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diff --git a/old/66268-0.txt b/old/66268-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index f8d8d38..0000000 --- a/old/66268-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,2487 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Atom and the Ocean, by E. W. Seabrook -Hull - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: The Atom and the Ocean - -Author: E. W. Seabrook Hull - -Release Date: September 11, 2021 [eBook #66268] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -Produced by: Stephen Hutcheson and the Online Distributed Proofreading - Team at https://www.pgdp.net - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ATOM AND THE OCEAN *** - - - - - The _ATOM_ and the _OCEAN_ - - - by E. W. Seabrook Hull - - - U.S. ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION - Division of Technical Information - _Understanding the Atom Series_ - - - - - The Understanding the Atom Series - - -Nuclear energy is playing a vital role in the life of every man, woman, -and child in the United States today. In the years ahead it will affect -increasingly all the peoples of the earth. It is essential that all -Americans gain an understanding of this vital force if they are to -discharge thoughtfully their responsibilities as citizens and if they -are to realize fully the myriad benefits that nuclear energy offers -them. - -The United States Atomic Energy Commission provides this booklet to help -you achieve such understanding. - - {Edward J. Brunenkant} - Edward J. Brunenkant, Director - Division of Technical Information - - UNITED STATES ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION - - Dr. Glenn T. Seaborg, Chairman - James T. Ramey - Wilfrid E. Johnson - Dr. Theos J. Thompson - Dr. Clarence E. Larson - - - - - The _ATOM_ and the _OCEAN_ - - - by E. W. Seabrook Hull - - - - - CONTENTS - - - SEEKING ANSWERS 1 - Energy for Exploration 3 - THE WORLD OCEAN 6 - Ocean Movements 7 - A Mix of Elements 10 - The Sea’s Interfaces 11 - The Sea’s Resources 11 - NUCLEAR ENERGY’S ROLE 13 - Radionuclides in the Sea 13 - Research Projects 23 - Oceanographic Instruments 35 - Environmental Safety Studies 41 - The Atom at Work in the Sea 42 - Ocean Engineering 51 - Fresh Water from Seawater 52 - Radiation Preservation of Seafood 54 - Project Plowshare 56 - A New _Fram_ 56 - THE THREE-DIMENSIONAL OCEAN 57 - SUGGESTED REFERENCES 58 - - - United States Atomic Energy Commission - Division of Technical Information - Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 67-62476 - 1968 - - [Illustration: uncaptioned frontispiece] - - - - - The _ATOM_ and the _OCEAN_ - - - By E. W. SEABROOK HULL - - - - - SEEKING ANSWERS - - -Historians of the future will record that man almost simultaneously -unlocked the secret of atomic energy and ventured into new domains -beneath the closed doors of the world ocean, in one of the greatest -exploration endeavors of all time. - -History may also show how these two efforts to benefit mankind became -closely interthreaded—how nuclear energy, in its many forms and -applications, played a major role in the efforts to explore and exploit -“the other three-quarters” of our planet, and moreover, how the very -development of a nuclear technology enforced our need to know more about -the sea around us. - -Nuclear energy is a fundamental physical phenomenon, like the actions of -the wheel, the lever, or the inclined plane. Like chemical combustion or -electricity, it is but another means for men to do useful work, whether -that work be in the interests of science, commerce, recreation, or war. -To this extent, nuclear energy is universal, as applicable in the sea as -it is on land or in outer space. Wherever man goes and whatever he does, -he requires energy to get him there and energy for his work or play when -he arrives. Some of the places he now seeks to pioneer are hard to -investigate by anyone encumbered with bulky traditional energy -sources—coal, fuel oil, or storage batteries. The ocean in its full -three-dimensional scope is one of these places. - -The atom is the most concentrated source of energy, and one of the most -diverse. Thus, not only are we able to do familiar things better with -nuclear energy (the nuclear-powered submarine is a dramatic example), -but we are also able to do things never before possible (such as -studying the diffusion of dissolved salts in the open ocean or extending -the useful life of seafoods through irradiation). - -Nuclear energy has at last enabled us to realize the predictions of -Jules Verne’s adventure tale, _Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea_, -and to build a true submarine—a craft whose submerged existence is -limited only by the physiological and psychological endurance of its -human crew. This fact in itself has added greatly to our need to learn -much more about the ocean, for the sea is an opaque and strange -environment in which the deadly game of hunt-and-be-hunted will be won -by whoever knows the ocean best. - -The very fact that we have nuclear energy means we have nuclear wastes; -many of these inevitably find their way into the ocean, as all things -do. We need to know more about the watery world before we can safely -allow this inflow to continue. - - [Illustration: _In 1900 the U. S. Navy commissioned its first - submarine, the USS_ Holland, _which was built by John P. Holland. It - is shown in dry dock at Perth Amboy, New Jersey, in 1898._] - - [Illustration: _The USS_ Plunger, _named after an early John Holland - submarine, which is an example of the Navy’s present fleet of - nuclear submarines._] - -In the waters of the seven seas are enough deuterium and tritium to -power tomorrow’s thermonuclear power plants[1] for millions of years. -These rare, heavy varieties of hydrogen, enormously abundant in the -vastness of the sea, comprise an energy source without limit for all -nations, which need only develop the technological ability to extract -them and put them to work. - - -Energy for Exploration - -For this exploration, men need to put instruments, navigation beacons -(see figures on pages 46 and 47), and other devices on the deep ocean -floor, where they must operate for long periods of time unattended and -with no external source of power. Radioisotope-powered generators, -capitalizing on the energy of disintegrating radioactive atoms, are -almost the only devices capable of fulfilling these requirements.[2] Man -also wants to do productive work under the ocean, such as drilling -seafloor oil wells, mining, and salvaging for profit some of the tens of -thousands of cargoes lost at sea during thousands of years of ocean -commerce. Eventually, he even wants to farm the ocean floor. - - [Illustration: _An artist draws (using pencil and frosted plastic - sheet) the position of objects in the wreck of a 7th century - Byzantine ship 120 feet down in the Aegean Sea. Nuclear power will - permit historians of the future to remain underwater for long - periods exploring shipwrecks or old cities far below the surface._] - -All these activities require energy—energy in an environment where most -sources cannot be applied. Above all, man wants to go down himself to -explore, to work, and perhaps to direct nuclear-powered robots to do -even more work. This means that small, manned, nonmilitary submersibles -will be needed—vessels whose endurance should not be limited by the -short life of traditional power sources, but should draw on the -fissioning atomic nucleus, harnessed in small reactors.[3] - -To work effectively in any environment, we must first know and -understand it. This is the job of science. In the quest for knowledge -and understanding of the ocean, nuclear energy provides scientists with -better instruments to put down into the depths and wholly new techniques -for the direct study of the many oceanic processes. - -For example, take the role of radioisotope tracers: For the first time, -these telltale atoms permit us to study the metabolism of tiny -plankters, the often microscopic drifting creatures of the sea that in -their incredible abundance form the base of the entire marine food -chain, including fish eaten by humans. Even fallout isotopes from -nuclear tests enable us to trace important physical oceanographic -events, such as the ponderous process known as overturning, which -transports oxygen-rich surface water to the deeps and nutrient-rich -bottom water to the surface. Radioisotope tracers also provide a tool -for studying the mechanics of littoral transport, which continually -tears down some beaches and builds up others. They also enable us to -determine if oceanic processes are likely to concentrate fallout -particles and deliver them in dangerous doses through the food chain to -our dinner tables.[4] - -By using other nuclear energy technology, we are better able to -ascertain the age and composition of deep ocean sediments and the rate -at which they are deposited, how a tsunami (tidal wave) propagates -across vast distances, how tides operate in the open ocean, where the -brown shrimp of the Carolina coast go every fall, and the migration -patterns of tuna, swordfish, and other valuable food fish. - - [Illustration: _Navy men preparing for undersea research by feeding - Tuffy, a friendly porpoise, which later carried messages for them - during the “Man-In-The-Sea” experiment._ (_Also see photos on page - 12._)] - -These are just a few of the answers we seek from the world ocean—answers -important for more productive fisheries, more accurate long-range -weather forecasting, possible control of hurricanes and typhoons, -pollution control, safer and more economical shipping, better -recreation, and numerous other matters that bear on our health, -well-being, and day-to-day lives. - -On all these endeavors the ocean exerts a major influence. And in each, -atomic energy is helping assemble and interpret answers. - - - - - THE WORLD OCEAN - - -But what of this environment into which, armed with the atom, we plunge -with such enthusiasm and expectations? A portrait is in order, which -must be brief, for not all the books ever written about the sea have yet -described it fully. - -The world ocean covers 70.8% of our planet. It contains 324,000,000 -cubic miles of seawater. Living in it are upwards of a million different -species of plants and animals. They range from one-celled organisms that -can only be seen with a microscope to the largest creature ever to have -lived on this earth—the giant blue (or sulfur-bottom) whale, captured -specimens of which have exceeded 90 feet in length and 100 tons in -weight. - -The ocean’s depth ranges from 600 feet or less above continental shelves -to more than 35,000 feet at the Marianas Trench. The mean depth is -12,451 feet. Sea bottom topography includes wide plains, the world’s -longest mountain range, steeply rising individual truncated peaks called -_guyots_ (pronounced gee-ohs), gentle slopes, narrow canyons, and -precipitous escarpments. Mountains higher than Everest rise from the -ocean floor and never pierce the surface. - - [Illustration: _Underwater mountain traced by the Woods Hole - Oceanographic Institution echo sounder in the Caribbean area. Depth - is determined by the time it takes the sound emitted by the - instrument to go to the bottom and return to the surface._] - - -Ocean Movements - - [Illustration: _Six ships checking the Gulf Stream’s course through - the Atlantic Ocean over a 2-week period found the variations shown - above._] - - [Illustration: _The infrared film photograph shows the edge of the - Gulf Stream. The visible line between the Gulf Stream, which is on - the right, and Labrador water is made by Sargassum weed concentrated - at the interface._] - -The ocean is constantly in motion—not just in the waves and tides that -characterize its surface but in great currents that swirl between -continents, moving (among other things) great quantities of heat from -one part of the world to another. Beneath these surface currents are -others, deeply hidden, that flow as often as not in an entirely -different direction from the surface course. - -These enormous “rivers”—quite unconstant, sometimes shifting, often -branching and eddying in a manner that defies explanation and -prediction—occasionally create disastrous results. One example is El -Niño, the periodic catastrophe that plagues the west coast of South -America. This coast normally is caressed by the cold, rich Humboldt -Current. Usually the Humboldt hugs the shore and extends 200 to 300 -miles out to sea. It is rich in life. It fosters the largest commercial -fishery in the world and is the home of one of the mightiest game fish -on record, the black marlin. The droppings of marine birds that feed -from its waters are responsible for the fertilizer (guano) exports that -undergird the Chilean, Peruvian, and Ecuadorian economies. - -Every few years, however, the Humboldt disappears. It moves out from -shore or simply sinks, and a flow of warm, exhausted surface water known -as El Niño takes its place. Simultaneously, torrential rains assault the -coast. Fishes and birds die by the millions. Commercial fisheries are -closed. The beaches reek with death. El Niño is a stark demonstration of -man’s dependence on the sea and why he must learn more about it. - -There are other motions in the restless sea. The water masses are -constantly “turning over” in a cycle that may take hundreds of years, -yet is essential to bring oxygen down to the creatures of the deeps, and -nutrients (fertilizers) up from the sea floor to the surface. Here the -floating phytoplankton (the plants of the sea) build through -photosynthesis the organic material that will start the nutrient cycle -all over again. Enormous tonnages of these tiny sea plants, rather than -being rooted in the soil, are separated from solid earth by up to -several vertical miles of saltwater. Sometimes, too, there is a more -rapid surge of deep water to the surface, a process known as upwelling. - -Internal waves, far below the surface, develop between water masses that -have different densities and between which there is relative motion. -These waves are much like the wind-driven waves on the surface, though -much bigger: Internal waves may have heights of 300 feet or more and be -6 miles or more in length! - - [Illustration: _A dividing cell of the diatom_ Corethron hystrix. - _Diatoms, one-celled photosynthetic plants, are the primary - producers of organic matter in fresh waters._] - - [Illustration: _Ocean currents feed sand from nearby beaches into - this “sandfall”, which is about 30 feet high, in a submarine canyon - off Baja California._] - -Among other motions of the sea there are landslides, or turbidity -currents, which are great boiling mixes of mud, rock, sand, and water -rushing down submarine mountainsides at speeds of a mile a minute. They -destroy everything in their paths and spread clouds of debris over the -abyssal plains like a sandstorm, producing fanlike deposits radiating -far out from the base of the slope. And there are tsunamis, or seismic -sea waves—popularly misnamed “tidal waves”—that transmit energy from -undersea earthquakes or volcanic eruptions. At sea, these waves are only -a few inches high, but they may travel great distances at 500 miles an -hour. As they approach the shoaling waters of a coast, they are slowed -to about 30 miles an hour and build up great surface waves capable of -destroying harbor and coastal installations. - - -A Mix of Elements - -The sea is a chemistry, too. Over 60 elements have been discovered in -measurable amounts in solution or in suspension in the ocean. Many of -these are in the form of salts, making seawater a highly efficient -electrolyte, and a most corrosive fluid. The study of corrosion and -techniques for combatting it is a continuous one in which nuclear energy -already has a principal role. - -Because the sea is so much a chemistry, it is a potential source of -minerals for the world’s growing industrial appetite. All of our -magnesium and most of our bromine already are extracted directly from -seawater. Oil and sulfur are mined from the sea floor or beneath it, as -are coal (United Kingdom and Japan), iron ore (Japan), tin (Thailand and -United Kingdom), diamonds (Southwest Africa), and gold (Alaska). In the -layered sediments that cover the ocean-basin floors to depths of -thousands of feet, geologists believe there also may be found some -missing chapters of earth history. - - [Illustration: _Nodules such as these containing manganese cover - millions of undersea acres on the ocean floor. Many nodules are rich - in nickel, cobalt, zirconium, and copper. Metallurgists are seeking - ways to recover the metals from these deposits._] - -The ocean, by and large, is an opaque fluid through which light travels -only a few hundred feet and most other radiant energy not much more than -a few yards; yet through this same fluid, sound waves, by contrast, have -been transmitted and received over distances of many thousand miles. - - -The Sea’s Interfaces - -What of the interfaces of the sea? Above three-quarters of the globe, -water and air are in constant contact, continually exchanging heat and -moisture. This is a major factor in the making of weather and climate. -The sea constantly feeds electricity into the atmosphere, primarily -through the electron-scrubbing action of tiny popping bubbles at the sea -surface. It also lifts tiny crystals of salt and the remains of -microscopic sea creatures into the air. Perhaps these are the nuclei on -which moisture condenses to trigger hurricanes, since it is the latent -heat of vaporization of air, made over-moist by long travel over the -tropical sea, that provides a hurricane’s energy. - -Along its land edges, the sea is constantly working on the -shore—sometimes gently, sometimes violently—breaking down rock cliffs, -opening bays and harbors, closing channels and inlets, smashing -breakwaters and seawalls, and moving sand up and down and to and from -beaches. - - -The Sea’s Resources - -In summary, then, the ocean, the largest single geographical feature of -our planet, is infinitely varied and infinitely complex. We are learning -it bears on our day-to-day living in ways we never suspected. It is the -largest resource of food for our exploding population, the largest -resource of minerals with which to support the world’s burgeoning -industries, the largest resource of energy, and, of course, it is the -largest supply of water. It is mankind’s largest dumping ground for the -wastes of cities and industries. It is the source of much pleasure and -recreation. - -Men already have lived experimentally for weeks at a time on the bottom -of the ocean. Both sea floor laboratories and military bases are being -planned or, in a few cases, installed. Sea floor mining complexes are in -the conceptual design stage. It is only a matter of time before -recreational “aquotels” are built safely below the sea’s restless -surface. Private sports submarines are an actual, though costly, -reality. It is not inconceivable that in the not-too-distant future -human beings may overflow the land into complete, self-sufficient -communities below the oceans. - - [Illustration: _In 1965 the U. S. Navy conducted a 45-day experiment - in its “Man-In-The-Sea” program in which 10 aquanauts lived and - worked 205 feet below the surface of the sea off La Jolla, - California. Their undersea base was Sealab II shown at her - christening._] - - [Illustration: _Sealab II shown during final checkout before - descent. The aquanauts conducted experimental salvage operations, - marine research, and underwent a series of physiological and human - performance tests._] - - - - - NUCLEAR ENERGY’S ROLE - - -The role of nuclear energy in the study, exploration, and utilization of -the world ocean is best defined by citing the specific oceanographic -interests of the U. S. Atomic Energy Commission (AEC): Development of -better instruments and devices for work and study in the ocean, -development of ever-stronger national sea power, conversion of seawater -to fresh water, possible modification of ocean boundaries, purely -scientific studies to advance knowledge, and, indirectly at least, -improving the state of oceanographic engineering. Among the -technological products of the nuclear age are radionuclides, neutron -sources and other radiation sources, radioisotope heat and electric -generators, and nuclear reactors. All these are applied to ocean-related -endeavors. - -Several divisions of the AEC have important oceanic interests. These -range from pure oceanographic research to development of specific -instruments, nuclear reactors, radioisotopic power sources, and other -devices for use in or under the ocean. The AEC also conducts extensive -marine environmental studies to monitor the effects or ensure the safety -of specific projects involving nuclear energy. A statistical summary of -specific AEC programs in oceanography is shown in Table I on page 14. - - -Radionuclides in the Sea - -Before we can follow the atom down into the sea, we must understand -something about the potentials, both good and bad, of this incursion of -one of our most advanced technologies into one of earth’s least -understood environments. This adventurous probing has ramifications for -studying both man-produced radioactivity in the sea and the ocean itself -as an uncontaminated environment. - - TABLE I - AEC OCEANOGRAPHY PROGRAM 1968 - Expenditures - Estimate - _Research Activities_ - - Division of Biology and Medicine $4,000,000 - Studies of uptake, concentration, distribution and - effects of radioisotopes on marine life, of - geochemical cycling of elements, and of geophysical - diffusion and transport. - Division of Research 25,000 - Geological dating of corals and other marine and - terrestrial materials. - Division of Isotopes Development 190,000 - Radioisotope applications to devices for marine - systems, such as current meters, analysis and - recovery of sedimentary minerals, and underwater - sound transmission. - Division of Reactor Development and Technology 197,000 - Studies of factors affecting dissolution and - dispersal of accidentally released radionuclides, and - site evaluations. - Division of Space Nuclear Systems 275,000 - Nuclear power sources for aerospace applications. - Division of Military Applications 850,000 - Ocean environmental observation and prediction. - _Total—Research Activities_ 5,537,000 - - _Engineering Activities_ - - Division of Reactor Development and Technology 5,900,000 - Radioisotope and reactor power development. - Division of Naval Reactors 1,320,000 - Deep submergence research vehicle. - _Total —Engineering Activities_ 7,220,000 - _Total—ABC Oceanographic Activities_ 12,757,000 - -Radionuclides (radioactive atoms) can find their way into the sea from -natural radiation sources or from nuclear energy operations undertaken -by the United States and other countries since 1945. Specific man-made -sources in the past may have included nuclear weapons tested in the -atmosphere and under water, the cooling water and wastes of nuclear -reactors, laboratories and nuclear-powered ships, containers of -radioactive waste disposed of at sea[5], radioisotope energy devices, -and intentional injection of radioisotope tracers for scientific -research. In the future, they may also include reentry from space of -upper-stage nuclear rockets or satellite-borne nuclear energy sources. - - [Illustration: _The Nansen bottle, shown being attached to a - hydrographic wire, is one of the standard tools of oceanology. When - a bottle reaches a desired depth, a sliding weight tips it upside - down to collect seawater samples. Thermometers on the sides of the - bottles record temperature. The device was designed by the Norwegian - oceanographer and explorer, Fridtjof Nansen._ (_See photo on - page 56._)] - -In order to evaluate the effects of these materials in the ocean -environment, it is necessary to know many things. Just how much -radiation is introduced? In what form? Where geographically? How are -these radionuclides dispersed or concentrated physically, chemically, -biologically, and geologically? What is the net result in each case now, -and what will it be many years hence? - -These questions are not answered easily. There is, as yet, no -satisfactory laboratory substitute for the open ocean. Research for the -most part must be conducted at sea, where tests and measurements are -difficult at best, and where results therefore are often suspect. -Further, if we are to study the effects of man-induced changes in a -natural environment, it would have been advantageous to have known the -nature of that environment before the changes were introduced—which, by -and large, in the case of the ocean we do not. So we must start with a -contaminated environment and try to separate what we have put there -ourselves from what would have been there anyway. It isn’t an easy task -to make the physical and biological observations that will make this -distinction. - - Table II CONCENTRATION AND AMOUNTS OF 42 OF THE ELEMENTS IN SEAWATER - Element Concentration Amount of element in Total amount in - (mg/l) seawater (tons mile³) the oceans (tons) - - Chlorine 19,000.0 89.5 × 10⁶ 29.3 × 10¹⁵ - Sodium 10,500.0 49.5 x-10⁶ 16.3 × 10¹⁵ - Magnesium 1,350.0 6.4 × 10⁶ 2.1 × 10¹⁵ - Sulphur 885.0 4.2 × 10⁶ 1.4 × 10¹⁵ - Calcium 400.0 1.9 × 10⁶ 0.6 × 10¹⁵ - Potassium 380.0 1.8 × 10⁶ 0.6 × 10¹⁵ - Bromine 65.0 306,000 0.1 × 10¹⁵ - Carbon 28.0 132,000 0.04 × 10¹⁵ - Strontium 8.0 38,000 12,000 × 10⁹ - Boron 4.6 23,000 7,100 × 10⁹ - Silicon 3.0 14,000 4,700 × 10⁹ - Lithium 0.17 800 260 × 10⁹ - Rubidium 0.12 570 190 × 10⁹ - Phosphorus 0.07 330 110 × 10⁹ - Iodine 0.06 280 93 × 10⁹ - Barium 0.03 140 47 × 10⁹ - Indium 0.02 94 31 × 10⁹ - Zinc 0.01 47 16 × 10⁹ - Iron 0.01 47 16 × 10⁹ - Aluminum 0.01 47 16 × 10⁹ - Molybdenum 0.01 47 16 × 10⁹ - Selenium 0.004 19 6 × 10⁹ - Tin 0.003 14 5 × 10⁹ - Copper 0.003 14 5 × 10⁹ - Arsenic 0.003 14 5 × 10⁹ - Uranium 0.003 14 5 × 10⁹ - Nickel 0.002 9 3 × 10⁹ - Vanadium 0.002 9 3 × 10⁹ - Manganese 0.002 9 3 × 10⁹ - Antimony 0.0005 2 0.8 × 10⁹ - Cobalt 0.0005 2 0.8 × 10⁹ - Caesium 0.0005 2 0.8 × 10⁹ - Cerium 0.0004 2 0.6 × 10⁹ - Silver 0.0003 1 5 × 10⁸ - Cadmium 0.0001 0.5 150 × 10⁶ - Tungsten 0.0001 0.5 150 × 10⁶ - Chromium 0.00005 0.2 78 × 10⁶ - Thorium 0.00005 0.2 78 × 10⁶ - Lead 0.00003 0.1 46 × 10⁶ - Mercury 0.00003 0.1 46 × 10⁶ - Gold 0.000004 0.02 6 × 10⁶ - Radium 1 × 10⁻¹⁰ 5 × 10⁻⁷ 150 - - Adapted from _The Mineral Resources of the Sea_, by John L. Mero, - American Elsevier Publishing Company, New York, 1964. - -Many sea creatures are efficient, selective concentrators of “trace -elements”, which occur in seawater only in minute portions. These -elements are difficult enough to detect qualitatively and all but -impossible to analyze quantitatively. Yet among the elements the sea’s -plants and animals concentrate are the very materials with which we are -apt to be most concerned: Strontium, cesium, cerium, ruthenium, cobalt, -iodine, phosphorus, zinc, manganese, iron, chromium, and others. -Radioisotopes[6] of all these elements occur as by-products of human -nuclear activities. Many concentrating organisms are microscopic in size -and are frequently impossible to raise in captivity. It is apparent that -we are faced with a research program of considerable challenge and -proportion. - -We need to know _how_ each marine species concentrates. Is it from the -food it eats, by absorption from the water, or both? Does it concentrate -an element by continuous accumulation, or is there a constant turnover -of the material in the organism’s system? (In the first case, once the -creature became radioactive it would remain so throughout its life or -until the radioactivity decayed. In the second case, however, the -radioactivity might be a transient condition, assuming the creature -could find its way into uncontaminated water and were able to flush -itself.) Obviously, both the cycling time of the radioisotope in the -organism and its radioactive half-life[7] must be taken into account. - -Even if we should manage to identify all the marine concentrators and -gain some insight into their metabolic processes, this would be only a -first step. For example, one tiny form of planktonic protozoan, -_acantharia_, concentrates up to 15% of its own weight of strontium, -including the radioisotope strontium-90. It is eaten by larger -zooplankton (animals), such as copepods, which are eaten by little fish, -which, in turn, are eaten by bigger fish, etc. Somewhere along this food -chain, perhaps, a fish will come along that is favored for human dinner -tables. How much strontium-90 has _that_ fish accumulated through -swallowing its prey and by absorption from the water? Is the -radioactivity in its scales, bones, viscera, and other usually uneaten -portions, or in its flesh? - -It is probable, though as yet by no means proven, that among the million -or so oceanic species of plant and animal life, there are concentrators -of virtually all the 60 or more elements found in seawater. To identify -and study them is an enormous undertaking, which is often possible only -by using radioisotopes as tools. - -And what of the immediate and genetic effects of radiation on each -species? Studies of reef fish in the nuclear testing area in the -Marshall Islands have shown that radioiodine in the water caused thyroid -gland damage long after the amount of radioiodine remaining in the water -was too low to be detected. Studies of salmon in the Columbia River have -shown some physiological variations between those fish whose eggs and -young were reared in radioactive waters and those that were not, though -these variations have not been determined to be statistically -significant or different from variations caused by other contaminants. - -Studies are being made of the reproductive efficiency and patterns of -sea creatures in a radiation-contaminated environment, compared with -those in an uncontaminated environment, to learn such things as the -numbers, survival rates, and sex ratios of the offspring, and any -genetic abnormalities or mutations. Many more studies are needed. -Always, the task is made difficult by insufficient detailed knowledge of -the original natural environment, the limitations of laboratory -experiments, and the mechanics of trying to follow the reproductive -cycles of free-floating or swimming organisms in any statistically -meaningful manner through successive generations. - -One obviously important kind of research deals with the rate, pattern, -and means by which radionuclides are distributed into the sea from a -point source, such as the mouth of a river or a nuclear test site. -Transport and diffusion of radioactivity can be, and are, influenced by -physical, chemical, biological, or geological means, separately or all -at once. This has led the AEC to support scientific studies of currents, -upwelling, downwelling, convergence, diffusion, mixing rates, air-sea -interactions, chemical and geological processes in the sea, and the -horizontal and vertical migrations of sea life. - - [Illustration: _This sound instrument record reveals the layers of - planktonic sound scatterers on the continental slope east of New - England. Each peak originates from an individual group of - organisms._] - -In much of the ocean there is an acoustic “floor”, known as the _deep -scattering layer_ (because of what it does to sound waves), which is -believed to consist primarily of zooplankton. Every 24 hours the layer -migrates up and down through several hundred feet of water. At night the -countless small animals graze in the rich sea-plant pastures near the -surface; during daylight, back at the lower level, they undoubtedly are -heavily fed upon by larger animals. Over a period of time, the layer -accounts for considerable vertical transport of materials. (See figure -above.) Other life forms may move materials still farther down, or, in -some instances, back up—as when the sperm whale descends to the depths -to fight and best a giant squid, and then returns to the surface to eat -it. - -Constantly drifting downward is a great volume of material—the dead -bodies, skeletons, excrement, and other waste from sea life at all -depths. As it sinks there is a constant exchange of matter between it -and the surrounding water through chemical, physical, and biological -processes. Eventually, the molecules of material added to the bottom -sediments may be returned to the water mass by bacteriological action or -the eating and living habits of sea floor animals. - - [Illustration: _A school of skipjack tuna photographed from an - underwater observation chamber on the research vessel_ Charles H. - Gilbert.] - -Biological transport works in other ways, too. Most pelagic -(free-swimming) fish are great travelers. They account for a tremendous -movement of material, namely themselves, from one place to another. -Tuna, swordfish, whales, porpoises, and sea birds may travel thousands -of miles in a single year. Such migrations may serve, variously, as -mechanisms for either dispersal or concentration of elements or -nutrients. The anadromous (river-ascending) fishes, such as salmon, -herring, sturgeon, and shad, concentrate in freshwater streams in untold -numbers to spawn. After hatching, the young seek the ocean and scatter -widely until they, too, feel the urge to return to the rivers and lakes -whence they came, to spawn and die there as did their ancestors. - -Ocean currents may transport concentrations of radionuclides essentially -undiluted for thousands of miles. Surface currents move at speeds of up -to five knots (nautical miles per hour). Normally current waters do not -mix readily with the water mass through which they pass. Because of the -slowness of vertical circulation in the ocean, radionuclides deposited -on the surface of the ocean may take a thousand years to reach the -bottom. But the vertical transport sometimes is much more rapid: When -the wind piles too much water against a coastline, the resultant -downwelling (sinking) may move radionuclides suddenly into the deeper -ocean. Or, conversely, when the wind and the rotation of the earth -combine to force the surface water _away_ from the coast, deep water may -suddenly rise to replace it, a process known as upwelling. - - [Illustration: _Mechanisms of nutrient turnover in the sea._] - - Light energy - Dissolved gases - Birds and man - Rivers and ice - Wave action - Surface mixed layer 20-100m - Suspended matter - Elements in true solution - Plants phytoplankton - Animals - Deep water - Elements in true solution in deep water - Buried in sediment - Physical Processes - _Transport by wind_ - _Transport by current_ - _Turbulent mixing_ - _Sedimentation_ - _Transport_ by animals - _Volcanic action_ - _Diffusion_ - Chemical or Biological Processes - _Photosynthesis_ - _Dissolving_ - _Upwelling_ - _Decomposition and respiration_ - _Sorption_ by sediment surface - _Redissolving_ from sediment - _Chemical precipitation_ - Combined Processes - _Sedimentation and decomposition_ by bacteria - _Scavenging_ - -Some recent evidence indicates that the passage of a hurricane across -the ocean drives surface water out from the storm center in all -directions. This, too, produces upwelling. If radionuclides fall on the -Arctic ice pack or on the Greenland or Antarctic ice caps, it may be -years before they are released to the sea. In more or less stable -conditions at sea, radionuclides may remain trapped above the -thermocline (a layer of sharp temperature change usually less than 100 -meters below the surface) for a considerable period. Then a severe storm -may destroy the thermocline and mix the waters to much greater depths. -The process of diffusion in the ocean is not well understood, due both -to the difficulty of the measurements that have to be made and to the -variety of other factors affecting both vertical and horizontal -transport of materials. Here again, however, the existence of -radionuclides, introduced artificially at a known time and place, is -materially aiding these investigations by making a particular water mass -detectable and traceable. - - [Illustration: _Winds of 100 knots (about 115 mph) whip high waves - in the Caribbean Sea east of Guadeloupe Island during a hurricane._] - -In chemical oceanography, the AEC is concerned with the fact that in -some instances our society is introducing elements, ions, and compounds -that have not been naturally found in the sea, as well as natural -materials in greater concentration than is normal. These may combine -with other materials in the sea, changing into new forms or substances, -or removing them from solution entirely. Any change in the chemical -composition of the ocean is quite likely to have biological effects, -some of which may prove detrimental to man. - -A disturbance of the chemical balance of the sea is thought to be -responsible, at least in part, for the periodic, disastrous plankton -“blooms” known as “red tides”. Such a sudden, explosive overpopulation -of plankton is a natural phenomenon, but one that can be triggered by -man-made pollution. When it occurs, plankton multiply so rapidly that -the oxygen in the water is depleted and many fish die from suffocation. - -Fortunately, nuclear energy operations account for an extremely small -portion of the chemical contamination of the sea, when contrasted with -the tremendous volume of poisons dumped daily into it in the form of -other industrial and municipal waste and agricultural pesticides. - - -Research Projects - -The AEC supports oceanographic research conducted by its own -laboratories and by other federal agencies, as well as by non-government -research scientists. The Environmental Sciences Branch of the Division -of Biology and Medicine has begun the long and complex task of -unraveling the mystery of the fate of radionuclides in the ocean. -Valuable techniques have been developed for the intentional injection of -radioisotopes into the sea for specific research. Scientists are now -able to conduct investigations that were never before possible. In some -instances, traditional scientific concepts and theories have been -shattered, or at least severely shaken, by new evidence gathered by -radioisotope techniques. - -Since 70% of the earth’s surface is water, at least 70% of the -radioactive debris lofted into the stratosphere during atmospheric -nuclear weapons tests falls into the ocean. An additional small -proportion finds its way into the sea as the run-off from the land. In -the case of tests at sea, the majority of radiation immediately falls -into the water nearby. For this reason, the ocean around the sites in -the Marshall Islands where U. S. tests were conducted has provided a -unique opportunity to study the effect of large concentrations of -radionuclides. Particularly significant studies have been conducted of -the absorption of radionuclides by plants and animals living on nearby -reefs and islands, and of both lateral and vertical diffusion rates of -elements in the open ocean.[8] - -The 1954 nuclear test at Eniwetok Atoll produced heavier-than-expected -local radioactive fallout. Since then, both American and Japanese -scientists have studied water-mass movement rates, using the fallout -radionuclides strontium-90 and cesium-137 themselves as tracer elements. -These nuclides produced in the test have been detected at depths down to -7000 meters in the far northwestern Pacific in the vicinity of Japan. - - [Illustration: _Autoradiograph of a plankton sample collected from a - Pacific lagoon a week after a 1952 nuclear test, showing - concentration of radioisotopes (bright areas)._] - -If this results from simple eddy diffusion, as some scientists believe, -it is a case of diffusion at a very high rate. Other scientists suggest -that other factors may have contributed to the vertical transport of the -radionuclides to these depths. Still others believe that the -strontium-90 and cesium-137 might not have originated with the U. S. -Pacific tests at all, but rather with Russian tests in the Arctic taking -place at about the same time. They propose the theory that a syphoning -effect in the Bering Strait causes a current to flow out of the Arctic -Ocean and down under the surface waters of the western Pacific. In -support of this, Japanese researchers cite a dissolved oxygen content -where these measurements were made that is different from that of other -deep water in the area. If this theory should be proved correct, it -would be the first indication that such a current exists. - -Similar investigations have been conducted of the variations in depth of -strontium-90 concentration in the Atlantic Ocean. In February 1962, when -fallout from 1961 nuclear tests was high, tests south of Greenland -showed that mixing of fallout was fairly rapid through the top 800 -meters of water. At greater depths a colder, saltier layer of water -contained only about half as much strontium-90, confirming other -evidence that interchange between water masses of different physical and -chemical properties is comparatively low. - -Work such as this has emphasized the difficulty in making meaningful -measurements of man-made radiation in the ocean. One problem is to -separate the artificially produced radiation from the natural radiation, -namely that from potassium-40 (which accounts for 97% of oceanic -radiation) and from the radionuclides, such as tritium, carbon-14, -beryllium-7, beryllium-10, aluminum-26, and silicon-32, created in the -stratosphere naturally by cosmic-ray bombardment. - - [Illustration: _In 1955 a scientific team aboard the U. S. Coast - Guard vessel_ Roger B. Taney _conducted a survey of ocean fallout in - the western Pacific. They collected marine organisms and water - samples at various depths on their 17,500-mile, 7-week journey._] - -Another problem is the sheer physical size of the water sample required -to get any measurements at all. Up to now there has been no truly -effective radiation counter that can be lowered over the side of a ship -to the desired depth. It is often necessary to collect a sample of many -gallons at great depths and return it to the surface without its being -mixed by any of the intervening water. This is difficult at best, and -only rather primitive methods have been developed. None is more than -partly satisfactory. A standard system is to lower a large, collapsed -polyethylene bag to the desired depth, open it, fill it, and close it -again, all by remote control, and then gingerly and hopefully return it -to the surface. Results do not always agree among samples taken at the -same location by different methods or by different scientists. There is -still no universal agreement among scientists as to the quantitative -validity of any of the measurements, although as more and better data -are gathered there tends to be a greater concurrence. - - [Illustration: _Fifty-gallon sampler ready to be lowered over the - side of the research vessel_ Atlantis II _in the North Atlantic. - Such devices are used to obtain samples at fixed intervals from the - sea surface to the bottom. The water is analyzed for radioisotope - content._] - -Recently, under an AEC contract, a detector for direct measurements of -gamma radiation[9] in the deep ocean was developed for the Institute of -Marine Sciences, University of Miami, by the Franklin GNO Corp. (See -figure above.) This unit incorporates two of the largest plastic -scintillation counters[10] ever used in the ocean—each is 16 inches in -diameter by 12 inches thick. This apparatus may permit direct -qualitative and quantitative measurement of radiation at great depths by -techniques that will be eminently more satisfactory than water sampling. -Already tests with the detector have disclosed the existence of -cosmic-ray effects at much greater depths than heretofore known. - - [Illustration: _Scintillation counter for use in the deep ocean._] - - [Illustration: _Constituent parts. The plastic discs are the - radiation detectors._] - -Biologists from Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution in Massachusetts -for the first time have been able to measure the rate of excretion of -physiologically important fallout radionuclides by several species of -zooplankton—_pteropods_, _pyrasomes_, _copepods_, and _euphausids_. -Radioactive zinc and iodine, it was learned, are excreted as soluble -ions, while iron and manganese appear as solid particles. However, the -extent to which the intake and excretion of radionuclides and the -vertical migration of zooplankton contribute quantitatively to the -transport of radioactivity across the thermocline (and into the ocean -deeps) still can only be guessed. - - [Illustration: _Zooplankton, mostly copepods, collected with - automatic underwater sampling equipment on board the nuclear - submarine_ Seadragon _while cruising under the Arctic ice_.] - -Other plankton research at Woods Hole uses radioactive carbon-14 and -phosphorus-32 as tracers to evaluate rates of growth and nutrient -assimilation by algae (floating green plants). These investigations have -revealed that the presence or absence of minute quantities of nutrient -minerals in seawater affects the rate at which the algae produce oxygen -by the process of photosynthesis. Since the energy of all living -things—including man—is also made available by photosynthesis, and since -most of the photosynthesis on earth is performed by algae afloat in the -oceans, it is apparent that this research is of more than academic -interest. Algae, the original energy-fixers of the “meadows of the sea”, -are also the original food source for the billions of aquatic animals, -and may some day prove a source of food for a mushrooming human -population. - -In a project with more immediate application, extensive biological and -environmental studies of the Eniwetok Atoll area in the Pacific were -conducted prior to the first nuclear testing there in 1948, and these -studies have continued ever since. Early in the test series the -Japanese, who were at first concerned with the possible contamination of -their traditional marine food supplies, were invited to participate in -these studies. Fisheries radiological monitoring installations were -established in Japan and the U. S. (The latter was established by the -AEC and administered by the U. S. Food and Drug Administration.) Neither -station encountered any radiological contamination of tuna or other food -fish, and the American unit has now been closed. - - [Illustration: _This shell of the giant clam_ Tridacna gigas _shows - the position of a layer of strontium-90 absorbed in 1958 (black - line) and in 1956 (white line). The inside of the shell (light - layers) was deposited in 1964 when the clam was collected at Bikini - Atoll by scientists from the University of Washington, Seattle._] - -Groups that have cooperated with the AEC in marine radiobiological -research are the University of Hawaii, University of Connecticut, -Virginia Fisheries Laboratory, University of Washington, U. S. Office of -Naval Research, and U. S. Bureau of Commercial Fisheries. - -At the Bureau of Commercial Fisheries Radiobiological Laboratory in -Beaufort, North Carolina, a cooperative effort of the AEC and the BCF is -concerned with learning the effects of radioactive wastes on one of -America’s most valuable marine resources—the tidal marshlands and -estuaries that are essential to the continued well-being of some of our -important commercial fisheries. - - Table III RADIOISOTOPES THAT MIGHT BE FOUND IN AN ESTUARINE - ENVIRONMENT - Isotope Half-life - - Iodine-131 8.05 days - Barium-140—Lanthanum-140 12.8 days—40 hours - Cesium-141 32.5 days - Ruthenium-103—Rhodium-103 10 days—57 minutes - Zirconium-95—Niobium-95 65 Days—35 days, - Zinc-65 245 days - Cerium-144 285 days - Manganese-54 314 days - Ruthenium-106—Rhodium-106 1 year—30 seconds - Cesium-137 30 years - Potassium-40 1.3 × 10⁹ years - - (Reprinted from _Radiobiological Laboratory Annual Report_, April, 1, - 1964, page 50.) - -The project has determined that radionuclides are removed from waters in -an estuarine environment by several physical, chemical, and biological -means. For example, radionuclides are absorbed in river-bed sediments at -a rate varying directly with sediment particle size. Mollusks, such as -clams, marsh mussels, oysters, and scallops, not only assimilate -radionuclides selectively, but do so in sufficient quantity and with -sufficient reliability to be useful as indicators of the quantity of the -isotopes present. Clams and mussels are indicators for cerium-144 and -ruthenium-106, scallops for manganese-54, and oysters for zinc-65 (most -of which winds up in the oyster’s edible portions). It was learned that -scallops assimilate more radioactivity than any other mollusk. Of the -total radioactivity, manganese-54 accounts for 60%: The scallop’s kidney -contains 100 times as much manganese-54 as any of the other tissues and -300 times as much as the muscle, the only part of the scallop usually -eaten in this country. - - [Illustration: _On the left are mussels collected near the Columbia - River in an environment containing abnormal amounts of zinc-65._] - - [Illustration: _Mussels suspended in seawater in research to - determine how fast they lose their zinc-65 radioactivity._ - (_Photograph taken at low tide._)] - -In a surprising unintended result, it was determined that one acre of -oyster beds, comprising 300,000 individual oysters, may filter out the -radionuclides from approximately 10,000 cubic meters (18 cubic miles) of -water per week! - -The Radiological Laboratory scientists also have found that plankton are -high concentrators of both chromium-51 and zinc-65, and that zinc -apparently is an essential nutrient for all marine organisms. Some -plants and animals appear to reach a peak of radionuclide accumulation -quickly, which then tapers off even though the radiation concentration -in the water is unchanged. - -While the AEC’s oceanographic research budgets have not been large, they -have contributed materially to knowledge of the oceanic environment. -AEC-sponsored research at Scripps Institution of Oceanography has -determined by a process known as neutron activation analysis[11] that -the concentration of rare earth elements in Pacific Ocean waters appears -to be only about one hundredth of the level previously reported. By -analysis of naturally occurring radioisotopes, they have also discovered -that it takes from one million to 100 million years for lithium, -potassium, barium, strontium, and similar elements introduced into the -ocean from rivers to be deposited in the bottom sediments. Aluminum, -iron, and titanium are deposited in from 100 to 1000 years. They have -also found that sedimentation occurs in the South Pacific at a rate of -from 0.3 to 0.6 millimeter per thousand years, in the North Pacific at a -rate several times that figure, and in the basins on either side of the -Mid-Atlantic Ridge at a rate of several millimeters per thousand years. - -The University of Miami has successfully developed two methods for -determining the ages of successive layers of deep ocean sediments based -on the relative abundances of natural radioelements, and thereby has -established a chronology of climatic changes during the last 200,000 -years during which the sediments were laid down. - -The U. S. is not alone in its use of nuclear energy as a tool of -science. The United Kingdom has carried out radiological studies of the -marine environment for many years, particularly concentrating on the -effects of radionuclides from nuclear power plants on the sea -immediately contiguous to the British Isles. Both the European Atomic -Energy Community and the International Atomic Energy Agency also -encouraged marine radiological studies. Many laboratories and government -agencies in Europe, North and South America, Africa, and the Middle East -and Far East have well-established and productive programs under way. - -Scientists in many parts of the world have used both natural and -intentionally injected radiation to study the coastwise movement of -beach materials. British experimenters, for example, activate sand with -scandium-46 and are thus able to follow its movement for up to four -months. Pebbles (shingle) coated with barium-140 and lanthanum-140 are -also used as tracers and are good for 6 weeks. Scientists at the -University of California trace naturally occurring radioisotopes of -thorium, which may be introduced from deposits of thorium sands along -river banks. These studies are of immediate practical importance, for -each year the ocean moves billions of cubic yards of sand, gravel, -shingle, and rock to and from beaches and along shores. This action -destroys recreational beaches, fills channels, blocks off harbors, and -in general rearranges the terrain, often at considerable cost and -inconvenience to mariners and other people who use the coast. - -In another use of radioisotopes in marine research, studies at the AEC’s -Oak Ridge National Laboratory in Tennessee have revealed radioactivity -in the scales of fish taken from waters affected by the laboratory’s -radioactive waste effluent. It was suggested that this phenomenon might -be put to use as a tagging technique in fish-migration studies, and -scientists are now working on a method using cesium-134 introduced into -the fishes’ natural diet. - - [Illustration: _Isaacs-Kidd midwater trawl collects samples of - oceanic animals off the Oregon Coast. These animals are then - radioanalyzed to compare the quantity of radioisotopes associated - with animals from various depths. The recorder at the trawl mouth - indicates the volume of water filtered._] - -Some of the most extensive studies of a marine environment ever -conducted are those by the AEC, the Bureau of Commercial Fisheries, and -the University of Washington in the Columbia River system and the nearby -Pacific Ocean. Operations at the AEC’s giant Hanford facilities some 300 -miles upstream from the ocean result in the release of small amounts of -radioactivity to the river and also in raising the river-water -temperature. This downstream research is to determine any effects of -these changes, including any that might be detrimental to man. The -research encompasses studies of the variations and distributions of the -freshwater “plume”—the outflow from the rivermouth—extending into the -nearby Pacific, sediment analyses, studies of the population dynamics of -phytoplankton, and the transport of radionuclides through the food -chain. - - [Illustration: _This core sampler is used to obtain stream bed - samples up to 5 feet long in the Columbia River. The samples are - then analyzed for radioisotope content._] - -As so often happens with basic programs, this research has produced -immediate benefits. New resources of marketable oceanic fish were -discovered by the scientists at depths never before fished commercially -(from the edge of the continental shelf to depths of 500 fathoms and -greater). Similarly, commercial quantities of one species of crab have -been discovered in the deeper ocean. Other findings indicate that crab -populations may have seasonal up-and-down migrations that vary according -to sex. It appears, in fact, that, except while mating and as juveniles, -the male and female crab populations lead separate lives. This -information is important both for more efficient fisheries and for -improved conservation of the crab as a food resource. - -The AEC is, in short, concerned with virtually every facet of basic -oceanography, and with study of the sea as a whole, for radionuclides, -like their nonradioactive counterparts, can and do become involved in -every phase of the vast and complex ocean ecology. In the process of -pursuing its research interests, it also provides oceanographers with a -whole new family of tools for study. Let us now see how atomic -instruments contribute to the growing knowledge of the sea. - - -Oceanographic Instruments - - [Illustration: _This radioisotope powered swimsuit heater uses - plutonium-238 to produce 420 watts of heat. Water, heated by the - decay of ²³⁸Pu, is pumped through plastic veins partially visible in - the undergarment. The cylinder under the diver’s arm contains 4 - capsules of ²³⁸Pu, and a battery-pump assembly is contained in the - box at his feet. After preliminary tests at the Naval Medical - Research Institute in Bethesda, Maryland, the unit will be used in - Sealab III, the Navy’s underwater research laboratory. The heater - was developed by the AEC Division of Isotopes Development._] - -The ocean is both a complex and a harsh environment and its study has -always demanded that designers of seaworthy instruments and sampling -devices be both ingenious and experienced in shipboard requirements. -Until recently, these devices tended to be rugged and simple, if not -indeed crude. More refined, electronic instrumentation has begun to -appear in recent years, but most designs still fail to pass the test of -use at sea. Even among those that do pass, there is persistent -difficulty in separating desired information-carrying signals from -background and system-induced “noise”. This has been a specific problem -with current meters designed to be moored in the open ocean and also -with one quite sophisticated gamma-ray detector. - -To meet the clear need for improved devices, as well as to support its -own research and increase utilization of nuclear materials and -techniques, the AEC Division of Isotopes Development encourages the -development of oceanographic instrumentation. This comparatively young -technology already has produced exciting results. The future may be even -more revealing as nuclear energy is applied more and more to the study, -exploration, and exploitation of the ocean. - -Instruments that have been developed under the AEC program include a -current meter, a dissolved-oxygen-content analyzer, and a -sediment-density meter. A new, fast method for determining the mineral -content of geological samples also has been perfected. - - -The DEEP WATER ISOTOPIC CURRENT ANALYZER (DWICA) was developed under a -contract with William H. Johnson Laboratories, Inc. It relies on -radioisotope drift time over a fixed course to measure seawater flow -rates ranging from 0.002 to 10.0 knots. The device embodies 12 radiation -sensors spaced equally in a circle around a radioisotope-injection -nozzle. Current direction can be determined to within 15 degrees. The -mass of tracer isotope injected is very small—less than 10 picograms[12] -per injection—and the instrument can store enough tracer material to -operate for a year. The tracer can be injected automatically at -intervals from 2 to 20 minutes, depending on the current. The device -sits on the sea floor, where its orientation to magnetic north can be -determined within 2.5 degrees. - - [Illustration: _The Deep Water Isotopic Current Analyzer._] - - Isotope Reservoir and equipressure system - Electric logic circuitry - Pressure protective case - Compass - Sensor ring - Flow baffle plate - Isotope injection point - - [Illustration: The Deep Water Isotopic Current Analyzer.] - - -A SEDIMENT DENSITY PROBE, developed under an AEC contract by Lane-Wells -Company, employs gamma-ray absorption and backscatter properties[13] to -determine the density of the sediments at the bottom of lakes, rivers, -or the ocean, without the necessity of returning a sediment sample to -the surface. It is expected that it can be modified to sense the water -content of the sediments. These determinations are valuable not only for -research, but also for activity that requires structures on the ocean -floor, such as petroleum exploration and naval operations. - - [Illustration: _The Sediment Density Probe. The drawing shows the - complete probe._] - -The unit consists of a rocket-like tube 26 feet long and about 4 inches -in diameter, containing a gamma-ray-emitting cesium-137 source, a lead -shield, and a radiation detector. The device is lowered over the side of -a ship and allowed to penetrate the sediment. Once in place, the gamma -ray source, shield, and detector move together up and down, inside the -probe, for a distance of 11 feet, stopping every 24 inches for 4 minutes -to take a measurement. Gamma rays are absorbed in any material through -which they pass, according to its density. A low radiation count at the -detector indicates a high-density sediment: More radiation is absorbed -and less is reflected back to the detector. Conversely, a high count -indicates low density. Data are recorded on special cold-resistant film. -A number of different sediment measurements can be made in several -locations before the unit must be returned to the surface. - - [Illustration: _Oxygen analyzer equipment includes the deep-sea - probe (large device, center, including a special Geiger counter, the - electronic assembly, a pump, and power supplies), cable for - transmission of Geiger counter signals (back), and portable scaler - (left)._] - - [Illustration: _The latter is also shown aboard a research vessel - (inset) during tests made at sea._] - - -OXYGEN ANALYZER The amount of dissolved oxygen in any part of the ocean -is a basic quantity that must be determined before some kinds of -research can be undertaken. For example, oxygen concentration is -important in determining the life-support capability of seawater and in -measuring deep-water mixing. In the past this measurement has had to be -determined by laborious chemical methods that may subject the water -sample to contamination by exposure to atmospheric oxygen. Under an AEC -contract, the Research Triangle Institute has developed a dissolved -oxygen analyzer that relies on the quantitative oxidation by dissolved -oxygen of thallium metal containing a known ratio of radioactive -thallium-204. - -The seawater sample passes through a column lined with thallium. The -thallium is oxydized and goes into solution. It then passes between two -facing pancake-shaped radiation counters that record the level of beta -radiation from the thallium-204. Since the rate of oxidation, and -therefore the rate of release of the thallium to solution, is -proportional to the amount of dissolved oxygen in the water, it is -simple to calibrate the device to show oxygen content. The system is -sensitive enough to detect one part of oxygen in 10 billion of water. -And, the device can be towed and take readings at depths of up to one -mile, an added advantage that obviates the chances of surface-air -contamination. - - -NEUTRON ACTIVATION ANALYSIS Nuclear energy is contributing to the more -accurate and more rapid analysis of minerals in the sea in at least two -different ways. The first employs neutron activation analysis, which we -have already mentioned. This method is valuable not only in analyzing -sediments cored from the ocean floor, but also in the detection and -quantitative analysis of trace elements in the water. Knowledge of the -role of all natural constituents in the ocean is essential to an -understanding of the complex interrelationships of the ocean -environment, as we have seen. Identification of trace elements also is a -necessary preliminary to determining the effects of purposely introduced -radionuclides. Collection of the minute quantities of trace elements is -very difficult at best. Once they have been collected and concentrated, -neutron activation analysis provides a means for their identification -and measurement. - - -X-RAY FLUORESCENCE is another technique, used to identify the mineral -content of ore or sediment. This system was developed (for the purpose -of spotting gold being smuggled through Customs) by Tracerlab Division -of Laboratory for Electronics, Inc. (LFE), under an AEC contract. -Similar equipment was developed simultaneously in England for use by -prospectors, geologists and mining engineers. It now may be used at sea -in analyzing samples from the sea floor. As is often the case with -isotope-based devices, its operation is really quite simple. When -excited by radiation from an isotope (or any other radiation source), -each element produces its own unique pattern of X-ray fluorescence, that -is, it radiates characteristic X rays. By varying filters and measuring -the count rate, oceanographers can detect and measure materials, such as -tin, copper, lead, and zinc. The British unit is completely -transistorized, battery powered, and weighs only 16.5 pounds. - - -RHODAMINE-B DYE The AEC also has improved oceanographic research in ways -that do not involve the use of nuclear energy. Some years ago under the -joint sponsorship of the AEC Division of Reactor Development and -Technology and the Division of Biology and Medicine, the Waterlift -Division of Cleveland Pneumatic Tool Company developed instrumentation -and techniques for detecting the presence of the red dye, rhodamine-B, -in concentrations as low as one-tenth part per billion. This method is -now widely used both for groundwater studies and in the study of -currents, diffusion, and pollution in rivers, lakes, and the ocean. In -many cases, rhodamine-B is a better tracer in water than radioisotopes, -due to the greater ease with which it is detected. - - -Environmental Safety Studies - -The AEC Division of Reactor Development and Technology has supported -extensive environmental studies to assess the safety of isotopic power -sources (to be discussed later) in oceanic environments. One of the most -important of these is being conducted by the Naval Radiological Defense -Laboratory at an ocean environmental testing complex near San Clemente -Island off the coast of California, which includes a shore installation -and a floating ocean platform. These studies are to determine seawater -corrosion of containment alloys and fuel solubility in seawater; the -dispersion of the fuel in the ocean; the effect of the radioactive -material on marine life; and the radiation hazard to man, when all -significant exposure pathways are considered. - -In another study the Chesapeake Bay Institute of Johns Hopkins -University investigated potential hazards that might result if -radioactive materials were released off the Atlantic Coast. Five areas -along the Continental Shelf were examined in detail for environmental -factors such as vertical diffusion. The same Institute made -environmental and physical dispersion studies off Cape Kennedy, Florida, -to predict the fate of any radioactive materials that might be released -in aborted launchings of nuclear rockets or nuclear auxiliary power -devices for space uses. Fluorescent dye was released into offshore, surf -zone, and inshore locations; the diffusion was observed, sampled, and -compared with existing diffusion theory. Mathematical models have been -developed that can now be used to predict the rate and extent of -diffusion in the Cape Kennedy area in the event of any radioactivity -release from aborted test flights. - -Similar studies have been carried out near the space launching site at -Point Arguello, California, by the Scripps Institution of Oceanography. -These included collection of data on dispersion, marine sediments, and -the biological uptake of radioactive plutonium, polonium, cesium, and -strontium. - - -The Atom at Work in the Sea - -NUCLEAR REACTOR PROPULSION - -The transformation in undersea warfare tactics and national defense -strategy effected by the introduction of nuclear-powered submarines is -now well known. Navy submarines employing the latest reactors and fuel -elements can stay at sea for more than 3 years without refueling. -_Polaris_ submarines on patrol remain submerged for 60 to 70 days. The -nuclear submarine _Triton_, tracing Magellan’s route of 400 years -earlier, traveled 36,000 miles under water, moving around the world in -83 days and 10 hours. Under-ice transits of the Arctic Ocean by nuclear -submarines are now commonplace. These feats all are possible because of -the nuclear reactors and propulsion systems developed by the AEC -Division of Naval Reactors, which also developed the propulsion plants -for the Navy’s nuclear surface vessels.[14] - - [Illustration: _USS_ Seadragon _and_ Skate _sit nose to nose on top - of the world after under-ice voyages from the Atlantic and Pacific - Oceans to the North Pole._] - - [Illustration: _A frogman from the Seadragon swims under the Arctic - ice in one of the first photographs made beneath the North Pole._] - - -DEEP SUBMERGENCE RESEARCH VEHICLE On April 18, 1965, President Johnson -announced that the Atomic Energy Commission and Department of the Navy -were undertaking development of a nuclear-powered deep submergence -research and engineering vehicle. This manned vehicle, designated the -NR-1, will have vastly greater endurance than any other yet developed or -planned, because of its nuclear power. Its development will provide the -basis for future nuclear-powered oceanographic research vehicles of even -greater versatility and depth capability. - -The NR-1 will be able to move at maximum speed for periods of time -limited only by the amount of food and supplies it carries. With a crew -of five and two scientists, the vehicle will be able to make detailed -studies of the ocean bottom, temperature, currents, and other phenomena -for military, commercial, and scientific uses. The nuclear propulsion -plant will give it great independence from surface support ships and -essentially unlimited endurance for exploration. - -The submarine will have viewing ports for visual observation of its -surroundings and of the ocean bottom. A remote grapple will permit -collection of marine samples and other objects. The NR-1 is expected to -be capable of exploring areas of the Continental Shelf, which appears to -contain the most accessible wealth in mineral and food resources in the -seas. Exploratory charting of this kind may help the United States in -establishing sovereignty over parts of the Continental Shelf; a ship -with its depth capability can explore an ocean-bottom area several times -larger than the United States. - -The reactor plant for the vehicle is being designed by the General -Electric Company’s Knolls Atomic Power Laboratory, Schenectady, New -York. The remainder of the propulsion plant is being designed by the -Electric Boat Division, General Dynamics Corporation, Groton, -Connecticut. - -Scientists are already beginning to implant small sea floor -laboratories. In the future, when large permanent undersea installations -for scientific investigation, mining, or fish farming become a reality, -nuclear reactors like the one designed for research submersibles or the -one already in use in Antarctica and other remote locations[15] will -serve as their power plants. - -ISOTOPIC POWER SOURCES - -The ocean is a logistically remote environment, in the sense that -conventional combustible fuels can’t be used underwater unless supplied -with their own sources of oxygen. It is usually extremely costly to take -anything heavy or bulky into the deep ocean. Even if the two essential -components of combustion—fuel and oxygen—could be delivered economically -to an undersea base or craft, the extreme back pressure of the depths -would present serious exhaust problems. Yet deep beneath the sea is just -where we now propose to do large amounts of work requiring huge supplies -of reliable energy. The lack of reliable and extended duration power -sources is perhaps one of the most critical requirements for expansion -of underwater and marine technology. For example, the pressing need for -measurements of atmospheric and oceanic data to support scientific, -commercial, and military operations will in the future require literally -hundreds of oceanographic and meteorological buoys deployed throughout -the world to take simultaneous measurements and time-series observations -at specific sites. - -Some of these buoys will support and monitor up to 100 sensors each. -These devices record a variety of physical, chemical, and radiological -phenomena above, at, or below the surface. Periodically the sensor data -will be converted to digital form and stored on magnetic tape for later -retrieval by distant shore-based or shipboard radio command, by -satellite command (for retransmittal to ground stations), or by physical -recovery of the tapes. Individually, each buoy will not require a great -deal of energy to operate, but will have to operate reliably over long -periods of time. Conventional power sources are being used for the -prototype buoys now under development and testing, but these robot ocean -platforms in the future will make excellent use of nuclear energy -supplied by isotopic power sources. - - [Illustration: _The world’s first nuclear-powered weather buoy - located in the center of the Gulf of Mexico. This weather station, - part of the U. S. Navy’s NOMAD system, is on a barge 10 feet × 20 - feet, and is anchored in 12,000 feet of water._] - - [Illustration: diagram] - - RADIO ANTENNA - WEATHER SENSORS - WARNING BEACON - NUCLEAR GENERATOR - -The SNAP-7D isotope power generator has been operating unattended since -January 1964 on a deep-ocean moored buoy in the Gulf of Mexico. This U. -S. Navy NOMAD (Navy Oceanographic and Meteorological Automatic Device) -buoy is powered by a 60-watt, strontium-90 radioisotope source, which -was developed by the AEC Division of Reactor Development and Technology. -This weather station transmits data for 2 minutes and 20 seconds every 3 -hours. This data includes air temperature, barometric pressure, and wind -velocity and direction. Storm detectors trigger special hourly -transmissions during severe weather conditions. The generator operates -continuously and charges storage batteries between transmissions. Some -power is used to light a navigation beacon to alert passing ships. - -Energy from the heat of radioisotope decay has been used on a -“proof-of-principle” basis in several other instances involving ocean or -marine technology. - -An experimental ⁹⁰Sr isotope-powered acoustic navigation beacon -(SNAP-7E) now rests on the sea floor in 15,000 feet of water near -Bermuda. Devices such as these not only will enable nearby surface -research or salvage vessels to locate their positions precisely -(something very difficult to do at sea) and to return to the same spot, -but the beacons also will aid submarine navigation (see page 48). - -A U. S. Coast Guard lighthouse located in Chesapeake Bay has been -powered by a 60-watt, ⁹⁰Sr power source, SNAP-7B, for 2 years without -maintenance or service. This unit was subsequently relocated for use in -another application (described below). - - [Illustration: _Engineers prepare to install the SNAP-7D - generator._] - -The first commercial use of one of these “atomic batteries” began in -1965 when the SNAP-7B 60-watt generator went into operation on an -unmanned Phillips Petroleum Company offshore oil platform, 40 miles -southeast of Cameron, Louisiana. The generator operates flashing -navigational lights and, in bad weather, an electronic foghorn (see page -49). This unit will be tested for 2 years to determine the economic -feasibility of routinely using isotopic power devices on a commercial -basis. - - [Illustration: Acoustic pulses.] - - Buoyancy tank - Sound amplifier - Nuclear-powered sound source - Ocean bottom - - [Illustration: _The SNAP-7E isotopic generator powers an undersea - acoustic beacon, which produces an acoustic pulse once every 60 - seconds. In addition to being a navigation aid, the beacon is used - to study the effects of a deep-ocean environment on the transmission - of sound over long distances._] - - [Illustration: Diagram.] - - Total height: 10 ft 2 in - Armored cable - Pressure vessel - Capacitor bank - Fuel capsules - Biological shield - Equipment package - Voltage converter - Depleted uranium - Thermoelectric generator - System support structure - - [Illustration: _Details of the Phillips Petroleum platform, which - uses the SNAP-7B nuclear generator._] - - [Illustration: _The final electrical connection is made from the - nuclear generator to the platform’s electronic foghorn and two - flashing light beacons._] - - [Illustration: Diagram] - - Fog Horn - Beacon - Beacon - Snap-7B nuclear generator - -The radioisotope-powered devices previously described were developed by -the AEC under the SNAP-7 Program.[16] The testing of these units has -demonstrated the advisability of developing reliable and unattended -nuclear power sources for use in remote environments without compromise -to nuclear safety standards. As a result of the success of these tests, -a variety of potential oceanographic applications have been identified. -A study, conducted by Aerojet-General Corporation in conjunction with -Global Marine Exploration Company and Northwest Consultant -Oceanographers, Inc., described ocean applications including underwater -navigational aids, acoustic beacons, channel markers, cable boosters, -weather buoys, offshore oil well controls along with innumerable -oceanographic research applications. This study was sponsored by the AEC -Division of Isotopes Development. - -In order to satisfy the requirements for these and other applications, -the AEC has begun developing a series of compact and highly reliable -isotope power devices that are designed to be economically competitive -with alternative power sources. Currently underway are two specific -projects, SNAP-21 and SNAP-23. - -SNAP-21 is a two-phase project to develop a series of compact -strontium-90 power systems for deep-sea and ocean-bottom uses -(20,000-foot depths). The first phase of design and component -development on a basic 10-watt system already has been completed, and a -second phase development and test effort now under way will extend -through 1970. A series of power sources in the 10- and 20-watt range -will be available for general purpose deep-ocean application. - -The SNAP-23 project involves the development of a series of economically -attractive strontium-90 power systems for remote terrestrial uses. This -project will result in 25-watt, 60-watt, and 100-watt units capable of -long-term operation in surface buoys, offshore oil platforms, weather -stations, and microwave repeater stations. - -In addition to the above, effort is underway by the AEC to develop an -isotope-fueled heater that will be used by aquanauts in the Navy’s -Sealab Program (see page 12). Future activities, now being planned, will -involve the development of large isotope power sources (1-10 electric -kilowatts) and small nuclear reactors (50-100 kilowatts) for use in -manned and unmanned deep-ocean platforms. - - -Ocean Engineering - -Considerable engineering experience has been derived from the work of -federal agencies in development of the largest taut-moored instrumented -buoy system ever deployed in the deep ocean. Developed by Ocean Science -81 Engineering, Inc., it is useful in observation and prediction of -environmental changes. - -The system embodies substantial advances in design. It incorporates, -among other features, an acoustically commanded underwater winch for -adjustment of the mooring depth after the buoy is deployed, and for -recovering a 16,000-pound submerged data-recording instrument canister. -This buoy system can survive being moored in up to 18,000-foot depths of -the open ocean for upward of 30 days. - -The very first deep-ocean, taut-moored buoy system was developed for the -government in 1954, and has since become an important tool for -oceanographers and others who seek stable instrument platforms at sea. -The buoys have the advantage of minimizing horizontal movement due to -currents, winds, and waves. - -The National Marine Consultants Division of Interstate Electronics -Corporation has developed for the government a system for measuring the -propagation of seismic sea waves (tsunamis). - -Work of these sorts contributes materially to reliable ocean -engineering. And the measurements made by these sophisticated -instruments contribute to our knowledge of ocean fluid dynamics and wave -mechanics. - -Corrosion is a huge, ever-present problem plaguing oceanographic -engineers, ship designers, mariners, operators of desalination plants, -petroleum companies with offshore facilities, and, in fact, everyone who -places structures in salt water to do useful work. While the basic -mechanisms of corrosion are known, there are many detailed aspects that -are not: For example, the precise role of bacteriological slimes in -causing corrosion on supposedly protected structures. Radioisotope -tracers now are helping engineers follow the chemical, physical, and -biological actions in corrosion processes. - - -Fresh Water from Seawater - -In 1960 the chairman of the board of a large U. S. corporation made a -fundamental policy decision for his company: Since the greatest critical -need of man in the next decade would be fresh water, his company would -begin working to produce large volumes of fresh water—including the -development of methods for desalting seawater. His pioneering analysis -proved to be prophetic. - -Throughout the world, more people are using more water for more purposes -than ever before. Many areas of the world, including some that are -densely populated, have been parched since the dawn of history. In -others where water was once abundant, not only are natural sources being -depleted faster than they are replaced, but many rivers and lakes have -been so polluted that they can now scarcely be used. - -The world’s greatest resource of water is the ocean, but energy is -required to remove the salt from it and make it potable or even useful -for agriculture and industry. The energy produced by nuclear reactors is -considered economical in the large quantities that soon will be -required. - -The AEC and the Office of Saline Water of the Department of the -Interior, after a preliminary study, have joined with the Metropolitan -Water District of Southern California and the electric utility firms -serving the area, to begin construction of a very large nuclear-power -desalting plant on a man-made island off the California coast. The -plant, when completed in the 1970s, will have an initial water capacity -of 50 million gallons per day and also will generate about 1,800,000 -kilowatts of electricity. Additional desalting capacity is planned for -addition later to achieve a total water capacity of 150 million gallons -per day. - - [Illustration: _Plans to construct a nuclear desalting plant in - California were announced in August 1966 by (from left) AEC - Commissioner James T. Ramey, Secretary of the Interior Stewart L. - Udall, Mayor Samuel Yorty of Los Angeles, and Joseph Jensen, Board - Chairman of the Metropolitan Water District of Southern - California._] - -Plans for other nuclear-powered desalting projects around the world are -being discussed by the United States government, the International -Atomic Energy Agency and the governments of many other nations. Some of -these also may be in operation during the early 1970s.[17] - - [Illustration: _Model of the nuclear power desalting plant to be - built on the coast of Southern California._] - -These projects followed extended detailed studies, including one -“milestone” investigation at the AEC’s Oak Ridge National Laboratory in -Tennessee, in which the economic feasibility of using very large nuclear -reactors coupled to very large desalting equipment to produce power and -water was determined. - -The significance of these studies was recognized by President Johnson in -1964, when he told the Third International Conference on Peaceful Uses -of Atomic Energy: “The time is coming when a single desalting plant -powered by nuclear energy will produce hundreds of millions of gallons -of fresh water—and large amounts of electricity—every day.” - -It is obvious that today realization of that goal is much nearer. - -The installation of new and larger desalting plants will in itself -require extensive additional oceanographic research. By the nature of -their operation these plants will be discharging considerable volumes of -heated water with a salt content higher than that of the sea. Throughout -the ocean, but particularly in the estuaries, sea life is sensitive to -the concentration of ocean salts and temperature. Studies of the effect -of such discharges will be an essential part of any large-scale -desalination program. - - -Radiation Preservation of Seafood - -The use of nuclear radiation for the preservation of food is a new -process of particular importance for seafood. The ocean constitutes the -world’s largest source of animal protein food. Yet the harvests of the -sea can be stored safely, even with refrigeration, for far shorter -periods than can most other foods. In many parts of the world, this -tendency to spoil makes fish products available only to people who live -near seacoasts. - -Many types of seafood, however, when exposed to radiation from -radioisotopes or small accelerators, can be stored under normal -refrigeration for up to four weeks without deterioration. The process -does not alter the appearance or taste of the seafood; it merely -destroys bacteria that cause spoilage. This fact holds promise not only -for the world’s protein-starved populations, but also for the economic -well-being of commercial fishermen, whose markets would be much -expanded. - -In support of this program, the AEC has built and is operating at -Gloucester, Massachusetts, a prototype commercial seafood irradiator -plant capable of processing 2000 pounds of seafood an hour. The -radiation is supplied by a cobalt-60 source. Private industry is -cooperating with the AEC in the evaluation of this facility.[18] - - [Illustration: _The first shipboard irradiator was on The_ Delaware, - _a research fishing vessel. Fish, preserved through irradiation soon - after they are caught, have a refrigerated storage life two or three - times longer than nonirradiated fish._] - - [Illustration: _The first shipboard irradiator._] - - -Project Plowshare - -Nuclear explosives are, among other things, large-scale, low-cost -excavation devices. In this respect, with the proper pre-detonation -study and engineering, they are ideally suited for massive earth-moving -and “geological engineering” projects, including the construction of -harbors and canals. The western coasts of three continents, Australia, -Africa, and South America, are sparsely supplied with good harbors. A -number of studies have been undertaken as to the feasibility of using -nuclear explosives for digging deepwater harbors. Undoubtedly at some -time in the future, these projects will be carried out. - -In addition, there are many places in the world where the construction -of a sea-level canal would provide shorter and safer routes for ocean -shipping, expedite trade and commerce, or open up barren and -unpopulated, but mineral-rich lands to settlers and profitable -development. The AEC Division of Peaceful Nuclear Explosives operates a -continuing program to develop engineering skills for such projects.[19] -Construction of a sea-level canal across the Central American isthmus is -one well-known proposal for this “Plowshare” program. - -The use of nuclear explosives in this manner may one day change the very -shape of the world ocean. - - -A New _Fram_ - - [Illustration: _Fridtjof Nansen_] - -Just about 70 years ago, the oceanographer and explorer, Dr. Fridtjof -Nansen completed his famous voyage aboard the research vessel _Fram_, -which remained locked in the Arctic ice pack for 3 years, drifting -around the top of the world while the men aboard her studied the -oceanography of the polar sea. Now the National Science Foundation has -taken the first steps toward building a modern version of _Fram_ for -Arctic studies. This time the vessel will be an Arctic Drift Barge -containing the best equipment modern technology can offer—including, it -is proposed, a central nuclear power plant to guarantee heat and power. -Scheduled for completion sometime in the 1970s, this project represents -yet another use of the atom in the study of the ocean. - - - - - THE THREE-DIMENSIONAL OCEAN - - -The ocean is no longer an area of isolated scientific interest, nor -merely a turbulent two-dimensional surface over which man conducts his -commerce and occasionally fights his wars. - -In today’s world, the ocean has assumed its full third dimension. Men -and women are going down into it to study, to play, to work, and, alas, -sometimes to fight. As they go, they are taking atomic energy with them. -In many instances, only the harnessed power in the nuclei of atoms -permits them to penetrate the depths of the mighty sea and there attain -their objectives. - - [Illustration: _Artist’s conception of one of three proposed designs - for the National Science Foundation’s Arctic Drift Barge. All three - designs incorporate a nuclear power source._] - - - - - SUGGESTED REFERENCES - - -Books - -_The Bountiful Sea_, Seabrook Hull, Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood - Cliffs, New Jersey 07632, 1964, 340 pp., $6.95. - -_This Great and Wide Sea_, R. E. Coker, Harper & Row, New York 10016, - 1962, 235 pp., $2.25 (paperback). - -_Exploring the Secrets of the Sea_, William J. Cromie, Prentice-Hall, - Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey 07632, 1962, 300 pp., $5.95. - -_The Sea Around Us_, Rachel L. Carson, Oxford University Press, Inc., - New York 10016, 1961, 237 pp., $5.00 (hardback); $0.60 (paperback) - from the New American Library of World Literature, Inc., New York - 10022. - -_The Ocean Adventure_, Gardner Soule, Appleton-Century, New York 10017, - 1966, 278 pp., $5.95. - -_Proving Ground: An Account of the Radiobiological Studies in the - Pacific, 1946-1961_, Neal O. Hines, University of Washington - Press, Seattle, Washington 98105, 1962, 366 pp., $6.75. - -_The Effects of Atomic Radiation on Oceanography and Fisheries_ - (Publication 551), National Academy of Sciences—National Research - Council, Washington, D. C. 20418, 1957, 137 pp., $2.00. - -_Oceanography: A Study of Inner Space_, Warren E. Yasso, Holt Rinehart - and Winston, Inc., New York, 10017, 1965, 176 pp., $2.50 - (hardback); $1.28 (paperback). - - -Booklets - -_Oceanography Information Sources_ (Publication 1417), National Academy - of Sciences—National Research Council, Washington, D. C. 20418, - 1966, 38 pp., $1.50. - -_A Reader’s Guide to Oceanography_, Jan Hahn, Woods Hole Oceanographic - Institution, Woods Hole, Massachusetts 02543, August 1965 (revised - periodically) 13 pp., free. - - -The following booklets are available from the Superintendent of -Documents, U. S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. 20402: - -_Undersea Vehicles for Oceanography_ (Pamphlet No. 18), Inter-agency - Committee on Oceanography of the Federal Council for Science and - Technology, 1965, 81 pp., $0.65. - -_Marine Sciences Research_, AEC Division of Biology and Medicine, March - 1966, 18 pp., $0.15. - - -Articles - -Tools for the Ocean Depths, _Fortune_, LXXII: 213 (August 1965). - -Journey to Inner Space, _Time_, 86: 90 (September 17, 1965). - -Working for Weeks on the Sea Floor, Jacques-Yves Cousteau, _National - Geographic_, 129: 498 (April 1966). - -_Nucleonics_, 24 (June 1966). This special issue on the use of the atom - undersea contains the following articles of interest: - -Reactors: Key to Large Scale Underwater Operations, J. R. Wetch, 33. - -Undersea Role for Isotopic Power, K. E. Buck, 38. - -Radioisotopes in Oceanographic Research, R. A. Pedrick and G. B. Magin, - Jr., 42. - - -Motion Pictures - -_1000 Feet Deep for Science_, 27 minutes, color, 1965. Produced by and - available from Westinghouse Electric Corporation, Visual - Communications Department, 3 Gateway Center, Box 2278, Pittsburgh, - Pennsylvania 15230. This film describes the Westinghouse Diving - Saucer, which is a two-man laboratory used for underwater - research. This is the saucer that is used by Jacques-Yves Cousteau - and was featured in his motion picture _World Without Sun_. - - -Available for loan without charge from the AEC Headquarters Film -Library, Division of Public Information, U. S. Atomic Energy Commission, -Washington, D. C. 20545 and from other AEC film libraries. - -_Bikini Radiological Laboratory_, 22 minutes, sound, color, 1949. - Produced by the University of Washington and the AEC. This film - explains studies of effects of radioactivity from the 1946 atomic - tests at Bikini Atoll on plants and marine life in the area 3 - years later. - -_Return to Bikini_, 50 minutes, sound, color, 1964. Produced by the - Laboratory of Radiation Biology at the University of Washington - for the AEC. This film records the ecological resurvey of Bikini - in 1964, 6 years after the last weapons test. - -_Desalting the Seas_, 17 minutes, sound, color, 1967. Produced by AEC’s - Oak Ridge National Laboratory. Describes various methods of - purifying saline water through the use of large dual-purpose - nuclear-electric desalting plants. - - [Illustration: uncaptioned] - - -PHOTO CREDITS - - Page - 2 U. S. Navy (USN) - 3 University of Pennsylvania Museum—National Geographic - Expedition - 5 USN - 6 Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (WHOI) - 7 Diagram, WHOI; photo, S. Hull - 9 Top, Oregon State University (OSU); bottom, University of - California, San Diego, Scripps Institution of - Oceanography (SIO) - 10 Lamont Geological Observatory of Columbia University - 12 USN - 15 SIO - 19 R. H. Backus. _Physics Today_ (November 1965), “Sound - Reflections In and Under Oceans,” J. B. Hersey - 20 U. S. Bureau of Commercial Fisheries Biological Laboratory, - Honolulu, Hawaii - 22 USN - 24 Laboratory of Radiation Biology, University of Washington - (LRB) - 26 Jan Hahn - 27 Franklin GNO Corporation - 28 George D. Grice, WHOI - 31 SIO - 33 OSU - 35 Monsanto Research Corporation - 37 USN - 38 Lane-Wells Company - 39 Research Triangle Institute - 43 USN - 46, 47 & 48 Martin-Marietta Company - 49 The Photo Mart - 53 Top, Metropolitan Water District of Southern California; - bottom, Bechtel Corporation - 55 U. S. Bureau of Commercial Fisheries, Fish and Wildlife - Service; inset, Brookhaven National Laboratory - 56 Norsk Folkemuseum, Oslo, Norway, courtesy The Mariners - Museum, Newport News, Virginia - 57 National Science Foundation - 61 S. Hull - Cover photo courtesy James Butler, USN - Author’s photo courtesy General Dynamics Corporation - Frontispiece from Jan Hahn - - -THE COVER - - [Illustration: The ATOM and the OCEAN] - -The ship on the cover is the trim _Atlantis_ riding the waves about 200 -miles south of Bermuda. The first craft built by the United States as an -oceanographic research vessel, she traveled more than 1,200,000 miles -across the seven seas for a period of 30 years. She “ran” over 6000 -hydrographic stations and was used for innumerable dredging, coring, -biological, physical, and acoustical research operations. After she was -retired from active service at the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution -in Massachusetts, she was sold to Argentina, where she has resumed her -role as an oceanographic research vessel. - - -THE AUTHOR - -E. W. SEABROOK HULL is an experienced writer and editor in technical and -engineering fields. He is the author of _The Bountiful Sea_, published -in 1964 by Prentice-Hall, and _Plowshare_, another booklet in this -Understanding the Atom Series. He is the editor of _Ocean Science News_ -and editor and publisher of _GeoMarine Technology_. - - [Illustration: E. W. Seabrook Hull] - - - - - Footnotes - - -[1]For a description of how these will work, see _Controlled Nuclear - Fusion_, another booklet in this series. - -[2]These devices, which will be frequently mentioned later in these - pages, are described in detail in a companion booklet _Power from - Radioisotopes_. - -[3]See _Nuclear Reactors_, another booklet in this series, for a - description of the fission process and how reactors operate. - -[4]For a full discussion of other aspects of this topic, see _Fallout - from Nuclear Tests_, another booklet in this series. - -[5]For a full discussion of this topic, and the safety measures taken by - the AEC in connection with it, see _Radioactive Wastes_, another - booklet in this series. - -[6]Radioisotopes, unstable forms of ordinary atoms, are distinguishable - by reason of their radioactivity, not by their biological or - chemical activity. - -[7]The time in which half of the atoms in a quantity of radioactive - material lose their radioactivity. - -[8]For more details of these studies, see _Atoms, Nature, and Man_, a - companion booklet in this series. - -[9]Gamma rays are high-energy electromagnetic radiation, similar to X - rays, originating in the nuclei of radioactive atoms. - -[10]Instruments that detect and measure radiation by recording the - number of light flashes or scintillations produced by the radiation - in plastic or other sensitive materials. - -[11]A method involving use of nuclear reactors or accelerators for - identifying extremely small amounts of material. See _Neutron - Activation Analysis_, a companion booklet in this series. - -[12]A picogram is one trillionth (10⁻¹²) of a gram. - -[13]For an explanation of how similar instruments work, see - _Radioisotopes in Industry_, a companion booklet in this series. - -[14]For a discussion of proposed nuclear merchant submarines, see - _Nuclear Power and Merchant Shipping_, another booklet in this - series. - -[15]These are described in _Power Reactors in Small Packages_, another - booklet in this series. - -[16]See _Power from Radioisotopes_, a companion booklet in this series, - for a more complete discussion of radioisotopes in use. - -[17]For an explanation of how these will function, see _Nuclear Energy - for Desalting_, another booklet in this series. - -[18]See _Food Preservation by Irradiation_, another booklet in this - series, for a full account of this installation. - -[19]Details are described in _Plowshare_, another booklet in this - series. - - -This booklet is one of the “Understanding the Atom” Series. Comments are -invited on this booklet and others in the series; please send them to -the Division of Technical Information, U. S. Atomic Energy Commission, -Washington, D. 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