horse being led by one of his footmen, who walks at the -horse’s right side, next by the head, and together with his companions -sings some merry song or other, to divert themselves, and to animate -their horses. - -“The Japanese look upon our European way of sitting on horseback, -and holding the bridle one’s self, as warlike and properly becoming -a soldier. For this very reason they seldom or never use it in their -journeys. It is more frequent among people of quality in cities, where -they go a visiting one another. But even then the rider (who makes but -a sorry appearance when sitting after our manner) holds the bridle -merely for form, the horse being still led by one, and sometimes by -two, footmen, who walk on each side of the head, holding it by the bit. -Their saddles come nearer our German saddles than those of any Asiatic -nation. The stirrup-leathers are very short. A broad round leather -hangs down on both sides, after the fashion of the Tartars, to defend -the legs. The stirrup is made of iron, or Sowaas (?), very thick and -heavy,—not unlike the sole of a foot, and open on one side, for the -rider to get his foot loose with ease, in case of a fall,—commonly of -an exceeding neat workmanship, and inlaid with silver. The reins are -not of leather, as ours, but silk, and fastened to the bit. - -“Besides going on horseback, there is another more stately and -expensive way of travelling in this country, and that is to be carried -in _Norimono_, and _Kago_, or particular sorts of chairs or litters. -The same is usual likewise in cities. People of quality are carried -about after this manner for state, others for ease and convenience. -There is a wide difference between the litters men of quality go in, -and those of ordinary people. The former are sumptuous and magnificent, -according to every one’s rank and riches. The latter are plain and -simple. The former are commonly called Norimono, the latter Kago. The -vulgar (in all nations master of the language) have called them by two -different names, though, in fact, they are but one thing. Norimono -signifies, properly speaking, a thing to sit in; Kago, a basket. Both -sorts rise through such a variety of degrees, from the lowest to the -highest, from the plainest to the most curious, that a fine Kago is -scarce to be distinguished from a plain and simple Norimono, but by -its pole. The pole of a Kago is plain, massy, all of one piece, and -smaller than that of a Norimono, which is large, curiously adorned and -hollow. The pole of a Norimono is made up of four thin boards, neatly -joined together, in form of a wide arch, and much lighter than it -appears to be. Princes and great lords show their rank and nobility, -amongst other things, particularly by the length and largeness of the -poles of their Norimono. People who fancy themselves to be of greater -quality than they really are, are apt now and then to get the poles of -their Norimono or Kago much larger than they ought to have been. But -then, also, they are liable to be obliged by the magistrates, if they -come to know of it, to reduce them to their former size, with a severe -reprimand, if not a considerable punishment, into the bargain. This -regulation, however, doth not concern the women, for they may, if they -please, make use of larger poles than their own and their husbands’ -quality would entitle them to.” - -The Norimono itself is a small room, of an oblong square figure, big -enough for one person conveniently to sit or lie in, curiously woven -of fine, thin, split bamboos, sometimes japanned and finely painted, -with a small folding-door on each side, sometimes a small window before -and behind. Sometimes it is fitted up for the conveniency of sleeping -in it. It has at top a roof, which in rainy weather has a covering -of varnished paper. It is carried by two, four, eight, or more men, -according to the quality of the person in it, who (if he be a prince -or lord of a province) carry the pole on the palms of their hands; -otherwise, they lay it upon their shoulders. All these Norimono-men -are clad in the same livery, with the coat of arms or mark of their -masters. They are every now and then relieved by others, who in the -mean time walk by the Norimono’s side. - -[Illustration: A BRIDGE SPANNING THE RIVER ŌIGAWA; VIEW OF FUJIKAWA] - -“The Kago are not near so fine nor so well attended. They are much -of the same figure, but smaller, with a solid, square or sometimes -a round, pole, which is either fastened to the upper part of the -roof, or put through it underneath. The Kago commonly made use of for -travelling, chiefly for carrying people over mountains, are very poor -and plain, and so small, that one cannot sit in them without very great -inconveniency, bowing the head and laying the legs across. They are -not unlike a basket with a round bottom, and a flat roof, which one -reaches with his head. In such Kago we are carried over the rocks and -mountains, which are not easily to be passed on horseback. Three men -are appointed for every Kago, who, indeed, for the heaviness of their -burden, have enough to do.” - - - - -CHAPTER XXXI - - _Highways—Rivers—Fords—Ferries—Bridges—Water Part of the Journey—Coast - and Islands—Frail Structure of Japanese Vessels—Description - of them—Buildings on the Route—Proclamation Places—Places of - Execution—Tera, or Buddhist Temples—Miya, or Shintō Temples—Idols and - Amulets._ - - -“The empire of Japan,” says Kämpfer, “is divided into seven great -tracts,[164] every one of which is bounded by a highway, and, as these -tracts are subdivided into provinces, so there are particular ways -leading to and from every one of these provinces, all ending in the -great highways, as small rivers lose themselves in great ones. These -highways are so broad that two companies, though never so great, can, -without hindrance, pass by one another. That company which, according -to their way of speaking, goes up, that is, to Miyako, takes the left -side of the way, and that which comes from Miyako the right. All the -highways are divided into measured miles, which are all marked, and -begin from the great bridge at Yedo as the common centre. This bridge -is by way of preëminence, called _Nihombashi_, that is, the bridge of -Japan. By this means, a traveller, in whatever part of the empire he -be, may know at any time how many Japanese miles it is from thence to -Yedo. The miles are marked by two small hills thrown up, one on each -side of the way, opposite each other, and planted at the top with -one or more trees. At the end of every tract, province, or smaller -district, a wooden or stone pillar is set up in the highway, with -characters upon it, showing what provinces or lands they are which -here bound upon each other, and to whom they belong. Like pillars are -erected at the entry of the sideways which turn off from the great -highway, showing what province or dominion they lead to, and the -distance in leagues to the next remarkable place. The natives, as -they improve every inch of ground, plant firs and cypress-trees in -rows along the roads over the ridges of hills, mountains, and other -barren places. No firs or cypress can be cut down without leave of the -magistrate of the place, and they must always plant young ones instead -of those they cut down. - -“In our journey to court we pass along two of these chief highways, -and go by water from one to the other, so that our whole journey is -divided into three parts. We set out from Nagasaki to go by land across -the island Kiūshiū to the town of Kokura, where we arrive in five -days. From Kokura we pass the straits in small boats to Shimonoseki, a -convenient and secure harbor, about two leagues off, where we find our -barge, with the baggage, riding at anchor and waiting our arrival. The -road from Nagasaki to Kokura is called by the Japanese _Saikaidō_, that -is, the west sea way.[165] At Shimonoseki we go on board our barge for -Hyōgo, where we arrive in eight days, more or less, according to the -wind. Ōsaka, a city very famous for the extent of its commerce and the -wealth of its inhabitants, lies about thirteen Japanese water-leagues -from Hiōgo, which, on account of the shallowness of the water, we make -in small boats, leaving our barge at Hiōgo till our return. From Ōsaka -we go again by land, over the great island Nippon, as far as Yedo, the -emperor’s residence, where we arrive in about fourteen days or more. -The road from Ōsaka to Yedo is by the Japanese called Tōkaidō, that -is, the east sea or coast way. We stay at Yedo about twenty days, or -upwards; and having had an audience of his imperial majesty, and paid -our respects to some of his chief ministers and favorites, we return -to Nagasaki the same way, completing our whole journey in about three -months’ time.[166] - -“In most parts of Saikaidō, and everywhere upon Tōkaidō, between the -towns and villages, there is a straight row of firs planted on each -side of the road, which by their agreeable shade make the journey both -pleasant and convenient. The ground is kept clean and neat, convenient -ditches and outlets are contrived to carry off the rain-water, and -strong dikes are cast up to keep off that which comes down from higher -places. This makes the road at all times good and pleasant, unless it -be then raining and the ground slimy. The neighboring villages must -jointly keep them in repair, and sweep and clean them every day. -People of great quality cause the road to be swept with brooms, just -before they pass it; and there lie heaps of sand in readiness, at due -distances (brought thither some days before), to spread over the road, -in order to dry it, in case it should rain upon their arrival. The -lords of the several provinces, and the princes of the imperial blood, -in their journeys, find, at every two or three leagues’ distance, huts -of green-leaved branches erected for them, with a private apartment, -where they may step in for their pleasures or necessities. The -inspectors for repairing the highway are at no great trouble to get -people to clean them, for whatever makes the roads nasty is of some use -to the neighboring country people, so that they rather strive who shall -first carry it away. The pine-nuts, branches, and leaves, which fall -down daily from the firs, are gathered for fuel to supply the want of -wood, which is very scarce in some places. Nor doth horses’ dung lie -long upon the ground, but is soon taken up by poor country children, -and serves to manure the fields. For the same reason care is taken that -the filth of travellers be not lost, and there are in several places, -near country people’s houses, or in their fields, houses of office -built for them. Old shoes of horses and men, which are thrown away as -useless, are gathered in the same houses, burnt to ashes, and added to -the mixture. Supplies of this composition are kept in large tubs or -tuns, buried even with the ground in their villages and fields, and, -being not covered, afford full as ungrateful and putrid a smell of -radishes (which is the common food of country people) to tender noses, -as the neatness and beauty of the road is agreeable to the eyes. - -“In several parts of the country the roads go over hills and mountains, -which are sometimes so steep and high, that travellers are necessitated -to get themselves carried over them in kago, such as I have described -in the preceding chapter, because they cannot, without great difficulty -and danger, pass them on horseback. But even this part of the road, -which may be called bad in comparison to others, is green and pleasant, -for the abundance of springs of clear water, and green bushes, and -this all the year round, but particularly in the spring, when the -flower-bearing trees and shrubs being then in their full blossom, prove -an additional beauty, affording to the eye a curious view, and filling -the nose with agreeable scent. - -“Several of the rivers we are to cross over, chiefly upon Tōkaidō, -run with so impetuous a rapidity towards the sea that they will bear -no bridge nor boat, and this by reason partly of the neighboring -snow-mountains, where they arise, partly of the frequent great rains, -which swell them to such a degree as to make them overflow their banks. -These must be forded. Men, horses, and baggage, are delivered up to -the care of certain people, bred up to this business, who are well -acquainted with the bed of the river, and the places which are the most -proper for fording. These people, as they are made answerable for their -passenger’s lives, and all accidents that might befall them in the -passage, exert all their strength, care, and dexterity, to support them -with their arms against the impetuosity of the river, and the stones -rolling down from the mountains where the rivers arise. Norimono are -carried over by the same people. - -[Illustration: THE RIVER ŌI - From _Official History of Japan_] - -“The chief of these rivers is the formidable _Ōigawa_, which separates -the two provinces Tōtōmi and Suruga. The passage of this river is what -all travellers are apprehensive of, not only for its uncommon rapidity -and swiftness, but because sometimes, chiefly after rains, it swells so -high that they are necessitated to stay several days on either bank, -till the fall of the water makes it passable, or till they will venture -the passage, and desire to be set over at their own peril. The rivers -_Fuji-jedagawa_ and _Abegawa_, in the last mentioned province, are of -the like nature, but not so much dreaded. - -“There are many other shallows and rapid rivers, but because they are -not near so broad nor impetuous as those above mentioned, passengers -are ferried over them in boats, which are built after a particular -fashion proper for such a passage, with flat, thin bottoms, which will -give way, so that if they run aground, or upon some great stone, they -may easily, and without any danger, slide over it and get off again. -The chief of these are the river _Tenriū_, in the province Tōtōmi; -_Fujigawa_, in the province Suruga; _Benriū_, in the province Musashi, -and _Asukagawa_, which is particularly remarkable, for that its bed -continually alters, for which reason inconstant people are compared to -it in proverb. - -“Strong, broad bridges are laid over all other rivers which do not run -with so much rapidity, nor alter their beds. These bridges are built of -cedar, and kept in constant repair, so that they look at all times as -if they had been but lately finished. They are railed on both sides. -As one may travel all over Japan without paying any taxes or customs, -so likewise they know nothing of any money to be paid by way of a toll -for the repair of highways and bridges. Only in some places the custom -is, in winter-time to give the bridge-keeper, who is to look after the -bridge, a zeni for his trouble. - -“That part of our journey to court made by water is along the coasts -of the great island Nippon, which we have on our left, steering our -course so as to continue always in sight of land, and not above one -or two leagues off it at farthest, that in case of a storm arising it -may be in our power forthwith to put into some harbor. Coming out of -the straits of Shimonoseki, we continue for some time in sight of the -southeastern coasts of Kiūshiū. Having left these coasts, we come in -sight of those of the island Shikoku. We then make the island Awaji, -and steering between this island and the main land of the province -Izumi, we put into the harbor of Ōsaka, and so end that part of our -journey to court which must be made by sea. All these coasts are very -much frequented, not only by the princes and lords of the empire, with -their retinues, travelling to and from court, but likewise by the -merchants of the country, going from one province to another to buy and -sell, so that one may chance on some days to see upwards of a hundred -ships under sail. The coasts hereabouts are rocky and mountainous; but -many of the mountains are cultivated to their very tops; they are well -inhabited and stocked with villages, castles, and small towns. There -are very good harbors in several places, where ships put in at night -to lie at anchor, commonly upon good clean ground, in four to eight -fathoms. - -[Illustration: JAPANESE CRAFT: SAILBOATS: ROWBOATS: JUNKS] - -“In this voyage we pass innumerable small islands, particularly in the -straits between Shikoku and Nippon. They are all mountainous, and for -the most part barren and uncultivated rocks. Some few have a tolerable -good soil and sweet water. These are inhabited, and the mountains, -though never so steep, cultivated up to their tops. These mountains -(as also those of the main land of Nippon) have several rows of firs -planted for ornament’s sake along their ridges at top, which makes -them look at a distance as if they were fringed, and affords a very -curious prospect. There is hardly an island, of the inhabited ones, -but what hath a convenient harbor, with good anchoring ground, where -ships may lie safe. All Japanese pilots know this very well, and will -sometimes come to an anchor upon very slight pretences. Nor, indeed, -are they much to be blamed for an over-carefulness, or too great a -circumspection, which some would be apt to call fear and cowardice. -Their ships are not built strong enough to bear the shocks and tossings -of huge raging waves. The deck is so loose that it will let the water -run through, unless the mast hath been taken down and the ship covered, -partly with mats, partly with sails. The stem is laid quite open, and, -if the sea runs high, the waves will beat in on all sides. In short, -the whole structure is so weak that, a storm approaching, unless anchor -be forthwith cast, the sails taken in, and the mast let down, it is in -danger every moment to be shattered to pieces. - -“All the ships and boats we met with on our voyage by sea were built of -fir or cedar, both which grow in great plenty in the country. They are -of a different structure, according to the purposes and the waters for -which they are built. The pleasure-boats, made use of only for going up -and down rivers, or to cross small bays, are widely different in their -structure, according to the possessor’s fancy. Commonly they are built -for rowing. The first and lowermost deck is flat and low; another, more -lofty, with open windows, stands upon it, and this may be divided, -like their houses, by folding screens, as they please, into several -apartments. Several parts are curiously adorned with variety of flags -and other ornaments. - -“The merchant-ships which venture out at sea, though not very far from -the coasts, and serve for the transport of men and goods from one -island or province to another, deserve a more accurate description. -They are commonly eighty-four feet long and twenty-four broad, built -for sailing as well as rowing. They run tapering from the middle -towards the stern, and both ends of the keel stand out of the water -considerably. The body of the ship is not built bulging, as our -European ones; but that part which stands below the surface of the -water runs almost in a straight line towards the keel. The stern is -broad and flat, with a wide opening in the middle for the easier -management of the rudder, which reaches down almost to the bottom of -the ship, and lays open all the inside to the eye. The deck, somewhat -raised towards the stern, consists only of deal boards laid loose, -without anything to fasten them together. It rises but little above the -surface of the water, when the ship hath its full lading, and is almost -covered with a sort of a cabin, full a man’s height, only a small part -of it towards the stern being left empty to lay up the anchor and -other tackle. This cabin jets beyond the ship about two feet on each -side; and there are sliding-windows round it, which may be opened or -shut, as occasion requires. In the furthermost parts are the cabins, -or rooms for passengers, separate from each other by folding screens -and doors, with floors covered with fine neat mats. The furthermost -cabin is always reckoned the best and for this reason assigned to the -chief passenger. The roof, or upper deck, is flatfish, and made of -neat boards curiously joined together. In rainy weather the mast is -let down upon the upper deck, and the sail extended over it, affording -to the sailors and the people employed in the ship’s service shelter -and a place to sleep at night. Sometimes, and the better to defend -the upper deck, it is covered with common straw mats, which for this -purpose lie there at hand. The ship hath but one sail, made of hemp, -and very large. She hath also but one mast, standing up about a fathom -beyond her middle towards the stern. This mast, which is of the same -length with the ship, is hoisted up by pulleys, and again, when the -ship comes to an anchor, let down upon deck. The anchors are of iron, -and cables twisted of straw, and stronger than one would imagine. Ships -of this burden have commonly thirty or forty hands apiece to row them -if the wind fails. The watermen’s benches are towards the stern. They -row according to the air of a song, or other noise, which serves at -the same time to direct and regulate their work and to encourage the -rowers. They do not row after our European manner, extending their -oars straight forwards, and cutting just the surface of the water, -but let them fall down into the water almost perpendicularly, and -then lift them up again. This way of rowing not only answers all the -ends of the other, but is done with less trouble. The benches of the -rowers are raised considerably above the surface of the water. Their -oars are, besides, made in a particular manner, calculated for this -way of rowing, being not straight like our European oars, but somewhat -bent, with a movable joint in the middle, which, yielding to the -violent pressure of the water, facilitates the taking them up. The -ship’s timbers and planks are fastened together with hooks and bands -of copper. The stern is adorned with a knot of fringes made of thin, -long, black strings. Men of quality in their voyages have their cabin -hung all about with cloth, whereupon is stitched their coats of arms. -Their pike of state, as the badge of their authority, is put up upon -the stern on one side of the rudder. On the other side there is a -weather-flag for the use of the pilot. In small ships, as soon as they -come to an anchor, the rudder is hoisted up, and one end of it extended -to the shore, so that one may pass through the opening of the stern, as -through a back door, and walking over the rudder, as over a bridge, get -ashore. Thus much of the ships. I proceed now to other structures and -buildings travellers meet with in their journeys by land. - -[Illustration: A MERCHANT SHIP - From _Official History of Japan_] - -“It may be observed, in general, that the buildings of this country, -ecclesiastical or civil, public or private, being commonly low and of -wood, are by no means to be compared to ours in Europe, neither in -largeness nor magnificence. The houses of private persons never exceed -six ken, or thirty-six feet in height. Nay, ’tis but seldom they build -their houses so high, unless they design them also for warehouses. -Even the palaces of the Dairi, the secular monarch, and of the princes -and lords, are not above one story high. And although there be many -common houses, chiefly in towns, of two stories, yet the upper story, -if it deserves that name, is generally very low, unfit to be inhabited, -and good for little else but to lay up some of the least necessary -household goods, it being often without a ceiling or any other cover -but the bare roof. The reason of their building their houses so low, -is the frequency of earthquakes, which prove much more fatal to -lofty and massy buildings of stone, than to low and small houses of -wood. But if the houses of the Japanese be not so large, lofty, or so -substantially built as ours, they are on the other hand greatly to -be admired for their uncommon neatness and cleanliness, and curious -furniture. I could not help taking notice that the furniture and the -several ornaments of their apartments make a far more graceful and -handsome appearance in rooms of a small compass, than they would do -in large, lofty halls. They have none, or but few, partition walls to -divide their rooms from each other, but instead of them make use of -folding screens, made of colored or gilt paper, and laid into wooden -frames, which they can put up or remove whenever they please, and by -this means enlarge their rooms or make them narrower, as it best suits -their fancy or convenience. The floors are somewhat raised above the -level of the street, and are all made of boards, neatly covered with -fine mats[167], the borders whereof are curiously fringed, embroidered, -or otherwise neatly adorned. All mats are of the same size in all parts -of the empire, to wit, a ken, or six feet long[168], and half a ken -broad. All the lower part of the house, the staircase leading up to -the second story, if there be any, the doors, windows[169], posts and -passages, are curiously painted and varnished. The ceilings are neatly -covered with gilt or silver colored paper, embellished with flowers, -and the screens in several rooms curiously painted. In short, there is -not one corner in the whole house but looks handsome and pretty, and -this the rather since all their furniture may be bought at an easy rate. - -“I must not forget to mention, that it is very healthful to live in -these houses, and that in this particular they are far beyond ours in -Europe, because of their being built all of cedar wood or fir; and -because the windows are generally contrived so that upon opening them, -and removing the screens which separate the rooms, a free passage is -left for the air through the whole house. - -“I took notice that the roof, which is covered with planks[170], or -shingles of wood, rests upon thick, strong, heavy beams, as large -as they can get them, and that the second story is generally built -stronger and more substantial than the first. This they do by reason of -the frequent earthquakes which happen in this country, because, they -observe, that in case of a violent shock, the pressure of the upper -part of the house upon the lower, which is built much lighter, keeps -the whole from being overthrown. - -“The castles of the Japanese nobility are built, either on great -rivers, or upon hills and rising grounds. They take in a vast deal -of room, and consist commonly of three different fortresses, or -enclosures, which cover and defend, or, if possible, encompass one -another. Each enclosure is surrounded and defended by a clean, deep -ditch, and a thick, strong wall, built of stone or earth, with strong -gates. Guns they have none. The principal and innermost castle or -enclosure is called the _Honmaru_, that is, the true or chief castle. -It is the residence of the prince or lord who is in possession of it, -and as such it is distinguished from the others by a square, large, -white tower, three or four stories high, with a small roof encompassing -each story like a crown or garland. In the second enclosure, called -_Ni-no-maru_, that is, the second castle, are lodged the gentlemen of -the prince’s bedchamber, his stewards, secretaries, and other chief -officers, who are to give a constant attendance about his person. The -empty spaces are cultivated, and turned either into gardens or sown -with rice. The third and outwardmost enclosure is called _Sotogamaye_, -that is, the outwardmost defence; as, also, _Sannomaru_, that is, -the third castle. It is the abode of a numerous train of soldiers, -courtiers, domestics, and other people, everybody being permitted to -come into it. The white walls, bastions, gates, each of which hath two -or more stories built over it, and above all the beautiful tower of the -innermost castle, are extremely pleasant to behold at a distance. There -is commonly a place without the castle designed for a rendezvous and -review of troops. Hence it appears, that, considering wars are carried -on in this country without the use of great guns, these castles are -well enough defended, and of sufficient strength to hold out a long -siege. The proprietors are bound to take particular care that they be -kept in constant repair. However, if there be any part thereof going -to ruin, the same cannot be rebuilt without the knowledge and express -leave of the emperor. Much less doth the emperor suffer new ones to be -built in any part of his dominions. The castles where the prince or -lords reside are commonly seated at the extremity of some large town, -which encompasses them in the form of a half-moon[171]. - -“Most of the towns are very populous and well built. The streets are -generally speaking regular, running straight forward, and crossing -each other at right angles, as if they had been laid out at one time, -and according to one general ground-plot. The towns are not surrounded -with walls and ditches. The two chief gates, where people go in and -out, are no better than the ordinary gates which stand at the end of -every street, and are shut at night. Sometimes there is part of a wall -built contiguous to them on each side, merely for ornament’s sake. In -larger towns, where some prince resides, these two gates are a little -handsomer, and kept in better repair, and there is commonly a strong -guard mounted, all out of respect for the residing prince. The rest of -the town generally lies open to the fields, and is but seldom enclosed -even with a common hedge or ditch. In our journey to court I counted -thirty-three towns and residences of princes of the empire, some -whereof we passed through, but saw others only at a distance. Common -towns and large villages or boroughs, on our road, I computed at from -seventy-seven to eighty or upwards[172]. - -“I could not help admiring the great number of shops we met with -in all the cities, towns, and villages; whole streets being scarce -anything else but continued rows of shops on both sides, and I own, -for my part, that I could not well conceive how the whole country is -able to furnish customers enough, only to make the proprietors get a -livelihood, much less to enrich them. - -“The villages along the highways in the great island Nippon, have among -their inhabitants but few farmers, the far greater part being made up -by people who resort there to get their livelihood either by selling -some odd things to travellers, or by servile daily labor. Most of these -villages consist only of one long street, bordering on each side of -the highway, which is sometimes extended to such a length as almost to -reach the next village. - -“The houses of country people and husbandmen consist of four low walls -covered with a thatched or shingled roof. In the back part of the -house the floor is somewhat raised above the level of the street, and -there it is they place the hearth; the rest is covered with neat mats. -Behind the street door hang rows of coarse ropes made of straw, not -to hinder people from coming in or going out, but to serve instead of -a lattice-window to prevent such as are without from looking in and -observing what passes within doors. As to household goods they have -but few. Many children and great poverty is generally what they are -possessed of; and yet with some small provision of rice, plants, and -roots, they live content and happy. - -“Passing through cities and villages and other inhabited places, we -always found, upon one of the chief public streets, a small place, -encompassed with grates, for the supreme will, as the usual way of -speaking is in this country, that is, for the imperial orders and -proclamations. The lord or governor of every province publishes them -in his own name for the instruction of passengers. They are written, -article by article, in large, fair characters, upon a square table -of a foot or two in length, standing upon a post at least twelve -feet high. We saw several of these tables, as we travelled along, of -different dates and upon different subjects. The chief, largest, and -oldest contain the edict against the Roman Catholic religion, setting -forth also proper orders relating to the image-trampling inquisition, -and specifying what reward is to be given to any person or persons -that discover a Christian or a priest. The lords or governors of -provinces put up their own orders and edicts in the same place. -This is the reason why there are sometimes so many standing behind -or near one another, that it is scarce possible to see and to read -them all. Sometimes, also, they have pieces of money, in gold or -silver, stuck or nailed to them, to be given as a reward to any one -who discovers any fact, person, or criminal therein mentioned. These -grated proclamation-cases are commonly placed, in great cities, just at -the entrance, and in villages and hamlets in the middle of the chief -streets, where there is the most passing. Along the road there are some -other orders and instructions for passengers put up in the like manner, -but upon lower posts. These come from the sheriffs, surveyors of the -roads, and other inferior officers, and although the things therein -ordered or intimated be generally very trifling, yet they may involve a -transgressor or negligent observer in great troubles and expense. - -“Another remarkable thing we met with, as we travelled along, were the -places of public execution, easily known by crosses, posts, and other -remains of former executions. They commonly lie without the cities -or villages, on the west side. - -[Illustration: A DRY-GOODS SHOP] - -“In this heathen country fewer capital crimes are tried before the -courts of justice, and less criminal blood shed by the hands of public -executioners, than perhaps in any part of Christendom. So powerfully -works the fear of an inevitable, shameful death upon the minds of a -nation, otherwise so stubborn as the Japanese, and so regardless of -their lives, that nothing else but such strictness would be able to -keep them within due bounds. ’Tis true, indeed, Nagasaki cannot boast -of that scarcity of executions; for besides that this place hath been -in a manner consecrated to cruelty and blood, by being made the common -butchery of many thousand Japanese Christians, there have not been -since wanting frequent executions, particularly of those people who, -contrary to the severe imperial edict, cannot leave off carrying on a -smuggling trade with foreigners, and who alone perhaps of the whole -nation seem to be more pleased with this unlawful gain, than frightened -by the shameful punishment which they must inevitably suffer if caught -in the fact or betrayed to the governors. - -“Of all the religious buildings to be seen in this country, the Tera, -that is, the Buddhist temples, with the adjoining convents, are, -doubtless, the most remarkable, as being far superior to all others, -by their stately height, curious roofs, and numberless other beautiful -ornaments. Such as are built within cities or villages, stand commonly -on rising grounds and in the most conspicuous places. Others, which are -without, are built on the ascent of hills and mountains. All are most -sweetly seated,—a curious view of the adjacent country, a spring or -rivulet of clear water, and the neighborhood of a wood, with pleasant -walks, being necessary for the spots on which these holy structures are -to be built. - -“All these temples are built of the best cedars and firs, and adorned -within with many carved images. In the middle of the temple stands -a fine altar, with one or more gilt idols upon it, and a beautiful -candlestick, with sweet-scented candles burning before it. The whole -temple is so neatly and curiously adorned, that one would fancy himself -transported into a Roman Catholic church, did not the monstrous shape -of the idols, which are therein worshipped, evince the contrary. -The whole empire is full of these temples, and their priests are -without number. Only in and about Miyako they count three thousand -eight hundred and ninety-three temples, and thirty-seven thousand and -ninety-three Shukke, or priests, to attend them. - -“The sanctity of the Miya, or temples sacred to the gods of old -worshipped in the country, requires also that they should be built -in some lofty place, or, at least, at some distance from unclean, -common grounds. I have elsewhere observed that they are attended only -by secular persons[173]. A neat broad walk turns in from the highway -towards these temples. At the beginning of the walk is a stately and -magnificent gate, built either of stone or of wood, with a square -table, about a foot and a half high, on which the name of the god -to whom the temple is consecrated is written or engraved in golden -characters. - -“Of this magnificent entry one may justly say, _Parturiunt Montes_; -for if you come to the end of the walk, which is sometimes several -hundred paces long, instead of a pompous, magnificent building, you -find nothing but a low, mean structure of wood, often all hid amidst -trees and bushes, with one single grated window to look into it, and -within either all empty, or adorned only with a looking-glass of metal, -placed in the middle, and hung about with some bundles of straw, or -cut white paper, tied to a long string, in form of fringes, as a mark -of the purity and sanctity of the place. The most magnificent gates -stand before the temples of _Tenshō daijin_, of _Hachiman_, and of -that _Kami_, or god, whom particular places choose to worship as their -tutelar deity, who takes a more particular care to protect and defend -them[174]. - -“Other religious objects travellers meet with along the roads are the -Hotoke, or foreign idols, chiefly those of _Amida_ and _Jizō_, as also -other monstrous images and idols, which we found upon the highways in -several places, at the turning in of sideways, near bridges, convents, -temples, and other buildings. They are set up partly as an ornament -to the place, partly to remind travellers of the devotion and worship -due to the gods. For this same purpose, drawings of these idols -printed upon entire or half sheets of paper, are pasted upon the -gates of cities and villages, upon wooden posts, near bridges, upon -the proclamation-cases above described, and in several other places -upon the highway, which stand the most exposed to the traveller’s view. -Travellers, however, are not obliged to fall down before them, or to -pay them any other mark of worship and respect than they are otherwise -willing to do. - -“On the doors and houses of ordinary people (for men of quality seldom -suffer to have theirs thus disfigured) there is commonly pasted a sorry -picture of one of their Lares, or house gods, printed upon a half -sheet of paper. The most common is the black-horned _Gion_, otherwise -called _Gozutennō_,—that is, according to the literal signification -of the Chinese characters for this name, _the ox-headed prince of -heaven_,—whom they believe to have the power of keeping the family -from distempers, and other unlucky accidents, particularly from the -small-pox, which proves fatal to great numbers of their children. -Others fancy they thrive extremely well, and live happy, under the -protection of a countryman of Yezo, whose monstrous, frightful picture -they paste upon their doors, being hairy all over his body, and -carrying a large sword with both hands, which they believe he makes use -of to keep off, and, as it were, to parry, all sorts of distempers and -misfortunes endeavoring to get into the house. - -“On the fronts of new and pretty houses I have sometimes seen dragons’ -or devils’ heads, painted with a wide open mouth, large teeth, and -fiery eyes. The Chinese and other Indian nations—nay, even the -Mahometans in Arabia and Persia—have the same placed over the doors -of their houses, by the frightful aspect of this monstrous figure to -keep off, as the latter say, the envious from disturbing the peace of -families. - -“Often, also, they put a branch of the _Hanashikimi_, or anise-tree, -over their doors, which is, in like manner, believed to bring good -luck into their houses; or else liverwort, which they fancy hath -the particular virtue to keep off evil spirits; or some other -plants or branches of trees. In villages they often place their -indulgence-boxes[175], which they bring back from their pilgrimage to -Ise, over their doors, thinking, also, by this means to bring happiness -and prosperity upon their houses. Others paste long strips of paper to -their doors, which the adherents of the several religious sects and -convents are presented with by their clergy, for some small gratuity. -There are odd, unknown characters, and divers forms of prayers, writ -upon these papers, which the superstitious firmly believe to have -the infallible virtue of conjuring and keeping off all manner of -misfortunes. Many more amulets of the like nature are pasted to their -doors, against the plague, distempers, and particular misfortunes. -There is, also, one against poverty.” - - -END OF VOL. I. - -INDEX - - - Abegawa, River, i., 385. - - Acorns, Edible, ii., 142. - - _Acorus_, ii., 124. - - Actors, i., 212, 360-365; ii., 160, 161. - - Acupuncture, ii., 145, 202. - - Adams, ——, ii., 345. - - Adams, Captain Robert, i., 240. - - Adams, Thomas, i., 172. - - Adams, William, i., 169-179, 192, 199-204, 206, 207, 210, 211, 213, - 224, 225, 239, 240. - - Ainslie, Dr., ii., 208. - - “Ainu and their Folk-lore, The,” ii., 345. - - “Ainu of Japan, The,” ii., 345. - - Akechi Mitsuhide, i., 116, 117. - - _Alcea rosea_, ii., 124. - - Alcock, ——, ii., 345. - - Almeida, Louis, i., 93, 95, 96, 153, 165. - - Alphabets in use, i., 78; ii., 164. - - Alvarez, George, i., 38, 50. - - Ambassadors to the Pope, i., 103-115, 121, 122, 126, 128, 132. - - Ambergris, i., 329. - - Amboyna, Massacre of, i., 240, 241; ii., 355. - - “America in the East,” ii., 273. - - “American anchorage,” ii., 291. - - American relations with Japan. _See_ United States’ relations with Japan. - - Amida, the god and his idols, i., 399; ii., 49, 65. - - Amiot, Père, i., 7. - - “Amœnitates Exoticae,” i., 289, 315. - - _Amomum miōga_, ii., 124. - - _Anas galericulata_, ii., 135. - - Ancestor worship, ii., 188. - - Anderson, W., ii., 345. - - Angelis, Jerome de, i., 220, 265. - - Animals and birds eaten for food, i., 54, 75, 187; ii., 135; - those not eaten, ii., 253. - - Anise-tree, i., 401; ii., 126. - - Anjirō, i., 38, 39, 41, 49-54, 82, 359. - - “Annales des Voyages,” ii., 349. - - “Annals des Dairi,” ii., 89. - - “Annals des Empereurs du Japon,” i., 257, 391; ii., 108, 165. - - “Annals of the Dairi,” i., 357. - - Apples, ii., 140. - - Arai, ii., 65, 70. - - Arai Hakuseki, ii., 112. - - _Aratame_, ii., 65. - - Architecture, domestic, i., 77, 187, 218, 339, 340, 390-392, 395; ii., - 52, 63, 79, 129-131, 306, 318-322. - - “Archives of Japan,” i., 8. - - _Argonaut_, English ship, ii., 191. - - Arima, King of, i., 98, 102, 126. - - Armies and soldiery, i., 59, 215, 258. - - Armor, i., 139. - - Arms, or mark, upon clothing, etc., i., 116, 188, 371, 373; ii., 17, - 18, 285, 322. - - _Artemisia_, ii., 146. - _See also_ Wormwood. - - “Arts and Crafts of Old Japan,” ii., 345. - - _Arum dracontium_ and _esculentum_, ii., 142. - - Asakawa, ——, ii., 345. - - “Asiatic Journal,” i., 195; ii., 46, 72, 108, 254, 352. - - Aston, W. G., i., 8, 145; ii., 199, 206, 345. - - Astronomers, ii., 143, 201, 223, 251. - - Asukagawa, River, i., 385. - - “Atlas Japonensis,” i., 266. - - _Atotsuke_, i., 370, 372. - - Atsuta (Miya), ii., 69. - - Audiences with emperor and princes, i., 175, 189-191, 217; ii., 55, - 56, 60-62, 85-104, 149-153, 331-334. - - Audsley, ——, and Bowes, ——, ii., 345. - - Austerities practised by both bonzes and Jesuits, i., 71, 88. - - Autographs of travellers, i., 218. - - Awa, Provinces of, ii., 283. - - Azuchiyama, i., 103, 116. - - - Bacon, Miss, ii., 344. - - Baggage, i., 370-377. - - Baker, Edmund, i., 177. - - Baptiste, Father Pierre, i., 242. - - Barley, i., 76. - - Batchelor, John, ii., 345. - - Baths, ii., 9, 52, 134. - - Batoli, Father Daniel, i., 115. - - Bedding, ii., 5, 133, 156. - - Beechey, Captain, ii., 282. - - Beer, ii., 207. - - Beggars, ii., 23-28, 58. - - Bell in Miyako temple, ii., 105, 108. - - Benriū, River, i., 385. - - Bent, Lieut., ii., 302. - - Bettelheim, Rev. B. J., ii., 266, 267. - - Biddle, Commodore, ii., 261-265. - - Bidinger, Mr., ii., 300. - - _Bikuni_ (nuns), ii., 23, 24. - - Binding of prisoners, ii., 214, 270. - - Bird, Miss, ii., 344. - - Birds eaten for food, ii., 135. - - Biscanio, Sebastian, i., 270. - - Biwa, Lake, ii., 63, 67. - - Black, ——, ii., 345. - - Blindness, ii., 29. - - Blomhoff, Herr, ii., 245, 247. - - Blomhoff, Mme., ii., 245. - - _Blossom_, English ship, ii., 282. - - Bonin Islands, ii., 282, 292. - - Books, i., 77; ii., 118, 123, 224. - - Bōshū (Awa) Province, ii., 283. - - “Botanical Magazine” (Curtis), ii., 125. - - Botany, i., 374, 375; ii., 123, 157, 162, 253. - - Bowes, ——, and Audsley, ——, ii., 345. - - Bowmen, ii., 149. - - Bramhall, Mrs., ii., 344. - - _Brassica orientalis_, ii., 124, 137. - - _Breskens_, Dutch ship (1643), i., 262-264. - - Bridges, i., 385; ii., 50, 51, 57, 58, 67, 78, 329. - - Brixiano, Father Organtino, i., 149. - - Broadcloth, English, i., 224. - - Broughton, Captain, i., 265; ii., 191. - - Brown, Mr., ii., 302. - - Buddha, The great, ii., 108. - - Buddhism, i., 65, 70-74, 139, 275-277, 342, 343; ii., 28, 65. - - Buddhist clergy, i., 72-74, 275-277, 342, 343; ii., 65. - - Buddhist temples (_Tera_), i., 71, 275, 342, 397, 398; ii., 65, 304. - - _Buke_ (military nobility), i., 63. - - _Buku_, ii., 187. - - Bullocks, ii., 317. - _See also_ Oxen. - - Bungo, Kingdom of, i., 25-29, 34-36, 84-86, 93, 98, 102, 118-120, - 124, 125, 145. - - Burger, Dr., ii., 252. - - Burial service, Jesuit, i., 88. - - Burrows, Silas E., ii., 312-314. - - Burying-grounds, ii., 123, 296, 307, 316. - - “Bushido—The Soul of Japan,” ii., 344. - - Cabot, Sebastian, i., 167. - - Cabral, Father, i., 97, 98, 100-101. - - _Cactus ficus_, ii., 159. - - _Caladium_, ii., 142. - - Calendar, Japanese, i., 32, 357. - - California, ii., 276, 278. - - Call to arms, i., 34, 35. - - Cambodia River, ii., 354. - - _Camellia sasankwa_, ii., 125. - - Campbell, ——, i., 302; ii., 345. - - Campbell, Archibald, ii., 203. - - Camphor-tree, i., 76; ii., 46, 125, 250. - - Candles, ii., 38, 39. - - Canvas batteries, ii., 257. - - “Capital of the Tycoon, The,” ii., 345. - - _Capsicum_, ii., 124. - - “Captive of Love, A,” ii., 345. - - “Captivity in Japan,” i., 33. - - Carac of Macao, Cargo of, i., 153, 154, 269, 270. - - Card games, ii., 224. - - Caron, Francis, i., 224, 240, 243, 253-257, 260, 261, 266, 267, 273, - 343, 352, 368, 373; ii., 16, 30, 46, 65, 135, 355, 365, 366. - - Carvilho, Father Valentine, i., 227, 242. - - Cassa, Heer, ii., 207, 209. - - Castles, i., 186, 392-394; ii., 48, 54, 58, 63, 69, 80-83, 86-88. - - _Castricoom_, Dutch ship (1643), i., 262, 264, 265. - - Casuar, rare Batavian bird, i., 265, 368; ii., 53. - - Catechists, Native, i., 100, 127, 128, 231. - - Catholic Church in the East, i., 40, 41, 45-47, 65, 205, 235, 261, - 267, 277, 396. - _See also_ Missionaries _and_ Xavier, Francis. - - Cats, ii., 138, 253. - - Cavendish, Thomas, i., 167, 271. - - Cecille, Admiral, ii., 265. - - Cedar-trees, ii., 141. - - _Celastrus alatus_, ii., 124. - - Cevicos, Don Jean, i., 245, 246. - - Chamberlain, ——, ii., 345. - - Chaplin-Ayrton, Mrs., ii., 344. - - Charlevoix, Father, i., 20, 85, 101, 115, 154, 232, 246, 265, 290. - - Charms against evil spirits, ii., 323. - - Cherry-trees, ii., 10, 140. - - “Child Life in Japan,” ii., 344. - - Children, i., 259, 260, 353; ii., 41, 73, 121, 135, 211. - - China trade, i., 12, 270, 273-275, 277-281; ii., 111, 275, 276. - - “Chinese Repository,” ii., 254, 255, 258, 284. - - “Chiushingura, the Loyal League,” ii., 345. - - Chronicles, Japanese, i., 1, 64. - - _Citrus tripoliata_, ii., 142. - - Civility of Japanese, i., 287; ii., 34, 41. - - “Classical Poetry of the Japanese,” ii., 345. - - Clement, Ernest W., i., 78; ii., 343, 357, 360. - - _Cleopatra_, French frigate, ii., 265. - - Climate, ii., 162. - - Clocks, ii., 126, 251. - - Coal, ii., 311, 312. - - Cocks, Richard, i., 213, 223-225, 229, 234, 236, 239, 240; ii., 121, - 122. - - Coimbra (Portugal) University, i., 45; - Jesuit college, i., 46, 85. - - Coins and currency, i., 59, 60, 257, 272, 273, 277, 278, 322, 372; - ii., 109-111, 309-311, 337. - - “Coins of Japan, The,” ii., 310. - - Colbert, ——, i., 266, 368; ii., 355, 364. - - Colds and catarrh, ii., 134. - - Colewort, ii., 124. - - Colic, Treatment of, ii., 145. - - Collado, Father, i., 244-246. - - _Columbus_, American ship, ii., 261-265, 283. - - Company of Jesus. - _See_ Order of Jesuits _and_ Missionaries, Jesuit. - - Company’s Island, i., 124, 265. - - Compliments, i., 27. - - Concubines and courtesans, i., 260, 279, 292, 310, 340, 341, 356; - ii., 23, 30, 120, 121, 175, 249. - - Conder, ——, ii., 7. - - Contee, Mr., ii., 284. - - “Contributions towards a Knowledge of the Japanese Empire,” ii., 247. - - Converts, native, i., 84, 85, 88, 94-98, 100, 102, 103, 118-121, - 124-129, 134, 140, 141, 145, 155-158, 162-164, 195, 207, 211, 222, - 227-234, 243-248, 267, 268. - _See also_ Missionaries. - - Cook-shops, ii., 12, 13. - - Cooper, Captain, ii., 260, 261. - - Copper, i., 329; ii., 159, 202, 203. - - Corean expedition, i., 128, 140, 141, 144, 145, 151, 162; ii., 108. - - Corvailho, Father. - _Same as_ Carvilho, Father Valentine. - - Couros, Father Matthew de, i., 159. - - Cows, ii., 137. - - Craftsmen segregate, i., 187, 217. - - Credit on accounts, ii., 127. - - Crucifixion, i., 156. - - _Crusado_, i., 17. - - Cuello, Father Gaspard, i., 102, 119, 126. - - _Cupressus japonica_, ii., 141. - - _Cyprus_, English brig, ii., 254. - - - Daguerreotypes, ii., 302. - - Daibutsu Temple, ii., 106. - - Daifu-Sama. - _See_ Iyeyasu. - - _Daikoku_, i., 359. - - Dairi, or Mikado, i., 60-66; ii., 166, 167. - - Dale, Sir Thomas, i., 237, 238. - - Date Masamune, i., 204. - - Davidson, J. W., i., 302; ii., 345. - - Davis, pilot of Dutch vessel, i., 169, 177; ii., 353, 354. - - Dee-yee-no-skee, Japanese seaman, ii., 312-314. - - De Jancigny, ——, ii., 254, 274, 277, 310. - - Dening, ——, i., 150. - - Deshima, Island of, i., 248, 262, 291-294; ii., 117. - - Devereux, Captain, ii., 194. - - _Diana_, Russian sloop, ii., 212, 226-243, 324. - - “Diary of Richard Cocks,” i., 226, 267. - - Dick, Stewart, ii., 345. - - Dickins, ——, ii., 345. - - Dickson, ——, ii., 345. - - Dictionary, Japanese-Dutch, ii., 210. - - _Dioscorea Japonica_, ii., 124. - - Distance, Measures of, i., 382, 391; ii., 89. - - Dixon, ——, ii., 345. - - Doeff, Heer Hendrick, ii., 194-212, 245. - - Dogs, ii., 138, 253. - - _Dolichos polystachos_, ii., 159. - - _Dolichos soia_, ii., 159. - - Dominicans in Japanese missions. - _See_ Missionaries, Catholic, other than Jesuit. - - Dosha powder, ii., 147. - - Dōshin, or imperial soldiers, i., 257, 346; ii., 223. - - Drake, Sir Francis, i., 167; ii., 351. - - Draughts, Game of, ii., 224, 225. - - Dress, i., 105, 210-212, 276, 375, 376; ii., 55, 56, 58, 143, 154-156, - 248, 285, 331, 332. - - Dress, ease of adjustment, ii., 9, 133, 156. - - Dresser, ——, ii., 345. - - Drinking, i., 343; ii., 39, 226. - - Dutch East India Company, i., 169, 209, 238, 251-253, 261, 272, - 283-336, 366; ii., 31-41, 101, 109-111, 114-120, 122, 123, 126-129, - 136, 139, 193-209, 245, 246. - _See also_ Dutch in Japan. - - Dutch in Japan, i., 165, 167-175, 177, 179, 181-185, 191, 192, - 195-204, 206-209, 220, 221, 223, 228, 233-238, 240, 241, 251-256, - 261-267, 271-273, 277-281, 284-301; ii., 274, 275, 325. - _See also_ Dutch East India Company. - - _Dyosperos kaki_, ii., 159. - - - “Early Institutional Life of Japan,” ii., 345. - - “Early Study of Dutch in Japan, The,” ii., 210. - - Earthquakes, i., 77, 151, 391, 392; ii., 50, 85, 143, 173, 324. - - _Eclipse_, American ship, ii., 203. - - Eclipses, ii., 143, 223. - - Edicts, i., 395, 396. - - _Edmund_, English whaler, ii., 273. - - Education, i., 77, 88. - - Elephant, ii., 209, 223. - - Elgin, Lord, ii., 335. - - _Eliza_, American ship, ii., 193, 194. - - Elserak, Dutch director, i., 264. - - Embassy to Washington, ii., 335-339. - - Emperor, Castle of, ii., 80-83, 86-91, 148-153. - - Emperors, Chronology of, ii., 158, 166, 360, 361. - - Empress, ii., 91. - - English East India Company, i., 178, 219, 220, 225, 236-241, 267. - _See also_ English in the East. - - English in the East, i., 167, 169, 175, 178, 179, 207-209, 219-221, - 228, 230, 233-240, 278; ii., 246, 259, 260, 272, 273, 323, 324, 335. - _See also_ English East India Company. - - Enoshima, Island of, ii., 74. - - “Essay on the Commerce of Japan,” ii., 274. - - Everett, Hon. Edward, ii., 280. - - “Evolution of the Japanese, The,” ii., 344. - - “Examiner” (London), ii., 259. - - Executions and tortures, i., 156, 214, 246, 247, 333-335, 349, 353, - 354, 396; ii., 75. - - Eye diseases, ii., 29, 123. - - - Fans, i., 376. - - Farming class, ii., 159. - - “Fauna Japonica,” ii., 253. - - Feith, M., ii., 157. - - Fernandes, Jean, i., 52. - - Ferreyra, Father Christopher, i., 247, 248, 264. - - Ferry-boats, i., 385. - - Festivals, i., 69, 223, 224, 356-365; ii., 188, 189, 225, 226. - - “Feudal and Modern Japan,” ii., 344. - - _Figara peperita_, ii., 124. - - Figure-treading, Ceremony of, i., 298, 352, 396; ii., 128, 271. - - Fillmore, President, ii., 276-281. - - Firearms, i., 24, 25, 33; ii., 149, 224, 346-348. - - Fire-extinguishers, i., 367; ii., 52, 79, 303. - - Fire-flies, ii., 158. - - Firemen, ii., 76, 79, 200. - - Fires, i., 77; ii., 70, 71, 78, 79, 143, 173, 200, 303, 321. - - Fir-trees, ii., 141. - - Fischer, ——, i., 33. - - _Fiscus pumila_ and _erecta_, ii., 124. - - Fishermen, i., 214; ii., 213. - - Fisscher, Herr, ii., 210, 247-250. - - Fitch, Ralph, i., 269, 270; ii., 351, 352. - - “Flora Japonica” (Siebold and Zaccarini), ii., 253. - - “Flora Japonica” (Thunberg), ii., 162. - - Floris, ——, ii., 354. - - Flower-arrangements, ii., 7. - - Flute, ii., 315. - - Food, i., 54, 75, 76, 187, 216, 286, 343; ii., 12, 13, 38, 75, 98, 99, - 102-104, 126, 127, 140, 159, 215, 217, 220, 317, 318, 333, 334. - - Foot-coverings, ii., 142. - - Fords, i., 384, 385. - - Foreigners, Antipathy to, i., 214. - - Forestry regulations, i., 381. - - Formosa, i., 252-255, 262, 271, 274, 302; ii., 355. - - “Formosa under the Dutch,” i., 302; ii., 345. - - Fowls, Domestic, ii., 138. - - Foxes, i., 75; ii., 42, 43. - - Franciscans in Japanese missions. - _See_ Missionaries, Catholic, other than Jesuit. - - _Franklin_, American ship, ii., 194. - - “Free Press” (Serampore), ii., 265. - - French East India Company, i., 266. - - French in Japanese affairs, i., 266; ii., 265, 335. - - Frisius, of the Dutch East India Company, i., 265, 266. - - Froez, Father Louis, i., 95, 96, 131, 133, 141, 159, 165, 266; ii., 38. - - “Frog-in-a-well” policy, ii., 170, 171, 193. - - “From Far Formosa,” ii., 345. - - Fruits, ii., 140, 159. - - Fuchū, i., 25, 27, 35, 36. - - _Fucus saccharinus_, ii., 140. - - Fujigawa, River, i., 385; ii., 72. - - Fuji-jedagawa, River, i., 385. - - Fuji-no-Yama, ii., 72, 141, 286, 328. - - Funeral customs, ii., 183-189. - - Furniture and interiors, i., 340, 391, 392; ii., 4-8, 52, 55, 62, 130, - 131, 133, 303, 330. - - Fushimi, i., 140, 151, 215; ii., 58. - - - Gago, Balthaza, i., 87, 90, 93. - - Galvano, Antonio, i., 13, 14, 40, 41, 56. - - _Gardenia Florida_, ii., 142. - - Gardens, i., 194; ii., 10-12, 52, 82, 322. - - Gate Guard, Nagasaki, i., 312. - - “Gate of the two kings,” ii., 108. - - Gaubil, Father, i., 8. - - _Gege_ (plebeians), i., 62. - - Geisenger, Captain, 266. - - “Genji Monogatari,” ii., 345. - - Gin, ii., 206. - - Ginseng, ii., 118. - - “Glimpse at the Art of Japan, A,” ii., 345. - - “Glimpses of Unfamiliar Japan,” ii., 344. - - _Globe_, English ship, ii., 354. - - Globius (Takaro Sampei), ii., 201, 222, 223, 239, 248. - - Glyn, Commander, ii., 266-269, 271. - - Gnecchi, Father, i., 97, 103, 119, 146, 155, 159, 164. - - Goa, i., 12, 38, 41, 48; ii., 350-353. - - Godō, i., 277. - - _Goede Frouw_, Dutch ship, ii., 206. - - Go-kirai (The Tenza), i., 164. - - Golownin, Vassili, i., 21, 22, 33, 59, 66, 124, 162, 221, 265; ii., - 140, 159, 200, 208, 212-244, 246. - - Gomez, Father, i., 126. - - Gongen-Sama (Iyeyasu, _which see_), i., 230. - - Gordon, Captain, ii., 246. - - Goseman, ——, ii., 205. - - Gotō Shōzaburō, treasurer to Emperor Hashiba, i., 199, 200. - - Governors of Nagasaki, i., 347. - - Gowns presented to Company, ii., 104, 154; - to U. S. Consul, ii., 333. - - Griffis, William Elliot, i., 74; ii., 273, 324, 344. - - Gros, Baron, ii., 335. - - Grote, George, i., 275. - - Gruy, ——, ii., 345. - - “Guitar” (samisen), ii., 315. - - Gulick, Sidney, ii., 344. - - Gusman, Father Luys de, i., 115, 131. - - Gutzlaff, Mr., ii., 255. - - Gysbert (or Guysbert), Roger, i., 243, 244, 352, 354. - - - Hackluyt’s translations, i., 14, 122, 150, 152, 165, 177, 178, 270; - ii., 350, 351. - - Hagenaar, ——, i., 247, 253-255, 261, 343; ii., 355. - - Hagendorp, Heer, ii., 196. - - Hair, Manner of wearing, ii., 147, 148. - - Hakata, Island of Shimo, i., 82, 213, 214. - - Hakodate, Island of Matsumae, i., 221; ii., 191, 213, 216, 305, 306. - - Hakone pass, ii., 65, 73, 141, 328. - - Hamamatsu, ii., 70. - - Hamilton, Dr., ii., 316. - - _Hanashikimi_ (anise-tree), i., 401. - _See also_ Shikimi. - - “Handbook of Modern Japan, A,” i., 78; ii., 343, 357, 360. - - Handkerchiefs, ii., 155. - - Harada Kiyemon, i., 134, 135, 142, 148. - - Hara-kiri, i., 78, 79, 229, 260. - - Harbors, i., 386, 387. - - “Harper’s Magazine,” i., 166. - - Harris, Mrs., ii., 345. - - Harris, Townsend, ii., 325-335. - - Hartman, S., ii., 345. - - Hartshorne, Miss, ii., 344. - - Hashiba (Taikō-Sama), i., 117-121, 123, 124, 126-144, 147-151, 155, - 158-161, 193; ii., 54, 167. - - Hatch, Arthur, i., 240. - - Hawkins, Sir Richard and Sir John, i., 167. - - Hay’s (John) translations, i., 115, 132, 150, 165, 205. - - Healthfulness of houses, i., 392. - - Hearn, Lafcadio, ii., 344. - - Heating of houses, ii., 5, 6, 120, 131, 303, 321. - - Hecr, ——, ii., 346. - - Heine, Mr., ii., 302. - - Hemmi, Adams’s estate, i., 225, 240. - - Hemp, ii., 124. - - Heusken, Mr., ii., 328, 332. - - _Hibiscus manihot_, ii., 132. - - Hidetsugu (Kwambacudono), i., 140, 149. - - Hideyori, son of Taikō-Sama, i., 150, 161, 163, 197, 198, 229. - - “Hideyoshi’s Invasion of Korea,” i., 145. - - Hieizan, Mountain of, i., 98; ii., 67. - - Highways, i., 189, 216, 380-384; ii., 15, 16, 33, 123, 328, 329. - - Higo, Castle of, ii., 54. - - Hildreth, Richard, i., 10; ii., 364. - - Hiōgo, ii., 334. - - Hirado, i., 254, 261. - - Hirado, Prince of, i., 177, 184, 185, 196, 197, 210, 213. - - “His Pilgrimes” (or “His Pilgrimage”), i., 177, 178, 220, 225, 232; - ii., 354. - - “Hist. Gen. des Voyages,” i., 198. - - “Histoire de la Dynastie des Mongoux,” i., 8. - - “Histoire du Japon,” i., 20, 115, 246. - - “Histoire Général de la China,” i., 7. - - “Histoire Mythologique,” i., 357. - - “Historia de la Compagnia de Gesu,” i., 115. - - “History of Greece,” i., 275. - - “History of Japan” (Adams), ii., 345. - - “History of Japan” (Charlevoix), i., 290. - - “History of Japan” (Kämpfer), i., 289-291. - - “History of Japanese Literature,” ii., 345. - - “History of Java,” i., 272; ii., 110-112. - - “History of Plants,” ii., 125. - - “History of the Empire of Japan,” ii., 346. - - “History of the English Factory at Hirado,” i., 226. - - “History of the United States,” ii., 364. - - Hizen, Province of, i., 82, 120. - - Hoffman, assistant to Siebold, i., 8. - - Hōin-Sama. - _See_ Hirado, Prince of. - - Homicide, Punishment for, i., 354. - - “Honda the Samurai,” ii., 344. - - Horseback-riding, i., 370-377. - - Horse-shoes, i., 373. - - Horses, i., 215; ii., 138, 317. - - _Hotei_, i., 359. - - _Hotoke_, or idols, i., 399. - - Houtman, Cornelius, i., 168, 169, 177; ii., 353. - - Huish, ——, ii., 345. - - Hyōgo, Province Settsu, ii., 49. - - - “Ideals of the East, The,” ii., 345. - - Idols, i., 193, 399, 400; ii., 45, 106-108. - _See also_ Temples. - - “Illustrations of Japan,” i., 79; ii., 81, 147, 168, 174. - - Image-trampling. - _See_ Figure-treading. - - Imhoff, author of Dutch memoir, i., 272; ii., 110. - - _Imi_, ii., 186, 187. - - Incomes of princes, i., 240, 256-259. - - “Indian History,” i., 14. - - Indulgence-boxes, i., 401. - - Ingen, Buddhist priest, i., 275-277. - - Inns, i., 187, 216; ii., 2-13, 29, 36-41, 328. - - “Intercourse between the United States and Japan, The,” ii., 273. - - Interest, ii., 127. - - Interpreters, i., 302-306, 369, 370; ii., 34, 117, 164. - - Ise Temple, i., 68, 69; ii., 20, 21, 69. - - “Island of Formosa, The,” i., 302; ii., 345. - - Iyeyasu (Tokugawa Iyeyasu), i., 161-163, 175-177, 190-193, 200, 201, - 218-223, 230. - - Izu, Cape, ii., 283, 328. - - - Jacatra (Batavia), i., 237; ii., 354. - - Jancigny. - _See_ De Jancigny. - - “Japan” (De Jancigny), ii., 254, 277. - - “Japan” (Dickson), ii., 345. - - “Japan” (Reed), ii., 345. - - “Japan—An Interpretation,” ii., 344. - - “Japan and her People,” ii., 344. - - “Japan and its Art,” ii., 345. - - “Japan in Art and Industry,” ii., 345. - - “Japan in History, Folk-lore, and Art,” ii., 344. - - “Japan, its Architecture, Art, and Art Manufactures,” ii., 345. - - “Japan: presented in Sketches of the Manners and Customs of that - Realm, especially of the Town of Nagasaki,” ii., 249. - - Japan Society, London, i., 8. - - “Japanese Armour,” ii., 149. - - “Japanese Art,” ii., 345. - - “Japanese Boy, A,” ii., 344. - - “Japanese Calendars,” i., 352. - - “Japanese Costume,” ii., 154. - - “Japanese Education,” ii., 345. - - “Japanese Fairy World” (Griffis), ii., 344. - - “Japanese Fairy World, The” (Ozaki), ii., 344. - - “Japanese Fans,” i., 376. - - “Japanese Funeral Rites,” ii., 183. - - “Japanese Girls and Women,” ii., 344. - - “Japanese Heraldry,” i., 117. - - “Japanese Homes,” ii., 344. - - Japanese in America, i., 152. - - “Japanese Life in Town and Country,” ii., 344. - - “Japanese Plays,” ii., 345. - - “Japanese Rituals,” i., 66. - - Jarves, J. J., ii., 345. - - Jesuits. - _See_ Order of Jesuits. - - Jewels, ii., 332. - - Jizō, Idol of, i., 399; ii., 45. - - Jodogawa, River, ii., 50. - - Johannis Botanicus, ii., 201. - - Jones, Sir William, ii., 164. - - Jontoux, Father, ii., 118. - - “Journal of Commerce” (New York), ii., 293. - - Jūdo, i., 74, 277. - - _Jugulans nigra_, ii., 144. - - _Junrei_, ii., 22. - - - _Kago_, i., 377-379. - - Kahei, Takataya, ii., 228-243. - - Kakegawa, ii., 70. - - Kamakura image of Buddha, i., 218. - - Kamakura, Island of, ii., 74. - - _Kamban_, i., 323-325. - - Kamel, George Joseph, ii., 125. - - _Kami_, i., 66. - _See also_ Shintō. - - Kämpfer’s account of Japan, i., 8, 27, 32, 59, 64, 66, 196, 202, 225, - 240, 244, 249, 256, 257, 267, 272, 274-401; ii., 1-109, 118, 125, - 146, 159, 169, 250, 254, 300. - - Kanagawa, ii., 74, 293, 300, 303, 334. - - _Kanrin-maru_, Japanese steamer, ii., 336. - - “Keramic Art of Japan,” ii., 345. - - Kinosita, Yetaro, ii., 345. - - Kitchin, ——, ii., 345. - - _Kitō_, i., 60, 276; ii., 167. - - Kiūshiū. - _See_ Shimo. - - Klaproth, Heinrich, i., 32, 69, 181, 257, 357, 359, 391; ii., 46, 62, - 67, 72, 89, 108, 112, 165, 199. - - Knapp, A. M., ii., 344. - - Knox, Dr., ii., 112. - - Knox, G. W., ii., 344. - - Kōbō, saint and sage, ii., 147. - - Kochebecker, of the Dutch East India Company, i., 261. - - “Kojiki,” i., 359; ii., 346. - - “Kokoro,” ii., 344. - - _Koku_, i., 240. - - Kokura, capital of Buzen, ii., 48. - - Konishi Settsu-no-Kami, i., 163. - - Kōshi (Confucius), ii., 68. - - Koxinga, Chinese pirate, i., 302. - - Koya, near Miyako, i., 292. - - Kōzukeno-Suke, secretary to Emperor Hashiba, i., 199, 200. - - Kramer, Conrad, i., 252. - - Krusenstern, Captain, ii., 196, 197. - - Kublai Khan, i., 2, 4, 8-10. - - Kubō-Sama, i., 58, 61, 62, 64. - - Kuchiki Samon, ii., 163. - - Kuchinotsu, i., 94, 102. - - _Kuge_ (patricians), i., 62, 66; ii., 21. - - Kuno, Fortress of, ii., 71. - - _Kuri_, i., 300, 308. - - Kurile Islands, i., 123, 221, 265; ii., 190, 212, 213. - - Kurume, Castle of, ii., 47. - - Kuwana, Province of Owari, ii., 69. - - Kwambacudono, i., 118, 123, 140, 149, 150. - - Kwannon Temple, ii., 107. - - Kyōto (Miyako, _which see_), i., 215. - - - _Ladoga_, American whaler, ii., 266, 269. - - _Lady Pierce_, American ship, ii., 312-314. - - _Lady Rowena_, ii., 258. - - Lampacau Island, i., 19. - - Lancaster, Captain, i., 167, 177. - - “Land of the Morning, The,” ii., 345. - - Langsdorff, Attaché, ii., 197. - - Lanterns, i., 373; ii., 329. - - La Perouse, Voyage of, i., 124, 221, 265; ii., 190. - - La Salle, ii., 364. - - Lattices, ii., 91. - - _Lawrence_, American whaler, ii., 265. - - Laws, i., 78, 206, 260, 354; ii., 161, 162, 245. - - Laxman, Lieut., ii., 191, 192, 196, 219. - - Lay, ——, ii., 183. - - Leeds, ——, ii., 351, 352. - - Lepers, i., 164. - - “Letters Written by the English Residents in Japan, 1611-1623,” - i., 178, 207, 219. - - Lew Chew Islands, i., 31, 124, 181, 281; ii., 312, 355. - - Liano, Spanish gentleman, i., 142. - - Linschooten, Hugh, i., 168. - - Liverwort used as charm, i., 401. - - “Log of a Japanese Journey,” ii., 345. - - Lowell, P., ii., 344. - - Loyola, Ignatius, i., 42, 43, 90. - - “L’univers, ou Histoire et Description de tout les Peuples,” ii., 254. - - - Macartney, Lord, ii., 164. - - Mackay, ——, ii., 345. - - Maclay, A. C., ii., 345. - - Maffei, ——, i., 14, 81, 165. - - Mahay, Jacques, i., 169, 170. - - Maize, ii., 317. - - Makino Bingo-no-Kami, ii., 84. - - Malela, Father, i., 7. - - _Malva Mauritiana_, ii., 124. - - _Mamori_, ii., 179. - - Manchu dynasty, i., 274. - - _Manjū_, a cake, ii., 13, 98. - - _Mankoku_, i., 240. - - Manners, ii., 174. - _See also_ Civility of Japanese. - - “Manners and Customs of the Japanese in the Nineteenth Century,” - ii., 254. - - Manufactures, i., 77; - of Miyako, ii., 63, 64; - of Suruga, ii., 71. - - Manuscript history, ii., 168. - - Maple-trees, ii., 141. - - Maps, ii., 157, 251, 252. - - Marco Polo, i., 1-6, 13. - - _Mariner_, English ship, ii., 272, 273. - - “Marriage Ceremonies,” ii., 170, 172. - - Marriages, i., 259; ii., 174-183, 225. - - Marsden, ——, translator, i., 2, 4, 6. - - Matheson, Commander, ii., 272, 273. - - Mats, Floor, i., 391; ii., 5, 52, 89, 91, 131, 152. - - Matsumae, ii., 220, 226. - - Matsumae Island. - _See_ Matsumaye Island. - - Matsumaye (Yezo or Matsumae) Island, i., 123, 124, 220, 221, 262-265; - ii., 222. - - _Matsuri_ (public spectacle at Nagasaki), i., 296, 356-365. - - Matsuura Hoin. - _See_ Hirado, Prince of. - - “Matthew Galbraith Perry,” ii., 324. - - May, Henry, i., 178. - - McClatchie, ——, ii., 345. - - McCoy, American seaman, ii., 270, 271. - - McDonald, Ranald, American seaman, ii., 271, 272. - - Meals, ii., 39, 133. - - Measures and weights, i., 23, 59, 249, 272. - - Medhurst, Mr., ii., 210. - - Medicine and surgery, i., 26, 28, 77; ii., 68, 93, 94, 118, 122, - 145-147. - - _Melea azedarach_, ii., 125. - - Melis, Thomas, i., 169. - - “Memoir on the Trade of Japan, and the Causes of its Decline,” - i., 272; ii., 110. - - “Mémoires concernant les Chinois,” i., 7. - - “Memoirs of the Shōguns” (or Djoguns), i., 98; ii., 168. - - “Memorable Embassies of the Dutch to the Emperors of Japan,” i., 266, - 272; ii., 88. - - “Memorials of the Empire of Japan,” i., 225. - - _Mentha piperita_, ii., 124. - - _Mercator_, American whaler, ii., 260, 261. - - Merchant class, ii., 139, 174, 243, 244. - - Merchant marine of Japan, i., 180, 181. - _See also_ Trade. - - Mermaids, ii., 53. - - _Mespillus japonica_, ii., 159. - - Messengers, ii., 2. - - Meylan, G. F., ii., 248-250. - - Mimitsuka Chapel, ii., 108. - - Mindanao, Island of, i., 55, 56. - - Mines, ii., 111, 112, 250. - - “Mirror of Yedo,” i., 257. - - Mirrors, ii., 133. - - _Miseratsie_, or wall adornments, ii., 4, 6-8. - - Missionaries, Catholic, other than Jesuit, i., 147-149, 151, 152, - 155-160, 163, 164, 179, 223, 228-232, 241-248, 268. - - Missionaries, Jesuit, i., 38-41, 45-56, 60, 63-65, 67, 70-72, 81-91, - 93-98, 100-103, 116-121, 124-136, 138, 142, 143, 145-149, 151-160, - 162-164, 175, 179, 205, 222, 227-234, 241-248, 263, 264, 268, 269, - 279, 280; ii., 169, 259. - - Missionaries, Protestant, i., 147; ii., 255, 259, 266. - - _Mississippi_, American frigate, ii., 281, 282, 287, 291, 314, 315. - - Mitford, A. B. F., ii., 344. - - “Mito Yashiki,” ii., 345. - - Mitsukuri, Dr., ii., 210. - - Miya (Atsuta), ii., 69. - - _Miya_ (Shintō temples), i., 67-69, 398, 399; ii., 302. - - Miyako, i., 61, 83, 96, 97, 155, 161, 163, 164, 192, 222; ii., 58, - 62-66, 104-108, 140. - - Mongols, i., 2, 6-10. - - “Moniteur des Indes,” ii., 274. - - Monsoons, i., 316. - - Moor, Captain, ii., 228, 229, 236. - - Mōri Motonari, i., 90, 95, 103. - - _Morrison_, American brig, ii., 255-258, 284. - - Morse, E. S., ii., 344. - - _Morus papyrifira_, ii., 132. - - Mossman, ——, ii., 345. - - Mountain priests, i., 74; ii., 23-25, 72. - - Mountains, i., 386, 387; ii., 134, 255. - - Mourning, ii., 178, 185-187. - - Moxa, ii., 126, 145, 146. - - Mulberry-trees, i., 76; ii., 132. - - Munro, ——, ii., 310. - - Murakami, N., i., 226. - - Murakawn, K., i., 178. - - Murray, D., ii., 158, 344. - - Murray, Lieut., ii., 302. - - Mushrooms, ii., 159. - - Music and musicians, i., 212, 213, 357, 362; ii., 28, 315. - - - Nabores, Hieronymo de, i., 270. - - Nagasaki, i., 97, 102, 125, 128, 143, 145, 156-160, 164, 234, 235, - 244, 275, 284, 285, 291-294, 337-353, 355-365, 397. - - _Naibun_, ii., 241. - - _Namida_ (Sanscrit prayer), i., 344; ii., 27, 73. - - “Narrative of a Japanese, The,” ii., 346. - - Natural history researches, ii., 251-253. - - Nettles, ii., 124. - - “New Japan,” ii., 345. - - “New Life of Toyotomi Hideyoshi,” i., 150. - - New Moon ceremonies, ii., 316. - - New Year’s Day (European), ii., 126. - - New Year’s Day (Japanese), i., 357; ii., 127, 225, 226. - - “New York Times,” ii., 310. - - “New York Tribune,” ii., 301, 316. - - Newbury, John, ii., 351, 352. - - _Niagara_, U. S. frigate, ii., 337. - - Nicholson, Lieut., ii., 302. - - _Nihombashi_, or great bridge at Yedo, i., 380; ii., 78, 200. - - Nikkō Temple, i., 230, 253. - - Ningpo, i., 13. - - Ni-ō-mon, “gate of the two kings,” ii., 108. - - Nippon, i., 1, 27, 57, 124. - - “Nippon Ōdai Ichiran,” ii., 165. - - “Nippon, or Archives for the Description of Japan,” ii., 254. - - Nitobe, I. O., ii., 273, 344. - - Nobles, i., 240, 256-260; ii., 70, 81, 149-153. - - Nobunaga (Oda Nobunaga), i., 96-98, 102, 103, 116, 117, 139. - - Noises of the town, i., 344; ii., 189. - - Noort, Oliver, i., 169, 171. - - _Norimono_, i., 347, 377-379; ii., 327. - - _Noshi_, ii., 177. - - “Notes on the Intercourse between Japan and Siam in the Seventeenth - Century,” ii., 354. - - “Notices et Extraits des Manuscrits,” ii., 165. - - “Noto, an Unexplored Corner of Japan,” ii., 344. - - “Nouveau Journal Asiatique,” i., 181; ii., 112. - - “Nouveau Mélanges Asiatique,” ii., 146, 165. - - Nugnes Barreto, Father, i., 88-90. - - Nuyts, Peter de, i., 252-254; ii., 355. - - - Oaks, ii., 142. - - Oars, i., 389. - - Ōbaku, papal residence of Ingen, i., 276. - - Odawara, ii., 73. - - Official life at Nagasaki, i., 345-350. - - Ōgosho-Sama, i., 163. - _See also_ Iyeyasu. - - _Oharai_, or indulgence, ii., 21. - - Ōigawa, River, i., 384, 385; ii., 71. - - Ōita, i., 27. - - Okakara, ——, ii., 345. - - Okasaki, ii., 69. - - Ōmura, town and bay, ii., 45. - - Opium war, ii., 259. - - Order of Jesuits, i., 41-46, 54. - _See_ Missionaries, Jesuit. - - Orfanel, Father Fray Jacinto, i., 246. - - Oriental Translation Fund, ii., 165. - - “Oriental Travels,” Marco Polo, i., 1-6. - - “Origin of Spanish and Portuguese Rivalry in Japan, The,” i., 135. - - “Origin of the Riches of Japan,” ii., 112. - - _Oryris japonica_, ii., 142. - - Ōsaka, i., 118, 127, 155, 161, 164, 175, 195, 214, 215, 230, 382; - ii., 49-54, 324, 334. - - Ōshima, Island of, ii., 305. - - Ōtsu, town and lake, ii., 63, 67. - - Outcast Japanese, i., 249; ii., 192, 258. - - Oxen, ii., 59, 137. - - Ozaki, Miss, ii., 344. - - - Pacheco, Father, i., 245. - - Pack-horses and travellers’ equipment, i., 370-377. - - Palaces, i., 188, 189, 340; ii., 80. - _See also_ Castles _and_ Emperor, Castle of. - - Palanquins, i., 216. - - Paper, ii., 132, 133. - - Paper-hangings, i.,340, 392; ii., 52. - - Parish priests, i., 180, 229. - - Parker, Dr., ii., 255. - - “Parli, the Last of the Missionaries,” ii., 345. - - “Past and Present of Japanese Commerce, The,” ii., 345. - - Paul of the Holy Faith. - _See_ Anjirō. - - Pazio, Father Francis, i., 163. - - Pearls, ii., 45, 46. - - Pears, ii., 140. - - Peel’s Island, ii., 282. - - Pellew, Captain, ii., 204, 205. - - “Peregrinations in the East,” i., 14, 15; ii., 348-350. - - Perry, Commodore, ii., 238, 276-324. - - Persecution of Catholic missionaries, i., 119, 120, 125, 126, - 155-160, 164, 205, 222, 227-234, 240-251, 261. - - _Phaeton_, English frigate, ii., 204, 205, 208. - - _Phascolus_, ii., 124, 159. - - _Philadelphia_, U. S. steamer, ii., 336. - - Philippine Islands, i., 56, 134, 135, 152, 166. - - Physicians, i., 28, 29; ii., 68, 93, 94, 103, 144-147, 157, 172, 250. - - “Pictorial Arts of Japan, The,” ii., 345. - - Pilgrimages, i., 69; ii., 20-22, 69. - - Pillows, ii., 5, 133. - - Pilotage rates, ii., 311. - - Pilots, i., 387. - - Pinkerton’s collection, i., 261, 267. - - Pinto, Fernam Mendez, i., 14-31, 34-38, 49, 52, 84, 88, 89, 91, 92; - ii., 112, 348-350. - - _Pinus abies_, ii., 144. - - _Pinus silvestris_, ii., 142. - - _Pisum sativum_, ii., 124. - - Plane-trees, ii., 82. - - Ploughing, i., 216. - - _Plymouth_, American sloop, ii., 282. - - Police protection, i., 188, 214, 349-353, 356. - - _Pologonum_, ii., 124. - - Population, i., 186, 190, 192, 195, 257; ii., 53, 57, 65, 74. - - Portraits, i., 33. - - Portuguese in the East, i., 11-34, 36-41, 45, 48, 49, 57, 58, 64, - 71, 84, 90, 91, 102, 103, 120, 127, 134-136, 138, 139, 142, 145, - 147, 153, 154, 158, 159, 164, 166, 167, 174-176, 179, 181, 182, - 196-199, 208, 209, 221, 228, 248-251, 255, 261-265, 269-271, 278. - - Post-houses, ii., 1, 2. - - Potatoes, ii., 124, 317. - - Poverty, i., 77, 87, 395; ii., 162. - - _Powhatan_, United States ship, ii., 297, 324, 336. - - Prayers for the dead, i., 344. - - _Preble_, American ship, ii., 265-269, 271, 272. - - Precious metals, Export of, ii., 112, 113. - - Presents, i., 217, 367, 368; ii., 59, 85, 96, 97, 104, 141, 175. - - Pring, Martin, i., 237-239. - - Printing, ii., 157. - - Prisons, ii., 217, 220-222. - - Protestants in Japanese missions. - _See_ Missionaries, Protestant. - - Provinces, as found by Portuguese, i., 57, 58; - division by “Circuits, “vii., 343. - - Purcell, ——, ii., 345. - - Purchas, ——, i., 165, 177, 184, 220, 225, 232, 236, 240; ii., 349, 354. - - “Pure Shintō,” i., 66. - - - “Quarterly Review,” ii., 247. - - - Radishes, i., 286, 383; ii., 215. - - Raffles, Sir Stamford, i., 272; ii., 110-112, 195, 196, 202, 208-210. - - Rain-coats, i., 375; ii., 143. - - Rain-maker, Priestly, i., 276. - - Rank, The distinction of, i., 60. - - Rationalists. - _See_ Jūdo. - - _Rebecca_, American ship, ii., 206. - - “Recollections of Japan,” ii., 194, 195. - - Reed, ——, ii., 345. - - Regamey, ——, ii., 345. - - “Relation du Japon,” i., 224. - - “Religions of Japan, The,” i., 74; ii., 344. - - Religious sects and beliefs, i., 65-74, 138, 139, 194, 195, 207, 261, - 291; ii., 65. - - Rémusat, Abel, i., 70; ii., 146, 165, 169. - - Resanoff, Count, ii., 196-199. - - _Rhus succedanea_, ii., 125. - - _Rhus vernix_, i., 76; ii., 125. - - Rice, i., 76, 257, 343; ii., 47, 59, 136, 159. - - Riess, Dr. L., i., 178, 240. - - Rikord, Captain, ii., 226-243. - - Riordan, R., and Takayanagi, T., ii., 344. - - Rivers, i., 384, 385; ii., 50, 63. - - Road-books, i., 376; ii., 13. - - _Roanoke_, U. S. steamer, ii., 336. - - Rodriguez, Father, i., 32, 60, 63, 133, 136, 156, 158, 162, 165. - - Roofs, i., 339, 392; ii., 52, 130, 303, 306, 321. - - Rowing, Method of, i., 389. - - _Rubia cordata_, ii., 124. - - Rundall, ——, i., 225, 230, 240. - - Russian American Company, ii., 203. - - Russian relations with Japan, ii., 190-192, 196-199, 203, 212-244, 323. - - Ryōzayemon, a Russian prisoner, ii., 226-229. - - - Saddles, i., 371, 377. - - Sadono-Kami, president of Prince Hideyori’s council, i., 201. - - Saga, capital of Hizen, ii., 46, 47, 129. - - Sagami, Cape, ii., 283. - - _Saguer_, a rare tree, ii., 11. - - _Saikaidō_, i., 381. - - Sakai, i., 95, 118, 215; ii., 49. - - _Sakana_, ii., 38. - - _Sake_, i., 76, 216, 343; ii., 54, 324. - - Sakhalin, i., 123, 124, 265; ii., 212. - - Salt butter as a remedy, ii., 127. - - Salutation, Ceremony of, i., 210. - - Samisen, i., 212; ii., 315. - - Sancian Island, i., 13. - - “San Francisco Herald,” ii., 313. - - _San Jacinto_, American steamer, ii., 325. - - _San Philip_, Spanish galleon, i., 151, 152, 154, 159, 160, 180. - - Santvoort, Melichor von, i., 203, 244. - - Sao harbor, ii., 70. - - _Saramang_, English frigate, ii., 259. - - _Saratoga_, American sloop, ii., 282. - - Saris, Captain John, i., 196, 207-225, 229, 232, 343. - - Satow, ——, i., 66, 86, 135; ii., 354. - - Sawaas (or Sowas), i., 330, 344. - - Sayer, agent of English East India Company, i., 230. - - Scherer, J. A. B., ii., 344. - - Scheuchzer, Dr. I. G., i., 290. - - Schools, ii., 135. - - Science, Study of, i., 77. - - Scurvy, ii., 229. - - Sea-weeds, Edible, ii., 213. - - Segaki, ii., 26. - - Seimei, and the table of unfortunate days, ii., 41-44. - - Seminary at Goa, i., 41, 49, 55. - - Serfs, i., 59. - - Serqueyra, Father Louis (Bishop of Japan), i., 227, 242. - - Servants, i., 354; ii., 177. - - _Sesamum orientale_, ii., 125. - - Settsu-no-Kami, governor of Nagasaki, i., 347; ii., 100. - - “Seven Gods of Happiness,” i., 359. - - Shaëp, Captain, i., 263, 265. - - Shigemi, S., ii., 344. - - _Shikimi_ (anise-tree), ii., 126. - _See also Hanashikimi_. - - Shikoku Island, i., 123, 124. - _Same as_ Sikoku Island. - - Shimabara Fortress, i., 94, 248, 261. - - Shimada, ii., 71. - - Shimo, i., 27, 57, 93, 97, 98, 119, 124, 125, 145, 164, 213, 228. - - Shimoda, town and river, ii., 301, 302, 305, 316-324, 326. - - Shimonoseki, i., 368, 381; ii., 48, 49. - - Shinagawa, ii., 75, 247, 248. - - Shintō, i., 66-70, 138, 139, 342, 359, 360, 399; ii., 65. - - Shintō clergy, i., 74, 342, 359, 360, 398; ii., 65. - - Shintō temples (Miya), i., 67, 342, 399; ii., 65. - - Shiota, ii., 129. - _See also_ Shiwota. - - Ships and Harbor Guard, Nagasaki, i., 312, 348. - - Ships and boats, i., 77, 387-390; ii., 72. - - Shōgun-Sama, i., 230, 247. - - Shōguns, The, i., 58; ii., 158, 166-173. - - Shooting of birds, ii., 308. - - Shops, i., 394; ii., 11, 52, 77, 247, 319-323. - - Shotten, Timothy, i., 169. - - “Sidney Gazette,” ii., 258. - - Siebold, Dr. Philipp Franz von, i., 8, 9, 31, 33, 123, 338, 351; - ii., 43, 46, 125, 149, 237, 248, 250-254, 274, 310. - - Signs, ii., 320, 323. - - Sikoku Island, i., 57, 119. - _Same as_ Shikoku. - - Silk, i., 76, 101, 321. - - Sitting posture, ii., 133, 303. - - Sloane, Sir Hans, i., 290. - - Small-pox, i., 400. - - _Smilax China_, ii., 124. - - Smoke-holes, i., 3. - - Smoking articles, ii., 37, 38. - - Smuggling, i., 300, 314, 328, 332, 333, 353, 397; ii., 115, 116, 275. - - Soap, ii., 126. - - Soil, i., 76. - - Soldiers, ii., 223, 224. - _See also_ Armies and Soldiery. - - Solis, Jean de, i., 135, 136, 142, 143. - - Sotelo, Father Louis, i., 203-205, 245, 246. - - “Soul of the Far East, The,” ii., 344. - - Sowaas. - _See_ Sowas. - - Sowas (_or_ Sawaas), i., 330, 344, 377. - - Soy, ii., 13, 119, 159. - - Spanish in the East, i., 56, 134-136, 142, 143, 147, 148, 151-154, - 159, 160, 166, 167, 179, 180, 191, 197, 199, 202-204, 208, 209, - 221, 228, 237, 241, 261, 270, 271. - - Spex, Jacob, i., 197, 198, 202, 203, 206. - - Spinola, ——, i., 241. - - _Spirea_, ii., 142. - - Springs, ii., 46, 129. - - Spy Guard, Nagasaki, i., 312, 348. - - State’s Island, i., 124, 265. - - Sterling, Admiral, ii., 323. - - Stevens, Thomas, ii., 350, 351. - - Stewart, Captain, ii., 193-196. - - St. Michael, patron saint of Japan, i., 98. - - Stockings, ii., 143. - - Story, ——, ii., 351. - - “Story of Japan,” ii., 158, 344. - - Street-government of cities, i., 188, 349-353, 356, 361-363; - ii., 51, 80, 330. - - “Suburb of Yedo, A,” ii., 345. - - Sugar, ii., 117, 275. - - Sun-Goddess (Tenshō-daijin), i., 66, 67, 69, 224, 357-359. - - “Sunrise Stories,” ii., 344. - - Superstitions, i., 48, 74, 207, 401; ii., 68, 223. - - Suruga, i., 163, 186, 190, 217; ii., 71. - - _Susquehanna_, American frigate, ii., 282, 291, 314, 315. - - Suwa, Festivals of, i., 296, 356-365. - - Suwa, Temple of, i., 356, 357. - - Suyematsu, ——, ii., 345. - - Sweetmeats, ii., 13, 29, 331. - - Swine, ii., 138. - - Swords, i., 59, 106, 185, 210, 290, 349, 369; ii., 149, 155, 168, 243. - - - Taikō-Sama. _See_ Hashiba. - - Taikō-Sama, Castle of, i., 118; ii., 54. - - Taikō-Sama, Temple and Tomb of, i., 193. - - Takayanagi, T., and Riordan, R., ii., 344. - - “Tales of Old Japan,” ii., 344. - - Tanners, i., 334, 349. - - Tartars, i., 5-10. - - Tashima, Legend of, ii., 42. - - Taxes, i., 258, 355, 356. - - Tea, i., 76, 216; ii., 13, 14, 128, 158, 220. - - Teisuke, Murakami, ii., 221, 223, 226, 239. - - Temples, i., 67, 68, 71, 161, 193, 194, 216, 218, 222, 275, 342, - 356, 357, 397-399; ii., 59, 69, 75, 79, 104-108, 304, 307, 316. - - “Temples of Riches,” i., 275. - - Tennōji, ii., 54. - - Tenriū, River, i., 385. - - Tenshō-daijin. - _See_ Sun-Goddess. - - Tenza, The, i., 164. - - _Tera_ (Buddhist temples), i., 71, 275, 342, 397, 398; ii., 65, 304. - - Terazawa, i., 145, 146, 156. - - Theatrical representations, i., 77, 212, 213, 360-365; ii., 53, 160. - - Thevenot, ——, i., 243, 261, 265; ii., 354. - - Threshing, ii., 158. - - Thunberg, Charles Peter, i., 60, 290, 376, 391, 392; ii., 16, 114-163, - 169, 210, 213, 254. - - _Thuya dolebrata_, ii., 141. - - _Tiger_, English ship, ii., 353, 354. - - Tillage of the soil, i., 76, 381, 386, 387; ii., 134, 136-138, 317. - - Time, Division of, i., 351. - - Time-measurers, ii., 126, 251. - - Titsingh, Isaac, i., 59, 79, 98, 230, 240, 257, 276, 281, 351, 357, - 376; ii., 43, 81, 85, 112, 146, 147, 163-189. - - Tobacco culture, ii., 123. - - _Tōkaidō_, i., 382; ii., 15, 23. - - _Toko_, or cupboard, ii., 4, 7, 178. - - - _Tokowaki_, or side cupboard, ii., 5. - - Tolls, i., 385. - - “Tomb of Ears,” ii., 108. - - Tomb of Taikō-Sama, i., 193, 194. - - Torey (Stewart, Captain), ii., 196. - - Torment of the Fosse, i., 246, 247. - - Torres, Cosme de, i., 52, 54-56, 87, 91, 97. - - _Toshitoku_, i., 359. - - Towns and villages, i., 394, 395; ii., 57, 74. - - “Townsend Harris,” ii., 325. - - Toyohashi (Yoshida), ii., 70. - - Toyotomi Hideyoshi, ii., 54. - _See also_ Hashiba. - - Trade, i., 77; ii., 202, 274, 275. - - Transactions and Proceedings of the Japan Society, London, i., 376. - - Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan, i., 32, 66, 86, 117, - 135, 145, 178, 204, 226, 257, 290, 352, 359; ii., 7, 77, 112, 144, - 149, 154, 174, 183, 199, 206, 210, 315, 346, 354. - - Translations, i., 121, 122, 158, 222, 223, 280; ii., 122, 123, 164, - 165, 210, 222. - - Transportation in the interior, i., 216, 347, 371-385. - - Travellers on the highways, ii., 15-36, 41, 42, 45, 58, 329. - - Trays, ii., 333. - - Trial by torture, i., 353, 354. - - Trials, i., 78, 355; ii., 218. - - Trigault, Nicholas, i., 232. - - Tsadanil trees, ii., 57. - - _Tsubaki_, ii., 125. - - Tsuchi Yama, ii., 69. - - _Tsuitachi_, or first day of the month, ii., 58. - - Tsuni Yoshi, Emperor, ii., 85. - - Turks, i., 16. - - - Ukondono, i., 117-119, 129, 229. - - Umenoki, ii., 68. - - - “Unbeaten Tracks in Japan,” ii., 344. - - Unicorns’ horns, ii., 117, 118. - - United States’ relations with Japan, ii., 193-196, 206, 255-258, - 260-273, 276-339. - - Uraga, i., 218. - - Utensils and dishes, ii., 8. - - - _Vaccinia_, ii., 142. - - Valignani, Father Alexander, i., 100-103, 121, 126-136, 138, 143, - 162, 165; ii., 349. - - Van Braam, ——, ii., 164. - - _Vandalia_, ii., 293. - - Van Linschoten, John Huigen, ii., 351, 352. - - Van Sturlen, director of the Company, ii., 250. - - Varnish-tree, i., 76; ii., 125. - - Vasco da Gama, i., 11. - - Vault, for fire protection, ii., 52. - - Vaz, Alvares, i., 49, 50. - - Vega, Lopo de, Spanish poet, i., 231. - - Vegetables, i., 76; ii., 124, 159, 317. - - Verhagen’s fleet (Dutch), i., 169-177. - - Verhœven fleet (Dutch), i., 182, 196, 198. - - _Viburna_, ii., 142. - - _Vicia faba_, ii., 124. - - Vilela, Father Gaspard, i., 89, 94, 95, 97, 133, 165; ii., 189. - - _Vincennes_, American frigate, ii., 261-265, 283. - - Vivero, Don Rodrigo de, governor of Manila, i., 180, 185-261, 265, - 266; ii., 118, 355. - - Volcanoes, ii., 46, 170, 173, 305. - - “Voyage around the World, A,” ii., 203. - - “Voyages au Nord,” i., 250, 254, 261, 265, 266; ii., 118, 355. - - “Voyages Curieuse,” i., 261. - - “Voyages des Indes,” i., 243, 252, 254, 261; ii., 355. - - - Waardenaar, Heer, ii., 207, 208. - - Wada Iga-no-kami, i., 96, 97. - - Wadenaar, Heer, ii., 195. - - Waganaar, of the Dutch East India Company, i., 265, 266. - - Walnuts, ii., 144. - - Warm drinks, i., 216. - - Water-clocks, ii., 251. - - Water supply, i., 293, 343; ii., 54. - - Weapons, ii., 149. - - Webster, Daniel, ii., 276-281. - - Weddell, Admiral, i., 255. - - “Wee Ones of Japan, The,” 344. - - Weights and measures, i., 23, 59, 249, 272. - - Whale fishery, i., 255. - - Wheat, i., 76, 216. - - Wheeled vehicles, ii., 137, 138. - - Whiskey, ii., 206. - - Whiting, Lieut., ii., 302. - - Whitney, Dr., ii., 144. - - Williams, S. W., ii., 255, 258, 284, 310, 318-323. - - Windows, i., 391; ii., 4, 130, 131, 322. - - Wine, ii., 206. - - Wittert, Admiral, i., 197. - - Women, i., 98, 120, 127, 149, 161, 211, 212, 214, 243, 259, 260, 279, - 292, 340, 341, 345, 361; ii., 23, 24, 29, 30, 47, 58, 70, 91, 96, - 97, 120-122, 127, 153-156, 161, 167, 169, 174-183, 211, 225, - 231-233, 242, 249, 304, 315, 329, 330. - - Wormwood, ii., 125, 146. - - Written language, i., 77, 78. - - - Xavier, Francis, i., 38, 39, 41-43, 46-55, 64, 71, 72, 81-88, 98; - ii., 353. - - - Yakushi, patron of physicians, ii., 68. - - Yamabu. - _See_ Yamabushi. - - _Yamabushi_, or mountain priests, i., 74; ii., 23-25, 72. - - Yamaguchi, capital of Nagato, i., 82, 89, 90, 96. - - Yams, ii., 124. - - Yebisu, patron of fishermen, i., 359. - - _Yebumi_ (figure-treading, _which see_), i., 352. - - Yedo, i., 163, 186, 187, 218, 230, 265, 380; ii., 76-83, 324, 326, 330. - - “Yedo Kagami” (“Mirror of Yedo”), i., 257. - - Yezo Island. - _See_ Matsumaye Island. - - Yodo, ii., 50, 57. - - Yokkaichi, ii., 69. - - Yokohama. - _See_ Kanagawa. - - Yoritomo, Prince, ii., 28-30. - - Yoshida, ii., 70. - - Yoshimune, i., 119, 120, 125, 127, 144, 145. - - “Young Japan” (Black), ii., 345. - - “Young Japan” (Scherer), ii., 344. - - - Zelandia, Fort, in Formosa, i., 262, 302. - - _Zeni_, i., 372, 373; ii., 309. - - Zipangu, i., 1, 3-6, 14. - - - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[1] Omitted in this edition.—EDR. - -[2] Omitted in this edition.—EDR. - -[3] The true distance is about five hundred miles; but, possibly, by -miles Marco Polo may have intended Chinese _li_, of which there are -nearly three in our mile. - -[4] A name applied to part of China, south of the Hoang-ho, held by the -Sung Dynasty till A. D. 1276.—K. M. - -[5] Marsden, the English translator and annotator of Marco Polo, -supposes that _Zaitun_ was the modern _Amoy_, and _Kinsai_ either -_Ningpo_ or _Chusan_. The Chinese annalists, on the other hand, seem -to make the expedition start from Corea, which is much more probable, -as that province is separated from Japan by a strait of only about a -hundred miles in breadth. It was by this Corean strait that, three -hundred years later, the Japanese retorted this invasion. - -[6] Marsden remarks upon this date as evidently wrong. Indeed, it is -given quite differently in different early editions of the travels. -Marsden thinks it should be 1281. This is the date assigned to the -invasion by the Chinese books. The older Japanese annals place it in -1284. In the chapter of Marco Polo which follows the one above quoted, -and which is mainly devoted to the islands of southeastern Asia, he -seems to ascribe to the Japanese the custom of eating their prisoners -of war—a mistake which, as his English translator and commentator -observes, might easily arise from transferring to them what he had -heard of the savage inhabitants of some of the more southern islands. - -The Mongol invasion took place in the fourth year of Kōan [A. D. -1281].—K. M. - -[7] As this chronicle, which is the oldest Japanese history, is -stated to have been originally published A. D. 720, it must be from -a continuation of it that Siebold, or rather his assistant, Hoffman, -translates. - -[A translation by W. G. Aston is published by the Japan Society, -London.—EDR.] - -[8] This is the equivalent, it is to be supposed, of the Japanese date -mentioned in the chronicle. - -[9] Hildreth is here too skeptical. All the events mentioned in the -text really took place between A. D. 1268 and 1281.—K. M. - -[10] Galvano’s book in the translation, published by Hackluyt, in 1601, -may be found in the supplement to Hackluyt’s collection of voyages, -London, 1811. The original work was printed by the pious care of -Francis de Sousa Tauares, to whom Galvano left it, on his death-bed. - -[11] See Appendix, Note D. - -[12] A Portuguese coin, as corresponding to which in value the Spanish -translator of Pinto gives ducats, which, of silver, were about equal to -a dollar of our money. - -[13] This Portuguese colony was of no long continuance. It was soon -broken up by the Chinese, as Pinto intimates, through the folly of the -Portuguese residents. - -[14] It is difficult to understand by what mistake Charlevoix, in his -“Histoire du Japan,” ascribes this discovery to the same year, 1542, as -that of the three Portuguese mentioned by Galvano. Pinto’s chronology -is rather confused, but it is impossible to fix this voyage to Japan -earlier than 1545. - -[15] Probably a corruption of _Tenjikujin_, or the people of _Tenjiku_ -(India).—EDR. - -[16] The terms _Chengecu_ and _Chenghequu_ are represented in two -letters, one dated in 1651 (“Selectarum Epistolarum ex India,” Lib. -i.), addressed to Xavier by a companion of his; the other, dated in -1560, and written by Lawrence, a converted Japanese and a Jesuit -(_Ibid._, Lib. ii), as commonly employed in Japan to designate Europe. - -Golownin mentions that at the time of his imprisonment (1812) -he found a prophecy in circulation among the Japanese that they -should be conquered by a people from the north. Possibly both these -prophecies—that mentioned by Pinto and that by Golownin—might be a -little colored by the patriotic hopes of the European relaters. - -[17] A tael is about an ounce and a third English. The tael is divided -into ten mas; the mas into ten kandarins; the kandarin into ten kas; -and these denominations (the silver passing by weight) are in general -use throughout the far East. Sixteen taels make a katty (about a pound -and a third avoirdupois), and one hundred katties a picul,—these being -the mercantile weights in common use. - -[18] See Appendix, Note C. - -[19] The kingdom or province of Bungo is situated on the east coast of -the second in size and southernmost in situation of the three larger -Japanese islands, off the southeast extremity of which lies the small -island of Tanegashima, where Pinto represents himself as having first -landed. - -The name “Bungo” was frequently extended by the Portuguese to the -whole large island of which it formed a part, though among them the -more common designation of that island, after they knew it to be such -(for they seem at first to have considered it a part of Nippon), was -Shimo.[A] This name, Shimo, appears to have been only a modification of -the term _shima_ (or, as the Portuguese wrote it, _xima_), the Japanese -word for island, and as such terminating many names of places. On our -maps this island is called Kiūshiū, meaning, as Kämpfer tells us, -“Country of Nine,” from the circumstance of its being divided into nine -provinces, which latter appears to be the correct interpretation. There -are in use in Japan Chinese as well as Japanese names of provinces and -officers (the Chinese probably a translation of the Japanese); and not -only the names Nippon and Kiūshiū, but that of Bungo (to judge from the -terminal n of the first syllable), are of Chinese origin. - -A: _Shimo_ is not the modification of _Shima_ (Island), but a word -meaning “lower” geographically.—K. M. - -[20] The Japanese date by the years of the reign of the Dairi, or -Mikado (of whom more hereafter), and they also, for ordinary purposes, -employ the Chinese device of _nengō_. These are periods, or eras, of -arbitrary length, from one year to many, appointed at the pleasure of -the reigning Dairi, named by him, and lasting till the establishment -of a new nengō. For convenience, every new nengō, and also every new -reign, begins chronologically with the new year, the old nengō and old -reign being protracted to the end of the year in which it closes. [See -Notes G and H in Appendix.—EDR.] - -The Japanese month is alternately twenty-nine and thirty days, of which -every year has twelve, with a repetition of one of the months, in seven -years out of every nineteen, so as to bring this reckoning by lunar -months into correspondency with the course of the earth round the sun; -this method being based on a knowledge of the correspondency of two -hundred and thirty-five lunations with nineteen solar years. According -to Titsingh, every thirty-third month is repeated, so as to make up the -necessary number of intercalary months, the number of days in these -intercalary months being fixed by the almanacs issued at Miyako. The -commencement of the Japanese year is generally in February. The months -are divided into two distinct portions, of fifteen days, each having a -distinct name, and the first day of each of which serves as a Sunday, -or holiday. This regulation of the Japanese calendar is borrowed from -the Chinese, as also the use of the period of sixty years corresponding -to our century. [See also paper on “Japanese Calendars,” in vol. xxx of -the Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan.—EDR.] - -[21] No such province is mentioned in the lists of Japanese provinces -by Father Rodriguez, Kämpfer, and Klaproth. [Name of a bay.—EDR.] - -[22] Regarding the portrait of the Portuguese, we know not on what -authority Siebold based his statement.—K. M. - -[23] “They wished to have our portraits taken at full length, and -_Teisuke_, who knew how to draw, was appointed to execute them. He -drew them in India ink, but in such a style that each portrait would -have passed for that of any other individual as well as of him it was -intended for. Except the long beard, we could trace no resemblance in -them. The Japanese, however, sent them to the capital, where they were -probably hung up in some of their galleries of pictures.”—_Golownin’s_ -“_Captivity in Japan_,” vol. i, ch. 4. - -[24] In the Latin version of the Jesuit letters he is called Cosmus -Turrianus. - -[25] Nippon is the name of the whole country; Kondo, of the main -island.—EDR. - -[26] It appears from Golownin that there are also smaller packages, of -which three make the large one. The price of rice varied, of course; -but Kämpfer gives five or six taels of silver as the average value of -the koku. Titsingh represents the koku as corresponding to the gold -koban, the national coin of the Japanese. The original koban weighed -forty-seven kandarins, or rather more than our eagle; but till the year -1672 it passed in Japan as equivalent to about six taels of silver. The -present koban contains only half as much gold; and yet, as compared -with silver, is rated still higher. The koban is figured by Kämpfer as -an oblong coin rounded at the ends, the surface, on one side, marked -with four rows of indented lines, and bearing at each end the arms or -symbol of the Dairi, and between them a mark showing the value, and the -signature of the master of the mint. The other side was smooth, and -had only the stamp of the inspector-general of gold and silver money. -Kämpfer also figures the _ōban_, which even in his time had become very -rare, similar to the koban, but of ten times the weight and value. -A third gold coin was the _ichibu_, figured by Kämpfer as an oblong -square. According to Thunburg, it was of the value of a quarter of the -koban. Silver passed by weight. The Japanese do not appear to have -had any silver coins, unless lumps of irregular shape and weight, but -bearing certain marks and stamps, were to be so considered. In ordinary -retail transactions copper _zeni_, or _kas_, as the Chinese name was, -were employed. They were round, with a square hole in the middle, by -which they were strung. Some were of double size and value, and some -of iron. For further information on the Japanese monetary system, and -on the present state and value of the Japanese circulating medium, see -Chapters XXV, XXXVIII, and XLV. - -[27] Dairi, in its original sense, is said by Rodriguez, in his -Japanese grammar, to signify rather the court than the person of the -theocratic chief to whom it is applied; and so of most of the titles -mentioned in the text. - -[28] According to Rodriguez, there had been also an ancient military -nobility, called _buke_; but in the course of the civil wars many -families of it had become extinct, while other humble families, who had -risen by way of arms, mostly formed the existing nobility. - -[29] According to the Japanese historical legends, the office of -Kubō-Sama, originally limited to the infliction of punishments and -the suppression of crimes, was shared, for many ages, between the -two families of Genji and Heiji, till about 1180, when a civil war -broke out between these families, and the latter, having triumphed, -assumed such power that the Dairi commissioned Yoritomo, a member of -the defeated family of Genji, to inflict punishment upon him. Yoritomo -renewed the war, killed Heiji, and was himself appointed Kubō-Sama, but -ended with usurping a greater power than any of his predecessors. - -[30] See Satow’s papers on “Pure Shintō” and “Japanese Rituals,” in the -Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan.—EDR. - -[31] The word _Kami_ is also doubly used as a title of honor conferred -with the sanction of the Dairi, somewhat equivalent, says Kämpfer, in -one case, to the European title of chevalier, and in the other, to that -of count. Golownin insists that it implies something spiritual. - -[32] The Sun-Goddess, also called Ama-terasu-no-Mikoto.—EDR. - -[33] The following system of Japanese cosmogony is given by Klaproth, -as contained in an imperfect volume of Chinese and Japanese chronology, -printed in Japan, in Chinese characters, without date, but which for -more than a hundred years past has been in the Royal Library of Paris: -“At first the heaven and the earth were not separated, the perfect -principle and the imperfect principle were not disjoined; chaos, under -the form of an egg, contained the breath [of life], self-produced, -including the germs of all things. Then what was pure and perfect -ascended upwards, and formed the heavens (or sky), while what was dense -and impure coagulated, was precipitated, and produced the earth. The -pure and excellent principles formed whatever is light, whilst whatever -was dense and impure descended by its own gravity; consequently the -sky was formed prior to the earth. After their completion, a divine -being (_Kami_) was born in the midst of them. Hence, it has been said, -that at the reduction of chaos, an island of soft earth emerged, as a -fish swims upon the water. At this period a thing resembling a shoot -of the plant _ashi_ [_Eryanthus Japonicus_] was produced between the -heavens and the earth. This shoot was metamorphosed and became the -god [first of the seven superior gods] who bears the honorific title -of Kuni-toko-dachi-no-mikoto, that is to say, the venerable one who -constantly supports the empire.” - -[34] In reading the accounts of the bonzes, and of the delusions -which they practised on the people, contained in the letters of the -Catholic missionaries, and the denunciations levelled against them in -consequence, in those letters, one might almost suppose himself to be -reading a Protestant sermon against Popery, or an indignant leader -against the papists in an evangelical newspaper. The missionaries -found, however, at least they say so, among other theological -absurdities maintained by the bonzes, a number of the “damnable -Lutheran tenets.” - -[35] Buddha, or the sage (which the Chinese, by the metamorphosis made -by their pronunciation of most foreign proper names, have changed first -into _Fuh-hi_, and then into _Fuh_, or _Ho_), is not the personal -name of the great saint, the first preacher of the religion of the -Buddhists, but a title of honor given to him after he had attained -to eminent sanctity. According to the concurrent traditions of the -Buddhists in various parts of Asia, he was the son of a king of central -India, Suddho-dana, meaning in Sanscrit pure-eating king, or eater of -pure food, which the Chinese have translated into their language by -_Zung-fung-wang_. His original name was _Lêh-ta_; after he became a -priest he was called _Sakia-mouni_, that is, devotee of the race of -Sakia, whence the appellation _Shaka_, by which he is commonly known -in Japan, and also the name _Shaku_, applied to the patriarch or head -of the Buddhist church. Another Sanscrit patronymic of Buddha is -_Gautama_, which in different Buddhist nations has, in conjunction with -other epithets applied to him, been variously changed and corrupted. -Thus among the Siamese he is called _Summana-kodom_. - -The Buddhist mythology includes several Buddhas who preceded -Sakia-mouni, and the first of whom, _Adi-Buddha_, or the first Buddha, -was, when nothing else was, being in fact the primal deity and origin -of all things. It seems to be this first Buddha who is worshipped -in Japan under the name of _Amida_, and whose priests form the most -numerous and influential of the Buddhist orders. Siebold seems inclined -to regard them as pure monotheists. - -The birth of Shaka is fixed by the Japanese annalists, or at least by -the book of chronology quoted in a previous note, in the twenty-sixth -year of the emperor Chaou-wang, of the Chinese Chew Dynasty, 1027 B. C. -1006 B. C., he fled from his father’s house to become a priest; 998 B. -C., he reached the highest step of philosophical knowledge; 949 B. C., -being seventy-nine years of age, he entered into _Nirvana_, that is, -died. He was succeeded by a regular succession of Buddhist patriarchs, -of whom twenty-eight were natives of Hindustan. The twenty-eighth -emigrated to China, A. D. 490, where he had five Chinese successors. -Under the second of these, A. D. 552, Buddhism was introduced into -Japan. A. D. 713, the sixth and the last Chinese patriarch died, since -which the Chinese Buddhists, and those who have received the religion -from them, seem not to have acknowledged any general, but only a local, -head in each country. - -[36] In connection with this chapter, read “The Religions of Japan” -(Griffis).—EDR. - -[37] For an account of the Japanese language, literature, etc., see “A -Handbook of Modern Japan” (Clement).—EDR. - -[38] “All military men, the servants of the Shōgun, and persons holding -civil offices under the government, are bound, when they have committed -any crime, to rip themselves up, but not till they have received an -order from the court to that effect; for, if they were to anticipate -this order, their heirs would run the risk of being deprived of their -places and property. For this reason all the officers of government are -provided, in addition to their usual dress, and that which they put on -in the case of fire, with a suit necessary on such occasions, which -they carry with them whenever they travel from home. It consists of a -white robe and a habit of ceremony, made of hempen cloth, and without -armorial bearings. - -“As soon as the order of the court has been communicated to the -culprit, he invites his intimate friends for the appointed day, and -regales them with sake. After they have drank together some time, he -takes leave of them, and the order of the court is then read to him -once more. The person who performs the principal part of this tragic -scene then addresses a speech or compliment to the company, after -which he inclines his head towards the floor, draws his sabre, and -cuts himself with it across the belly, penetrating to the bowels. One -of his confidential servants, who takes his place behind him, then -strikes off his head. Such as wish to display superior courage, after -the cross-cut, inflict a second longitudinally, and then a third in the -throat. No disgrace attaches to such a death, and the son succeeds to -his father’s place. - -“When a person is conscious of having committed some crime, and -apprehensive of being thereby disgraced, he puts an end to his own -life, to spare his family the ruinous consequences of judicial -proceedings. This practice is so common that scarcely any notice is -taken of such an event. The sons of all persons of quality exercise -themselves in their youth, for five or six years, with a view that -they may perform the operation, in case of need, with gracefulness and -dexterity; and they take as much pains to acquire this accomplishment, -as youth among us to become elegant dancers or skilful horsemen; -hence the profound contempt of death which they imbibe in their -earliest years. This disregard of death, which they prefer to the -slightest disgrace, extends to the very lowest classes among the -Japanese.”—_Titsingh_, “_Illustrations of Japan_,” p. 147. - -[39] His family name was Ōtomo, and his given name was Yoshishige.—EDR. - -[40] Pinto gives a long account of this dispute, which has been -substantially adopted by Lucina, the Portuguese biographer of Xavier, -whose life of the saint was published in 1600, and who, in composing -it, had the use of Pinto’s yet unpublished manuscript. Tursellini’s -Latin biography of Xavier was published at Rome and Antwerp, 1596. -From these was compiled the French life, by Bouhours, which our Dryden -translated. Tursellini published also four books of Xavier’s epistles, -translated into Latin. Eight books of new epistles afterwards appeared. -Charlevoix remarks of them, “that they are memoirs, of which it is not -allowable to question the sincerity, but which furnish very little for -history, which was not the writer’s object.” They are chiefly homilies. - -[41] See Satow’s paper in vol. vii of the Transactions of the Asiatic -Society of Japan.—EDR. - -[42] For some further remarks on Pinto and his book, see Appendix, Note -D. - -[43] Of Father de Torres we have four letters rendered into Latin, and -of Vilela, in the same collections, seven, giving, among other things, -a pretty full account of his visit to and residence at Miyako. For the -description, however, of that capital, and the road to it, I prefer -to rely on lay travellers, of whose observations, during a series of -visits extending through more than two centuries, a full abstract will -be found in subsequent chapters. - -[44] The following passage, from Titsingh’s “Memoirs of the Shōguns,” -may serve to shed some light upon the civil war raging in Japan when -first visited by the Portuguese, and which continued down to the time -of Nobunaga: “Takauji was of the family of Yoshiiye, who was descended -from Seiwa-tennō, the fifty-sixth Dairi. He divided the supreme power -between his two sons, Yoshi-nori and Motouji, giving to each the -government of thirty-three provinces. The latter, who ruled over the -eastern part, was styled Kamakura-no-Shōgun, and kept his court at -Kamakura, in the province of Sagami. Yoshi-nori, to whom were allotted -the western provinces, resided at Miyako, with the title of Fuku-Shōgun. - -“Takauji, in dividing the empire between his two sons, was influenced -by the expectation that, in case either of them should be attacked, his -brother would afford him assistance. This partition, on the contrary, -only served to arm them one against the other; the country was involved -in continual war, and the princes, though brothers, were engaged in -frequent hostilities, which terminated only with the destruction of the -branch of Miyako.” - -[45] See note on page 84. - -[46] For a particular description of the dress of Japanese, see Chap. -XLI. - -[47] His reception of the Japanese and his reformation of the calendar -are both recorded together in his epitaph. - -[48] The Letters, Briefs, and the Discourse on Obedience, above -quoted, may be found at length in Latin, in the very valuable and rich -collection, _De Rebus Japonicis Indicis_ and _Peruvianis Epistolæ -Recentiores_, edited by John Hay, of Dalgetty, a Scotch Jesuit, and a -sharp controversialist, published in 1605; in Spanish, in Father Luys -de Gusman’s _Historia de los Missiones, que han hecho los Religioses -de la Compania de Jesus, etc._, published in 1601, of which the -larger part is devoted to the Japanese mission; in Italian, in Father -Daniel Batoli’s “Historia de la Compagnia de Gesu”; and in French, in -Charlevoix’s “Histoire du Japon.” An Italian history of the mission -was printed at Rome, 1585,—the same, I suppose, of which a Latin -translation is given in Hay’s collection; and still rarer and more -valuable one at Macao, in 1590, of which a further account will be -found in a note at the end of the next chapter. - -[49] The princes and nobles of Japan, and indeed most private -individuals, have certain devices embroidered on their gowns, etc., -which the Portuguese and the missionaries compared to the armorial -bearings of Europe. [See paper on “Japanese Heraldry” in vol. v of the -Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan.—EDR.] - -[50] During this residence at Macao the Japanese ambassadors were -not idle. They were engaged upon a very remarkable work, printed at -Macao in 1590 in Japanese and Latin, purporting to be composed by the -ambassadors, and giving, by way of dialogue, an account not only of the -embassy, but of Japan and of all the countries, European and Oriental, -which they had visited. The Latin title is _De Missione Legatorum -Japonensium ad Romanam curiam, rebusque in Europa ac toto in itinere -animadversis, Dialogus, etc._—“A Dialogue concerning the Japanese -Embassy to the Court of Rome, and the things observed in Europe and on -the whole journey, collected from the journal of the ambassadors, and -rendered into Latin by Ed. de Laude, priest of the Society of Jesus.” -It is from this work, though he does not give the title of it, that -Hackluyt extracted the “Excellent Treatise of the Kingdom of China and -of the Estate and Government thereof,” contained in his second volume, -and of which he speaks in his epistle dedicatory to that volume, first -published in 1599, as “the most exact account of those parts that is -yet come to light.” “It was printed,” he tells us, “in Latin, in Makoa, -a city of China, in China paper, in the year 1590, and was intercepted -in the great carac Madre de Dios, two years after, enclosed in a case -of sweet cedar wood, and lapped up almost a hundred fold in fine -Calicut cloth, as though it had been some incomparable jewel.” - -[51] This letter, with the reply in the next chapter, is given by -Froez, from whom Gusman has copied them. - -[52] Letters from the ambassadors to Sixtus V, written at Nagasaki -after their arrival there, and giving an account of their voyage home, -may be found in Hay’s collection. - -[53] Valignani was not the first European to obtain an imperial -audience. The same favor had been granted, as already mentioned, by -Yoshiteru to Father Vilela in 1559. Louis Froez had also been admitted, -in 1565, to an audience of the same emperor, of which he has given a -short but interesting account. - -[54] See Satow’s paper on “The Origin of Spanish and Portuguese Rivalry -in Japan,” in the Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan.—EDR. - -[55] We regret that the original of this letter has been lost, and we -cannot, therefore, compare the translation with the original. But, at -any rate, the date here given is erroneous. Valignani’s departure from -Japan being in 1592, as is mentioned at the end of the next chapter, -this letter must have been written in 1592 (first year of Bunroku).—K. -M. - -[56] The number of troops here set down is too small.—K. M. - -[57] According to the letters of Louis Froez, the prince of Ōmura -joined the army against Corea with one thousand men, the king of Arima -with two thousand, and the king of Bungo with ten thousand, besides -mariners and mean people to carry the baggage. The entire number of -men-at-arms in the empire, at this time, is stated to have been, by -a written catalogue, three hundred thousand. The victories mentioned -in the text were gained by an advanced body of fifteen thousand men. -The Coreans are described by Froez as different from the Chinese in -race and language, and superior to them in personal prowess, yet as in -a manner tributary to China, whose laws, customs, and arts they had -borrowed. They are represented as good bowmen, but scantily provided -with other weapons, and therefore not able to encounter the cannon, -lances, and swords of the Japanese, who had been, beside, practised -by continual wars among themselves. But in nautical affairs Froez -reckons the Chinese and Coreans as decidedly superior to the Japanese. -Translations from several Jesuit letters relating to the Corean war -will be found in Hackluyt, vol. iv, near the end. Siebold, relying upon -Japanese authorities, insists that it was through Corea that the arts, -knowledge, language, and written characters of China were introduced -into Japan. - -[58] See Aston’s papers on “Hideyoshi’s Invasion of Korea,” in the -Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan.—EDR. - -[59] Yet Taikō-Sama was not in general cruel. A curious letter of -Father Organtino Brixiano, written in 1594, enumerates, among the -reasons of Taikō’s great success, his clemency to the conquered -princes, whom he never put to death after having once promised them -their lives, and to whom he granted a revenue, small, but sufficient -to maintain them, and which served to keep them quiet. Another reason -was his having established for his soldiers during war a commissariat, -of which he paid the expense, by which they were rendered much more -efficient. He also kept them employed, for, besides the army maintained -in Corea, he set them to work in building or repairing palaces and -fortresses, or in other public works. At this time he had thirty -thousand men at work upon one castle near Miyako, one hundred thousand -at Fushimi. He also broke the power of the princes by transferring -them to distant parts, while he inspired general respect by his -strict justice, from which he was swerved by no considerations of -relationship, family, or influence, secular or religious. Another -reason mentioned by the missionary does not correspond so well with -Taikō’s letter to the viceroy of Goa. He is said not only to have -disarmed the country people, by whose strength and wealth the petty -kingdoms had been sustained, but also to have reduced them to extreme -poverty; but this, perhaps, applies rather to the petty lords than to -the actual cultivators. This letter is in Hay’s collection, and a part -of it, in English, may be found in Hackluyt’s fourth volume. - -[Dening’s “New Life of Toyotomi Hideyoshi” is the best work dealing -with the career of “the Napoleon of Japan.”—EDR.] - -[60] Some curious information respecting the Philippines is contained -in a letter dated Mexico, 1590, intercepted on its way to Spain by some -English cruiser, and translated and published by Hackluyt in his fourth -volume. This letter represents the country as very unhealthy “for us -Spaniards,” of whom not more than one thousand were left alive out of -fourteen thousand who had gone there in the twenty years preceding. It -seems, too, that the Spaniards at Manila, not less than the Portuguese -at Macao, had succeeded in opening a trade with China. “There is a -place in China, which is an harbor called Macaran, which the king has -given to the Spaniards freely; which shall be the place where the ships -shall come to traffic. For in this harbor there is a great river, which -goeth up into the main land, unto divers towns and cities, which are -near to this river.” Where was this Spanish Chinese port? - -The annual galleons to New Spain were to Manila what the annual carac -to Japan was to Macao,—a main support of the place. The privilege of -putting a certain amount of goods on board was distributed among all -the resident merchants, offices, and public institutions. - -[61] That any Japanese had been in America earlier than 1610 A. D. is -not to be found in any Japanese sources.—K. M. - -[62] The fathers resident at this college had been by no means idle. -They had printed there, in 1593, a Japanese grammar, prepared by Father -Alvarez, and, in 1595, in a thick quarto of upwards of nine hundred -pages, a Portuguese, Latin, and Japanese Lexicon. A vocabulary entirely -Japanese was printed at Nagasaki, 1598. - -[63] Yet the Japanese are said to maintain to this day a garrison on -the coast (Golownin, vol. iii, ch. 9), and to receive tribute from -Corea; but this seems doubtful. - -[64] Go-kirai, including Yamashiro, Yamato, Kawachi, Izumi, and -Settsu.—EDR. - -[65] Father Valignani died in 1606, at Macao, whither he had gone to -look after the Chinese missions, a few Jesuits having at length got -admission into that empire. Father Rodriguez, in his annual letter of -1606, from Miyako, in noticing Valignani’s death, speaks of him as -justly entitled to be called the apostle of the missions of Japan and -China,—a title, indeed, which he had already received from the king of -Portugal. Purchas, who published a few years later, mentions him as the -“great Jesuit.” He enjoyed in his own day, and deservedly, a reputation -quite equal to that of our most famous modern missionaries; but these -missionary reputations are apt not to be very long-lived. Five of his -letters are in the collection of Hay, “De Rebus Japonicis,” etc. - -The death of Father Louis Froez has been mentioned in the previous -chapter. We have of his letters, in Maffei’s “Select Epistles,” nine, -written between the years 1563 and 1573; and in Hay’s collection, -eight, written between 1577 and 1596. Many of these are of great -length. That of February, 1565, contains a curious account of what he -saw at Miyako, on his going thither with Almeida to aid Vilela, who -had labored there alone for six years with only Japanese assistants. -The translation of it in Hackluyt has an important passage in the -beginning, giving a general account of the Japanese, not in the Latin -editions that I have seen. Those in Hay’s collection are rather reports -than letters. That of 1586 contains an account of Valignani’s first -interview with Taikō-Sama, that of 1592 a full account of Valignani’s -embassy, the second of 1595 the history of Taikō-Sama’s quarrel with -his nephew, and the two of 1596 a full account of the first martyrdoms -and of the state of the church at the time. - -Almeida had died in 1583, after a missionary life of twenty-eight -years. We have five of his letters, which show him a good man, but -exceedingly credulous, even for a Portuguese Jesuit. - -[66] This chapter, also the twenty-second, is taken, with alterations -and additions, from an article (written by the compiler of this work) -in “Harper’s Magazine” for January, 1854. - -[67] See Appendix, Note E. - -[68] An account of Adams’ voyage, in two letters of his from Japan, -may be found in Purchas, “His Pilgrimes,” part i, book iii, sect. 5. -Purchas also gives, book ii, chap. v, Captain Wert’s adventures and -return; and in book iii, chap. i, sect. 4, a narrative by Davis, who -acted as chief pilot of the first Dutch voyage to the East Indies, -under Houtman. Hackluyt gives, in his second volume, a narrative -of Lancaster’s voyage, taken down from the mouth of Edmund Baker, -Lancaster’s lieutenant. Henry May’s narrative of the same voyage -is given in Hackluyt’s second volume. What is known of the English -expedition, fitted out in 1594, will be found in Hackluyt, vol. iv, -and “Pilgrimes,” book iii, chap. i, sect. 2. The English East India -Company was formed in 1600, and Lancaster was immediately despatched on -a second voyage “with four tall ships and a victualler,” and by him the -English trade was commenced.—_Pilgrimes_, book iii, chap. iii, sect. 1. -[Ten extant letters of Will Adams may be found in “Letters written by -the English Residents in Japan,” edited by K. Murakawn, and published -in Tōkyō. See also paper by Dr. L. Riess on the “History of the English -Factory at Kirado,” in the Transactions of the Asiatic Society of -Japan.—EDR.] - -[69] See Klaproth’s translation (“Nov. Journal Asiatique,” tom. ii), of -a curious Japanese tract on the Wealth of Japan, written in 1708. - -See note on page 152.—EDR. - -[70] This letter is given by Purchas, vol. i, p. 406. It has neither -date nor signature, nor does it appear who is responsible for the -correctness of the translation. - -[71] It must have been in the next year (1609).—K. M. - -[72] Most likely this “box” was formed by movable screens. See Chapter -XXXVIII. - -[73] Iyeyasu was sixty-six years old in 1609.—K. M. - -[74] It is customary among the Japanese, on receiving a present from a -superior, to touch the top of the head with it. This custom is alluded -to in the king of Bungo’s letter to the Pope, pages 107 and 108. - -[75] Descriptions of it will be found in Chapter XXXV, and also a -census taken in 1690. - -[76] This image was first set up in the year 1576 by the Emperor Taikō. -The temple in which it was placed was destroyed by the great earthquake -of 1596. The rebuilding was commenced in 1602. The colossus, however, -was seriously injured by another earthquake in 1662, after which it was -melted down, and a substitute prepared of wood covered with gilt paper. -For a description of it, see Chapter XXXVII. - -[77] The total number of baptisms in Japan, in 1606, according to the -annual letter of that year, was almost three thousand. According to the -letter of 1603, the number of confessions heard that year was eighty -thousand. It appears from these letters that many female converts were -made, among the higher classes, by the reputed efficacy of relics and -the prayers of the church in cases of difficult labor. - -[78] Don Rodrigo published in Spanish a narrative of his residence in -Japan. Of this very rare and curious work an abstract, with extracts, -is given in the “Asiatic Journal,” vol. ii, new series, 1830. The -Spaniard is rather excessive in his estimates of population, but -appears to have been sensible and judicious. His accounts are well -borne out, as we shall see, by those of Saris, Kämpfer, and others. His -whole title was Don Rodrigo de Vivero y Velasco. - -[79] There is a narrative of this journey, rather a perplexed one, -apparently written by Spex himself, added to the Relation of Verhœven’s -voyage in _Recueil des Voyages qui out servi a l’establisement de la -Compagnie des Indes Oriental dans les Provinces Unies_. A full abstract -of it is in the great collection, “Hist. Gen. des Voyages,” vol. viii. - -[80] They had about four hundred, and the Spaniards about twice as many. - -[81] Kämpfer gives this translation, and also a fac-simile of the -original Japanese. The same translation is also given by Spex. - -[82] The Franciscan martyrology says he was born at Seville of the -blood royal. - -[83] See paper on “Date Masamune,” in vol. xxi of the Transactions of -the Asiatic Society of Japan.—EDR. - -[84] An account in Italian of Sotelo’s embassy, _Historia del Regno -de Voxu del Giaponi, etc., e del Ambasciata, etc._, was published at -Rome the same year, 1615. There is no Japanese letter of later date -than 1601, in the collection of Hay, or, as perhaps it ought rather -to be called, of Martin Nutius (at least so his name was written in -Latin), citizen and bookseller of Antwerp, at the sign of the two -storks, “a man zealous for the Catholic faith,” so Hay says, and by -whom the collection was projected. He applied to the rector of the -Jesuit college at Antwerp for an editor, and Hay was appointed. A few -of the letters were translated by Hay; the greater part had already -appeared as separate pamphlets, translated by others. Hay’s vehement -Scotch controversial spirit breaks out hotly in some of the dedicatory -letters which he has introduced. Of the Japanese letters subsequent to -1601 there is no collection. They were published separately as they -were received, translated into Italian, from which were made French and -Spanish translations. - -[85] See “Letters written by the English Residents in Japan, -1611-1623.”—EDR. - -[86] “I am called in the Japanese tongue ANGIN SAMA. By that name am I -known all the coast along.”—_Letters of Adams_, Jan. 12, 1614. - -[87] This is difficult to decipher, except _kokoro warui_ (“heart -bad”), and may not refer at all to Coreans.—EDR. - -[88] Properly the spirit enshrined in the temple.—EDR. - -[89] Saris makes no mention of tea, not yet known to the Europeans, -and which, perhaps, he confounded with this hot water. All subsequent -travellers have noted this practice of the Japanese of drinking -everything warm even to water. Cold drinks might tend too much to check -the digestion of their vegetable food; at any rate, they are thought -to be frequently the occasion of a violent colic, one of the endemic -diseases of Japan. - -[90] London had at that time a population of two hundred and fifty -thousand. - -[91] Probably the one at Kamakura.—EDR. - -[92] See “Letters written by the English Residents in Japan, -1611-1623.”—K. M. - -[93] This word, though not to be found in any of our dictionaries, was -in current use, at this time, in the signification of head merchant of -a factory ship, or trading post,—_cape_ being, probably, a contraction -of captain. - -[94] Yezo, otherwise called Matsumae, the island north of Nippon. There -is in Purchas, “Pilgrimes,” vol. i., p. 364, a short account of this -island, obtained from a Japanese, who had been there twice. It was -visited in 1620 by Jerome de Angelis, who sent home an account of its -gold-washings, which reads very much like a California letter. It was -also then as now the seat of extensive fisheries. The gold which it -produced made the Dutch and English anxious to explore it. The Dutch -made some voyages in that direction and discovered some of the southern -Kuriles; but the geography of those seas remained very confused till -the voyages of La Perouse. Matsumae was the scene of Golownin’s -captivity in 1812. [See chap. xliii.] One of the ports granted to the -Americans (Hakodate) is on the southern coast of this island. - -[95] These privileges are given by Purchas, “Pilgrimes,” vol. i., p. -357, with a fac-simile of the original Japanese. - -[96] The old Gothic edifice, afterwards destroyed in the great fire of -1666, is the one here referred to. - -[97] This is the same temple and idol seen and described by Don Rodrigo. - -[98] Captain Saris states that the New Testament had been translated -into Japanese for their use; but this is doubtless a mistake. A number -of books of devotion were translated into Japanese, but we hear nowhere -else of any New Testament, nor were such translations a part of the -Jesuit missionary machinery. - -[99] Of another festival, on the 23d of October, Cocks gives the -following account: “The kings with all the rest of the nobility, -accompanied with divers strangers, met together at a summer-house, set -up before the great pagoda, to see a horse-race. Every nobleman went -on horseback to the place, accompanied with a rout of slaves, some -with pikes, some with small shot, and others with bows and arrows. The -pikemen were placed on one side of the street, and the shot and archers -on the other, the middest of the street being left void to run the -race; and right before the summer-house, where the king and nobles sat, -was a round buckler of straw hanging against the wall, at which the -archers on horseback, running a full career, discharged their arrows, -both in the street and summer-house where the nobles sat.” This, from -the date, would seem to be the festival of Tenshō Daijin. See p. 359. -Caron, “Relation du Japon,” gives a similar description. - -[100] Captain Saris’ account of his voyage and travels in Japan (which -agrees remarkably with the contemporaneous observations of Don Rodrigo, -and with the subsequent ones of Kämpfer and others), may be found in -Purchas, “His Pilgrimes,” part i, book iv, chap. i, sect. 4-8. Cocks’ -not less curious observations may be found in chap. iii, sect. 1-3, of -the same book and part. There is also a readable summary of what was -then known of Japan, in Purchas, “His Pilgrimage,” book v, chap. xv. - -Rundall, in his “Memorials of the Empire of Japan,” printed by the -Hackluyt Society, 1850, has republished Adams’ first letter, from two -MSS. in the archives of the East India Company; but the variations -from the text, as given by Purchas, are hardly as important as he -represents. He gives also from the same records four other letters -from Adams, not before printed. It seems from these letters, and from -certain memoranda of Cocks, that there were three reasons why Adams did -not return with Saris, notwithstanding the emperor’s free consent to -his doing so. Besides his wife and daughter in England, he had also a -wife, son, and daughter in Japan. Though he had the estate mentioned as -given him by the emperor (called Hemmi, about eight miles from Uraga), -on which were near a hundred households, his vassals, over whom he had -power of life and death, yet he had little money, and did not like to -go home with an empty purse. He had quarrelled with Saris, who had -attempted to drive a hard bargain with him. The East India Company had -advanced twenty pounds to his wife in England. Saris wanted him to -serve the company for that sum and such additional pay as they might -see fit to give. But Adams, whom the Dutch, Spanish, and Portuguese, -were all anxious to engage in their service, insisted upon a stipulated -hire. He asked twelve pounds a month, but consented to take a hundred -pounds a year, to be paid at the end of two years. - -See “History of the English Factory at Hirado,” in vol. xxvi. of the -Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan, and “Diary of Richard -Cocks,” edited by Mr. N. Murakami, and published in Tōkyō in 1899.—EDR. - -[101] He was deified, and is still worshipped under the name of -Gongen-Sama, given to him after his death. It is from him that the -reigning emperors of Japan trace their descent. He is buried at the -temple of Nikkō, three days’ journey from Yedo, of the splendor of -which marvellous stories are told. Caron, who wrote about the time it -was built, speaks as if he had seen it. In 1782, M. Titsingh, then -Dutch director, solicited permission to visit this temple, but was -refused, as there was no precedent for such a favor. - -[102] These modified privileges have been printed for the first time by -Rundall. - -[103] Lopo de Vega, the poet, who held the office of procurator fiscal -to the apostolic chamber of the archbishopric of Toledo, celebrated the -constancy of the Japanese martyrs, in a pamphlet entitled “Triumpho -de la Fe en los Regnos del Japon, pas los annos de 1614 y 1615,” -published in 1617. “Take away from this work,” says Charlevoix, “the -Latin and Spanish verses, the quotations foreign to the subject, and -the flourish of the style, and there will be nothing left of it.” The -subject was much more satisfactorily treated by Nicholas Trigault, -himself a very distinguished member of the Chinese mission, which -he had joined in 1610. He returned to Europe in 1615, travelling on -foot through Persia, Arabia, and Egypt, to obtain a fresh supply of -laborers. Besides an account of the Jesuit mission to China (from -which, next to Marco Polo’s travels, Europe gathered its first distinct -notions of that empire), and a summary of the Japanese mission from -1609 to 1612, published during this visit to Europe, just before his -departure, in 1618 (taking with him forty-four missionaries, who -had volunteered to follow him to China), he completed four books -concerning the triumphs of the Christians in the late persecution in -Japan, to which, while at Goa, on his way to China, he added a fifth -book, bringing down the narrative to 1616. The whole, derived from -the annual Japanese letters, was printed in 1623, in a small quarto -of five hundred and twenty pages, illustrated by numerous engravings -of martyrdoms, and containing also a short addition, bringing down -the story to the years 1617-1620, and a list of Japanese martyrs, to -the number of two hundred and sixty-eight. There is also added a list -of thirty-eight houses and residences (including two colleges, one at -Arima, the other at Nagasaki) which the Jesuits had been obliged to -abandon; and of five Franciscan, four Dominican, and two Augustinian -convents, from which the inmates had been driven. These works of -Trigault, published originally in Latin, were translated into French -and Spanish. Various other accounts of the same persecution appeared in -Spanish, Italian, and Portuguese. “A Brief Relation of the Persecution -lately made against the Catholic Christians of Japan” was published -at London, 1616. Meanwhile Purchas, in the successive editions of his -“Pilgrimage,” gave an account of the Japanese missions, which is the -best and almost the only one (though now obsolete and forgotten) in -the English language. That contained in the fourth edition (annexed -as a fifth part to the “Pilgrimes”), and published in 1625, is the -fullest. Captain Saris, according to Purchas, ascribed the persecution -to the discovery, by the Japanese, that the Jesuits, under the cloak of -religion, were but merchants. - -[104] Such was the charge of the English. The Dutch narratives, -however, abound with similar charges against the English. Both probably -were true enough, as both nations captured all the Chinese junks they -met. - -[105] The date, as given by Purchas (evidently by a misprint), is 1610. - -[106] The “Swan” and the “Attendance.” The number of English runaways -was three, not six.—K. M. - -[107] From Jacatra Pring proceeded to England with a cargo of pepper. -It would seem that he had not forgotten his early voyages to the coast -of America, for while his ship lay in the road of Saldanha, near the -Cape of Good Hope, a contribution of seventy pounds eight shillings -and sixpence was raised among the ship’s company to endow a school, to -be called the _East India_ School, in the colony of Virginia. Other -contributions were made for this school, and the Virginia Company -endowed it with a farm of a thousand acres, which they sent tenants -to cultivate; but this, like the Virginia University, and many other -public-spirited and promising enterprises, was ruined and annihilated -by the fatal Indian massacre of 1622. - -The “Royal James” carried also to England a copy in Japanese, still -preserved in the archives of the East India Company, of Adams’ will. -With commendable impartiality he divided his property, which, by the -inventory annexed, amounted to nineteen hundred and seventy-two tael, -two mas, four kandarins (two thousand four hundred and sixty-five -dollars and twenty-nine cents), equally between his Japanese and -his English family,—the English share to go, one half to the wife -and the other half to the daughter, it not being his mind, so Cocks -wrote, “his wife should have all, in regard she might marry another -husband, and carry all from his child.” By the same ship Cocks made -a remittance to the English family, having delivered “one hundred -pounds sterling to diverse of the ‘Royal James’Company, entered into -the purser’s books, to pay in England, two for one,”—a very handsome -rate of exchange, which throws some light on the profits of East India -trade in those days. Adams’ Japanese estate probably descended to his -Japanese son; and who knows but the family survives to this day? The -situation of this estate was but a very short distance from the spot -where the recent American treaty was made; nor is the distance great -from Shimoda, one of the ports granted by that treaty. The command -of the fleet left behind, on Pring’s departure, devolved on Captain -Robert Adams. According to Cocks’ account, the crews, both Dutch and -English, inferior officers as well as men, were a drunken, dissolute, -quarrelsome set. Rundall gives a curious record of the trial by jury -and execution of an Englishman of this fleet for the murder of a -Dutchman; and it seems the Dutch reciprocated by hanging a Dutchman for -killing an Englishman. Master Arthur Hatch was chaplain of this fleet. -Purchas gives (vol. i, part ii, book x, ch. i) a letter from him, -written after his return, containing a brief sketch of his observations -in Japan. Purchas also gives a letter from Cocks, which, in reference -to the koku of rice, agrees very well with Titsingh’s statement quoted -on page fifty-nine. Cocks represents the revenues of the Japanese -princes as being estimated in mankoku of rice, each containing ten -thousand koku, and each koku containing one hundred gantas (gantings), -a ganta being a measure equal to three English ale pints. - -Cocks states the revenue of the king of Hirado at six mankoku. He -maintained four thousand soldiers, his quota for the emperor’s service -being two thousand. The income of Kodzuke-no-Suke, formerly three, had -lately been raised to fifteen mankoku. That of the king of Satsuma was -one hundred, and that of the prince next in rank to the emperor, two -hundred mankoku. The value of the mankoku was calculated at the English -factory at nine thousand three hundred and seventy-five pounds, which -would make the koku worth eighteen shillings and sixpence sterling, -or four dollars and fifty cents, and agrees very well with Caron’s -estimates of the koku, which he calls _cokien_, as worth ten Dutch -florins, or four dollars. The estimates of Kämpfer and Titsingh, given -on page fifty-nine, are higher. - -[108] Dr. Riess estimates the loss at less than ten thousand -pounds.—EDR. - -[109] See Appendix F. - -[110] 1624 ought to be 1616.—K. M. - -[111] It may be found in Thevenot’s Collection of Voyages, also in -“Voyages des Indes,” tom. v. - -[112] A candid and conclusive answer to Sotelo, or the false Sotelo, -as the Jesuits persisted in calling him, was published at Madrid -immediately after the appearance of his letter, by Don Jean Cevicos, -a commissary of the holy office, who was able to speak from personal -observation. Cevicos had been captain of the galleon “St. Francis,” -the ship in which Don Rodrigo de Vivero had been wrecked on the coast -of Japan, as related in a former chapter. After a six months’ stay -in Japan, and an acquaintance there with Sotelo, Cevicos sailed for -Manila, was captured on the passage by the Dutch, but recaptured by -a Spanish fleet. Arrived at Manila, he renounced the seas, commenced -the study of theology, was ordained priest, and became provisor of the -archbishopric of the Philippines. The business of this office brought -him to Spain, and being at Madrid when the letter ascribed to Sotelo -appeared, he thought it his duty to reply to it. A full abstract of -this answer, as well as of Sotelo’s charges, may be found at the end of -Charlevoix’s “Histoire du Japon.” It appears, from documents quoted in -it, that the missionaries of the other orders agreed with the Jesuits -in ascribing the persecution mainly to the idea, which the Dutch made -themselves very busy in insinuating, that the independence of Japan was -in danger from the Spaniards and the Pope, who were on the watch to -gain, by means of the missionaries, the mastery of Japan, as they had -of Portugal and so many other countries. - -The charges made in the name of Sotelo against the Jesuits are of more -interest from the fact that, at the time of the Jansenist quarrel, they -were revived and reurged with a bitterness of hatred little short of -that which had prompted their original concoction. - -A Spanish history of the Franciscan mission, full of bitter hatred -against the Jesuits, was published at Madrid in 1632, written down -to 1620, by Father Fray Jacinto Orfanel, who was arrested that year, -and burnt two years after, and continued by Collado, who was also the -author of a Japanese grammar and dictionary. - -[113] Shōgun-Sama seems to be only a title, not a name. This is -Lyemitsu, the “third Shōgun.”—EDR. - -[114] A shuet of silver weighs about five ounces, so that the reward -offered was from $2,000 to $2,500. - -[115] A narrative of this transaction was published at Rome in 1643. -A short but curious document, purporting to be a translation of a -Japanese imperial edict, commanding the destruction of all Portuguese -vessels attempting to approach the coasts of Japan, is given in -“Voyages au Nord,” tom. iv. Ships of other nations were to be sent -under a strong guard to Nagasaki. [See Appendix, Note 1.] - -[116] This curious piece may be found in French, in the “Voyages des -Indes,” tom. v. - -[117] Haganaar’s travels may be found in “Voyages des Indes,” tom. v., -and a narrative of Nuyts’ affair in “Voyages au Nord,” tom. iv. - -[118] According to Titsingh, they amounted in his time (1780) to -eighty thousand in number. Apparently they are the Dōshin, or imperial -soldiers, of whom we shall have occasion hereafter to speak. - -[119] This quantity of rice would suffice for the support of twelve -million persons or more. The cultivators of the imperial domains -retained, according to Kämpfer, six-tenths of the produce, and those -who cultivated the lands of inferior lords four-tenths. Hence it may -be conjectured that the estimate of twenty-five millions of people for -Japan is not excessive. - -[120] These lists were doubtless copied from the _Yedo Kagami_ (Mirror -of Yedo), a kind of Blue Book, still published twice a year, and -containing similar lists. See “Annals des Empereurs du Japon” (Titsingh -and Klaproth), p. 37, note. - -[See paper on Japanese feudalism, in vol. xv of the “Transactions of -the Asiatic Society of Japan.”—EDR.] - -[121] There are two versions of Caron’s account of Japan, materially -different from each other; one with the original questions, as -furnished by Caron himself to Thevenot, the other in the form of a -continuous narrative, with large additions by Haganaar. The first may -be found in Thevenot’s “Voyages Curieuse,” also in “Voyages au Nord,” -tom. iv. The other in “Voyages des Indes,” tom. v, and an English -translation of it in Pinkerton’s collection, vol. vii. - -[122] A curious contemporary narrative of this affair is given, among -other tracts relating to Japan, in “Voyages au Nord,” tom. iv. It -is not unlikely that the military operations of the Dutch in the -neighboring island of Formosa, and their strong fort of Zelandia, -recently erected there, might have aroused the suspicions of the -Japanese. - -[123] There is an account of the voyage of the “Castricoom” in -Thevenot’s collection. It is also contained in “Voyages au Nord,” tom. -iii. Charlevoix gives a full and interesting abstract of the adventures -of Captain Schaëp and his companions, derived from two different French -versions of a Dutch original; but I know not where either the versions -or the original can be found. - -[124] The journals of these embassies of Waganaar, Frisius, and others, -generally pretty dry documents, with extracts from Caron, furnished -the basis for the “Memorable Embassies of the Dutch to the Emperors -of Japan,” a splendid folio, with more than a hundred copper plates, -published at Amsterdam in 1669, purporting to be compiled by Arnold -Montanus, of which an English translation, made by Ogilvy, with the -same cuts, appeared the next year at London, under the title of -_Atlas Japonensis_, and a French translation, with some additions and -alterations, ten years later at Amsterdam. - -The materials are thrown together in the most careless and disorderly -manner, and are eked out by drawing largely upon the letters of the -Jesuit missionaries. The cuts, whence most of the current prints -representing Japanese objects are derived, are destitute of any -authenticity. Those representing Japanese idols and temples evidently -were based on the descriptions of Froez, whose accounts do not seem -quite to agree in all respects with the observations of more recent -travellers. - -The dedication of Ogilvy’s translation outdoes anything Japanese in -the way of prostration, nor can the language of it hardly be called -English. It is as follows: “To the supreme, most high and mighty -prince, Charles II., by the grace of God, of Great Britain, France -and Ireland, king, defender of the faith, &c. These strange and novel -relations concerning the ancient and present state of the so populous -and wealthy empire of Japan, being a book of wonders, dedicated with -all humility, lies prostrate at the sacred feet of your most serene -majesty, by the humblest of your servants, and most loyal subject, John -Ogilvy.” - -[125] This letter, with the instructions and a memoir of Caron’s on -the subject, may be found in “Voyages au Nord,” tom. iv. Caron, who -spent several years in the French service in the East Indies, perished -by shipwreck, near Lisbon, on his return to France in 1674. He was -president of the Dutch factory at the time of its removal to Deshima; -and Kämpfer undertakes to represent his mismanagement as in some degree -the cause of that removal. This story was doubtless current at Deshima -in Kämpfer’s time, but probably it grew out of disgust of the Dutch at -Caron’s having passed into the French service. - -[126] A curious narrative of this visit is printed in Pinkerton’s great -collection, vol. vii. - -[See also “Diary of Richard Cocks.”—K. M.] - -[127] For a further account of Fitch and his travels, see Appendix, -Note E. - -[128] The China trade was shared at this time between the Portuguese of -Macao and the Spaniards of the Philippines. On the Spanish trade, and -the profits of it, some light is thrown by extracts from letters found -on board Spanish prizes taken by the English, which Hackluyt translated -and published in his fourth volume. Thus Hieronymo de Nabores writes -from Panama (August 24, 1590), where he was waiting for the ship for -the Philippines: “My meaning is to carry my commodities thither, for it -is constantly reported that for every one hundred ducats a man shall -get six hundred ducats clearly.” This, however, was only the talk at -Panama; but Sebastian Biscanio had made the voyage, and he writes -to his father from Acapulco (June 20, 1590): “In this harbor here -are four great ships of Mexico, of six hundred or eight hundred tons -apiece, which only serve to carry our commodities to China, and so to -return back again. The order is thus. From hence to China is about two -thousand leagues further than from hence to Spain; and from hence the -two first ships depart together to China, and are thirteen or fourteen -months returning back again. And when these ships are returned, then -the other twain, two months after, depart from hence. They go now from -hence very strong with soldiers. I can certify you of one thing: that -two hundred ducats in Spanish commodities, and some Flemish woods which -I carried with me thither, I made worth fourteen hundred ducats there -in that country. So I make account that with those silks and other -commodities with me from thence to Mexico, I got twenty-five hundred -ducats by the voyage; and had gotten more, if one pack of fine silks -had not been spoiled with salt water. So, as I said, there is great -gain to be gotten, if that a man return in safety. But the year 1588, -I had great mischance coming in a ship from China to New Spain; which, -being laden with rich commodities, was taken by an Englishman [this was -Cavendish, then on his voyage round the world], which robbed us and -afterwards burnt our ship, wherein I lost a great deal of treasure and -commodities.” - -[129] The tael, reckoning the picul at one hundred and thirty-three and -one-third pounds avoirdupois, contains five hundred and eighty-three -grains troy. Our dollar weighs four hundred and twelve and a half -grains; and supposing the Japanese silver to be of equal fineness, the -tael is worth just about one dollar and forty cents. Kämpfer reckons -it as equivalent to three and a half florins, which is precisely one -dollar and forty cents, taking the florin at the usual valuation of -forty cents. This, however, was rather above the valuation of the Dutch -East India Company. There were, it seems, two kinds of Japanese silver, -known among the Dutch as heavy and light money, the latter sometimes -distinguished as bar-silver. Both kinds were carried to account without -distinction down to the year 1635, at the rate of sixty-two and a half -silvers, or one dollar and twenty-five cents per tael. After that -period the bar-silver was reckoned at fifty-seven stivers, or one -dollar and fourteen cents per tael. Reckoning the tael, as the Dutch -commonly did, at one dollar and twenty-five cents of our money, and the -mas is precisely equivalent to the Spanish eighth of a dollar. This -statement is derived from a Dutch memoir by Imhoff, quoted by Raffles -(“History of Java,” Appendix B), and found by him, it would seem, -among the Dutch records at Batavia. Of the chests of silver and gold, -particularly the former, so often mentioned in the old accounts of the -Dutch and Portuguese trade, I have met with no description, except in -Montanus’ “Memorable Embassies.” Unreliable and worthless as that huge -volume generally is, its compilers certainly had access to valuable -Dutch papers, and it is apparently from that source that they have -drawn what they say of the moneys, weights, and measures of Japan. Of -the chests of silver and gold they speak as follows: “Moreover, their -paying of money is very strange; for the Japanese, having great store -of gold and silver, observe a custom to receive their money without -telling or seeing it. The mint-master puts the gold in papers, which -contain the value of two hundred pounds sterling; these, sealed up, -pass from one to another without being questioned. They also use little -wooden boxes, in which they put twenty sealed papers of gold, which -is as much as a man can handsomely carry; every box amounts to four -thousand pounds sterling; and the like boxes, but of another fashion, -they use for their silver, in every one of which is twelve hundred -crowns, and is sealed with the coiner’s seal. But doth it not seem -strange that never any deceit is found in that blind way of paying -money?” “The silver, though weighed and coined, is of no certain value. -The coiners put it together into little packs worth sixty crowns,”—I -suppose taels. Caron says, however, that these packages contained fifty -taels. - -[130] These temples, built in Japan by the Chinese merchants, remind -one of the temples built in Egypt by the Greek merchants, who first -opened a trade with that country. See Grote’s “History of Greece,” -chap. xx. - -[131] The _kamishimo_ is a state dress, composed of two garments -(_kami_ signifies what is above, and _shimo_ what is below), a short -cloak, without sleeves, called _kataginu_, and breeches, called -_hakama_. Both are of a particular form (the breeches being like a -petticoat sewed up between the legs), and of colored stuffs. They are -used only on days of ceremony and at funerals.—_Titsingh._ - -[132] Unfortunately for the English, their attempt at a revival of -intercourse, mentioned in the last chapter, was made the very year of -the introduction of this new check on foreign trade. The appraisement -extended as well to the Chinese as the Dutch cargoes, as is apparent -from the following closing paragraph of the English narrative: “During -the time (July and August, 1673) we were in port, there came twelve -junks in all, eight from Batavia, two from Siam, one from Canton, one -from Cambodia, and six Dutch ships of the Company’s. They had not any -from Taiwan (Formosa), by reason the year before they put the price -upon their sugar and skins; and so they intend to do for all other -people, for whatsoever goods shall be brought to their port; which if -they do, few will seek after their commodities on such unequal terms.” - -There is strong reason to suppose that these new restrictions on -foreign trade grew out of the diminished produce of the mines, which -furnished the chief article of export. The working of these mines -seems to have greatly increased after the pacification of Japan by its -subjection to the imperial authority. Such is the statement in the -Japanese tract on the wealth of Japan, already referred to. According -to this tract the first gold coins were struck by Taikō-Sama. This -increase of metallic product seems to have given, about the time of the -commencement of the Dutch trade, a new impulse to foreign commerce. -Though the Portuguese trade had been stopped, it had been a good deal -more than replaced by the increase of the Chinese traffic, and already -the metallic drain appears to have been seriously felt. This is a much -more likely reason for the policy now adopted than the mere personal -hostility of certain Japanese grandees, to which the Dutch at Deshima, -and Kämpfer as their echo, ascribed it. - -[133] According to Titsingh, the Chinese factory was removed, in 1780, -to a new situation, the site of an ancient temple. He gives a plan of -the new factory after a Japanese draft. - -[134] Thunberg notices an odd mistake by the engravers, in representing -the Japanese as wearing their swords as we do, with the edge downward, -whereas their custom is just the reverse, the edge being turned upwards. - -[135] See also an “Abstract” of Kämpfer’s History in vol. ii of the -“Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan.”—EDR. - -[136] A translation of one of these tablets is given by Kämpfer as -follows: - -“Courtesans only, but no other women, shall be admitted. Only the -ecclesiastics of the mountain Kōya shall be admitted. All other -priests, and all Yamabushi, shall stand excluded.” (Note by Kämpfer. -—Kōyais stated to be a mountain near Miyako, a sanctuary and asylum -for criminals, no officers of justice being suffered to come there. -Its inhabitants, many thousand in number, lead an ecclesiastical life. -All are admitted that desire it, or who fly there for shelter, and are -afterwards maintained for life, if they can but bring in thirty taels -for the use of the convent, and are otherwise willing to serve the -community in their several capacities. These monks are not absolutely -confined to this mountain, but many travel up and down the country -in what manner or business they please. Very many of them betake -themselves to trade and commerce.) - -“All beggars, and all persons that live on charity, shall be denied -entrance. - -“Nobody shall presume with any ship or boat to come within the -palisades of Deshima. Nobody shall presume with any ship or boat to -pass under the bridge of Deshima. - -“No Hollander shall be permitted to come out, but for weighty reasons.” - -[137] For a full account of this journey, see Chap. XXXI, etc. - -[138] For an account of this festival, see Chap. XXIX. - -[139] The custom of using an emblem, or device, instead of a signature, -or to certify it, prevails with the Japanese, as with so many other -nations. - -[140] See further, in relation to this ceremony, Chap. XXIX. - -[141] Properly kuriki, but abbreviated to kuri, to approximate -“coolie.” See note on page 309.—EDR. - -[142] See also “Formosa under the Dutch” (Campbell), and “The Island of -Formosa” (Davidson).—EDR. - -[143] The smuggling affair mentioned on page 327. - -[144] This is, evidently, the word coolie, employed in India and China -to designate laborers of the lowest class. [See note on page 300.—EDR.] - -[145] Along the east coast of Asia, and as far north as the southern -coasts of Japan, the winds, during the six months from April to -September inclusive, blow from southwest to northeast This is called -the southwest monsoon. During the other six months they blow from -northeast to southwest. This is called the northeast monsoon. - -[146] Ambergris is a substance thrown up from the stomachs of whales -suffering from dyspepsia or some other disease. It is much employed in -the East in the preparation of perfumes and sweetmeats, and once had -considerable reputation in Europe. Its true nature was for a long time -in dispute. The Japanese understood it, as appears from their name of -the articles, _Kujira-no-fun_, that is, whale’s excrements. - -[147] This corresponds with Siebold’s description, who goes quite -into raptures at the first sight he had, in 1825, of the hills about -Nagasaki. - -[148] It would seem that Europe had derived the idea of paper-hangings, -as a substitute for tapestry, from Japan. - -[149] According to Haganaar this sake is flavored with honey or sugar. -It is very heating and heavy. Saris describes it as almost as strong as -aqua vitæ. It appears to be very various in quality and strength, quite -as much so as European ale or beer. The yeast from this sake is largely -used for preserving fruit and vegetables. The acid of it penetrates the -fruit or vegetable, giving it a peculiar flavor, of which the Japanese -are very fond. - -The Japanese are very fond of social drinking parties; but, according -to Caron, no drunken brawls occur, each person taking himself quietly -off as soon as he finds that he has enough or too much. - -[150] This prayer, or invocation, unintelligible to the Japanese, is, -as our modern Orientalists have discovered, good Sanscrit. - -[151] Another change, simultaneous with the restrictions upon Dutch and -Chinese trade, was the selection of the governors from the military and -noble class, instead of from the mercantile class, as had previously -been the case. - -[152] These Yoriki and Dōshin seem to be the same officers spoken -of in the subsequent Dutch narratives as _Gobanjoshu_ (said to mean -government overseeing officers), or by corruption, banjoses, upper and -under. The Dōshin seem to be the same with the imperial soldiers. - -[153] The Japanese division of time is peculiar. The day, from the -beginning of morning twilight to the end of evening twilight (so says -Siebold, correcting former statements, which give instead sunrise and -sunset), is divided into six hours, and the night, from the beginning -to the end of darkness, into six other hours. Of course the length of -these hours is constantly varying. Their names (according to Titsingh) -are as follows: _Kokonotsu_ [_nine_], noon, and midnight; _Yatsu_ -[_eight_], about our two o’clock; _Nanatsu_ [_seven_], from four to -five; _Mutsu_ [_six_], end of the evening and commencement of morning -twilight; _Itsutsu_ [_five_], eight to nine; _Yotsu_ [_four_], about -ten; and then Kokonotsu again. Each of these hours is also subdivided -into four parts, thus: _Kokonotsu_, noon or midnight; _Kokonotsu-han_ -[_nine and a half_], quarter past; _Kokonotsu-han-sugi_ [_past nine and -a half_], half past; _Kokonotsu-han-sugi-maye_ [_before past nine and a -half_], three quarters past; commencement of second hour: _Yatsu-han_, -etc., and so through all the hours. - -The hours are struck on bells, _Kokonotsu_ being indicated by nine -strokes, preceded (as is the case also with all the hours) by three -warning strokes, to call attention, and to indicate that the hour is to -be struck, and followed, after a pause of about a minute and a half, by -the strokes for the hour, between which there is an interval of about -fifteen seconds,—the last, however, following its predecessor still -more rapidly, to indicate that the hour is struck. _Yatsu_ is indicated -by eight strokes, _Nanatsu_ by seven, _Mutsu_ by six, _Itsutsu_ by -five, and _Yotsu_ by four. Much speculation has been resorted to by the -Japanese to explain why they do not employ, to indicate hours, one, -two, and three strokes. The obvious answer seems to be, that while -three strokes have been appropriated as a forewarning, their method of -indicating that the striking is finished would not be available, if one -and two strokes designated the first and second hours. [See paper on -“Japanese Calendars,” in vol. xxx of the Transactions of the Asiatic -Society of Japan.—EDR.] - -[154] Caron implies that it was only as to state offences that this -mutual responsibility exists. According to Guysbert, in his account -of the persecution at Nagasaki, if a converted priest was discovered, -not only the householder concealing him was held responsible, but the -two nearest householders on either side, though not only ignorant of -the fact, but pagans. This strict system was very effectual for the -purposes of the persecution. - -[155] Better _fumiye_ or _fumie_.—EDR. - -[156] It would seem from Guysbert, that the participation by young -children in the death decreed against the parents, was rather the -act of those parents who had the power of life and death over their -children, and who did not choose to part with them in this extremity. - -[157] The Japanese year begins at the new moon nearest to the fifth of -February (the middle point between the winter solstice and the spring -equinox). - -[158] According to Klaproth’s statement of Japanese legend, in his -“Histoire Mythologique,” introductory to Titsingh’s “Annals of the -Dairi,” the first three of the celestial gods were solitary males. -The next three had female companions, yet produced their successors -by the force of mutual contemplation only. The seventh pair found out -the ordinary method of generation, of which the first result was the -successive production of eight islands, those of Japan (the number -eight being selected simply because it is esteemed the most perfect), -after which they gave birth also to mountains, rivers, plants, and -trees. To provide a ruler and governor for these creations, they -next produced _Tenshō daijin_, or, in Japanese (for _Tenshō daijin_ -is Chinese), _Ama terasu-no-kami_ (Celestial Spirit of Sunlight); -but, thinking her too beautiful for the earth, they placed her in -the heavens, as they did, likewise, their second born, a daughter, -also, _Tsuki-no-kami_, goddess of the moon. Their third child, _Ebisu -saburō_, was made god of the sea; their fourth child, _Susanoō_, also -a son, god of the winds and tempest. He was agreeable enough when in -good humor, and at times had his eyes filled with tears, but was liable -to such sudden outbreaks and caprices of temper as to render him quite -unreliable. It was concluded to send him away to the regions of the -north; but before going he got leave to pay a visit to his sisters -in heaven. At first he had a good understanding with them, but soon -committed so many outrages,—in the spring spoiling the flower borders, -and in the autumn riding through the ripe corn on a wild horse,—that -in disgust _Tenshō daijin_ hid herself in a cavern, at the mouth of -which she placed a great stone. Darkness forthwith settled over the -heavens. The eight hundred thousand gods, in great alarm, assembled -in council, when, among other expedients, one of their number, who -was a famous dancer, was set to dance to music at the mouth of the -cavern. _Tenshō daijin_, out of curiosity, moved the stone a little, -to get a look at what was going on, when immediately _Te chikara o-no -kami_ (god of the strong hand) caught hold of it, rolled it away, and -dragged her out, while two others stretched ropes across the mouth so -that she could not get in again. Finally, the matter was compromised by -clipping the claws and hair of _Susanoō_, after which he was sent off -to the north, though not till he had killed a dragon, married a wife, -and become the hero of other notable adventures. This legend makes it -clear what _Anjirō_, the first Japanese convert, meant by speaking of -the Japanese as worshippers of the sun and moon. See _ante_, p. 49. -The annual festival of _Tenshō daijin_ falls on the sixteenth day of -the ninth month, immediately after that of _Suwa_, and is celebrated -throughout the empire by matsuri much like that described in the text. -The sixteenth, twenty-first, and twenty-sixth days of every month are -likewise sacred to her, but not celebrated with any great solemnity. -[Also see “Kojiki.”—EDR.] - -Kämpfer mentions as the gods particularly worshipped by the mercantile -class: 1. _Yebisu_, the Neptune of the country, and the protector -of fishermen and seafaring people, said to be able to live two -or three days under water. He is represented sitting on a rock, -with an angling-rod in one hand, and the delicious fish, _Tai_, or -_Steinbrassin_ (_Sparus Aurata_, the Japanese name, signifies _red -lady_), in the other. 2. _Dai-koku_, commonly represented sitting on -a bale of rice, with his fortunate hammer in his right hand, and a -bag laid by him to put in what he knocks out; for he is said to have -the power of knocking out, from whatever he strikes with his hammer, -whatever he wants, as rice, clothes, money, etc. Klaproth states him -to be of Indian origin, and that this name signifies Great Black. 3. -_Toshitoku_, represented standing, clad in a large gown with long -sleeves, with a long beard, a huge forehead, large ears, and a fan -in his right hand. Worshipped at the beginning of the new year, in -hopes of obtaining, by his assistance, success and prosperity. 4. -_Hotei_, represented with a huge belly, and supposed to have in his -gift, health, riches, and children. [These are four of the “Seven Gods -of Happiness.” See also paper on that subject, in vol. viii of the -Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan.—EDR.] - -[159] On the whole, and from the play-bills presently given, the -performance would seem to be a good deal like that of Pyramus and -Thisbe, in the Midsummer Night’s Dream. - -[160] Certainly there is nothing of which the Japanese stood, and still -stand, more in need than some contrivance for extinguishing fires. -Caron, in his memorial addressed to Colbert, had recommended a present -of fire-extinguishers. - -[161] See p. 265. - -[162] These zeni were of various values, a thousand of them being -worth, according to Caron, from eight to twenty-six mas, that is, from -a dollar to three dollars and a quarter; the zeni varying, therefore, -from a mill to three mills and a quarter. Of the existing copper -coinage we shall speak hereafter. See vol. ii, p. 309. - -[163] “Though it may sound extraordinary to talk of a soldier with -a fan, yet the use of that article is so general in Japan that no -respectable man is to be seen without one. These fans are a foot long, -and sometimes serve for parasols; at others instead of memorandum -books. They are adorned with paintings of landscapes, birds, flowers, -or ingenious sentences. The etiquette to be observed in regard to the -fan requires profound study and close attention.”—_Titsingh_. “At -feasts and ceremonies the fan is always stuck in the girdle, on the -left hand, behind the sabre, with the handle downward.”—_Thunberg_. -[See paper on “Japanese Fans,” in vol. ii of the Transactions and -Proceedings of the Japan Society, London.—EDR.] - -[164] This is exclusive of the central tract or imperial domain -(consisting of five provinces), and also of the two island provinces of -Iki and Tsushima. [See also Note A in the Appendix.—EDR.] - -[165] For a part of the distance across Kiūshiū (or Shimo), different -routes were taken in the first and second of Kämpfer’s journeys. In -the first he crossed the gulf of Ōmura; in the second, the gulf of -Shimabara, these two gulfs enclosing the peninsula of Ōmura, the one on -the north, the other on the east. - -[166] The distance is reckoned by the Japanese at three hundred and -thirty-two to three hundred and thirty-three leagues; but these -Japanese leagues are of unequal length, varying from eighteen thousand -to about thirteen thousand feet, and the water-leagues generally -shorter than those by land in the proportion of five to three. Kämpfer -makes the whole distance two hundred German or about eight hundred -English miles. - -[167] Three or four inches thick (according to Thunberg), and made of -rushes and rice straw. - -[168] Japanese feet, that is, for, according to Klaproth (“Annales -des Emp. du Japon”) page 404, note, the _ken_ is equal to seven feet -four inches and a half, Rhineland (which does not differ much from our -English) measure. - -[169] These windows are of light frames, which may be taken out, -and put in, and slid behind each other at pleasure, divided into -parallelograms like our panes of glass, and covered with paper. Glass -windows are unknown. - -[170] Thunberg says, “tiles of a singular make, very thick and heavy.” - -[171] In a Japanese map brought home by Kämpfer the number of castles -in the whole empire is set down at a hundred and forty-six. - -[172] The whole number of towns in the empire, great and small, is set -down in the above-mentioned map at more than thirteen thousand. - -[173] Kämpfer’s meaning seems to be only that the Shintō priests were -not monks living together in convents, like the Buddhist clergy, but -having houses and families of their own. - -[174] According to a memorandum annexed to the Japanese map already -mentioned, there were in Japan twenty-seven thousand seven hundred Kami -temples, one hundred and twenty-two thousand five hundred and eighty -Buddhist temples, in all forty-nine thousand two hundred and eighty. -By the census of 1850, there were in the United States thirty-eight -thousand one hundred and eighty-three buildings used for religious -worship. - -It would appear that though the Shintō temples did not want worshippers -who freely contributed alms to the support of the priests, yet that -since the abolition of the Catholic worship, and as a sort of security -against it, every Japanese was required to enroll himself as belonging -to some Buddhist sect or observance. - -[175] These oharai, or indulgence-boxes, are little boxes made of thin -boards and filled with small sticks wrapped in bits of white paper. -Great virtues are ascribed to them, but a new one is necessary every -year. 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