NormalizeHEAD main

author: nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org> 2025-01-22 17:23:24 -0800
committer: nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org> 2025-01-22 17:23:24 -0800
commit: 68097e3e168fd42f66d72316876957564253bc2b (patch)
tree: fea0a28857bbdf962c24f1ab50cbb348387317d9
parent: e016397f535104dc6af52751210a80c0bc89e165 (diff)
65 files changed, 17 insertions, 5484 deletions
diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d7b82bc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/.gitattributes
@@ -0,0 +1,4 @@
+*.txt text eol=lf
+*.htm text eol=lf
+*.html text eol=lf
+*.md text eol=lf
diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6312041
--- /dev/null
+++ b/LICENSE.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,11 @@
+This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements,
+metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be
+in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES.
+
+Procedures for determining public domain status are described in
+the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org.
+
+No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in
+jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize
+this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright
+status under the laws that apply to them.
diff --git a/README.md b/README.md
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3ab5e2e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/README.md
@@ -0,0 +1,2 @@
+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #66268 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/66268)
diff --git a/old/66268-0.txt b/old/66268-0.txt
deleted file mode 100644
index f8d8d38..0000000
--- a/old/66268-0.txt
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,2487 +0,0 @@
-The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Atom and the Ocean, by E. W. Seabrook
-Hull
-
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
-most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
-whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
-of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
-www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you
-will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before
-using this eBook.
-
-Title: The Atom and the Ocean
-
-Author: E. W. Seabrook Hull
-
-Release Date: September 11, 2021 [eBook #66268]
-
-Language: English
-
-Character set encoding: UTF-8
-
-Produced by: Stephen Hutcheson and the Online Distributed Proofreading
-             Team at https://www.pgdp.net
-
-*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ATOM AND THE OCEAN ***
-
-
-
-
-                       The _ATOM_ and the _OCEAN_
-
-
-                         by E. W. Seabrook Hull
-
-
-                     U.S. ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION
-                   Division of Technical Information
-                    _Understanding the Atom Series_
-
-
-
-
-                   The Understanding the Atom Series
-
-
-Nuclear energy is playing a vital role in the life of every man, woman,
-and child in the United States today. In the years ahead it will affect
-increasingly all the peoples of the earth. It is essential that all
-Americans gain an understanding of this vital force if they are to
-discharge thoughtfully their responsibilities as citizens and if they
-are to realize fully the myriad benefits that nuclear energy offers
-them.
-
-The United States Atomic Energy Commission provides this booklet to help
-you achieve such understanding.
-
-                                                  {Edward J. Brunenkant}
-                                          Edward J. Brunenkant, Director
-                                       Division of Technical Information
-
-  UNITED STATES ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION
-
-  Dr. Glenn T. Seaborg, Chairman
-  James T. Ramey
-  Wilfrid E. Johnson
-  Dr. Theos J. Thompson
-  Dr. Clarence E. Larson
-
-
-
-
-                       The _ATOM_ and the _OCEAN_
-
-
-                         by E. W. Seabrook Hull
-
-
-
-
-                                CONTENTS
-
-
-  SEEKING ANSWERS                                                      1
-      Energy for Exploration                                           3
-  THE WORLD OCEAN                                                      6
-      Ocean Movements                                                  7
-      A Mix of Elements                                               10
-      The Sea’s Interfaces                                            11
-      The Sea’s Resources                                             11
-  NUCLEAR ENERGY’S ROLE                                               13
-      Radionuclides in the Sea                                        13
-      Research Projects                                               23
-      Oceanographic Instruments                                       35
-      Environmental Safety Studies                                    41
-      The Atom at Work in the Sea                                     42
-      Ocean Engineering                                               51
-      Fresh Water from Seawater                                       52
-      Radiation Preservation of Seafood                               54
-      Project Plowshare                                               56
-      A New _Fram_                                                    56
-  THE THREE-DIMENSIONAL OCEAN                                         57
-  SUGGESTED REFERENCES                                                58
-
-
-                 United States Atomic Energy Commission
-                   Division of Technical Information
-           Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 67-62476
-                                  1968
-
-    [Illustration: uncaptioned frontispiece]
-
-
-
-
-                       The _ATOM_ and the _OCEAN_
-
-
-                                                  By E. W. SEABROOK HULL
-
-
-
-
-                            SEEKING ANSWERS
-
-
-Historians of the future will record that man almost simultaneously
-unlocked the secret of atomic energy and ventured into new domains
-beneath the closed doors of the world ocean, in one of the greatest
-exploration endeavors of all time.
-
-History may also show how these two efforts to benefit mankind became
-closely interthreaded—how nuclear energy, in its many forms and
-applications, played a major role in the efforts to explore and exploit
-“the other three-quarters” of our planet, and moreover, how the very
-development of a nuclear technology enforced our need to know more about
-the sea around us.
-
-Nuclear energy is a fundamental physical phenomenon, like the actions of
-the wheel, the lever, or the inclined plane. Like chemical combustion or
-electricity, it is but another means for men to do useful work, whether
-that work be in the interests of science, commerce, recreation, or war.
-To this extent, nuclear energy is universal, as applicable in the sea as
-it is on land or in outer space. Wherever man goes and whatever he does,
-he requires energy to get him there and energy for his work or play when
-he arrives. Some of the places he now seeks to pioneer are hard to
-investigate by anyone encumbered with bulky traditional energy
-sources—coal, fuel oil, or storage batteries. The ocean in its full
-three-dimensional scope is one of these places.
-
-The atom is the most concentrated source of energy, and one of the most
-diverse. Thus, not only are we able to do familiar things better with
-nuclear energy (the nuclear-powered submarine is a dramatic example),
-but we are also able to do things never before possible (such as
-studying the diffusion of dissolved salts in the open ocean or extending
-the useful life of seafoods through irradiation).
-
-Nuclear energy has at last enabled us to realize the predictions of
-Jules Verne’s adventure tale, _Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea_,
-and to build a true submarine—a craft whose submerged existence is
-limited only by the physiological and psychological endurance of its
-human crew. This fact in itself has added greatly to our need to learn
-much more about the ocean, for the sea is an opaque and strange
-environment in which the deadly game of hunt-and-be-hunted will be won
-by whoever knows the ocean best.
-
-The very fact that we have nuclear energy means we have nuclear wastes;
-many of these inevitably find their way into the ocean, as all things
-do. We need to know more about the watery world before we can safely
-allow this inflow to continue.
-
-    [Illustration: _In 1900 the U. S. Navy commissioned its first
-    submarine, the USS_ Holland, _which was built by John P. Holland. It
-    is shown in dry dock at Perth Amboy, New Jersey, in 1898._]
-
-    [Illustration: _The USS_ Plunger, _named after an early John Holland
-    submarine, which is an example of the Navy’s present fleet of
-    nuclear submarines._]
-
-In the waters of the seven seas are enough deuterium and tritium to
-power tomorrow’s thermonuclear power plants[1] for millions of years.
-These rare, heavy varieties of hydrogen, enormously abundant in the
-vastness of the sea, comprise an energy source without limit for all
-nations, which need only develop the technological ability to extract
-them and put them to work.
-
-
-Energy for Exploration
-
-For this exploration, men need to put instruments, navigation beacons
-(see figures on pages 46 and 47), and other devices on the deep ocean
-floor, where they must operate for long periods of time unattended and
-with no external source of power. Radioisotope-powered generators,
-capitalizing on the energy of disintegrating radioactive atoms, are
-almost the only devices capable of fulfilling these requirements.[2] Man
-also wants to do productive work under the ocean, such as drilling
-seafloor oil wells, mining, and salvaging for profit some of the tens of
-thousands of cargoes lost at sea during thousands of years of ocean
-commerce. Eventually, he even wants to farm the ocean floor.
-
-    [Illustration: _An artist draws (using pencil and frosted plastic
-    sheet) the position of objects in the wreck of a 7th century
-    Byzantine ship 120 feet down in the Aegean Sea. Nuclear power will
-    permit historians of the future to remain underwater for long
-    periods exploring shipwrecks or old cities far below the surface._]
-
-All these activities require energy—energy in an environment where most
-sources cannot be applied. Above all, man wants to go down himself to
-explore, to work, and perhaps to direct nuclear-powered robots to do
-even more work. This means that small, manned, nonmilitary submersibles
-will be needed—vessels whose endurance should not be limited by the
-short life of traditional power sources, but should draw on the
-fissioning atomic nucleus, harnessed in small reactors.[3]
-
-To work effectively in any environment, we must first know and
-understand it. This is the job of science. In the quest for knowledge
-and understanding of the ocean, nuclear energy provides scientists with
-better instruments to put down into the depths and wholly new techniques
-for the direct study of the many oceanic processes.
-
-For example, take the role of radioisotope tracers: For the first time,
-these telltale atoms permit us to study the metabolism of tiny
-plankters, the often microscopic drifting creatures of the sea that in
-their incredible abundance form the base of the entire marine food
-chain, including fish eaten by humans. Even fallout isotopes from
-nuclear tests enable us to trace important physical oceanographic
-events, such as the ponderous process known as overturning, which
-transports oxygen-rich surface water to the deeps and nutrient-rich
-bottom water to the surface. Radioisotope tracers also provide a tool
-for studying the mechanics of littoral transport, which continually
-tears down some beaches and builds up others. They also enable us to
-determine if oceanic processes are likely to concentrate fallout
-particles and deliver them in dangerous doses through the food chain to
-our dinner tables.[4]
-
-By using other nuclear energy technology, we are better able to
-ascertain the age and composition of deep ocean sediments and the rate
-at which they are deposited, how a tsunami (tidal wave) propagates
-across vast distances, how tides operate in the open ocean, where the
-brown shrimp of the Carolina coast go every fall, and the migration
-patterns of tuna, swordfish, and other valuable food fish.
-
-    [Illustration: _Navy men preparing for undersea research by feeding
-    Tuffy, a friendly porpoise, which later carried messages for them
-    during the “Man-In-The-Sea” experiment._ (_Also see photos on page
-    12._)]
-
-These are just a few of the answers we seek from the world ocean—answers
-important for more productive fisheries, more accurate long-range
-weather forecasting, possible control of hurricanes and typhoons,
-pollution control, safer and more economical shipping, better
-recreation, and numerous other matters that bear on our health,
-well-being, and day-to-day lives.
-
-On all these endeavors the ocean exerts a major influence. And in each,
-atomic energy is helping assemble and interpret answers.
-
-
-
-
-                            THE WORLD OCEAN
-
-
-But what of this environment into which, armed with the atom, we plunge
-with such enthusiasm and expectations? A portrait is in order, which
-must be brief, for not all the books ever written about the sea have yet
-described it fully.
-
-The world ocean covers 70.8% of our planet. It contains 324,000,000
-cubic miles of seawater. Living in it are upwards of a million different
-species of plants and animals. They range from one-celled organisms that
-can only be seen with a microscope to the largest creature ever to have
-lived on this earth—the giant blue (or sulfur-bottom) whale, captured
-specimens of which have exceeded 90 feet in length and 100 tons in
-weight.
-
-The ocean’s depth ranges from 600 feet or less above continental shelves
-to more than 35,000 feet at the Marianas Trench. The mean depth is
-12,451 feet. Sea bottom topography includes wide plains, the world’s
-longest mountain range, steeply rising individual truncated peaks called
-_guyots_ (pronounced gee-ohs), gentle slopes, narrow canyons, and
-precipitous escarpments. Mountains higher than Everest rise from the
-ocean floor and never pierce the surface.
-
-    [Illustration: _Underwater mountain traced by the Woods Hole
-    Oceanographic Institution echo sounder in the Caribbean area. Depth
-    is determined by the time it takes the sound emitted by the
-    instrument to go to the bottom and return to the surface._]
-
-
-Ocean Movements
-
-    [Illustration: _Six ships checking the Gulf Stream’s course through
-    the Atlantic Ocean over a 2-week period found the variations shown
-    above._]
-
-    [Illustration: _The infrared film photograph shows the edge of the
-    Gulf Stream. The visible line between the Gulf Stream, which is on
-    the right, and Labrador water is made by Sargassum weed concentrated
-    at the interface._]
-
-The ocean is constantly in motion—not just in the waves and tides that
-characterize its surface but in great currents that swirl between
-continents, moving (among other things) great quantities of heat from
-one part of the world to another. Beneath these surface currents are
-others, deeply hidden, that flow as often as not in an entirely
-different direction from the surface course.
-
-These enormous “rivers”—quite unconstant, sometimes shifting, often
-branching and eddying in a manner that defies explanation and
-prediction—occasionally create disastrous results. One example is El
-Niño, the periodic catastrophe that plagues the west coast of South
-America. This coast normally is caressed by the cold, rich Humboldt
-Current. Usually the Humboldt hugs the shore and extends 200 to 300
-miles out to sea. It is rich in life. It fosters the largest commercial
-fishery in the world and is the home of one of the mightiest game fish
-on record, the black marlin. The droppings of marine birds that feed
-from its waters are responsible for the fertilizer (guano) exports that
-undergird the Chilean, Peruvian, and Ecuadorian economies.
-
-Every few years, however, the Humboldt disappears. It moves out from
-shore or simply sinks, and a flow of warm, exhausted surface water known
-as El Niño takes its place. Simultaneously, torrential rains assault the
-coast. Fishes and birds die by the millions. Commercial fisheries are
-closed. The beaches reek with death. El Niño is a stark demonstration of
-man’s dependence on the sea and why he must learn more about it.
-
-There are other motions in the restless sea. The water masses are
-constantly “turning over” in a cycle that may take hundreds of years,
-yet is essential to bring oxygen down to the creatures of the deeps, and
-nutrients (fertilizers) up from the sea floor to the surface. Here the
-floating phytoplankton (the plants of the sea) build through
-photosynthesis the organic material that will start the nutrient cycle
-all over again. Enormous tonnages of these tiny sea plants, rather than
-being rooted in the soil, are separated from solid earth by up to
-several vertical miles of saltwater. Sometimes, too, there is a more
-rapid surge of deep water to the surface, a process known as upwelling.
-
-Internal waves, far below the surface, develop between water masses that
-have different densities and between which there is relative motion.
-These waves are much like the wind-driven waves on the surface, though
-much bigger: Internal waves may have heights of 300 feet or more and be
-6 miles or more in length!
-
-    [Illustration: _A dividing cell of the diatom_ Corethron hystrix.
-    _Diatoms, one-celled photosynthetic plants, are the primary
-    producers of organic matter in fresh waters._]
-
-    [Illustration: _Ocean currents feed sand from nearby beaches into
-    this “sandfall”, which is about 30 feet high, in a submarine canyon
-    off Baja California._]
-
-Among other motions of the sea there are landslides, or turbidity
-currents, which are great boiling mixes of mud, rock, sand, and water
-rushing down submarine mountainsides at speeds of a mile a minute. They
-destroy everything in their paths and spread clouds of debris over the
-abyssal plains like a sandstorm, producing fanlike deposits radiating
-far out from the base of the slope. And there are tsunamis, or seismic
-sea waves—popularly misnamed “tidal waves”—that transmit energy from
-undersea earthquakes or volcanic eruptions. At sea, these waves are only
-a few inches high, but they may travel great distances at 500 miles an
-hour. As they approach the shoaling waters of a coast, they are slowed
-to about 30 miles an hour and build up great surface waves capable of
-destroying harbor and coastal installations.
-
-
-A Mix of Elements
-
-The sea is a chemistry, too. Over 60 elements have been discovered in
-measurable amounts in solution or in suspension in the ocean. Many of
-these are in the form of salts, making seawater a highly efficient
-electrolyte, and a most corrosive fluid. The study of corrosion and
-techniques for combatting it is a continuous one in which nuclear energy
-already has a principal role.
-
-Because the sea is so much a chemistry, it is a potential source of
-minerals for the world’s growing industrial appetite. All of our
-magnesium and most of our bromine already are extracted directly from
-seawater. Oil and sulfur are mined from the sea floor or beneath it, as
-are coal (United Kingdom and Japan), iron ore (Japan), tin (Thailand and
-United Kingdom), diamonds (Southwest Africa), and gold (Alaska). In the
-layered sediments that cover the ocean-basin floors to depths of
-thousands of feet, geologists believe there also may be found some
-missing chapters of earth history.
-
-    [Illustration: _Nodules such as these containing manganese cover
-    millions of undersea acres on the ocean floor. Many nodules are rich
-    in nickel, cobalt, zirconium, and copper. Metallurgists are seeking
-    ways to recover the metals from these deposits._]
-
-The ocean, by and large, is an opaque fluid through which light travels
-only a few hundred feet and most other radiant energy not much more than
-a few yards; yet through this same fluid, sound waves, by contrast, have
-been transmitted and received over distances of many thousand miles.
-
-
-The Sea’s Interfaces
-
-What of the interfaces of the sea? Above three-quarters of the globe,
-water and air are in constant contact, continually exchanging heat and
-moisture. This is a major factor in the making of weather and climate.
-The sea constantly feeds electricity into the atmosphere, primarily
-through the electron-scrubbing action of tiny popping bubbles at the sea
-surface. It also lifts tiny crystals of salt and the remains of
-microscopic sea creatures into the air. Perhaps these are the nuclei on
-which moisture condenses to trigger hurricanes, since it is the latent
-heat of vaporization of air, made over-moist by long travel over the
-tropical sea, that provides a hurricane’s energy.
-
-Along its land edges, the sea is constantly working on the
-shore—sometimes gently, sometimes violently—breaking down rock cliffs,
-opening bays and harbors, closing channels and inlets, smashing
-breakwaters and seawalls, and moving sand up and down and to and from
-beaches.
-
-
-The Sea’s Resources
-
-In summary, then, the ocean, the largest single geographical feature of
-our planet, is infinitely varied and infinitely complex. We are learning
-it bears on our day-to-day living in ways we never suspected. It is the
-largest resource of food for our exploding population, the largest
-resource of minerals with which to support the world’s burgeoning
-industries, the largest resource of energy, and, of course, it is the
-largest supply of water. It is mankind’s largest dumping ground for the
-wastes of cities and industries. It is the source of much pleasure and
-recreation.
-
-Men already have lived experimentally for weeks at a time on the bottom
-of the ocean. Both sea floor laboratories and military bases are being
-planned or, in a few cases, installed. Sea floor mining complexes are in
-the conceptual design stage. It is only a matter of time before
-recreational “aquotels” are built safely below the sea’s restless
-surface. Private sports submarines are an actual, though costly,
-reality. It is not inconceivable that in the not-too-distant future
-human beings may overflow the land into complete, self-sufficient
-communities below the oceans.
-
-    [Illustration: _In 1965 the U. S. Navy conducted a 45-day experiment
-    in its “Man-In-The-Sea” program in which 10 aquanauts lived and
-    worked 205 feet below the surface of the sea off La Jolla,
-    California. Their undersea base was Sealab II shown at her
-    christening._]
-
-    [Illustration: _Sealab II shown during final checkout before
-    descent. The aquanauts conducted experimental salvage operations,
-    marine research, and underwent a series of physiological and human
-    performance tests._]
-
-
-
-
-                         NUCLEAR ENERGY’S ROLE
-
-
-The role of nuclear energy in the study, exploration, and utilization of
-the world ocean is best defined by citing the specific oceanographic
-interests of the U. S. Atomic Energy Commission (AEC): Development of
-better instruments and devices for work and study in the ocean,
-development of ever-stronger national sea power, conversion of seawater
-to fresh water, possible modification of ocean boundaries, purely
-scientific studies to advance knowledge, and, indirectly at least,
-improving the state of oceanographic engineering. Among the
-technological products of the nuclear age are radionuclides, neutron
-sources and other radiation sources, radioisotope heat and electric
-generators, and nuclear reactors. All these are applied to ocean-related
-endeavors.
-
-Several divisions of the AEC have important oceanic interests. These
-range from pure oceanographic research to development of specific
-instruments, nuclear reactors, radioisotopic power sources, and other
-devices for use in or under the ocean. The AEC also conducts extensive
-marine environmental studies to monitor the effects or ensure the safety
-of specific projects involving nuclear energy. A statistical summary of
-specific AEC programs in oceanography is shown in Table I on page 14.
-
-
-Radionuclides in the Sea
-
-Before we can follow the atom down into the sea, we must understand
-something about the potentials, both good and bad, of this incursion of
-one of our most advanced technologies into one of earth’s least
-understood environments. This adventurous probing has ramifications for
-studying both man-produced radioactivity in the sea and the ocean itself
-as an uncontaminated environment.
-
-                                 TABLE I
-                  AEC OCEANOGRAPHY PROGRAM                     1968
-                                                           Expenditures
-                                                             Estimate
-  _Research Activities_
-
-  Division of Biology and Medicine                            $4,000,000
-     Studies of uptake, concentration, distribution and
-     effects of radioisotopes on marine life, of
-     geochemical cycling of elements, and of geophysical
-     diffusion and transport.
-  Division of Research                                            25,000
-     Geological dating of corals and other marine and
-     terrestrial materials.
-  Division of Isotopes Development                               190,000
-     Radioisotope applications to devices for marine
-     systems, such as current meters, analysis and
-     recovery of sedimentary minerals, and underwater
-     sound transmission.
-  Division of Reactor Development and Technology                 197,000
-     Studies of factors affecting dissolution and
-     dispersal of accidentally released radionuclides, and
-     site evaluations.
-  Division of Space Nuclear Systems                              275,000
-     Nuclear power sources for aerospace applications.
-  Division of Military Applications                              850,000
-     Ocean environmental observation and prediction.
-                                _Total—Research Activities_    5,537,000
-
-  _Engineering Activities_
-
-  Division of Reactor Development and Technology               5,900,000
-     Radioisotope and reactor power development.
-  Division of Naval Reactors                                   1,320,000
-     Deep submergence research vehicle.
-                            _Total —Engineering Activities_    7,220,000
-                       _Total—ABC Oceanographic Activities_   12,757,000
-
-Radionuclides (radioactive atoms) can find their way into the sea from
-natural radiation sources or from nuclear energy operations undertaken
-by the United States and other countries since 1945. Specific man-made
-sources in the past may have included nuclear weapons tested in the
-atmosphere and under water, the cooling water and wastes of nuclear
-reactors, laboratories and nuclear-powered ships, containers of
-radioactive waste disposed of at sea[5], radioisotope energy devices,
-and intentional injection of radioisotope tracers for scientific
-research. In the future, they may also include reentry from space of
-upper-stage nuclear rockets or satellite-borne nuclear energy sources.
-
-    [Illustration: _The Nansen bottle, shown being attached to a
-    hydrographic wire, is one of the standard tools of oceanology. When
-    a bottle reaches a desired depth, a sliding weight tips it upside
-    down to collect seawater samples. Thermometers on the sides of the
-    bottles record temperature. The device was designed by the Norwegian
-    oceanographer and explorer, Fridtjof Nansen._ (_See photo on
-    page 56._)]
-
-In order to evaluate the effects of these materials in the ocean
-environment, it is necessary to know many things. Just how much
-radiation is introduced? In what form? Where geographically? How are
-these radionuclides dispersed or concentrated physically, chemically,
-biologically, and geologically? What is the net result in each case now,
-and what will it be many years hence?
-
-These questions are not answered easily. There is, as yet, no
-satisfactory laboratory substitute for the open ocean. Research for the
-most part must be conducted at sea, where tests and measurements are
-difficult at best, and where results therefore are often suspect.
-Further, if we are to study the effects of man-induced changes in a
-natural environment, it would have been advantageous to have known the
-nature of that environment before the changes were introduced—which, by
-and large, in the case of the ocean we do not. So we must start with a
-contaminated environment and try to separate what we have put there
-ourselves from what would have been there anyway. It isn’t an easy task
-to make the physical and biological observations that will make this
-distinction.
-
-   Table II CONCENTRATION AND AMOUNTS OF 42 OF THE ELEMENTS IN SEAWATER
-    Element     Concentration   Amount of element in    Total amount in
-                   (mg/l)       seawater (tons mile³)  the oceans (tons)
-
-  Chlorine     19,000.0        89.5 × 10⁶                    29.3 × 10¹⁵
-  Sodium       10,500.0        49.5 x-10⁶                    16.3 × 10¹⁵
-  Magnesium    1,350.0         6.4 × 10⁶                      2.1 × 10¹⁵
-  Sulphur      885.0           4.2 × 10⁶                      1.4 × 10¹⁵
-  Calcium      400.0           1.9 × 10⁶                      0.6 × 10¹⁵
-  Potassium    380.0           1.8 × 10⁶                      0.6 × 10¹⁵
-  Bromine      65.0            306,000                        0.1 × 10¹⁵
-  Carbon       28.0            132,000                       0.04 × 10¹⁵
-  Strontium    8.0             38,000                       12,000 × 10⁹
-  Boron        4.6             23,000                        7,100 × 10⁹
-  Silicon      3.0             14,000                        4,700 × 10⁹
-  Lithium      0.17            800                             260 × 10⁹
-  Rubidium     0.12            570                             190 × 10⁹
-  Phosphorus   0.07            330                             110 × 10⁹
-  Iodine       0.06            280                              93 × 10⁹
-  Barium       0.03            140                              47 × 10⁹
-  Indium       0.02            94                               31 × 10⁹
-  Zinc         0.01            47                               16 × 10⁹
-  Iron         0.01            47                               16 × 10⁹
-  Aluminum     0.01            47                               16 × 10⁹
-  Molybdenum   0.01            47                               16 × 10⁹
-  Selenium     0.004           19                                6 × 10⁹
-  Tin          0.003           14                                5 × 10⁹
-  Copper       0.003           14                                5 × 10⁹
-  Arsenic      0.003           14                                5 × 10⁹
-  Uranium      0.003           14                                5 × 10⁹
-  Nickel       0.002           9                                 3 × 10⁹
-  Vanadium     0.002           9                                 3 × 10⁹
-  Manganese    0.002           9                                 3 × 10⁹
-  Antimony     0.0005          2                               0.8 × 10⁹
-  Cobalt       0.0005          2                               0.8 × 10⁹
-  Caesium      0.0005          2                               0.8 × 10⁹
-  Cerium       0.0004          2                               0.6 × 10⁹
-  Silver       0.0003          1                                 5 × 10⁸
-  Cadmium      0.0001          0.5                             150 × 10⁶
-  Tungsten     0.0001          0.5                             150 × 10⁶
-  Chromium     0.00005         0.2                              78 × 10⁶
-  Thorium      0.00005         0.2                              78 × 10⁶
-  Lead         0.00003         0.1                              46 × 10⁶
-  Mercury      0.00003         0.1                              46 × 10⁶
-  Gold         0.000004        0.02                              6 × 10⁶
-  Radium       1 × 10⁻¹⁰       5 × 10⁻⁷                              150
-
-  Adapted from _The Mineral Resources of the Sea_, by John L. Mero,
-  American Elsevier Publishing Company, New York, 1964.
-
-Many sea creatures are efficient, selective concentrators of “trace
-elements”, which occur in seawater only in minute portions. These
-elements are difficult enough to detect qualitatively and all but
-impossible to analyze quantitatively. Yet among the elements the sea’s
-plants and animals concentrate are the very materials with which we are
-apt to be most concerned: Strontium, cesium, cerium, ruthenium, cobalt,
-iodine, phosphorus, zinc, manganese, iron, chromium, and others.
-Radioisotopes[6] of all these elements occur as by-products of human
-nuclear activities. Many concentrating organisms are microscopic in size
-and are frequently impossible to raise in captivity. It is apparent that
-we are faced with a research program of considerable challenge and
-proportion.
-
-We need to know _how_ each marine species concentrates. Is it from the
-food it eats, by absorption from the water, or both? Does it concentrate
-an element by continuous accumulation, or is there a constant turnover
-of the material in the organism’s system? (In the first case, once the
-creature became radioactive it would remain so throughout its life or
-until the radioactivity decayed. In the second case, however, the
-radioactivity might be a transient condition, assuming the creature
-could find its way into uncontaminated water and were able to flush
-itself.) Obviously, both the cycling time of the radioisotope in the
-organism and its radioactive half-life[7] must be taken into account.
-
-Even if we should manage to identify all the marine concentrators and
-gain some insight into their metabolic processes, this would be only a
-first step. For example, one tiny form of planktonic protozoan,
-_acantharia_, concentrates up to 15% of its own weight of strontium,
-including the radioisotope strontium-90. It is eaten by larger
-zooplankton (animals), such as copepods, which are eaten by little fish,
-which, in turn, are eaten by bigger fish, etc. Somewhere along this food
-chain, perhaps, a fish will come along that is favored for human dinner
-tables. How much strontium-90 has _that_ fish accumulated through
-swallowing its prey and by absorption from the water? Is the
-radioactivity in its scales, bones, viscera, and other usually uneaten
-portions, or in its flesh?
-
-It is probable, though as yet by no means proven, that among the million
-or so oceanic species of plant and animal life, there are concentrators
-of virtually all the 60 or more elements found in seawater. To identify
-and study them is an enormous undertaking, which is often possible only
-by using radioisotopes as tools.
-
-And what of the immediate and genetic effects of radiation on each
-species? Studies of reef fish in the nuclear testing area in the
-Marshall Islands have shown that radioiodine in the water caused thyroid
-gland damage long after the amount of radioiodine remaining in the water
-was too low to be detected. Studies of salmon in the Columbia River have
-shown some physiological variations between those fish whose eggs and
-young were reared in radioactive waters and those that were not, though
-these variations have not been determined to be statistically
-significant or different from variations caused by other contaminants.
-
-Studies are being made of the reproductive efficiency and patterns of
-sea creatures in a radiation-contaminated environment, compared with
-those in an uncontaminated environment, to learn such things as the
-numbers, survival rates, and sex ratios of the offspring, and any
-genetic abnormalities or mutations. Many more studies are needed.
-Always, the task is made difficult by insufficient detailed knowledge of
-the original natural environment, the limitations of laboratory
-experiments, and the mechanics of trying to follow the reproductive
-cycles of free-floating or swimming organisms in any statistically
-meaningful manner through successive generations.
-
-One obviously important kind of research deals with the rate, pattern,
-and means by which radionuclides are distributed into the sea from a
-point source, such as the mouth of a river or a nuclear test site.
-Transport and diffusion of radioactivity can be, and are, influenced by
-physical, chemical, biological, or geological means, separately or all
-at once. This has led the AEC to support scientific studies of currents,
-upwelling, downwelling, convergence, diffusion, mixing rates, air-sea
-interactions, chemical and geological processes in the sea, and the
-horizontal and vertical migrations of sea life.
-
-    [Illustration: _This sound instrument record reveals the layers of
-    planktonic sound scatterers on the continental slope east of New
-    England. Each peak originates from an individual group of
-    organisms._]
-
-In much of the ocean there is an acoustic “floor”, known as the _deep
-scattering layer_ (because of what it does to sound waves), which is
-believed to consist primarily of zooplankton. Every 24 hours the layer
-migrates up and down through several hundred feet of water. At night the
-countless small animals graze in the rich sea-plant pastures near the
-surface; during daylight, back at the lower level, they undoubtedly are
-heavily fed upon by larger animals. Over a period of time, the layer
-accounts for considerable vertical transport of materials. (See figure
-above.) Other life forms may move materials still farther down, or, in
-some instances, back up—as when the sperm whale descends to the depths
-to fight and best a giant squid, and then returns to the surface to eat
-it.
-
-Constantly drifting downward is a great volume of material—the dead
-bodies, skeletons, excrement, and other waste from sea life at all
-depths. As it sinks there is a constant exchange of matter between it
-and the surrounding water through chemical, physical, and biological
-processes. Eventually, the molecules of material added to the bottom
-sediments may be returned to the water mass by bacteriological action or
-the eating and living habits of sea floor animals.
-
-    [Illustration: _A school of skipjack tuna photographed from an
-    underwater observation chamber on the research vessel_ Charles H.
-    Gilbert.]
-
-Biological transport works in other ways, too. Most pelagic
-(free-swimming) fish are great travelers. They account for a tremendous
-movement of material, namely themselves, from one place to another.
-Tuna, swordfish, whales, porpoises, and sea birds may travel thousands
-of miles in a single year. Such migrations may serve, variously, as
-mechanisms for either dispersal or concentration of elements or
-nutrients. The anadromous (river-ascending) fishes, such as salmon,
-herring, sturgeon, and shad, concentrate in freshwater streams in untold
-numbers to spawn. After hatching, the young seek the ocean and scatter
-widely until they, too, feel the urge to return to the rivers and lakes
-whence they came, to spawn and die there as did their ancestors.
-
-Ocean currents may transport concentrations of radionuclides essentially
-undiluted for thousands of miles. Surface currents move at speeds of up
-to five knots (nautical miles per hour). Normally current waters do not
-mix readily with the water mass through which they pass. Because of the
-slowness of vertical circulation in the ocean, radionuclides deposited
-on the surface of the ocean may take a thousand years to reach the
-bottom. But the vertical transport sometimes is much more rapid: When
-the wind piles too much water against a coastline, the resultant
-downwelling (sinking) may move radionuclides suddenly into the deeper
-ocean. Or, conversely, when the wind and the rotation of the earth
-combine to force the surface water _away_ from the coast, deep water may
-suddenly rise to replace it, a process known as upwelling.
-
-    [Illustration: _Mechanisms of nutrient turnover in the sea._]
-
-    Light energy
-    Dissolved gases
-    Birds and man
-    Rivers and ice
-    Wave action
-  Surface mixed layer 20-100m
-    Suspended matter
-    Elements in true solution
-    Plants phytoplankton
-    Animals
-  Deep water
-    Elements in true solution in deep water
-  Buried in sediment
-  Physical Processes
-    _Transport by wind_
-    _Transport by current_
-    _Turbulent mixing_
-    _Sedimentation_
-    _Transport_ by animals
-    _Volcanic action_
-    _Diffusion_
-  Chemical or Biological Processes
-    _Photosynthesis_
-    _Dissolving_
-    _Upwelling_
-    _Decomposition and respiration_
-    _Sorption_ by sediment surface
-    _Redissolving_ from sediment
-    _Chemical precipitation_
-  Combined Processes
-    _Sedimentation and decomposition_ by bacteria
-    _Scavenging_
-
-Some recent evidence indicates that the passage of a hurricane across
-the ocean drives surface water out from the storm center in all
-directions. This, too, produces upwelling. If radionuclides fall on the
-Arctic ice pack or on the Greenland or Antarctic ice caps, it may be
-years before they are released to the sea. In more or less stable
-conditions at sea, radionuclides may remain trapped above the
-thermocline (a layer of sharp temperature change usually less than 100
-meters below the surface) for a considerable period. Then a severe storm
-may destroy the thermocline and mix the waters to much greater depths.
-The process of diffusion in the ocean is not well understood, due both
-to the difficulty of the measurements that have to be made and to the
-variety of other factors affecting both vertical and horizontal
-transport of materials. Here again, however, the existence of
-radionuclides, introduced artificially at a known time and place, is
-materially aiding these investigations by making a particular water mass
-detectable and traceable.
-
-    [Illustration: _Winds of 100 knots (about 115 mph) whip high waves
-    in the Caribbean Sea east of Guadeloupe Island during a hurricane._]
-
-In chemical oceanography, the AEC is concerned with the fact that in
-some instances our society is introducing elements, ions, and compounds
-that have not been naturally found in the sea, as well as natural
-materials in greater concentration than is normal. These may combine
-with other materials in the sea, changing into new forms or substances,
-or removing them from solution entirely. Any change in the chemical
-composition of the ocean is quite likely to have biological effects,
-some of which may prove detrimental to man.
-
-A disturbance of the chemical balance of the sea is thought to be
-responsible, at least in part, for the periodic, disastrous plankton
-“blooms” known as “red tides”. Such a sudden, explosive overpopulation
-of plankton is a natural phenomenon, but one that can be triggered by
-man-made pollution. When it occurs, plankton multiply so rapidly that
-the oxygen in the water is depleted and many fish die from suffocation.
-
-Fortunately, nuclear energy operations account for an extremely small
-portion of the chemical contamination of the sea, when contrasted with
-the tremendous volume of poisons dumped daily into it in the form of
-other industrial and municipal waste and agricultural pesticides.
-
-
-Research Projects
-
-The AEC supports oceanographic research conducted by its own
-laboratories and by other federal agencies, as well as by non-government
-research scientists. The Environmental Sciences Branch of the Division
-of Biology and Medicine has begun the long and complex task of
-unraveling the mystery of the fate of radionuclides in the ocean.
-Valuable techniques have been developed for the intentional injection of
-radioisotopes into the sea for specific research. Scientists are now
-able to conduct investigations that were never before possible. In some
-instances, traditional scientific concepts and theories have been
-shattered, or at least severely shaken, by new evidence gathered by
-radioisotope techniques.
-
-Since 70% of the earth’s surface is water, at least 70% of the
-radioactive debris lofted into the stratosphere during atmospheric
-nuclear weapons tests falls into the ocean. An additional small
-proportion finds its way into the sea as the run-off from the land. In
-the case of tests at sea, the majority of radiation immediately falls
-into the water nearby. For this reason, the ocean around the sites in
-the Marshall Islands where U. S. tests were conducted has provided a
-unique opportunity to study the effect of large concentrations of
-radionuclides. Particularly significant studies have been conducted of
-the absorption of radionuclides by plants and animals living on nearby
-reefs and islands, and of both lateral and vertical diffusion rates of
-elements in the open ocean.[8]
-
-The 1954 nuclear test at Eniwetok Atoll produced heavier-than-expected
-local radioactive fallout. Since then, both American and Japanese
-scientists have studied water-mass movement rates, using the fallout
-radionuclides strontium-90 and cesium-137 themselves as tracer elements.
-These nuclides produced in the test have been detected at depths down to
-7000 meters in the far northwestern Pacific in the vicinity of Japan.
-
-    [Illustration: _Autoradiograph of a plankton sample collected from a
-    Pacific lagoon a week after a 1952 nuclear test, showing
-    concentration of radioisotopes (bright areas)._]
-
-If this results from simple eddy diffusion, as some scientists believe,
-it is a case of diffusion at a very high rate. Other scientists suggest
-that other factors may have contributed to the vertical transport of the
-radionuclides to these depths. Still others believe that the
-strontium-90 and cesium-137 might not have originated with the U. S.
-Pacific tests at all, but rather with Russian tests in the Arctic taking
-place at about the same time. They propose the theory that a syphoning
-effect in the Bering Strait causes a current to flow out of the Arctic
-Ocean and down under the surface waters of the western Pacific. In
-support of this, Japanese researchers cite a dissolved oxygen content
-where these measurements were made that is different from that of other
-deep water in the area. If this theory should be proved correct, it
-would be the first indication that such a current exists.
-
-Similar investigations have been conducted of the variations in depth of
-strontium-90 concentration in the Atlantic Ocean. In February 1962, when
-fallout from 1961 nuclear tests was high, tests south of Greenland
-showed that mixing of fallout was fairly rapid through the top 800
-meters of water. At greater depths a colder, saltier layer of water
-contained only about half as much strontium-90, confirming other
-evidence that interchange between water masses of different physical and
-chemical properties is comparatively low.
-
-Work such as this has emphasized the difficulty in making meaningful
-measurements of man-made radiation in the ocean. One problem is to
-separate the artificially produced radiation from the natural radiation,
-namely that from potassium-40 (which accounts for 97% of oceanic
-radiation) and from the radionuclides, such as tritium, carbon-14,
-beryllium-7, beryllium-10, aluminum-26, and silicon-32, created in the
-stratosphere naturally by cosmic-ray bombardment.
-
-    [Illustration: _In 1955 a scientific team aboard the U. S. Coast
-    Guard vessel_ Roger B. Taney _conducted a survey of ocean fallout in
-    the western Pacific. They collected marine organisms and water
-    samples at various depths on their 17,500-mile, 7-week journey._]
-
-Another problem is the sheer physical size of the water sample required
-to get any measurements at all. Up to now there has been no truly
-effective radiation counter that can be lowered over the side of a ship
-to the desired depth. It is often necessary to collect a sample of many
-gallons at great depths and return it to the surface without its being
-mixed by any of the intervening water. This is difficult at best, and
-only rather primitive methods have been developed. None is more than
-partly satisfactory. A standard system is to lower a large, collapsed
-polyethylene bag to the desired depth, open it, fill it, and close it
-again, all by remote control, and then gingerly and hopefully return it
-to the surface. Results do not always agree among samples taken at the
-same location by different methods or by different scientists. There is
-still no universal agreement among scientists as to the quantitative
-validity of any of the measurements, although as more and better data
-are gathered there tends to be a greater concurrence.
-
-    [Illustration: _Fifty-gallon sampler ready to be lowered over the
-    side of the research vessel_ Atlantis II _in the North Atlantic.
-    Such devices are used to obtain samples at fixed intervals from the
-    sea surface to the bottom. The water is analyzed for radioisotope
-    content._]
-
-Recently, under an AEC contract, a detector for direct measurements of
-gamma radiation[9] in the deep ocean was developed for the Institute of
-Marine Sciences, University of Miami, by the Franklin GNO Corp. (See
-figure above.) This unit incorporates two of the largest plastic
-scintillation counters[10] ever used in the ocean—each is 16 inches in
-diameter by 12 inches thick. This apparatus may permit direct
-qualitative and quantitative measurement of radiation at great depths by
-techniques that will be eminently more satisfactory than water sampling.
-Already tests with the detector have disclosed the existence of
-cosmic-ray effects at much greater depths than heretofore known.
-
-    [Illustration: _Scintillation counter for use in the deep ocean._]
-
-    [Illustration: _Constituent parts. The plastic discs are the
-    radiation detectors._]
-
-Biologists from Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution in Massachusetts
-for the first time have been able to measure the rate of excretion of
-physiologically important fallout radionuclides by several species of
-zooplankton—_pteropods_, _pyrasomes_, _copepods_, and _euphausids_.
-Radioactive zinc and iodine, it was learned, are excreted as soluble
-ions, while iron and manganese appear as solid particles. However, the
-extent to which the intake and excretion of radionuclides and the
-vertical migration of zooplankton contribute quantitatively to the
-transport of radioactivity across the thermocline (and into the ocean
-deeps) still can only be guessed.
-
-    [Illustration: _Zooplankton, mostly copepods, collected with
-    automatic underwater sampling equipment on board the nuclear
-    submarine_ Seadragon _while cruising under the Arctic ice_.]
-
-Other plankton research at Woods Hole uses radioactive carbon-14 and
-phosphorus-32 as tracers to evaluate rates of growth and nutrient
-assimilation by algae (floating green plants). These investigations have
-revealed that the presence or absence of minute quantities of nutrient
-minerals in seawater affects the rate at which the algae produce oxygen
-by the process of photosynthesis. Since the energy of all living
-things—including man—is also made available by photosynthesis, and since
-most of the photosynthesis on earth is performed by algae afloat in the
-oceans, it is apparent that this research is of more than academic
-interest. Algae, the original energy-fixers of the “meadows of the sea”,
-are also the original food source for the billions of aquatic animals,
-and may some day prove a source of food for a mushrooming human
-population.
-
-In a project with more immediate application, extensive biological and
-environmental studies of the Eniwetok Atoll area in the Pacific were
-conducted prior to the first nuclear testing there in 1948, and these
-studies have continued ever since. Early in the test series the
-Japanese, who were at first concerned with the possible contamination of
-their traditional marine food supplies, were invited to participate in
-these studies. Fisheries radiological monitoring installations were
-established in Japan and the U. S. (The latter was established by the
-AEC and administered by the U. S. Food and Drug Administration.) Neither
-station encountered any radiological contamination of tuna or other food
-fish, and the American unit has now been closed.
-
-    [Illustration: _This shell of the giant clam_ Tridacna gigas _shows
-    the position of a layer of strontium-90 absorbed in 1958 (black
-    line) and in 1956 (white line). The inside of the shell (light
-    layers) was deposited in 1964 when the clam was collected at Bikini
-    Atoll by scientists from the University of Washington, Seattle._]
-
-Groups that have cooperated with the AEC in marine radiobiological
-research are the University of Hawaii, University of Connecticut,
-Virginia Fisheries Laboratory, University of Washington, U. S. Office of
-Naval Research, and U. S. Bureau of Commercial Fisheries.
-
-At the Bureau of Commercial Fisheries Radiobiological Laboratory in
-Beaufort, North Carolina, a cooperative effort of the AEC and the BCF is
-concerned with learning the effects of radioactive wastes on one of
-America’s most valuable marine resources—the tidal marshlands and
-estuaries that are essential to the continued well-being of some of our
-important commercial fisheries.
-
-       Table III RADIOISOTOPES THAT MIGHT BE FOUND IN AN ESTUARINE
-                               ENVIRONMENT
-               Isotope                            Half-life
-
-  Iodine-131                          8.05 days
-  Barium-140—Lanthanum-140            12.8 days—40 hours
-  Cesium-141                          32.5 days
-  Ruthenium-103—Rhodium-103           10 days—57 minutes
-  Zirconium-95—Niobium-95             65 Days—35 days,
-  Zinc-65                             245 days
-  Cerium-144                          285 days
-  Manganese-54                        314 days
-  Ruthenium-106—Rhodium-106           1 year—30 seconds
-  Cesium-137                          30 years
-  Potassium-40                        1.3 × 10⁹ years
-
-  (Reprinted from _Radiobiological Laboratory Annual Report_, April, 1,
-  1964, page 50.)
-
-The project has determined that radionuclides are removed from waters in
-an estuarine environment by several physical, chemical, and biological
-means. For example, radionuclides are absorbed in river-bed sediments at
-a rate varying directly with sediment particle size. Mollusks, such as
-clams, marsh mussels, oysters, and scallops, not only assimilate
-radionuclides selectively, but do so in sufficient quantity and with
-sufficient reliability to be useful as indicators of the quantity of the
-isotopes present. Clams and mussels are indicators for cerium-144 and
-ruthenium-106, scallops for manganese-54, and oysters for zinc-65 (most
-of which winds up in the oyster’s edible portions). It was learned that
-scallops assimilate more radioactivity than any other mollusk. Of the
-total radioactivity, manganese-54 accounts for 60%: The scallop’s kidney
-contains 100 times as much manganese-54 as any of the other tissues and
-300 times as much as the muscle, the only part of the scallop usually
-eaten in this country.
-
-    [Illustration: _On the left are mussels collected near the Columbia
-    River in an environment containing abnormal amounts of zinc-65._]
-
-    [Illustration: _Mussels suspended in seawater in research to
-    determine how fast they lose their zinc-65 radioactivity._
-    (_Photograph taken at low tide._)]
-
-In a surprising unintended result, it was determined that one acre of
-oyster beds, comprising 300,000 individual oysters, may filter out the
-radionuclides from approximately 10,000 cubic meters (18 cubic miles) of
-water per week!
-
-The Radiological Laboratory scientists also have found that plankton are
-high concentrators of both chromium-51 and zinc-65, and that zinc
-apparently is an essential nutrient for all marine organisms. Some
-plants and animals appear to reach a peak of radionuclide accumulation
-quickly, which then tapers off even though the radiation concentration
-in the water is unchanged.
-
-While the AEC’s oceanographic research budgets have not been large, they
-have contributed materially to knowledge of the oceanic environment.
-AEC-sponsored research at Scripps Institution of Oceanography has
-determined by a process known as neutron activation analysis[11] that
-the concentration of rare earth elements in Pacific Ocean waters appears
-to be only about one hundredth of the level previously reported. By
-analysis of naturally occurring radioisotopes, they have also discovered
-that it takes from one million to 100 million years for lithium,
-potassium, barium, strontium, and similar elements introduced into the
-ocean from rivers to be deposited in the bottom sediments. Aluminum,
-iron, and titanium are deposited in from 100 to 1000 years. They have
-also found that sedimentation occurs in the South Pacific at a rate of
-from 0.3 to 0.6 millimeter per thousand years, in the North Pacific at a
-rate several times that figure, and in the basins on either side of the
-Mid-Atlantic Ridge at a rate of several millimeters per thousand years.
-
-The University of Miami has successfully developed two methods for
-determining the ages of successive layers of deep ocean sediments based
-on the relative abundances of natural radioelements, and thereby has
-established a chronology of climatic changes during the last 200,000
-years during which the sediments were laid down.
-
-The U. S. is not alone in its use of nuclear energy as a tool of
-science. The United Kingdom has carried out radiological studies of the
-marine environment for many years, particularly concentrating on the
-effects of radionuclides from nuclear power plants on the sea
-immediately contiguous to the British Isles. Both the European Atomic
-Energy Community and the International Atomic Energy Agency also
-encouraged marine radiological studies. Many laboratories and government
-agencies in Europe, North and South America, Africa, and the Middle East
-and Far East have well-established and productive programs under way.
-
-Scientists in many parts of the world have used both natural and
-intentionally injected radiation to study the coastwise movement of
-beach materials. British experimenters, for example, activate sand with
-scandium-46 and are thus able to follow its movement for up to four
-months. Pebbles (shingle) coated with barium-140 and lanthanum-140 are
-also used as tracers and are good for 6 weeks. Scientists at the
-University of California trace naturally occurring radioisotopes of
-thorium, which may be introduced from deposits of thorium sands along
-river banks. These studies are of immediate practical importance, for
-each year the ocean moves billions of cubic yards of sand, gravel,
-shingle, and rock to and from beaches and along shores. This action
-destroys recreational beaches, fills channels, blocks off harbors, and
-in general rearranges the terrain, often at considerable cost and
-inconvenience to mariners and other people who use the coast.
-
-In another use of radioisotopes in marine research, studies at the AEC’s
-Oak Ridge National Laboratory in Tennessee have revealed radioactivity
-in the scales of fish taken from waters affected by the laboratory’s
-radioactive waste effluent. It was suggested that this phenomenon might
-be put to use as a tagging technique in fish-migration studies, and
-scientists are now working on a method using cesium-134 introduced into
-the fishes’ natural diet.
-
-    [Illustration: _Isaacs-Kidd midwater trawl collects samples of
-    oceanic animals off the Oregon Coast. These animals are then
-    radioanalyzed to compare the quantity of radioisotopes associated
-    with animals from various depths. The recorder at the trawl mouth
-    indicates the volume of water filtered._]
-
-Some of the most extensive studies of a marine environment ever
-conducted are those by the AEC, the Bureau of Commercial Fisheries, and
-the University of Washington in the Columbia River system and the nearby
-Pacific Ocean. Operations at the AEC’s giant Hanford facilities some 300
-miles upstream from the ocean result in the release of small amounts of
-radioactivity to the river and also in raising the river-water
-temperature. This downstream research is to determine any effects of
-these changes, including any that might be detrimental to man. The
-research encompasses studies of the variations and distributions of the
-freshwater “plume”—the outflow from the rivermouth—extending into the
-nearby Pacific, sediment analyses, studies of the population dynamics of
-phytoplankton, and the transport of radionuclides through the food
-chain.
-
-    [Illustration: _This core sampler is used to obtain stream bed
-    samples up to 5 feet long in the Columbia River. The samples are
-    then analyzed for radioisotope content._]
-
-As so often happens with basic programs, this research has produced
-immediate benefits. New resources of marketable oceanic fish were
-discovered by the scientists at depths never before fished commercially
-(from the edge of the continental shelf to depths of 500 fathoms and
-greater). Similarly, commercial quantities of one species of crab have
-been discovered in the deeper ocean. Other findings indicate that crab
-populations may have seasonal up-and-down migrations that vary according
-to sex. It appears, in fact, that, except while mating and as juveniles,
-the male and female crab populations lead separate lives. This
-information is important both for more efficient fisheries and for
-improved conservation of the crab as a food resource.
-
-The AEC is, in short, concerned with virtually every facet of basic
-oceanography, and with study of the sea as a whole, for radionuclides,
-like their nonradioactive counterparts, can and do become involved in
-every phase of the vast and complex ocean ecology. In the process of
-pursuing its research interests, it also provides oceanographers with a
-whole new family of tools for study. Let us now see how atomic
-instruments contribute to the growing knowledge of the sea.
-
-
-Oceanographic Instruments
-
-    [Illustration: _This radioisotope powered swimsuit heater uses
-    plutonium-238 to produce 420 watts of heat. Water, heated by the
-    decay of ²³⁸Pu, is pumped through plastic veins partially visible in
-    the undergarment. The cylinder under the diver’s arm contains 4
-    capsules of ²³⁸Pu, and a battery-pump assembly is contained in the
-    box at his feet. After preliminary tests at the Naval Medical
-    Research Institute in Bethesda, Maryland, the unit will be used in
-    Sealab III, the Navy’s underwater research laboratory. The heater
-    was developed by the AEC Division of Isotopes Development._]
-
-The ocean is both a complex and a harsh environment and its study has
-always demanded that designers of seaworthy instruments and sampling
-devices be both ingenious and experienced in shipboard requirements.
-Until recently, these devices tended to be rugged and simple, if not
-indeed crude. More refined, electronic instrumentation has begun to
-appear in recent years, but most designs still fail to pass the test of
-use at sea. Even among those that do pass, there is persistent
-difficulty in separating desired information-carrying signals from
-background and system-induced “noise”. This has been a specific problem
-with current meters designed to be moored in the open ocean and also
-with one quite sophisticated gamma-ray detector.
-
-To meet the clear need for improved devices, as well as to support its
-own research and increase utilization of nuclear materials and
-techniques, the AEC Division of Isotopes Development encourages the
-development of oceanographic instrumentation. This comparatively young
-technology already has produced exciting results. The future may be even
-more revealing as nuclear energy is applied more and more to the study,
-exploration, and exploitation of the ocean.
-
-Instruments that have been developed under the AEC program include a
-current meter, a dissolved-oxygen-content analyzer, and a
-sediment-density meter. A new, fast method for determining the mineral
-content of geological samples also has been perfected.
-
-
-The DEEP WATER ISOTOPIC CURRENT ANALYZER (DWICA) was developed under a
-contract with William H. Johnson Laboratories, Inc. It relies on
-radioisotope drift time over a fixed course to measure seawater flow
-rates ranging from 0.002 to 10.0 knots. The device embodies 12 radiation
-sensors spaced equally in a circle around a radioisotope-injection
-nozzle. Current direction can be determined to within 15 degrees. The
-mass of tracer isotope injected is very small—less than 10 picograms[12]
-per injection—and the instrument can store enough tracer material to
-operate for a year. The tracer can be injected automatically at
-intervals from 2 to 20 minutes, depending on the current. The device
-sits on the sea floor, where its orientation to magnetic north can be
-determined within 2.5 degrees.
-
-    [Illustration: _The Deep Water Isotopic Current Analyzer._]
-
-  Isotope Reservoir and equipressure system
-  Electric logic circuitry
-  Pressure protective case
-  Compass
-  Sensor ring
-  Flow baffle plate
-  Isotope injection point
-
-    [Illustration: The Deep Water Isotopic Current Analyzer.]
-
-
-A SEDIMENT DENSITY PROBE, developed under an AEC contract by Lane-Wells
-Company, employs gamma-ray absorption and backscatter properties[13] to
-determine the density of the sediments at the bottom of lakes, rivers,
-or the ocean, without the necessity of returning a sediment sample to
-the surface. It is expected that it can be modified to sense the water
-content of the sediments. These determinations are valuable not only for
-research, but also for activity that requires structures on the ocean
-floor, such as petroleum exploration and naval operations.
-
-    [Illustration: _The Sediment Density Probe. The drawing shows the
-    complete probe._]
-
-The unit consists of a rocket-like tube 26 feet long and about 4 inches
-in diameter, containing a gamma-ray-emitting cesium-137 source, a lead
-shield, and a radiation detector. The device is lowered over the side of
-a ship and allowed to penetrate the sediment. Once in place, the gamma
-ray source, shield, and detector move together up and down, inside the
-probe, for a distance of 11 feet, stopping every 24 inches for 4 minutes
-to take a measurement. Gamma rays are absorbed in any material through
-which they pass, according to its density. A low radiation count at the
-detector indicates a high-density sediment: More radiation is absorbed
-and less is reflected back to the detector. Conversely, a high count
-indicates low density. Data are recorded on special cold-resistant film.
-A number of different sediment measurements can be made in several
-locations before the unit must be returned to the surface.
-
-    [Illustration: _Oxygen analyzer equipment includes the deep-sea
-    probe (large device, center, including a special Geiger counter, the
-    electronic assembly, a pump, and power supplies), cable for
-    transmission of Geiger counter signals (back), and portable scaler
-    (left)._]
-
-    [Illustration: _The latter is also shown aboard a research vessel
-    (inset) during tests made at sea._]
-
-
-OXYGEN ANALYZER The amount of dissolved oxygen in any part of the ocean
-is a basic quantity that must be determined before some kinds of
-research can be undertaken. For example, oxygen concentration is
-important in determining the life-support capability of seawater and in
-measuring deep-water mixing. In the past this measurement has had to be
-determined by laborious chemical methods that may subject the water
-sample to contamination by exposure to atmospheric oxygen. Under an AEC
-contract, the Research Triangle Institute has developed a dissolved
-oxygen analyzer that relies on the quantitative oxidation by dissolved
-oxygen of thallium metal containing a known ratio of radioactive
-thallium-204.
-
-The seawater sample passes through a column lined with thallium. The
-thallium is oxydized and goes into solution. It then passes between two
-facing pancake-shaped radiation counters that record the level of beta
-radiation from the thallium-204. Since the rate of oxidation, and
-therefore the rate of release of the thallium to solution, is
-proportional to the amount of dissolved oxygen in the water, it is
-simple to calibrate the device to show oxygen content. The system is
-sensitive enough to detect one part of oxygen in 10 billion of water.
-And, the device can be towed and take readings at depths of up to one
-mile, an added advantage that obviates the chances of surface-air
-contamination.
-
-
-NEUTRON ACTIVATION ANALYSIS Nuclear energy is contributing to the more
-accurate and more rapid analysis of minerals in the sea in at least two
-different ways. The first employs neutron activation analysis, which we
-have already mentioned. This method is valuable not only in analyzing
-sediments cored from the ocean floor, but also in the detection and
-quantitative analysis of trace elements in the water. Knowledge of the
-role of all natural constituents in the ocean is essential to an
-understanding of the complex interrelationships of the ocean
-environment, as we have seen. Identification of trace elements also is a
-necessary preliminary to determining the effects of purposely introduced
-radionuclides. Collection of the minute quantities of trace elements is
-very difficult at best. Once they have been collected and concentrated,
-neutron activation analysis provides a means for their identification
-and measurement.
-
-
-X-RAY FLUORESCENCE is another technique, used to identify the mineral
-content of ore or sediment. This system was developed (for the purpose
-of spotting gold being smuggled through Customs) by Tracerlab Division
-of Laboratory for Electronics, Inc. (LFE), under an AEC contract.
-Similar equipment was developed simultaneously in England for use by
-prospectors, geologists and mining engineers. It now may be used at sea
-in analyzing samples from the sea floor. As is often the case with
-isotope-based devices, its operation is really quite simple. When
-excited by radiation from an isotope (or any other radiation source),
-each element produces its own unique pattern of X-ray fluorescence, that
-is, it radiates characteristic X rays. By varying filters and measuring
-the count rate, oceanographers can detect and measure materials, such as
-tin, copper, lead, and zinc. The British unit is completely
-transistorized, battery powered, and weighs only 16.5 pounds.
-
-
-RHODAMINE-B DYE The AEC also has improved oceanographic research in ways
-that do not involve the use of nuclear energy. Some years ago under the
-joint sponsorship of the AEC Division of Reactor Development and
-Technology and the Division of Biology and Medicine, the Waterlift
-Division of Cleveland Pneumatic Tool Company developed instrumentation
-and techniques for detecting the presence of the red dye, rhodamine-B,
-in concentrations as low as one-tenth part per billion. This method is
-now widely used both for groundwater studies and in the study of
-currents, diffusion, and pollution in rivers, lakes, and the ocean. In
-many cases, rhodamine-B is a better tracer in water than radioisotopes,
-due to the greater ease with which it is detected.
-
-
-Environmental Safety Studies
-
-The AEC Division of Reactor Development and Technology has supported
-extensive environmental studies to assess the safety of isotopic power
-sources (to be discussed later) in oceanic environments. One of the most
-important of these is being conducted by the Naval Radiological Defense
-Laboratory at an ocean environmental testing complex near San Clemente
-Island off the coast of California, which includes a shore installation
-and a floating ocean platform. These studies are to determine seawater
-corrosion of containment alloys and fuel solubility in seawater; the
-dispersion of the fuel in the ocean; the effect of the radioactive
-material on marine life; and the radiation hazard to man, when all
-significant exposure pathways are considered.
-
-In another study the Chesapeake Bay Institute of Johns Hopkins
-University investigated potential hazards that might result if
-radioactive materials were released off the Atlantic Coast. Five areas
-along the Continental Shelf were examined in detail for environmental
-factors such as vertical diffusion. The same Institute made
-environmental and physical dispersion studies off Cape Kennedy, Florida,
-to predict the fate of any radioactive materials that might be released
-in aborted launchings of nuclear rockets or nuclear auxiliary power
-devices for space uses. Fluorescent dye was released into offshore, surf
-zone, and inshore locations; the diffusion was observed, sampled, and
-compared with existing diffusion theory. Mathematical models have been
-developed that can now be used to predict the rate and extent of
-diffusion in the Cape Kennedy area in the event of any radioactivity
-release from aborted test flights.
-
-Similar studies have been carried out near the space launching site at
-Point Arguello, California, by the Scripps Institution of Oceanography.
-These included collection of data on dispersion, marine sediments, and
-the biological uptake of radioactive plutonium, polonium, cesium, and
-strontium.
-
-
-The Atom at Work in the Sea
-
-NUCLEAR REACTOR PROPULSION
-
-The transformation in undersea warfare tactics and national defense
-strategy effected by the introduction of nuclear-powered submarines is
-now well known. Navy submarines employing the latest reactors and fuel
-elements can stay at sea for more than 3 years without refueling.
-_Polaris_ submarines on patrol remain submerged for 60 to 70 days. The
-nuclear submarine _Triton_, tracing Magellan’s route of 400 years
-earlier, traveled 36,000 miles under water, moving around the world in
-83 days and 10 hours. Under-ice transits of the Arctic Ocean by nuclear
-submarines are now commonplace. These feats all are possible because of
-the nuclear reactors and propulsion systems developed by the AEC
-Division of Naval Reactors, which also developed the propulsion plants
-for the Navy’s nuclear surface vessels.[14]
-
-    [Illustration: _USS_ Seadragon _and_ Skate _sit nose to nose on top
-    of the world after under-ice voyages from the Atlantic and Pacific
-    Oceans to the North Pole._]
-
-    [Illustration: _A frogman from the Seadragon swims under the Arctic
-    ice in one of the first photographs made beneath the North Pole._]
-
-
-DEEP SUBMERGENCE RESEARCH VEHICLE On April 18, 1965, President Johnson
-announced that the Atomic Energy Commission and Department of the Navy
-were undertaking development of a nuclear-powered deep submergence
-research and engineering vehicle. This manned vehicle, designated the
-NR-1, will have vastly greater endurance than any other yet developed or
-planned, because of its nuclear power. Its development will provide the
-basis for future nuclear-powered oceanographic research vehicles of even
-greater versatility and depth capability.
-
-The NR-1 will be able to move at maximum speed for periods of time
-limited only by the amount of food and supplies it carries. With a crew
-of five and two scientists, the vehicle will be able to make detailed
-studies of the ocean bottom, temperature, currents, and other phenomena
-for military, commercial, and scientific uses. The nuclear propulsion
-plant will give it great independence from surface support ships and
-essentially unlimited endurance for exploration.
-
-The submarine will have viewing ports for visual observation of its
-surroundings and of the ocean bottom. A remote grapple will permit
-collection of marine samples and other objects. The NR-1 is expected to
-be capable of exploring areas of the Continental Shelf, which appears to
-contain the most accessible wealth in mineral and food resources in the
-seas. Exploratory charting of this kind may help the United States in
-establishing sovereignty over parts of the Continental Shelf; a ship
-with its depth capability can explore an ocean-bottom area several times
-larger than the United States.
-
-The reactor plant for the vehicle is being designed by the General
-Electric Company’s Knolls Atomic Power Laboratory, Schenectady, New
-York. The remainder of the propulsion plant is being designed by the
-Electric Boat Division, General Dynamics Corporation, Groton,
-Connecticut.
-
-Scientists are already beginning to implant small sea floor
-laboratories. In the future, when large permanent undersea installations
-for scientific investigation, mining, or fish farming become a reality,
-nuclear reactors like the one designed for research submersibles or the
-one already in use in Antarctica and other remote locations[15] will
-serve as their power plants.
-
-ISOTOPIC POWER SOURCES
-
-The ocean is a logistically remote environment, in the sense that
-conventional combustible fuels can’t be used underwater unless supplied
-with their own sources of oxygen. It is usually extremely costly to take
-anything heavy or bulky into the deep ocean. Even if the two essential
-components of combustion—fuel and oxygen—could be delivered economically
-to an undersea base or craft, the extreme back pressure of the depths
-would present serious exhaust problems. Yet deep beneath the sea is just
-where we now propose to do large amounts of work requiring huge supplies
-of reliable energy. The lack of reliable and extended duration power
-sources is perhaps one of the most critical requirements for expansion
-of underwater and marine technology. For example, the pressing need for
-measurements of atmospheric and oceanic data to support scientific,
-commercial, and military operations will in the future require literally
-hundreds of oceanographic and meteorological buoys deployed throughout
-the world to take simultaneous measurements and time-series observations
-at specific sites.
-
-Some of these buoys will support and monitor up to 100 sensors each.
-These devices record a variety of physical, chemical, and radiological
-phenomena above, at, or below the surface. Periodically the sensor data
-will be converted to digital form and stored on magnetic tape for later
-retrieval by distant shore-based or shipboard radio command, by
-satellite command (for retransmittal to ground stations), or by physical
-recovery of the tapes. Individually, each buoy will not require a great
-deal of energy to operate, but will have to operate reliably over long
-periods of time. Conventional power sources are being used for the
-prototype buoys now under development and testing, but these robot ocean
-platforms in the future will make excellent use of nuclear energy
-supplied by isotopic power sources.
-
-    [Illustration: _The world’s first nuclear-powered weather buoy
-    located in the center of the Gulf of Mexico. This weather station,
-    part of the U. S. Navy’s NOMAD system, is on a barge 10 feet × 20
-    feet, and is anchored in 12,000 feet of water._]
-
-    [Illustration: diagram]
-
-  RADIO ANTENNA
-  WEATHER SENSORS
-  WARNING BEACON
-  NUCLEAR GENERATOR
-
-The SNAP-7D isotope power generator has been operating unattended since
-January 1964 on a deep-ocean moored buoy in the Gulf of Mexico. This U.
-S. Navy NOMAD (Navy Oceanographic and Meteorological Automatic Device)
-buoy is powered by a 60-watt, strontium-90 radioisotope source, which
-was developed by the AEC Division of Reactor Development and Technology.
-This weather station transmits data for 2 minutes and 20 seconds every 3
-hours. This data includes air temperature, barometric pressure, and wind
-velocity and direction. Storm detectors trigger special hourly
-transmissions during severe weather conditions. The generator operates
-continuously and charges storage batteries between transmissions. Some
-power is used to light a navigation beacon to alert passing ships.
-
-Energy from the heat of radioisotope decay has been used on a
-“proof-of-principle” basis in several other instances involving ocean or
-marine technology.
-
-An experimental ⁹⁰Sr isotope-powered acoustic navigation beacon
-(SNAP-7E) now rests on the sea floor in 15,000 feet of water near
-Bermuda. Devices such as these not only will enable nearby surface
-research or salvage vessels to locate their positions precisely
-(something very difficult to do at sea) and to return to the same spot,
-but the beacons also will aid submarine navigation (see page 48).
-
-A U. S. Coast Guard lighthouse located in Chesapeake Bay has been
-powered by a 60-watt, ⁹⁰Sr power source, SNAP-7B, for 2 years without
-maintenance or service. This unit was subsequently relocated for use in
-another application (described below).
-
-    [Illustration: _Engineers prepare to install the SNAP-7D
-    generator._]
-
-The first commercial use of one of these “atomic batteries” began in
-1965 when the SNAP-7B 60-watt generator went into operation on an
-unmanned Phillips Petroleum Company offshore oil platform, 40 miles
-southeast of Cameron, Louisiana. The generator operates flashing
-navigational lights and, in bad weather, an electronic foghorn (see page
-49). This unit will be tested for 2 years to determine the economic
-feasibility of routinely using isotopic power devices on a commercial
-basis.
-
-    [Illustration: Acoustic pulses.]
-
-  Buoyancy tank
-  Sound amplifier
-  Nuclear-powered sound source
-  Ocean bottom
-
-    [Illustration: _The SNAP-7E isotopic generator powers an undersea
-    acoustic beacon, which produces an acoustic pulse once every 60
-    seconds. In addition to being a navigation aid, the beacon is used
-    to study the effects of a deep-ocean environment on the transmission
-    of sound over long distances._]
-
-    [Illustration: Diagram.]
-
-  Total height: 10 ft 2 in
-  Armored cable
-  Pressure vessel
-  Capacitor bank
-  Fuel capsules
-  Biological shield
-  Equipment package
-  Voltage converter
-  Depleted uranium
-  Thermoelectric generator
-  System support structure
-
-    [Illustration: _Details of the Phillips Petroleum platform, which
-    uses the SNAP-7B nuclear generator._]
-
-    [Illustration: _The final electrical connection is made from the
-    nuclear generator to the platform’s electronic foghorn and two
-    flashing light beacons._]
-
-    [Illustration: Diagram]
-
-  Fog Horn
-  Beacon
-  Beacon
-  Snap-7B nuclear generator
-
-The radioisotope-powered devices previously described were developed by
-the AEC under the SNAP-7 Program.[16] The testing of these units has
-demonstrated the advisability of developing reliable and unattended
-nuclear power sources for use in remote environments without compromise
-to nuclear safety standards. As a result of the success of these tests,
-a variety of potential oceanographic applications have been identified.
-A study, conducted by Aerojet-General Corporation in conjunction with
-Global Marine Exploration Company and Northwest Consultant
-Oceanographers, Inc., described ocean applications including underwater
-navigational aids, acoustic beacons, channel markers, cable boosters,
-weather buoys, offshore oil well controls along with innumerable
-oceanographic research applications. This study was sponsored by the AEC
-Division of Isotopes Development.
-
-In order to satisfy the requirements for these and other applications,
-the AEC has begun developing a series of compact and highly reliable
-isotope power devices that are designed to be economically competitive
-with alternative power sources. Currently underway are two specific
-projects, SNAP-21 and SNAP-23.
-
-SNAP-21 is a two-phase project to develop a series of compact
-strontium-90 power systems for deep-sea and ocean-bottom uses
-(20,000-foot depths). The first phase of design and component
-development on a basic 10-watt system already has been completed, and a
-second phase development and test effort now under way will extend
-through 1970. A series of power sources in the 10- and 20-watt range
-will be available for general purpose deep-ocean application.
-
-The SNAP-23 project involves the development of a series of economically
-attractive strontium-90 power systems for remote terrestrial uses. This
-project will result in 25-watt, 60-watt, and 100-watt units capable of
-long-term operation in surface buoys, offshore oil platforms, weather
-stations, and microwave repeater stations.
-
-In addition to the above, effort is underway by the AEC to develop an
-isotope-fueled heater that will be used by aquanauts in the Navy’s
-Sealab Program (see page 12). Future activities, now being planned, will
-involve the development of large isotope power sources (1-10 electric
-kilowatts) and small nuclear reactors (50-100 kilowatts) for use in
-manned and unmanned deep-ocean platforms.
-
-
-Ocean Engineering
-
-Considerable engineering experience has been derived from the work of
-federal agencies in development of the largest taut-moored instrumented
-buoy system ever deployed in the deep ocean. Developed by Ocean Science
-81 Engineering, Inc., it is useful in observation and prediction of
-environmental changes.
-
-The system embodies substantial advances in design. It incorporates,
-among other features, an acoustically commanded underwater winch for
-adjustment of the mooring depth after the buoy is deployed, and for
-recovering a 16,000-pound submerged data-recording instrument canister.
-This buoy system can survive being moored in up to 18,000-foot depths of
-the open ocean for upward of 30 days.
-
-The very first deep-ocean, taut-moored buoy system was developed for the
-government in 1954, and has since become an important tool for
-oceanographers and others who seek stable instrument platforms at sea.
-The buoys have the advantage of minimizing horizontal movement due to
-currents, winds, and waves.
-
-The National Marine Consultants Division of Interstate Electronics
-Corporation has developed for the government a system for measuring the
-propagation of seismic sea waves (tsunamis).
-
-Work of these sorts contributes materially to reliable ocean
-engineering. And the measurements made by these sophisticated
-instruments contribute to our knowledge of ocean fluid dynamics and wave
-mechanics.
-
-Corrosion is a huge, ever-present problem plaguing oceanographic
-engineers, ship designers, mariners, operators of desalination plants,
-petroleum companies with offshore facilities, and, in fact, everyone who
-places structures in salt water to do useful work. While the basic
-mechanisms of corrosion are known, there are many detailed aspects that
-are not: For example, the precise role of bacteriological slimes in
-causing corrosion on supposedly protected structures. Radioisotope
-tracers now are helping engineers follow the chemical, physical, and
-biological actions in corrosion processes.
-
-
-Fresh Water from Seawater
-
-In 1960 the chairman of the board of a large U. S. corporation made a
-fundamental policy decision for his company: Since the greatest critical
-need of man in the next decade would be fresh water, his company would
-begin working to produce large volumes of fresh water—including the
-development of methods for desalting seawater. His pioneering analysis
-proved to be prophetic.
-
-Throughout the world, more people are using more water for more purposes
-than ever before. Many areas of the world, including some that are
-densely populated, have been parched since the dawn of history. In
-others where water was once abundant, not only are natural sources being
-depleted faster than they are replaced, but many rivers and lakes have
-been so polluted that they can now scarcely be used.
-
-The world’s greatest resource of water is the ocean, but energy is
-required to remove the salt from it and make it potable or even useful
-for agriculture and industry. The energy produced by nuclear reactors is
-considered economical in the large quantities that soon will be
-required.
-
-The AEC and the Office of Saline Water of the Department of the
-Interior, after a preliminary study, have joined with the Metropolitan
-Water District of Southern California and the electric utility firms
-serving the area, to begin construction of a very large nuclear-power
-desalting plant on a man-made island off the California coast. The
-plant, when completed in the 1970s, will have an initial water capacity
-of 50 million gallons per day and also will generate about 1,800,000
-kilowatts of electricity. Additional desalting capacity is planned for
-addition later to achieve a total water capacity of 150 million gallons
-per day.
-
-    [Illustration: _Plans to construct a nuclear desalting plant in
-    California were announced in August 1966 by (from left) AEC
-    Commissioner James T. Ramey, Secretary of the Interior Stewart L.
-    Udall, Mayor Samuel Yorty of Los Angeles, and Joseph Jensen, Board
-    Chairman of the Metropolitan Water District of Southern
-    California._]
-
-Plans for other nuclear-powered desalting projects around the world are
-being discussed by the United States government, the International
-Atomic Energy Agency and the governments of many other nations. Some of
-these also may be in operation during the early 1970s.[17]
-
-    [Illustration: _Model of the nuclear power desalting plant to be
-    built on the coast of Southern California._]
-
-These projects followed extended detailed studies, including one
-“milestone” investigation at the AEC’s Oak Ridge National Laboratory in
-Tennessee, in which the economic feasibility of using very large nuclear
-reactors coupled to very large desalting equipment to produce power and
-water was determined.
-
-The significance of these studies was recognized by President Johnson in
-1964, when he told the Third International Conference on Peaceful Uses
-of Atomic Energy: “The time is coming when a single desalting plant
-powered by nuclear energy will produce hundreds of millions of gallons
-of fresh water—and large amounts of electricity—every day.”
-
-It is obvious that today realization of that goal is much nearer.
-
-The installation of new and larger desalting plants will in itself
-require extensive additional oceanographic research. By the nature of
-their operation these plants will be discharging considerable volumes of
-heated water with a salt content higher than that of the sea. Throughout
-the ocean, but particularly in the estuaries, sea life is sensitive to
-the concentration of ocean salts and temperature. Studies of the effect
-of such discharges will be an essential part of any large-scale
-desalination program.
-
-
-Radiation Preservation of Seafood
-
-The use of nuclear radiation for the preservation of food is a new
-process of particular importance for seafood. The ocean constitutes the
-world’s largest source of animal protein food. Yet the harvests of the
-sea can be stored safely, even with refrigeration, for far shorter
-periods than can most other foods. In many parts of the world, this
-tendency to spoil makes fish products available only to people who live
-near seacoasts.
-
-Many types of seafood, however, when exposed to radiation from
-radioisotopes or small accelerators, can be stored under normal
-refrigeration for up to four weeks without deterioration. The process
-does not alter the appearance or taste of the seafood; it merely
-destroys bacteria that cause spoilage. This fact holds promise not only
-for the world’s protein-starved populations, but also for the economic
-well-being of commercial fishermen, whose markets would be much
-expanded.
-
-In support of this program, the AEC has built and is operating at
-Gloucester, Massachusetts, a prototype commercial seafood irradiator
-plant capable of processing 2000 pounds of seafood an hour. The
-radiation is supplied by a cobalt-60 source. Private industry is
-cooperating with the AEC in the evaluation of this facility.[18]
-
-    [Illustration: _The first shipboard irradiator was on The_ Delaware,
-    _a research fishing vessel. Fish, preserved through irradiation soon
-    after they are caught, have a refrigerated storage life two or three
-    times longer than nonirradiated fish._]
-
-    [Illustration: _The first shipboard irradiator._]
-
-
-Project Plowshare
-
-Nuclear explosives are, among other things, large-scale, low-cost
-excavation devices. In this respect, with the proper pre-detonation
-study and engineering, they are ideally suited for massive earth-moving
-and “geological engineering” projects, including the construction of
-harbors and canals. The western coasts of three continents, Australia,
-Africa, and South America, are sparsely supplied with good harbors. A
-number of studies have been undertaken as to the feasibility of using
-nuclear explosives for digging deepwater harbors. Undoubtedly at some
-time in the future, these projects will be carried out.
-
-In addition, there are many places in the world where the construction
-of a sea-level canal would provide shorter and safer routes for ocean
-shipping, expedite trade and commerce, or open up barren and
-unpopulated, but mineral-rich lands to settlers and profitable
-development. The AEC Division of Peaceful Nuclear Explosives operates a
-continuing program to develop engineering skills for such projects.[19]
-Construction of a sea-level canal across the Central American isthmus is
-one well-known proposal for this “Plowshare” program.
-
-The use of nuclear explosives in this manner may one day change the very
-shape of the world ocean.
-
-
-A New _Fram_
-
-    [Illustration: _Fridtjof Nansen_]
-
-Just about 70 years ago, the oceanographer and explorer, Dr. Fridtjof
-Nansen completed his famous voyage aboard the research vessel _Fram_,
-which remained locked in the Arctic ice pack for 3 years, drifting
-around the top of the world while the men aboard her studied the
-oceanography of the polar sea. Now the National Science Foundation has
-taken the first steps toward building a modern version of _Fram_ for
-Arctic studies. This time the vessel will be an Arctic Drift Barge
-containing the best equipment modern technology can offer—including, it
-is proposed, a central nuclear power plant to guarantee heat and power.
-Scheduled for completion sometime in the 1970s, this project represents
-yet another use of the atom in the study of the ocean.
-
-
-
-
-                      THE THREE-DIMENSIONAL OCEAN
-
-
-The ocean is no longer an area of isolated scientific interest, nor
-merely a turbulent two-dimensional surface over which man conducts his
-commerce and occasionally fights his wars.
-
-In today’s world, the ocean has assumed its full third dimension. Men
-and women are going down into it to study, to play, to work, and, alas,
-sometimes to fight. As they go, they are taking atomic energy with them.
-In many instances, only the harnessed power in the nuclei of atoms
-permits them to penetrate the depths of the mighty sea and there attain
-their objectives.
-
-    [Illustration: _Artist’s conception of one of three proposed designs
-    for the National Science Foundation’s Arctic Drift Barge. All three
-    designs incorporate a nuclear power source._]
-
-
-
-
-                          SUGGESTED REFERENCES
-
-
-Books
-
-_The Bountiful Sea_, Seabrook Hull, Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood
-      Cliffs, New Jersey 07632, 1964, 340 pp., $6.95.
-
-_This Great and Wide Sea_, R. E. Coker, Harper & Row, New York 10016,
-      1962, 235 pp., $2.25 (paperback).
-
-_Exploring the Secrets of the Sea_, William J. Cromie, Prentice-Hall,
-      Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey 07632, 1962, 300 pp., $5.95.
-
-_The Sea Around Us_, Rachel L. Carson, Oxford University Press, Inc.,
-      New York 10016, 1961, 237 pp., $5.00 (hardback); $0.60 (paperback)
-      from the New American Library of World Literature, Inc., New York
-      10022.
-
-_The Ocean Adventure_, Gardner Soule, Appleton-Century, New York 10017,
-      1966, 278 pp., $5.95.
-
-_Proving Ground: An Account of the Radiobiological Studies in the
-      Pacific, 1946-1961_, Neal O. Hines, University of Washington
-      Press, Seattle, Washington 98105, 1962, 366 pp., $6.75.
-
-_The Effects of Atomic Radiation on Oceanography and Fisheries_
-      (Publication 551), National Academy of Sciences—National Research
-      Council, Washington, D. C. 20418, 1957, 137 pp., $2.00.
-
-_Oceanography: A Study of Inner Space_, Warren E. Yasso, Holt Rinehart
-      and Winston, Inc., New York, 10017, 1965, 176 pp., $2.50
-      (hardback); $1.28 (paperback).
-
-
-Booklets
-
-_Oceanography Information Sources_ (Publication 1417), National Academy
-      of Sciences—National Research Council, Washington, D. C. 20418,
-      1966, 38 pp., $1.50.
-
-_A Reader’s Guide to Oceanography_, Jan Hahn, Woods Hole Oceanographic
-      Institution, Woods Hole, Massachusetts 02543, August 1965 (revised
-      periodically) 13 pp., free.
-
-
-The following booklets are available from the Superintendent of
-Documents, U. S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. 20402:
-
-_Undersea Vehicles for Oceanography_ (Pamphlet No. 18), Inter-agency
-      Committee on Oceanography of the Federal Council for Science and
-      Technology, 1965, 81 pp., $0.65.
-
-_Marine Sciences Research_, AEC Division of Biology and Medicine, March
-      1966, 18 pp., $0.15.
-
-
-Articles
-
-Tools for the Ocean Depths, _Fortune_, LXXII: 213 (August 1965).
-
-Journey to Inner Space, _Time_, 86: 90 (September 17, 1965).
-
-Working for Weeks on the Sea Floor, Jacques-Yves Cousteau, _National
-      Geographic_, 129: 498 (April 1966).
-
-_Nucleonics_, 24 (June 1966). This special issue on the use of the atom
-      undersea contains the following articles of interest:
-
-Reactors: Key to Large Scale Underwater Operations, J. R. Wetch, 33.
-
-Undersea Role for Isotopic Power, K. E. Buck, 38.
-
-Radioisotopes in Oceanographic Research, R. A. Pedrick and G. B. Magin,
-      Jr., 42.
-
-
-Motion Pictures
-
-_1000 Feet Deep for Science_, 27 minutes, color, 1965. Produced by and
-      available from Westinghouse Electric Corporation, Visual
-      Communications Department, 3 Gateway Center, Box 2278, Pittsburgh,
-      Pennsylvania 15230. This film describes the Westinghouse Diving
-      Saucer, which is a two-man laboratory used for underwater
-      research. This is the saucer that is used by Jacques-Yves Cousteau
-      and was featured in his motion picture _World Without Sun_.
-
-
-Available for loan without charge from the AEC Headquarters Film
-Library, Division of Public Information, U. S. Atomic Energy Commission,
-Washington, D. C. 20545 and from other AEC film libraries.
-
-_Bikini Radiological Laboratory_, 22 minutes, sound, color, 1949.
-      Produced by the University of Washington and the AEC. This film
-      explains studies of effects of radioactivity from the 1946 atomic
-      tests at Bikini Atoll on plants and marine life in the area 3
-      years later.
-
-_Return to Bikini_, 50 minutes, sound, color, 1964. Produced by the
-      Laboratory of Radiation Biology at the University of Washington
-      for the AEC. This film records the ecological resurvey of Bikini
-      in 1964, 6 years after the last weapons test.
-
-_Desalting the Seas_, 17 minutes, sound, color, 1967. Produced by AEC’s
-      Oak Ridge National Laboratory. Describes various methods of
-      purifying saline water through the use of large dual-purpose
-      nuclear-electric desalting plants.
-
-    [Illustration: uncaptioned]
-
-
-PHOTO CREDITS
-
- Page
- 2           U. S. Navy (USN)
- 3           University of Pennsylvania Museum—National Geographic
-                  Expedition
- 5           USN
- 6           Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (WHOI)
- 7           Diagram, WHOI; photo, S. Hull
- 9           Top, Oregon State University (OSU); bottom, University of
-                  California, San Diego, Scripps Institution of
-                  Oceanography (SIO)
- 10          Lamont Geological Observatory of Columbia University
- 12          USN
- 15          SIO
- 19          R. H. Backus. _Physics Today_ (November 1965), “Sound
-                  Reflections In and Under Oceans,” J. B. Hersey
- 20          U. S. Bureau of Commercial Fisheries Biological Laboratory,
-                  Honolulu, Hawaii
- 22          USN
- 24          Laboratory of Radiation Biology, University of Washington
-                  (LRB)
- 26          Jan Hahn
- 27          Franklin GNO Corporation
- 28          George D. Grice, WHOI
- 31          SIO
- 33          OSU
- 35          Monsanto Research Corporation
- 37          USN
- 38          Lane-Wells Company
- 39          Research Triangle Institute
- 43          USN
- 46, 47 & 48 Martin-Marietta Company
- 49          The Photo Mart
- 53          Top, Metropolitan Water District of Southern California;
-                  bottom, Bechtel Corporation
- 55          U. S. Bureau of Commercial Fisheries, Fish and Wildlife
-                  Service; inset, Brookhaven National Laboratory
- 56          Norsk Folkemuseum, Oslo, Norway, courtesy The Mariners
-                  Museum, Newport News, Virginia
- 57          National Science Foundation
- 61          S. Hull
- Cover photo courtesy James Butler, USN
- Author’s photo courtesy General Dynamics Corporation
- Frontispiece from Jan Hahn
-
-
-THE COVER
-
-    [Illustration: The ATOM and the OCEAN]
-
-The ship on the cover is the trim _Atlantis_ riding the waves about 200
-miles south of Bermuda. The first craft built by the United States as an
-oceanographic research vessel, she traveled more than 1,200,000 miles
-across the seven seas for a period of 30 years. She “ran” over 6000
-hydrographic stations and was used for innumerable dredging, coring,
-biological, physical, and acoustical research operations. After she was
-retired from active service at the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
-in Massachusetts, she was sold to Argentina, where she has resumed her
-role as an oceanographic research vessel.
-
-
-THE AUTHOR
-
-E. W. SEABROOK HULL is an experienced writer and editor in technical and
-engineering fields. He is the author of _The Bountiful Sea_, published
-in 1964 by Prentice-Hall, and _Plowshare_, another booklet in this
-Understanding the Atom Series. He is the editor of _Ocean Science News_
-and editor and publisher of _GeoMarine Technology_.
-
-    [Illustration: E. W. Seabrook Hull]
-
-
-
-
-                               Footnotes
-
-
-[1]For a description of how these will work, see _Controlled Nuclear
-    Fusion_, another booklet in this series.
-
-[2]These devices, which will be frequently mentioned later in these
-    pages, are described in detail in a companion booklet _Power from
-    Radioisotopes_.
-
-[3]See _Nuclear Reactors_, another booklet in this series, for a
-    description of the fission process and how reactors operate.
-
-[4]For a full discussion of other aspects of this topic, see _Fallout
-    from Nuclear Tests_, another booklet in this series.
-
-[5]For a full discussion of this topic, and the safety measures taken by
-    the AEC in connection with it, see _Radioactive Wastes_, another
-    booklet in this series.
-
-[6]Radioisotopes, unstable forms of ordinary atoms, are distinguishable
-    by reason of their radioactivity, not by their biological or
-    chemical activity.
-
-[7]The time in which half of the atoms in a quantity of radioactive
-    material lose their radioactivity.
-
-[8]For more details of these studies, see _Atoms, Nature, and Man_, a
-    companion booklet in this series.
-
-[9]Gamma rays are high-energy electromagnetic radiation, similar to X
-    rays, originating in the nuclei of radioactive atoms.
-
-[10]Instruments that detect and measure radiation by recording the
-    number of light flashes or scintillations produced by the radiation
-    in plastic or other sensitive materials.
-
-[11]A method involving use of nuclear reactors or accelerators for
-    identifying extremely small amounts of material. See _Neutron
-    Activation Analysis_, a companion booklet in this series.
-
-[12]A picogram is one trillionth (10⁻¹²) of a gram.
-
-[13]For an explanation of how similar instruments work, see
-    _Radioisotopes in Industry_, a companion booklet in this series.
-
-[14]For a discussion of proposed nuclear merchant submarines, see
-    _Nuclear Power and Merchant Shipping_, another booklet in this
-    series.
-
-[15]These are described in _Power Reactors in Small Packages_, another
-    booklet in this series.
-
-[16]See _Power from Radioisotopes_, a companion booklet in this series,
-    for a more complete discussion of radioisotopes in use.
-
-[17]For an explanation of how these will function, see _Nuclear Energy
-    for Desalting_, another booklet in this series.
-
-[18]See _Food Preservation by Irradiation_, another booklet in this
-    series, for a full account of this installation.
-
-[19]Details are described in _Plowshare_, another booklet in this
-    series.
-
-
-This booklet is one of the “Understanding the Atom” Series. Comments are
-invited on this booklet and others in the series; please send them to
-the Division of Technical Information, U. S. Atomic Energy Commission,
-Washington, D. C. 20545.
-
-Published as part of the AEC’s educational assistance program, the
-series includes these titles:
-
-  _Accelerators_
-  _Animals in Atomic Research_
-  _Atomic Fuel_
-  _Atomic Power Safety_
-  _Atoms at the Science Fair_
-  _Atoms in Agriculture_
-  _Atoms, Nature, and Man_
-  _Books on Atomic Energy for Adults and Children_
-  _Careers in Atomic Energy_
-  _Computers_
-  _Controlled Nuclear Fusion_
-  _Cryogenics, The Uncommon Cold_
-  _Direct Conversion of Energy_
-  _Fallout From Nuclear Tests_
-  _Food Preservation by Irradiation_
-  _Genetic Effects of Radiation_
-  _Index to the UAS Series_
-  _Lasers_
-  _Microstructure of Matter_
-  _Neutron Activation Analysis_
-  _Nondestructive Testing_
-  _Nuclear Clocks_
-  _Nuclear Energy for Desalting_
-  _Nuclear Power and Merchant Shipping_
-  _Nuclear Power Plants_
-  _Nuclear Propulsion for Space_
-  _Nuclear Reactors_
-  _Nuclear Terms, A Brief Glossary_
-  _Our Atomic World_
-  _Plowshare_
-  _Plutonium_
-  _Power from Radioisotopes_
-  _Power Reactors in Small Packages_
-  _Radioactive Wastes_
-  _Radioisotopes and Life Processes_
-  _Radioisotopes in Industry_
-  _Radioisotopes in Medicine_
-  _Rare Earths_
-  _Research Reactors_
-  _SNAP, Nuclear Space Reactors_
-  _Sources of Nuclear Fuel_
-  _Space Radiation_
-  _Spectroscopy_
-  _Synthetic Transuranium Elements_
-  _The Atom and the Ocean_
-  _The Chemistry of the Noble Gases_
-  _The Elusive Neutrino_
-  _The First Reactor_
-  _The Natural Radiation Environment_
-  _Whole Body Counters_
-  _Your Body and Radiation_
-
-A single copy of any one booklet, or of no more than three different
-booklets, may be obtained free by writing to:
-
-            USAEC, P. O. BOX 62, OAK RIDGE, TENNESSEE 37830
-
-Complete sets of the series are available to school and public
-librarians, and to teachers who can make them available for reference or
-for use by groups. Requests should be made on school or library
-letterheads and indicate the proposed use.
-
-Students and teachers who need other material on specific aspects of
-nuclear science, or references to other reading material, may also write
-to the Oak Ridge address. Requests should state the topic of interest
-exactly, and the use intended.
-
-In all requests, include “Zip Code” in return address.
-
-
-                Printed in the United States of America
-USAEC Division of Technical Information Extension, Oak Ridge, Tennessee
-
-
-
-
-                          Transcriber’s Notes
-
-
-—Silently corrected a few typos.
-
-—Retained publication information from the printed edition: this eBook
-  is public-domain in the country of publication.
-
-—In the text versions only, text in italics is delimited by
-  _underscores_.
-
-
-
-*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ATOM AND THE OCEAN ***
-
-Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will
-be renamed.
-
-Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright
-law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works,
-so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the
-United States without permission and without paying copyright
-royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part
-of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project
-Gutenberg-tm electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm
-concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark,
-and may not be used if you charge for an eBook, except by following
-the terms of the trademark license, including paying royalties for use
-of the Project Gutenberg trademark. If you do not charge anything for
-copies of this eBook, complying with the trademark license is very
-easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose such as creation
-of derivative works, reports, performances and research. Project
-Gutenberg eBooks may be modified and printed and given away--you may
-do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks not protected
-by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the trademark
-license, especially commercial redistribution.
-
-START: FULL LICENSE
-
-THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
-PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
-
-To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
-distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
-(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
-Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full
-Project Gutenberg-tm License available with this file or online at
-www.gutenberg.org/license.
-
-Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project
-Gutenberg-tm electronic works
-
-1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
-electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
-and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
-(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all
-the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or
-destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your
-possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a
-Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound
-by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the
-person or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph
-1.E.8.
-
-1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be
-used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
-agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few
-things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
-even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See
-paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project
-Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this
-agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm
-electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below.
-
-1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the
-Foundation" or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection
-of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual
-works in the collection are in the public domain in the United
-States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the
-United States and you are located in the United States, we do not
-claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing,
-displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as
-all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope
-that you will support the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting
-free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm
-works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the
-Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with the work. You can easily
-comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the
-same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg-tm License when
-you share it without charge with others.
-
-1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
-what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are
-in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States,
-check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this
-agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing,
-distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any
-other Project Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no
-representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any
-country other than the United States.
-
-1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
-
-1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other
-immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear
-prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work
-on which the phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the
-phrase "Project Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed,
-performed, viewed, copied or distributed:
-
-  This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
-  most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no
-  restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it
-  under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this
-  eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the
-  United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where
-  you are located before using this eBook.
-
-1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is
-derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not
-contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the
-copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in
-the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are
-redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase "Project
-Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply
-either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or
-obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg-tm
-trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
-
-1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
-with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
-must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any
-additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms
-will be linked to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works
-posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the
-beginning of this work.
-
-1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
-License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
-work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
-
-1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
-electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
-prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
-active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
-Gutenberg-tm License.
-
-1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
-compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including
-any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access
-to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format
-other than "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official
-version posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm website
-(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense
-to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means
-of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original "Plain
-Vanilla ASCII" or other form. Any alternate format must include the
-full Project Gutenberg-tm License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
-
-1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
-performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
-unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
-
-1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
-access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
-provided that:
-
-* You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
-  the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
-  you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed
-  to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he has
-  agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project
-  Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid
-  within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are
-  legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty
-  payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project
-  Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in
-  Section 4, "Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg
-  Literary Archive Foundation."
-
-* You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
-  you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
-  does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
-  License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all
-  copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue
-  all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg-tm
-  works.
-
-* You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of
-  any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
-  electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of
-  receipt of the work.
-
-* You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
-  distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
-
-1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project
-Gutenberg-tm electronic work or group of works on different terms than
-are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing
-from the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the manager of
-the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the Foundation as set
-forth in Section 3 below.
-
-1.F.
-
-1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
-effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
-works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project
-Gutenberg-tm collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm
-electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may
-contain "Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate
-or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other
-intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or
-other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or
-cannot be read by your equipment.
-
-1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
-of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
-Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
-Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
-Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
-liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
-fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
-LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
-PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
-TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
-LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
-INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
-DAMAGE.
-
-1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
-defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
-receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
-written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you
-received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium
-with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you
-with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in
-lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person
-or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second
-opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If
-the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing
-without further opportunities to fix the problem.
-
-1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
-in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO
-OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT
-LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
-
-1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
-warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of
-damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement
-violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the
-agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or
-limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or
-unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the
-remaining provisions.
-
-1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
-trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
-providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in
-accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the
-production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm
-electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses,
-including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of
-the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this
-or any Project Gutenberg-tm work, (b) alteration, modification, or
-additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any
-Defect you cause.
-
-Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
-
-Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
-electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of
-computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It
-exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations
-from people in all walks of life.
-
-Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
-assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
-goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
-remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project
-Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
-and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future
-generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary
-Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see
-Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at
-www.gutenberg.org
-
-Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary
-Archive Foundation
-
-The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non-profit
-501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
-state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
-Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
-number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary
-Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by
-U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
-
-The Foundation's business office is located at 809 North 1500 West,
-Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up
-to date contact information can be found at the Foundation's website
-and official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact
-
-Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
-Literary Archive Foundation
-
-Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without
-widespread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
-increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
-freely distributed in machine-readable form accessible by the widest
-array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations
-($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
-status with the IRS.
-
-The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
-charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
-States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
-considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
-with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations
-where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND
-DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular
-state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate
-
-While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
-have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
-against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
-approach us with offers to donate.
-
-International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
-any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
-outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
-
-Please check the Project Gutenberg web pages for current donation
-methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other
-ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To
-donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate
-
-Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
-
-Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project
-Gutenberg-tm concept of a library of electronic works that could be
-freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and
-distributed Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of
-volunteer support.
-
-Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
-editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in
-the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not
-necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper
-edition.
-
-Most people start at our website which has the main PG search
-facility: www.gutenberg.org
-
-This website includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
-including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
-Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
-subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
diff --git a/old/66268-0.zip b/old/66268-0.zip
deleted file mode 100644
index 0338e2f..0000000
--- a/old/66268-0.zip
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/66268-h.zip b/old/66268-h.zip
deleted file mode 100644
index 571e75a..0000000
--- a/old/66268-h.zip
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/66268-h/66268-h.htm b/old/66268-h/66268-h.htm
deleted file mode 100644
index b0dc7ce..0000000
--- a/old/66268-h/66268-h.htm
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,2997 +0,0 @@
-<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd">
-<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en">
-<head>
-<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=utf-8" />
-<meta http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" content="text/css" />
-<meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1.0" />
-<title>The Atom and the Ocean, by E. W. Seabrook Hull&mdash;a Project Gutenberg eBook</title>
-<meta name="author" content="E. W. Seabrook Hull" />
-<meta name="pss.pubdate" content="1968" />
-<link rel="coverpage" href="images/cover.jpg" />
-<link rel="spine" href="images/spine.jpg" />
-<link rel="schema.DC" href="http://dublincore.org/documents/1998/09/dces/" />
-<meta name="DC.Title" content="The Atom and the Ocean" />
-<meta name="DC.Language" content="en" />
-<meta name="DC.Format" content="text/html" />
-<meta name="DC.Created" content="1968" />
-<meta name="DC.Creator" content="E. W. Seabrook Hull" />
-<style type="text/css">
-/* == GLOBAL MARKUP == */
-body, table.twocol tr td  { margin-left:2em; margin-right:2em; }   /* BODY */
-.box     { border-style:double; margin-bottom:2em; max-width:30em; margin-right:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-top:2em; clear:both; }
-.box div.box  { border-style:solid; margin-right:auto; margin-left:auto; max-width:26em; }
-div.box h1 { text-indent:0; margin-top:0; margin-right:0em;
-            margin-left:0em; width:100%; color:white; font-size:200%; }
-.box p   { margin-right:1em; margin-left:1em; }
-.box dl  { margin-right:1em; margin-left:1em; }
-h2, h5, h6, .titlepg p { text-align:center; clear:both; text-indent:0; }   /* HEADINGS */
-h2                { margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:1em; font-size:120%;
-                    font-family:sans-serif; text-align:left; }
-h2 .small         { font-size:100%; }
-h2+h2             { margin-top:3.5em; }
-h1                { margin-top:3em; text-align:center; }
-h1 .likep         { font-weight:normal; font-size:50%; }
-h3                { margin-top:2em; text-align:left; font-size: 100%;
-                    font-family:sans-serif; clear:both; }
-h4, h5            { font-size:100%; text-align:left; clear:right; font-family:sans-serif; }
-h6                { font-size:100%; }
-h6.var            { font-size:80%; font-style:normal; }
-.titlepg          { margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto; border-style:double; clear:both; }
-span.chaptertitle { font-style:normal; display:block; text-align:center; font-size:150%; text-indent:0; }
-.tblttl           { text-align:center; text-indent:0;}
-.tblsttl          { text-align:center; font-variant:small-caps; text-indent:0; }
-
-pre sub.ms { width:4em; letter-spacing:1em; }
-pre        { margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; }
-table.fmla { text-align:center; margin-top:0em; margin-bottom:0em; margin-left:0em; margin-right:0em; }
-table.inline, table.symbol { display: inline-table; vertical-align: middle; }
-td.cola           { text-align:left; vertical-align:100%; }
-td.colb           { text-align:justify; }
-
-p, blockquote, div.p, div.bq { text-align:justify; }                              /* PARAGRAPHS */
-div.p, div.bq   { margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; }
-blockquote, .bq { margin-left:1em; margin-right:0em; }
-.verse    { font-size:100%; }
-p.indent  {text-indent:2em; text-align:left; }
-p.tb, p.tbcenter, verse.tb, blockquote.tb      { margin-top:2em; clear:both; }
-
-span.pb, div.pb, dt.pb, p.pb                   /* PAGE BREAKS */
-{ text-align:right; float:right; margin-right:0em; clear:right; }
-div.pb { display:inline; }
-.pb, dt.pb, dl.toc dt.pb, dl.tocl dt.pb, dl.undent dt.pb, dl.index dt.pb    { text-align:right; float:right; margin-left: 1.5em;
-         margin-top:.5em; margin-bottom:.5em; display:inline; text-indent:0;
-         font-size:80%; font-style:normal; font-weight:bold;
-         color:gray; border:1px solid gray;padding:1px 3px; }
-div.index .pb  { display:block; }
-.bq  div.pb, .bq span.pb  { font-size:90%; margin-right:2em; }
-
-div.img, body a img  {text-align:center; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto; margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:2em; clear:right; }
-img         { max-width:100%; height:auto; }
-
-sup, a.fn { font-size:75%; vertical-align:100%; line-height:50%; font-weight:normal; }
-h3   a.fn { font-size:65%; }
-a.fn      { font-style:normal; }
-sub { font-size:75%; }
-.center, .tbcenter       { text-align:center; clear:both; text-indent:0; }                  /* TEXTUAL MARKUP */
-span.center              { display:block; }
-table.center { clear:both; margin-right:auto; margin-left:auto; }
-table.center tr       { font-size:85%; }
-table.center tr td.l,
-table.center tr th.l  {text-align:left; margin-left:0em; min-width:1em; }
-table.center tr td.j  {text-align:justify; }
-table.center tr td.ltab { text-align:left; width:1.5em; }
-table.center tr td.t  {text-align:left; text-indent:1em; }
-table.center tr td.t2 {text-align:left; text-indent:2em; }
-table.center tr td.r, table.center tr th.r  {text-align:right; }
-table.center tr th.rx  { width:4.5em; text-align:right; }
-table.center tr th    {vertical-align:bottom; }
-table.center tr td    {vertical-align:top; }
-table.inline, table.symbol { display: inline-table; vertical-align: middle; }
-
-p           { clear:left; }
-.small, .lsmall      { font-size:90%; }
-.smaller    { font-size:80%; }
-.smallest   { font-size:67%; }
-.larger     { font-size:150%; }
-.large      { font-size:125%; }
-.xlarge     { font-size:150%; }
-.xxlarge    { font-size:200%; }
-.gs         { letter-spacing:1em; }
-.gs3        { letter-spacing:2em; }
-.gslarge    { letter-spacing:.3em; font-size:110%; }
-.sc         { font-variant:small-caps; font-style:normal; }
-.cur        { font-family:cursive; }
-.unbold     { font-weight:normal; }
-.xo         { position:relative; left:-.3em; }
-.over       { text-decoration: overline; display:inline; }
-hr          { width:20%; margin-left:40%; }
-hr.dwide    { margin-top:0; margin-bottom:0; width:90%; margin-left:5%; clear:right; }
-hr.double   { margin-top:0; margin-bottom:0; width:100%; margin-left:0; margin-right:0; }
-hr.f        { margin-top:0; margin-bottom:0; width:100%; margin-left:0; }
-.jl         { text-align:left; }
-.jr, .jri   { text-align:right; min-width:2em; display:inline-block; float:right; }
-.pcap .jri  { font-size:80%; }
-.jr1        { text-align:right; margin-right:2em; }
-h1 .jr      { margin-right:.5em; }
-.ind1       { text-align:left;  margin-left:2em; }
-.u          { text-decoration:underline; }
-.hst        { margin-left:2em; }
-.hst2       { margin-left:4em; }
-.rubric     { color:red; }
-.blue       { color:blue;   background-color:white; }
-.purple     { color:purple; background-color:white; }
-.green      { color:green;  background-color:white; }
-.yellow     { color:yellow; background-color:white; }
-.orange     { color:#ffa500; background-color:white; }
-.brown      { color:brown; background-color:white; }
-.white      { color:white; background-color:black; margin-left:1em; margin-right:1em; max-width:28em; }
-.cnwhite    { color:white; background-color:black; min-width:2em; display:inline-block;
-              text-align:center; font-weight:bold; font-family:sans-serif; }
-.cwhite     { color:white; background-color:black; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;
-              font-family:sans-serif; }
-ul  li      { text-align:justify; }
-u.dbl       { text-decoration:underline; }
-.ss         { font-family:sans-serif; font-weight:bold; }
-.ssn        { font-family:sans-serif; font-weight:normal; }
-p.revint    { margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; }
-.box p.revint  { margin-left:3em; }
-p.revint2   { margin-left:5em; text-indent:-3em; }
-p.revint2 .cn { min-width:2.5em; text-indent:0; text-align:left; display:inline-block; margin-right:.5em; }
-i .f        { font-style:normal; }
-.b          { font-weight:bold; }
-.i          { font-style:italic; }
-.f          { font-style:italic; font-weight:bold; }
-
-dd.t           { text-align:left; margin-left: 5.5em; }
-dl.toc         { clear:both; margin-top:1em; }                    /* CONTENTS (.TOC) */
-dl.toc  dt.center   { text-align:center; clear:both; margin-top:3em; margin-bottom:1em; text-indent:0;}
-.toc  dt      { text-align:right; clear:both; }
-.toc  dt.just { text-align:justify; margin-left:2em; margin-right:2em; }
-.toc  dd      { text-align:right; clear:both; }
-.toc  dd.ddt, .toc dd.t  { text-align:right; clear:both; margin-left:4em; }
-.toc  dd.ddt2,.toc dd.t2 { text-align:right; clear:both; margin-left:5em; }
-.toc  dd.ddt3 { text-align:right; clear:both; margin-left:6em; }
-.toc  dd.ddt4 { text-align:right; clear:both; margin-left:7em; }
-.toc  dd.ddt5 { text-align:right; clear:both; margin-left:8em; }
-.toc  dd.note { text-align:justify; clear:both; margin-left:5em; text-indent:-1em; margin-right:3em; }
-.toc  dt .xxxtest {width:17em; display:block; position:relative; left:4em; }
-.toc  dt  a,
-.toc  dd  a,
-.toc dt span.left,
-.toc dt span.lsmall,
-.toc dd span.left { text-align:left; clear:right; float:left; }
-.toc  dt  a  span.cn { width:4em; text-align:right; margin-right:.7em;  float:left; }
-.toc  dt.sc   { text-align:right;  clear:both; }
-.toc  dt.scl  { text-align:left;   clear:both; font-variant:small-caps; }
-.toc  dt.sct  { text-align:right;  clear:both; font-variant:small-caps; margin-left:1em; }
-.toc  dt .jl, .toc dd .jl   { text-align:left;  float:left;  clear:both; font-variant:normal; }
-.toc  dt.scc  { text-align:center; clear:both; font-variant:small-caps; text-indent:0; }
-.toc  dt span.lj, span.lj { text-align:left; display:block; float:left; }
-.toc  dd.center { text-align:center; text-indent:0; }
-dd.tocsummary {text-align:justify; margin-right:2em; margin-left:2em; }
-dd.center .sc  {display:block; text-align:center; text-indent:0; }
-/* BOX CELL */
-td.top { border-top:1px    solid; width:.5em; height:.8em; }
-td.bot { border-bottom:1px solid; width:.5em; height:.8em; }
-td.rb  { border:1px solid; border-left:none;  width:.5em; height:.8em;  }
-td.lb  { border:1px solid; border-right:none; width:.5em; height:.8em;  }
-td span.cellt   { text-indent:1em; }
-td span.cellt2  { text-indent:2em; }
-td span.cellt3  { text-indent:3em; }
-td span.cellt4  { text-indent:4em; }
-
-/* INDEX (.INDEX) */
-dl.index   { clear:both; }
-.index dt  { margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; text-align:left; }
-.index dd  { margin-left:4em; text-indent:-2em; text-align:left; }
-.index dd.t  { margin-left:6em; text-indent:-2em; text-align:left; }
-.index dt.center {text-align:center; text-indent:0; }
-  dl.indexlr     { clear:both; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;
-  max-width:20em; text-align:right; }
-  dl.indexlr dt  { clear:both; text-align:right; }
-  dl.indexlr a   { clear:both; float:right; text-align:right; }
-  dl.indexlr dt span { text-align:left; display:block; float:left; }
-  dl.indexlr dt.center {text-align:center; text-indent:0; }
-.ab, .ab1, .ab2 {
-font-weight:bold; text-decoration:none;
-border-style:solid; border-color:gray; border-width:1px;
-margin-right:0px; margin-top:5px; display:inline-block; text-align:center; text-indent:0; }
-.ab { width:1em; }
-.ab2 { width:1.5em; }
-a.gloss { background-color:#f2f2f2; border-bottom-style:dotted; text-decoration:none; border-color:#c0c0c0; color:inherit; }
-                                                           /* FOOTNOTE BLOCKS */
-div.notes p  { margin-left:1em; text-indent:-1em; text-align:justify; }
-
-dl.undent dd    { margin-left:3em; text-indent:-2em; text-align:justify; }
-dl.undent dt    { margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; text-align:justify; clear:both; }
-dl.undent dd.t  { margin-left:4em; text-indent:-2em; text-align:justify; }
-dl.undent dd.t2 { margin-left:5em; text-indent:-2em; text-align:justify; }
-                                                           /* POETRY LINE NUMBER */
-.lnum   { text-align:right; float:right; margin-left:.5em; display:inline; }
-
-.hymn     { text-align:left; }                                  /*  HYMN AND VERSE: HTML  */
-.verse    { text-align:left; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:0em; }
-.versetb  { text-align:left; margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:0em; }
-.originc  { text-align:center; text-indent:0; }
-.subttl   { text-align:center; font-size:80%; text-indent:0; }
-.srcttl   { text-align:center; font-size:80%; text-indent:0; font-weight:bold; }
-p.lc      { text-indent:0; text-align:center; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:0; }
-p.t0, p.l { margin-left:4em; text-indent:-3em; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:0; text-align:left; }
-p.lb                 { margin-left:4em;  text-indent:-3em; margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:0; text-align:left; }
-p.tw, div.tw, .tw    { margin-left:1em;  text-indent:-1em; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:0; text-align:left; }
-p.t,  div.t,  .t     { margin-left:5em;  text-indent:-3em; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:0; text-align:left; }
-p.t2,  div.t2,  .t2  { margin-left:6em;  text-indent:-3em; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:0; text-align:left; }
-p.t3,  div.t3,  .t3  { margin-left:7em;  text-indent:-3em; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:0; text-align:left; }
-p.t4,  div.t4,  .t4  { margin-left:8em;  text-indent:-3em; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:0; text-align:left; }
-p.t5,  div.t5,  .t5  { margin-left:9em;  text-indent:-3em; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:0; text-align:left; }
-p.t6,  div.t6,  .t6  { margin-left:10em; text-indent:-3em; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:0; text-align:left; }
-p.t7,  div.t7,  .t7  { margin-left:11em; text-indent:-3em; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:0; text-align:left; }
-p.t8,  div.t8,  .t8  { margin-left:12em; text-indent:-3em; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:0; text-align:left; }
-p.t9,  div.t9,  .t9  { margin-left:13em; text-indent:-3em; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:0; text-align:left; }
-p.t10, div.t10,.t10  { margin-left:14em; text-indent:-3em; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:0; text-align:left; }
-p.t11, div.t11,.t11  { margin-left:15em; text-indent:-3em; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:0; text-align:left; }
-p.t12, div.t12,.t12  { margin-left:16em; text-indent:-3em; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:0; text-align:left; }
-p.t13, div.t13,.t13  { margin-left:17em; text-indent:-3em; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:0; text-align:left; }
-p.t14, div.t14,.t14  { margin-left:18em; text-indent:-3em; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:0; text-align:left; }
-p.t15, div.t15,.t15  { margin-left:19em; text-indent:-3em; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:0; text-align:left; }
-p.lr, div.lr, span.lr { display:block; margin-left:0em; margin-right:1em; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:0; text-align:right; }
-dt.lr                { width:100%; margin-left:0em; margin-right:0em; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:0; margin-top:1em; text-align:right; }
-dl dt.lr a           { text-align:left; clear:left; float:left; }
-
-.fnblock   { margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:2em; }
-.fndef, p.fn     { text-align:justify; margin-top:1.5em; margin-left:1.5em; text-indent:-1.5em; }
-.fndef p.fncont, .fndef dl { margin-left:0em; text-indent:0em; }
-.fnblock div.fncont { margin-left:1.5em; text-indent:0em; margin-top:1em; text-align:justify; }
-.fnblock dl  { margin-top:0; margin-left:4em; text-indent:-2em; }
-.fnblock dt  { text-align:justify; }
-dl.catalog dd { font-style:italic; }
-dl.catalog dt { margin-top:1em; }
-.author { text-align:right; margin-top:0em; margin-bottom:0em; display:block; }
-
-dl.biblio  dt        { margin-top:.6em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; text-align:justify; clear:both; }
-dl.biblio  dt  div   { display:block; float:left; margin-left:-6em; width:6em; clear:both; }
-dl.biblio  dt.center { margin-left:0em; text-align:center; text-indent:0; }
-dl.biblio  dd        { margin-top:.3em; margin-left:3em; text-align:justify; font-size:90%; }
-p.biblio             { margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; }
-.clear     { clear:both; }
-p.book     { margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; }
-p.review   { margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; font-size:80%; }
-p.pcap     { margin-left:0em; text-indent:0; text-align:justify; margin-top:0; font-size:90%; }
-p.pcapc    { margin-left:4.7em; text-indent:0em; text-align:justify; }
-p.pcap b   { font-family:sans-serif; }
-dl.pcap    { font-family:sans-serif; font-size:85%; margin-left:2em; }
-span.attr  { font-size:80%; font-family:sans-serif; }
-span.pn    { display:inline-block; width:4.7em; text-align:left; margin-left:0; text-indent:0; }
-</style>
-</head>
-<body>
-
-<div style='text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; font-weight:bold'>The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Atom and the Ocean, by E. W. Seabrook Hull</div>
-
-<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
-most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
-whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
-of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online
-at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you
-are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the
-country where you are located before using this eBook.
-</div>
-
-<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: The Atom and the Ocean</p>
-
-<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: E. W. Seabrook Hull</div>
-
-<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: September 11, 2021 [eBook #66268]</div>
-
-<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</div>
-
-<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Character set encoding: UTF-8</div>
-
-<div style='display:block; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Produced by: Stephen Hutcheson and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net</div>
-
-<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ATOM AND THE OCEAN ***</div>
-<div id="cover" class="img">
-<img id="coverpage" src="images/cover.jpg" alt="The Atom and the Ocean" width="1000" height="1570" />
-</div>
-<div class="box">
-<h1><span class="blue">The <i class="large">ATOM</i> and the <i class="large">OCEAN</i></span></h1>
-<p class="center"><span class="blue ss">by E. W. Seabrook Hull</span></p>
-<p class="tbcenter"><span class="blue"><span class="ssn">U.S. ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION
-<br />Division of Technical Information</span>
-<br /><i>Understanding the Atom Series</i></span></p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_i">i</div>
-<h2><span class="small">The Understanding the Atom Series</span></h2>
-<p>Nuclear energy is playing a vital role in the life of every
-man, woman, and child in the United States today. In the
-years ahead it will affect increasingly all the peoples of the
-earth. It is essential that all Americans gain an understanding
-of this vital force if they are to discharge thoughtfully their
-responsibilities as citizens and if they are to realize fully the
-myriad benefits that nuclear energy offers them.</p>
-<p>The United States Atomic Energy Commission provides
-this booklet to help you achieve such understanding.</p>
-<p class="jr1"><img class="inline" src="images/ejb.jpg" alt="Edward J. Brunenkant" width="300" height="99" />
-<br />Edward J. Brunenkant, Director
-<br />Division of Technical Information</p>
-<div class="verse">
-<p class="t0"><span class="ss">UNITED STATES ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION</span></p>
-</div>
-<div class="verse">
-<p class="t0"><span class="ssn">Dr. Glenn T. Seaborg, Chairman</span></p>
-<p class="t0"><span class="ssn">James T. Ramey</span></p>
-<p class="t0"><span class="ssn">Wilfrid E. Johnson</span></p>
-<p class="t0"><span class="ssn">Dr. Theos J. Thompson</span></p>
-<p class="t0"><span class="ssn">Dr. Clarence E. Larson</span></p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_ii">ii</div>
-<h1 title="">The <i class="large">ATOM</i> and the <i class="large">OCEAN</i></h1>
-<p class="center"><span class="ssn">by E. W. Seabrook Hull</span></p>
-<h2 id="toc" class="center">CONTENTS</h2>
-<dl class="toc">
-<dt><a href="#c1">SEEKING ANSWERS</a> 1</dt>
-<dd><a href="#c2">Energy for Exploration</a> 3</dd>
-<dt><a href="#c3">THE WORLD OCEAN</a> 6</dt>
-<dd><a href="#c4">Ocean Movements</a> 7</dd>
-<dd><a href="#c5">A Mix of Elements</a> 10</dd>
-<dd><a href="#c6">The Sea&rsquo;s Interfaces</a> 11</dd>
-<dd><a href="#c7">The Sea&rsquo;s Resources</a> 11</dd>
-<dt><a href="#c8">NUCLEAR ENERGY&rsquo;S ROLE</a> 13</dt>
-<dd><a href="#c9">Radionuclides in the Sea</a> 13</dd>
-<dd><a href="#c10">Research Projects</a> 23</dd>
-<dd><a href="#c11">Oceanographic Instruments</a> 35</dd>
-<dd><a href="#c12">Environmental Safety Studies</a> 41</dd>
-<dd><a href="#c13">The Atom at Work in the Sea</a> 42</dd>
-<dd><a href="#c14">Ocean Engineering</a> 51</dd>
-<dd><a href="#c15">Fresh Water from Seawater</a> 52</dd>
-<dd><a href="#c16">Radiation Preservation of Seafood</a> 54</dd>
-<dd><a href="#c17">Project Plowshare</a> 56</dd>
-<dd><a href="#c18">A New <i>Fram</i></a> 56</dd>
-<dt><a href="#c19">THE THREE-DIMENSIONAL OCEAN</a> 57</dt>
-<dt><a href="#c20">SUGGESTED REFERENCES</a> 58</dt>
-</dl>
-<p class="tbcenter"><span class="ss">United States Atomic Energy Commission
-<br />Division of Technical Information</span>
-<br /><span class="small">Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 67-62476
-<br />1968</span></p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_iii">iii</div>
-<div class="img">
-<img src="images/p02.jpg" id="ncfig1" alt="uncaptioned frontispiece" width="1000" height="1582" />
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_1">1</div>
-<h1 title="">The <i class="large">ATOM</i> and the <i class="large">OCEAN</i></h1>
-<p class="jr1">By E. W. SEABROOK HULL</p>
-<h2 id="c1"><span class="small">SEEKING ANSWERS</span></h2>
-<p>Historians of the future will record that man almost
-simultaneously unlocked the secret of atomic energy and
-ventured into new domains beneath the closed doors of the
-world ocean, in one of the greatest exploration endeavors
-of all time.</p>
-<p>History may also show how these two efforts to benefit
-mankind became closely interthreaded&mdash;how nuclear energy,
-in its many forms and applications, played a major
-role in the efforts to explore and exploit &ldquo;the other three-quarters&rdquo;
-of our planet, and moreover, how the very development
-of a nuclear technology enforced our need to know
-more about the sea around us.</p>
-<p>Nuclear energy is a fundamental physical phenomenon,
-like the actions of the wheel, the lever, or the inclined
-plane. Like chemical combustion or electricity, it is but
-another means for men to do useful work, whether that
-work be in the interests of science, commerce, recreation,
-or war. To this extent, nuclear energy is universal,
-as applicable in the sea as it is on land or in outer space.
-Wherever man goes and whatever he does, he requires
-energy to get him there and energy for his work or play
-when he arrives. Some of the places he now seeks to
-pioneer are hard to investigate by anyone encumbered with
-bulky traditional energy sources&mdash;coal, fuel oil, or storage
-batteries. The ocean in its full three-dimensional scope is
-one of these places.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_2">2</div>
-<p>The atom is the most concentrated source of energy, and
-one of the most diverse. Thus, not only are we able to do
-familiar things better with nuclear energy (the nuclear-powered
-submarine is a dramatic example), but we are
-also able to do things never before possible (such as
-studying the diffusion of dissolved salts in the open ocean
-or extending the useful life of seafoods through irradiation).</p>
-<p>Nuclear energy has at last enabled us to realize the predictions
-of Jules Verne&rsquo;s adventure tale, <i>Twenty Thousand
-Leagues Under the Sea</i>, and to build a true submarine&mdash;a
-craft whose submerged existence is limited only by the
-physiological and psychological endurance of its human
-crew. This fact in itself has added greatly to our need to
-learn much more about the ocean, for the sea is an opaque
-and strange environment in which the deadly game of hunt-and-be-hunted
-will be won by whoever knows the ocean
-best.</p>
-<p>The very fact that we have nuclear energy means we
-have nuclear wastes; many of these inevitably find their way
-into the ocean, as all things do. We need to know more about
-the watery world before we can safely allow this inflow
-to continue.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig1">
-<img src="images/p03.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="682" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>In 1900 the U. S. Navy commissioned its first submarine, the USS</i>
-Holland, <i>which was built by John P. Holland. It is shown in dry dock
-at Perth Amboy, New Jersey, in 1898.</i></p>
-</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig2">
-<img src="images/p03a.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="644" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>The USS</i>
-Plunger, <i>named after an early John Holland submarine, which is
-an example of the Navy&rsquo;s present fleet of nuclear submarines.</i></p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_3">3</div>
-<p>In the waters of the seven seas are enough deuterium
-and tritium to power tomorrow&rsquo;s thermonuclear power
-plants<a class="fn" id="fr_1" href="#fn_1">[1]</a> for millions of years. These rare, heavy varieties
-of hydrogen, enormously abundant in the vastness of the
-sea, comprise an energy source without limit for all
-nations, which need only develop the technological ability
-to extract them and put them to work.</p>
-<h3 id="c2">Energy for Exploration</h3>
-<p>For this exploration, men need to put instruments,
-navigation beacons (see figures on pages <a href="#Page_46">46</a> and <a href="#Page_47">47</a>), and
-other devices on the deep ocean floor, where they must operate
-for long periods of time unattended and with no external
-source of power. Radioisotope-powered generators,
-capitalizing on the energy of disintegrating radioactive
-atoms, are almost the only devices capable of fulfilling
-these requirements.<a class="fn" id="fr_2" href="#fn_2">[2]</a> Man also wants to do productive work
-under the ocean, such as drilling seafloor oil wells, mining,
-and salvaging for profit some of the tens of thousands of
-cargoes lost at sea during thousands of years of ocean
-commerce. Eventually, he even wants to farm the ocean
-floor.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig3">
-<img src="images/p03b.jpg" alt="" width="727" height="747" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>An artist draws (using pencil and
-frosted plastic sheet) the position
-of objects in the wreck of a
-7th century Byzantine ship 120
-feet down in the Aegean Sea.
-Nuclear power will permit historians
-of the future to remain
-underwater for long periods exploring
-shipwrecks or old cities
-far below the surface.</i></p>
-</div>
-<p>All these activities require energy&mdash;energy in an environment
-where most sources cannot be applied. Above all,
-<span class="pb" id="Page_4">4</span>
-man wants to go down himself to explore, to work, and
-perhaps to direct nuclear-powered robots to do even more
-work. This means that small, manned, nonmilitary submersibles
-will be needed&mdash;vessels whose endurance should
-not be limited by the short life of traditional power sources,
-but should draw on the fissioning atomic nucleus, harnessed
-in small reactors.<a class="fn" id="fr_3" href="#fn_3">[3]</a></p>
-<p>To work effectively in any environment, we must first
-know and understand it. This is the job of science. In the
-quest for knowledge and understanding of the ocean, nuclear
-energy provides scientists with better instruments to
-put down into the depths and wholly new techniques for the
-direct study of the many oceanic processes.</p>
-<p>For example, take the role of radioisotope tracers:
-For the first time, these telltale atoms permit us to study
-the metabolism of tiny plankters, the often microscopic
-drifting creatures of the sea that in their incredible abundance
-form the base of the entire marine food chain, including
-fish eaten by humans. Even fallout isotopes from
-nuclear tests enable us to trace important physical oceanographic
-events, such as the ponderous process known
-as overturning, which transports oxygen-rich surface
-water to the deeps and nutrient-rich bottom water to the
-surface. Radioisotope tracers also provide a tool for
-studying the mechanics of littoral transport, which continually
-tears down some beaches and builds up others.
-They also enable us to determine if oceanic processes are
-likely to concentrate fallout particles and deliver them in
-dangerous doses through the food chain to our dinner tables.<a class="fn" id="fr_4" href="#fn_4">[4]</a></p>
-<p>By using other nuclear energy technology, we are better
-able to ascertain the age and composition of deep ocean
-sediments and the rate at which they are deposited, how
-a tsunami (tidal wave) propagates across vast distances,
-how tides operate in the open ocean, where the brown shrimp
-of the Carolina coast go every fall, and the migration patterns
-of tuna, swordfish, and other valuable food fish.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_5">5</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig4">
-<img src="images/p04.jpg" alt="" width="1200" height="937" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>Navy men preparing for undersea research by feeding Tuffy, a
-friendly porpoise, which later carried messages for them during
-the &ldquo;Man-In-The-Sea&rdquo; experiment.</i> (<i>Also see photos on <a href="#Page_12">page 12</a>.</i>)</p>
-</div>
-<p>These are just a few of the answers we seek from the
-world ocean&mdash;answers important for more productive fisheries,
-more accurate long-range weather forecasting,
-possible control of hurricanes and typhoons, pollution control,
-safer and more economical shipping, better recreation,
-and numerous other matters that bear on our health,
-well-being, and day-to-day lives.</p>
-<p>On all these endeavors the ocean exerts a major influence.
-And in each, atomic energy is helping assemble and interpret
-answers.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_6">6</div>
-<h2 id="c3"><span class="small">THE WORLD OCEAN</span></h2>
-<p>But what of this environment into which, armed with the
-atom, we plunge with such enthusiasm and expectations? A
-portrait is in order, which must be brief, for not all the
-books ever written about the sea have yet described it fully.</p>
-<p>The world ocean covers 70.8% of our planet. It contains
-324,000,000 cubic miles of seawater. Living in it are upwards
-of a million different species of plants and animals.
-They range from one-celled organisms that can only be
-seen with a microscope to the largest creature ever to
-have lived on this earth&mdash;the giant blue (or sulfur-bottom)
-whale, captured specimens of which have exceeded 90 feet
-in length and 100 tons in weight.</p>
-<p>The ocean&rsquo;s depth ranges from 600 feet or less above
-continental shelves to more than 35,000 feet at the Marianas
-Trench. The mean depth is 12,451 feet. Sea bottom topography
-includes wide plains, the world&rsquo;s longest mountain
-range, steeply rising individual truncated peaks called
-<i>guyots</i> (pronounced gee-ohs), gentle slopes, narrow canyons,
-and precipitous escarpments. Mountains higher than Everest
-rise from the ocean floor and never pierce the surface.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig5">
-<img src="images/p05.jpg" alt="" width="1000" height="582" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>Underwater mountain traced by the Woods Hole Oceanographic
-Institution echo sounder in the Caribbean area. Depth is determined
-by the time it takes the sound emitted by the instrument to
-go to the bottom and return to the surface.</i></p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_7">7</div>
-<h3 id="c4">Ocean Movements</h3>
-<div class="img" id="fig6">
-<img src="images/p05a.jpg" alt="" width="1000" height="705" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>Six ships checking the Gulf Stream&rsquo;s
-course through the Atlantic Ocean
-over a 2-week period found the
-variations shown above.</i></p>
-</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig7">
-<img src="images/p05b.jpg" alt="" width="560" height="800" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>The infrared
-film photograph shows the
-edge of the Gulf Stream. The visible
-line between the Gulf Stream,
-which is on the right, and Labrador
-water is made by Sargassum
-weed concentrated at the interface.</i></p>
-</div>
-<p>The ocean is constantly in motion&mdash;not just in the waves
-and tides that characterize its surface but in great currents
-that swirl between continents, moving (among other things)
-great quantities of heat from one part of the world to
-<span class="pb" id="Page_8">8</span>
-another. Beneath these surface currents are others, deeply
-hidden, that flow as often as not in an entirely different
-direction from the surface course.</p>
-<p>These enormous &ldquo;rivers&rdquo;&mdash;quite unconstant, sometimes
-shifting, often branching and eddying in a manner that
-defies explanation and prediction&mdash;occasionally create
-disastrous results. One example is El Ni&ntilde;o, the periodic
-catastrophe that plagues the west coast of South America.
-This coast normally is caressed by the cold, rich Humboldt
-Current. Usually the Humboldt hugs the shore and extends
-200 to 300 miles out to sea. It is rich in life. It fosters the
-largest commercial fishery in the world and is the home of
-one of the mightiest game fish on record, the black marlin.
-The droppings of marine birds that feed from its waters
-are responsible for the fertilizer (guano) exports that
-undergird the Chilean, Peruvian, and Ecuadorian economies.</p>
-<p>Every few years, however, the Humboldt disappears.
-It moves out from shore or simply sinks, and a flow of
-warm, exhausted surface water known as El Ni&ntilde;o takes
-its place. Simultaneously, torrential rains assault the
-coast. Fishes and birds die by the millions. Commercial
-fisheries are closed. The beaches reek with death. El
-Ni&ntilde;o is a stark demonstration of man&rsquo;s dependence on the
-sea and why he must learn more about it.</p>
-<p>There are other motions in the restless sea. The water
-masses are constantly &ldquo;turning over&rdquo; in a cycle that may
-take hundreds of years, yet is essential to bring oxygen
-down to the creatures of the deeps, and nutrients (fertilizers)
-up from the sea floor to the surface. Here the floating
-phytoplankton (the plants of the sea) build through photosynthesis
-the organic material that will start the nutrient
-cycle all over again. Enormous tonnages of these tiny sea
-plants, rather than being rooted in the soil, are separated
-from solid earth by up to several vertical miles of saltwater.
-Sometimes, too, there is a more rapid surge of deep
-water to the surface, a process known as upwelling.</p>
-<p>Internal waves, far below the surface, develop between
-water masses that have different densities and between
-which there is relative motion. These waves are much
-like the wind-driven waves on the surface, though much
-<span class="pb" id="Page_9">9</span>
-bigger: Internal waves may have heights of 300 feet or
-more and be 6 miles or more in length!</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig8">
-<img src="images/p06.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="804" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>A dividing cell of the diatom</i> Corethron
-hystrix. <i>Diatoms, one-celled photosynthetic
-plants, are the primary producers
-of organic matter in fresh waters.</i></p>
-</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig9">
-<img src="images/p06a.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="805" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>Ocean currents feed sand from nearby
-beaches into this &ldquo;sandfall&rdquo;, which is
-about 30 feet high, in a submarine canyon
-off Baja California.</i></p>
-</div>
-<p>Among other motions of the sea there are landslides, or
-turbidity currents, which are great boiling mixes of mud,
-rock, sand, and water rushing down submarine mountainsides
-at speeds of a mile a minute. They destroy everything
-in their paths and spread clouds of debris over the abyssal
-plains like a sandstorm, producing fanlike deposits radiating
-far out from the base of the slope. And there are tsunamis,
-or seismic sea waves&mdash;popularly misnamed &ldquo;tidal waves&rdquo;&mdash;that
-transmit energy from undersea earthquakes or volcanic
-eruptions. At sea, these waves are only a few inches high,
-<span class="pb" id="Page_10">10</span>
-but they may travel great distances at 500 miles an hour.
-As they approach the shoaling waters of a coast, they are
-slowed to about 30 miles an hour and build up great surface
-waves capable of destroying harbor and coastal installations.</p>
-<h3 id="c5">A Mix of Elements</h3>
-<p>The sea is a chemistry, too. Over 60 elements have been
-discovered in measurable amounts in solution or in suspension
-in the ocean. Many of these are in the form of salts,
-making seawater a highly efficient electrolyte, and a most
-corrosive fluid. The study of corrosion and techniques for
-combatting it is a continuous one in which nuclear energy
-already has a principal role.</p>
-<p>Because the sea is so much a chemistry, it is a potential
-source of minerals for the world&rsquo;s growing industrial
-appetite. All of our magnesium and most of our bromine
-already are extracted directly from seawater. Oil and
-sulfur are mined from the sea floor or beneath it, as are
-coal (United Kingdom and Japan), iron ore (Japan), tin
-(Thailand and United Kingdom), diamonds (Southwest Africa),
-and gold (Alaska). In the layered sediments that cover the
-ocean-basin floors to depths of thousands of feet, geologists
-believe there also may be found some missing chapters of
-earth history.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig10">
-<img src="images/p07.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="527" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>Nodules such as these containing manganese
-cover millions of undersea acres
-on the ocean floor. Many nodules are
-rich in nickel, cobalt, zirconium, and
-copper. Metallurgists are seeking ways
-to recover the metals from these deposits.</i></p>
-</div>
-<p>The ocean, by and large, is an opaque fluid through which
-light travels only a few hundred feet and most other radiant
-energy not much more than a few yards; yet through this
-same fluid, sound waves, by contrast, have been transmitted
-and received over distances of many thousand
-miles.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_11">11</div>
-<h3 id="c6">The Sea&rsquo;s Interfaces</h3>
-<p>What of the interfaces of the sea? Above three-quarters
-of the globe, water and air are in constant contact, continually
-exchanging heat and moisture. This is a major
-factor in the making of weather and climate. The sea
-constantly feeds electricity into the atmosphere, primarily
-through the electron-scrubbing action of tiny popping bubbles
-at the sea surface. It also lifts tiny crystals of salt
-and the remains of microscopic sea creatures into the air.
-Perhaps these are the nuclei on which moisture condenses
-to trigger hurricanes, since it is the latent heat of vaporization
-of air, made over-moist by long travel over the
-tropical sea, that provides a hurricane&rsquo;s energy.</p>
-<p>Along its land edges, the sea is constantly working
-on the shore&mdash;sometimes gently, sometimes violently&mdash;breaking
-down rock cliffs, opening bays and harbors,
-closing channels and inlets, smashing breakwaters and
-seawalls, and moving sand up and down and to and from
-beaches.</p>
-<h3 id="c7">The Sea&rsquo;s Resources</h3>
-<p>In summary, then, the ocean, the largest single geographical
-feature of our planet, is infinitely varied and
-infinitely complex. We are learning it bears on our day-to-day
-living in ways we never suspected. It is the largest
-resource of food for our exploding population, the largest
-resource of minerals with which to support the world&rsquo;s
-burgeoning industries, the largest resource of energy, and,
-of course, it is the largest supply of water. It is mankind&rsquo;s
-largest dumping ground for the wastes of cities and industries.
-It is the source of much pleasure and recreation.</p>
-<p>Men already have lived experimentally for weeks at a
-time on the bottom of the ocean. Both sea floor laboratories
-and military bases are being planned or, in a few
-cases, installed. Sea floor mining complexes are in the
-conceptual design stage. It is only a matter of time before
-recreational &ldquo;aquotels&rdquo; are built safely below the sea&rsquo;s
-restless surface. Private sports submarines are an actual,
-though costly, reality. It is not inconceivable that in the
-<span class="pb" id="Page_12">12</span>
-not-too-distant future human beings may overflow the land
-into complete, self-sufficient communities below the oceans.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig11">
-<img src="images/p08.jpg" alt="" width="1000" height="912" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>In 1965 the U. S. Navy conducted a
-45-day experiment in its &ldquo;Man-In-The-Sea&rdquo;
-program in which 10 aquanauts
-lived and worked 205 feet below
-the surface of the sea off La
-Jolla, California. Their undersea
-base was Sealab II shown at her
-christening.</i></p>
-</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig12">
-<img src="images/p08a.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="735" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>Sealab II shown during final
-checkout before descent. The aquanauts
-conducted experimental salvage
-operations, marine research, and underwent
-a series of physiological and
-human performance tests.</i></p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_13">13</div>
-<h2 id="c8"><span class="small">NUCLEAR ENERGY&rsquo;S ROLE</span></h2>
-<p>The role of nuclear energy in the study, exploration, and
-utilization of the world ocean is best defined by citing the
-specific oceanographic interests of the U. S. Atomic Energy
-Commission (AEC): Development of better instruments
-and devices for work and study in the ocean, development
-of ever-stronger national sea power, conversion
-of seawater to fresh water, possible modification of ocean
-boundaries, purely scientific studies to advance knowledge,
-and, indirectly at least, improving the state of oceanographic
-engineering. Among the technological products of
-the nuclear age are radionuclides, neutron sources and
-other radiation sources, radioisotope heat and electric
-generators, and nuclear reactors. All these are applied to
-ocean-related endeavors.</p>
-<p>Several divisions of the AEC have important oceanic
-interests. These range from pure oceanographic research
-to development of specific instruments, nuclear reactors,
-radioisotopic power sources, and other devices for use in
-or under the ocean. The AEC also conducts extensive
-marine environmental studies to monitor the effects or
-ensure the safety of specific projects involving nuclear
-energy. A statistical summary of specific AEC programs
-in oceanography is shown in Table I on <a href="#Page_14">page 14</a>.</p>
-<h3 id="c9">Radionuclides in the Sea</h3>
-<p>Before we can follow the atom down into the sea, we
-must understand something about the potentials, both good
-and bad, of this incursion of one of our most advanced
-technologies into one of earth&rsquo;s least understood environments.
-This adventurous probing has ramifications for
-studying both man-produced radioactivity in the sea and the
-ocean itself as an uncontaminated environment.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_14">14</div>
-<table class="center">
-<tr class="th"><th colspan="3">TABLE I</th></tr>
-<tr class="th"><th colspan="2">AEC OCEANOGRAPHY PROGRAM </th><th>1968 Expenditures Estimate</th></tr>
-<tr class="th"><th class="l" colspan="2"><i>Research Activities</i></th></tr>
-<tr><td colspan="2" class="l">Division of Biology and Medicine </td><td class="r">$4,000,000</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Studies of uptake, concentration, distribution and effects of radioisotopes on marine life, of geochemical cycling of elements, and of geophysical diffusion and transport.</td></tr>
-<tr><td colspan="2" class="l">Division of Research </td><td class="r">25,000</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Geological dating of corals and other marine and terrestrial materials.</td></tr>
-<tr><td colspan="2" class="l">Division of Isotopes Development </td><td class="r">190,000</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Radioisotope applications to devices for marine systems, such as current meters, analysis and recovery of sedimentary minerals, and underwater sound transmission.</td></tr>
-<tr><td colspan="2" class="l">Division of Reactor Development and Technology </td><td class="r">197,000</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Studies of factors affecting dissolution and dispersal of accidentally released radionuclides, and site evaluations.</td></tr>
-<tr><td colspan="2" class="l">Division of Space Nuclear Systems </td><td class="r">275,000</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Nuclear power sources for aerospace applications.</td></tr>
-<tr><td colspan="2" class="l">Division of Military Applications </td><td class="r">850,000</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Ocean environmental observation and prediction.</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="r"><i>Total&mdash;Research Activities</i> </td><td class="r">5,537,000</td></tr>
-<tr class="th"><th class="l" colspan="2"><i>Engineering Activities</i></th></tr>
-<tr><td colspan="2" class="l">Division of Reactor Development and Technology </td><td class="r">5,900,000</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Radioisotope and reactor power development.</td></tr>
-<tr><td colspan="2" class="l">Division of Naval Reactors </td><td class="r">1,320,000</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Deep submergence research vehicle.</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="r"><i>Total &mdash;Engineering Activities</i> </td><td class="r">7,220,000</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="r"><i>Total&mdash;ABC Oceanographic Activities</i> </td><td class="r">12,757,000</td></tr>
-</table>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_15">15</div>
-<p>Radionuclides (radioactive atoms) can find their way into
-the sea from natural radiation sources or from nuclear
-energy operations undertaken by the United States and other
-countries since 1945. Specific man-made sources in the
-past may have included nuclear weapons tested in the
-atmosphere and under water, the cooling water and wastes
-of nuclear reactors, laboratories and nuclear-powered
-ships, containers of radioactive waste disposed of at sea<a class="fn" id="fr_5" href="#fn_5">[5]</a>,
-radioisotope energy devices, and intentional injection of
-radioisotope tracers for scientific research. In the future,
-they may also include reentry from space of upper-stage
-nuclear rockets or satellite-borne nuclear energy sources.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig13">
-<img src="images/p09.jpg" alt="" width="643" height="801" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>The Nansen bottle, shown being attached
-to a hydrographic wire, is one
-of the standard tools of oceanology.
-When a bottle reaches a desired
-depth, a sliding weight tips it upside
-down to collect seawater samples.
-Thermometers on the sides of the
-bottles record temperature. The device
-was designed by the Norwegian
-oceanographer and explorer, Fridtjof
-Nansen.</i> (<i>See photo on <a href="#Page_56">page 56</a>.</i>)</p>
-</div>
-<p>In order to evaluate the effects of these materials in the
-ocean environment, it is necessary to know many things.
-Just how much radiation is introduced? In what form?
-Where geographically? How are these radionuclides dispersed
-or concentrated physically, chemically, biologically,
-and geologically? What is the net result in each
-case now, and what will it be many years hence?</p>
-<p>These questions are not answered easily. There is, as
-yet, no satisfactory laboratory substitute for the open
-ocean. Research for the most part must be conducted at
-sea, where tests and measurements are difficult at best,
-and where results therefore are often suspect. Further, if
-we are to study the effects of man-induced changes in a
-natural environment, it would have been advantageous to
-have known the nature of that environment before the
-changes were introduced&mdash;which, by and large, in the case
-of the ocean we do not. So we must start with a contaminated
-environment and try to separate what we have
-put there ourselves from what would have been there
-anyway. It isn&rsquo;t an easy task to make the physical and
-biological observations that will make this distinction.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_16">16</div>
-<table class="center">
-<tr class="th"><th colspan="4">Table II CONCENTRATION AND AMOUNTS OF 42 OF THE ELEMENTS IN SEAWATER</th></tr>
-<tr class="th"><th>Element </th><th>Concentration (mg/l) </th><th>Amount of element in seawater (tons mile&sup3;) </th><th>Total amount in the oceans (tons)</th></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">Chlorine </td><td class="l">19,000.0 </td><td class="l">89.5 &times; 10&#8310; </td><td class="r">29.3 &times; 10&sup1;&#8309;</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">Sodium </td><td class="l">10,500.0 </td><td class="l">49.5 x-10&#8310; </td><td class="r">16.3 &times; 10&sup1;&#8309;</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">Magnesium </td><td class="l">1,350.0 </td><td class="l">6.4 &times; 10&#8310; </td><td class="r">2.1 &times; 10&sup1;&#8309;</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">Sulphur </td><td class="l">885.0 </td><td class="l">4.2 &times; 10&#8310; </td><td class="r">1.4 &times; 10&sup1;&#8309;</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">Calcium </td><td class="l">400.0 </td><td class="l">1.9 &times; 10&#8310; </td><td class="r">0.6 &times; 10&sup1;&#8309;</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">Potassium </td><td class="l">380.0 </td><td class="l">1.8 &times; 10&#8310; </td><td class="r">0.6 &times; 10&sup1;&#8309;</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">Bromine </td><td class="l">65.0 </td><td class="l">306,000 </td><td class="r">0.1 &times; 10&sup1;&#8309;</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">Carbon </td><td class="l">28.0 </td><td class="l">132,000 </td><td class="r">0.04 &times; 10&sup1;&#8309;</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">Strontium </td><td class="l">8.0 </td><td class="l">38,000 </td><td class="r">12,000 &times; 10&#8313;</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">Boron </td><td class="l">4.6 </td><td class="l">23,000 </td><td class="r">7,100 &times; 10&#8313;</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">Silicon </td><td class="l">3.0 </td><td class="l">14,000 </td><td class="r">4,700 &times; 10&#8313;</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">Lithium </td><td class="l">0.17 </td><td class="l">800 </td><td class="r">260 &times; 10&#8313;</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">Rubidium </td><td class="l">0.12 </td><td class="l">570 </td><td class="r">190 &times; 10&#8313;</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">Phosphorus </td><td class="l">0.07 </td><td class="l">330 </td><td class="r">110 &times; 10&#8313;</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">Iodine </td><td class="l">0.06 </td><td class="l">280 </td><td class="r">93 &times; 10&#8313;</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">Barium </td><td class="l">0.03 </td><td class="l">140 </td><td class="r">47 &times; 10&#8313;</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">Indium </td><td class="l">0.02 </td><td class="l">94 </td><td class="r">31 &times; 10&#8313;</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">Zinc </td><td class="l">0.01 </td><td class="l">47 </td><td class="r">16 &times; 10&#8313;</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">Iron </td><td class="l">0.01 </td><td class="l">47 </td><td class="r">16 &times; 10&#8313;</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">Aluminum </td><td class="l">0.01 </td><td class="l">47 </td><td class="r">16 &times; 10&#8313;</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">Molybdenum </td><td class="l">0.01 </td><td class="l">47 </td><td class="r">16 &times; 10&#8313;</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">Selenium </td><td class="l">0.004 </td><td class="l">19 </td><td class="r">6 &times; 10&#8313;</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">Tin </td><td class="l">0.003 </td><td class="l">14 </td><td class="r">5 &times; 10&#8313;</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">Copper </td><td class="l">0.003 </td><td class="l">14 </td><td class="r">5 &times; 10&#8313;</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">Arsenic </td><td class="l">0.003 </td><td class="l">14 </td><td class="r">5 &times; 10&#8313;</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">Uranium </td><td class="l">0.003 </td><td class="l">14 </td><td class="r">5 &times; 10&#8313;</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">Nickel </td><td class="l">0.002 </td><td class="l">9 </td><td class="r">3 &times; 10&#8313;</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">Vanadium </td><td class="l">0.002 </td><td class="l">9 </td><td class="r">3 &times; 10&#8313;</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">Manganese </td><td class="l">0.002 </td><td class="l">9 </td><td class="r">3 &times; 10&#8313;</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">Antimony </td><td class="l">0.0005 </td><td class="l">2 </td><td class="r">0.8 &times; 10&#8313;</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">Cobalt </td><td class="l">0.0005 </td><td class="l">2 </td><td class="r">0.8 &times; 10&#8313;</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">Caesium </td><td class="l">0.0005 </td><td class="l">2 </td><td class="r">0.8 &times; 10&#8313;</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">Cerium </td><td class="l">0.0004 </td><td class="l">2 </td><td class="r">0.6 &times; 10&#8313;</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">Silver </td><td class="l">0.0003 </td><td class="l">1 </td><td class="r">5 &times; 10&#8312;</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">Cadmium </td><td class="l">0.0001 </td><td class="l">0.5 </td><td class="r">150 &times; 10&#8310;</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">Tungsten </td><td class="l">0.0001 </td><td class="l">0.5 </td><td class="r">150 &times; 10&#8310;</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">Chromium </td><td class="l">0.00005 </td><td class="l">0.2 </td><td class="r">78 &times; 10&#8310;</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">Thorium </td><td class="l">0.00005 </td><td class="l">0.2 </td><td class="r">78 &times; 10&#8310;</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">Lead </td><td class="l">0.00003 </td><td class="l">0.1 </td><td class="r">46 &times; 10&#8310;</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">Mercury </td><td class="l">0.00003 </td><td class="l">0.1 </td><td class="r">46 &times; 10&#8310;</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">Gold </td><td class="l">0.000004 </td><td class="l">0.02 </td><td class="r">6 &times; 10&#8310;</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">Radium </td><td class="l">1 &times; 10&#8315;&sup1;&#8304; </td><td class="l">5 &times; 10&#8315;&#8311; </td><td class="r">150</td></tr>
-</table>
-<blockquote>
-<p>Adapted from <i>The Mineral Resources of the Sea</i>, by John L.
-Mero, American Elsevier Publishing Company, New York, 1964.</p>
-</blockquote>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_17">17</div>
-<p>Many sea creatures are efficient, selective concentrators
-of &ldquo;trace elements&rdquo;, which occur in seawater only in
-minute portions. These elements are difficult enough to
-detect qualitatively and all but impossible to analyze
-quantitatively. Yet among the elements the sea&rsquo;s plants and
-animals concentrate are the very materials with which we
-are apt to be most concerned: Strontium, cesium, cerium,
-ruthenium, cobalt, iodine, phosphorus, zinc, manganese,
-iron, chromium, and others. Radioisotopes<a class="fn" id="fr_6" href="#fn_6">[6]</a> of all these
-elements occur as by-products of human nuclear activities.
-Many concentrating organisms are microscopic in size
-and are frequently impossible to raise in captivity. It is
-apparent that we are faced with a research program of
-considerable challenge and proportion.</p>
-<p>We need to know <i>how</i> each marine species concentrates.
-Is it from the food it eats, by absorption from the water, or
-both? Does it concentrate an element by continuous accumulation,
-or is there a constant turnover of the material
-in the organism&rsquo;s system? (In the first case, once the
-creature became radioactive it would remain so throughout
-its life or until the radioactivity decayed. In the second
-case, however, the radioactivity might be a transient condition,
-assuming the creature could find its way into uncontaminated
-water and were able to flush itself.) Obviously,
-both the cycling time of the radioisotope in the organism
-and its radioactive half-life<a class="fn" id="fr_7" href="#fn_7">[7]</a> must be taken into account.</p>
-<p>Even if we should manage to identify all the marine concentrators
-and gain some insight into their metabolic
-processes, this would be only a first step. For example,
-one tiny form of planktonic protozoan, <i>acantharia</i>, concentrates
-<span class="pb" id="Page_18">18</span>
-up to 15% of its own weight of strontium, including
-the radioisotope strontium-90. It is eaten by larger zooplankton
-(animals), such as copepods, which are eaten by
-little fish, which, in turn, are eaten by bigger fish, etc.
-Somewhere along this food chain, perhaps, a fish will
-come along that is favored for human dinner tables. How
-much strontium-90 has <i>that</i> fish accumulated through
-swallowing its prey and by absorption from the water?
-Is the radioactivity in its scales, bones, viscera, and other
-usually uneaten portions, or in its flesh?</p>
-<p>It is probable, though as yet by no means proven, that
-among the million or so oceanic species of plant and
-animal life, there are concentrators of virtually all the
-60 or more elements found in seawater. To identify and
-study them is an enormous undertaking, which is often
-possible only by using radioisotopes as tools.</p>
-<p>And what of the immediate and genetic effects of radiation
-on each species? Studies of reef fish in the nuclear
-testing area in the Marshall Islands have shown that radioiodine
-in the water caused thyroid gland damage long after
-the amount of radioiodine remaining in the water was too
-low to be detected. Studies of salmon in the Columbia
-River have shown some physiological variations between
-those fish whose eggs and young were reared in radioactive
-waters and those that were not, though these variations
-have not been determined to be statistically significant or
-different from variations caused by other contaminants.</p>
-<p>Studies are being made of the reproductive efficiency
-and patterns of sea creatures in a radiation-contaminated
-environment, compared with those in an uncontaminated
-environment, to learn such things as the numbers, survival
-rates, and sex ratios of the offspring, and any genetic
-abnormalities or mutations. Many more studies are needed.
-Always, the task is made difficult by insufficient detailed
-knowledge of the original natural environment, the limitations
-of laboratory experiments, and the mechanics of
-trying to follow the reproductive cycles of free-floating or
-swimming organisms in any statistically meaningful manner
-through successive generations.</p>
-<p>One obviously important kind of research deals with the
-rate, pattern, and means by which radionuclides are distributed
-<span class="pb" id="Page_19">19</span>
-into the sea from a point source, such as the mouth
-of a river or a nuclear test site. Transport and diffusion
-of radioactivity can be, and are, influenced by physical,
-chemical, biological, or geological means, separately or
-all at once. This has led the AEC to support scientific
-studies of currents, upwelling, downwelling, convergence,
-diffusion, mixing rates, air-sea interactions, chemical and
-geological processes in the sea, and the horizontal and
-vertical migrations of sea life.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig14">
-<img src="images/p10.jpg" alt="" width="1000" height="512" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>This sound instrument record reveals the layers of planktonic sound
-scatterers on the continental slope east of New England. Each peak
-originates from an individual group of organisms.</i></p>
-</div>
-<p>In much of the ocean there is an acoustic &ldquo;floor&rdquo;, known
-as the <i>deep scattering layer</i> (because of what it does to
-sound waves), which is believed to consist primarily of
-zooplankton. Every 24 hours the layer migrates up and
-down through several hundred feet of water. At night the
-countless small animals graze in the rich sea-plant pastures
-near the surface; during daylight, back at the lower level,
-they undoubtedly are heavily fed upon by larger animals.
-Over a period of time, the layer accounts for considerable
-vertical transport of materials. (See figure above.) Other
-life forms may move materials still farther down, or, in
-some instances, back up&mdash;as when the sperm whale
-descends to the depths to fight and best a giant squid, and
-then returns to the surface to eat it.</p>
-<p>Constantly drifting downward is a great volume of
-material&mdash;the dead bodies, skeletons, excrement, and
-<span class="pb" id="Page_20">20</span>
-other waste from sea life at all depths. As it sinks there
-is a constant exchange of matter between it and the surrounding
-water through chemical, physical, and biological
-processes. Eventually, the molecules of material added to
-the bottom sediments may be returned to the water mass by
-bacteriological action or the eating and living habits of
-sea floor animals.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig15">
-<img src="images/p11.jpg" alt="" width="787" height="906" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>A school of skipjack tuna photographed
-from an underwater
-observation chamber on the
-research vessel</i> Charles H.
-Gilbert.</p>
-</div>
-<p>Biological transport works in other ways, too. Most
-pelagic (free-swimming) fish are great travelers. They account
-for a tremendous movement of material, namely
-themselves, from one place to another. Tuna, swordfish,
-whales, porpoises, and sea birds may travel thousands of
-miles in a single year. Such migrations may serve,
-variously, as mechanisms for either dispersal or concentration
-of elements or nutrients. The anadromous
-(river-ascending) fishes, such as salmon, herring, sturgeon,
-and shad, concentrate in freshwater streams in untold
-numbers to spawn. After hatching, the young seek the ocean
-and scatter widely until they, too, feel the urge to return
-to the rivers and lakes whence they came, to spawn and
-die there as did their ancestors.</p>
-<p>Ocean currents may transport concentrations of radionuclides
-essentially undiluted for thousands of miles.
-Surface currents move at speeds of up to five knots
-(nautical miles per hour). Normally current waters do not
-mix readily with the water mass through which they pass.
-<span class="pb" id="Page_21">21</span>
-Because of the slowness of vertical circulation in the ocean,
-radionuclides deposited on the surface of the ocean may
-take a thousand years to reach the bottom. But the vertical
-transport sometimes is much more rapid: When the wind
-piles too much water against a coastline, the resultant
-downwelling (sinking) may move radionuclides suddenly into
-the deeper ocean. Or, conversely, when the wind and the
-rotation of the earth combine to force the surface water
-<i>away</i> from the coast, deep water may suddenly rise to
-replace it, a process known as upwelling.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig16">
-<img src="images/p11a.jpg" alt="" width="1200" height="851" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>Mechanisms of nutrient turnover in the sea.</i></p>
-</div>
-<dl class="undent pcap"><dd>Light energy</dd>
-<dd>Dissolved gases</dd>
-<dd>Birds and man</dd>
-<dd>Rivers and ice</dd>
-<dd>Wave action</dd>
-<dt>Surface mixed layer 20-100m</dt>
-<dd>Suspended matter</dd>
-<dd>Elements in true solution</dd>
-<dd>Plants phytoplankton</dd>
-<dd>Animals</dd>
-<dt>Deep water</dt>
-<dd>Elements in true solution in deep water</dd>
-<dt>Buried in sediment</dt>
-<dt>Physical Processes</dt>
-<dd><i>Transport by wind</i></dd>
-<dd><i>Transport by current</i></dd>
-<dd><i>Turbulent mixing</i></dd>
-<dd><i>Sedimentation</i></dd>
-<dd><i>Transport</i> by animals</dd>
-<dd><i>Volcanic action</i></dd>
-<dd><i>Diffusion</i></dd>
-<dt>Chemical or Biological Processes</dt>
-<dd><i>Photosynthesis</i></dd>
-<dd><i>Dissolving</i></dd>
-<dd><i>Upwelling</i></dd>
-<dd><i>Decomposition and respiration</i></dd>
-<dd><i>Sorption</i> by sediment surface</dd>
-<dd><i>Redissolving</i> from sediment</dd>
-<dd><i>Chemical precipitation</i></dd>
-<dt>Combined Processes</dt>
-<dd><i>Sedimentation and decomposition</i> by bacteria</dd>
-<dd><i>Scavenging</i></dd></dl>
-<p>Some recent evidence indicates that the passage of a
-hurricane across the ocean drives surface water out from
-the storm center in all directions. This, too, produces
-upwelling. If radionuclides fall on the Arctic ice pack or
-on the Greenland or Antarctic ice caps, it may be years
-before they are released to the sea. In more or less stable
-conditions at sea, radionuclides may remain trapped above
-<span class="pb" id="Page_22">22</span>
-the thermocline (a layer of sharp temperature change
-usually less than 100 meters below the surface) for a
-considerable period. Then a severe storm may destroy the
-thermocline and mix the waters to much greater depths.
-The process of diffusion in the ocean is not well understood,
-due both to the difficulty of the measurements that
-have to be made and to the variety of other factors affecting
-both vertical and horizontal transport of materials. Here
-again, however, the existence of radionuclides, introduced
-artificially at a known time and place, is materially aiding
-these investigations by making a particular water mass
-detectable and traceable.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig17">
-<img src="images/p12.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="532" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>Winds of 100 knots (about
-115 mph) whip high waves
-in the Caribbean Sea east
-of Guadeloupe Island during
-a hurricane.</i></p>
-</div>
-<p>In chemical oceanography, the AEC is concerned with
-the fact that in some instances our society is introducing
-elements, ions, and compounds that have not been naturally
-found in the sea, as well as natural materials in greater
-concentration than is normal. These may combine with
-other materials in the sea, changing into new forms or
-substances, or removing them from solution entirely. Any
-change in the chemical composition of the ocean is quite
-likely to have biological effects, some of which may prove
-detrimental to man.</p>
-<p>A disturbance of the chemical balance of the sea is
-thought to be responsible, at least in part, for the periodic,
-disastrous plankton &ldquo;blooms&rdquo; known as &ldquo;red tides&rdquo;. Such
-a sudden, explosive overpopulation of plankton is a natural
-phenomenon, but one that can be triggered by man-made
-pollution. When it occurs, plankton multiply so rapidly that
-<span class="pb" id="Page_23">23</span>
-the oxygen in the water is depleted and many fish die from
-suffocation.</p>
-<p>Fortunately, nuclear energy operations account for an
-extremely small portion of the chemical contamination of
-the sea, when contrasted with the tremendous volume of
-poisons dumped daily into it in the form of other industrial
-and municipal waste and agricultural pesticides.</p>
-<h3 id="c10">Research Projects</h3>
-<p>The AEC supports oceanographic research conducted by
-its own laboratories and by other federal agencies, as well
-as by non-government research scientists. The Environmental
-Sciences Branch of the Division of Biology and
-Medicine has begun the long and complex task of unraveling
-the mystery of the fate of radionuclides in the ocean.
-Valuable techniques have been developed for the intentional
-injection of radioisotopes into the sea for specific research.
-Scientists are now able to conduct investigations
-that were never before possible. In some instances, traditional
-scientific concepts and theories have been shattered,
-or at least severely shaken, by new evidence gathered by
-radioisotope techniques.</p>
-<p>Since 70% of the earth&rsquo;s surface is water, at least 70%
-of the radioactive debris lofted into the stratosphere during
-atmospheric nuclear weapons tests falls into the ocean.
-An additional small proportion finds its way into the sea
-as the run-off from the land. In the case of tests at sea,
-the majority of radiation immediately falls into the water
-nearby. For this reason, the ocean around the sites in
-the Marshall Islands where U. S. tests were conducted has
-provided a unique opportunity to study the effect of large
-concentrations of radionuclides. Particularly significant
-studies have been conducted of the absorption of radionuclides
-by plants and animals living on nearby reefs and
-islands, and of both lateral and vertical diffusion rates of
-elements in the open ocean.<a class="fn" id="fr_8" href="#fn_8">[8]</a></p>
-<p>The 1954 nuclear test at Eniwetok Atoll produced heavier-than-expected
-local radioactive fallout. Since then, both
-<span class="pb" id="Page_24">24</span>
-American and Japanese scientists have studied water-mass
-movement rates, using the fallout radionuclides strontium-90
-and cesium-137 themselves as tracer elements. These
-nuclides produced in the test have been detected at depths
-down to 7000 meters in the far northwestern Pacific in
-the vicinity of Japan.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig18">
-<img src="images/p13.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="660" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>Autoradiograph of a plankton sample
-collected from a Pacific lagoon
-a week after a 1952 nuclear
-test, showing concentration of radioisotopes
-(bright areas).</i></p>
-</div>
-<p>If this results from simple eddy diffusion, as some
-scientists believe, it is a case of diffusion at a very high
-rate. Other scientists suggest that other factors may have
-contributed to the vertical transport of the radionuclides
-to these depths. Still others believe that the strontium-90
-and cesium-137 might not have originated with the U. S.
-Pacific tests at all, but rather with Russian tests in the
-Arctic taking place at about the same time. They propose
-the theory that a syphoning effect in the Bering Strait
-causes a current to flow out of the Arctic Ocean and down
-under the surface waters of the western Pacific. In support
-of this, Japanese researchers cite a dissolved oxygen content
-where these measurements were made that is different
-from that of other deep water in the area. If this theory
-should be proved correct, it would be the first indication
-that such a current exists.</p>
-<p>Similar investigations have been conducted of the variations
-in depth of strontium-90 concentration in the Atlantic
-Ocean. In February 1962, when fallout from 1961 nuclear
-tests was high, tests south of Greenland showed that mixing
-of fallout was fairly rapid through the top 800 meters of
-water. At greater depths a colder, saltier layer of water
-<span class="pb" id="Page_25">25</span>
-contained only about half as much strontium-90, confirming
-other evidence that interchange between water masses
-of different physical and chemical properties is comparatively
-low.</p>
-<p>Work such as this has emphasized the difficulty in
-making meaningful measurements of man-made radiation
-in the ocean. One problem is to separate the artificially
-produced radiation from the natural radiation, namely that
-from potassium-40 (which accounts for 97% of oceanic
-radiation) and from the radionuclides, such as tritium,
-carbon-14, beryllium-7, beryllium-10, aluminum-26, and
-silicon-32, created in the stratosphere naturally by cosmic-ray
-bombardment.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig19">
-<img src="images/p13a.jpg" alt="" width="1200" height="773" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>In 1955 a scientific team aboard the U. S. Coast Guard vessel</i>
-Roger B. Taney <i>conducted a survey of ocean fallout in the western
-Pacific. They collected marine organisms and water samples at
-various depths on their 17,500-mile, 7-week journey.</i></p>
-</div>
-<p>Another problem is the sheer physical size of the water
-sample required to get any measurements at all. Up to now
-there has been no truly effective radiation counter that can
-be lowered over the side of a ship to the desired depth. It is
-<span class="pb" id="Page_26">26</span>
-often necessary to collect a sample of many gallons at
-great depths and return it to the surface without its being
-mixed by any of the intervening water. This is difficult at
-best, and only rather primitive methods have been developed.
-None is more than partly satisfactory. A standard
-system is to lower a large, collapsed polyethylene bag to
-the desired depth, open it, fill it, and close it again, all by
-remote control, and then gingerly and hopefully return it
-to the surface. Results do not always agree among samples
-taken at the same location by different methods or by different
-scientists. There is still no universal agreement
-among scientists as to the quantitative validity of any of
-the measurements, although as more and better data are
-gathered there tends to be a greater concurrence.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig20">
-<img src="images/p14.jpg" alt="" width="656" height="1000" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>Fifty-gallon sampler ready to be lowered
-over the side of the research vessel</i>
-Atlantis II <i>in the North Atlantic. Such
-devices are used to obtain samples at
-fixed intervals from the sea surface to
-the bottom. The water is analyzed for
-radioisotope content.</i></p>
-</div>
-<p>Recently, under an AEC contract, a detector for direct
-measurements of gamma radiation<a class="fn" id="fr_9" href="#fn_9">[9]</a> in the deep ocean was
-developed for the Institute of Marine Sciences, University
-<span class="pb" id="Page_27">27</span>
-of Miami, by the Franklin GNO Corp. (See figure above.)
-This unit incorporates two of the largest plastic scintillation
-counters<a class="fn" id="fr_10" href="#fn_10">[10]</a> ever used in the ocean&mdash;each is 16 inches in
-diameter by 12 inches thick. This apparatus may permit
-direct qualitative and quantitative measurement of radiation
-at great depths by techniques that will be eminently more
-satisfactory than water sampling. Already tests with the
-detector have disclosed the existence of cosmic-ray effects
-at much greater depths than heretofore known.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig21">
-<img src="images/p14a.jpg" alt="" width="296" height="1000" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>Scintillation counter for use in the deep ocean.</i></p>
-</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig22">
-<img src="images/p14b.jpg" alt="" width="525" height="800" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>Constituent
-parts. The plastic discs are the radiation detectors.</i></p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_28">28</div>
-<p>Biologists from Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
-in Massachusetts for the first time have been able to
-measure the rate of excretion of physiologically important
-fallout radionuclides by several species of zooplankton&mdash;<i>pteropods</i>,
-<i>pyrasomes</i>, <i>copepods</i>, and <i>euphausids</i>. Radioactive
-zinc and iodine, it was learned, are excreted as soluble
-ions, while iron and manganese appear as solid particles.
-However, the extent to which the intake and excretion of
-radionuclides and the vertical migration of zooplankton contribute
-quantitatively to the transport of radioactivity across
-the thermocline (and into the ocean deeps) still can only be
-guessed.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig23">
-<img src="images/p15.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="984" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>Zooplankton, mostly copepods, collected
-with automatic underwater
-sampling equipment on board the nuclear
-submarine</i> Seadragon <i>while
-cruising under the Arctic ice</i>.</p>
-</div>
-<p>Other plankton research at Woods Hole uses radioactive
-carbon-14 and phosphorus-32 as tracers to evaluate rates
-of growth and nutrient assimilation by algae (floating green
-plants). These investigations have revealed that the presence
-or absence of minute quantities of nutrient minerals in
-seawater affects the rate at which the algae produce
-oxygen by the process of photosynthesis. Since the energy
-of all living things&mdash;including man&mdash;is also made available
-by photosynthesis, and since most of the photosynthesis
-on earth is performed by algae afloat in the oceans, it is
-<span class="pb" id="Page_29">29</span>
-apparent that this research is of more than academic
-interest. Algae, the original energy-fixers of the &ldquo;meadows
-of the sea&rdquo;, are also the original food source for the
-billions of aquatic animals, and may some day prove a
-source of food for a mushrooming human population.</p>
-<p>In a project with more immediate application, extensive
-biological and environmental studies of the Eniwetok Atoll
-area in the Pacific were conducted prior to the first nuclear
-testing there in 1948, and these studies have continued
-ever since. Early in the test series the Japanese,
-who were at first concerned with the possible contamination
-of their traditional marine food supplies, were invited
-to participate in these studies. Fisheries radiological
-monitoring installations were established in Japan and the
-U. S. (The latter was established by the AEC and administered
-by the U. S. Food and Drug Administration.) Neither
-station encountered any radiological contamination of tuna
-or other food fish, and the American unit has now been
-closed.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig24">
-<img src="images/p15a.jpg" alt="" width="667" height="800" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>This shell of the giant clam</i> Tridacna
-gigas <i>shows the position of a layer of
-strontium-90 absorbed in 1958 (black
-line) and in 1956 (white line). The inside
-of the shell (light layers) was deposited
-in 1964 when the clam was
-collected at Bikini Atoll by scientists
-from the University of Washington,
-Seattle.</i></p>
-</div>
-<p>Groups that have cooperated with the AEC in marine
-radiobiological research are the University of Hawaii,
-University of Connecticut, Virginia Fisheries Laboratory,
-<span class="pb" id="Page_30">30</span>
-University of Washington, U. S. Office of Naval Research,
-and U. S. Bureau of Commercial Fisheries.</p>
-<p>At the Bureau of Commercial Fisheries Radiobiological
-Laboratory in Beaufort, North Carolina, a cooperative effort
-of the AEC and the BCF is concerned with learning the
-effects of radioactive wastes on one of America&rsquo;s most
-valuable marine resources&mdash;the tidal marshlands and
-estuaries that are essential to the continued well-being
-of some of our important commercial fisheries.</p>
-<table class="center">
-<tr class="th"><th colspan="2">Table III RADIOISOTOPES THAT MIGHT BE FOUND IN AN ESTUARINE ENVIRONMENT</th></tr>
-<tr class="th"><th>Isotope </th><th>Half-life</th></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">Iodine-131 </td><td class="l">8.05 days</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">Barium-140&mdash;Lanthanum-140 </td><td class="l">12.8 days&mdash;40 hours</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">Cesium-141 </td><td class="l">32.5 days</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">Ruthenium-103&mdash;Rhodium-103 </td><td class="l">10 days&mdash;57 minutes</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">Zirconium-95&mdash;Niobium-95 </td><td class="l">65 Days&mdash;35 days,</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">Zinc-65 </td><td class="l">245 days</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">Cerium-144 </td><td class="l">285 days</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">Manganese-54 </td><td class="l">314 days</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">Ruthenium-106&mdash;Rhodium-106 </td><td class="l">1 year&mdash;30 seconds</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">Cesium-137 </td><td class="l">30 years</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l">Potassium-40 </td><td class="l">1.3 &times; 10&#8313; years</td></tr>
-</table>
-<blockquote>
-<p>(Reprinted from <i>Radiobiological Laboratory Annual Report</i>,
-April, 1, 1964, page 50.)</p>
-</blockquote>
-<p>The project has determined that radionuclides are removed
-from waters in an estuarine environment by several
-physical, chemical, and biological means. For example,
-radionuclides are absorbed in river-bed sediments at a
-rate varying directly with sediment particle size. Mollusks,
-such as clams, marsh mussels, oysters, and scallops, not
-only assimilate radionuclides selectively, but do so in
-sufficient quantity and with sufficient reliability to be useful
-as indicators of the quantity of the isotopes present. Clams
-and mussels are indicators for cerium-144 and ruthenium-106,
-scallops for manganese-54, and oysters for zinc-65
-(most of which winds up in the oyster&rsquo;s edible portions). It
-was learned that scallops assimilate more radioactivity
-than any other mollusk. Of the total radioactivity, manganese-54
-accounts for 60%: The scallop&rsquo;s kidney contains
-<span class="pb" id="Page_31">31</span>
-100 times as much manganese-54 as any of the other
-tissues and 300 times as much as the muscle, the only
-part of the scallop usually eaten in this country.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig25">
-<img src="images/p16.jpg" alt="" width="782" height="800" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>On the left are mussels collected near the Columbia River in an
-environment containing abnormal amounts of zinc-65.</i></p>
-</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig26">
-<img src="images/p16a.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="615" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>Mussels suspended in seawater in research to determine how
-fast they lose their zinc-65 radioactivity.</i> (<i>Photograph taken at low
-tide.</i>)</p>
-</div>
-<p>In a surprising unintended result, it was determined that
-one acre of oyster beds, comprising 300,000 individual
-oysters, may filter out the radionuclides from approximately
-10,000 cubic meters (18 cubic miles) of water per week!</p>
-<p>The Radiological Laboratory scientists also have found
-that plankton are high concentrators of both chromium-51
-and zinc-65, and that zinc apparently is an essential
-nutrient for all marine organisms. Some plants and animals
-appear to reach a peak of radionuclide accumulation
-quickly, which then tapers off even though the radiation
-concentration in the water is unchanged.</p>
-<p>While the AEC&rsquo;s oceanographic research budgets have not
-been large, they have contributed materially to knowledge
-of the oceanic environment. AEC-sponsored research at
-Scripps Institution of Oceanography has determined by a
-process known as neutron activation analysis<a class="fn" id="fr_11" href="#fn_11">[11]</a> that the
-concentration of rare earth elements in Pacific Ocean
-<span class="pb" id="Page_32">32</span>
-waters appears to be only about one hundredth of the level
-previously reported. By analysis of naturally occurring
-radioisotopes, they have also discovered that it takes
-from one million to 100 million years for lithium, potassium,
-barium, strontium, and similar elements introduced
-into the ocean from rivers to be deposited in the bottom
-sediments. Aluminum, iron, and titanium are deposited
-in from 100 to 1000 years. They have also found that
-sedimentation occurs in the South Pacific at a rate of
-from 0.3 to 0.6 millimeter per thousand years, in the
-North Pacific at a rate several times that figure, and in
-the basins on either side of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge at a
-rate of several millimeters per thousand years.</p>
-<p>The University of Miami has successfully developed two
-methods for determining the ages of successive layers of
-deep ocean sediments based on the relative abundances
-of natural radioelements, and thereby has established a
-chronology of climatic changes during the last 200,000
-years during which the sediments were laid down.</p>
-<p>The U. S. is not alone in its use of nuclear energy as a
-tool of science. The United Kingdom has carried out
-radiological studies of the marine environment for many
-years, particularly concentrating on the effects of radionuclides
-from nuclear power plants on the sea immediately
-contiguous to the British Isles. Both the European Atomic
-Energy Community and the International Atomic Energy
-Agency also encouraged marine radiological studies. Many
-laboratories and government agencies in Europe, North and
-South America, Africa, and the Middle East and Far East
-have well-established and productive programs under way.</p>
-<p>Scientists in many parts of the world have used both
-natural and intentionally injected radiation to study the
-coastwise movement of beach materials. British experimenters,
-for example, activate sand with scandium-46 and
-are thus able to follow its movement for up to four months.
-Pebbles (shingle) coated with barium-140 and lanthanum-140
-are also used as tracers and are good for 6 weeks. Scientists
-at the University of California trace naturally occurring
-radioisotopes of thorium, which may be introduced
-from deposits of thorium sands along river banks. These
-studies are of immediate practical importance, for each
-<span class="pb" id="Page_33">33</span>
-year the ocean moves billions of cubic yards of sand,
-gravel, shingle, and rock to and from beaches and along
-shores. This action destroys recreational beaches, fills
-channels, blocks off harbors, and in general rearranges
-the terrain, often at considerable cost and inconvenience
-to mariners and other people who use the coast.</p>
-<p>In another use of radioisotopes in marine research,
-studies at the AEC&rsquo;s Oak Ridge National Laboratory in
-Tennessee have revealed radioactivity in the scales of
-fish taken from waters affected by the laboratory&rsquo;s radioactive
-waste effluent. It was suggested that this phenomenon
-might be put to use as a tagging technique in fish-migration
-studies, and scientists are now working on a method using
-cesium-134 introduced into the fishes&rsquo; natural diet.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig27">
-<img src="images/p17.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="848" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>Isaacs-Kidd midwater trawl collects
-samples of oceanic animals
-off the Oregon Coast. These
-animals are then radioanalyzed
-to compare the quantity of radioisotopes
-associated with animals
-from various depths. The
-recorder at the trawl mouth
-indicates the volume of water
-filtered.</i></p>
-</div>
-<p>Some of the most extensive studies of a marine environment
-ever conducted are those by the AEC, the Bureau of
-Commercial Fisheries, and the University of Washington
-in the Columbia River system and the nearby Pacific Ocean.
-Operations at the AEC&rsquo;s giant Hanford facilities some 300
-miles upstream from the ocean result in the release of
-small amounts of radioactivity to the river and also in
-raising the river-water temperature. This downstream
-research is to determine any effects of these changes,
-<span class="pb" id="Page_34">34</span>
-including any that might be detrimental to man. The research
-encompasses studies of the variations and distributions
-of the freshwater &ldquo;plume&rdquo;&mdash;the outflow from the
-rivermouth&mdash;extending into the nearby Pacific, sediment
-analyses, studies of the population dynamics of phytoplankton,
-and the transport of radionuclides through the food chain.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig28">
-<img src="images/p18.jpg" alt="" width="691" height="999" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>This core sampler is used to obtain
-stream bed samples up to 5 feet long
-in the Columbia River. The samples
-are then analyzed for radioisotope content.</i></p>
-</div>
-<p>As so often happens with basic programs, this research
-has produced immediate benefits. New resources of marketable
-oceanic fish were discovered by the scientists at
-depths never before fished commercially (from the edge of
-the continental shelf to depths of 500 fathoms and greater).
-Similarly, commercial quantities of one species of crab
-have been discovered in the deeper ocean. Other findings
-indicate that crab populations may have seasonal up-and-down
-migrations that vary according to sex. It appears, in
-fact, that, except while mating and as juveniles, the male
-and female crab populations lead separate lives. This
-information is important both for more efficient fisheries
-and for improved conservation of the crab as a food
-resource.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_35">35</div>
-<p>The AEC is, in short, concerned with virtually every
-facet of basic oceanography, and with study of the sea as a
-whole, for radionuclides, like their nonradioactive counterparts,
-can and do become involved in every phase of the
-vast and complex ocean ecology. In the process of pursuing
-its research interests, it also provides oceanographers
-with a whole new family of tools for study. Let us now see
-how atomic instruments contribute to the growing knowledge
-of the sea.</p>
-<h3 id="c11">Oceanographic Instruments</h3>
-<div class="img" id="fig29">
-<img src="images/p18a.jpg" alt="" width="574" height="1001" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>This radioisotope powered
-swimsuit heater uses plutonium-238
-to produce 420
-watts of heat. Water, heated
-by the decay of &sup2;&sup3;&#8312;Pu, is
-pumped through plastic
-veins partially visible in
-the undergarment. The cylinder
-under the diver&rsquo;s
-arm contains 4 capsules of
-&sup2;&sup3;&#8312;Pu, and a battery-pump
-assembly is contained in
-the box at his feet. After
-preliminary tests at the
-Naval Medical Research
-Institute in Bethesda,
-Maryland, the unit will be
-used in Sealab III, the Navy&rsquo;s
-underwater research
-laboratory. The heater was
-developed by the AEC Division
-of Isotopes Development.</i></p>
-</div>
-<p>The ocean is both a complex and a harsh environment and
-its study has always demanded that designers of seaworthy
-instruments and sampling devices be both ingenious and
-experienced in shipboard requirements. Until recently,
-<span class="pb" id="Page_36">36</span>
-these devices tended to be rugged and simple, if not indeed
-crude. More refined, electronic instrumentation has begun
-to appear in recent years, but most designs still fail to
-pass the test of use at sea. Even among those that do pass,
-there is persistent difficulty in separating desired information-carrying
-signals from background and system-induced
-&ldquo;noise&rdquo;. This has been a specific problem with current
-meters designed to be moored in the open ocean and also
-with one quite sophisticated gamma-ray detector.</p>
-<p>To meet the clear need for improved devices, as well as
-to support its own research and increase utilization of
-nuclear materials and techniques, the AEC Division of
-Isotopes Development encourages the development of oceanographic
-instrumentation. This comparatively young technology
-already has produced exciting results. The future
-may be even more revealing as nuclear energy is applied
-more and more to the study, exploration, and exploitation
-of the ocean.</p>
-<p>Instruments that have been developed under the AEC
-program include a current meter, a dissolved-oxygen-content
-analyzer, and a sediment-density meter. A new,
-fast method for determining the mineral content of geological
-samples also has been perfected.</p>
-<p class="tb">The <span class="ss">DEEP WATER ISOTOPIC CURRENT ANALYZER</span> (DWICA)
-was developed under a contract with William H. Johnson
-Laboratories, Inc. It relies on radioisotope drift time over
-a fixed course to measure seawater flow rates ranging
-from 0.002 to 10.0 knots. The device embodies 12 radiation
-sensors spaced equally in a circle around a radioisotope-injection
-nozzle. Current direction can be determined to
-within 15 degrees. The mass of tracer isotope injected is
-very small&mdash;less than 10 picograms<a class="fn" id="fr_12" href="#fn_12">[12]</a> per injection&mdash;and
-the instrument can store enough tracer material to operate
-for a year. The tracer can be injected automatically
-at intervals from 2 to 20 minutes, depending on the current.
-The device sits on the sea floor, where its orientation to
-magnetic north can be determined within 2.5 degrees.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_37">37</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig30">
-<img src="images/p19.jpg" alt="" width="941" height="1000" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>The Deep Water Isotopic Current Analyzer.</i></p>
-</div>
-<dl class="undent pcap"><dt>Isotope Reservoir and equipressure system</dt>
-<dt>Electric logic circuitry</dt>
-<dt>Pressure protective case</dt>
-<dt>Compass</dt>
-<dt>Sensor ring</dt>
-<dt>Flow baffle plate</dt>
-<dt>Isotope injection point</dt></dl>
-<div class="img">
-<img src="images/p19a.jpg" id="ncfig2" alt="The Deep Water Isotopic Current Analyzer." width="1000" height="718" />
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_38">38</div>
-<p class="tb">A <span class="ss">SEDIMENT DENSITY PROBE</span>, developed under an AEC
-contract by Lane-Wells Company, employs gamma-ray
-absorption and backscatter properties<a class="fn" id="fr_13" href="#fn_13">[13]</a> to determine the
-density of the sediments at the bottom of lakes, rivers, or
-the ocean, without the necessity of returning a sediment
-sample to the surface. It is expected that it can be modified
-to sense the water content of the sediments. These determinations
-are valuable not only for research, but also for
-activity that requires structures on the ocean floor, such
-as petroleum exploration and naval operations.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig31">
-<img src="images/p20.jpg" alt="" width="676" height="1000" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>The Sediment Density Probe. The
-drawing shows the complete probe.</i></p>
-</div>
-<p>The unit consists of a rocket-like tube 26 feet long and
-about 4 inches in diameter, containing a gamma-ray-emitting
-cesium-137 source, a lead shield, and a radiation
-detector. The device is lowered over the side of a ship and
-<span class="pb" id="Page_39">39</span>
-allowed to penetrate the sediment. Once in place, the gamma
-ray source, shield, and detector move together up and down,
-inside the probe, for a distance of 11 feet, stopping every 24
-inches for 4 minutes to take a measurement. Gamma rays
-are absorbed in any material through which they pass, according
-to its density. A low radiation count at the detector
-indicates a high-density sediment: More radiation is absorbed
-and less is reflected back to the detector. Conversely,
-a high count indicates low density. Data are
-recorded on special cold-resistant film. A number of different
-sediment measurements can be made in several locations
-before the unit must be returned to the surface.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig32">
-<img src="images/p20a.jpg" alt="" width="1000" height="729" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>Oxygen analyzer equipment includes the deep-sea probe (large
-device, center, including a special Geiger counter, the electronic
-assembly, a pump, and power supplies), cable for transmission of
-Geiger counter signals (back), and portable scaler (left).</i></p>
-</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig33">
-<img src="images/p20b.jpg" alt="" width="387" height="400" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>The latter
-is also shown aboard a research vessel (inset) during tests made
-at sea.</i></p>
-</div>
-<p class="tb"><span class="ss">OXYGEN ANALYZER</span> The amount of dissolved oxygen in
-any part of the ocean is a basic quantity that must be
-determined before some kinds of research can be undertaken.
-For example, oxygen concentration is important in
-determining the life-support capability of seawater and in
-<span class="pb" id="Page_40">40</span>
-measuring deep-water mixing. In the past this measurement
-has had to be determined by laborious chemical methods
-that may subject the water sample to contamination by
-exposure to atmospheric oxygen. Under an AEC contract,
-the Research Triangle Institute has developed a dissolved
-oxygen analyzer that relies on the quantitative oxidation
-by dissolved oxygen of thallium metal containing a known
-ratio of radioactive thallium-204.</p>
-<p>The seawater sample passes through a column lined
-with thallium. The thallium is oxydized and goes into
-solution. It then passes between two facing pancake-shaped
-radiation counters that record the level of beta radiation
-from the thallium-204. Since the rate of oxidation, and
-therefore the rate of release of the thallium to solution, is
-proportional to the amount of dissolved oxygen in the water,
-it is simple to calibrate the device to show oxygen content.
-The system is sensitive enough to detect one part of oxygen
-in 10 billion of water. And, the device can be towed and
-take readings at depths of up to one mile, an added advantage
-that obviates the chances of surface-air contamination.</p>
-<p class="tb"><span class="ss">NEUTRON ACTIVATION ANALYSIS</span> Nuclear energy is contributing
-to the more accurate and more rapid analysis of
-minerals in the sea in at least two different ways. The first
-employs neutron activation analysis, which we have already
-mentioned. This method is valuable not only in analyzing
-sediments cored from the ocean floor, but also in the
-detection and quantitative analysis of trace elements in the
-water. Knowledge of the role of all natural constituents in
-the ocean is essential to an understanding of the complex
-interrelationships of the ocean environment, as we have
-seen. Identification of trace elements also is a necessary
-preliminary to determining the effects of purposely introduced
-radionuclides. Collection of the minute quantities
-of trace elements is very difficult at best. Once they
-have been collected and concentrated, neutron activation
-analysis provides a means for their identification and
-measurement.</p>
-<p class="tb"><span class="ss">X-RAY FLUORESCENCE</span> is another technique, used to identify
-the mineral content of ore or sediment. This system
-<span class="pb" id="Page_41">41</span>
-was developed (for the purpose of spotting gold being
-smuggled through Customs) by Tracerlab Division of
-Laboratory for Electronics, Inc. (LFE), under an AEC
-contract. Similar equipment was developed simultaneously
-in England for use by prospectors, geologists and mining
-engineers. It now may be used at sea in analyzing samples
-from the sea floor. As is often the case with isotope-based
-devices, its operation is really quite simple. When excited
-by radiation from an isotope (or any other radiation
-source), each element produces its own unique pattern of
-X-ray fluorescence, that is, it radiates characteristic
-X rays. By varying filters and measuring the count rate,
-oceanographers can detect and measure materials, such
-as tin, copper, lead, and zinc. The British unit is completely
-transistorized, battery powered, and weighs only
-16.5 pounds.</p>
-<p class="tb"><span class="ss">RHODAMINE-B DYE</span> The AEC also has improved oceanographic
-research in ways that do not involve the use of
-nuclear energy. Some years ago under the joint sponsorship
-of the AEC Division of Reactor Development and Technology
-and the Division of Biology and Medicine, the Waterlift
-Division of Cleveland Pneumatic Tool Company developed
-instrumentation and techniques for detecting the presence of
-the red dye, rhodamine-B, in concentrations as low as one-tenth
-part per billion. This method is now widely used both
-for groundwater studies and in the study of currents, diffusion,
-and pollution in rivers, lakes, and the ocean. In many
-cases, rhodamine-B is a better tracer in water than
-radioisotopes, due to the greater ease with which it is
-detected.</p>
-<h3 id="c12">Environmental Safety Studies</h3>
-<p>The AEC Division of Reactor Development and Technology
-has supported extensive environmental studies to
-assess the safety of isotopic power sources (to be discussed
-later) in oceanic environments. One of the most
-important of these is being conducted by the Naval Radiological
-Defense Laboratory at an ocean environmental testing
-complex near San Clemente Island off the coast of California,
-which includes a shore installation and a floating
-<span class="pb" id="Page_42">42</span>
-ocean platform. These studies are to determine seawater
-corrosion of containment alloys and fuel solubility in
-seawater; the dispersion of the fuel in the ocean; the effect
-of the radioactive material on marine life; and the radiation
-hazard to man, when all significant exposure pathways are
-considered.</p>
-<p>In another study the Chesapeake Bay Institute of Johns
-Hopkins University investigated potential hazards that
-might result if radioactive materials were released off the
-Atlantic Coast. Five areas along the Continental Shelf were
-examined in detail for environmental factors such as
-vertical diffusion. The same Institute made environmental
-and physical dispersion studies off Cape Kennedy, Florida,
-to predict the fate of any radioactive materials that might
-be released in aborted launchings of nuclear rockets or nuclear
-auxiliary power devices for space uses. Fluorescent
-dye was released into offshore, surf zone, and inshore locations;
-the diffusion was observed, sampled, and compared
-with existing diffusion theory. Mathematical models have
-been developed that can now be used to predict the rate and
-extent of diffusion in the Cape Kennedy area in the event of
-any radioactivity release from aborted test flights.</p>
-<p>Similar studies have been carried out near the space
-launching site at Point Arguello, California, by the Scripps
-Institution of Oceanography. These included collection of
-data on dispersion, marine sediments, and the biological
-uptake of radioactive plutonium, polonium, cesium, and
-strontium.</p>
-<h3 id="c13">The Atom at Work in the Sea</h3>
-<p><span class="ss small">NUCLEAR REACTOR PROPULSION</span></p>
-<p>The transformation in undersea warfare tactics and
-national defense strategy effected by the introduction of
-nuclear-powered submarines is now well known. Navy
-submarines employing the latest reactors and fuel elements
-can stay at sea for more than 3 years without refueling.
-<i>Polaris</i> submarines on patrol remain submerged for 60 to
-70 days. The nuclear submarine <i>Triton</i>, tracing Magellan&rsquo;s
-route of 400 years earlier, traveled 36,000 miles under
-water, moving around the world in 83 days and 10 hours.
-<span class="pb" id="Page_43">43</span>
-Under-ice transits of the Arctic Ocean by nuclear submarines
-are now commonplace. These feats all are possible
-because of the nuclear reactors and propulsion
-systems developed by the AEC Division of Naval Reactors,
-which also developed the propulsion plants for the Navy&rsquo;s
-nuclear surface vessels.<a class="fn" id="fr_14" href="#fn_14">[14]</a></p>
-<div class="img" id="fig34">
-<img src="images/p21.jpg" alt="" width="1000" height="753" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>USS</i> Seadragon <i>and</i> Skate <i>sit nose to nose on top of the world after
-under-ice voyages from the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans to the
-North Pole.</i></p>
-</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig35">
-<img src="images/p21a.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="483" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>A frogman from the Seadragon swims
-under the Arctic ice in one of the first photographs made beneath
-the North Pole.</i></p>
-</div>
-<p class="tb"><span class="ss">DEEP SUBMERGENCE RESEARCH VEHICLE</span> On April 18,
-1965, President Johnson announced that the Atomic Energy
-Commission and Department of the Navy were undertaking
-development of a nuclear-powered deep submergence research
-and engineering vehicle. This manned vehicle,
-designated the NR-1, will have vastly greater endurance
-than any other yet developed or planned, because of its
-<span class="pb" id="Page_44">44</span>
-nuclear power. Its development will provide the basis for
-future nuclear-powered oceanographic research vehicles
-of even greater versatility and depth capability.</p>
-<p>The NR-1 will be able to move at maximum speed for
-periods of time limited only by the amount of food and
-supplies it carries. With a crew of five and two scientists,
-the vehicle will be able to make detailed studies of the
-ocean bottom, temperature, currents, and other phenomena
-for military, commercial, and scientific uses. The nuclear
-propulsion plant will give it great independence from surface
-support ships and essentially unlimited endurance for exploration.</p>
-<p>The submarine will have viewing ports for visual observation
-of its surroundings and of the ocean bottom. A remote
-grapple will permit collection of marine samples and other
-objects. The NR-1 is expected to be capable of exploring
-areas of the Continental Shelf, which appears to contain
-the most accessible wealth in mineral and food resources
-in the seas. Exploratory charting of this kind may help
-the United States in establishing sovereignty over parts
-of the Continental Shelf; a ship with its depth capability
-can explore an ocean-bottom area several times larger
-than the United States.</p>
-<p>The reactor plant for the vehicle is being designed
-by the General Electric Company&rsquo;s Knolls Atomic Power
-Laboratory, Schenectady, New York. The remainder of
-the propulsion plant is being designed by the Electric
-Boat Division, General Dynamics Corporation, Groton,
-Connecticut.</p>
-<p>Scientists are already beginning to implant small sea
-floor laboratories. In the future, when large permanent
-undersea installations for scientific investigation, mining,
-or fish farming become a reality, nuclear reactors like the
-one designed for research submersibles or the one already
-in use in Antarctica and other remote locations<a class="fn" id="fr_15" href="#fn_15">[15]</a> will serve
-as their power plants.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_45">45</div>
-<p><span class="ss small">ISOTOPIC POWER SOURCES</span></p>
-<p>The ocean is a logistically remote environment, in the
-sense that conventional combustible fuels can&rsquo;t be used
-underwater unless supplied with their own sources of
-oxygen. It is usually extremely costly to take anything
-heavy or bulky into the deep ocean. Even if the two essential
-components of combustion&mdash;fuel and oxygen&mdash;could
-be delivered economically to an undersea base or craft,
-the extreme back pressure of the depths would present
-serious exhaust problems. Yet deep beneath the sea is just
-where we now propose to do large amounts of work requiring
-huge supplies of reliable energy. The lack of reliable
-and extended duration power sources is perhaps one of the
-most critical requirements for expansion of underwater
-and marine technology. For example, the pressing need for
-measurements of atmospheric and oceanic data to support
-scientific, commercial, and military operations will in the
-future require literally hundreds of oceanographic and
-meteorological buoys deployed throughout the world to take
-simultaneous measurements and time-series observations
-at specific sites.</p>
-<p>Some of these buoys will support and monitor up to 100
-sensors each. These devices record a variety of physical,
-chemical, and radiological phenomena above, at, or below
-the surface. Periodically the sensor data will be converted
-to digital form and stored on magnetic tape for later
-retrieval by distant shore-based or shipboard radio command,
-by satellite command (for retransmittal to ground
-stations), or by physical recovery of the tapes. Individually,
-each buoy will not require a great deal of energy to operate,
-but will have to operate reliably over long periods of time.
-Conventional power sources are being used for the prototype
-buoys now under development and testing, but these robot
-ocean platforms in the future will make excellent use of
-nuclear energy supplied by isotopic power sources.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_46">46</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig36">
-<img src="images/p22.jpg" alt="" width="1000" height="1008" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>The world&rsquo;s first
-nuclear-powered weather buoy located
-in the center of the Gulf of
-Mexico. This weather station, part
-of the U. S. Navy&rsquo;s NOMAD system,
-is on a barge 10 feet &times; 20 feet, and
-is anchored in 12,000 feet of water.</i></p>
-</div>
-<div class="img">
-<img src="images/p22a.jpg" id="ncfig3" alt="diagram" width="1000" height="821" />
-</div>
-<dl class="undent pcap"><dt>RADIO ANTENNA</dt>
-<dt>WEATHER SENSORS</dt>
-<dt>WARNING BEACON</dt>
-<dt>NUCLEAR GENERATOR</dt></dl>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_47">47</div>
-<p>The SNAP-7D isotope power generator has been operating
-unattended since January 1964 on a deep-ocean moored
-buoy in the Gulf of Mexico. This U. S. Navy NOMAD (Navy
-Oceanographic and Meteorological Automatic Device) buoy
-is powered by a 60-watt, strontium-90 radioisotope source,
-which was developed by the AEC Division of Reactor Development
-and Technology. This weather station transmits
-data for 2 minutes and 20 seconds every 3 hours. This data
-includes air temperature, barometric pressure, and wind
-velocity and direction. Storm detectors trigger special
-hourly transmissions during severe weather conditions.
-The generator operates continuously and charges storage
-batteries between transmissions. Some power is used to
-light a navigation beacon to alert passing ships.</p>
-<p>Energy from the heat of radioisotope decay has been
-used on a &ldquo;proof-of-principle&rdquo; basis in several other
-instances involving ocean or marine technology.</p>
-<p>An experimental &#8313;&#8304;Sr isotope-powered acoustic navigation
-beacon (SNAP-7E) now rests on the sea floor in 15,000
-feet of water near Bermuda. Devices such as these not only
-will enable nearby surface research or salvage vessels to
-locate their positions precisely (something very difficult to
-do at sea) and to return to the same spot, but the beacons
-also will aid submarine navigation (see <a href="#Page_48">page 48</a>).</p>
-<p>A U. S. Coast Guard lighthouse located in Chesapeake
-Bay has been powered by a 60-watt, &#8313;&#8304;Sr power source,
-SNAP-7B, for 2 years without maintenance or service.
-This unit was subsequently relocated for use in another
-application (described below).</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig37">
-<img src="images/p22b.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="962" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>Engineers prepare to
-install the SNAP-7D generator.</i></p>
-</div>
-<p>The first commercial use of one of these &ldquo;atomic batteries&rdquo;
-began in 1965 when the SNAP-7B 60-watt generator
-went into operation on an unmanned Phillips Petroleum
-Company offshore oil platform, 40 miles southeast of
-Cameron, Louisiana. The generator operates flashing navigational
-lights and, in bad weather, an electronic foghorn
-(see <a href="#Page_49">page 49</a>). This unit will be tested for 2 years to determine
-the economic feasibility of routinely using isotopic
-power devices on a commercial basis.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_48">48</div>
-<div class="img">
-<img src="images/p23.jpg" id="ncfig4" alt="Acoustic pulses." width="651" height="800" />
-</div>
-<dl class="undent pcap"><dt>Buoyancy tank</dt>
-<dt>Sound amplifier</dt>
-<dt>Nuclear-powered sound source</dt>
-<dt>Ocean bottom</dt></dl>
-<div class="img" id="fig38">
-<img src="images/p23a.jpg" alt="" width="705" height="799" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>The SNAP-7E isotopic generator
-powers an undersea acoustic
-beacon, which produces an acoustic
-pulse once every 60 seconds.
-In addition to being a navigation
-aid, the beacon is used to study
-the effects of a deep-ocean environment
-on the transmission of
-sound over long distances.</i></p>
-</div>
-<div class="img">
-<img src="images/p23b.jpg" id="ncfig5" alt="Diagram." width="1000" height="925" />
-</div>
-<dl class="undent pcap"><dt>Total height: 10 ft 2 in</dt>
-<dt>Armored cable</dt>
-<dt>Pressure vessel</dt>
-<dt>Capacitor bank</dt>
-<dt>Fuel capsules</dt>
-<dt>Biological shield</dt>
-<dt>Equipment package</dt>
-<dt>Voltage converter</dt>
-<dt>Depleted uranium</dt>
-<dt>Thermoelectric generator</dt>
-<dt>System support structure</dt></dl>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_49">49</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig39">
-<img src="images/p23c.jpg" alt="" width="1000" height="804" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>Details of the Phillips Petroleum
-platform, which uses the SNAP-7B
-nuclear generator.</i></p>
-</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig40">
-<img src="images/p23f.jpg" alt="" width="638" height="800" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>The
-final electrical connection is made
-from the nuclear generator to the
-platform&rsquo;s electronic foghorn and
-two flashing light beacons.</i></p>
-</div>
-<div class="img">
-<img src="images/p23h.jpg" id="ncfig6" alt="Diagram" width="445" height="800" />
-</div>
-<dl class="undent pcap"><dt>Fog Horn</dt>
-<dt>Beacon</dt>
-<dt>Beacon</dt>
-<dt>Snap-7B nuclear generator</dt></dl>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_50">50</div>
-<p>The radioisotope-powered devices previously described
-were developed by the AEC under the SNAP-7 Program.<a class="fn" id="fr_16" href="#fn_16">[16]</a>
-The testing of these units has demonstrated the advisability
-of developing reliable and unattended nuclear power sources
-for use in remote environments without compromise to
-nuclear safety standards. As a result of the success of
-these tests, a variety of potential oceanographic applications
-have been identified. A study, conducted by Aerojet-General
-Corporation in conjunction with Global Marine
-Exploration Company and Northwest Consultant Oceanographers,
-Inc., described ocean applications including
-underwater navigational aids, acoustic beacons, channel
-markers, cable boosters, weather buoys, offshore oil well
-controls along with innumerable oceanographic research
-applications. This study was sponsored by the AEC Division
-of Isotopes Development.</p>
-<p>In order to satisfy the requirements for these and other
-applications, the AEC has begun developing a series of
-compact and highly reliable isotope power devices that are
-designed to be economically competitive with alternative
-power sources. Currently underway are two specific projects,
-SNAP-21 and SNAP-23.</p>
-<p>SNAP-21 is a two-phase project to develop a series of
-compact strontium-90 power systems for deep-sea and
-ocean-bottom uses (20,000-foot depths). The first phase of
-design and component development on a basic 10-watt
-system already has been completed, and a second phase
-development and test effort now under way will extend
-through 1970. A series of power sources in the 10- and
-20-watt range will be available for general purpose deep-ocean
-application.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_51">51</div>
-<p>The SNAP-23 project involves the development of a
-series of economically attractive strontium-90 power systems
-for remote terrestrial uses. This project will result
-in 25-watt, 60-watt, and 100-watt units capable of long-term
-operation in surface buoys, offshore oil platforms,
-weather stations, and microwave repeater stations.</p>
-<p>In addition to the above, effort is underway by the AEC to
-develop an isotope-fueled heater that will be used by
-aquanauts in the Navy&rsquo;s Sealab Program (see <a href="#Page_12">page 12</a>).
-Future activities, now being planned, will involve the development
-of large isotope power sources (1-10 electric
-kilowatts) and small nuclear reactors (50-100 kilowatts)
-for use in manned and unmanned deep-ocean platforms.</p>
-<h3 id="c14">Ocean Engineering</h3>
-<p>Considerable engineering experience has been derived
-from the work of federal agencies in development of the
-largest taut-moored instrumented buoy system ever deployed
-in the deep ocean. Developed by Ocean Science 81
-Engineering, Inc., it is useful in observation and prediction
-of environmental changes.</p>
-<p>The system embodies substantial advances in design.
-It incorporates, among other features, an acoustically
-commanded underwater winch for adjustment of the mooring
-depth after the buoy is deployed, and for recovering
-a 16,000-pound submerged data-recording instrument canister.
-This buoy system can survive being moored in
-up to 18,000-foot depths of the open ocean for upward of
-30 days.</p>
-<p>The very first deep-ocean, taut-moored buoy system was
-developed for the government in 1954, and has since become
-an important tool for oceanographers and others who seek
-stable instrument platforms at sea. The buoys have the
-advantage of minimizing horizontal movement due to currents,
-winds, and waves.</p>
-<p>The National Marine Consultants Division of Interstate
-Electronics Corporation has developed for the government
-a system for measuring the propagation of seismic sea
-waves (tsunamis).</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_52">52</div>
-<p>Work of these sorts contributes materially to reliable
-ocean engineering. And the measurements made by these
-sophisticated instruments contribute to our knowledge of
-ocean fluid dynamics and wave mechanics.</p>
-<p>Corrosion is a huge, ever-present problem plaguing
-oceanographic engineers, ship designers, mariners, operators
-of desalination plants, petroleum companies with
-offshore facilities, and, in fact, everyone who places
-structures in salt water to do useful work. While the basic
-mechanisms of corrosion are known, there are many detailed
-aspects that are not: For example, the precise role
-of bacteriological slimes in causing corrosion on supposedly
-protected structures. Radioisotope tracers now are
-helping engineers follow the chemical, physical, and biological
-actions in corrosion processes.</p>
-<h3 id="c15">Fresh Water from Seawater</h3>
-<p>In 1960 the chairman of the board of a large U. S. corporation
-made a fundamental policy decision for his company:
-Since the greatest critical need of man in the next
-decade would be fresh water, his company would begin
-working to produce large volumes of fresh water&mdash;including
-the development of methods for desalting seawater.
-His pioneering analysis proved to be prophetic.</p>
-<p>Throughout the world, more people are using more
-water for more purposes than ever before. Many areas of
-the world, including some that are densely populated,
-have been parched since the dawn of history. In others
-where water was once abundant, not only are natural
-sources being depleted faster than they are replaced, but
-many rivers and lakes have been so polluted that they can
-now scarcely be used.</p>
-<p>The world&rsquo;s greatest resource of water is the ocean,
-but energy is required to remove the salt from it and make
-it potable or even useful for agriculture and industry. The
-energy produced by nuclear reactors is considered economical
-in the large quantities that soon will be required.</p>
-<p>The AEC and the Office of Saline Water of the Department
-of the Interior, after a preliminary study, have
-joined with the Metropolitan Water District of Southern
-California and the electric utility firms serving the area,
-<span class="pb" id="Page_53">53</span>
-to begin construction of a very large nuclear-power desalting
-plant on a man-made island off the California coast.
-The plant, when completed in the 1970s, will have an initial
-water capacity of 50 million gallons per day and also will
-generate about 1,800,000 kilowatts of electricity. Additional
-desalting capacity is planned for addition later to achieve a
-total water capacity of 150 million gallons per day.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig41">
-<img src="images/p24.jpg" alt="" width="1000" height="409" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>Plans to construct a nuclear desalting plant in California were
-announced in August 1966 by (from left) AEC Commissioner
-James T. Ramey, Secretary of the Interior Stewart L. Udall,
-Mayor Samuel Yorty of Los Angeles, and Joseph Jensen, Board
-Chairman of the Metropolitan Water District of Southern California.</i></p>
-</div>
-<p>Plans for other nuclear-powered desalting projects around
-the world are being discussed by the United States government,
-the International Atomic Energy Agency and the
-governments of many other nations. Some of these also
-may be in operation during the early 1970s.<a class="fn" id="fr_17" href="#fn_17">[17]</a></p>
-<div class="img" id="fig42">
-<img src="images/p24a.jpg" alt="" width="1200" height="473" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>Model of the nuclear power desalting plant to be built on the coast
-of Southern California.</i></p>
-</div>
-<p>These projects followed extended detailed studies, including
-one &ldquo;milestone&rdquo; investigation at the AEC&rsquo;s Oak
-Ridge National Laboratory in Tennessee, in which the
-economic feasibility of using very large nuclear reactors
-<span class="pb" id="Page_54">54</span>
-coupled to very large desalting equipment to produce power
-and water was determined.</p>
-<p>The significance of these studies was recognized by
-President Johnson in 1964, when he told the Third International
-Conference on Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy:
-&ldquo;The time is coming when a single desalting plant powered
-by nuclear energy will produce hundreds of millions of
-gallons of fresh water&mdash;and large amounts of electricity&mdash;every
-day.&rdquo;</p>
-<p>It is obvious that today realization of that goal is much
-nearer.</p>
-<p>The installation of new and larger desalting plants will
-in itself require extensive additional oceanographic research.
-By the nature of their operation these plants will
-be discharging considerable volumes of heated water with
-a salt content higher than that of the sea. Throughout the
-ocean, but particularly in the estuaries, sea life is sensitive
-to the concentration of ocean salts and temperature.
-Studies of the effect of such discharges will be an essential
-part of any large-scale desalination program.</p>
-<h3 id="c16">Radiation Preservation of Seafood</h3>
-<p>The use of nuclear radiation for the preservation of food
-is a new process of particular importance for seafood. The
-ocean constitutes the world&rsquo;s largest source of animal
-protein food. Yet the harvests of the sea can be stored
-safely, even with refrigeration, for far shorter periods
-than can most other foods. In many parts of the world,
-this tendency to spoil makes fish products available only
-to people who live near seacoasts.</p>
-<p>Many types of seafood, however, when exposed to radiation
-from radioisotopes or small accelerators, can be
-stored under normal refrigeration for up to four weeks
-without deterioration. The process does not alter the appearance
-or taste of the seafood; it merely destroys
-bacteria that cause spoilage. This fact holds promise not
-only for the world&rsquo;s protein-starved populations, but also
-for the economic well-being of commercial fishermen,
-whose markets would be much expanded.</p>
-<p>In support of this program, the AEC has built and is
-operating at Gloucester, Massachusetts, a prototype commercial
-<span class="pb" id="Page_55">55</span>
-seafood irradiator plant capable of processing
-2000 pounds of seafood an hour. The radiation is supplied
-by a cobalt-60 source. Private industry is cooperating
-with the AEC in the evaluation of this facility.<a class="fn" id="fr_18" href="#fn_18">[18]</a></p>
-<div class="img" id="fig43">
-<img src="images/p25.jpg" alt="" width="1000" height="730" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>The first shipboard irradiator was on
-The</i> Delaware, <i>a research fishing vessel.
-Fish, preserved through irradiation soon after
-they are caught, have a refrigerated storage
-life two or three times longer than nonirradiated
-fish.</i></p>
-</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig44">
-<img src="images/p25a.jpg" alt="" width="392" height="600" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>The first shipboard irradiator.</i></p>
-</div>
-<h3 id="c17">Project Plowshare</h3>
-<p>Nuclear explosives are, among other things, large-scale,
-low-cost excavation devices. In this respect, with the
-proper pre-detonation study and engineering, they are
-ideally suited for massive earth-moving and &ldquo;geological
-engineering&rdquo; projects, including the construction of harbors
-and canals. The western coasts of three continents, Australia,
-Africa, and South America, are sparsely supplied with
-good harbors. A number of studies have been undertaken
-<span class="pb" id="Page_56">56</span>
-as to the feasibility of using nuclear explosives for digging
-deepwater harbors. Undoubtedly at some time in the future,
-these projects will be carried out.</p>
-<p>In addition, there are many places in the world where
-the construction of a sea-level canal would provide shorter
-and safer routes for ocean shipping, expedite trade and
-commerce, or open up barren and unpopulated, but mineral-rich
-lands to settlers and profitable development. The AEC
-Division of Peaceful Nuclear Explosives operates a continuing
-program to develop engineering skills for such
-projects.<a class="fn" id="fr_19" href="#fn_19">[19]</a> Construction of a sea-level canal across the
-Central American isthmus is one well-known proposal
-for this &ldquo;Plowshare&rdquo; program.</p>
-<p>The use of nuclear explosives in this manner may one
-day change the very shape of the world ocean.</p>
-<h3 id="c18">A New <i>Fram</i></h3>
-<div class="img" id="fig45">
-<img src="images/p26.jpg" alt="" width="419" height="601" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>Fridtjof Nansen</i></p>
-</div>
-<p>Just about 70 years ago, the oceanographer and explorer,
-Dr. Fridtjof Nansen completed his famous voyage aboard
-the research vessel <i>Fram</i>, which
-remained locked in the Arctic ice
-pack for 3 years, drifting around
-the top of the world while the men
-aboard her studied the oceanography
-of the polar sea. Now the
-National Science Foundation has
-taken the first steps toward building
-a modern version of <i>Fram</i> for
-Arctic studies. This time the vessel
-will be an Arctic Drift Barge
-containing the best equipment modern
-technology can offer&mdash;including,
-it is proposed, a central nuclear
-power plant to guarantee
-heat and power. Scheduled for completion sometime in the
-1970s, this project represents yet another use of the atom
-in the study of the ocean.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_57">57</div>
-<h2 id="c19"><span class="small">THE THREE-DIMENSIONAL OCEAN</span></h2>
-<p>The ocean is no longer an area of isolated scientific
-interest, nor merely a turbulent two-dimensional surface
-over which man conducts his commerce and occasionally
-fights his wars.</p>
-<p>In today&rsquo;s world, the ocean has assumed its full third
-dimension. Men and women are going down into it to study,
-to play, to work, and, alas, sometimes to fight. As they
-go, they are taking atomic energy with them. In many instances,
-only the harnessed power in the nuclei of atoms
-permits them to penetrate the depths of the mighty sea and
-there attain their objectives.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig46">
-<img src="images/p26a.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="759" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>Artist&rsquo;s conception of one of three proposed designs for the National
-Science Foundation&rsquo;s Arctic Drift Barge. All three designs
-incorporate a nuclear power source.</i></p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_58">58</div>
-<h2 id="c20"><span class="small">SUGGESTED REFERENCES</span></h2>
-<h3 id="c21">Books</h3>
-<p class="revint"><i>The Bountiful Sea</i>, Seabrook Hull, Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood
-Cliffs, New Jersey 07632, 1964, 340 pp., $6.95.</p>
-<p class="revint"><i>This Great and Wide Sea</i>, R. E. Coker, Harper &amp; Row, New York
-10016, 1962, 235 pp., $2.25 (paperback).</p>
-<p class="revint"><i>Exploring the Secrets of the Sea</i>, William J. Cromie, Prentice-Hall,
-Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey 07632, 1962, 300 pp., $5.95.</p>
-<p class="revint"><i>The Sea Around Us</i>, Rachel L. Carson, Oxford University Press,
-Inc., New York 10016, 1961, 237 pp., $5.00 (hardback); $0.60
-(paperback) from the New American Library of World Literature,
-Inc., New York 10022.</p>
-<p class="revint"><i>The Ocean Adventure</i>, Gardner Soule, Appleton-Century, New York
-10017, 1966, 278 pp., $5.95.</p>
-<p class="revint"><i>Proving Ground: An Account of the Radiobiological Studies in the
-Pacific, 1946-1961</i>, Neal O. Hines, University of Washington
-Press, Seattle, Washington 98105, 1962, 366 pp., $6.75.</p>
-<p class="revint"><i>The Effects of Atomic Radiation on Oceanography and Fisheries</i>
-(Publication 551), National Academy of Sciences&mdash;National Research
-Council, Washington, D. C. 20418, 1957, 137 pp., $2.00.</p>
-<p class="revint"><i>Oceanography: A Study of Inner Space</i>, Warren E. Yasso, Holt
-Rinehart and Winston, Inc., New York, 10017, 1965, 176 pp.,
-$2.50 (hardback); $1.28 (paperback).</p>
-<h3 id="c22">Booklets</h3>
-<p class="revint"><i>Oceanography Information Sources</i> (Publication 1417), National
-Academy of Sciences&mdash;National Research Council, Washington,
-D. C. 20418, 1966, 38 pp., $1.50.</p>
-<p class="revint"><i>A Reader&rsquo;s Guide to Oceanography</i>, Jan Hahn, Woods Hole Oceanographic
-Institution, Woods Hole, Massachusetts 02543, August
-1965 (revised periodically) 13 pp., free.</p>
-<p class="tb">The following booklets are available from the Superintendent of
-Documents, U. S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C.
-20402:</p>
-<p class="revint"><i>Undersea Vehicles for Oceanography</i> (Pamphlet No. 18), Inter-agency
-Committee on Oceanography of the Federal Council for
-Science and Technology, 1965, 81 pp., $0.65.</p>
-<p class="revint"><i>Marine Sciences Research</i>, AEC Division of Biology and Medicine,
-March 1966, 18 pp., $0.15.</p>
-<h3 id="c23">Articles</h3>
-<p class="revint">Tools for the Ocean Depths, <i>Fortune</i>, LXXII: 213 (August 1965).</p>
-<p class="revint">Journey to Inner Space, <i>Time</i>, 86: 90 (September 17, 1965).</p>
-<p class="revint">Working for Weeks on the Sea Floor, Jacques-Yves Cousteau,
-<i>National Geographic</i>, 129: 498 (April 1966).</p>
-<p class="revint"><i>Nucleonics</i>, 24 (June 1966). This special issue on the use of the
-atom undersea contains the following articles of interest:</p>
-<blockquote>
-<p class="revint">Reactors: Key to Large Scale Underwater Operations, J. R. Wetch, 33.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_59">59</div>
-<p class="revint">Undersea Role for Isotopic Power, K. E. Buck, 38.</p>
-<p class="revint">Radioisotopes in Oceanographic Research, R. A. Pedrick and
-G. B. Magin, Jr., 42.</p>
-</blockquote>
-<h3 id="c24">Motion Pictures</h3>
-<p class="revint"><i>1000 Feet Deep for Science</i>, 27 minutes, color, 1965. Produced by
-and available from Westinghouse Electric Corporation, Visual
-Communications Department, 3 Gateway Center, Box 2278,
-Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15230. This film describes the Westinghouse
-Diving Saucer, which is a two-man laboratory used for
-underwater research. This is the saucer that is used by Jacques-Yves
-Cousteau and was featured in his motion picture <i>World
-Without Sun</i>.</p>
-<p class="tb">Available for loan without charge from the AEC Headquarters
-Film Library, Division of Public Information, U. S. Atomic Energy
-Commission, Washington, D. C. 20545 and from other AEC film
-libraries.</p>
-<p class="revint"><i>Bikini Radiological Laboratory</i>, 22 minutes, sound, color, 1949.
-Produced by the University of Washington and the AEC. This
-film explains studies of effects of radioactivity from the 1946
-atomic tests at Bikini Atoll on plants and marine life in the
-area 3 years later.</p>
-<p class="revint"><i>Return to Bikini</i>, 50 minutes, sound, color, 1964. Produced by the
-Laboratory of Radiation Biology at the University of Washington
-for the AEC. This film records the ecological resurvey of
-Bikini in 1964, 6 years after the last weapons test.</p>
-<p class="revint"><i>Desalting the Seas</i>, 17 minutes, sound, color, 1967. Produced by
-AEC&rsquo;s Oak Ridge National Laboratory. Describes various methods
-of purifying saline water through the use of large dual-purpose
-nuclear-electric desalting plants.</p>
-<div class="img">
-<img src="images/p27.jpg" id="ncfig7" alt="uncaptioned" width="1000" height="623" />
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_60">60</div>
-<h3 id="c25">PHOTO CREDITS</h3>
-<table class="center">
-<tr><td class="l">Page</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"><a href="#Page_2">2</a> </td><td class="l">U. S. Navy (USN)</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"><a href="#Page_3">3</a> </td><td class="l">University of Pennsylvania Museum&mdash;National Geographic Expedition</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"><a href="#Page_5">5</a> </td><td class="l">USN</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"><a href="#Page_6">6</a> </td><td class="l">Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (WHOI)</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"><a href="#Page_7">7</a> </td><td class="l">Diagram, WHOI; photo, S. Hull</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"><a href="#Page_9">9</a> </td><td class="l">Top, Oregon State University (OSU); bottom, University of California, San Diego, Scripps Institution of Oceanography (SIO)</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"><a href="#Page_10">10</a> </td><td class="l">Lamont Geological Observatory of Columbia University</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"><a href="#Page_12">12</a> </td><td class="l">USN</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"><a href="#Page_15">15</a> </td><td class="l">SIO</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"><a href="#Page_19">19</a> </td><td class="l">R. H. Backus. <i>Physics Today</i> (November 1965), &ldquo;Sound Reflections In and Under Oceans,&rdquo; J. B. Hersey</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"><a href="#Page_20">20</a> </td><td class="l">U. S. Bureau of Commercial Fisheries Biological Laboratory, Honolulu, Hawaii</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"><a href="#Page_22">22</a> </td><td class="l">USN</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"><a href="#Page_24">24</a> </td><td class="l">Laboratory of Radiation Biology, University of Washington (LRB)</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"><a href="#Page_26">26</a> </td><td class="l">Jan Hahn</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"><a href="#Page_27">27</a> </td><td class="l">Franklin GNO Corporation</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"><a href="#Page_28">28</a> </td><td class="l">George D. Grice, WHOI</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"><a href="#Page_31">31</a> </td><td class="l">SIO</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"><a href="#Page_33">33</a> </td><td class="l">OSU</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"><a href="#Page_35">35</a> </td><td class="l">Monsanto Research Corporation</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"><a href="#Page_37">37</a> </td><td class="l">USN</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"><a href="#Page_38">38</a> </td><td class="l">Lane-Wells Company</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"><a href="#Page_39">39</a> </td><td class="l">Research Triangle Institute</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"><a href="#Page_43">43</a> </td><td class="l">USN</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"><a href="#Page_46">46</a>,&nbsp;<a href="#Page_47">47</a>&nbsp;&amp;&nbsp;<a href="#Page_48">48</a> </td><td class="l">Martin-Marietta Company</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"><a href="#Page_49">49</a> </td><td class="l">The Photo Mart</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"><a href="#Page_53">53</a> </td><td class="l">Top, Metropolitan Water District of Southern California; bottom, Bechtel Corporation</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"><a href="#Page_55">55</a> </td><td class="l">U. S. Bureau of Commercial Fisheries, Fish and Wildlife Service; inset, Brookhaven National Laboratory</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"><a href="#Page_56">56</a> </td><td class="l">Norsk Folkemuseum, Oslo, Norway, courtesy The Mariners Museum, Newport News, Virginia</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"><a href="#Page_57">57</a> </td><td class="l">National Science Foundation</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="l"><a href="#Page_61">61</a> </td><td class="l">S. Hull</td></tr>
-<tr><td colspan="2" class="l"><a href="#cover">Cover photo</a> courtesy James Butler, USN</td></tr>
-<tr><td colspan="2" class="l"><a href="#ncfig9">Author&rsquo;s photo</a> courtesy General Dynamics Corporation</td></tr>
-<tr><td colspan="2" class="l"><a href="#ncfig1">Frontispiece</a> from Jan Hahn</td></tr>
-</table>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_61">61</div>
-<h3 id="c26">THE COVER</h3>
-<div class="img">
-<img src="images/p28.jpg" id="ncfig8" alt="The ATOM and the OCEAN" width="395" height="600" />
-</div>
-<p>The ship on the cover is the trim
-<i>Atlantis</i> riding the waves about 200 miles
-south of Bermuda. The first craft built
-by the United States as an oceanographic
-research vessel, she traveled more than
-1,200,000 miles across the seven seas
-for a period of 30 years. She &ldquo;ran&rdquo;
-over 6000 hydrographic stations and
-was used for innumerable dredging,
-coring, biological, physical, and acoustical
-research operations. After she was
-retired from active service at the Woods
-Hole Oceanographic Institution in Massachusetts,
-she was sold to Argentina,
-where she has resumed her role as an
-oceanographic research vessel.</p>
-<h3 id="c27">THE AUTHOR</h3>
-<p><span class="ss">E. W. SEABROOK HULL</span> is an experienced writer and editor in
-technical and engineering fields. He is the author of <i>The Bountiful
-Sea</i>, published in 1964 by Prentice-Hall, and <i>Plowshare</i>, another
-booklet in this Understanding the Atom Series. He is the editor of
-<i>Ocean Science News</i> and editor and publisher of <i>GeoMarine Technology</i>.</p>
-<div class="img">
-<img src="images/p28a.jpg" id="ncfig9" alt="E. W. Seabrook Hull" width="1000" height="697" />
-</div>
-<h2 id="c28"><span class="small">Footnotes</span></h2>
-<div class="fnblock"><div class="fndef"><a class="fn"  id="fn_1" href="#fr_1">[1]</a>For a description of how these will work, see <i>Controlled Nuclear
-Fusion</i>, another booklet in this series.
-</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn"  id="fn_2" href="#fr_2">[2]</a>These devices, which will be frequently mentioned later in these
-pages, are described in detail in a companion booklet <i>Power from
-Radioisotopes</i>.
-</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn"  id="fn_3" href="#fr_3">[3]</a>See <i>Nuclear Reactors</i>, another booklet in this series, for a description
-of the fission process and how reactors operate.
-</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn"  id="fn_4" href="#fr_4">[4]</a>For a full discussion of other aspects of this topic, see <i>Fallout
-from Nuclear Tests</i>, another booklet in this series.
-</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn"  id="fn_5" href="#fr_5">[5]</a>For a full discussion of this topic, and the safety measures
-taken by the AEC in connection with it, see <i>Radioactive Wastes</i>,
-another booklet in this series.
-</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn"  id="fn_6" href="#fr_6">[6]</a>Radioisotopes, unstable forms of ordinary atoms, are distinguishable
-by reason of their radioactivity, not by their biological
-or chemical activity.
-</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn"  id="fn_7" href="#fr_7">[7]</a>The time in which half of the atoms in a quantity of radioactive
-material lose their radioactivity.
-</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn"  id="fn_8" href="#fr_8">[8]</a>For more details of these studies, see <i>Atoms, Nature, and Man</i>,
-a companion booklet in this series.
-</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn"  id="fn_9" href="#fr_9">[9]</a>Gamma rays are high-energy electromagnetic radiation, similar
-to X rays, originating in the nuclei of radioactive atoms.
-</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn"  id="fn_10" href="#fr_10">[10]</a>Instruments that detect and measure radiation by recording
-the number of light flashes or scintillations produced by the radiation
-in plastic or other sensitive materials.
-</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn"  id="fn_11" href="#fr_11">[11]</a>A method involving use of nuclear reactors or accelerators
-for identifying extremely small amounts of material. See <i>Neutron
-Activation Analysis</i>, a companion booklet in this series.
-</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn"  id="fn_12" href="#fr_12">[12]</a>A picogram is one trillionth (10&#8315;&sup1;&sup2;) of a gram.
-</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn"  id="fn_13" href="#fr_13">[13]</a>For an explanation of how similar instruments work, see
-<i>Radioisotopes in Industry</i>, a companion booklet in this series.
-</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn"  id="fn_14" href="#fr_14">[14]</a>For a discussion of proposed nuclear merchant submarines,
-see <i>Nuclear Power and Merchant Shipping</i>, another booklet in this
-series.
-</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn"  id="fn_15" href="#fr_15">[15]</a>These are described in <i>Power Reactors in Small Packages</i>,
-another booklet in this series.
-</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn"  id="fn_16" href="#fr_16">[16]</a>See <i>Power from Radioisotopes</i>, a companion booklet in this
-series, for a more complete discussion of radioisotopes in use.
-</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn"  id="fn_17" href="#fr_17">[17]</a>For an explanation of how these will function, see <i>Nuclear Energy
-for Desalting</i>, another booklet in this series.
-</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn"  id="fn_18" href="#fr_18">[18]</a>See <i>Food Preservation by Irradiation</i>, another booklet in this
-series, for a full account of this installation.
-</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn"  id="fn_19" href="#fr_19">[19]</a>Details are described in <i>Plowshare</i>, another booklet in this
-series.
-</div>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_63">63</div>
-<p class="tb">This booklet is one of the &ldquo;Understanding the Atom&rdquo;
-Series. Comments are invited on this booklet and others
-in the series; please send them to the Division of Technical
-Information, U. S. Atomic Energy Commission, Washington,
-D. C. 20545.</p>
-<p>Published as part of the AEC&rsquo;s educational assistance
-program, the series includes these titles:</p>
-<div class="verse">
-<p class="t0"><i>Accelerators</i></p>
-<p class="t0"><i>Animals in Atomic Research</i></p>
-<p class="t0"><i>Atomic Fuel</i></p>
-<p class="t0"><i>Atomic Power Safety</i></p>
-<p class="t0"><i>Atoms at the Science Fair</i></p>
-<p class="t0"><i>Atoms in Agriculture</i></p>
-<p class="t0"><i>Atoms, Nature, and Man</i></p>
-<p class="t0"><i>Books on Atomic Energy for Adults and Children</i></p>
-<p class="t0"><i>Careers in Atomic Energy</i></p>
-<p class="t0"><i>Computers</i></p>
-<p class="t0"><i>Controlled Nuclear Fusion</i></p>
-<p class="t0"><i>Cryogenics, The Uncommon Cold</i></p>
-<p class="t0"><i>Direct Conversion of Energy</i></p>
-<p class="t0"><i>Fallout From Nuclear Tests</i></p>
-<p class="t0"><i>Food Preservation by Irradiation</i></p>
-<p class="t0"><i>Genetic Effects of Radiation</i></p>
-<p class="t0"><i>Index to the UAS Series</i></p>
-<p class="t0"><i>Lasers</i></p>
-<p class="t0"><i>Microstructure of Matter</i></p>
-<p class="t0"><i>Neutron Activation Analysis</i></p>
-<p class="t0"><i>Nondestructive Testing</i></p>
-<p class="t0"><i>Nuclear Clocks</i></p>
-<p class="t0"><i>Nuclear Energy for Desalting</i></p>
-<p class="t0"><i>Nuclear Power and Merchant Shipping</i></p>
-<p class="t0"><i>Nuclear Power Plants</i></p>
-<p class="t0"><i>Nuclear Propulsion for Space</i></p>
-<p class="t0"><i>Nuclear Reactors</i></p>
-<p class="t0"><i>Nuclear Terms, A Brief Glossary</i></p>
-<p class="t0"><i>Our Atomic World</i></p>
-<p class="t0"><i>Plowshare</i></p>
-<p class="t0"><i>Plutonium</i></p>
-<p class="t0"><i>Power from Radioisotopes</i></p>
-<p class="t0"><i>Power Reactors in Small Packages</i></p>
-<p class="t0"><i>Radioactive Wastes</i></p>
-<p class="t0"><i>Radioisotopes and Life Processes</i></p>
-<p class="t0"><i>Radioisotopes in Industry</i></p>
-<p class="t0"><i>Radioisotopes in Medicine</i></p>
-<p class="t0"><i>Rare Earths</i></p>
-<p class="t0"><i>Research Reactors</i></p>
-<p class="t0"><i>SNAP, Nuclear Space Reactors</i></p>
-<p class="t0"><i>Sources of Nuclear Fuel</i></p>
-<p class="t0"><i>Space Radiation</i></p>
-<p class="t0"><i>Spectroscopy</i></p>
-<p class="t0"><i>Synthetic Transuranium Elements</i></p>
-<p class="t0"><i>The Atom and the Ocean</i></p>
-<p class="t0"><i>The Chemistry of the Noble Gases</i></p>
-<p class="t0"><i>The Elusive Neutrino</i></p>
-<p class="t0"><i>The First Reactor</i></p>
-<p class="t0"><i>The Natural Radiation Environment</i></p>
-<p class="t0"><i>Whole Body Counters</i></p>
-<p class="t0"><i>Your Body and Radiation</i></p>
-</div>
-<p>A single copy of any one booklet, or of no more than three
-different booklets, may be obtained free by writing to:</p>
-<p class="center"><span class="smaller ss">USAEC, P. O. BOX 62, OAK RIDGE, TENNESSEE 37830</span></p>
-<p>Complete sets of the series are available to school and
-public librarians, and to teachers who can make them
-available for reference or for use by groups. Requests
-should be made on school or library letterheads and indicate
-the proposed use.</p>
-<p>Students and teachers who need other material on specific
-aspects of nuclear science, or references to other
-reading material, may also write to the Oak Ridge address.
-Requests should state the topic of interest exactly, and the
-use intended.</p>
-<p>In all requests, include &ldquo;Zip Code&rdquo; in return address.</p>
-<p class="tbcenter"><span class="smaller">Printed in the United States of America
-<br />USAEC Division of Technical Information Extension, Oak Ridge, Tennessee</span></p>
-<h2 id="trnotes">Transcriber&rsquo;s Notes</h2>
-<ul>
-<li>Silently corrected a few typos.</li>
-<li>Retained publication information from the printed edition: this eBook is public-domain in the country of publication.</li>
-<li>In the text versions only, text in italics is delimited by _underscores_.</li>
-</ul>
-<div style='display:block; margin-top:4em'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ATOM AND THE OCEAN ***</div>
-<div style='text-align:left'>
-
-<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>
-Updated editions will replace the previous one&#8212;the old editions will
-be renamed.
-</div>
-
-<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>
-Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright
-law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works,
-so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United
-States without permission and without paying copyright
-royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part
-of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project
-Gutenberg&#8482; electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG&#8482;
-concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark,
-and may not be used if you charge for an eBook, except by following
-the terms of the trademark license, including paying royalties for use
-of the Project Gutenberg trademark. If you do not charge anything for
-copies of this eBook, complying with the trademark license is very
-easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose such as creation
-of derivative works, reports, performances and research. Project
-Gutenberg eBooks may be modified and printed and given away--you may
-do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks not protected
-by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the trademark
-license, especially commercial redistribution.
-</div>
-
-<div style='margin:0.83em 0; font-size:1.1em; text-align:center'>START: FULL LICENSE<br />
-<span style='font-size:smaller'>THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE<br />
-PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK</span>
-</div>
-
-<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>
-To protect the Project Gutenberg&#8482; mission of promoting the free
-distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
-(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase &#8220;Project
-Gutenberg&#8221;), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full
-Project Gutenberg&#8482; License available with this file or online at
-www.gutenberg.org/license.
-</div>
-
-<div style='display:block; font-size:1.1em; margin:1em 0; font-weight:bold'>
-Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg&#8482; electronic works
-</div>
-
-<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>
-1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg&#8482;
-electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
-and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
-(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all
-the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or
-destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg&#8482; electronic works in your
-possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a
-Project Gutenberg&#8482; electronic work and you do not agree to be bound
-by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person
-or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
-</div>
-
-<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>
-1.B. &#8220;Project Gutenberg&#8221; is a registered trademark. It may only be
-used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
-agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few
-things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg&#8482; electronic works
-even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See
-paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project
-Gutenberg&#8482; electronic works if you follow the terms of this
-agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg&#8482;
-electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below.
-</div>
-
-<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>
-1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation (&#8220;the
-Foundation&#8221; or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection
-of Project Gutenberg&#8482; electronic works. Nearly all the individual
-works in the collection are in the public domain in the United
-States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the
-United States and you are located in the United States, we do not
-claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing,
-displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as
-all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope
-that you will support the Project Gutenberg&#8482; mission of promoting
-free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg&#8482;
-works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the
-Project Gutenberg&#8482; name associated with the work. You can easily
-comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the
-same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg&#8482; License when
-you share it without charge with others.
-</div>
-
-<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>
-1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
-what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are
-in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States,
-check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this
-agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing,
-distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any
-other Project Gutenberg&#8482; work. The Foundation makes no
-representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any
-country other than the United States.
-</div>
-
-<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>
-1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
-</div>
-
-<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>
-1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other
-immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg&#8482; License must appear
-prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg&#8482; work (any work
-on which the phrase &#8220;Project Gutenberg&#8221; appears, or with which the
-phrase &#8220;Project Gutenberg&#8221; is associated) is accessed, displayed,
-performed, viewed, copied or distributed:
-</div>
-
-<blockquote>
-  <div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>
-    This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
-    other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
-    whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
-    of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online
-    at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you
-    are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws
-    of the country where you are located before using this eBook.
-  </div>
-</blockquote>
-
-<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>
-1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg&#8482; electronic work is
-derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not
-contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the
-copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in
-the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are
-redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase &#8220;Project
-Gutenberg&#8221; associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply
-either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or
-obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg&#8482;
-trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
-</div>
-
-<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>
-1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg&#8482; electronic work is posted
-with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
-must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any
-additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms
-will be linked to the Project Gutenberg&#8482; License for all works
-posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the
-beginning of this work.
-</div>
-
-<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>
-1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg&#8482;
-License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
-work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg&#8482;.
-</div>
-
-<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>
-1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
-electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
-prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
-active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
-Gutenberg&#8482; License.
-</div>
-
-<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>
-1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
-compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including
-any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access
-to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg&#8482; work in a format
-other than &#8220;Plain Vanilla ASCII&#8221; or other format used in the official
-version posted on the official Project Gutenberg&#8482; website
-(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense
-to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means
-of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original &#8220;Plain
-Vanilla ASCII&#8221; or other form. Any alternate format must include the
-full Project Gutenberg&#8482; License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
-</div>
-
-<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>
-1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
-performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg&#8482; works
-unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
-</div>
-
-<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>
-1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
-access to or distributing Project Gutenberg&#8482; electronic works
-provided that:
-</div>
-
-<div style='margin-left:0.7em;'>
-    <div style='text-indent:-0.7em'>
-        &bull; You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
-        the use of Project Gutenberg&#8482; works calculated using the method
-        you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed
-        to the owner of the Project Gutenberg&#8482; trademark, but he has
-        agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project
-        Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid
-        within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are
-        legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty
-        payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project
-        Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in
-        Section 4, &#8220;Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg
-        Literary Archive Foundation.&#8221;
-    </div>
-
-    <div style='text-indent:-0.7em'>
-        &bull; You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
-        you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
-        does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg&#8482;
-        License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all
-        copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue
-        all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg&#8482;
-        works.
-    </div>
-
-    <div style='text-indent:-0.7em'>
-        &bull; You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of
-        any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
-        electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of
-        receipt of the work.
-    </div>
-
-    <div style='text-indent:-0.7em'>
-        &bull; You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
-        distribution of Project Gutenberg&#8482; works.
-    </div>
-</div>
-
-<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>
-1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project
-Gutenberg&#8482; electronic work or group of works on different terms than
-are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing
-from the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the manager of
-the Project Gutenberg&#8482; trademark. Contact the Foundation as set
-forth in Section 3 below.
-</div>
-
-<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>
-1.F.
-</div>
-
-<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>
-1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
-effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
-works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project
-Gutenberg&#8482; collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg&#8482;
-electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may
-contain &#8220;Defects,&#8221; such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate
-or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other
-intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or
-other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or
-cannot be read by your equipment.
-</div>
-
-<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>
-1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the &#8220;Right
-of Replacement or Refund&#8221; described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
-Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
-Gutenberg&#8482; trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
-Gutenberg&#8482; electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
-liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
-fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
-LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
-PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
-TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
-LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
-INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
-DAMAGE.
-</div>
-
-<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>
-1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
-defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
-receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
-written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you
-received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium
-with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you
-with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in
-lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person
-or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second
-opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If
-the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing
-without further opportunities to fix the problem.
-</div>
-
-<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>
-1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
-in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you &#8216;AS-IS&#8217;, WITH NO
-OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT
-LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
-</div>
-
-<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>
-1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
-warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of
-damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement
-violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the
-agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or
-limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or
-unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the
-remaining provisions.
-</div>
-
-<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>
-1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
-trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
-providing copies of Project Gutenberg&#8482; electronic works in
-accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the
-production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg&#8482;
-electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses,
-including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of
-the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this
-or any Project Gutenberg&#8482; work, (b) alteration, modification, or
-additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg&#8482; work, and (c) any
-Defect you cause.
-</div>
-
-<div style='display:block; font-size:1.1em; margin:1em 0; font-weight:bold'>
-Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg&#8482;
-</div>
-
-<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>
-Project Gutenberg&#8482; is synonymous with the free distribution of
-electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of
-computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It
-exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations
-from people in all walks of life.
-</div>
-
-<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>
-Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
-assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg&#8482;&#8217;s
-goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg&#8482; collection will
-remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project
-Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
-and permanent future for Project Gutenberg&#8482; and future
-generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary
-Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see
-Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at www.gutenberg.org.
-</div>
-
-<div style='display:block; font-size:1.1em; margin:1em 0; font-weight:bold'>
-Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
-</div>
-
-<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>
-The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non-profit
-501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
-state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
-Revenue Service. The Foundation&#8217;s EIN or federal tax identification
-number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary
-Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by
-U.S. federal laws and your state&#8217;s laws.
-</div>
-
-<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>
-The Foundation&#8217;s business office is located at 809 North 1500 West,
-Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up
-to date contact information can be found at the Foundation&#8217;s website
-and official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact
-</div>
-
-<div style='display:block; font-size:1.1em; margin:1em 0; font-weight:bold'>
-Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
-</div>
-
-<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>
-Project Gutenberg&#8482; depends upon and cannot survive without widespread
-public support and donations to carry out its mission of
-increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
-freely distributed in machine-readable form accessible by the widest
-array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations
-($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
-status with the IRS.
-</div>
-
-<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>
-The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
-charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
-States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
-considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
-with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations
-where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND
-DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular state
-visit <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/donate/">www.gutenberg.org/donate</a>.
-</div>
-
-<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>
-While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
-have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
-against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
-approach us with offers to donate.
-</div>
-
-<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>
-International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
-any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
-outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
-</div>
-
-<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>
-Please check the Project Gutenberg web pages for current donation
-methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other
-ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To
-donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate
-</div>
-
-<div style='display:block; font-size:1.1em; margin:1em 0; font-weight:bold'>
-Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg&#8482; electronic works
-</div>
-
-<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>
-Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project
-Gutenberg&#8482; concept of a library of electronic works that could be
-freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and
-distributed Project Gutenberg&#8482; eBooks with only a loose network of
-volunteer support.
-</div>
-
-<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>
-Project Gutenberg&#8482; eBooks are often created from several printed
-editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in
-the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not
-necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper
-edition.
-</div>
-
-<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>
-Most people start at our website which has the main PG search
-facility: <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>.
-</div>
-
-<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>
-This website includes information about Project Gutenberg&#8482;,
-including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
-Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
-subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
-</div>
-
-</div>
-
-</body>
-</html>
diff --git a/old/66268-h/images/cover.jpg b/old/66268-h/images/cover.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 0685815..0000000
--- a/old/66268-h/images/cover.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/66268-h/images/ejb.jpg b/old/66268-h/images/ejb.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index b56337d..0000000
--- a/old/66268-h/images/ejb.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/66268-h/images/p02.jpg b/old/66268-h/images/p02.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index bcca62b..0000000
--- a/old/66268-h/images/p02.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/66268-h/images/p03.jpg b/old/66268-h/images/p03.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index df1501e..0000000
--- a/old/66268-h/images/p03.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/66268-h/images/p03a.jpg b/old/66268-h/images/p03a.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 0f70c58..0000000
--- a/old/66268-h/images/p03a.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/66268-h/images/p03b.jpg b/old/66268-h/images/p03b.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index c596e87..0000000
--- a/old/66268-h/images/p03b.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/66268-h/images/p04.jpg b/old/66268-h/images/p04.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 1e0d3ad..0000000
--- a/old/66268-h/images/p04.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/66268-h/images/p05.jpg b/old/66268-h/images/p05.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 123386e..0000000
--- a/old/66268-h/images/p05.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/66268-h/images/p05a.jpg b/old/66268-h/images/p05a.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index ab910c2..0000000
--- a/old/66268-h/images/p05a.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/66268-h/images/p05b.jpg b/old/66268-h/images/p05b.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index aa2fa99..0000000
--- a/old/66268-h/images/p05b.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/66268-h/images/p06.jpg b/old/66268-h/images/p06.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index feca281..0000000
--- a/old/66268-h/images/p06.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/66268-h/images/p06a.jpg b/old/66268-h/images/p06a.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index e860918..0000000
--- a/old/66268-h/images/p06a.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/66268-h/images/p07.jpg b/old/66268-h/images/p07.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 06f9f7b..0000000
--- a/old/66268-h/images/p07.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/66268-h/images/p08.jpg b/old/66268-h/images/p08.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 9389ab4..0000000
--- a/old/66268-h/images/p08.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/66268-h/images/p08a.jpg b/old/66268-h/images/p08a.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 362aa8e..0000000
--- a/old/66268-h/images/p08a.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/66268-h/images/p09.jpg b/old/66268-h/images/p09.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 7d24f18..0000000
--- a/old/66268-h/images/p09.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/66268-h/images/p10.jpg b/old/66268-h/images/p10.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 7031a67..0000000
--- a/old/66268-h/images/p10.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/66268-h/images/p11.jpg b/old/66268-h/images/p11.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index cba6b1a..0000000
--- a/old/66268-h/images/p11.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/66268-h/images/p11a.jpg b/old/66268-h/images/p11a.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 76330d2..0000000
--- a/old/66268-h/images/p11a.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/66268-h/images/p12.jpg b/old/66268-h/images/p12.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 4527911..0000000
--- a/old/66268-h/images/p12.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/66268-h/images/p13.jpg b/old/66268-h/images/p13.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index ed0b95f..0000000
--- a/old/66268-h/images/p13.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/66268-h/images/p13a.jpg b/old/66268-h/images/p13a.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 471c0ea..0000000
--- a/old/66268-h/images/p13a.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/66268-h/images/p14.jpg b/old/66268-h/images/p14.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 89f8747..0000000
--- a/old/66268-h/images/p14.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/66268-h/images/p14a.jpg b/old/66268-h/images/p14a.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 4fd5d4e..0000000
--- a/old/66268-h/images/p14a.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/66268-h/images/p14b.jpg b/old/66268-h/images/p14b.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index cb44fd1..0000000
--- a/old/66268-h/images/p14b.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/66268-h/images/p15.jpg b/old/66268-h/images/p15.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 2651034..0000000
--- a/old/66268-h/images/p15.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/66268-h/images/p15a.jpg b/old/66268-h/images/p15a.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 83df6da..0000000
--- a/old/66268-h/images/p15a.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/66268-h/images/p16.jpg b/old/66268-h/images/p16.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 63c381a..0000000
--- a/old/66268-h/images/p16.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/66268-h/images/p16a.jpg b/old/66268-h/images/p16a.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index f1983a2..0000000
--- a/old/66268-h/images/p16a.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/66268-h/images/p17.jpg b/old/66268-h/images/p17.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index bd2fb90..0000000
--- a/old/66268-h/images/p17.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/66268-h/images/p18.jpg b/old/66268-h/images/p18.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 9cd75d2..0000000
--- a/old/66268-h/images/p18.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/66268-h/images/p18a.jpg b/old/66268-h/images/p18a.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 336402d..0000000
--- a/old/66268-h/images/p18a.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/66268-h/images/p19.jpg b/old/66268-h/images/p19.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index f6869b9..0000000
--- a/old/66268-h/images/p19.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/66268-h/images/p19a.jpg b/old/66268-h/images/p19a.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 74e0123..0000000
--- a/old/66268-h/images/p19a.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/66268-h/images/p20.jpg b/old/66268-h/images/p20.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 6de612b..0000000
--- a/old/66268-h/images/p20.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/66268-h/images/p20a.jpg b/old/66268-h/images/p20a.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 57d7ec7..0000000
--- a/old/66268-h/images/p20a.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/66268-h/images/p20b.jpg b/old/66268-h/images/p20b.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index b688af2..0000000
--- a/old/66268-h/images/p20b.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/66268-h/images/p21.jpg b/old/66268-h/images/p21.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index bfcbb83..0000000
--- a/old/66268-h/images/p21.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/66268-h/images/p21a.jpg b/old/66268-h/images/p21a.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index be96a0e..0000000
--- a/old/66268-h/images/p21a.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/66268-h/images/p22.jpg b/old/66268-h/images/p22.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 25b52db..0000000
--- a/old/66268-h/images/p22.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/66268-h/images/p22a.jpg b/old/66268-h/images/p22a.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index faa30af..0000000
--- a/old/66268-h/images/p22a.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/66268-h/images/p22b.jpg b/old/66268-h/images/p22b.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index bd97ad1..0000000
--- a/old/66268-h/images/p22b.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/66268-h/images/p23.jpg b/old/66268-h/images/p23.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index fc52194..0000000
--- a/old/66268-h/images/p23.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/66268-h/images/p23a.jpg b/old/66268-h/images/p23a.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 6d43892..0000000
--- a/old/66268-h/images/p23a.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/66268-h/images/p23b.jpg b/old/66268-h/images/p23b.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 937a10d..0000000
--- a/old/66268-h/images/p23b.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/66268-h/images/p23c.jpg b/old/66268-h/images/p23c.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 8786be3..0000000
--- a/old/66268-h/images/p23c.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/66268-h/images/p23f.jpg b/old/66268-h/images/p23f.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 0bab6a1..0000000
--- a/old/66268-h/images/p23f.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/66268-h/images/p23h.jpg b/old/66268-h/images/p23h.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 73d3c4e..0000000
--- a/old/66268-h/images/p23h.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/66268-h/images/p24.jpg b/old/66268-h/images/p24.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 66920b0..0000000
--- a/old/66268-h/images/p24.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/66268-h/images/p24a.jpg b/old/66268-h/images/p24a.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index e35fe2c..0000000
--- a/old/66268-h/images/p24a.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/66268-h/images/p25.jpg b/old/66268-h/images/p25.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 12dd157..0000000
--- a/old/66268-h/images/p25.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/66268-h/images/p25a.jpg b/old/66268-h/images/p25a.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 230969f..0000000
--- a/old/66268-h/images/p25a.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/66268-h/images/p26.jpg b/old/66268-h/images/p26.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 407fd2c..0000000
--- a/old/66268-h/images/p26.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/66268-h/images/p26a.jpg b/old/66268-h/images/p26a.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 2b82672..0000000
--- a/old/66268-h/images/p26a.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/66268-h/images/p27.jpg b/old/66268-h/images/p27.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 11ff4a3..0000000
--- a/old/66268-h/images/p27.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/66268-h/images/p28.jpg b/old/66268-h/images/p28.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index f310752..0000000
--- a/old/66268-h/images/p28.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/66268-h/images/p28a.jpg b/old/66268-h/images/p28a.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 490f500..0000000
--- a/old/66268-h/images/p28a.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/66268-h/images/spine.jpg b/old/66268-h/images/spine.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index cd57faa..0000000
--- a/old/66268-h/images/spine.jpg
+++ /dev/null
author	nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org>	2025-01-22 17:23:24 -0800
committer	nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org>	2025-01-22 17:23:24 -0800
commit	68097e3e168fd42f66d72316876957564253bc2b (patch)
tree	fea0a28857bbdf962c24f1ab50cbb348387317d9
parent	e016397f535104dc6af52751210a80c0bc89e165 (diff)