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+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #65504 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/65504)
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-The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Indians in Wisconsin's History, by John
-M. Douglass
-
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
-most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
-whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
-of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
-www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you
-will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before
-using this eBook.
-
-Title: The Indians in Wisconsin's History
-
-Author: John M. Douglass
-
-Release Date: June 4, 2021 [eBook #65504]
-
-Language: English
-
-Character set encoding: UTF-8
-
-Produced by: Stephen Hutcheson and the Online Distributed Proofreading
-             Team at https://www.pgdp.net
-
-*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE INDIANS IN WISCONSIN'S
-HISTORY ***
-
-    [Illustration: INDIAN YOUTH AT “SCHOOL” (PAINTING BY A. O.
-    TIEMANN).]
-
-
-
-
-                              THE INDIANS
-                         IN WISCONSIN’S HISTORY
-
-
-                          BY JOHN M. DOUGLASS
-
-The author, a member of the History Division of the Milwaukee Public
-Museum, died January 26, 1951, shortly after completing the manuscript
-of this handbook.
-
-    [Illustration: Indian head]
-
-                POPULAR SCIENCE HANDBOOK SERIES    NO. 6
-
-                        DESIGNED AND PRINTED AT
-                      THE MILWAUKEE PUBLIC MUSEUM
-
-                         PUBLISHED BY ORDER OF
-                         THE BOARD OF TRUSTEES
-                                MAY 1954
-
-
-
-
-                              CHAPTER ONE
-         WISCONSIN’S INDIANS BEFORE THE COMING OF THE WHITE MAN
-
-
-    [Illustration: ROACH HEADDRESS (MUSEUM EXHIBIT).]
-
-It is difficult now to realize that Wisconsin, famed as a dairy state
-and rich in farm land and thriving communities, was once a great
-wilderness. Before the land was cleared for the farmer’s plow and with
-its dense forests yet to hear the lumberjack’s axe, the thick timberland
-of the north and even the rolling prairies of the central and southern
-portions of our state teemed with a great variety of wild life,
-including animals no longer occurring in Wisconsin, such as the woodland
-caribou, moose, elk, and buffalo or bison, as well as the more familiar
-deer, bear, and many smaller varieties.
-
-Before the arrival of the Europeans, this Wisconsin wilderness was the
-home of Indians who were wonderfully adapted to a life in the forests.
-They depended almost entirely on hunting and the gathering of natural
-products for their food, shelter, clothing, tools, and weapons, although
-most of them raised some garden crops such as corn, squash, beans, and
-possibly tobacco.
-
-Let’s pretend that we can travel backwards in time about 350 years and
-visit a typical Indian family of that period. As we arrive on the scene
-the tribe is preparing to set up a new camp. The women are busy
-unpacking their household gear, including reed mats used to cover the
-outer sides of the wigwam. The women themselves have carried the loads
-during the journey. This is not done because of any laziness on the part
-of the men, a common error of white observers, but simply because the
-men need their hands free to ward off a sudden enemy attack, or to kill
-any game they might chance upon during the journey.
-
-While the women unpack, the men enter the woods to cut poles for the
-framework of the wigwams, and collect birch bark for the roofs. After
-the poles are set into the ground to make an oval enclosure, they are
-bent and tied together at the top to form a rounded roof. The women then
-tie on the reed mats, and roof the hut with the rolls of bark. This is
-the typical Wisconsin Indian winter lodge. Although it is the latter
-part of March, the weather is still too cold to live comfortably in a
-summer lodge.
-
-If we lift the bearskin covering the entrance and step into the lodge,
-we may see the simple furnishings and personal possessions of the family
-we are going to visit. A hole in the middle of the roof serves to carry
-off the smoke from the fire burning in the center of the floor. This
-fire serves the double purpose of heating the lodge and cooking the
-family meals. We find the hut almost too smoky to endure, accustomed as
-we are to our modern homes, but our Indian friends seem quite
-comfortable.
-
-Since our Indian family is fairly large, including the father’s parents
-as well as the mother, father, two boys, and two girls, the wigwam is
-proportionately large in order to accommodate all of them.
-
-We look about the inside of the lodge and see the sleeping mats and
-furs. The family’s spare clothing, breechclouts, shirts, leggings, and
-moccasins of tanned deerskin for the men, and skirts, blouses, and
-moccasins for the women, are in one corner. The garments are beautifully
-decorated with designs grandma embroidered on them with dyed porcupine
-quills. The work is quite fine and it takes many hours to do a small
-portion of the embroidery. Father is especially fond of his headdress, a
-roach made of deer and porcupine hair, and an eagle feather which
-indicates that he has killed an enemy in battle.
-
-    [Illustration: WIGWAMS, OR WINTER LODGES.]
-
-As we step outside again and look about, we can see why this particular
-spot has been chosen as the campsite. A small lake and several springs
-are only a short distance away, but the most important reason for
-camping here at this season is a large grove of sugar maple trees
-immediately to one side of the camp. March is the proper time to tap the
-trees for their sap.
-
-The next two or three weeks are spent tapping the trees, and boiling the
-sap down until maple syrup, and finally only maple sugar is left. This
-sugar keeps indefinitely and provides a very nourishing as well as a
-delicious source of food for the entire family. The children are
-especially fond of it.
-
-It is not a case of all work and no play during this period, for the
-children, Morning Star, White Fawn, Blackbird, and Little Otter, play
-games when their tasks are finished, and gambling games are popular with
-the men and women. Here we see mother and some neighbor women playing
-the cup and pin game. Each player in turn tosses into the air small
-cone-shaped cups made of antler tips or bear-toe bones, and tries to
-catch one or more on a bone pin. The men are enthusiastic gamblers, too,
-using marked sticks which are thrown and scored somewhat like our own
-familiar dice games.
-
-When the sugar making is finished, the tribe breaks camp and travels by
-birch-bark canoe to a new location. The canoes are wonderfully light
-boats and can be paddled very swiftly. Their light weight makes them
-relatively easy to carry or portage from one stream to another. Our
-canoe has eyes painted on the bow and stern. The father explains that
-these eyes enable the canoe to “see where to go.”
-
-    [Illustration: INDIAN CHILDREN AT PLAY (PAINTING BY A. O. TIEMANN).]
-
-    [Illustration: BIRCH-BARK CANOE.]
-
-At the new summer camp we watch our friends build summer lodges. These
-are rectangular in shape with inverted-V-shaped roofs much like our own
-houses. The entire lodge is covered with strips of elm or other bark.
-
-As is often the case, the new campsite is near a river, and springs
-nearby furnish cool, pure drinking water. There are also open clearings
-closeby which will be utilized for gardening. The next few weeks,
-however, will be used for making necessary utensils and equipment needed
-by the tribe.
-
-    [Illustration: SUMMER LODGE.]
-
-    [Illustration: ANCIENT WOODLAND POTTERY VESSEL.]
-
-One day we are interested observers of pottery making. Grandma goes to a
-clay bed near the river and selects suitable materials including some
-coarse sand for tempering the pottery paste, which is made of both clay
-and sand. The paste is worked into long cylinders which are finally
-coiled about into the desired shape. After the vessel has assumed final
-shape it is paddled with a cord-wrapped tool and allowed to air-dry for
-several days, and finally baked in a large outdoor fire. The finished
-pot can be used to boil water or cook food, and has the advantage of
-being easily replaced in case of breakage.
-
-May soon arrives, and as this is the time to plant corn, our Indian
-family selects a suitable clearing for their garden. The men burn out
-the underbrush and the women and girls prepare for the planting itself.
-Grandma informs us that it is always best to soak the grains in water
-several days before seeding. After the seeds have been properly
-softened, the women and girls dig holes in the ground, place six or
-seven grains of corn in each hole, and then heap up the dirt over the
-seeds in a little hillock. Squash and beans are planted in the clearing,
-too.
-
-One day we are told that the tribe is going to have a game drive, since
-considerable meat is needed by the village. We go along into the forest
-and watch the men chop down trees with their stone axes. These are all
-felled in one direction, the cut incomplete so that the tree is still
-attached to the stump, and in two rows so as to leave a gradually
-narrowing corridor more than a mile long. The deer are then driven
-towards the corridor where men stationed with bows are able to shoot
-them easily as they approach the narrow opening between the barriers.
-
-A number of the animals are killed in this way and taken back to the
-village where their flesh can be preserved by being cut into strips and
-smoke-dried. We are all too hungry, however, to wait until we return to
-the village before eating. The chief says we can have some boiled
-venison stew. We are puzzled at this, for no utensils have been brought
-along, but we soon learn how resourceful our Indian friends are.
-
-One of the men obtains some edible roots; another cuts the stomachs from
-several of the deer. Each one of the stomachs is cleaned and tied to
-form a pouch. The venison, roots, and some wild rice which some of the
-men brought along, are placed in the prepared deer stomachs, water
-added, and the ingenious “kettles” suspended over a slow fire. In a
-relatively short time a delicious stew is set before each of us, served
-in birch-bark dishes prepared in a few minutes by another of the
-hunters.
-
-While we are eating we ask the father of the Indian family we are
-visiting how the chief of his tribe obtained his position. We are told
-that his ability as a warrior and leader has led to his being chosen war
-chief, and his ability as an orator and his power to make people like
-him has kept him in authority. He says that in a nearby village the
-chief is also a great war leader, but he is not well liked otherwise.
-For that reason he sometimes finds it difficult to make his warriors
-obey him and he is therefore not nearly as powerful as our leader. We
-soon realize that the Indian chiefs depend primarily upon personal
-prestige and influence to keep them in power. We are informed, however,
-that in some other tribes the chief is always selected from a certain
-clan.
-
-    [Illustration: YOUTH FASTING FOR A VISION (PAINTING BY A. O.
-    TIEMANN).]
-
-One morning we witness a curious ceremony. Grandfather offers Blackbird,
-the older boy, some charcoal as well as his food. The father seems very
-proud when his son rejects the food, applies the charcoal to his face,
-and leaves the village to enter the forest alone. Grandfather explains
-that Blackbird, by accepting the charcoal, automatically agreed to fast
-alone in the forest for one day. This one-day fast will be good training
-for the day when he will feel ready to go on the long fast of four or
-five days. Every man has taken this long fast in the hope of seeing a
-vision of a guardian spirit who would then be his lifetime protector.
-
-The girls, too, must fast, but in a somewhat different fashion. Soon
-Morning Star, the older girl in our friend’s family, will reach
-womanhood and be segregated for a number of days in a secluded lodge,
-and during this period no men may approach her.
-
-The summer season rapidly nears an end. We have enjoyed ourselves
-watching the activities of our friends at work and at play. We have
-learned, too, some of the beliefs of our friends. Grandfather has told
-us stories about the great white bear with the copper tail who dwells
-underground and is the greatest power for evil. He has told the children
-how the “Indian Sandman,” a good-natured elf, would put people to sleep
-at night by hitting them on the head with a soft war club. We have
-learned, too, of the many spirits for good and evil who control the sun,
-moon, stars, winds, rain, thunder, and all the other phenomena of
-nature. One evening he pointed out the Milky Way and told us that this
-was the road over which the dead travelled to the land of the spirits.
-He also warned us about entering the woods alone at night because of the
-evil, living skeleton which haunts the forest paths seeking unwary men.
-
-    [Illustration: TALES OF THE SPIRIT WORLD (PAINTING BY A. O.
-    TIEMANN).]
-
-    [Illustration: THE RICE GATHERER.]
-
-Autumn, the time for harvesting garden crops as well as various wild
-vegetable foods, is a season of hard work for all. Corn is the most
-important garden crop, and from time to time we have sampled the ripe
-grain. The women have served us some roasted on the cob, or the fresh
-kernels ground with a wooden mortar and pestle and served as a sort of
-porridge. The ripe corn is now gathered and the ears will be allowed to
-dry. The dried kernels can then be ground into a meal, as needed, since
-the dry corn will remain edible for a long time.
-
-Wild rice is the most important vegetable food provided for the Indians
-by nature. One day, in the middle of September, we all go a short
-distance up the river in our canoes and enter a small lake. Here the
-wild grain grows in great quantities. The men selected by the chief to
-determine when the rice is ready to be gathered have already given us
-the signal that the grain is ripe. We learn, however, that one more
-function is required before we can proceed with the harvesting of the
-rice.
-
-The chief medicine man of our village approaches the edge of the water
-and blows tobacco smoke towards the heavens as an offering to his
-“Grandfather,” the “Master of the Rice.” He then buries a small portion
-of tobacco in the ground, and we are ready to proceed.
-
-In each canoe, as the man poles the boat slowly through the rice, the
-woman, who sits facing the man, pulls the stalks over the canoe with one
-cedar stick, while with another stick she beats the ripe grain into the
-boat. When the canoes are full, we head back for camp where the rice is
-spread out to dry.
-
-Then the women heat the unhusked kernels in a pot over a slow fire until
-all have partially popped open. Next a small pit is dug and a stake set
-into the ground beside it. The depression is lined with buckskin and
-filled with the parched grain. The father then takes hold of the stake,
-steps into the grain-filled pit, and begins treading the grain with his
-feet to loosen the husks from the kernels.
-
-The women take the grain from the pit and toss it up and down in bark
-winnowing trays. The wind blows away the light chaff as the grain is
-tossed into the air, and allows only the kernels to fall back into the
-tray.
-
-The time soon arrives for our friends to break camp and seek a winter
-campsite where the hunting is known to be good. Hunting and fishing will
-be the main source of food during the winter season.
-
-At the new campsite, storage pits lined with birch bark are dug in the
-ground to be used for storing the nuts, dried berries, dried corn, and
-rice that have been gathered and prepared during the Autumn. If hunting
-is poor, or if a severe winter threatens famine to the village, this
-stored food may be the sole means of preventing starvation.
-
-It is now time for us to leave our Indian friends, but before we go we
-learn that the winter season will be spent not only in the pursuits of
-fishing through the ice and hunting, but also, in the telling of
-stories, singing, and playing many different games. When the snows are
-deep, the tribe will don snowshoes for their hunting trips. We will miss
-seeing them play snowsnake. In this game the Indians compete with each
-other to see who can hurl the wooden “snake” the greatest distance
-across the snow or ice. We are sorry to miss all these things, but the
-time has come for us to end our visit.
-
-As we say farewell to our friends from the distant past, we reflect
-regretfully that the coming of the white man will change the old ways of
-life for these people of the forests, and soon their independence and
-freedom will vanish forever. The Indians seem destined to become largely
-dependent upon the whites for their livelihood, and even for the few
-remnants of land to be left them for their homes.
-
-    [Illustration: THRASHING RICE (MUSEUM EXHIBIT).]
-
-
-
-
-                              CHAPTER TWO
-                 WISCONSIN’S INDIANS UNDER FRENCH RULE
-
-
-    [Illustration: THE FUR TRADERS (MUSEUM MURAL BY A. O. TIEMANN).]
-
-Few of us realize that the early history of Wisconsin is as romantic as
-any our eastern seaboard states can boast. The area that is now the
-State of Wisconsin became the gateway into the Middlewest and the
-meeting place for the French and the Indian tribes of what was then
-regarded as the West. This early period of French control was an era in
-which Jesuit missionaries carried the doctrine of Christianity from
-village to village, often visiting tribes that had never before seen
-white men. It was a time when the French traders, lured by the love of
-adventure and romance as well as the wealth to be obtained in the fur
-trade, pushed through the forests and followed strange rivers until they
-reached the villages of unknown Wisconsin Indians. It was in these
-villages that such traders, including the “noblest” youth of New France,
-lived with the Indians, sat in their councils, took part in their war
-dances, accompanied their war parties to battle, and often married their
-women.
-
-It was in this early French Regime that Wisconsin’s Indian tribes
-underwent great changes in their manner of life due to contacts with the
-white man’s civilization, It was a time of warfare and a struggle for
-supremacy in North America between the British and the French, and their
-Indian allies, with Wisconsin’s tribes espoused to the cause of the
-French. It was the heyday of the fur trade with literally millions of
-beaver and other skins being taken from Wisconsin to enrich the trader
-and obtain white man’s goods for the Indians.
-
-Despite the fact that Wisconsin’s Indians all lived in pretty much the
-same manner, most of us are aware that there were different tribes in
-our state at various times, and that they spoke different languages in
-some instances. If we use a comparison from European languages, we might
-better understand the character of these Indian languages. German,
-English, and Swedish all originated from the same parent tongue and
-belong to the same basic language division. English and Chinese are
-unrelated tongues belonging to different basic language stocks. Thus,
-while many words are very similar in English and German, in English and
-Chinese no apparent similarity exists.
-
-Three basic language divisions, Algonkian, Siouan, and Iroquoian, were
-represented by Wisconsin’s Indians. Algonkian was represented by such
-tribes as the Menomini, Potawatomi, Chippewa, Mascouten, Sauk, Fox,
-Ottawa, and Kickapoo. Relatively late arrivals to Wisconsin (in the
-1800’s), also speaking Algonkian tongues, were the Munsee, Brotherton,
-and Stockbridge tribes. The Siouan group included the Winnebago, and the
-Santee division of the Dakota Sioux. The Huron and the Oneida (the
-latter also arriving in the 1800’s) were Wisconsin representatives of
-the Iroquoian language stock. The differences become more apparent when
-we realize that languages in the Iroquoian division would be as
-different from those in the Algonkian stock as English is from Chinese.
-
-The historic period in Wisconsin began when Jean Nicolet, the first
-known white man to visit Wisconsin, landed near what is now Green Bay,
-in 1634. Nicolet’s mission was to arrange a peace between the powerful
-Winnebago tribe, or Puans, as they were known to the French, and the
-Ottawa who were then acting as middlemen between the French and the
-Indians of the unknown Middlewest.
-
-    [Illustration: THE LANDING OF NICOLET (MUSEUM MURAL BY GEORGE
-    PETER).]
-
-Nicolet’s journey into the Wisconsin wilderness, a mere fourteen years
-after the landing of our pilgrim forefathers at Plymouth Rock, was the
-beginning of the period of French exploration and rule in Wisconsin
-which is as romantic and fascinating a story as any in our country’s
-history. Imagine Nicolet’s emotion as he approached his destination, a
-lone white man with seven Indians for companions, in a country which, as
-far as was known, had never before been visited by a white man. He had
-no idea as to what sort of reception he would receive from these strange
-people he was to visit. Their friendliness or enmity would be determined
-upon arrival. Fortunately he was hailed as a great visitor, and feasted
-and entertained accordingly.
-
-Only three Indian tribes are definitely known to have been residents of
-Wisconsin when Nicolet visited here in 1634. These were the Winnebago;
-the Menomini, who resided along the shores of the Menominee River above
-Green Bay; and the Santee Sioux, whose villages were scattered along the
-upper reaches of the Mississippi River in northwestern Wisconsin and
-eastern Minnesota.
-
-Documentary evidence strongly suggests that some other tribes, often
-mentioned as early residents, as, for example, the Mascouten, did not
-arrive until a generation later. Archaeological findings conclusively
-show the prehistoric occupation of Wisconsin by the Santee Sioux and the
-Winnebago, and support the probability of prehistoric occupation by the
-Menomini. Thus Wisconsin was controlled primarily by Siouan speaking
-peoples in 1634. The peaceful Menomini were far outnumbered by their
-powerful neighbors, the Winnebago, but this situation was soon to change
-radically.
-
-    [Illustration: WINNEBAGO VILLAGE (PAINTING BY A. O. TIEMANN).]
-
-Events occurring far to the East, in what is now New York State and
-eastern Canada, were to profoundly affect and change the Indian
-population of Wisconsin. When the French began permanent settlement
-along the St. Lawrence they found the Huron and the Iroquois Confederacy
-engaged in a death struggle for supremacy in the area. The French
-espoused the cause of the Hurons who quickly became the middlemen in the
-fur trade between the French and the western Indians.
-
-The Iroquois, who were farmers and hence controlled less land than
-hunting tribes who were their neighbors, soon depleted their land of fur
-bearing animals and began to plan acquisition of land held by nearby
-tribes. At about this time the Dutch considerately gave the Iroquois
-guns, and by this act unleashed what was probably the most potent Indian
-military confederacy in North America upon the Hurons, who were
-practically exterminated in an amazingly short time. The Erie, Tobacco
-Nation, and Neutrals soon suffered the same fate as the Hurons.
-
-The Algonkian tribes, attacked first by the Neutrals and then by the
-victorious Iroquois, fled pell-mell into eastern Michigan and the Sault
-area. Eventually most of these tribes either went around the southern or
-the northern extremity of Lake Michigan to arrive in the relative
-security of wilderness Wisconsin.
-
-The exact dates for the arrival of these various dispossessed eastern
-tribes are not certain. We do know that they probably came to Wisconsin
-sometime after Nicolet’s visit in 1634. The Mascouten, Potawatomi,
-Kickapoo, Sauk, and Fox were coming into Wisconsin before 1654. Some
-Huron and Ottawa settled here temporarily at this time, but by 1678 were
-compelled by the Sioux to flee back to the Sault. The Chippewa stayed
-around and west of the Straits of Mackinac and actually did not settle
-in Wisconsin until about 1670.
-
-    [Illustration: SAUK AND FOX INDIANS (FROM MAXIMILIAN).]
-
-    [Illustration: CHIPPEWA INDIANS (FROM GEO. CATLIN).]
-
-The Winnebago at first defended themselves vigorously against the
-invading refugee tribes; however, this constant warfare greatly reduced
-their numerical strength. Further decimated by plagues, probably
-smallpox introduced by the whites, and by famine, the Winnebago were
-compelled to make peace with the invading Algonkians who eventually
-settled in great numbers along the Upper and Lower Fox rivers, the lower
-reaches of the Wolf River, and in the vicinity of Green Bay.
-
-Fur trade with the western Indians was successfully blocked by the
-rampaging Iroquois for twenty odd years after Nicolet’s voyage of
-exploration into the Middlewest, but with the establishment of a brief
-peace, the Ottawa, who had assumed the position of middlemen in the fur
-trade, sent a large canoe fleet to the western Indians and soon returned
-with large quantities of furs which had been accumulated by the Indians
-during the Iroquois War.
-
-On the return journey two young Frenchmen, Radisson and Groseilliers,
-went into Wisconsin with the Ottawa and became the first known white
-traders in the area. Other traders quickly followed their example, and
-by 1670, the fur trade in Wisconsin was proceeding at a good pace.
-
-The Indians, even before actually being visited by the whites, had
-received European implements by trade with other Indians and soon
-learned the superiority of iron knives and axes over those of stone. The
-arrival of the white traders with their guns, kettles, cloth, brandy,
-and many other trade items was eagerly awaited by the Indians of what is
-now Wisconsin.
-
-As early as 1668, Perrot and traders with him had brought furs to Green
-Bay (La Baye). Great activity in the fur trade was quick to follow with
-the French traders using guns and brandy particularly as an inducement
-to increase the tempo of fur trapping by the Indian. The Indian was as
-anxious to obtain the white man’s goods as the trader was to obtain the
-Indian’s furs. This formed the basis for an understanding mutually
-agreeable to Indian and trader alike.
-
-The fur trade, during the French Regime, went through many changes due
-to changing circumstances, and the issuing of different regulations from
-time to time. The discovery of new western lands and tribes spurred
-literally hundreds of Canadian youths to seek these virgin territories
-and the riches in furs to be had there. At first traders persuaded the
-Indians to make the long trip to Montreal with their furs. The presence
-of so many traders in the forests, however, soon made these long trips
-unnecessary. By the time Perrot began trading in Wisconsin the traders
-were carrying their goods to the Indians in their own country.
-
-Regulations required that all traders must be licensed, or buy _Conges_
-as they were called. Twenty-five of these were issued each year and
-permitted the trader to take a designated load of goods into the
-interior to be traded for the Indian’s furs. The presence of great
-numbers of unlicensed traders in the woods was responsible for an edict
-from the king declaring such illegal traders to be outlaws. The
-punishment for such activities was death. These outlaw traders were
-known as _coureurs de bois_ and were actually never hampered too much by
-the stringent laws passed against them.
-
-During the latter part of the 17th century outposts were built to help
-control the trade. Nicolas Perrot built posts at Mt. Trempealeau, at
-Lake Pepin, and at the mouth of the Wisconsin River. The Sieur DuLhut
-(Duluth) built posts in the Lake Superior region.
-
-Since these terms are often misused, it might be best to briefly
-describe the following occupations: A _bourgeois_, was an owner of goods
-and a license; the hired men were called _engages_; those hired men who
-only carried the goods and paddled the canoe for a stipulated daily hire
-were called _voyageurs_. The _coureurs de bois_ and sometimes the
-_voyageurs_ were usually the ones who often remained in the forests and
-“went native.”
-
-    [Illustration: uncaptioned]
-
-    [Illustration: PIERRE RADDISON (COURTESY OF WISCONSIN STATE
-    HISTORICAL SOCIETY).]
-
-The impact of the white man’s civilization was bound to profoundly
-change the life and geography of the Indians, and, particularly in the
-early French period, this change was extremely rapid. Three groups were
-actively working to institute changes in the Indian pattern of life.
-These were the fur trader, whose goods revolutionized the material
-culture of the natives, the Jesuit missionaries who hoped to convert the
-tribes to Christianity, and the French government itself, which
-attempted at various times to relocate the tribes, form confederacies,
-and even to “civilize” them.
-
-The fur trader was the only one of the three groups who really succeeded
-in materially changing the Indian’s way of life, although his success
-was unintentional. So completely did the materials of the white man
-replace those of the Indian that within a few short generations almost
-no one knew how to make stone tools and weapons, pottery vessels, bows
-and arrows, and many other aboriginal products which were abandoned as
-rapidly as superior goods of the whites were made available.
-
-The change in tools and weapons naturally changed the Indians’ pattern
-of life in many ways, but the entire economy of the tribes was affected
-greatly by the fur trade. The Indian’s need for the white man’s goods
-was great and he became more and more dependent upon the trader. As the
-tempo of fur trading increased, the Indian began devoting almost all of
-his time to hunting and trapping until, in a sense, he became an
-employee in a great “fur-trade factory” with the goods he received from
-the trader representing his wages. Much of the Indian’s old life of
-freedom gradually disappeared, since failure to obtain guns or powder
-and bullets meant starvation for the Indian and his family.
-
-    [Illustration: JESUIT MISSIONARY.]
-
-    [Illustration: uncaptioned]
-
-Perhaps the worst effect of the contact between the Europeans and the
-Indians was the introduction of brandy, always an effective persuader in
-bargaining, and the introduction of European diseases, particularly
-venereal disease and smallpox, the latter in some instances wiping out
-entire tribes. The tendency for tribes to congregate around fur-trade
-areas at the behest of the traders also had a detrimental effect upon
-the Indians. In the Fox River valley and around Green Bay this
-overpopulation resulted in famine and the voluntary exodus of some
-tribes before 1700, among them the Miami and some of the Kickapoo and
-Mascouten.
-
-It should be noted that the adoption of new materials and living habits
-was not entirely one-sided. The white man learned how to use the
-Indian’s birch-bark canoe, many of his foods, tobacco, moccasins, snow
-shoes, and often buckskin clothing.
-
-Both the Jesuits and the French military deliberately aimed at changing
-the Indian’s way of life but their aims were in direct opposition to one
-another. The Jesuits were not interested in “civilizing” the Indians.
-They desired to see these simple people maintained in their original
-ignorance except for their belief in the “One True God,” and such simple
-improvements in agriculture and other techniques as would improve their
-lot as mission Indians. The Jesuits, not without some justification,
-regarded contact between their charges and the French traders and
-soldiers as having a demoralizing influence.
-
-    [Illustration: MENOMINI INDIAN MEDICINE LODGE CEREMONY (PAINTING BY
-    A. O. TIEMANN).]
-
-Despite great heroism and prodigious efforts on the part of the
-missionaries, permanent effects on the Indians by the Jesuits was to
-prove almost negligible. The Wisconsin Indian was highly war-like and
-found it difficult to appreciate the humility preached by the
-missionary. The Indian regarded such behavior as effeminate.
-
-    [Illustration: FATHER JACQUES MARQUETTE (COURTESY OF MARQUETTE
-    UNIVERSITY).]
-
-Nevertheless, the story of their efforts to Christianize the tribes, and
-the valor of these missionaries in exploring unknown territory, makes a
-fascinating story in our state’s history. Not the least among such
-heroic deeds was the great voyage of exploration by Father Jacques
-Marquette and Louis Joliet. Traveling up the Fox River, crossing over on
-foot at what is now Portage, Wisconsin, and proceeding down the
-Wisconsin River, the two explorers entered the Mississippi River on the
-seventeenth of June, 1673. They explored the great river as far south as
-the Arkansas River and then returned, by way of the Illinois River. This
-great discovery made known a continuous water route from the Atlantic
-Ocean to the Gulf of Mexico, and opened to the French the interior of a
-vast continent.
-
-It was the desire to exploit and unify this vast wilderness empire that
-led the French leaders to attempt deliberate changes in the Wisconsin
-Indian geography and political structure. This was necessary in order to
-strengthen the Wisconsin tribes and keep them fighting the Iroquois who
-consistently raided the western Indians and the French settlements along
-the St. Lawrence.
-
-LaSalle conceived the idea of a great Indian confederacy which, it was
-hoped, would be able to successfully oppose the mighty Iroquois, and so
-built forts in the Illinois country to help defend the area. The
-Wisconsin Mascouten and Kickapoo left this area, partly because of their
-desire to join the confederacy and partly because of population pressure
-in the Fox River valley.
-
-The year before the Iroquois invasions of 1680, DuLhut helped to
-strengthen the French cause by negotiating peace between the Dakota
-Sioux and their enemy of long standing, the Chippewa, and also
-reconciling the Dakota Sioux and Assiniboine, who had been warring for
-thirty years.
-
-Nicolas Perrot probably was the most influential French officer ever to
-have worked with the Wisconsin tribes. It was mainly through his
-constant efforts that they were kept from going over to the Iroquois
-when the tribes felt that the French had abandoned them. Perrot was
-probably the only Frenchman to remain consistently on friendly terms
-with the Foxes, who eventually were to engage the French in the
-bloodiest Indian war ever to be fought on Wisconsin soil. Perrot
-constantly travelled from village to village organizing raids against
-the Iroquois, raids which eventually assisted in forcing the Iroquois to
-sue for peace. The French, through the efforts of men like LaSalle,
-Perrot, and DuLhut, had once again secured a firm hold on the western
-tribes, but the Iroquois warfare of the 1680’s had caused a slump in the
-fur trade. The trade was, moreover, soon to receive a blow which was to
-almost completely kill all official commerce between the Indians and the
-French for a number of years. This was the issuance of a royal edict by
-the French King, May 21, 1696, revoking all fur trade licenses and
-prohibiting all colonials from carrying goods to the western country.
-
-There were really two main causes for the issuance of this edict. One
-was a slump in the beaver market caused by the great flood of furs into
-France and a decline in beaver hat production, due partly to the
-emigration of the Huguenots who were the main hat felters; the other
-cause for the edict was the anger of the Jesuits, aroused by the sale of
-brandy to the Indians by the traders and soldiers.
-
-It was hoped that the Indian tribes would make the journey to Montreal
-themselves to trade their furs, but it was soon discovered that most
-tribes either would not or could not make such a journey for purposes of
-trade. The result, of course, was severe hardship for the Indians of
-Wisconsin. Lack of gunpowder and lead restricted their hunting abilities
-and made it more difficult for them to defend themselves against the
-Iroquois and other hostile tribes. The Indians were becoming
-increasingly dependent upon the French to the extent that they had lost
-much of the freedom they had enjoyed as a self-sufficient people.
-
-The rapid abandonment of the western posts followed the fur trade ban.
-The commanders of these outposts, for the most part, did not consider it
-worthwhile to stay on in that capacity if they could not enrich
-themselves by means of the Indian trade.
-
-Peace was finally arranged between the Iroquois and the French and their
-Indian allies in 1700. The Iroquois had suffered heavily from the raids
-by the western Indians. They claimed to have lost more than half their
-warriors. With the fear of Iroquois raids ended, the confederacies of
-western tribes quickly fell apart, and the latter turned to fighting
-among themselves as they had always done in the past.
-
-The French military now decided on a concentration policy. The western
-posts were to be restricted to three main centers. These were to be at
-Detroit, New Orleans, and near Tonty’s post in the Illinois country.
-Fairly large numbers of troops were stationed at these posts to provide
-adequate defense, and the western tribes were to be concentrated in
-these areas. This would facilitate the fur trade by permitting the
-Indians to trap their furs and bring them directly to the trading
-centers. The French government also hoped to “civilize” the Indians,
-teaching them to farm the land, learn the French language, and
-eventually even participate in the colonial economy.
-
-The concentration policy was foredoomed to failure. The Wisconsin
-tribes, of whom many were hereditary enemies, only needed a spark to set
-them at one another’s throats. This led to trouble at Detroit which
-resulted in the bloody Fox Wars, long, costly fighting for the French
-which contributed much towards their final downfall in the New World.
-
-
-
-
-                             CHAPTER THREE
-                THE FOX WARS AND THE FALL OF NEW FRANCE
-
-
-    [Illustration: SAUK AND FOX WARRIORS (FROM MAXIMILIAN).]
-
-Events occurring in Wisconsin during the first half of the Eighteenth
-Century were to bode little good for the French, and were to contribute
-towards the final downfall of New France at the hands of the British.
-For a good share of the years between 1701 and 1738 the French were to
-be largely occupied with the attempt to subjugate the Fox Indians and
-their allies.
-
-Not only were the expeditions against the Fox to prove costly to the
-French, but the enmity of the Fox required shiftings of trade routes. As
-an inevitable result, friction between the French and English traders
-developed, since the Fox at times blocked both the Fox River in
-Wisconsin and the Illinois River to the French traders. The determined
-resistance of the Fox also prevented the fruition of French hopes to
-dominate the western tribes and influence them to espouse the French
-cause. Furthermore, the difficulty experienced by the French military in
-conquering a relatively small group of Wisconsin Indians did little to
-further French prestige among other western tribes.
-
-The First Fox War was actually the result of the French concentration
-policy. Within a few years after the founding of Detroit in 1701 by the
-Sieur de Cadillac there were almost 6000 Indians in the vicinity of the
-fort. The Fox, meanwhile, determined to prevent the carrying of guns to
-their enemy, the Dakota Sioux, were halting French traders attempting to
-proceed up the Fox River on their journey to the Sioux country on the
-Upper Mississippi. A French fort in the Sioux country was also abandoned
-after the loss of several men due to attacks by the Fox.
-
-Cadillac, realizing the need for some measure to bring these warlike
-tribesmen under control, in 1710 invited the Fox, along with the other
-tribes resident around Green Bay, to come and reside near Detroit. At
-this crucial time, when so much depended on the leadership of a
-Frenchman experienced in handling the tribes, Cadillac, probably the
-most capable Colonial officer of the times, was sent to Louisiana as
-governor of that colony. The new commandant at Detroit had none of
-Cadillac’s ability with the Indians.
-
-The arrival of the Fox and their allies, the Kickapoo, Sauk, and
-Mascouten, was the signal for trouble. These tribesmen were feared as
-well as hated by the other Indians about Detroit. After a band of
-Mascouten were attacked by the Ottawa near the St. Joseph River, during
-the winter of 1711-1712, the Fox, in revenge, immediately attacked the
-Ottawa and Huron at the Detroit post.
-
-The Detroit commandant sided with the Ottawa and Huron and permitted
-them to seek refuge in the French fort. Shortly after, the Fox erected a
-stockade of their own and made preparations for a long fight. The French
-and their allies were reinforced by a large band of Illinois, Missouri,
-Osage, Potawatomi, and Menomini. This greatly superior force laid siege
-to the Fox fort and the latter soon offered to surrender. The French and
-their Indian supporters, however, were now determined to completely
-exterminate their enemies.
-
-After a siege of nineteen days, the Fox attempted to escape by taking
-advantage of cover offered on a dark, rainy night. They were pursued,
-overtaken, and the great majority of them were slaughtered. This was a
-victory for the French, but a very costly one, for the Fox and their
-allies still had a great many warriors in the forests of Wisconsin.
-These, in retaliation, began a war of extermination against the allies
-of the French who had participated in the Detroit massacre and the
-hunted tribesmen soon complained that their people were starving because
-they dared not hunt in the forests lest their men be slain by the
-vengeful Fox.
-
-The summer of 1716 saw the first white army ever to invade the forests
-of Wisconsin. The Sieur de Louvigny, in May of that year, left Montreal
-with an army of several hundred French and a force of mission Indians
-determined to compel the Fox to sue for peace. He arrived in Wisconsin
-with his army augmented by western tribesmen, and _coureurs de bois_ who
-had been granted pardons for joining the expedition at their own
-expense. With this total force amounting to about 800 men, Louvigny
-besieged the fortified Fox village, situated near Little Lake Butte des
-Morts. While the French kept up a fire with two small cannon and a
-grenade mortar, they sank a trench towards the Fox fort determined to
-mine the place and blow it up.
-
-The Fox surrendered after three days of fighting and agreed to accept
-terms which Louvigny thought very severe, but which his Indian allies
-regarded as overmild. The terms included the requirement that the Fox
-pay for the costs of the expedition against them by means of furs yet to
-be gathered, to give up prisoners taken from the allies of the French,
-to furnish a number of hostages to guarantee their future good behavior,
-and to cede their territory to the French King.
-
-The peace temporarily halted the bloody warfare of the four preceding
-years and permitted the fur trade to be resumed. The concentration
-policy had proven to be a failure, and shortly after the death of Louis
-XIV, in 1715, the posts were once more occupied and the licensing system
-for the fur trade was restored. A fort was built at La Baye (Green Bay)
-in 1717, and a post was occupied at Chequamegon Bay to keep the Chippewa
-from attacking the Fox and causing a resumption of war, and also to
-regulate the fur trade in that area.
-
-    [Illustration: EARLY FORT AT MICHILLIMACKINAC (MUSEUM MURAL BY
-    GEORGE PETER).]
-
-The quite considerable friction between the colonies of Canada and
-Louisiana provided the background for the events which led directly to
-the Second Fox War. There was considerable argument as to the exact
-boundaries of Illinois which now was annexed to Louisiana, although
-originally settled by Canadians. The Fox took advantage of these
-feelings of hostility by attacking the Illinois in the vicinity of
-Kaskaskia, even killing Frenchmen in this area. The Fox claimed the
-Illinois would not return Fox prisoners as they had promised according
-to treaty. The Canadian governor, Vaudreuil, tended to side with the Fox
-in the argument.
-
-After the death of Vaudreuil, his temporary successor, Baron de
-Longueuil ordered the Sieur de Lignery, commandant at Mackinac, to
-enforce a peace between the Fox, Kickapoo, and Mascouten, and their
-enemies, the Illinois. The Fox promised to obey this demand, and in
-order to ensure their obedience, a new post was built in the Sioux
-country. This was rendered necessary by the fact that the Dakota Sioux
-had now become allies of the Fox, and the French intended to make sure
-that no aid would be coming to the Fox from that warlike tribe. The
-three forts in the northwest, at Chequamegon Bay, La Baye, and on the
-upper Mississippi in the Sioux country were to be maintained rather
-steadily until near the end of the French regime.
-
-Meanwhile the Fox chief Kiala had succeeded in forming an alliance
-against the French between the Fox and their long-time allies the
-Kickapoo and Mascouten, and a series of other tribes including, in
-addition to the nearby Winnebago, such far distant tribes as the Abnaki
-and Seneca in the East, and the Dakota Sioux, Missouri, Iowa, and Oto in
-the West. Kiala hoped by this means to form a hostile circle about the
-French which would end in their complete defeat, a plan similar to that
-later attempted by Pontiac, and Tecumseh.
-
-The Marquis de Beauharnois, appointed governor of Canada to replace
-Vaudreuil, was determined that the raids on the Illinois and the French
-at Kaskaskia must be stopped. A French army once more was sent against
-the Fox. This time, headed by the Sieur de Lignery, the expedition
-numbered about four hundred French and approximately one thousand
-Indians. Warned by the Potawatomi, the Fox escaped from their villages
-and the army arrived at each to find it deserted. At Little Lake Butte
-des Morts the soldiers refused to go farther and Lignery had to be
-satisfied with the burning of the Fox and Winnebago villages and their
-stores of food.
-
-Despite the poor showing of Lignery’s expedition against the Fox,
-Kiala’s confederacy began to fall apart. Even their old allies, the
-Mascouten and Kickapoo, were persuaded by the French to turn against
-them, and the Sioux, closely watched by the French, no longer could give
-the Fox refuge in their country. Discouraged by these losses and
-defeated by the French under the capable Paul Marin, the Fox decided to
-flee to the Iroquois country. The Fox had long been secretly treating
-with the English and the Seneca, a member tribe of the Iroquois
-Confederacy and hoped to find a friendly reception in their country.
-
-Warned by the Mascouten and Kickapoo regarding the plans of the Fox,
-French officers from nearby posts hastily gathered together Indian
-allies and prepared to attack their fleeing enemies. The Fox, warned by
-their scouts of the force advancing against them, hastily erected a
-stockade and prepared to fight for their lives. They managed to fight
-off the besiegers for twenty-three days. Then on a stormy night they
-attempted flight but were quickly overtaken. Almost all of the band were
-either slaughtered or taken as slaves.
-
-After the few survivors of this disaster, seeking refuge in their
-village near the mouth of the Wisconsin River, were attacked by Detroit
-Indians, Kiala and three other chiefs offered to give themselves up,
-asking mercy for themselves and the fifty surviving warriors, supposedly
-all that were left of the entire tribe. De Villiers accepted the
-surrender and hastened to Montreal with his prisoners. De Villiers was
-ordered to return and kill off the rest of the Fox, taking only the
-women and children as prisoners. These were to be sold into slavery,
-like Kiala, who was fated to end his days as a slave in the West Indies.
-
-De Villiers returned to the Sauk village at Green Bay and demanded that
-the Sauk release the remnant of Fox survivors. The Sauk declined to
-release warriors with whom they had strong blood ties, and in an attempt
-to force an entrance, one of de Villiers’ sons was killed. The French
-quickly retaliated and in the exchange of fire de Villiers himself was
-killed by a twelve year old boy, who later became renowned as the Sauk
-Chief Blackbird. In the battle that followed, the Sieur Duplessis, the
-Sieur de Repentigny, and six other Frenchmen quickly met the same fate.
-The Sauk and Fox, too, lost heavily and fled to the vicinity of the
-present-day city of Menasha. The bloody battle that ensued there, it is
-said, accounts for the name Butte des Morts, or Hill of the Dead.
-
-As a result of this battle, the remainder of the Fox and the Sauk
-amalgamated and for all practical purposes became one tribe. They fled
-into Iowa where they erected a new fort, and gradually their ranks were
-swelled by Fox released from captivity by tribes now secretly in
-sympathy with the Sauk and Fox. One more expedition was sent against
-them, led by the Sieur de Noyelles, but although he followed the Sauk
-and Fox to the vicinity of the Des Moines River, they were so well
-entrenched that it was impossible to dislodge them and the expedition
-returned home without success. Eventually the Fox Wars were brought to
-an end through a policy of conciliation inaugurated in 1740 by Paul
-Marin, the new commandant at La Baye. Force had, in the long run, proven
-a failure in the campaign to completely subjugate the Fox.
-
-    [Illustration: SAUK AND FOX CHIEF (FROM GEO. CATLIN).]
-
-Throughout the first half of the Eighteenth Century the French, as we
-have seen, had been occupied with more or less constant warfare with the
-Fox. This warfare was the dominant note in the history of Wisconsin for
-this period, and in general, the role of other Wisconsin tribes during
-this era was that of serving as allies either of the French or of the
-Fox.
-
-The failure of Noyelles’ expedition against the Fox had helped to lower
-French prestige among the western tribes, and in 1736 the Sioux, angered
-by French friendship for the Chippewa and Cree, murdered a French
-officer, a priest, and a party of nineteen _voyageurs_. From this time
-on the Sioux could no longer be numbered among the allies of the French.
-By 1739, the Sioux-Chippewa War flamed into action and the Sioux were
-driven westward from the areas in Wisconsin now held by the Chippewa.
-
-Warfare between the English and the French in America again was to
-seriously affect the western tribes. This conflict, lasting from 1744 to
-1748, saw the fur trade with the western tribes reach extremely low
-proportions. Goods were very scarce due to the loss of French ships at
-the hands of British fighting vessels, and this failure to produce
-sufficient goods for the Indians, in addition to the already declining
-prestige of the French, encouraged some of the western tribes to seek
-more favorable relations with the British. Most of the Huron, under
-Chief Nicolas, began trading with the British, and many other western
-tribes exhibited the same inclination.
-
-The end of the current conflict with the English enabled the French to
-regain control of these tribes, but the Miami had moved into Ohio and
-established a large village called Pickawillany which became a fairly
-permanent camp for a number of English traders. Several expeditions
-against this village by the French failed. In 1752, however, Charles de
-Langlade, later famed as one of Wisconsin’s pioneer French settlers at
-Green Bay, who was part French and part Ottawa and who thus had
-tremendous influence among the Indians, led an expedition against
-Pickawillany which enjoyed remarkable success. The village was
-destroyed, the English traders captured, and the Miami returned to
-French allegiance.
-
-For a while France again enjoyed supremacy in the West. In 1755,
-Langlade and his contingent of Wisconsin and Mackinac braves
-participated in the famous battle culminating in “Braddock’s Defeat”.
-Chippewa, Menomini, Potawatomi, and Winnebago were said to be present at
-this engagement, and for many years thereafter trophies of this battle
-were to be found in Wisconsin Indian lodges. Despite this severe defeat
-of the British and American Colonials, the fortunes of the French were
-destined to take a turn for the worse. By 1761, Wisconsin was under
-British control, and in 1763, France formally surrendered the rest of
-her American possessions to England. She had ceded Louisiana to Spain
-the year before.
-
-Much had happened to Wisconsin’s Indians during this period, roughly
-from 1700 to 1760. The long and bloody Fox Wars had wrought hardship on
-the other tribes as well as on the Fox. The Sioux-Chippewa war had
-resulted in the Sioux being forced to relinquish most of their Wisconsin
-territory to the Chippewa. The Potawatomi Indians, who had fought under
-Langlade and participated in the killing of the unarmed English and
-Americans at Fort William Henry, were visited by a grim vengeance in the
-form of smallpox, contracted from the English soldiers and brought back
-by the tribes to their own country where it raged virtually unchecked.
-Great numbers of Indians lost their lives as a result.
-
-Other tribes left Wisconsin, some never to return. The Kickapoo and
-Mascouten were now in Illinois and Indiana. The Potawatomi were below
-Lake Michigan at St. Joseph. Thus many of the tribes here when the
-French traders and missionaries first arrived, no longer were in the
-Wisconsin scene. The tribes remaining here were destined to know new
-masters, the British, who were to control the fur trade in Wisconsin
-until the end of the War of 1812.
-
-    [Illustration: uncaptioned]
-
-    [Illustration: uncaptioned]
-
-
-
-
-                              CHAPTER FOUR
-                     THE PERIOD OF BRITISH CONTROL
-
-
-    [Illustration: PONTIAC.]
-
-British military control of Wisconsin was ushered in with the arrival of
-Ensign James Gorrell at Green Bay on the twelfth of October, 1761. With
-the aid of his two non-commissioned officers and fifteen privates,
-Gorrell set about to restore the old French fort which he renamed Fort
-Edward Augustus, in honor of the Duke of York. His next task was to win
-over the French _habitants_ about the fort and to gain the sympathy of
-the Indians in the area for the British cause. Apparently Gorrell was
-quite successful in both tasks.
-
-The French _habitants_ about the posts taken over by the British found
-it rather easy, for the most part, to transfer their allegiance to the
-British Crown since they were given the same privileges they enjoyed
-under French authority. Moreover, the British traders found it more
-advantageous to form partnerships with the more experienced French
-traders than to attempt to supersede them.
-
-British success with the Indians varied according to local conditions at
-the different forts. The British were not inclined to give presents as
-liberally as the French had done, and it was not British policy to
-fraternize or intermarry with their savage allies. The feeling of
-inferiority prompted by this treatment caused resentment among many
-tribes.
-
-    [Illustration: TRADERS PORTAGING (PAINTING BY T. LINDBERG).]
-
-In central Wisconsin, however, Gorrell’s diplomatic treatment of the
-Indians, added to the fact that the Sauk, Fox, Winnebago, and Menomini
-held a certain amount of resentment towards the French, swung these
-tribes over to the British. The promises of medals and commissions to
-the Indian chiefs, and the fact that the British trade goods were
-cheaper by far than those offered by the French, also tended to offset
-the more arrogant treatment of the tribes by the British.
-
-Gorrell’s success with the Indians of central Wisconsin was very
-important to Wisconsin history, for in 1763 the British were compelled
-to deal with a widespread Indian uprising largely led by Pontiac, chief
-of an Ottawa tribe from around the Straits of Mackinac, and one of the
-most able Indian leaders who ever lived. It was Pontiac’s plan to drive
-all the British and Colonials into the sea by means of an alliance of
-Indian tribes from the Alleghenies to the Mississippi River, and from
-the Ohio River to the Great Lakes. Pontiac’s chief claim to greatness
-lies in his remarkable feat of keeping a number of tribes together for a
-seven-month siege of Detroit, a unique event in Indian warfare.
-
-In addition to the attack on Detroit, concerted attacks were made on
-other British posts, of which a number fell, including the one at
-Mackinac. The failure of the Indians to take Forts Detroit, Pitt, and
-Niagara assured defeat for Pontiac’s campaign.
-
-On June 2, 1763, the Chippewa Indians took Fort Mackinac by a clever
-subterfuge. They faked a game of LaCrosse in front of the stockade and
-pretended accidentally to knock the ball into the fort. As the players
-rushed after the ball they seized guns from the watching Indian women
-who had concealed the weapons under their blankets. Most of the garrison
-was massacred before they had a chance to defend themselves.
-
-The loyalty to the British of Wisconsin’s Sauk, Fox, Winnebago, and
-Menomini Indians, and the timely arrival of a delegation of Sioux, sworn
-enemies of the Chippewa, probably saved Green Bay from a similar fate.
-
-Etherington hastily summoned Gorrell to his assistance. Gorrell
-abandoned Fort Edward Augustus at Green Bay and with the aid of 90 men
-of the Sauk, Fox, Menomini, and Winnebago tribes succeeded in obtaining
-the prisoners’ release from the Indians. The party then proceeded on to
-Montreal. British military occupation of Wisconsin was not resumed until
-the War of 1812.
-
-The Pontiac rebellion also served to bring the problems relating to the
-Indians home to the British Government and probably helped as an
-incentive to the issuance of the Proclamation of 1763. British subjects
-were now forbidden to purchase lands west of the Appalachian mountains
-without special license. It was hoped that this would prevent further
-encroachments by white settlers upon Indian lands. Trade with the
-Indians was to be permitted where licenses with the various colonial
-governments had been procured. Moreover, since Wisconsin was not
-included in the limits of any of the colonies, Wisconsin was left
-without any government other than that exercised by the military at
-Mackinac. This matter was not rectified until 1774 when the Quebec Act
-placed Wisconsin under the authority of the Governor of Canada.
-
-Mackinac became the seat of Wisconsin’s fur trade when the fort was
-rebuilt there in 1764. It was the only fort northwest of Detroit with
-government officers and Indian agents. By 1767, large numbers of traders
-were coming into the Wisconsin area. The Indians by this time were so
-dependent on the white trader that any interruption in the supply of
-goods flowing to the Indians worked severe hardships upon them.
-
-Wisconsin’s fur trade was still largely controlled by Montreal
-investors, mostly British. The actual traders, however, who contacted
-the Indians were still primarily Frenchmen, and this was to remain so
-throughout Wisconsin’s fur-trade period. Some competition in Wisconsin
-was given to the British by Spanish and French traders from Louisiana,
-which had become Spanish territory by the peace treaty in 1763. But the
-British managed to retain the bulk of the northwest fur trade with the
-Indians.
-
-Wisconsin’s Indians did not participate strongly in the American
-Revolution, but they did take part in some action. Charles de Langlade,
-half French, half Ottawa Indian leader who helped the French so
-efficiently during the French and Indian War, now espoused the British
-cause as ardently as he had the French. Langlade’s tremendous influence
-over the Indians was well known, and the British hoped to persuade him
-to obtain Wisconsin Indian help in fighting the Colonists. Langlade did
-succeed in leading Chippewa and Ottawa east to help Burgoyne in 1777,
-and in 1778 Wisconsin Indians went to Detroit to help General Hamilton.
-On the whole, however, Wisconsin’s Indians were too disinterested in the
-white man’s war to be enthusiastic about long trips east to aid the
-British.
-
-    [Illustration: MICHILLIMACKINAC, RESTORATION OF LAST FORT.]
-
-The American Revolutionary War hero, Major George Rogers Clark, whose
-capture of Vincennes and Kaskaskia, and the French villages of the
-Illinois country, provided the basis for United States claims to the
-Northwest Territory during the peace negotiations between the British
-and the United States, called together a great assembly of Indians at
-Cahokia, Illinois, in 1778, and succeeded in obtaining their pledges of
-allegiance to the United States. Many Wisconsin Indians attended the
-meeting, including the noted Blackbird, chief of a Milwaukee village
-composed of Ottawa, Chippewa, and Potawatomi. Blackbird apparently
-remained loyal to the American cause. Major Clark’s influence with the
-Wisconsin Indians tended to nullify the efforts of Charles Langlade, and
-other French officers in the service of England, to mobilize the
-Wisconsin Indians against the United States.
-
-In 1780, England utilized some Wisconsin Indians in an attack on the
-Spanish with whom she was then at war. Twelve hundred warriors were
-assembled at Prairie du Chien, and marched on St. Louis. Aided by the
-fact that they had advance knowledge of the enemy movements, that some
-of the tribesmen were more or less sympathetic with the American cause,
-and that the Indians showed no enthusiasm for attacking in the face of
-cannon fire, the Spanish and Americans succeeded in routing the
-attackers. After this action Wisconsin’s Indians were not involved in
-any important campaigns during the remaining years of the American
-Revolution.
-
-    [Illustration: CHIEF OSHKOSH (PORTRAIT BY S. M. BROOKS, COURTESY OF
-    THE WISCONSIN STATE HISTORICAL SOCIETY).]
-
-British control of Wisconsin’s Indians did not cease with the end of the
-Revolutionary War. Despite the British agreement in the Treaty of Paris,
-in 1783, to turn over their posts at Niagara, Detroit, and
-Michillimackinac, they continued to hold these forts until after the Jay
-Treaty of 1794. It was not until October, 1796, that Mackinac, the last
-post to be turned over by the British, was officially occupied by
-American troops. The British, however, still maintained their control
-over Wisconsin’s Indians through the fur trade now operating from posts
-just across the Canadian border.
-
-Within a month after the declaration of war against England by the
-American Congress in 1812, Mackinac was retaken by the British and
-Menomini and Winnebago Indians from Wisconsin. Among the Menomini were
-chiefs Tomah and Oshkosh, the latter destined to become a famous
-Menomini leader and friend of the Americans. Within another month Fort
-Dearborn (at Chicago) was attacked by Indians and most of its civilian
-and military inhabitants massacred. Menomini, Potawatomi, and Winnebago
-Indians from Wisconsin took part in this attack.
-
-    [Illustration: MENOMINI WARRIOR (FROM INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH
-    AMERICA).]
-
-The Americans were well aware of the strategic importance of Prairie du
-Chien in any attempt to control Wisconsin’s Indians. In June, 1814, Fort
-Shelby, probably the first building over which an American flag ever
-flew in Wisconsin, was erected at this strategic location. Lt. Perkins
-and sixty men were left in charge at the fort.
-
-The British quickly determined to drive out the Americans and succeeded
-in forcing Perkins to surrender the fort on July 19, 1814. About 500
-Indians, mostly Menomini, Chippewa, Winnebago, and Sioux, took part in
-the assault on the American post.
-
-The British renamed the post Fort McKay and managed to hold it against
-the Americans until, in agreement with the Treaty of Ghent, they finally
-abandoned the fort in May, 1815, and British control of Wisconsin’s
-Indians was finally at an end. The fate of Wisconsin’s Indians was now
-in the hands of the United States Government.
-
-
-
-
-                              CHAPTER FIVE
-                   THE PERIOD OF AMERICAN SETTLEMENT
-
-
-    [Illustration: uncaptioned]
-
-Wisconsin’s Indians, under the French and British had become
-increasingly dependent upon the white man. Without the invaders’ tools,
-weapons, utensils, and various other things which the Indian had come to
-depend upon, he found himself unable to supply himself with the
-necessities of life. The French and British traders, of course, were
-interested almost exclusively in procuring furs from the Indians, and as
-long as the aborigines could obtain furs for them, the traders would
-supply their needs.
-
-The Americans, however, were primarily interested in exploiting and
-settling the Indians’ land; fur trading was secondary. As they pushed
-into the new territory in ever increasing numbers, first to exploit the
-lead mines of southwestern Wisconsin, and then to farm the fertile soil,
-the Indian was doomed to be relentlessly pushed aside. He had lost his
-independence. Now he was to lose his land and the very means of his
-livelihood.
-
-The arrival of the Americans upon the Wisconsin scene pleased neither
-the Indians nor the French traders. Both relied to a great extent on the
-fur trade, and they knew that the clearing of land by the settlers would
-hasten the end of this activity. Many of the French, too, had Indian
-blood and considered their cause as one with the Indians. The United
-States government first showed poor judgment in its attempt to make
-these people conform to American standards. For example, the French and
-Indians were warned that common-law marriages between the two races
-would no longer be tolerated, but must be legalized by either a civil or
-church ceremony, and violators would face punishment. Both the French
-and Indians bitterly fought what seemed to them oppression, and
-eventually later decisions recognized the legality of common-law unions
-of earlier regimes.
-
-Wisconsin’s Indian agents were for a time under the authority of two
-superintendents of Indian affairs. Lewis Cass, Governor of Michigan
-Territory, of which Wisconsin was a part from 1818 to 1836, was in
-charge of the Indian agent at Green Bay. The agent at Prairie du Chien
-worked under the direction of William Clark who, as Superintendent of
-St. Louis from 1807 to 1838, had authority to the source of the
-Mississippi River. These agents distributed annuities and payments due
-the Indians and attempted to keep white settlers from squatting on
-Indian land. The settlers, however, rudely took over Indian land and, in
-the inevitable conflict that followed, the militia and army would be
-called out to protect the whites. In the ensuing “peace treaty” the
-Indians would be forced to cede their lands and move westward.
-
-    [Illustration: INVADING SETTLERS (PAINTING BY A. O. TIEMANN).]
-
-Wisconsin’s early territorial period was also the era of the frontier
-fort manned by the regular U. S. Army. Since the pay for the ordinary
-soldier was very small, the army attracted men who could not succeed
-elsewhere, or immigrants who wished to desert at the first opportunity
-and travel westward. The officers, however, were of different character
-entirely. Educated at West Point, they were by far the most educated and
-cultured men in the frontier settlements. With their wives, they
-represented the cream of Wisconsin society of this period.
-
-    [Illustration: THE ENFORCING OF LEGAL MARRIAGE (PAINTING BY A. O.
-    TIEMANN).]
-
-Wisconsin had three main forts along the Fox-Wisconsin waterway. Fort
-Howard was erected at Green Bay in 1816, the same year that Fort
-Crawford was established at Prairie du Chien. Fort Winnebago was built
-at what is now Portage in 1828, shortly after the Red Bird rebellion.
-The United States army did its best to maintain peace between the
-Indians and whites, and to protect the Indians from unlicensed traders,
-and sometimes legitimate ones, who illegally sold whiskey to them. In
-their efforts in this direction they often found themselves in conflict
-with civil authorities who sometimes protected the traders apprehended
-in such violations.
-
-The fur trade continued in Wisconsin while the population was primarily
-Indian, but by 1835 it was no longer of any significance in this area.
-Following the War of 1812, the United States Government set up fur trade
-“factories” at Prairie du Chien and Green Bay, hoping by this means to
-control some of the evils, one of the most vicious of which was the
-peddling of whiskey to the Indians. The whiskey was usually diluted with
-water, and adulterants such as turpentine, or even corrosive acids,
-added to restore the “bite.”
-
-The government entry into the fur trade was unsuccessful. The factors,
-as the proprietors of the trade “factories” were called, lacked
-experience in dealing with the Indians. They did not give credit
-advancements to them as did the other traders, and the American Fur
-Company applied pressure on Congress to end this system. Gradually this
-Company acquired the fur trade monopoly in this area; Solomon Juneau,
-Milwaukee’s famous founder, was one of the American Fur Company’s agents
-in what is now the State of Wisconsin. The gradual decadence of the fur
-trade, of course, increased the hardships of Wisconsin tribes.
-
-    [Illustration: OLD FORT WINNEBAGO (COURTESY OF THE WISCONSIN STATE
-    HISTORICAL SOCIETY).]
-
-    [Illustration: THE SECOND OR STONE FORT CRAWFORD (COURTESY OF THE
-    WISCONSIN STATE HISTORICAL SOCIETY).]
-
-    [Illustration: THE FIRST OR LOG FORT CRAWFORD (COURTESY OF THE
-    WISCONSIN STATE HISTORICAL SOCIETY).]
-
-As settlers began encroaching on the Indians’ land, conflicts were
-inevitable. John C. Calhoun, the Secretary of War in 1825, sponsored a
-plan for the removal of eastern tribes across the Mississippi to the
-western plains. It was believed that by furnishing them with equipment
-for hunting and farming they could survive readily and would be safe
-from further pressure by white homesteaders. No one realized at this
-time how soon these western lands would be overrun by the relentless
-pressure of the American pioneer. The land purchased from the Indians
-was to be made available to American settlers. The lands of certain
-tribes of Wisconsin Indians were to be included in this overall plan.
-
-    [Illustration: SOLOMON JUNEAU, AGED 60.]
-
-Unfortunately for the smooth functioning of this operation, the Indians
-did not care to leave the land on which they and their ancestors had
-hunted for so long a time, and travel to new hunting grounds. In many
-instances they were not removed without a show of force, sometimes with
-considerable blood being shed by both whites and Indians.
-
-In 1825, Lewis Cass and William Clark held a conference of Wisconsin
-tribes at Prairie du Chien. They hoped to establish definite boundaries
-for the holdings of the different tribes in order to eliminate friction
-between them. This would also facilitate future land purchases from the
-Indians. Roughly these boundaries were recognized: the southwest and
-southeast corners of Wisconsin were allotted to the southern Chippewa,
-Ottawa, and Potawatomi; the Winnebago held the remainder of southern
-Wisconsin; the Menomini kept the northeast part of the state from the
-Milwaukee River up; and the Chippewa held all of northern Wisconsin west
-of the Menomini. These Indian territories were not to be respected for
-very long by white squatters, however, and the Winnebago were to be
-among the first to encounter trouble from this source.
-
-The fact that southwestern Wisconsin was very rich in lead was
-discovered quite early in the French regime, and it is probable that the
-French taught the Indians how to mine and smelt the ore. By 1811, the
-Sauk and Fox are reported to have devoted almost all their attention to
-lead mining, only hunting to supply themselves with meat. They exchanged
-the metal with Canadian traders for the goods they needed. Some early
-American traders who attempted to get in on this trade were killed by
-the Indians, who feared that once the Americans learned of the value of
-the lead deposits their cupidity would be aroused and the Indians would
-lose their land. Later events were to prove the excellence of this
-reasoning.
-
-Aroused by the rich deposits, Cornish miners, particularly, began to
-arrive in force by 1827. The Indians were rudely expelled from their
-diggings and their mines appropriated by armed whites. In the same year,
-Red Bird, a young Winnebago chief, killed two settlers and scalped a
-baby who, interestingly enough, survived to become the mother of a large
-family and live to a ripe old age. Following this attack Red Bird and
-his warriors, about forty in number, celebrated the scalp taking with a
-drunken carousal at the mouth of the Bad Axe River, about forty miles
-north of Prairie du Chien. Two keelboats on their way from Fort Snelling
-to St. Louis were fired upon by the drunken Winnebago braves, and after
-a battle of about three hours, the keelboats escaped with a loss of four
-men dead and several wounded. The Indians were reported to have suffered
-losses of seven dead and fourteen wounded.
-
-    [Illustration: JUNEAU’S TRADING POST, MILWAUKEE (PAINTING BY A. O.
-    TIEMANN).]
-
-    [Illustration: MENOMINI INDIANS OF THE EARLY 19TH CENTURY (PORTRAIT
-    BY S. M. BROOKS).]
-
-    [Illustration: THE PIONEERS (PAINTING BY A. O. TIEMANN).]
-
-United States troops rapidly arrived at the scene, and after fleeing up
-the Wisconsin River, Red Bird found himself and his tribe surrounded.
-The Americans agreed to forget the matter of the keelboats providing the
-murderers of the settlers would give themselves up for trial. On Sept.
-3, 1827, Red Bird, rather than engage his people in a hopeless war
-against the whites, voluntarily surrendered to Major Whistler at
-Portage. Arrangements were made for the Americans to use the lead mines
-until a treaty could be arranged, and in July, 1829, another Grand
-Council was held at Prairie du Chien. The Winnebago, southern
-Potawatomi, Chippewa, and Ottawa agreed to cede their land. The United
-States Government now owned the rich lead mining country of southwestern
-Wisconsin.
-
-    [Illustration: WINNEBAGO CHIEF (PORTRAIT BY S. M. BROOKS).]
-
-During this period of American settlement, beginning as early as 1821
-and lasting through 1834, a migration of Indians from New York occurred
-which was to add some permanent residents to Wisconsin’s Indian
-population. The Oneida and Munsee settled near Green Bay, and the
-Stockbridge and Brotherton Indians settled along the eastern shore of
-Lake Winnebago. The Menomini ceded 500,000 acres of their land to these
-tribes in 1831.
-
-Meanwhile the stage had been set for what was to become the most famous,
-and also, perhaps, the most infamous Indian and white conflict in the
-Wisconsin area. This was the so-called Black Hawk War, although it was
-more of a systematic extermination of Indians by whites, hardly
-deserving the term “war.”
-
-Black Hawk was leader of the “British band” of the Sauk with a large
-village, said to number about 500 families, situated near the mouth of
-the Rock River in Illinois. His people were known as the “British band”
-because of their known sympathies with the English, and also since Black
-Hawk and his warriors had fought with Tecumseh and the British against
-the Americans in the War of 1812.
-
-White settlers began squatting on Black Hawk’s land as early as 1823,
-despite the fact that according to treaty the Indians were not required
-to give up their land until land offices had been set up, an event which
-had not occurred. The Indians’ cornfields were fenced in, wigwams were
-burned, and the women mistreated. Black Hawk went to the British agent
-in Canada, near Detroit. He was advised that the treaties of 1804 and
-1816 were being violated and that he rightfully could resist the
-settlers and expect the backing of the United States Government. Black
-Hawk returned and warned the settlers that they would be attacked unless
-they left at once.
-
-    [Illustration: I-TWA-KU-AM, MOHICAN LEADER (PORTRAIT BY HAMLIN).]
-
-The alarmed settlers sought help from the Illinois militia which was
-rapidly called to arms in 1831. This show of force compelled Black Hawk
-to retire to the west side of the Mississippi River with his people, and
-promise not to return without government permission. Chief Keokuk, head
-of the combined Sauk and Fox tribes, had already taken all of his
-people, except the rebellious Black Hawk and his band, into what is now
-Iowa in 1830, realizing the futility of fighting the tremendously
-superior white forces.
-
-    [Illustration: BLACK HAWK (FROM INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA).]
-
-On April 6, 1832, Black Hawk crossed back into Illinois with
-approximately 1000 of his people, about 400 of whom were warriors. He
-had been promised aid by emissaries of the Potawatomi, Winnebago,
-Ottawa, and Chippewa, but before a month had passed Black Hawk realized
-he would get little aid either from these tribes or from the British in
-a war against the settlers. The militia had been called out again in the
-meantime, and Black Hawk now only desired to make peace and get his
-people back to Iowa. He sent messengers under a white flag to Major
-Stillman who was encamped nearby with about 400 volunteers. The white
-flag was ignored, and three of the Indians were killed. Black Hawk had
-only forty warriors with him at the time, but angered by this treachery,
-he attacked Stillman’s men in what he himself called a “suicide charge.”
-
-The tremendously superior force of volunteers, upon seeing Black Hawk’s
-charging braves, fled frantically with the first volley fired by the
-Indians. As they fled they spread the alarm over most of northern
-Illinois, and maintained that Black Hawk had ambushed them with 2000
-warriors. Following this event Black Hawk removed his women and children
-to the Lake Koshkonong area in Wisconsin, so that they could forage for
-desperately needed food and be relatively safe from attack. Black Hawk
-and his warriors spent the following two months attacking settlements
-along the Wisconsin-Illinois frontier. Two hundred whites and possibly
-as many Indians were killed in these border skirmishes.
-
-Black Hawk soon found himself pursued by a greatly superior force of
-militia and regular U. S. Army troops. He and his band fled through the
-Madison, Wisconsin, area and were overtaken attempting to cross the
-Wisconsin River, where the Battle of Wisconsin Heights took place on
-July 21, 1832. Black Hawk’s braves succeeded in holding back the
-Americans while the tribe crossed the river, and the following morning
-one of his men made a surrender speech in the Winnebago language. No one
-in the American camp understood the plea for surrender terms, since the
-Winnebago followers of the Americans were not in their camp at the time.
-The Indians were again compelled to flee.
-
-Black Hawk then divided his people into two groups, one of which
-obtained rafts and canoes from friendly Winnebago, and proceeded down
-the Wisconsin River, hoping to reach the Mississippi River and cross
-back to Iowa. Soldiers from Prairie du Chien captured or shot most of
-them. Some others were hunted down in the woods by Menomini Indians led
-by white officers. As the rest of Black Hawk’s band fled overland toward
-the Mississippi River, they were pursued by the combined forces of
-General Atkinson, General Henry, and Major Dodd, a total force of some
-four thousand men.
-
-When Black Hawk’s band arrived at the Mississippi River, they were met
-by the steamboat “Warrior.” Black Hawk again attempted to surrender, but
-the “Warrior’s” captain preferred to believe this a trick and opened
-fire on the Indians. The infantry then arrived and attacked the Indians
-from the rear. Men, women, and children were forced into the river at
-bayonet point. Many were drowned as they attempted to swim the river,
-and others were picked off by American sharpshooters from the shore.
-This was the massacre of the Bad Axe River, which lasted three hours,
-and in which 150 Indians were killed and as many more drowned. A band of
-Sioux, brought there for the purpose by General Atkinson, set upon the
-300 Indians who reached the other bank and killed about half of them.
-
-Only about 150 survivors remained of the thousand Indians who had
-crossed with Black Hawk into Illinois in April only four months before.
-
-Black Hawk fled to the Winnebago, who later surrendered him to the
-Americans. He was then taken on a tour through the eastern states to
-impress him with the power of the American Government, and released in
-June, 1833. His tribe was given a small reservation in Iowa on the Des
-Moines River, where he died October 3, 1838. The treatment of Black Hawk
-and his people in the so-called “Black Hawk War” will always remain a
-blot on American history and a discredit to the Government.
-
-From the time of the “Black Hawk War” on, Wisconsin Indians were rapidly
-deprived of their land. In September, 1832, the Winnebago ceded the rest
-of their holdings south and east of the Fox and Wisconsin Rivers. Upon
-promise of payment of about one million dollars to the Indians and their
-creditors, the southern Chippewa, Ottawa, and Potawatomi, in a treaty at
-Chicago, Illinois, turned over their holdings in southern Wisconsin in
-1833. The Menomini ceded almost four million acres between Green Bay and
-the Wolf River to the United States Government in 1836. In 1838, the
-Oneida ceded most of their land in this same area to the United States.
-The Chippewa, Sioux, and Winnebago, in three separate treaties, ceded
-the western half of Wisconsin, above the Wisconsin River, in 1837. With
-the final cession of some small holdings of the Menomini in the east
-central part of the state, in 1848, the United States Government now had
-possession of all Indian land in Wisconsin.
-
-The Indians, in most cases, had western lands assigned to them. The
-United States army forcibly removed many Winnebago to Nebraska, some of
-whom remain there today. Other Winnebago, homesick for Wisconsin and
-afraid of the Sioux, gradually wandered back to Wisconsin where they
-still are. In 1854 the Menomini were placed on a reservation on the
-Upper Wolf River. Shortly after this, they sold two townships to the
-Stockbridge Indians. In 1854, also, three large reservations: Lac Court
-Oreilles, Lac du Flambeau, and Bad River, were assigned to the Chippewa.
-
-    [Illustration: SURRENDER OF BLACK HAWK (MURAL BY CAL PETERS, VILLA
-    LOUIS, COURTESY OF THE WISCONSIN STATE HISTORICAL SOCIETY).]
-
-
-
-
-                              CHAPTER SIX
-                       WISCONSIN’S INDIANS TODAY
-
-
-    [Illustration: MIXED COSTUME IN FOX CEREMONIAL DANCE.]
-
-In considering the story of those Indians who were important in the
-history of our state, we have seen that from time to time some tribes
-have left the Wisconsin scene. We might well wonder what has been their
-final fate and where they may be found today. As we remember the United
-States Government removal plan, we are not too surprised to find many of
-them located at reservations and agencies in our western United States.
-
-The Sauk and Fox are at agencies in Iowa, Kansas, and Oklahoma. The Sauk
-and Fox reservation in Iowa has an Indian population of 473, and there
-are 129 Sauk and Fox at the Kansas reservation and an additional 910 at
-the Sauk and Fox reservation at the Shawnee agency in Oklahoma.
-
-The Kickapoo have small reservations in Oklahoma and Kansas. The Indian
-population at the Kickapoo reservation in Oklahoma numbers 269; and at
-the Kickapoo reservation in Kansas, 343. In addition, there are some 350
-Kickapoo living in the state of Coahuila, Mexico, having split off from
-the Oklahoma band in 1852. Population figures given here for the Sauk,
-Fox, and Kickapoo are from the estimates of the Office of Indian Affairs
-of the United States Department of the Interior for the year 1940.
-
-The present whereabouts of the Mascoutens presents somewhat of a
-mystery. Most students of the subject at present believe that members of
-the Prairie Band of the Potawatomi, who also call themselves the
-Mascoutens, are the descendents of that tribe, which is so often
-referred to in early Wisconsin history. The early Mascoutens were
-closely related to the Sauk, Fox, and Kickapoo, according to early
-reports, in language and culture, and usually were the political allies
-of these tribes as well. Some bands of the Prairie Potawatomi are found
-associated with the Kickapoo in Oklahoma and Kansas, and also in Mexico.
-
-As for the Santee Sioux, who were in northern Wisconsin even before the
-arrival of the white man, it is again difficult to give accurate present
-population figures. The term Santee originally designated one band of
-Indians, but eventually came to mean all of the forest bands of the
-Sioux, of whom, in all probability, many never resided in Wisconsin.
-There are, according to the 1940 estimate, 1,197 Sioux living on the
-Santee reservation in Nebraska, and there are 585 Sioux in Minnesota who
-would be included in the Santee division. If we were to include all
-tribes generally classed as Santee Sioux today, expressed in round
-numbers, 5,000 would probably be a conservative estimate. However, many
-of these are not derived from those bands formerly living in Wisconsin.
-
-Returning to the Wisconsin scene today, we learn from the 1940 estimates
-of the Office of Indian Affairs that the present Indian population in
-Wisconsin is 13,678. Of this total, 5,605 are Chippewa, residing at the
-Bad River, Lac Court Oreilles, Lac du Flambeau, and Red Cliff
-reservations. Also included in this figure are the Mole Lake Chippewa
-and the St. Croix band.
-
-    [Illustration: FOX INDIAN, IOWA.]
-
-    [Illustration: THE CHIPPEWA STILL PREPARE BUCK-SKIN.]
-
-Included in Wisconsin’s present Indian population are also 2,454
-Menomini, located at their reservation in Shawano County; 460
-Stockbridge and Munses, on their reservation adjoining that of the
-Menomini; 1,700 Oneida, scattered around the village of Oneida, 10 miles
-southwest of Green Bay; 1,498 Winnebago, on public domain land
-allotments, primarily in Jackson, Wood, and Shawano counties; and 310
-Potawatomi, in Forest County. While only a small number of Potawatomi
-have returned to this state since their removal, over half of the
-Winnebago are now back in their Wisconsin homeland. In addition to the
-Winnebago who returned to Wisconsin after their removal by the United
-States Army, 1,268 remained at their reservation in Nebraska. Thus of
-this reportedly numerous and powerful tribe first encountered by the
-French when Nicolet landed near Green Bay, in 1634, about 2,766 still
-survive.
-
-    [Illustration: A CHARACTERISTIC WISCONSIN ONEIDA.]
-
-    [Illustration: ELDERLY ONEIDA WOMAN.]
-
-    [Illustration: DECORAH HENRY THUNDER, WISCONSIN WINNEBAGO.]
-
-    [Illustration: THE CRADLE-BOARD BARELY SURVIVED AMONG THE WISCONSIN
-    CHIPPEWA.]
-
-    [Illustration: YOUNG POTAWATOMI FACES A DIFFICULT WORLD.]
-
-The future status of Wisconsin’s Indians presents a considerable problem
-to the United States Government. Their life on reservations is hardly an
-easy one for the majority. Even among the Menomini, whose tribal
-lumbering industry makes them economically the most prosperous in the
-state, the standard of living is not high. Finding a means whereby they
-can earn a decent living is probably the greatest difficulty. For the
-most part they suffer for lack of adequate clothing and food,
-particularly during the winter season. To alleviate the situation, a
-considerable number have migrated to the cities to obtain employment,
-and there are an estimated one thousand Indians living in Milwaukee, for
-example, of which the largest group is Oneida.
-
-So far no satisfactory solution to the problem has been reached,
-although some sincere attempts have been made in that direction. The
-hope, of course, is that eventually the Indians will be assimilated by
-the rest of our population and be able to live normal lives as United
-States citizens. Without intelligently directed help this process will
-take a long time, and during that period the Indians will continue to
-suffer.
-
-The Wisconsin Indians of today are acculturated to a greater or lesser
-degree: among the Chippewa, Potawatomi, Menomini, and Winnebago a
-considerable amount of the traditional culture survives; among the
-Stockbridge and Oneida nearly all of the old culture is lost. It is to
-be hoped that all of the colorful pattern of Indian culture and
-tradition is not lost in the process of assimilation.
-
-One thing is certain, the Indians of Wisconsin, along with most of those
-of the entire United States, have suffered much at the hands of the
-white man. They deserve constructive help now toward accomplishing the
-ultimate adjustment to the final demands made on them by the white man’s
-civilization.
-
-    [Illustration: MODERN POTAWATOMI.]
-
-    [Illustration: YOUNG FOLKS IN ANCIENT DRESS.]
-
-    [Illustration: POTAWATOMI TAR-PAPERED SHACK.]
-
-    [Illustration: uncaptioned]
-
-    [Illustration: CABIN TYPE OF ONEIDA HOUSE.]
-
-    [Illustration: BETTER TYPE OF ONEIDA HOUSE.]
-
-    [Illustration: MENOMINI SAWMILL AT NEOPIT.]
-
-
-LOCATION OF INDIAN TRIBES
-
-    [Illustration: 1634]
-
-  SANTEE SIOUX
-  MENOMINI
-  WINNEBAGO
-
-    [Illustration: 1634-1673]
-
-  OTTOWA
-  CHIPPEWA
-  SANTEE SIOUX
-  HURON
-  MENOMINI
-  SAUK
-  FOX
-  WINNEBAGO
-  POTAWATOMI
-  MASCOUTEN
-  MIAMI
-  KICKAPOO
-  ILLINOIS
-
-    [Illustration: 1700-1760]
-
-  CHIPPEWA
-  SANTEE SIOUX
-  MENOMINI
-  SAUK
-  FOX
-  WINNEBAGO
-  POTAWATOMI
-  KICKAPOO
-
-    [Illustration: TODAY]
-
-    RED CLIFF RES.
-    LA POINTE RES.
-  CHIPPEWA
-    LAC DU FLAMBEAU RES.
-  POTAWATOMI
-  ST. CROIX BAND
-    LAC COURT OREILLES RES.
-  MENOMINI
-    STOCKBRIDGE
-  WINNEBAGO
-    ONEIDA
-
-
-POPULAR MILWAUKEE PUBLIC MUSEUM PUBLICATIONS
-
-    [Illustration: PREHISTORIC INDIANS OF WISCONSIN]
-
-A well illustrated summary of what is known about the Indians of
-Wisconsin previous to the coming of the white man, identifying such
-cultural divisions as the Old Copper, Woodland, Hopewellian, Upper
-Mississippi, and Middle Mississippi, and discussing their products, ways
-of living, history, and health. This instructive booklet will be of
-interest to readers of all ages.
-                                                                60 cents
-
-    [Illustration: FOR BEAUTY’S SAKE]
-
-The Indians of the Americas employed a wide variety of beauty aids
-involving tatooing, nose rings, ear plugs, lip quills, skull deforming,
-lip ornamentation, hair styles, nose feathers, and head shaving, all
-illustrated in this popularly treated booklet.
-                                                                15 cents
-
-    [Illustration: MASKS OF NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS]
-
-Contains seventeen illustrations of masks, including illustrations of
-the Iroquois false-face, Hopi Katchina, Apache Devil Dance and other
-masks, with text telling how they were made and used.
-                                                                15 cents
-
-    [Illustration: INDIAN CRADLES]
-
-People have long been interested in how the Indians cared for and
-protected their babies. This entertaining and instructive booklet
-explains the use and construction of cradles made by the Kwakiutl, Hopi,
-Pomo, Chippewa, Chinook, Paiute, and Sioux Indians. Six different
-cradles are illustrated showing a variety of materials and styles,
-including the head-deforming cradle board.
-                                                                15 cents
-
-    [Illustration: SHRUNKEN HEADS]
-
-How the Jivaro Indians of Eastern Ecuador shrunk and preserved human
-heads has been a fascinating story which is told in detail in this
-generously illustrated, popular booklet.
-                                                                15 cents
-
-    [Illustration: WEST AFRICAN ART]
-
-A profusely illustrated eighty-four page booklet with popular and
-reference value, covering such areas as the British Cameroons, Nigeria,
-French Guinea, and the Gold and Ivory coasts.
-                                                                75 cents
-
-
-
-
-                          Transcriber’s Notes
-
-
-—Silently corrected a few typos.
-
-—Retained publication information from the printed edition: this eBook
-  is public-domain in the country of publication.
-
-—In the text versions only, text in italics is delimited by
-  _underscores_.
-
-
-
-*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE INDIANS IN WISCONSIN'S
-HISTORY ***
-
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-be renamed.
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-
-<div style='text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; font-weight:bold'>The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Indians in Wisconsin's History, by John M. Douglass</div>
-
-<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
-most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
-whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
-of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online
-at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you
-are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the
-country where you are located before using this eBook.
-</div>
-
-<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: The Indians in Wisconsin's History</div>
-
-<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: John M. Douglass</div>
-
-<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: June 4, 2021 [eBook #65504]</div>
-
-<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</div>
-
-<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Character set encoding: UTF-8</div>
-
-<div style='display:block; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Produced by: Stephen Hutcheson and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net</div>
-
-<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE INDIANS IN WISCONSIN'S HISTORY ***</div>
-<div id="cover" class="img">
-<img id="coverpage" src="images/cover.jpg" alt="The Indians in Wisconsin&rsquo;s History" width="800" height="1220" />
-</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig1">
-<img src="images/p02.jpg" alt="" width="943" height="800" />
-<p class="pcap">INDIAN YOUTH AT &ldquo;SCHOOL&rdquo; (PAINTING BY A. O. TIEMANN).</p>
-</div>
-<div class="box">
-<h1><span class="rubric">THE INDIANS</span>
-<br /><span class="smaller">IN WISCONSIN&rsquo;S HISTORY</span></h1>
-<p class="center"><b>BY JOHN M. DOUGLASS</b></p>
-<p><span class="smaller">The author, a member of the History Division of the Milwaukee
-Public Museum, died January 26, 1951, shortly after completing
-the manuscript of this handbook.</span></p>
-<div class="img">
-<img src="images/head.jpg" id="ncfig1" alt="Indian head" width="100" height="149" />
-</div>
-<p class="center">POPULAR SCIENCE HANDBOOK SERIES <span class="hst">NO. 6</span></p>
-<p class="center smaller">DESIGNED AND PRINTED AT
-<br />THE MILWAUKEE PUBLIC MUSEUM</p>
-<p class="center smaller">PUBLISHED BY ORDER OF
-<br />THE BOARD OF TRUSTEES
-<br />MAY 1954</p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_1">1</div>
-<h2 id="c1"><span class="small">CHAPTER ONE</span>
-<br />WISCONSIN&rsquo;S INDIANS BEFORE THE COMING OF THE WHITE MAN</h2>
-<div class="img" id="fig2">
-<img src="images/p03.jpg" alt="" width="1114" height="800" />
-<p class="pcap">ROACH HEADDRESS (MUSEUM EXHIBIT).</p>
-</div>
-<p>It is difficult now to realize that Wisconsin, famed as a dairy
-state and rich in farm land and thriving communities, was once a
-great wilderness. Before the land was cleared for the farmer&rsquo;s plow
-and with its dense forests yet to hear the lumberjack&rsquo;s axe, the thick
-timberland of the north and even the rolling prairies of the central and
-southern portions of our state teemed with a great variety of wild life,
-including animals no longer occurring in Wisconsin, such as the woodland
-caribou, moose, elk, and buffalo or bison, as well as the more familiar
-deer, bear, and many smaller varieties.</p>
-<p>Before the arrival of the Europeans, this Wisconsin wilderness was the
-home of Indians who were wonderfully adapted to a life in the forests.
-They depended almost entirely on hunting and the gathering of natural
-products for their food, shelter, clothing, tools, and weapons, although
-most of them raised some garden crops such as corn, squash, beans, and
-possibly tobacco.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_2">2</div>
-<p>Let&rsquo;s pretend that we can travel backwards in time about 350 years
-and visit a typical Indian family of that period. As we arrive on the
-scene the tribe is preparing to set up a new camp. The women are busy
-unpacking their household gear, including reed mats used to cover the
-outer sides of the wigwam. The women themselves have carried the loads
-during the journey. This is not done because of any laziness on the part
-of the men, a common error of white observers, but simply because the
-men need their hands free to ward off a sudden enemy attack, or to kill
-any game they might chance upon during the journey.</p>
-<p>While the women unpack, the men enter the woods to cut poles for
-the framework of the wigwams, and collect birch bark for the roofs. After
-the poles are set into the ground to make an oval enclosure, they are bent
-and tied together at the top to form a rounded roof. The women then tie
-on the reed mats, and roof the hut with the rolls of bark. This is the
-typical Wisconsin Indian winter lodge. Although it is the latter part of
-March, the weather is still too cold to live comfortably in a summer lodge.</p>
-<p>If we lift the bearskin covering the entrance and step into the lodge,
-we may see the simple furnishings and personal possessions of the family
-we are going to visit. A hole in the middle of the roof serves to carry off
-the smoke from the fire burning in the center of the floor. This fire serves
-the double purpose of heating the lodge and cooking the family meals.
-We find the hut almost too smoky to endure, accustomed as we are to our
-modern homes, but our Indian friends seem quite comfortable.</p>
-<p>Since our Indian family is fairly large, including the father&rsquo;s parents
-as well as the mother, father, two boys, and two girls, the wigwam is proportionately
-large in order to accommodate all of them.</p>
-<p>We look about the inside of the lodge and see the sleeping mats and
-furs. The family&rsquo;s spare clothing, breechclouts, shirts, leggings, and moccasins
-of tanned deerskin for the men, and skirts, blouses, and moccasins
-for the women, are in one corner. The garments are beautifully decorated
-with designs grandma embroidered on them with dyed porcupine quills.
-The work is quite fine and it takes many hours to do a small portion of the
-embroidery. Father is especially fond of his headdress, a roach made of
-deer and porcupine hair, and an eagle feather which indicates that he
-has killed an enemy in battle.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig3">
-<img src="images/p03a.jpg" alt="" width="1200" height="515" />
-<p class="pcap">WIGWAMS, OR WINTER LODGES.</p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_3">3</div>
-<p>As we step outside again and look about, we can see why this particular
-spot has been chosen as the campsite. A small lake and several springs
-are only a short distance away, but the most important reason for camping
-here at this season is a large grove of sugar maple trees immediately
-to one side of the camp. March is the proper time to tap the trees for
-their sap.</p>
-<p>The next two or three weeks are spent tapping the trees, and boiling
-the sap down until maple syrup, and finally only maple sugar is left.
-This sugar keeps indefinitely and provides a very nourishing as well as a
-delicious source of food for the entire family. The children are especially
-fond of it.</p>
-<p>It is not a case of all work and no play during this period, for the
-children, Morning Star, White Fawn, Blackbird, and Little Otter, play
-games when their tasks are finished, and gambling games are popular with
-the men and women. Here we see mother and some neighbor women
-playing the cup and pin game. Each player in turn tosses into the air
-small cone-shaped cups made of antler tips or bear-toe bones, and tries
-to catch one or more on a bone pin. The men are enthusiastic gamblers,
-too, using marked sticks which are thrown and scored somewhat like our
-own familiar dice games.</p>
-<p>When the sugar making is finished, the tribe breaks camp and travels
-by birch-bark canoe to a new location. The canoes are wonderfully light
-boats and can be paddled very swiftly. Their light weight makes them
-relatively easy to carry or portage from one stream to another. Our canoe
-has eyes painted on the bow and stern. The father explains that these eyes
-enable the canoe to &ldquo;see where to go.&rdquo;</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig4">
-<img src="images/p04.jpg" alt="" width="1010" height="800" />
-<p class="pcap">INDIAN CHILDREN AT PLAY (PAINTING BY A. O. TIEMANN).</p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_4">4</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig5">
-<img src="images/p04a.jpg" alt="" width="1200" height="604" />
-<p class="pcap">BIRCH-BARK CANOE.</p>
-</div>
-<p>At the new summer camp we watch our friends build summer lodges.
-These are rectangular in shape with inverted-V-shaped roofs much like
-our own houses. The entire lodge is covered with strips of elm or
-other bark.</p>
-<p>As is often the case, the new campsite is near a river, and springs nearby
-furnish cool, pure drinking water. There are also open clearings closeby
-which will be utilized for gardening. The next few weeks, however, will
-be used for making necessary utensils and equipment needed by the tribe.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig6">
-<img src="images/p04b.jpg" alt="" width="1110" height="800" />
-<p class="pcap">SUMMER LODGE.</p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_5">5</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig7">
-<img src="images/p05.jpg" alt="" width="904" height="800" />
-<p class="pcap">ANCIENT WOODLAND POTTERY VESSEL.</p>
-</div>
-<p>One day we are interested observers of pottery making. Grandma goes
-to a clay bed near the river and selects suitable materials including some
-coarse sand for tempering the pottery paste, which is made of both clay
-and sand. The paste is worked into long cylinders which are finally coiled
-about into the desired shape. After the vessel has assumed final shape
-it is paddled with a cord-wrapped tool and allowed to air-dry for several
-days, and finally baked in a large outdoor fire. The finished pot can be
-used to boil water or cook food, and has the advantage of being easily
-replaced in case of breakage.</p>
-<p>May soon arrives, and as this is the time to plant corn, our Indian
-family selects a suitable clearing for their garden. The men burn out
-the underbrush and the women and girls prepare for the planting itself.
-Grandma informs us that it is always best to soak the grains in water
-several days before seeding. After the seeds have been properly softened,
-the women and girls dig holes in the ground, place six or seven grains
-of corn in each hole, and then heap up the dirt over the seeds in a little
-hillock. Squash and beans are planted in the clearing, too.</p>
-<p>One day we are told that the tribe is going to have a game drive,
-since considerable meat is needed by the village. We go along into the
-forest and watch the men chop down trees with their stone axes. These
-are all felled in one direction, the cut incomplete so that the tree is still
-attached to the stump, and in two rows so as to leave a gradually narrowing
-corridor more than a mile long. The deer are then driven towards the
-corridor where men stationed with bows are able to shoot them easily as
-they approach the narrow opening between the barriers.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_6">6</div>
-<p>A number of the animals are killed in this way and taken back to the
-village where their flesh can be preserved by being cut into strips and
-smoke-dried. We are all too hungry, however, to wait until we return
-to the village before eating. The chief says we can have some boiled
-venison stew. We are puzzled at this, for no utensils have been brought
-along, but we soon learn how resourceful our Indian friends are.</p>
-<p>One of the men obtains some edible roots; another cuts the stomachs
-from several of the deer. Each one of the stomachs is cleaned and tied
-to form a pouch. The venison, roots, and some wild rice which some
-of the men brought along, are placed in the prepared deer stomachs, water
-added, and the ingenious &ldquo;kettles&rdquo; suspended over a slow fire. In a
-relatively short time a delicious stew is set before each of us, served in
-birch-bark dishes prepared in a few minutes by another of the hunters.</p>
-<p>While we are eating we ask the father of the Indian family we are
-visiting how the chief of his tribe obtained his position. We are told
-that his ability as a warrior and leader has led to his being chosen war
-chief, and his ability as an orator and his power to make people like him
-has kept him in authority. He says that in a nearby village the chief is
-also a great war leader, but he is not well liked otherwise. For that
-reason he sometimes finds it difficult to make his warriors obey him and
-he is therefore not nearly as powerful as our leader. We soon realize that
-the Indian chiefs depend primarily upon personal prestige and influence
-to keep them in power. We are informed, however, that in some other
-tribes the chief is always selected from a certain clan.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig8">
-<img src="images/p05a.jpg" alt="" width="809" height="800" />
-<p class="pcap">YOUTH FASTING FOR A VISION (PAINTING BY A. O. TIEMANN).</p>
-</div>
-<p>One morning we witness a curious ceremony. Grandfather offers
-Blackbird, the older boy, some charcoal as well as his food. The father
-seems very proud when his son rejects the food, applies the charcoal to
-his face, and leaves the village to enter the forest alone. Grandfather
-<span class="pb" id="Page_7">7</span>
-explains that Blackbird, by accepting the charcoal, automatically agreed
-to fast alone in the forest for one day. This one-day fast will be good
-training for the day when he will feel ready to go on the long fast of four
-or five days. Every man has taken this long fast in the hope of seeing a
-vision of a guardian spirit who would then be his lifetime protector.</p>
-<p>The girls, too, must fast, but in a somewhat different fashion. Soon
-Morning Star, the older girl in our friend&rsquo;s family, will reach womanhood
-and be segregated for a number of days in a secluded lodge, and during
-this period no men may approach her.</p>
-<p>The summer season rapidly nears an end. We have enjoyed ourselves
-watching the activities of our friends at work and at play. We have
-learned, too, some of the beliefs of our friends. Grandfather has told us
-stories about the great white bear with the copper tail who dwells underground
-and is the greatest power for evil. He has told the children how
-the &ldquo;Indian Sandman,&rdquo; a good-natured elf, would put people to sleep at
-night by hitting them on the head with a soft war club. We have learned,
-too, of the many spirits for good and evil who control the sun, moon, stars,
-winds, rain, thunder, and all the other phenomena of nature. One evening
-he pointed out the Milky Way and told us that this was the road over
-which the dead travelled to the land of the spirits. He also warned us
-about entering the woods alone at night because of the evil, living skeleton
-which haunts the forest paths seeking unwary men.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig9">
-<img src="images/p06.jpg" alt="" width="1222" height="800" />
-<p class="pcap">TALES OF THE SPIRIT WORLD (PAINTING BY A. O. TIEMANN).</p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_8">8</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig10">
-<img src="images/p06a.jpg" alt="" width="698" height="1001" />
-<p class="pcap">THE RICE GATHERER.</p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_9">9</div>
-<p>Autumn, the time for harvesting garden crops as well as various wild
-vegetable foods, is a season of hard work for all. Corn is the most important
-garden crop, and from time to time we have sampled the ripe
-grain. The women have served us some roasted on the cob, or the fresh
-kernels ground with a wooden mortar and pestle and served as a sort of
-porridge. The ripe corn is now gathered and the ears will be allowed to
-dry. The dried kernels can then be ground into a meal, as needed, since
-the dry corn will remain edible for a long time.</p>
-<p>Wild rice is the most important vegetable food provided for the Indians
-by nature. One day, in the middle of September, we all go a short
-distance up the river in our canoes and enter a small lake. Here the
-wild grain grows in great quantities. The men selected by the chief to
-determine when the rice is ready to be gathered have already given us
-the signal that the grain is ripe. We learn, however, that one more function
-is required before we can proceed with the harvesting of the rice.</p>
-<p>The chief medicine man of our village approaches the edge of the
-water and blows tobacco smoke towards the heavens as an offering to
-his &ldquo;Grandfather,&rdquo; the &ldquo;Master of the Rice.&rdquo; He then buries a small
-portion of tobacco in the ground, and we are ready to proceed.</p>
-<p>In each canoe, as the man poles the boat slowly through the rice, the
-woman, who sits facing the man, pulls the stalks over the canoe with one
-cedar stick, while with another stick she beats the ripe grain into the boat.
-When the canoes are full, we head back for camp where the rice is spread
-out to dry.</p>
-<p>Then the women heat the unhusked kernels in a pot over a slow fire until
-all have partially popped open. Next a small pit is dug and a stake set
-into the ground beside it. The depression is lined with buckskin and
-filled with the parched grain. The father then takes hold of the stake,
-steps into the grain-filled pit, and begins treading the grain with his
-feet to loosen the husks from the kernels.</p>
-<p>The women take the grain from the pit and toss it up and down in
-bark winnowing trays. The wind blows away the light chaff as the grain
-is tossed into the air, and allows only the kernels to fall back into the tray.</p>
-<p>The time soon arrives for our friends to break camp and seek a winter
-campsite where the hunting is known to be good. Hunting and fishing
-will be the main source of food during the winter season.</p>
-<p>At the new campsite, storage pits lined with birch bark are dug in
-the ground to be used for storing the nuts, dried berries, dried corn,
-and rice that have been gathered and prepared during the Autumn. If
-hunting is poor, or if a severe winter threatens famine to the village,
-this stored food may be the sole means of preventing starvation.</p>
-<p>It is now time for us to leave our Indian friends, but before we go we
-learn that the winter season will be spent not only in the pursuits of
-fishing through the ice and hunting, but also, in the telling of stories,
-singing, and playing many different games. When the snows are deep, the
-tribe will don snowshoes for their hunting trips. We will miss seeing
-them play snowsnake. In this game the Indians compete with each other
-to see who can hurl the wooden &ldquo;snake&rdquo; the greatest distance across the
-<span class="pb" id="Page_10">10</span>
-snow or ice. We are sorry to miss all these things, but the time has come
-for us to end our visit.</p>
-<p>As we say farewell to our friends from the distant past, we reflect regretfully
-that the coming of the white man will change the old ways of
-life for these people of the forests, and soon their independence and
-freedom will vanish forever. The Indians seem destined to become largely
-dependent upon the whites for their livelihood, and even for the few
-remnants of land to be left them for their homes.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig11">
-<img src="images/p07.jpg" alt="" width="946" height="800" />
-<p class="pcap">THRASHING RICE (MUSEUM EXHIBIT).</p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_11">11</div>
-<h2 id="c2"><span class="small">CHAPTER TWO</span>
-<br />WISCONSIN&rsquo;S INDIANS UNDER FRENCH RULE</h2>
-<div class="img" id="fig12">
-<img src="images/p08.jpg" alt="" width="1249" height="800" />
-<p class="pcap">THE FUR TRADERS (MUSEUM MURAL BY A. O. TIEMANN).</p>
-</div>
-<p>Few of us realize that the early history of Wisconsin is as romantic
-as any our eastern seaboard states can boast. The area that is
-now the State of Wisconsin became the gateway into the Middlewest
-and the meeting place for the French and the Indian tribes of what
-was then regarded as the West. This early period of French control was
-an era in which Jesuit missionaries carried the doctrine of Christianity
-from village to village, often visiting tribes that had never before seen
-white men. It was a time when the French traders, lured by the love
-of adventure and romance as well as the wealth to be obtained in the
-fur trade, pushed through the forests and followed strange rivers until
-they reached the villages of unknown Wisconsin Indians. It was in these
-villages that such traders, including the &ldquo;noblest&rdquo; youth of New France,
-lived with the Indians, sat in their councils, took part in their war dances,
-accompanied their war parties to battle, and often married their women.</p>
-<p>It was in this early French Regime that Wisconsin&rsquo;s Indian tribes
-underwent great changes in their manner of life due to contacts with the
-white man&rsquo;s civilization, It was a time of warfare and a struggle for
-supremacy in North America between the British and the French, and
-<span class="pb" id="Page_12">12</span>
-their Indian allies, with Wisconsin&rsquo;s tribes espoused to the cause of the
-French. It was the heyday of the fur trade with literally millions of
-beaver and other skins being taken from Wisconsin to enrich the trader
-and obtain white man&rsquo;s goods for the Indians.</p>
-<p>Despite the fact that Wisconsin&rsquo;s Indians all lived in pretty much the
-same manner, most of us are aware that there were different tribes in our
-state at various times, and that they spoke different languages in some
-instances. If we use a comparison from European languages, we might
-better understand the character of these Indian languages. German,
-English, and Swedish all originated from the same parent tongue and
-belong to the same basic language division. English and Chinese are unrelated
-tongues belonging to different basic language stocks. Thus, while
-many words are very similar in English and German, in English and
-Chinese no apparent similarity exists.</p>
-<p>Three basic language divisions, Algonkian, Siouan, and Iroquoian,
-were represented by Wisconsin&rsquo;s Indians. Algonkian was represented by
-such tribes as the Menomini, Potawatomi, Chippewa, Mascouten, Sauk,
-Fox, Ottawa, and Kickapoo. Relatively late arrivals to Wisconsin (in
-the 1800&rsquo;s), also speaking Algonkian tongues, were the Munsee, Brotherton,
-and Stockbridge tribes. The Siouan group included the Winnebago,
-and the Santee division of the Dakota Sioux. The Huron and the Oneida
-(the latter also arriving in the 1800&rsquo;s) were Wisconsin representatives of
-the Iroquoian language stock. The differences become more apparent
-when we realize that languages in the Iroquoian division would be as
-different from those in the Algonkian stock as English is from Chinese.</p>
-<p>The historic period in Wisconsin began when Jean Nicolet, the first
-known white man to visit Wisconsin, landed near what is now Green
-Bay, in 1634. Nicolet&rsquo;s mission was to arrange a peace between the powerful
-Winnebago tribe, or Puans, as they were known to the French, and
-the Ottawa who were then acting as middlemen between the French
-and the Indians of the unknown Middlewest.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig13">
-<img src="images/p08a.jpg" alt="" width="1200" height="548" />
-<p class="pcap">THE LANDING OF NICOLET (MUSEUM MURAL BY GEORGE PETER).</p>
-</div>
-<p>Nicolet&rsquo;s journey into the Wisconsin wilderness, a mere fourteen years
-after the landing of our pilgrim forefathers at Plymouth Rock, was the
-beginning of the period of French exploration and rule in Wisconsin
-which is as romantic and fascinating a story as any in our country&rsquo;s
-<span class="pb" id="Page_13">13</span>
-history. Imagine Nicolet&rsquo;s emotion as he approached his destination,
-a lone white man with seven Indians for companions, in a country
-which, as far as was known, had never before been visited by a white
-man. He had no idea as to what sort of reception he would receive from
-these strange people he was to visit. Their friendliness or enmity would
-be determined upon arrival. Fortunately he was hailed as a great visitor,
-and feasted and entertained accordingly.</p>
-<p>Only three Indian tribes are definitely known to have been residents
-of Wisconsin when Nicolet visited here in 1634. These were the Winnebago;
-the Menomini, who resided along the shores of the Menominee
-River above Green Bay; and the Santee Sioux, whose villages were
-scattered along the upper reaches of the Mississippi River in northwestern
-Wisconsin and eastern Minnesota.</p>
-<p>Documentary evidence strongly suggests that some other tribes, often
-mentioned as early residents, as, for example, the Mascouten, did not
-arrive until a generation later. Archaeological findings conclusively show
-the prehistoric occupation of Wisconsin by the Santee Sioux and the
-Winnebago, and support the probability of prehistoric occupation by the
-Menomini. Thus Wisconsin was controlled primarily by Siouan speaking
-peoples in 1634. The peaceful Menomini were far outnumbered by
-their powerful neighbors, the Winnebago, but this situation was soon
-to change radically.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig14">
-<img src="images/p09.jpg" alt="" width="1017" height="800" />
-<p class="pcap">WINNEBAGO VILLAGE (PAINTING BY A. O. TIEMANN).</p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_14">14</div>
-<p>Events occurring far to the East, in what is now New York State and
-eastern Canada, were to profoundly affect and change the Indian population
-of Wisconsin. When the French began permanent settlement
-along the St. Lawrence they found the Huron and the Iroquois Confederacy
-engaged in a death struggle for supremacy in the area. The
-French espoused the cause of the Hurons who quickly became the middlemen
-in the fur trade between the French and the western Indians.</p>
-<p>The Iroquois, who were farmers and hence controlled less land than
-hunting tribes who were their neighbors, soon depleted their land of
-fur bearing animals and began to plan acquisition of land held by nearby
-tribes. At about this time the Dutch considerately gave the Iroquois
-guns, and by this act unleashed what was probably the most potent Indian
-military confederacy in North America upon the Hurons, who were
-practically exterminated in an amazingly short time. The Erie, Tobacco
-Nation, and Neutrals soon suffered the same fate as the Hurons.</p>
-<p>The Algonkian tribes, attacked first by the Neutrals and then by
-the victorious Iroquois, fled pell-mell into eastern Michigan and the
-Sault area. Eventually most of these tribes either went around the southern
-or the northern extremity of Lake Michigan to arrive in the relative
-security of wilderness Wisconsin.</p>
-<p>The exact dates for the arrival of these various dispossessed eastern
-tribes are not certain. We do know that they probably came to Wisconsin
-sometime after Nicolet&rsquo;s visit in 1634. The Mascouten, Potawatomi,
-Kickapoo, Sauk, and Fox were coming into Wisconsin before 1654.
-Some Huron and Ottawa settled here temporarily at this time, but by
-1678 were compelled by the Sioux to flee back to the Sault. The Chippewa
-stayed around and west of the Straits of Mackinac and actually did not
-settle in Wisconsin until about 1670.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig15">
-<img src="images/p09a.jpg" alt="" width="1162" height="800" />
-<p class="pcap">SAUK AND FOX INDIANS (FROM MAXIMILIAN).</p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_15">15</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig16">
-<img src="images/p10.jpg" alt="" width="1228" height="508" />
-<p class="pcap">CHIPPEWA INDIANS (FROM GEO. CATLIN).</p>
-</div>
-<p>The Winnebago at first defended themselves vigorously against the
-invading refugee tribes; however, this constant warfare greatly reduced
-their numerical strength. Further decimated by plagues, probably smallpox
-introduced by the whites, and by famine, the Winnebago were compelled
-to make peace with the invading Algonkians who eventually settled
-in great numbers along the Upper and Lower Fox rivers, the lower
-reaches of the Wolf River, and in the vicinity of Green Bay.</p>
-<p>Fur trade with the western Indians was successfully blocked by the
-rampaging Iroquois for twenty odd years after Nicolet&rsquo;s voyage of exploration
-into the Middlewest, but with the establishment of a brief
-peace, the Ottawa, who had assumed the position of middlemen in the
-fur trade, sent a large canoe fleet to the western Indians and soon returned
-with large quantities of furs which had been accumulated by the
-Indians during the Iroquois War.</p>
-<p>On the return journey two young Frenchmen, Radisson and Groseilliers,
-went into Wisconsin with the Ottawa and became the first known
-white traders in the area. Other traders quickly followed their example,
-and by 1670, the fur trade in Wisconsin was proceeding at a good pace.</p>
-<p>The Indians, even before actually being visited by the whites, had
-received European implements by trade with other Indians and soon
-learned the superiority of iron knives and axes over those of stone.
-The arrival of the white traders with their guns, kettles, cloth, brandy,
-and many other trade items was eagerly awaited by the Indians of what
-is now Wisconsin.</p>
-<p>As early as 1668, Perrot and traders with him had brought furs to
-Green Bay (La Baye). Great activity in the fur trade was quick to follow
-with the French traders using guns and brandy particularly as an inducement
-to increase the tempo of fur trapping by the Indian. The Indian
-was as anxious to obtain the white man&rsquo;s goods as the trader was to
-obtain the Indian&rsquo;s furs. This formed the basis for an understanding
-mutually agreeable to Indian and trader alike.</p>
-<p>The fur trade, during the French Regime, went through many changes
-due to changing circumstances, and the issuing of different regulations
-from time to time. The discovery of new western lands and tribes spurred
-literally hundreds of Canadian youths to seek these virgin territories and
-the riches in furs to be had there. At first traders persuaded the Indians
-to make the long trip to Montreal with their furs. The presence of so
-<span class="pb" id="Page_16">16</span>
-many traders in the forests, however, soon made these long trips unnecessary.
-By the time Perrot began trading in Wisconsin the traders were
-carrying their goods to the Indians in their own country.</p>
-<p>Regulations required that all traders must be licensed, or buy <i>Conges</i>
-as they were called. Twenty-five of these were issued each year and permitted
-the trader to take a designated load of goods into the interior to be
-traded for the Indian&rsquo;s furs. The presence of great numbers of unlicensed
-traders in the woods was responsible for an edict from the king declaring
-such illegal traders to be outlaws. The punishment for such activities
-was death. These outlaw traders were known as <i>coureurs de bois</i> and were
-actually never hampered too much by the stringent laws passed against
-them.</p>
-<p>During the latter part of the 17th century outposts were built to help
-control the trade. Nicolas Perrot built posts at Mt. Trempealeau, at Lake
-Pepin, and at the mouth of the Wisconsin River. The Sieur DuLhut
-(Duluth) built posts in the Lake Superior region.</p>
-<p>Since these terms are often misused, it might be best to briefly describe
-the following occupations: A <i>bourgeois</i>, was an owner of goods and a
-license; the hired men were called <i>engages</i>; those hired men who only
-carried the goods and paddled the canoe for a stipulated daily hire were
-called <i>voyageurs</i>. The <i>coureurs de bois</i> and sometimes the <i>voyageurs</i>
-were usually the ones who often remained in the forests and &ldquo;went native.&rdquo;</p>
-<div class="img">
-<img src="images/p10a.jpg" id="ncfig2" alt="uncaptioned" width="408" height="500" />
-</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig17">
-<img src="images/p10b.jpg" alt="" width="539" height="799" />
-<p class="pcap">PIERRE RADDISON (COURTESY OF
-WISCONSIN STATE HISTORICAL SOCIETY).</p>
-</div>
-<p>The impact of the white man&rsquo;s civilization was bound to profoundly
-change the life and geography of the Indians, and, particularly in the
-early French period, this change was extremely rapid. Three groups were
-actively working to institute changes in the Indian pattern of life. These
-were the fur trader, whose goods revolutionized the material culture of
-the natives, the Jesuit missionaries who hoped to convert the tribes to
-<span class="pb" id="Page_17">17</span>
-Christianity, and the French government itself, which attempted at various
-times to relocate the tribes, form confederacies, and even to &ldquo;civilize&rdquo;
-them.</p>
-<p>The fur trader was the only one of the three groups who really succeeded
-in materially changing the Indian&rsquo;s way of life, although his success was
-unintentional. So completely did the materials of the white man replace
-those of the Indian that within a few short generations almost no one
-knew how to make stone tools and weapons, pottery vessels, bows and
-arrows, and many other aboriginal products which were abandoned as
-rapidly as superior goods of the whites were made available.</p>
-<p>The change in tools and weapons naturally changed the Indians&rsquo; pattern
-of life in many ways, but the entire economy of the tribes was
-affected greatly by the fur trade. The Indian&rsquo;s need for the white man&rsquo;s
-goods was great and he became more and more dependent upon the
-trader. As the tempo of fur trading increased, the Indian began devoting
-almost all of his time to hunting and trapping until, in a sense, he became
-an employee in a great &ldquo;fur-trade factory&rdquo; with the goods he
-received from the trader representing his wages. Much of the Indian&rsquo;s
-old life of freedom gradually disappeared, since failure to obtain guns
-or powder and bullets meant starvation for the Indian and his family.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig18">
-<img src="images/p11.jpg" alt="" width="345" height="800" />
-<p class="pcap">JESUIT MISSIONARY.</p>
-</div>
-<div class="img">
-<img src="images/p11a.jpg" id="ncfig3" alt="uncaptioned" width="600" height="324" />
-</div>
-<p>Perhaps the worst effect of the contact between the Europeans and
-the Indians was the introduction of brandy, always an effective persuader
-<span class="pb" id="Page_18">18</span>
-in bargaining, and the introduction of European diseases, particularly
-venereal disease and smallpox, the latter in some instances wiping out
-entire tribes. The tendency for tribes to congregate around fur-trade
-areas at the behest of the traders also had a detrimental effect upon the
-Indians. In the Fox River valley and around Green Bay this overpopulation
-resulted in famine and the voluntary exodus of some tribes before
-1700, among them the Miami and some of the Kickapoo and Mascouten.</p>
-<p>It should be noted that the adoption of new materials and living
-habits was not entirely one-sided. The white man learned how to use the
-Indian&rsquo;s birch-bark canoe, many of his foods, tobacco, moccasins, snow
-shoes, and often buckskin clothing.</p>
-<p>Both the Jesuits and the French military deliberately aimed at changing
-the Indian&rsquo;s way of life but their aims were in direct opposition to
-one another. The Jesuits were not interested in &ldquo;civilizing&rdquo; the Indians.
-They desired to see these simple people maintained in their original
-ignorance except for their belief in the &ldquo;One True God,&rdquo; and such simple
-improvements in agriculture and other techniques as would improve their
-lot as mission Indians. The Jesuits, not without some justification, regarded
-contact between their charges and the French traders and soldiers
-as having a demoralizing influence.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig19">
-<img src="images/p11b.jpg" alt="" width="1150" height="800" />
-<p class="pcap">MENOMINI INDIAN MEDICINE LODGE CEREMONY (PAINTING BY A. O.
-TIEMANN).</p>
-</div>
-<p>Despite great heroism and prodigious efforts on the part of the missionaries,
-permanent effects on the Indians by the Jesuits was to prove
-almost negligible. The Wisconsin Indian was highly war-like and found
-it difficult to appreciate the humility preached by the missionary. The
-<span class="pb" id="Page_19">19</span>
-Indian regarded such behavior as effeminate.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig20">
-<img src="images/p12.jpg" alt="" width="752" height="780" />
-<p class="pcap">FATHER JACQUES MARQUETTE
-(COURTESY OF MARQUETTE
-UNIVERSITY).</p>
-</div>
-<p>Nevertheless, the story of their efforts to Christianize the tribes, and
-the valor of these missionaries in exploring unknown territory, makes a
-fascinating story in our state&rsquo;s history. Not the least among such heroic
-deeds was the great voyage of exploration by Father Jacques Marquette
-and Louis Joliet. Traveling up the Fox River, crossing over on foot at
-what is now Portage, Wisconsin, and proceeding down the Wisconsin
-River, the two explorers entered the Mississippi River on the seventeenth
-of June, 1673. They explored the great river as far south as the Arkansas
-River and then returned, by way of the Illinois River. This great discovery
-made known a continuous water route from the Atlantic Ocean
-to the Gulf of Mexico, and opened to the French the interior of a vast
-continent.</p>
-<p>It was the desire to exploit and unify this vast wilderness empire that
-led the French leaders to attempt deliberate changes in the Wisconsin
-Indian geography and political structure. This was necessary in order
-to strengthen the Wisconsin tribes and keep them fighting the Iroquois
-who consistently raided the western Indians and the French settlements
-along the St. Lawrence.</p>
-<p>LaSalle conceived the idea of a great Indian confederacy which, it was
-hoped, would be able to successfully oppose the mighty Iroquois, and so
-built forts in the Illinois country to help defend the area. The Wisconsin
-Mascouten and Kickapoo left this area, partly because of their desire
-to join the confederacy and partly because of population pressure in
-the Fox River valley.</p>
-<p>The year before the Iroquois invasions of 1680, DuLhut helped to
-strengthen the French cause by negotiating peace between the Dakota
-Sioux and their enemy of long standing, the Chippewa, and also reconciling
-the Dakota Sioux and Assiniboine, who had been warring for
-thirty years.</p>
-<p>Nicolas Perrot probably was the most influential French officer ever to
-have worked with the Wisconsin tribes. It was mainly through his constant
-efforts that they were kept from going over to the Iroquois when the
-tribes felt that the French had abandoned them. Perrot was probably the
-only Frenchman to remain consistently on friendly terms with the Foxes,
-who eventually were to engage the French in the bloodiest Indian war
-<span class="pb" id="Page_20">20</span>
-ever to be fought on Wisconsin soil. Perrot constantly travelled from
-village to village organizing raids against the Iroquois, raids which
-eventually assisted in forcing the Iroquois to sue for peace. The French,
-through the efforts of men like LaSalle, Perrot, and DuLhut, had once
-again secured a firm hold on the western tribes, but the Iroquois warfare
-of the 1680&rsquo;s had caused a slump in the fur trade. The trade was,
-moreover, soon to receive a blow which was to almost completely kill
-all official commerce between the Indians and the French for a number
-of years. This was the issuance of a royal edict by the French King, May
-21, 1696, revoking all fur trade licenses and prohibiting all colonials
-from carrying goods to the western country.</p>
-<p>There were really two main causes for the issuance of this edict. One
-was a slump in the beaver market caused by the great flood of furs into
-France and a decline in beaver hat production, due partly to the emigration
-of the Huguenots who were the main hat felters; the other cause
-for the edict was the anger of the Jesuits, aroused by the sale of brandy
-to the Indians by the traders and soldiers.</p>
-<p>It was hoped that the Indian tribes would make the journey to Montreal
-themselves to trade their furs, but it was soon discovered that most
-tribes either would not or could not make such a journey for purposes
-of trade. The result, of course, was severe hardship for the Indians of
-Wisconsin. Lack of gunpowder and lead restricted their hunting abilities
-and made it more difficult for them to defend themselves against the
-Iroquois and other hostile tribes. The Indians were becoming increasingly
-dependent upon the French to the extent that they had lost much
-of the freedom they had enjoyed as a self-sufficient people.</p>
-<p>The rapid abandonment of the western posts followed the fur trade
-ban. The commanders of these outposts, for the most part, did not consider
-it worthwhile to stay on in that capacity if they could not enrich
-themselves by means of the Indian trade.</p>
-<p>Peace was finally arranged between the Iroquois and the French and
-their Indian allies in 1700. The Iroquois had suffered heavily from the
-raids by the western Indians. They claimed to have lost more than half
-their warriors. With the fear of Iroquois raids ended, the confederacies
-of western tribes quickly fell apart, and the latter turned to fighting
-among themselves as they had always done in the past.</p>
-<p>The French military now decided on a concentration policy. The
-western posts were to be restricted to three main centers. These were
-to be at Detroit, New Orleans, and near Tonty&rsquo;s post in the Illinois
-country. Fairly large numbers of troops were stationed at these posts
-to provide adequate defense, and the western tribes were to be concentrated
-in these areas. This would facilitate the fur trade by permitting
-the Indians to trap their furs and bring them directly to the trading
-centers. The French government also hoped to &ldquo;civilize&rdquo; the Indians,
-teaching them to farm the land, learn the French language, and eventually
-even participate in the colonial economy.</p>
-<p>The concentration policy was foredoomed to failure. The Wisconsin
-tribes, of whom many were hereditary enemies, only needed a spark to set
-them at one another&rsquo;s throats. This led to trouble at Detroit which
-resulted in the bloody Fox Wars, long, costly fighting for the French
-which contributed much towards their final downfall in the New World.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_21">21</div>
-<h2 id="c3"><span class="small">CHAPTER THREE</span>
-<br />THE FOX WARS AND THE FALL OF NEW FRANCE</h2>
-<div class="img" id="fig21">
-<img src="images/p13.jpg" alt="" width="928" height="800" />
-<p class="pcap">SAUK AND FOX WARRIORS (FROM MAXIMILIAN).</p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_22">22</div>
-<p>Events occurring in Wisconsin during the first half of the
-Eighteenth Century were to bode little good for the French, and
-were to contribute towards the final downfall of New France
-at the hands of the British. For a good share of the years between 1701
-and 1738 the French were to be largely occupied with the attempt to
-subjugate the Fox Indians and their allies.</p>
-<p>Not only were the expeditions against the Fox to prove costly to
-the French, but the enmity of the Fox required shiftings of trade routes.
-As an inevitable result, friction between the French and English
-traders developed, since the Fox at times blocked both the Fox River
-in Wisconsin and the Illinois River to the French traders. The determined
-resistance of the Fox also prevented the fruition of French hopes
-to dominate the western tribes and influence them to espouse the
-French cause. Furthermore, the difficulty experienced by the French
-military in conquering a relatively small group of Wisconsin Indians
-did little to further French prestige among other western tribes.</p>
-<p>The First Fox War was actually the result of the French concentration
-policy. Within a few years after the founding of Detroit in 1701 by the
-Sieur de Cadillac there were almost 6000 Indians in the vicinity of the
-fort. The Fox, meanwhile, determined to prevent the carrying of guns
-to their enemy, the Dakota Sioux, were halting French traders attempting
-to proceed up the Fox River on their journey to the Sioux country
-on the Upper Mississippi. A French fort in the Sioux country was also
-abandoned after the loss of several men due to attacks by the Fox.</p>
-<p>Cadillac, realizing the need for some measure to bring these warlike
-tribesmen under control, in 1710 invited the Fox, along with the other
-tribes resident around Green Bay, to come and reside near Detroit. At this
-crucial time, when so much depended on the leadership of a Frenchman
-experienced in handling the tribes, Cadillac, probably the most capable
-Colonial officer of the times, was sent to Louisiana as governor of that
-colony. The new commandant at Detroit had none of Cadillac&rsquo;s ability
-with the Indians.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_23">23</div>
-<p>The arrival of the Fox and their allies, the Kickapoo, Sauk, and Mascouten,
-was the signal for trouble. These tribesmen were feared as well
-as hated by the other Indians about Detroit. After a band of Mascouten
-were attacked by the Ottawa near the St. Joseph River, during the winter
-of 1711-1712, the Fox, in revenge, immediately attacked the Ottawa and
-Huron at the Detroit post.</p>
-<p>The Detroit commandant sided with the Ottawa and Huron and permitted
-them to seek refuge in the French fort. Shortly after, the Fox
-erected a stockade of their own and made preparations for a long fight.
-The French and their allies were reinforced by a large band of Illinois,
-Missouri, Osage, Potawatomi, and Menomini. This greatly superior force
-laid siege to the Fox fort and the latter soon offered to surrender. The
-French and their Indian supporters, however, were now determined to
-completely exterminate their enemies.</p>
-<p>After a siege of nineteen days, the Fox attempted to escape by taking
-advantage of cover offered on a dark, rainy night. They were pursued,
-overtaken, and the great majority of them were slaughtered. This was a
-victory for the French, but a very costly one, for the Fox and their allies
-still had a great many warriors in the forests of Wisconsin. These, in retaliation,
-began a war of extermination against the allies of the French
-who had participated in the Detroit massacre and the hunted tribesmen
-soon complained that their people were starving because they dared not
-hunt in the forests lest their men be slain by the vengeful Fox.</p>
-<p>The summer of 1716 saw the first white army ever to invade the forests
-of Wisconsin. The Sieur de Louvigny, in May of that year, left Montreal
-with an army of several hundred French and a force of mission Indians
-determined to compel the Fox to sue for peace. He arrived in Wisconsin
-with his army augmented by western tribesmen, and <i>coureurs de bois</i> who
-had been granted pardons for joining the expedition at their own expense.
-With this total force amounting to about 800 men, Louvigny besieged
-the fortified Fox village, situated near Little Lake Butte des Morts.
-While the French kept up a fire with two small cannon and a grenade
-mortar, they sank a trench towards the Fox fort determined to mine the
-place and blow it up.</p>
-<p>The Fox surrendered after three days of fighting and agreed to accept
-terms which Louvigny thought very severe, but which his Indian allies
-regarded as overmild. The terms included the requirement that the
-Fox pay for the costs of the expedition against them by means of furs yet
-to be gathered, to give up prisoners taken from the allies of the French,
-to furnish a number of hostages to guarantee their future good behavior,
-and to cede their territory to the French King.</p>
-<p>The peace temporarily halted the bloody warfare of the four preceding
-years and permitted the fur trade to be resumed. The concentration
-policy had proven to be a failure, and shortly after the death of Louis
-XIV, in 1715, the posts were once more occupied and the licensing system
-for the fur trade was restored. A fort was built at La Baye (Green Bay)
-in 1717, and a post was occupied at Chequamegon Bay to keep the Chippewa
-from attacking the Fox and causing a resumption of war, and also
-to regulate the fur trade in that area.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_24">24</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig22">
-<img src="images/p14.jpg" alt="" width="1000" height="336" />
-<p class="pcap">EARLY FORT AT MICHILLIMACKINAC (MUSEUM MURAL BY GEORGE PETER).</p>
-</div>
-<p>The quite considerable friction between the colonies of Canada and
-Louisiana provided the background for the events which led directly to
-the Second Fox War. There was considerable argument as to the exact
-boundaries of Illinois which now was annexed to Louisiana, although
-originally settled by Canadians. The Fox took advantage of these feelings
-of hostility by attacking the Illinois in the vicinity of Kaskaskia, even
-killing Frenchmen in this area. The Fox claimed the Illinois would not
-return Fox prisoners as they had promised according to treaty. The
-Canadian governor, Vaudreuil, tended to side with the Fox in the argument.</p>
-<p>After the death of Vaudreuil, his temporary successor, Baron de Longueuil
-ordered the Sieur de Lignery, commandant at Mackinac, to enforce
-a peace between the Fox, Kickapoo, and Mascouten, and their
-enemies, the Illinois. The Fox promised to obey this demand, and in
-order to ensure their obedience, a new post was built in the Sioux country.
-This was rendered necessary by the fact that the Dakota Sioux had now
-become allies of the Fox, and the French intended to make sure that
-no aid would be coming to the Fox from that warlike tribe. The three
-forts in the northwest, at Chequamegon Bay, La Baye, and on the upper
-Mississippi in the Sioux country were to be maintained rather steadily
-until near the end of the French regime.</p>
-<p>Meanwhile the Fox chief Kiala had succeeded in forming an alliance
-against the French between the Fox and their long-time allies the Kickapoo
-and Mascouten, and a series of other tribes including, in addition
-to the nearby Winnebago, such far distant tribes as the Abnaki and
-Seneca in the East, and the Dakota Sioux, Missouri, Iowa, and Oto in
-the West. Kiala hoped by this means to form a hostile circle about the
-French which would end in their complete defeat, a plan similar to that
-later attempted by Pontiac, and Tecumseh.</p>
-<p>The Marquis de Beauharnois, appointed governor of Canada to replace
-Vaudreuil, was determined that the raids on the Illinois and the
-French at Kaskaskia must be stopped. A French army once more was
-sent against the Fox. This time, headed by the Sieur de Lignery, the
-<span class="pb" id="Page_25">25</span>
-expedition numbered about four hundred French and approximately
-one thousand Indians. Warned by the Potawatomi, the Fox escaped
-from their villages and the army arrived at each to find it deserted. At
-Little Lake Butte des Morts the soldiers refused to go farther and Lignery
-had to be satisfied with the burning of the Fox and Winnebago villages
-and their stores of food.</p>
-<p>Despite the poor showing of Lignery&rsquo;s expedition against the Fox,
-Kiala&rsquo;s confederacy began to fall apart. Even their old allies, the Mascouten
-and Kickapoo, were persuaded by the French to turn against them,
-and the Sioux, closely watched by the French, no longer could give the
-Fox refuge in their country. Discouraged by these losses and defeated
-by the French under the capable Paul Marin, the Fox decided to flee
-to the Iroquois country. The Fox had long been secretly treating with the
-English and the Seneca, a member tribe of the Iroquois Confederacy
-and hoped to find a friendly reception in their country.</p>
-<p>Warned by the Mascouten and Kickapoo regarding the plans of the
-Fox, French officers from nearby posts hastily gathered together Indian
-allies and prepared to attack their fleeing enemies. The Fox, warned by
-their scouts of the force advancing against them, hastily erected a stockade
-and prepared to fight for their lives. They managed to fight off the besiegers
-for twenty-three days. Then on a stormy night they attempted
-flight but were quickly overtaken. Almost all of the band were either
-slaughtered or taken as slaves.</p>
-<p>After the few survivors of this disaster, seeking refuge in their village
-near the mouth of the Wisconsin River, were attacked by Detroit Indians,
-Kiala and three other chiefs offered to give themselves up, asking
-mercy for themselves and the fifty surviving warriors, supposedly all that
-were left of the entire tribe. De Villiers accepted the surrender and
-hastened to Montreal with his prisoners. De Villiers was ordered to
-return and kill off the rest of the Fox, taking only the women and children
-as prisoners. These were to be sold into slavery, like Kiala, who was fated
-to end his days as a slave in the West Indies.</p>
-<p>De Villiers returned to the Sauk village at Green Bay and demanded
-that the Sauk release the remnant of Fox survivors. The Sauk declined
-to release warriors with whom they had strong blood ties, and in an
-attempt to force an entrance, one of de Villiers&rsquo; sons was killed. The
-French quickly retaliated and in the exchange of fire de Villiers himself
-was killed by a twelve year old boy, who later became renowned as the
-Sauk Chief Blackbird. In the battle that followed, the Sieur Duplessis,
-the Sieur de Repentigny, and six other Frenchmen quickly met the same
-fate. The Sauk and Fox, too, lost heavily and fled to the vicinity of the
-present-day city of Menasha. The bloody battle that ensued there, it is
-said, accounts for the name Butte des Morts, or Hill of the Dead.</p>
-<p>As a result of this battle, the remainder of the Fox and the Sauk amalgamated
-and for all practical purposes became one tribe. They fled into
-Iowa where they erected a new fort, and gradually their ranks were swelled
-by Fox released from captivity by tribes now secretly in sympathy with
-the Sauk and Fox. One more expedition was sent against them, led by
-the Sieur de Noyelles, but although he followed the Sauk and Fox to the
-vicinity of the Des Moines River, they were so well entrenched that it
-<span class="pb" id="Page_26">26</span>
-was impossible to dislodge them and the expedition returned home without
-success. Eventually the Fox Wars were brought to an end through a
-policy of conciliation inaugurated in 1740 by Paul Marin, the new
-commandant at La Baye. Force had, in the long run, proven a failure
-in the campaign to completely subjugate the Fox.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig23">
-<img src="images/p15.jpg" alt="" width="591" height="794" />
-<p class="pcap">SAUK AND FOX CHIEF (FROM GEO. CATLIN).</p>
-</div>
-<p>Throughout the first half of the Eighteenth Century the French, as
-we have seen, had been occupied with more or less constant warfare with
-the Fox. This warfare was the dominant note in the history of Wisconsin
-for this period, and in general, the role of other Wisconsin tribes during
-this era was that of serving as allies either of the French or of the Fox.</p>
-<p>The failure of Noyelles&rsquo; expedition against the Fox had helped to
-lower French prestige among the western tribes, and in 1736 the Sioux,
-angered by French friendship for the Chippewa and Cree, murdered a
-French officer, a priest, and a party of nineteen <i>voyageurs</i>. From this
-<span class="pb" id="Page_27">27</span>
-time on the Sioux could no longer be numbered among the allies of the
-French. By 1739, the Sioux-Chippewa War flamed into action and the
-Sioux were driven westward from the areas in Wisconsin now held by
-the Chippewa.</p>
-<p>Warfare between the English and the French in America again was
-to seriously affect the western tribes. This conflict, lasting from 1744 to
-1748, saw the fur trade with the western tribes reach extremely low proportions.
-Goods were very scarce due to the loss of French ships at the
-hands of British fighting vessels, and this failure to produce sufficient
-goods for the Indians, in addition to the already declining prestige of
-the French, encouraged some of the western tribes to seek more favorable
-relations with the British. Most of the Huron, under Chief Nicolas, began
-trading with the British, and many other western tribes exhibited the
-same inclination.</p>
-<p>The end of the current conflict with the English enabled the French
-to regain control of these tribes, but the Miami had moved into Ohio and
-established a large village called Pickawillany which became a fairly
-permanent camp for a number of English traders. Several expeditions
-against this village by the French failed. In 1752, however, Charles de
-Langlade, later famed as one of Wisconsin&rsquo;s pioneer French settlers at
-Green Bay, who was part French and part Ottawa and who thus had
-tremendous influence among the Indians, led an expedition against Pickawillany
-which enjoyed remarkable success. The village was destroyed,
-the English traders captured, and the Miami returned to French
-allegiance.</p>
-<p>For a while France again enjoyed supremacy in the West. In 1755,
-Langlade and his contingent of Wisconsin and Mackinac braves participated
-in the famous battle culminating in &ldquo;Braddock&rsquo;s Defeat&rdquo;. Chippewa,
-Menomini, Potawatomi, and Winnebago were said to be present
-at this engagement, and for many years thereafter trophies of this battle
-were to be found in Wisconsin Indian lodges. Despite this severe defeat
-of the British and American Colonials, the fortunes of the French were
-destined to take a turn for the worse. By 1761, Wisconsin was under
-British control, and in 1763, France formally surrendered the rest of
-her American possessions to England. She had ceded Louisiana to Spain
-the year before.</p>
-<p>Much had happened to Wisconsin&rsquo;s Indians during this period, roughly
-from 1700 to 1760. The long and bloody Fox Wars had wrought hardship
-on the other tribes as well as on the Fox. The Sioux-Chippewa war had
-resulted in the Sioux being forced to relinquish most of their Wisconsin
-territory to the Chippewa. The Potawatomi Indians, who had fought
-<span class="pb" id="Page_28">28</span>
-under Langlade and participated in the killing of the unarmed English
-and Americans at Fort William Henry, were visited by a grim vengeance
-in the form of smallpox, contracted from the English soldiers and brought
-back by the tribes to their own country where it raged virtually unchecked.
-Great numbers of Indians lost their lives as a result.</p>
-<p>Other tribes left Wisconsin, some never to return. The Kickapoo and
-Mascouten were now in Illinois and Indiana. The Potawatomi were
-below Lake Michigan at St. Joseph. Thus many of the tribes here
-when the French traders and missionaries first arrived, no longer were
-in the Wisconsin scene. The tribes remaining here were destined to know
-new masters, the British, who were to control the fur trade in Wisconsin
-until the end of the War of 1812.</p>
-<div class="img">
-<img src="images/p16.jpg" id="ncfig4" alt="uncaptioned" width="500" height="502" />
-</div>
-<div class="img">
-<img src="images/p16a.jpg" id="ncfig5" alt="uncaptioned" width="800" height="69" />
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_29">29</div>
-<h2 id="c4"><span class="small">CHAPTER FOUR</span>
-<br />THE PERIOD OF BRITISH CONTROL</h2>
-<div class="img" id="fig24">
-<img src="images/p17.jpg" alt="" width="511" height="778" />
-<p class="pcap">PONTIAC.</p>
-</div>
-<p>British military control of Wisconsin was ushered in with the
-arrival of Ensign James Gorrell at Green Bay on the twelfth of
-October, 1761. With the aid of his two non-commissioned officers
-and fifteen privates, Gorrell set about to restore the old French fort
-which he renamed Fort Edward Augustus, in honor of the Duke of
-York. His next task was to win over the French <i>habitants</i> about the fort
-and to gain the sympathy of the Indians in the area for the British cause.
-Apparently Gorrell was quite successful in both tasks.</p>
-<p>The French <i>habitants</i> about the posts taken over by the British found
-it rather easy, for the most part, to transfer their allegiance to the British
-Crown since they were given the same privileges they enjoyed under
-French authority. Moreover, the British traders found it more advantageous
-to form partnerships with the more experienced French traders
-than to attempt to supersede them.</p>
-<p>British success with the Indians varied according to local conditions
-at the different forts. The British were not inclined to give presents as
-liberally as the French had done, and it was not British policy to fraternize
-or intermarry with their savage allies. The feeling of inferiority
-<span class="pb" id="Page_30">30</span>
-prompted by this treatment caused resentment among many tribes.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig25">
-<img src="images/p17a.jpg" alt="" width="923" height="800" />
-<p class="pcap">TRADERS PORTAGING (PAINTING BY T. LINDBERG).</p>
-</div>
-<p>In central Wisconsin, however, Gorrell&rsquo;s diplomatic treatment of the
-Indians, added to the fact that the Sauk, Fox, Winnebago, and Menomini
-held a certain amount of resentment towards the French, swung these
-tribes over to the British. The promises of medals and commissions to the
-Indian chiefs, and the fact that the British trade goods were cheaper by
-far than those offered by the French, also tended to offset the more arrogant
-treatment of the tribes by the British.</p>
-<p>Gorrell&rsquo;s success with the Indians of central Wisconsin was very important
-to Wisconsin history, for in 1763 the British were compelled to
-deal with a widespread Indian uprising largely led by Pontiac, chief of
-an Ottawa tribe from around the Straits of Mackinac, and one of the most
-able Indian leaders who ever lived. It was Pontiac&rsquo;s plan to drive all
-the British and Colonials into the sea by means of an alliance of Indian
-tribes from the Alleghenies to the Mississippi River, and from the Ohio
-River to the Great Lakes. Pontiac&rsquo;s chief claim to greatness lies in his
-remarkable feat of keeping a number of tribes together for a seven-month
-<span class="pb" id="Page_31">31</span>
-siege of Detroit, a unique event in Indian warfare.</p>
-<p>In addition to the attack on Detroit, concerted attacks were made on
-other British posts, of which a number fell, including the one at Mackinac.
-The failure of the Indians to take Forts Detroit, Pitt, and Niagara
-assured defeat for Pontiac&rsquo;s campaign.</p>
-<p>On June 2, 1763, the Chippewa Indians took Fort Mackinac by a
-clever subterfuge. They faked a game of LaCrosse in front of the stockade
-and pretended accidentally to knock the ball into the fort. As the players
-rushed after the ball they seized guns from the watching Indian women
-who had concealed the weapons under their blankets. Most of the garrison
-was massacred before they had a chance to defend themselves.</p>
-<p>The loyalty to the British of Wisconsin&rsquo;s Sauk, Fox, Winnebago, and
-Menomini Indians, and the timely arrival of a delegation of Sioux, sworn
-enemies of the Chippewa, probably saved Green Bay from a similar fate.</p>
-<p>Etherington hastily summoned Gorrell to his assistance. Gorrell abandoned
-Fort Edward Augustus at Green Bay and with the aid of 90 men
-of the Sauk, Fox, Menomini, and Winnebago tribes succeeded in obtaining
-the prisoners&rsquo; release from the Indians. The party then proceeded on to
-Montreal. British military occupation of Wisconsin was not resumed
-until the War of 1812.</p>
-<p>The Pontiac rebellion also served to bring the problems relating to
-the Indians home to the British Government and probably helped as an
-incentive to the issuance of the Proclamation of 1763. British subjects
-were now forbidden to purchase lands west of the Appalachian mountains
-without special license. It was hoped that this would prevent further
-encroachments by white settlers upon Indian lands. Trade with the
-Indians was to be permitted where licenses with the various colonial
-governments had been procured. Moreover, since Wisconsin was not included
-in the limits of any of the colonies, Wisconsin was left without
-any government other than that exercised by the military at Mackinac.
-This matter was not rectified until 1774 when the Quebec Act placed
-Wisconsin under the authority of the Governor of Canada.</p>
-<p>Mackinac became the seat of Wisconsin&rsquo;s fur trade when the fort was
-rebuilt there in 1764. It was the only fort northwest of Detroit with
-government officers and Indian agents. By 1767, large numbers of traders
-were coming into the Wisconsin area. The Indians by this time were so
-dependent on the white trader that any interruption in the supply of
-goods flowing to the Indians worked severe hardships upon them.</p>
-<p>Wisconsin&rsquo;s fur trade was still largely controlled by Montreal investors,
-mostly British. The actual traders, however, who contacted the Indians
-were still primarily Frenchmen, and this was to remain so throughout
-Wisconsin&rsquo;s fur-trade period. Some competition in Wisconsin was given
-to the British by Spanish and French traders from Louisiana, which had
-become Spanish territory by the peace treaty in 1763. But the British
-managed to retain the bulk of the northwest fur trade with the Indians.</p>
-<p>Wisconsin&rsquo;s Indians did not participate strongly in the American Revolution,
-but they did take part in some action. Charles de Langlade, half
-French, half Ottawa Indian leader who helped the French so efficiently
-during the French and Indian War, now espoused the British cause as
-ardently as he had the French. Langlade&rsquo;s tremendous influence over
-<span class="pb" id="Page_32">32</span>
-the Indians was well known, and the British hoped to persuade him to
-obtain Wisconsin Indian help in fighting the Colonists. Langlade did
-succeed in leading Chippewa and Ottawa east to help Burgoyne in 1777,
-and in 1778 Wisconsin Indians went to Detroit to help General Hamilton.
-On the whole, however, Wisconsin&rsquo;s Indians were too disinterested in
-the white man&rsquo;s war to be enthusiastic about long trips east to aid the
-British.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig26">
-<img src="images/p18.jpg" alt="" width="1146" height="800" />
-<p class="pcap">MICHILLIMACKINAC, RESTORATION OF LAST FORT.</p>
-</div>
-<p>The American Revolutionary War hero, Major George Rogers Clark,
-whose capture of Vincennes and Kaskaskia, and the French villages of the
-Illinois country, provided the basis for United States claims to the
-Northwest Territory during the peace negotiations between the British
-and the United States, called together a great assembly of Indians at
-Cahokia, Illinois, in 1778, and succeeded in obtaining their pledges of
-allegiance to the United States. Many Wisconsin Indians attended the
-meeting, including the noted Blackbird, chief of a Milwaukee village
-composed of Ottawa, Chippewa, and Potawatomi. Blackbird apparently
-remained loyal to the American cause. Major Clark&rsquo;s influence with
-the Wisconsin Indians tended to nullify the efforts of Charles Langlade,
-and other French officers in the service of England, to mobilize the Wisconsin
-Indians against the United States.</p>
-<p>In 1780, England utilized some Wisconsin Indians in an attack on the
-Spanish with whom she was then at war. Twelve hundred warriors were
-assembled at Prairie du Chien, and marched on St. Louis. Aided by the
-fact that they had advance knowledge of the enemy movements, that
-some of the tribesmen were more or less sympathetic with the American
-cause, and that the Indians showed no enthusiasm for attacking in the
-face of cannon fire, the Spanish and Americans succeeded in routing the
-attackers. After this action Wisconsin&rsquo;s Indians were not involved in any
-important campaigns during the remaining years of the American Revolution.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_33">33</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig27">
-<img src="images/p19.jpg" alt="" width="622" height="800" />
-<p class="pcap">CHIEF OSHKOSH (PORTRAIT BY S. M. BROOKS, COURTESY OF THE WISCONSIN
-STATE HISTORICAL SOCIETY).</p>
-</div>
-<p>British control of Wisconsin&rsquo;s Indians did not cease with the end of
-the Revolutionary War. Despite the British agreement in the Treaty of
-Paris, in 1783, to turn over their posts at Niagara, Detroit, and Michillimackinac,
-they continued to hold these forts until after the Jay Treaty
-of 1794. It was not until October, 1796, that Mackinac, the last post to be
-turned over by the British, was officially occupied by American troops.
-The British, however, still maintained their control over Wisconsin&rsquo;s
-Indians through the fur trade now operating from posts just across the
-Canadian border.</p>
-<p>Within a month after the declaration of war against England by the
-American Congress in 1812, Mackinac was retaken by the British and
-<span class="pb" id="Page_34">34</span>
-Menomini and Winnebago Indians from Wisconsin. Among the Menomini
-were chiefs Tomah and Oshkosh, the latter destined to become a
-famous Menomini leader and friend of the Americans. Within another
-month Fort Dearborn (at Chicago) was attacked by Indians and most of
-its civilian and military inhabitants massacred. Menomini, Potawatomi,
-and Winnebago Indians from Wisconsin took part in this attack.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig28">
-<img src="images/p19a.jpg" alt="" width="596" height="800" />
-<p class="pcap">MENOMINI WARRIOR (FROM INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA).</p>
-</div>
-<p>The Americans were well aware of the strategic importance of Prairie
-du Chien in any attempt to control Wisconsin&rsquo;s Indians. In June, 1814,
-Fort Shelby, probably the first building over which an American flag
-ever flew in Wisconsin, was erected at this strategic location. Lt. Perkins
-and sixty men were left in charge at the fort.</p>
-<p>The British quickly determined to drive out the Americans and succeeded
-in forcing Perkins to surrender the fort on July 19, 1814. About
-500 Indians, mostly Menomini, Chippewa, Winnebago, and Sioux, took
-part in the assault on the American post.</p>
-<p>The British renamed the post Fort McKay and managed to hold it
-against the Americans until, in agreement with the Treaty of Ghent,
-they finally abandoned the fort in May, 1815, and British control of Wisconsin&rsquo;s
-Indians was finally at an end. The fate of Wisconsin&rsquo;s Indians
-was now in the hands of the United States Government.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_35">35</div>
-<h2 id="c5"><span class="small">CHAPTER FIVE</span>
-<br />THE PERIOD OF AMERICAN SETTLEMENT</h2>
-<div class="img">
-<img src="images/p20.jpg" id="ncfig6" alt="uncaptioned" width="1136" height="800" />
-</div>
-<p>Wisconsin&rsquo;s Indians, under the French and British had
-become increasingly dependent upon the white man. Without
-the invaders&rsquo; tools, weapons, utensils, and various other things
-which the Indian had come to depend upon, he found himself unable to
-supply himself with the necessities of life. The French and British traders,
-of course, were interested almost exclusively in procuring furs from the
-Indians, and as long as the aborigines could obtain furs for them, the
-traders would supply their needs.</p>
-<p>The Americans, however, were primarily interested in exploiting and
-settling the Indians&rsquo; land; fur trading was secondary. As they pushed
-into the new territory in ever increasing numbers, first to exploit the lead
-mines of southwestern Wisconsin, and then to farm the fertile soil, the
-Indian was doomed to be relentlessly pushed aside. He had lost his independence.
-Now he was to lose his land and the very means of his livelihood.</p>
-<p>The arrival of the Americans upon the Wisconsin scene pleased neither
-the Indians nor the French traders. Both relied to a great extent on the
-fur trade, and they knew that the clearing of land by the settlers would
-hasten the end of this activity. Many of the French, too, had Indian blood
-and considered their cause as one with the Indians. The United States
-<span class="pb" id="Page_36">36</span>
-government first showed poor judgment in its attempt to make these
-people conform to American standards. For example, the French and Indians
-were warned that common-law marriages between the two races
-would no longer be tolerated, but must be legalized by either a civil or
-church ceremony, and violators would face punishment. Both the French
-and Indians bitterly fought what seemed to them oppression, and eventually
-later decisions recognized the legality of common-law unions of
-earlier regimes.</p>
-<p>Wisconsin&rsquo;s Indian agents were for a time under the authority of two
-superintendents of Indian affairs. Lewis Cass, Governor of Michigan
-Territory, of which Wisconsin was a part from 1818 to 1836, was in charge
-of the Indian agent at Green Bay. The agent at Prairie du Chien worked
-under the direction of William Clark who, as Superintendent of St.
-Louis from 1807 to 1838, had authority to the source of the Mississippi
-River. These agents distributed annuities and payments due the Indians
-and attempted to keep white settlers from squatting on Indian land.
-The settlers, however, rudely took over Indian land and, in the inevitable
-conflict that followed, the militia and army would be called out to protect
-the whites. In the ensuing &ldquo;peace treaty&rdquo; the Indians would be forced
-to cede their lands and move westward.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig29">
-<img src="images/p20a.jpg" alt="" width="1085" height="800" />
-<p class="pcap">INVADING SETTLERS (PAINTING BY A. O. TIEMANN).</p>
-</div>
-<p>Wisconsin&rsquo;s early territorial period was also the era of the frontier
-fort manned by the regular U. S. Army. Since the pay for the ordinary
-soldier was very small, the army attracted men who could not succeed
-elsewhere, or immigrants who wished to desert at the first opportunity
-and travel westward. The officers, however, were of different character
-entirely. Educated at West Point, they were by far the most educated
-<span class="pb" id="Page_37">37</span>
-and cultured men in the frontier settlements. With their wives, they represented
-the cream of Wisconsin society of this period.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig30">
-<img src="images/p21.jpg" alt="" width="1149" height="800" />
-<p class="pcap">THE ENFORCING OF LEGAL MARRIAGE (PAINTING BY A. O. TIEMANN).</p>
-</div>
-<p>Wisconsin had three main forts along the Fox-Wisconsin waterway.
-Fort Howard was erected at Green Bay in 1816, the same year that Fort
-Crawford was established at Prairie du Chien. Fort Winnebago was built
-at what is now Portage in 1828, shortly after the Red Bird rebellion.
-The United States army did its best to maintain peace between the Indians
-and whites, and to protect the Indians from unlicensed traders, and
-sometimes legitimate ones, who illegally sold whiskey to them. In their
-efforts in this direction they often found themselves in conflict with civil
-authorities who sometimes protected the traders apprehended in such
-violations.</p>
-<p>The fur trade continued in Wisconsin while the population was primarily
-Indian, but by 1835 it was no longer of any significance in this
-area. Following the War of 1812, the United States Government set up
-fur trade &ldquo;factories&rdquo; at Prairie du Chien and Green Bay, hoping by this
-means to control some of the evils, one of the most vicious of which was
-the peddling of whiskey to the Indians. The whiskey was usually diluted
-with water, and adulterants such as turpentine, or even corrosive acids,
-added to restore the &ldquo;bite.&rdquo;</p>
-<p>The government entry into the fur trade was unsuccessful. The factors,
-as the proprietors of the trade &ldquo;factories&rdquo; were called, lacked experience
-in dealing with the Indians. They did not give credit advancements
-to them as did the other traders, and the American Fur Company
-applied pressure on Congress to end this system. Gradually this Company
-acquired the fur trade monopoly in this area; Solomon Juneau,
-<span class="pb" id="Page_38">38</span>
-Milwaukee&rsquo;s famous founder, was one of the American Fur Company&rsquo;s
-agents in what is now the State of Wisconsin. The gradual decadence of
-the fur trade, of course, increased the hardships of Wisconsin tribes.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig31">
-<img src="images/p21b.jpg" alt="" width="862" height="614" />
-<p class="pcap">OLD FORT WINNEBAGO
-(COURTESY OF THE
-WISCONSIN STATE HISTORICAL
-SOCIETY).</p>
-</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig32">
-<img src="images/p21c.jpg" alt="" width="879" height="589" />
-<p class="pcap">THE SECOND OR
-STONE FORT CRAWFORD
-(COURTESY OF
-THE WISCONSIN STATE
-HISTORICAL SOCIETY).</p>
-</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig33">
-<img src="images/p21e.jpg" alt="" width="903" height="482" />
-<p class="pcap">THE FIRST OR LOG
-FORT CRAWFORD
-(COURTESY OF THE
-WISCONSIN STATE HISTORICAL
-SOCIETY).</p>
-</div>
-<p>As settlers began encroaching on the Indians&rsquo; land, conflicts were inevitable.
-John C. Calhoun, the Secretary of War in 1825, sponsored a plan
-for the removal of eastern tribes across the Mississippi to the western
-<span class="pb" id="Page_39">39</span>
-plains. It was believed that by furnishing them with equipment for hunting
-and farming they could survive readily and would be safe from further
-pressure by white homesteaders. No one realized at this time how
-soon these western lands would be overrun by the relentless pressure of
-the American pioneer. The land purchased from the Indians was to be
-made available to American settlers. The lands of certain tribes of Wisconsin
-Indians were to be included in this overall plan.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig34">
-<img src="images/p22.jpg" alt="" width="624" height="801" />
-<p class="pcap">SOLOMON JUNEAU, AGED 60.</p>
-</div>
-<p>Unfortunately for the smooth functioning of this operation, the Indians
-did not care to leave the land on which they and their ancestors
-had hunted for so long a time, and travel to new hunting grounds. In
-many instances they were not removed without a show of force, sometimes
-with considerable blood being shed by both whites and Indians.</p>
-<p>In 1825, Lewis Cass and William Clark held a conference of Wisconsin
-tribes at Prairie du Chien. They hoped to establish definite boundaries
-for the holdings of the different tribes in order to eliminate friction
-between them. This would also facilitate future land purchases from the
-Indians. Roughly these boundaries were recognized: the southwest and
-southeast corners of Wisconsin were allotted to the southern Chippewa,
-Ottawa, and Potawatomi; the Winnebago held the remainder of southern
-Wisconsin; the Menomini kept the northeast part of the state from the
-Milwaukee River up; and the Chippewa held all of northern Wisconsin
-west of the Menomini. These Indian territories were not to be respected
-for very long by white squatters, however, and the Winnebago were to be
-among the first to encounter trouble from this source.</p>
-<p>The fact that southwestern Wisconsin was very rich in lead was discovered
-<span class="pb" id="Page_40">40</span>
-quite early in the French regime, and it is probable that the
-French taught the Indians how to mine and smelt the ore. By 1811, the
-Sauk and Fox are reported to have devoted almost all their attention
-to lead mining, only hunting to supply themselves with meat. They exchanged
-the metal with Canadian traders for the goods they needed.
-Some early American traders who attempted to get in on this trade were
-killed by the Indians, who feared that once the Americans learned of
-the value of the lead deposits their cupidity would be aroused and the
-Indians would lose their land. Later events were to prove the excellence
-of this reasoning.</p>
-<p>Aroused by the rich deposits, Cornish miners, particularly, began to
-arrive in force by 1827. The Indians were rudely expelled from their
-diggings and their mines appropriated by armed whites. In the same
-year, Red Bird, a young Winnebago chief, killed two settlers and scalped
-a baby who, interestingly enough, survived to become the mother of a
-large family and live to a ripe old age. Following this attack Red Bird
-and his warriors, about forty in number, celebrated the scalp taking with
-a drunken carousal at the mouth of the Bad Axe River, about forty miles
-north of Prairie du Chien. Two keelboats on their way from Fort Snelling
-to St. Louis were fired upon by the drunken Winnebago braves, and
-after a battle of about three hours, the keelboats escaped with a loss of
-four men dead and several wounded. The Indians were reported to have
-suffered losses of seven dead and fourteen wounded.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig35">
-<img src="images/p22a.jpg" alt="" width="1140" height="800" />
-<p class="pcap">JUNEAU&rsquo;S TRADING POST, MILWAUKEE (PAINTING BY A. O. TIEMANN).</p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_41">41</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig36">
-<img src="images/p23.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="962" />
-<p class="pcap">MENOMINI INDIANS
-OF THE EARLY 19TH
-CENTURY (PORTRAIT
-BY S. M. BROOKS).</p>
-</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig37">
-<img src="images/p23a.jpg" alt="" width="1104" height="800" />
-<p class="pcap">THE PIONEERS (PAINTING BY A. O. TIEMANN).</p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_42">42</div>
-<p>United States troops rapidly arrived at the scene, and after fleeing up
-the Wisconsin River, Red Bird found himself and his tribe surrounded.
-The Americans agreed to forget the matter of the keelboats providing the
-murderers of the settlers would give themselves up for trial. On Sept. 3,
-1827, Red Bird, rather than engage his people in a hopeless war against
-the whites, voluntarily surrendered to Major Whistler at Portage. Arrangements
-were made for the Americans to use the lead mines until a treaty
-could be arranged, and in July, 1829, another Grand Council was held
-at Prairie du Chien. The Winnebago, southern Potawatomi, Chippewa,
-and Ottawa agreed to cede their land. The United States Government
-now owned the rich lead mining country of southwestern Wisconsin.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig38">
-<img src="images/p23b.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="888" />
-<p class="pcap">WINNEBAGO CHIEF (PORTRAIT BY S. M. BROOKS).</p>
-</div>
-<p>During this period of American settlement, beginning as early as 1821
-and lasting through 1834, a migration of Indians from New York occurred
-which was to add some permanent residents to Wisconsin&rsquo;s Indian
-population. The Oneida and Munsee settled near Green Bay, and the
-Stockbridge and Brotherton Indians settled along the eastern shore of
-Lake Winnebago. The Menomini ceded 500,000 acres of their land to
-these tribes in 1831.</p>
-<p>Meanwhile the stage had been set for what was to become the most
-famous, and also, perhaps, the most infamous Indian and white conflict
-in the Wisconsin area. This was the so-called Black Hawk War, although
-it was more of a systematic extermination of Indians by whites, hardly
-deserving the term &ldquo;war.&rdquo;</p>
-<p>Black Hawk was leader of the &ldquo;British band&rdquo; of the Sauk with a large
-village, said to number about 500 families, situated near the mouth of the
-Rock River in Illinois. His people were known as the &ldquo;British band&rdquo;
-because of their known sympathies with the English, and also since
-Black Hawk and his warriors had fought with Tecumseh and the British
-against the Americans in the War of 1812.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_43">43</div>
-<p>White settlers began squatting on Black Hawk&rsquo;s land as early as 1823,
-despite the fact that according to treaty the Indians were not required to
-give up their land until land offices had been set up, an event which had
-not occurred. The Indians&rsquo; cornfields were fenced in, wigwams were
-burned, and the women mistreated. Black Hawk went to the British
-agent in Canada, near Detroit. He was advised that the treaties of 1804
-and 1816 were being violated and that he rightfully could resist the
-settlers and expect the backing of the United States Government. Black
-Hawk returned and warned the settlers that they would be attacked
-unless they left at once.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig39">
-<img src="images/p24.jpg" alt="" width="770" height="1000" />
-<p class="pcap">I-TWA-KU-AM, MOHICAN LEADER (PORTRAIT BY HAMLIN).</p>
-</div>
-<p>The alarmed settlers sought help from the Illinois militia which was
-rapidly called to arms in 1831. This show of force compelled Black Hawk
-to retire to the west side of the Mississippi River with his people, and
-<span class="pb" id="Page_44">44</span>
-promise not to return without government permission. Chief Keokuk,
-head of the combined Sauk and Fox tribes, had already taken all of his
-people, except the rebellious Black Hawk and his band, into what is now
-Iowa in 1830, realizing the futility of fighting the tremendously superior
-white forces.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig40">
-<img src="images/p24a.jpg" alt="" width="841" height="800" />
-<p class="pcap">BLACK HAWK (FROM INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA).</p>
-</div>
-<p>On April 6, 1832, Black Hawk crossed back into Illinois with approximately
-1000 of his people, about 400 of whom were warriors. He had been
-promised aid by emissaries of the Potawatomi, Winnebago, Ottawa, and
-Chippewa, but before a month had passed Black Hawk realized he would
-get little aid either from these tribes or from the British in a war against
-the settlers. The militia had been called out again in the meantime, and
-Black Hawk now only desired to make peace and get his people back to
-Iowa. He sent messengers under a white flag to Major Stillman who was
-encamped nearby with about 400 volunteers. The white flag was ignored,
-and three of the Indians were killed. Black Hawk had only forty warriors
-with him at the time, but angered by this treachery, he attacked
-Stillman&rsquo;s men in what he himself called a &ldquo;suicide charge.&rdquo;</p>
-<p>The tremendously superior force of volunteers, upon seeing Black
-Hawk&rsquo;s charging braves, fled frantically with the first volley fired by the
-Indians. As they fled they spread the alarm over most of northern Illinois,
-and maintained that Black Hawk had ambushed them with 2000 warriors.
-Following this event Black Hawk removed his women and children to the
-Lake Koshkonong area in Wisconsin, so that they could forage for desperately
-needed food and be relatively safe from attack. Black Hawk
-and his warriors spent the following two months attacking settlements
-along the Wisconsin-Illinois frontier. Two hundred whites and possibly
-as many Indians were killed in these border skirmishes.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_45">45</div>
-<p>Black Hawk soon found himself pursued by a greatly superior force of
-militia and regular U. S. Army troops. He and his band fled through the
-Madison, Wisconsin, area and were overtaken attempting to cross the Wisconsin
-River, where the Battle of Wisconsin Heights took place on July
-21, 1832. Black Hawk&rsquo;s braves succeeded in holding back the Americans
-while the tribe crossed the river, and the following morning one of his
-men made a surrender speech in the Winnebago language. No one in
-the American camp understood the plea for surrender terms, since the
-Winnebago followers of the Americans were not in their camp at the
-time. The Indians were again compelled to flee.</p>
-<p>Black Hawk then divided his people into two groups, one of which
-obtained rafts and canoes from friendly Winnebago, and proceeded
-down the Wisconsin River, hoping to reach the Mississippi River and
-cross back to Iowa. Soldiers from Prairie du Chien captured or shot
-most of them. Some others were hunted down in the woods by Menomini
-Indians led by white officers. As the rest of Black Hawk&rsquo;s band fled overland
-toward the Mississippi River, they were pursued by the combined
-forces of General Atkinson, General Henry, and Major Dodd, a total force
-of some four thousand men.</p>
-<p>When Black Hawk&rsquo;s band arrived at the Mississippi River, they were
-met by the steamboat &ldquo;Warrior.&rdquo; Black Hawk again attempted to surrender,
-but the &ldquo;Warrior&rsquo;s&rdquo; captain preferred to believe this a trick and
-opened fire on the Indians. The infantry then arrived and attacked the
-Indians from the rear. Men, women, and children were forced into the
-river at bayonet point. Many were drowned as they attempted to swim
-the river, and others were picked off by American sharpshooters from
-the shore. This was the massacre of the Bad Axe River, which lasted three
-hours, and in which 150 Indians were killed and as many more drowned.
-A band of Sioux, brought there for the purpose by General Atkinson,
-set upon the 300 Indians who reached the other bank and killed about
-half of them.</p>
-<p>Only about 150 survivors remained of the thousand Indians who had
-crossed with Black Hawk into Illinois in April only four months before.</p>
-<p>Black Hawk fled to the Winnebago, who later surrendered him to the
-Americans. He was then taken on a tour through the eastern states to
-impress him with the power of the American Government, and released
-in June, 1833. His tribe was given a small reservation in Iowa on the
-Des Moines River, where he died October 3, 1838. The treatment of
-Black Hawk and his people in the so-called &ldquo;Black Hawk War&rdquo; will
-always remain a blot on American history and a discredit to the Government.</p>
-<p>From the time of the &ldquo;Black Hawk War&rdquo; on, Wisconsin Indians were
-rapidly deprived of their land. In September, 1832, the Winnebago ceded
-the rest of their holdings south and east of the Fox and Wisconsin Rivers.
-Upon promise of payment of about one million dollars to the Indians
-and their creditors, the southern Chippewa, Ottawa, and Potawatomi, in
-a treaty at Chicago, Illinois, turned over their holdings in southern Wisconsin
-in 1833. The Menomini ceded almost four million acres between
-Green Bay and the Wolf River to the United States Government in 1836.
-In 1838, the Oneida ceded most of their land in this same area to the
-<span class="pb" id="Page_46">46</span>
-United States. The Chippewa, Sioux, and Winnebago, in three separate
-treaties, ceded the western half of Wisconsin, above the Wisconsin River,
-in 1837. With the final cession of some small holdings of the Menomini
-in the east central part of the state, in 1848, the United States Government
-now had possession of all Indian land in Wisconsin.</p>
-<p>The Indians, in most cases, had western lands assigned to them. The
-United States army forcibly removed many Winnebago to Nebraska,
-some of whom remain there today. Other Winnebago, homesick for
-Wisconsin and afraid of the Sioux, gradually wandered back to Wisconsin
-where they still are. In 1854 the Menomini were placed on a reservation
-on the Upper Wolf River. Shortly after this, they sold two townships
-to the Stockbridge Indians. In 1854, also, three large reservations:
-Lac Court Oreilles, Lac du Flambeau, and Bad River, were assigned to the
-Chippewa.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig41">
-<img src="images/p25.jpg" alt="" width="1157" height="792" />
-<p class="pcap">SURRENDER OF BLACK HAWK (MURAL BY CAL PETERS, VILLA LOUIS, COURTESY
-OF THE WISCONSIN STATE HISTORICAL SOCIETY).</p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_47">47</div>
-<h2 id="c6"><span class="small">CHAPTER SIX</span>
-<br />WISCONSIN&rsquo;S INDIANS TODAY</h2>
-<div class="img" id="fig42">
-<img src="images/p26.jpg" alt="" width="728" height="1000" />
-<p class="pcap">MIXED COSTUME IN FOX CEREMONIAL DANCE.</p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_48">48</div>
-<p>In considering the story of those Indians who were important
-in the history of our state, we have seen that from time to time some
-tribes have left the Wisconsin scene. We might well wonder what
-has been their final fate and where they may be found today. As we remember
-the United States Government removal plan, we are not too surprised
-to find many of them located at reservations and agencies in our
-western United States.</p>
-<p>The Sauk and Fox are at agencies in Iowa, Kansas, and Oklahoma.
-The Sauk and Fox reservation in Iowa has an Indian population of 473,
-and there are 129 Sauk and Fox at the Kansas reservation and an additional
-910 at the Sauk and Fox reservation at the Shawnee agency in
-Oklahoma.</p>
-<p>The Kickapoo have small reservations in Oklahoma and Kansas. The
-Indian population at the Kickapoo reservation in Oklahoma numbers
-269; and at the Kickapoo reservation in Kansas, 343. In addition, there
-are some 350 Kickapoo living in the state of Coahuila, Mexico, having
-split off from the Oklahoma band in 1852. Population figures given
-here for the Sauk, Fox, and Kickapoo are from the estimates of the Office
-of Indian Affairs of the United States Department of the Interior for
-the year 1940.</p>
-<p>The present whereabouts of the Mascoutens presents somewhat of
-a mystery. Most students of the subject at present believe that members
-of the Prairie Band of the Potawatomi, who also call themselves the
-Mascoutens, are the descendents of that tribe, which is so often referred
-to in early Wisconsin history. The early Mascoutens were closely related
-to the Sauk, Fox, and Kickapoo, according to early reports, in language
-and culture, and usually were the political allies of these tribes as well.
-Some bands of the Prairie Potawatomi are found associated with the
-Kickapoo in Oklahoma and Kansas, and also in Mexico.</p>
-<p>As for the Santee Sioux, who were in northern Wisconsin even before
-the arrival of the white man, it is again difficult to give accurate present
-population figures. The term Santee originally designated one band of
-Indians, but eventually came to mean all of the forest bands of the
-Sioux, of whom, in all probability, many never resided in Wisconsin.
-There are, according to the 1940 estimate, 1,197 Sioux living on the Santee
-reservation in Nebraska, and there are 585 Sioux in Minnesota who
-would be included in the Santee division. If we were to include all tribes
-generally classed as Santee Sioux today, expressed in round numbers, 5,000
-would probably be a conservative estimate. However, many of these are
-not derived from those bands formerly living in Wisconsin.</p>
-<p>Returning to the Wisconsin scene today, we learn from the 1940 estimates
-of the Office of Indian Affairs that the present Indian population
-in Wisconsin is 13,678. Of this total, 5,605 are Chippewa, residing at the
-Bad River, Lac Court Oreilles, Lac du Flambeau, and Red Cliff reservations.
-Also included in this figure are the Mole Lake Chippewa and the
-St. Croix band.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_49">49</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig43">
-<img src="images/p27.jpg" alt="" width="613" height="1000" />
-<p class="pcap">FOX INDIAN, IOWA.</p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_50">50</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig44">
-<img src="images/p27a.jpg" alt="" width="1031" height="800" />
-<p class="pcap">THE CHIPPEWA STILL PREPARE BUCK-SKIN.</p>
-</div>
-<p>Included in Wisconsin&rsquo;s present Indian population are also 2,454
-Menomini, located at their reservation in Shawano County; 460 Stockbridge
-and Munses, on their reservation adjoining that of the Menomini;
-1,700 Oneida, scattered around the village of Oneida, 10 miles southwest
-of Green Bay; 1,498 Winnebago, on public domain land allotments, primarily
-in Jackson, Wood, and Shawano counties; and 310 Potawatomi,
-in Forest County. While only a small number of Potawatomi have returned
-to this state since their removal, over half of the Winnebago are
-now back in their Wisconsin homeland. In addition to the Winnebago
-who returned to Wisconsin after their removal by the United States Army,
-1,268 remained at their reservation in Nebraska. Thus of this reportedly
-numerous and powerful tribe first encountered by the French when
-Nicolet landed near Green Bay, in 1634, about 2,766 still survive.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_51">51</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig45">
-<img src="images/p28.jpg" alt="" width="668" height="700" />
-<p class="pcap">A CHARACTERISTIC WISCONSIN ONEIDA.</p>
-</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig46">
-<img src="images/p28a.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="1048" />
-<p class="pcap">ELDERLY
-ONEIDA
-WOMAN.</p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_52">52</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig47">
-<img src="images/p28c.jpg" alt="" width="496" height="1000" />
-<p class="pcap">DECORAH HENRY THUNDER,
-WISCONSIN WINNEBAGO.</p>
-</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig48">
-<img src="images/p28d.jpg" alt="" width="547" height="799" />
-<p class="pcap">THE CRADLE-BOARD
-BARELY SURVIVED
-AMONG THE WISCONSIN
-CHIPPEWA.</p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_53">53</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig49">
-<img src="images/p29.jpg" alt="" width="1200" height="698" />
-<p class="pcap">YOUNG POTAWATOMI FACES A DIFFICULT WORLD.</p>
-</div>
-<p>The future status of Wisconsin&rsquo;s Indians presents a considerable problem
-to the United States Government. Their life on reservations is hardly
-an easy one for the majority. Even among the Menomini, whose tribal
-lumbering industry makes them economically the most prosperous in
-the state, the standard of living is not high. Finding a means whereby
-they can earn a decent living is probably the greatest difficulty. For the
-most part they suffer for lack of adequate clothing and food, particularly
-during the winter season. To alleviate the situation, a considerable number
-have migrated to the cities to obtain employment, and there are an
-estimated one thousand Indians living in Milwaukee, for example, of
-which the largest group is Oneida.</p>
-<p>So far no satisfactory solution to the problem has been reached, although
-some sincere attempts have been made in that direction. The
-hope, of course, is that eventually the Indians will be assimilated by the
-rest of our population and be able to live normal lives as United States
-citizens. Without intelligently directed help this process will take a long
-time, and during that period the Indians will continue to suffer.</p>
-<p>The Wisconsin Indians of today are acculturated to a greater or lesser
-degree: among the Chippewa, Potawatomi, Menomini, and Winnebago
-a considerable amount of the traditional culture survives; among the
-Stockbridge and Oneida nearly all of the old culture is lost. It is to be
-hoped that all of the colorful pattern of Indian culture and tradition is
-not lost in the process of assimilation.</p>
-<p>One thing is certain, the Indians of Wisconsin, along with most of
-those of the entire United States, have suffered much at the hands of the
-white man. They deserve constructive help now toward accomplishing the
-ultimate adjustment to the final demands made on them by the white
-man&rsquo;s civilization.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_54">54</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig50">
-<img src="images/p29a.jpg" alt="" width="652" height="800" />
-<p class="pcap">MODERN POTAWATOMI.</p>
-</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig51">
-<img src="images/p29b.jpg" alt="" width="620" height="1000" />
-<p class="pcap">YOUNG FOLKS
-IN ANCIENT DRESS.</p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_55">55</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig52">
-<img src="images/p30.jpg" alt="" width="960" height="800" />
-<p class="pcap">POTAWATOMI TAR-PAPERED SHACK.</p>
-</div>
-<div class="img">
-<img src="images/p30a.jpg" id="ncfig7" alt="uncaptioned" width="330" height="277" />
-</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig53">
-<img src="images/p30c.jpg" alt="" width="1000" height="745" />
-<p class="pcap">CABIN TYPE OF ONEIDA HOUSE.</p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_56">56</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig54">
-<img src="images/p30d.jpg" alt="" width="1000" height="730" />
-<p class="pcap">BETTER TYPE OF ONEIDA HOUSE.</p>
-</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig55">
-<img src="images/p30e.jpg" alt="" width="1000" height="610" />
-<p class="pcap">MENOMINI SAWMILL AT NEOPIT.</p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_57">57</div>
-<h3 id="c7">LOCATION OF INDIAN TRIBES</h3>
-<div class="img" id="fig56">
-<img src="images/p31.jpg" alt="" width="526" height="600" />
-<p class="pcap"><span class="ss">1634</span></p>
-</div>
-<dl class="undent pcap"><dt>SANTEE SIOUX</dt>
-<dt>MENOMINI</dt>
-<dt>WINNEBAGO</dt></dl>
-<div class="img" id="fig57">
-<img src="images/p31a.jpg" alt="" width="531" height="600" />
-<p class="pcap"><span class="ss">1634-1673</span></p>
-</div>
-<dl class="undent pcap"><dt>OTTOWA</dt>
-<dt>CHIPPEWA</dt>
-<dt>SANTEE SIOUX</dt>
-<dt>HURON</dt>
-<dt>MENOMINI</dt>
-<dt>SAUK</dt>
-<dt>FOX</dt>
-<dt>WINNEBAGO</dt>
-<dt>POTAWATOMI</dt>
-<dt>MASCOUTEN</dt>
-<dt>MIAMI</dt>
-<dt>KICKAPOO</dt>
-<dt>ILLINOIS</dt></dl>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_58">58</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig58">
-<img src="images/p31c.jpg" alt="" width="522" height="600" />
-<p class="pcap"><span class="ss">1700-1760</span></p>
-</div>
-<dl class="undent pcap"><dt>CHIPPEWA</dt>
-<dt>SANTEE SIOUX</dt>
-<dt>MENOMINI</dt>
-<dt>SAUK</dt>
-<dt>FOX</dt>
-<dt>WINNEBAGO</dt>
-<dt>POTAWATOMI</dt>
-<dt>KICKAPOO</dt></dl>
-<div class="img" id="fig59">
-<img src="images/p31d.jpg" alt="" width="514" height="600" />
-<p class="pcap"><span class="ss">TODAY</span></p>
-</div>
-<dl class="undent pcap"><dd>RED CLIFF RES.</dd>
-<dd>LA POINTE RES.</dd>
-<dt>CHIPPEWA</dt>
-<dd>LAC DU FLAMBEAU RES.</dd>
-<dt>POTAWATOMI</dt>
-<dt>ST. CROIX BAND</dt>
-<dd>LAC COURT OREILLES RES.</dd>
-<dt>MENOMINI</dt>
-<dd>STOCKBRIDGE</dd>
-<dt>WINNEBAGO</dt>
-<dd>ONEIDA</dd></dl>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_59">59</div>
-<h3 id="c8">POPULAR MILWAUKEE PUBLIC MUSEUM PUBLICATIONS</h3>
-<div class="img" id="fig60">
-<img src="images/p32.jpg" alt="" width="434" height="500" />
-<p class="pcap"><span class="rubric ss">PREHISTORIC INDIANS OF WISCONSIN</span></p>
-</div>
-<p>A well illustrated summary of what is
-known about the Indians of Wisconsin previous
-to the coming of the white man,
-identifying such cultural divisions as the
-Old Copper, Woodland, Hopewellian, Upper
-Mississippi, and Middle Mississippi,
-and discussing their products, ways of living,
-history, and health. This instructive
-booklet will be of interest to readers of
-all ages.
-<span class="lr">60 cents</span></p>
-<div class="img" id="fig61">
-<img src="images/p32a.jpg" alt="" width="355" height="500" />
-<p class="pcap"><span class="rubric ss">FOR BEAUTY&rsquo;S SAKE</span></p>
-</div>
-<p>The Indians of the Americas
-employed a wide variety
-of beauty aids involving tatooing,
-nose rings, ear plugs,
-lip quills, skull deforming, lip
-ornamentation, hair styles,
-nose feathers, and head shaving,
-all illustrated in this popularly
-treated booklet.
-<span class="lr">15 cents</span></p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_60">60</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig62">
-<img src="images/p32c.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="598" />
-<p class="pcap"><span class="rubric ss">MASKS OF NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS</span></p>
-</div>
-<p>Contains seventeen illustrations of masks, including illustrations
-of the Iroquois false-face, Hopi Katchina, Apache
-Devil Dance and other masks, with text telling how they
-were made and used.
-<span class="lr">15 cents</span></p>
-<div class="img" id="fig63">
-<img src="images/p32d.jpg" alt="" width="390" height="500" />
-<p class="pcap"><span class="rubric ss">INDIAN CRADLES</span></p>
-</div>
-<p>People have long been interested
-in how the Indians cared
-for and protected their babies.
-This entertaining and instructive
-booklet explains the use and
-construction of cradles made by
-the Kwakiutl, Hopi, Pomo,
-Chippewa, Chinook, Paiute, and
-Sioux Indians. Six different cradles
-are illustrated showing a
-variety of materials and styles,
-including the head-deforming
-cradle board.
-<span class="lr">15 cents</span></p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_61">61</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig64">
-<img src="images/p33a.jpg" alt="" width="269" height="801" />
-<p class="pcap"><span class="rubric ss">SHRUNKEN HEADS</span></p>
-</div>
-<p>How the Jivaro Indians of Eastern Ecuador
-shrunk and preserved human heads has been a
-fascinating story which is told in detail in this
-generously illustrated, popular booklet.
-<span class="lr">15 cents</span></p>
-<div class="img" id="fig65">
-<img src="images/p33c.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="554" />
-<p class="pcap"><span class="rubric ss">WEST AFRICAN ART</span></p>
-</div>
-<p>A profusely illustrated eighty-four page booklet with popular and
-reference value, covering such areas as the British Cameroons, Nigeria,
-French Guinea, and the Gold and Ivory coasts.
-<span class="lr">75 cents</span></p>
-<h2>Transcriber&rsquo;s Notes</h2>
-<ul>
-<li>Silently corrected a few typos.</li>
-<li>Retained publication information from the printed edition: this eBook is public-domain in the country of publication.</li>
-<li>In the text versions only, text in italics is delimited by _underscores_.</li>
-</ul>
-<div style='display:block; margin-top:4em'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE INDIANS IN WISCONSIN'S HISTORY ***</div>
-<div style='text-align:left'>
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