diff options
Diffstat (limited to 'old/65504-0.txt')
| -rw-r--r-- | old/65504-0.txt | 2103 |
1 files changed, 0 insertions, 2103 deletions
diff --git a/old/65504-0.txt b/old/65504-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index c9d287b..0000000 --- a/old/65504-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,2103 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Indians in Wisconsin's History, by John -M. Douglass - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: The Indians in Wisconsin's History - -Author: John M. Douglass - -Release Date: June 4, 2021 [eBook #65504] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -Produced by: Stephen Hutcheson and the Online Distributed Proofreading - Team at https://www.pgdp.net - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE INDIANS IN WISCONSIN'S -HISTORY *** - - [Illustration: INDIAN YOUTH AT “SCHOOL” (PAINTING BY A. O. - TIEMANN).] - - - - - THE INDIANS - IN WISCONSIN’S HISTORY - - - BY JOHN M. DOUGLASS - -The author, a member of the History Division of the Milwaukee Public -Museum, died January 26, 1951, shortly after completing the manuscript -of this handbook. - - [Illustration: Indian head] - - POPULAR SCIENCE HANDBOOK SERIES NO. 6 - - DESIGNED AND PRINTED AT - THE MILWAUKEE PUBLIC MUSEUM - - PUBLISHED BY ORDER OF - THE BOARD OF TRUSTEES - MAY 1954 - - - - - CHAPTER ONE - WISCONSIN’S INDIANS BEFORE THE COMING OF THE WHITE MAN - - - [Illustration: ROACH HEADDRESS (MUSEUM EXHIBIT).] - -It is difficult now to realize that Wisconsin, famed as a dairy state -and rich in farm land and thriving communities, was once a great -wilderness. Before the land was cleared for the farmer’s plow and with -its dense forests yet to hear the lumberjack’s axe, the thick timberland -of the north and even the rolling prairies of the central and southern -portions of our state teemed with a great variety of wild life, -including animals no longer occurring in Wisconsin, such as the woodland -caribou, moose, elk, and buffalo or bison, as well as the more familiar -deer, bear, and many smaller varieties. - -Before the arrival of the Europeans, this Wisconsin wilderness was the -home of Indians who were wonderfully adapted to a life in the forests. -They depended almost entirely on hunting and the gathering of natural -products for their food, shelter, clothing, tools, and weapons, although -most of them raised some garden crops such as corn, squash, beans, and -possibly tobacco. - -Let’s pretend that we can travel backwards in time about 350 years and -visit a typical Indian family of that period. As we arrive on the scene -the tribe is preparing to set up a new camp. The women are busy -unpacking their household gear, including reed mats used to cover the -outer sides of the wigwam. The women themselves have carried the loads -during the journey. This is not done because of any laziness on the part -of the men, a common error of white observers, but simply because the -men need their hands free to ward off a sudden enemy attack, or to kill -any game they might chance upon during the journey. - -While the women unpack, the men enter the woods to cut poles for the -framework of the wigwams, and collect birch bark for the roofs. After -the poles are set into the ground to make an oval enclosure, they are -bent and tied together at the top to form a rounded roof. The women then -tie on the reed mats, and roof the hut with the rolls of bark. This is -the typical Wisconsin Indian winter lodge. Although it is the latter -part of March, the weather is still too cold to live comfortably in a -summer lodge. - -If we lift the bearskin covering the entrance and step into the lodge, -we may see the simple furnishings and personal possessions of the family -we are going to visit. A hole in the middle of the roof serves to carry -off the smoke from the fire burning in the center of the floor. This -fire serves the double purpose of heating the lodge and cooking the -family meals. We find the hut almost too smoky to endure, accustomed as -we are to our modern homes, but our Indian friends seem quite -comfortable. - -Since our Indian family is fairly large, including the father’s parents -as well as the mother, father, two boys, and two girls, the wigwam is -proportionately large in order to accommodate all of them. - -We look about the inside of the lodge and see the sleeping mats and -furs. The family’s spare clothing, breechclouts, shirts, leggings, and -moccasins of tanned deerskin for the men, and skirts, blouses, and -moccasins for the women, are in one corner. The garments are beautifully -decorated with designs grandma embroidered on them with dyed porcupine -quills. The work is quite fine and it takes many hours to do a small -portion of the embroidery. Father is especially fond of his headdress, a -roach made of deer and porcupine hair, and an eagle feather which -indicates that he has killed an enemy in battle. - - [Illustration: WIGWAMS, OR WINTER LODGES.] - -As we step outside again and look about, we can see why this particular -spot has been chosen as the campsite. A small lake and several springs -are only a short distance away, but the most important reason for -camping here at this season is a large grove of sugar maple trees -immediately to one side of the camp. March is the proper time to tap the -trees for their sap. - -The next two or three weeks are spent tapping the trees, and boiling the -sap down until maple syrup, and finally only maple sugar is left. This -sugar keeps indefinitely and provides a very nourishing as well as a -delicious source of food for the entire family. The children are -especially fond of it. - -It is not a case of all work and no play during this period, for the -children, Morning Star, White Fawn, Blackbird, and Little Otter, play -games when their tasks are finished, and gambling games are popular with -the men and women. Here we see mother and some neighbor women playing -the cup and pin game. Each player in turn tosses into the air small -cone-shaped cups made of antler tips or bear-toe bones, and tries to -catch one or more on a bone pin. The men are enthusiastic gamblers, too, -using marked sticks which are thrown and scored somewhat like our own -familiar dice games. - -When the sugar making is finished, the tribe breaks camp and travels by -birch-bark canoe to a new location. The canoes are wonderfully light -boats and can be paddled very swiftly. Their light weight makes them -relatively easy to carry or portage from one stream to another. Our -canoe has eyes painted on the bow and stern. The father explains that -these eyes enable the canoe to “see where to go.” - - [Illustration: INDIAN CHILDREN AT PLAY (PAINTING BY A. O. TIEMANN).] - - [Illustration: BIRCH-BARK CANOE.] - -At the new summer camp we watch our friends build summer lodges. These -are rectangular in shape with inverted-V-shaped roofs much like our own -houses. The entire lodge is covered with strips of elm or other bark. - -As is often the case, the new campsite is near a river, and springs -nearby furnish cool, pure drinking water. There are also open clearings -closeby which will be utilized for gardening. The next few weeks, -however, will be used for making necessary utensils and equipment needed -by the tribe. - - [Illustration: SUMMER LODGE.] - - [Illustration: ANCIENT WOODLAND POTTERY VESSEL.] - -One day we are interested observers of pottery making. Grandma goes to a -clay bed near the river and selects suitable materials including some -coarse sand for tempering the pottery paste, which is made of both clay -and sand. The paste is worked into long cylinders which are finally -coiled about into the desired shape. After the vessel has assumed final -shape it is paddled with a cord-wrapped tool and allowed to air-dry for -several days, and finally baked in a large outdoor fire. The finished -pot can be used to boil water or cook food, and has the advantage of -being easily replaced in case of breakage. - -May soon arrives, and as this is the time to plant corn, our Indian -family selects a suitable clearing for their garden. The men burn out -the underbrush and the women and girls prepare for the planting itself. -Grandma informs us that it is always best to soak the grains in water -several days before seeding. After the seeds have been properly -softened, the women and girls dig holes in the ground, place six or -seven grains of corn in each hole, and then heap up the dirt over the -seeds in a little hillock. Squash and beans are planted in the clearing, -too. - -One day we are told that the tribe is going to have a game drive, since -considerable meat is needed by the village. We go along into the forest -and watch the men chop down trees with their stone axes. These are all -felled in one direction, the cut incomplete so that the tree is still -attached to the stump, and in two rows so as to leave a gradually -narrowing corridor more than a mile long. The deer are then driven -towards the corridor where men stationed with bows are able to shoot -them easily as they approach the narrow opening between the barriers. - -A number of the animals are killed in this way and taken back to the -village where their flesh can be preserved by being cut into strips and -smoke-dried. We are all too hungry, however, to wait until we return to -the village before eating. The chief says we can have some boiled -venison stew. We are puzzled at this, for no utensils have been brought -along, but we soon learn how resourceful our Indian friends are. - -One of the men obtains some edible roots; another cuts the stomachs from -several of the deer. Each one of the stomachs is cleaned and tied to -form a pouch. The venison, roots, and some wild rice which some of the -men brought along, are placed in the prepared deer stomachs, water -added, and the ingenious “kettles” suspended over a slow fire. In a -relatively short time a delicious stew is set before each of us, served -in birch-bark dishes prepared in a few minutes by another of the -hunters. - -While we are eating we ask the father of the Indian family we are -visiting how the chief of his tribe obtained his position. We are told -that his ability as a warrior and leader has led to his being chosen war -chief, and his ability as an orator and his power to make people like -him has kept him in authority. He says that in a nearby village the -chief is also a great war leader, but he is not well liked otherwise. -For that reason he sometimes finds it difficult to make his warriors -obey him and he is therefore not nearly as powerful as our leader. We -soon realize that the Indian chiefs depend primarily upon personal -prestige and influence to keep them in power. We are informed, however, -that in some other tribes the chief is always selected from a certain -clan. - - [Illustration: YOUTH FASTING FOR A VISION (PAINTING BY A. O. - TIEMANN).] - -One morning we witness a curious ceremony. Grandfather offers Blackbird, -the older boy, some charcoal as well as his food. The father seems very -proud when his son rejects the food, applies the charcoal to his face, -and leaves the village to enter the forest alone. Grandfather explains -that Blackbird, by accepting the charcoal, automatically agreed to fast -alone in the forest for one day. This one-day fast will be good training -for the day when he will feel ready to go on the long fast of four or -five days. Every man has taken this long fast in the hope of seeing a -vision of a guardian spirit who would then be his lifetime protector. - -The girls, too, must fast, but in a somewhat different fashion. Soon -Morning Star, the older girl in our friend’s family, will reach -womanhood and be segregated for a number of days in a secluded lodge, -and during this period no men may approach her. - -The summer season rapidly nears an end. We have enjoyed ourselves -watching the activities of our friends at work and at play. We have -learned, too, some of the beliefs of our friends. Grandfather has told -us stories about the great white bear with the copper tail who dwells -underground and is the greatest power for evil. He has told the children -how the “Indian Sandman,” a good-natured elf, would put people to sleep -at night by hitting them on the head with a soft war club. We have -learned, too, of the many spirits for good and evil who control the sun, -moon, stars, winds, rain, thunder, and all the other phenomena of -nature. One evening he pointed out the Milky Way and told us that this -was the road over which the dead travelled to the land of the spirits. -He also warned us about entering the woods alone at night because of the -evil, living skeleton which haunts the forest paths seeking unwary men. - - [Illustration: TALES OF THE SPIRIT WORLD (PAINTING BY A. O. - TIEMANN).] - - [Illustration: THE RICE GATHERER.] - -Autumn, the time for harvesting garden crops as well as various wild -vegetable foods, is a season of hard work for all. Corn is the most -important garden crop, and from time to time we have sampled the ripe -grain. The women have served us some roasted on the cob, or the fresh -kernels ground with a wooden mortar and pestle and served as a sort of -porridge. The ripe corn is now gathered and the ears will be allowed to -dry. The dried kernels can then be ground into a meal, as needed, since -the dry corn will remain edible for a long time. - -Wild rice is the most important vegetable food provided for the Indians -by nature. One day, in the middle of September, we all go a short -distance up the river in our canoes and enter a small lake. Here the -wild grain grows in great quantities. The men selected by the chief to -determine when the rice is ready to be gathered have already given us -the signal that the grain is ripe. We learn, however, that one more -function is required before we can proceed with the harvesting of the -rice. - -The chief medicine man of our village approaches the edge of the water -and blows tobacco smoke towards the heavens as an offering to his -“Grandfather,” the “Master of the Rice.” He then buries a small portion -of tobacco in the ground, and we are ready to proceed. - -In each canoe, as the man poles the boat slowly through the rice, the -woman, who sits facing the man, pulls the stalks over the canoe with one -cedar stick, while with another stick she beats the ripe grain into the -boat. When the canoes are full, we head back for camp where the rice is -spread out to dry. - -Then the women heat the unhusked kernels in a pot over a slow fire until -all have partially popped open. Next a small pit is dug and a stake set -into the ground beside it. The depression is lined with buckskin and -filled with the parched grain. The father then takes hold of the stake, -steps into the grain-filled pit, and begins treading the grain with his -feet to loosen the husks from the kernels. - -The women take the grain from the pit and toss it up and down in bark -winnowing trays. The wind blows away the light chaff as the grain is -tossed into the air, and allows only the kernels to fall back into the -tray. - -The time soon arrives for our friends to break camp and seek a winter -campsite where the hunting is known to be good. Hunting and fishing will -be the main source of food during the winter season. - -At the new campsite, storage pits lined with birch bark are dug in the -ground to be used for storing the nuts, dried berries, dried corn, and -rice that have been gathered and prepared during the Autumn. If hunting -is poor, or if a severe winter threatens famine to the village, this -stored food may be the sole means of preventing starvation. - -It is now time for us to leave our Indian friends, but before we go we -learn that the winter season will be spent not only in the pursuits of -fishing through the ice and hunting, but also, in the telling of -stories, singing, and playing many different games. When the snows are -deep, the tribe will don snowshoes for their hunting trips. We will miss -seeing them play snowsnake. In this game the Indians compete with each -other to see who can hurl the wooden “snake” the greatest distance -across the snow or ice. We are sorry to miss all these things, but the -time has come for us to end our visit. - -As we say farewell to our friends from the distant past, we reflect -regretfully that the coming of the white man will change the old ways of -life for these people of the forests, and soon their independence and -freedom will vanish forever. The Indians seem destined to become largely -dependent upon the whites for their livelihood, and even for the few -remnants of land to be left them for their homes. - - [Illustration: THRASHING RICE (MUSEUM EXHIBIT).] - - - - - CHAPTER TWO - WISCONSIN’S INDIANS UNDER FRENCH RULE - - - [Illustration: THE FUR TRADERS (MUSEUM MURAL BY A. O. TIEMANN).] - -Few of us realize that the early history of Wisconsin is as romantic as -any our eastern seaboard states can boast. The area that is now the -State of Wisconsin became the gateway into the Middlewest and the -meeting place for the French and the Indian tribes of what was then -regarded as the West. This early period of French control was an era in -which Jesuit missionaries carried the doctrine of Christianity from -village to village, often visiting tribes that had never before seen -white men. It was a time when the French traders, lured by the love of -adventure and romance as well as the wealth to be obtained in the fur -trade, pushed through the forests and followed strange rivers until they -reached the villages of unknown Wisconsin Indians. It was in these -villages that such traders, including the “noblest” youth of New France, -lived with the Indians, sat in their councils, took part in their war -dances, accompanied their war parties to battle, and often married their -women. - -It was in this early French Regime that Wisconsin’s Indian tribes -underwent great changes in their manner of life due to contacts with the -white man’s civilization, It was a time of warfare and a struggle for -supremacy in North America between the British and the French, and their -Indian allies, with Wisconsin’s tribes espoused to the cause of the -French. It was the heyday of the fur trade with literally millions of -beaver and other skins being taken from Wisconsin to enrich the trader -and obtain white man’s goods for the Indians. - -Despite the fact that Wisconsin’s Indians all lived in pretty much the -same manner, most of us are aware that there were different tribes in -our state at various times, and that they spoke different languages in -some instances. If we use a comparison from European languages, we might -better understand the character of these Indian languages. German, -English, and Swedish all originated from the same parent tongue and -belong to the same basic language division. English and Chinese are -unrelated tongues belonging to different basic language stocks. Thus, -while many words are very similar in English and German, in English and -Chinese no apparent similarity exists. - -Three basic language divisions, Algonkian, Siouan, and Iroquoian, were -represented by Wisconsin’s Indians. Algonkian was represented by such -tribes as the Menomini, Potawatomi, Chippewa, Mascouten, Sauk, Fox, -Ottawa, and Kickapoo. Relatively late arrivals to Wisconsin (in the -1800’s), also speaking Algonkian tongues, were the Munsee, Brotherton, -and Stockbridge tribes. The Siouan group included the Winnebago, and the -Santee division of the Dakota Sioux. The Huron and the Oneida (the -latter also arriving in the 1800’s) were Wisconsin representatives of -the Iroquoian language stock. The differences become more apparent when -we realize that languages in the Iroquoian division would be as -different from those in the Algonkian stock as English is from Chinese. - -The historic period in Wisconsin began when Jean Nicolet, the first -known white man to visit Wisconsin, landed near what is now Green Bay, -in 1634. Nicolet’s mission was to arrange a peace between the powerful -Winnebago tribe, or Puans, as they were known to the French, and the -Ottawa who were then acting as middlemen between the French and the -Indians of the unknown Middlewest. - - [Illustration: THE LANDING OF NICOLET (MUSEUM MURAL BY GEORGE - PETER).] - -Nicolet’s journey into the Wisconsin wilderness, a mere fourteen years -after the landing of our pilgrim forefathers at Plymouth Rock, was the -beginning of the period of French exploration and rule in Wisconsin -which is as romantic and fascinating a story as any in our country’s -history. Imagine Nicolet’s emotion as he approached his destination, a -lone white man with seven Indians for companions, in a country which, as -far as was known, had never before been visited by a white man. He had -no idea as to what sort of reception he would receive from these strange -people he was to visit. Their friendliness or enmity would be determined -upon arrival. Fortunately he was hailed as a great visitor, and feasted -and entertained accordingly. - -Only three Indian tribes are definitely known to have been residents of -Wisconsin when Nicolet visited here in 1634. These were the Winnebago; -the Menomini, who resided along the shores of the Menominee River above -Green Bay; and the Santee Sioux, whose villages were scattered along the -upper reaches of the Mississippi River in northwestern Wisconsin and -eastern Minnesota. - -Documentary evidence strongly suggests that some other tribes, often -mentioned as early residents, as, for example, the Mascouten, did not -arrive until a generation later. Archaeological findings conclusively -show the prehistoric occupation of Wisconsin by the Santee Sioux and the -Winnebago, and support the probability of prehistoric occupation by the -Menomini. Thus Wisconsin was controlled primarily by Siouan speaking -peoples in 1634. The peaceful Menomini were far outnumbered by their -powerful neighbors, the Winnebago, but this situation was soon to change -radically. - - [Illustration: WINNEBAGO VILLAGE (PAINTING BY A. O. TIEMANN).] - -Events occurring far to the East, in what is now New York State and -eastern Canada, were to profoundly affect and change the Indian -population of Wisconsin. When the French began permanent settlement -along the St. Lawrence they found the Huron and the Iroquois Confederacy -engaged in a death struggle for supremacy in the area. The French -espoused the cause of the Hurons who quickly became the middlemen in the -fur trade between the French and the western Indians. - -The Iroquois, who were farmers and hence controlled less land than -hunting tribes who were their neighbors, soon depleted their land of fur -bearing animals and began to plan acquisition of land held by nearby -tribes. At about this time the Dutch considerately gave the Iroquois -guns, and by this act unleashed what was probably the most potent Indian -military confederacy in North America upon the Hurons, who were -practically exterminated in an amazingly short time. The Erie, Tobacco -Nation, and Neutrals soon suffered the same fate as the Hurons. - -The Algonkian tribes, attacked first by the Neutrals and then by the -victorious Iroquois, fled pell-mell into eastern Michigan and the Sault -area. Eventually most of these tribes either went around the southern or -the northern extremity of Lake Michigan to arrive in the relative -security of wilderness Wisconsin. - -The exact dates for the arrival of these various dispossessed eastern -tribes are not certain. We do know that they probably came to Wisconsin -sometime after Nicolet’s visit in 1634. The Mascouten, Potawatomi, -Kickapoo, Sauk, and Fox were coming into Wisconsin before 1654. Some -Huron and Ottawa settled here temporarily at this time, but by 1678 were -compelled by the Sioux to flee back to the Sault. The Chippewa stayed -around and west of the Straits of Mackinac and actually did not settle -in Wisconsin until about 1670. - - [Illustration: SAUK AND FOX INDIANS (FROM MAXIMILIAN).] - - [Illustration: CHIPPEWA INDIANS (FROM GEO. CATLIN).] - -The Winnebago at first defended themselves vigorously against the -invading refugee tribes; however, this constant warfare greatly reduced -their numerical strength. Further decimated by plagues, probably -smallpox introduced by the whites, and by famine, the Winnebago were -compelled to make peace with the invading Algonkians who eventually -settled in great numbers along the Upper and Lower Fox rivers, the lower -reaches of the Wolf River, and in the vicinity of Green Bay. - -Fur trade with the western Indians was successfully blocked by the -rampaging Iroquois for twenty odd years after Nicolet’s voyage of -exploration into the Middlewest, but with the establishment of a brief -peace, the Ottawa, who had assumed the position of middlemen in the fur -trade, sent a large canoe fleet to the western Indians and soon returned -with large quantities of furs which had been accumulated by the Indians -during the Iroquois War. - -On the return journey two young Frenchmen, Radisson and Groseilliers, -went into Wisconsin with the Ottawa and became the first known white -traders in the area. Other traders quickly followed their example, and -by 1670, the fur trade in Wisconsin was proceeding at a good pace. - -The Indians, even before actually being visited by the whites, had -received European implements by trade with other Indians and soon -learned the superiority of iron knives and axes over those of stone. The -arrival of the white traders with their guns, kettles, cloth, brandy, -and many other trade items was eagerly awaited by the Indians of what is -now Wisconsin. - -As early as 1668, Perrot and traders with him had brought furs to Green -Bay (La Baye). Great activity in the fur trade was quick to follow with -the French traders using guns and brandy particularly as an inducement -to increase the tempo of fur trapping by the Indian. The Indian was as -anxious to obtain the white man’s goods as the trader was to obtain the -Indian’s furs. This formed the basis for an understanding mutually -agreeable to Indian and trader alike. - -The fur trade, during the French Regime, went through many changes due -to changing circumstances, and the issuing of different regulations from -time to time. The discovery of new western lands and tribes spurred -literally hundreds of Canadian youths to seek these virgin territories -and the riches in furs to be had there. At first traders persuaded the -Indians to make the long trip to Montreal with their furs. The presence -of so many traders in the forests, however, soon made these long trips -unnecessary. By the time Perrot began trading in Wisconsin the traders -were carrying their goods to the Indians in their own country. - -Regulations required that all traders must be licensed, or buy _Conges_ -as they were called. Twenty-five of these were issued each year and -permitted the trader to take a designated load of goods into the -interior to be traded for the Indian’s furs. The presence of great -numbers of unlicensed traders in the woods was responsible for an edict -from the king declaring such illegal traders to be outlaws. The -punishment for such activities was death. These outlaw traders were -known as _coureurs de bois_ and were actually never hampered too much by -the stringent laws passed against them. - -During the latter part of the 17th century outposts were built to help -control the trade. Nicolas Perrot built posts at Mt. Trempealeau, at -Lake Pepin, and at the mouth of the Wisconsin River. The Sieur DuLhut -(Duluth) built posts in the Lake Superior region. - -Since these terms are often misused, it might be best to briefly -describe the following occupations: A _bourgeois_, was an owner of goods -and a license; the hired men were called _engages_; those hired men who -only carried the goods and paddled the canoe for a stipulated daily hire -were called _voyageurs_. The _coureurs de bois_ and sometimes the -_voyageurs_ were usually the ones who often remained in the forests and -“went native.” - - [Illustration: uncaptioned] - - [Illustration: PIERRE RADDISON (COURTESY OF WISCONSIN STATE - HISTORICAL SOCIETY).] - -The impact of the white man’s civilization was bound to profoundly -change the life and geography of the Indians, and, particularly in the -early French period, this change was extremely rapid. Three groups were -actively working to institute changes in the Indian pattern of life. -These were the fur trader, whose goods revolutionized the material -culture of the natives, the Jesuit missionaries who hoped to convert the -tribes to Christianity, and the French government itself, which -attempted at various times to relocate the tribes, form confederacies, -and even to “civilize” them. - -The fur trader was the only one of the three groups who really succeeded -in materially changing the Indian’s way of life, although his success -was unintentional. So completely did the materials of the white man -replace those of the Indian that within a few short generations almost -no one knew how to make stone tools and weapons, pottery vessels, bows -and arrows, and many other aboriginal products which were abandoned as -rapidly as superior goods of the whites were made available. - -The change in tools and weapons naturally changed the Indians’ pattern -of life in many ways, but the entire economy of the tribes was affected -greatly by the fur trade. The Indian’s need for the white man’s goods -was great and he became more and more dependent upon the trader. As the -tempo of fur trading increased, the Indian began devoting almost all of -his time to hunting and trapping until, in a sense, he became an -employee in a great “fur-trade factory” with the goods he received from -the trader representing his wages. Much of the Indian’s old life of -freedom gradually disappeared, since failure to obtain guns or powder -and bullets meant starvation for the Indian and his family. - - [Illustration: JESUIT MISSIONARY.] - - [Illustration: uncaptioned] - -Perhaps the worst effect of the contact between the Europeans and the -Indians was the introduction of brandy, always an effective persuader in -bargaining, and the introduction of European diseases, particularly -venereal disease and smallpox, the latter in some instances wiping out -entire tribes. The tendency for tribes to congregate around fur-trade -areas at the behest of the traders also had a detrimental effect upon -the Indians. In the Fox River valley and around Green Bay this -overpopulation resulted in famine and the voluntary exodus of some -tribes before 1700, among them the Miami and some of the Kickapoo and -Mascouten. - -It should be noted that the adoption of new materials and living habits -was not entirely one-sided. The white man learned how to use the -Indian’s birch-bark canoe, many of his foods, tobacco, moccasins, snow -shoes, and often buckskin clothing. - -Both the Jesuits and the French military deliberately aimed at changing -the Indian’s way of life but their aims were in direct opposition to one -another. The Jesuits were not interested in “civilizing” the Indians. -They desired to see these simple people maintained in their original -ignorance except for their belief in the “One True God,” and such simple -improvements in agriculture and other techniques as would improve their -lot as mission Indians. The Jesuits, not without some justification, -regarded contact between their charges and the French traders and -soldiers as having a demoralizing influence. - - [Illustration: MENOMINI INDIAN MEDICINE LODGE CEREMONY (PAINTING BY - A. O. TIEMANN).] - -Despite great heroism and prodigious efforts on the part of the -missionaries, permanent effects on the Indians by the Jesuits was to -prove almost negligible. The Wisconsin Indian was highly war-like and -found it difficult to appreciate the humility preached by the -missionary. The Indian regarded such behavior as effeminate. - - [Illustration: FATHER JACQUES MARQUETTE (COURTESY OF MARQUETTE - UNIVERSITY).] - -Nevertheless, the story of their efforts to Christianize the tribes, and -the valor of these missionaries in exploring unknown territory, makes a -fascinating story in our state’s history. Not the least among such -heroic deeds was the great voyage of exploration by Father Jacques -Marquette and Louis Joliet. Traveling up the Fox River, crossing over on -foot at what is now Portage, Wisconsin, and proceeding down the -Wisconsin River, the two explorers entered the Mississippi River on the -seventeenth of June, 1673. They explored the great river as far south as -the Arkansas River and then returned, by way of the Illinois River. This -great discovery made known a continuous water route from the Atlantic -Ocean to the Gulf of Mexico, and opened to the French the interior of a -vast continent. - -It was the desire to exploit and unify this vast wilderness empire that -led the French leaders to attempt deliberate changes in the Wisconsin -Indian geography and political structure. This was necessary in order to -strengthen the Wisconsin tribes and keep them fighting the Iroquois who -consistently raided the western Indians and the French settlements along -the St. Lawrence. - -LaSalle conceived the idea of a great Indian confederacy which, it was -hoped, would be able to successfully oppose the mighty Iroquois, and so -built forts in the Illinois country to help defend the area. The -Wisconsin Mascouten and Kickapoo left this area, partly because of their -desire to join the confederacy and partly because of population pressure -in the Fox River valley. - -The year before the Iroquois invasions of 1680, DuLhut helped to -strengthen the French cause by negotiating peace between the Dakota -Sioux and their enemy of long standing, the Chippewa, and also -reconciling the Dakota Sioux and Assiniboine, who had been warring for -thirty years. - -Nicolas Perrot probably was the most influential French officer ever to -have worked with the Wisconsin tribes. It was mainly through his -constant efforts that they were kept from going over to the Iroquois -when the tribes felt that the French had abandoned them. Perrot was -probably the only Frenchman to remain consistently on friendly terms -with the Foxes, who eventually were to engage the French in the -bloodiest Indian war ever to be fought on Wisconsin soil. Perrot -constantly travelled from village to village organizing raids against -the Iroquois, raids which eventually assisted in forcing the Iroquois to -sue for peace. The French, through the efforts of men like LaSalle, -Perrot, and DuLhut, had once again secured a firm hold on the western -tribes, but the Iroquois warfare of the 1680’s had caused a slump in the -fur trade. The trade was, moreover, soon to receive a blow which was to -almost completely kill all official commerce between the Indians and the -French for a number of years. This was the issuance of a royal edict by -the French King, May 21, 1696, revoking all fur trade licenses and -prohibiting all colonials from carrying goods to the western country. - -There were really two main causes for the issuance of this edict. One -was a slump in the beaver market caused by the great flood of furs into -France and a decline in beaver hat production, due partly to the -emigration of the Huguenots who were the main hat felters; the other -cause for the edict was the anger of the Jesuits, aroused by the sale of -brandy to the Indians by the traders and soldiers. - -It was hoped that the Indian tribes would make the journey to Montreal -themselves to trade their furs, but it was soon discovered that most -tribes either would not or could not make such a journey for purposes of -trade. The result, of course, was severe hardship for the Indians of -Wisconsin. Lack of gunpowder and lead restricted their hunting abilities -and made it more difficult for them to defend themselves against the -Iroquois and other hostile tribes. The Indians were becoming -increasingly dependent upon the French to the extent that they had lost -much of the freedom they had enjoyed as a self-sufficient people. - -The rapid abandonment of the western posts followed the fur trade ban. -The commanders of these outposts, for the most part, did not consider it -worthwhile to stay on in that capacity if they could not enrich -themselves by means of the Indian trade. - -Peace was finally arranged between the Iroquois and the French and their -Indian allies in 1700. The Iroquois had suffered heavily from the raids -by the western Indians. They claimed to have lost more than half their -warriors. With the fear of Iroquois raids ended, the confederacies of -western tribes quickly fell apart, and the latter turned to fighting -among themselves as they had always done in the past. - -The French military now decided on a concentration policy. The western -posts were to be restricted to three main centers. These were to be at -Detroit, New Orleans, and near Tonty’s post in the Illinois country. -Fairly large numbers of troops were stationed at these posts to provide -adequate defense, and the western tribes were to be concentrated in -these areas. This would facilitate the fur trade by permitting the -Indians to trap their furs and bring them directly to the trading -centers. The French government also hoped to “civilize” the Indians, -teaching them to farm the land, learn the French language, and -eventually even participate in the colonial economy. - -The concentration policy was foredoomed to failure. The Wisconsin -tribes, of whom many were hereditary enemies, only needed a spark to set -them at one another’s throats. This led to trouble at Detroit which -resulted in the bloody Fox Wars, long, costly fighting for the French -which contributed much towards their final downfall in the New World. - - - - - CHAPTER THREE - THE FOX WARS AND THE FALL OF NEW FRANCE - - - [Illustration: SAUK AND FOX WARRIORS (FROM MAXIMILIAN).] - -Events occurring in Wisconsin during the first half of the Eighteenth -Century were to bode little good for the French, and were to contribute -towards the final downfall of New France at the hands of the British. -For a good share of the years between 1701 and 1738 the French were to -be largely occupied with the attempt to subjugate the Fox Indians and -their allies. - -Not only were the expeditions against the Fox to prove costly to the -French, but the enmity of the Fox required shiftings of trade routes. As -an inevitable result, friction between the French and English traders -developed, since the Fox at times blocked both the Fox River in -Wisconsin and the Illinois River to the French traders. The determined -resistance of the Fox also prevented the fruition of French hopes to -dominate the western tribes and influence them to espouse the French -cause. Furthermore, the difficulty experienced by the French military in -conquering a relatively small group of Wisconsin Indians did little to -further French prestige among other western tribes. - -The First Fox War was actually the result of the French concentration -policy. Within a few years after the founding of Detroit in 1701 by the -Sieur de Cadillac there were almost 6000 Indians in the vicinity of the -fort. The Fox, meanwhile, determined to prevent the carrying of guns to -their enemy, the Dakota Sioux, were halting French traders attempting to -proceed up the Fox River on their journey to the Sioux country on the -Upper Mississippi. A French fort in the Sioux country was also abandoned -after the loss of several men due to attacks by the Fox. - -Cadillac, realizing the need for some measure to bring these warlike -tribesmen under control, in 1710 invited the Fox, along with the other -tribes resident around Green Bay, to come and reside near Detroit. At -this crucial time, when so much depended on the leadership of a -Frenchman experienced in handling the tribes, Cadillac, probably the -most capable Colonial officer of the times, was sent to Louisiana as -governor of that colony. The new commandant at Detroit had none of -Cadillac’s ability with the Indians. - -The arrival of the Fox and their allies, the Kickapoo, Sauk, and -Mascouten, was the signal for trouble. These tribesmen were feared as -well as hated by the other Indians about Detroit. After a band of -Mascouten were attacked by the Ottawa near the St. Joseph River, during -the winter of 1711-1712, the Fox, in revenge, immediately attacked the -Ottawa and Huron at the Detroit post. - -The Detroit commandant sided with the Ottawa and Huron and permitted -them to seek refuge in the French fort. Shortly after, the Fox erected a -stockade of their own and made preparations for a long fight. The French -and their allies were reinforced by a large band of Illinois, Missouri, -Osage, Potawatomi, and Menomini. This greatly superior force laid siege -to the Fox fort and the latter soon offered to surrender. The French and -their Indian supporters, however, were now determined to completely -exterminate their enemies. - -After a siege of nineteen days, the Fox attempted to escape by taking -advantage of cover offered on a dark, rainy night. They were pursued, -overtaken, and the great majority of them were slaughtered. This was a -victory for the French, but a very costly one, for the Fox and their -allies still had a great many warriors in the forests of Wisconsin. -These, in retaliation, began a war of extermination against the allies -of the French who had participated in the Detroit massacre and the -hunted tribesmen soon complained that their people were starving because -they dared not hunt in the forests lest their men be slain by the -vengeful Fox. - -The summer of 1716 saw the first white army ever to invade the forests -of Wisconsin. The Sieur de Louvigny, in May of that year, left Montreal -with an army of several hundred French and a force of mission Indians -determined to compel the Fox to sue for peace. He arrived in Wisconsin -with his army augmented by western tribesmen, and _coureurs de bois_ who -had been granted pardons for joining the expedition at their own -expense. With this total force amounting to about 800 men, Louvigny -besieged the fortified Fox village, situated near Little Lake Butte des -Morts. While the French kept up a fire with two small cannon and a -grenade mortar, they sank a trench towards the Fox fort determined to -mine the place and blow it up. - -The Fox surrendered after three days of fighting and agreed to accept -terms which Louvigny thought very severe, but which his Indian allies -regarded as overmild. The terms included the requirement that the Fox -pay for the costs of the expedition against them by means of furs yet to -be gathered, to give up prisoners taken from the allies of the French, -to furnish a number of hostages to guarantee their future good behavior, -and to cede their territory to the French King. - -The peace temporarily halted the bloody warfare of the four preceding -years and permitted the fur trade to be resumed. The concentration -policy had proven to be a failure, and shortly after the death of Louis -XIV, in 1715, the posts were once more occupied and the licensing system -for the fur trade was restored. A fort was built at La Baye (Green Bay) -in 1717, and a post was occupied at Chequamegon Bay to keep the Chippewa -from attacking the Fox and causing a resumption of war, and also to -regulate the fur trade in that area. - - [Illustration: EARLY FORT AT MICHILLIMACKINAC (MUSEUM MURAL BY - GEORGE PETER).] - -The quite considerable friction between the colonies of Canada and -Louisiana provided the background for the events which led directly to -the Second Fox War. There was considerable argument as to the exact -boundaries of Illinois which now was annexed to Louisiana, although -originally settled by Canadians. The Fox took advantage of these -feelings of hostility by attacking the Illinois in the vicinity of -Kaskaskia, even killing Frenchmen in this area. The Fox claimed the -Illinois would not return Fox prisoners as they had promised according -to treaty. The Canadian governor, Vaudreuil, tended to side with the Fox -in the argument. - -After the death of Vaudreuil, his temporary successor, Baron de -Longueuil ordered the Sieur de Lignery, commandant at Mackinac, to -enforce a peace between the Fox, Kickapoo, and Mascouten, and their -enemies, the Illinois. The Fox promised to obey this demand, and in -order to ensure their obedience, a new post was built in the Sioux -country. This was rendered necessary by the fact that the Dakota Sioux -had now become allies of the Fox, and the French intended to make sure -that no aid would be coming to the Fox from that warlike tribe. The -three forts in the northwest, at Chequamegon Bay, La Baye, and on the -upper Mississippi in the Sioux country were to be maintained rather -steadily until near the end of the French regime. - -Meanwhile the Fox chief Kiala had succeeded in forming an alliance -against the French between the Fox and their long-time allies the -Kickapoo and Mascouten, and a series of other tribes including, in -addition to the nearby Winnebago, such far distant tribes as the Abnaki -and Seneca in the East, and the Dakota Sioux, Missouri, Iowa, and Oto in -the West. Kiala hoped by this means to form a hostile circle about the -French which would end in their complete defeat, a plan similar to that -later attempted by Pontiac, and Tecumseh. - -The Marquis de Beauharnois, appointed governor of Canada to replace -Vaudreuil, was determined that the raids on the Illinois and the French -at Kaskaskia must be stopped. A French army once more was sent against -the Fox. This time, headed by the Sieur de Lignery, the expedition -numbered about four hundred French and approximately one thousand -Indians. Warned by the Potawatomi, the Fox escaped from their villages -and the army arrived at each to find it deserted. At Little Lake Butte -des Morts the soldiers refused to go farther and Lignery had to be -satisfied with the burning of the Fox and Winnebago villages and their -stores of food. - -Despite the poor showing of Lignery’s expedition against the Fox, -Kiala’s confederacy began to fall apart. Even their old allies, the -Mascouten and Kickapoo, were persuaded by the French to turn against -them, and the Sioux, closely watched by the French, no longer could give -the Fox refuge in their country. Discouraged by these losses and -defeated by the French under the capable Paul Marin, the Fox decided to -flee to the Iroquois country. The Fox had long been secretly treating -with the English and the Seneca, a member tribe of the Iroquois -Confederacy and hoped to find a friendly reception in their country. - -Warned by the Mascouten and Kickapoo regarding the plans of the Fox, -French officers from nearby posts hastily gathered together Indian -allies and prepared to attack their fleeing enemies. The Fox, warned by -their scouts of the force advancing against them, hastily erected a -stockade and prepared to fight for their lives. They managed to fight -off the besiegers for twenty-three days. Then on a stormy night they -attempted flight but were quickly overtaken. Almost all of the band were -either slaughtered or taken as slaves. - -After the few survivors of this disaster, seeking refuge in their -village near the mouth of the Wisconsin River, were attacked by Detroit -Indians, Kiala and three other chiefs offered to give themselves up, -asking mercy for themselves and the fifty surviving warriors, supposedly -all that were left of the entire tribe. De Villiers accepted the -surrender and hastened to Montreal with his prisoners. De Villiers was -ordered to return and kill off the rest of the Fox, taking only the -women and children as prisoners. These were to be sold into slavery, -like Kiala, who was fated to end his days as a slave in the West Indies. - -De Villiers returned to the Sauk village at Green Bay and demanded that -the Sauk release the remnant of Fox survivors. The Sauk declined to -release warriors with whom they had strong blood ties, and in an attempt -to force an entrance, one of de Villiers’ sons was killed. The French -quickly retaliated and in the exchange of fire de Villiers himself was -killed by a twelve year old boy, who later became renowned as the Sauk -Chief Blackbird. In the battle that followed, the Sieur Duplessis, the -Sieur de Repentigny, and six other Frenchmen quickly met the same fate. -The Sauk and Fox, too, lost heavily and fled to the vicinity of the -present-day city of Menasha. The bloody battle that ensued there, it is -said, accounts for the name Butte des Morts, or Hill of the Dead. - -As a result of this battle, the remainder of the Fox and the Sauk -amalgamated and for all practical purposes became one tribe. They fled -into Iowa where they erected a new fort, and gradually their ranks were -swelled by Fox released from captivity by tribes now secretly in -sympathy with the Sauk and Fox. One more expedition was sent against -them, led by the Sieur de Noyelles, but although he followed the Sauk -and Fox to the vicinity of the Des Moines River, they were so well -entrenched that it was impossible to dislodge them and the expedition -returned home without success. Eventually the Fox Wars were brought to -an end through a policy of conciliation inaugurated in 1740 by Paul -Marin, the new commandant at La Baye. Force had, in the long run, proven -a failure in the campaign to completely subjugate the Fox. - - [Illustration: SAUK AND FOX CHIEF (FROM GEO. CATLIN).] - -Throughout the first half of the Eighteenth Century the French, as we -have seen, had been occupied with more or less constant warfare with the -Fox. This warfare was the dominant note in the history of Wisconsin for -this period, and in general, the role of other Wisconsin tribes during -this era was that of serving as allies either of the French or of the -Fox. - -The failure of Noyelles’ expedition against the Fox had helped to lower -French prestige among the western tribes, and in 1736 the Sioux, angered -by French friendship for the Chippewa and Cree, murdered a French -officer, a priest, and a party of nineteen _voyageurs_. From this time -on the Sioux could no longer be numbered among the allies of the French. -By 1739, the Sioux-Chippewa War flamed into action and the Sioux were -driven westward from the areas in Wisconsin now held by the Chippewa. - -Warfare between the English and the French in America again was to -seriously affect the western tribes. This conflict, lasting from 1744 to -1748, saw the fur trade with the western tribes reach extremely low -proportions. Goods were very scarce due to the loss of French ships at -the hands of British fighting vessels, and this failure to produce -sufficient goods for the Indians, in addition to the already declining -prestige of the French, encouraged some of the western tribes to seek -more favorable relations with the British. Most of the Huron, under -Chief Nicolas, began trading with the British, and many other western -tribes exhibited the same inclination. - -The end of the current conflict with the English enabled the French to -regain control of these tribes, but the Miami had moved into Ohio and -established a large village called Pickawillany which became a fairly -permanent camp for a number of English traders. Several expeditions -against this village by the French failed. In 1752, however, Charles de -Langlade, later famed as one of Wisconsin’s pioneer French settlers at -Green Bay, who was part French and part Ottawa and who thus had -tremendous influence among the Indians, led an expedition against -Pickawillany which enjoyed remarkable success. The village was -destroyed, the English traders captured, and the Miami returned to -French allegiance. - -For a while France again enjoyed supremacy in the West. In 1755, -Langlade and his contingent of Wisconsin and Mackinac braves -participated in the famous battle culminating in “Braddock’s Defeat”. -Chippewa, Menomini, Potawatomi, and Winnebago were said to be present at -this engagement, and for many years thereafter trophies of this battle -were to be found in Wisconsin Indian lodges. Despite this severe defeat -of the British and American Colonials, the fortunes of the French were -destined to take a turn for the worse. By 1761, Wisconsin was under -British control, and in 1763, France formally surrendered the rest of -her American possessions to England. She had ceded Louisiana to Spain -the year before. - -Much had happened to Wisconsin’s Indians during this period, roughly -from 1700 to 1760. The long and bloody Fox Wars had wrought hardship on -the other tribes as well as on the Fox. The Sioux-Chippewa war had -resulted in the Sioux being forced to relinquish most of their Wisconsin -territory to the Chippewa. The Potawatomi Indians, who had fought under -Langlade and participated in the killing of the unarmed English and -Americans at Fort William Henry, were visited by a grim vengeance in the -form of smallpox, contracted from the English soldiers and brought back -by the tribes to their own country where it raged virtually unchecked. -Great numbers of Indians lost their lives as a result. - -Other tribes left Wisconsin, some never to return. The Kickapoo and -Mascouten were now in Illinois and Indiana. The Potawatomi were below -Lake Michigan at St. Joseph. Thus many of the tribes here when the -French traders and missionaries first arrived, no longer were in the -Wisconsin scene. The tribes remaining here were destined to know new -masters, the British, who were to control the fur trade in Wisconsin -until the end of the War of 1812. - - [Illustration: uncaptioned] - - [Illustration: uncaptioned] - - - - - CHAPTER FOUR - THE PERIOD OF BRITISH CONTROL - - - [Illustration: PONTIAC.] - -British military control of Wisconsin was ushered in with the arrival of -Ensign James Gorrell at Green Bay on the twelfth of October, 1761. With -the aid of his two non-commissioned officers and fifteen privates, -Gorrell set about to restore the old French fort which he renamed Fort -Edward Augustus, in honor of the Duke of York. His next task was to win -over the French _habitants_ about the fort and to gain the sympathy of -the Indians in the area for the British cause. Apparently Gorrell was -quite successful in both tasks. - -The French _habitants_ about the posts taken over by the British found -it rather easy, for the most part, to transfer their allegiance to the -British Crown since they were given the same privileges they enjoyed -under French authority. Moreover, the British traders found it more -advantageous to form partnerships with the more experienced French -traders than to attempt to supersede them. - -British success with the Indians varied according to local conditions at -the different forts. The British were not inclined to give presents as -liberally as the French had done, and it was not British policy to -fraternize or intermarry with their savage allies. The feeling of -inferiority prompted by this treatment caused resentment among many -tribes. - - [Illustration: TRADERS PORTAGING (PAINTING BY T. LINDBERG).] - -In central Wisconsin, however, Gorrell’s diplomatic treatment of the -Indians, added to the fact that the Sauk, Fox, Winnebago, and Menomini -held a certain amount of resentment towards the French, swung these -tribes over to the British. The promises of medals and commissions to -the Indian chiefs, and the fact that the British trade goods were -cheaper by far than those offered by the French, also tended to offset -the more arrogant treatment of the tribes by the British. - -Gorrell’s success with the Indians of central Wisconsin was very -important to Wisconsin history, for in 1763 the British were compelled -to deal with a widespread Indian uprising largely led by Pontiac, chief -of an Ottawa tribe from around the Straits of Mackinac, and one of the -most able Indian leaders who ever lived. It was Pontiac’s plan to drive -all the British and Colonials into the sea by means of an alliance of -Indian tribes from the Alleghenies to the Mississippi River, and from -the Ohio River to the Great Lakes. Pontiac’s chief claim to greatness -lies in his remarkable feat of keeping a number of tribes together for a -seven-month siege of Detroit, a unique event in Indian warfare. - -In addition to the attack on Detroit, concerted attacks were made on -other British posts, of which a number fell, including the one at -Mackinac. The failure of the Indians to take Forts Detroit, Pitt, and -Niagara assured defeat for Pontiac’s campaign. - -On June 2, 1763, the Chippewa Indians took Fort Mackinac by a clever -subterfuge. They faked a game of LaCrosse in front of the stockade and -pretended accidentally to knock the ball into the fort. As the players -rushed after the ball they seized guns from the watching Indian women -who had concealed the weapons under their blankets. Most of the garrison -was massacred before they had a chance to defend themselves. - -The loyalty to the British of Wisconsin’s Sauk, Fox, Winnebago, and -Menomini Indians, and the timely arrival of a delegation of Sioux, sworn -enemies of the Chippewa, probably saved Green Bay from a similar fate. - -Etherington hastily summoned Gorrell to his assistance. Gorrell -abandoned Fort Edward Augustus at Green Bay and with the aid of 90 men -of the Sauk, Fox, Menomini, and Winnebago tribes succeeded in obtaining -the prisoners’ release from the Indians. The party then proceeded on to -Montreal. British military occupation of Wisconsin was not resumed until -the War of 1812. - -The Pontiac rebellion also served to bring the problems relating to the -Indians home to the British Government and probably helped as an -incentive to the issuance of the Proclamation of 1763. British subjects -were now forbidden to purchase lands west of the Appalachian mountains -without special license. It was hoped that this would prevent further -encroachments by white settlers upon Indian lands. Trade with the -Indians was to be permitted where licenses with the various colonial -governments had been procured. Moreover, since Wisconsin was not -included in the limits of any of the colonies, Wisconsin was left -without any government other than that exercised by the military at -Mackinac. This matter was not rectified until 1774 when the Quebec Act -placed Wisconsin under the authority of the Governor of Canada. - -Mackinac became the seat of Wisconsin’s fur trade when the fort was -rebuilt there in 1764. It was the only fort northwest of Detroit with -government officers and Indian agents. By 1767, large numbers of traders -were coming into the Wisconsin area. The Indians by this time were so -dependent on the white trader that any interruption in the supply of -goods flowing to the Indians worked severe hardships upon them. - -Wisconsin’s fur trade was still largely controlled by Montreal -investors, mostly British. The actual traders, however, who contacted -the Indians were still primarily Frenchmen, and this was to remain so -throughout Wisconsin’s fur-trade period. Some competition in Wisconsin -was given to the British by Spanish and French traders from Louisiana, -which had become Spanish territory by the peace treaty in 1763. But the -British managed to retain the bulk of the northwest fur trade with the -Indians. - -Wisconsin’s Indians did not participate strongly in the American -Revolution, but they did take part in some action. Charles de Langlade, -half French, half Ottawa Indian leader who helped the French so -efficiently during the French and Indian War, now espoused the British -cause as ardently as he had the French. Langlade’s tremendous influence -over the Indians was well known, and the British hoped to persuade him -to obtain Wisconsin Indian help in fighting the Colonists. Langlade did -succeed in leading Chippewa and Ottawa east to help Burgoyne in 1777, -and in 1778 Wisconsin Indians went to Detroit to help General Hamilton. -On the whole, however, Wisconsin’s Indians were too disinterested in the -white man’s war to be enthusiastic about long trips east to aid the -British. - - [Illustration: MICHILLIMACKINAC, RESTORATION OF LAST FORT.] - -The American Revolutionary War hero, Major George Rogers Clark, whose -capture of Vincennes and Kaskaskia, and the French villages of the -Illinois country, provided the basis for United States claims to the -Northwest Territory during the peace negotiations between the British -and the United States, called together a great assembly of Indians at -Cahokia, Illinois, in 1778, and succeeded in obtaining their pledges of -allegiance to the United States. Many Wisconsin Indians attended the -meeting, including the noted Blackbird, chief of a Milwaukee village -composed of Ottawa, Chippewa, and Potawatomi. Blackbird apparently -remained loyal to the American cause. Major Clark’s influence with the -Wisconsin Indians tended to nullify the efforts of Charles Langlade, and -other French officers in the service of England, to mobilize the -Wisconsin Indians against the United States. - -In 1780, England utilized some Wisconsin Indians in an attack on the -Spanish with whom she was then at war. Twelve hundred warriors were -assembled at Prairie du Chien, and marched on St. Louis. Aided by the -fact that they had advance knowledge of the enemy movements, that some -of the tribesmen were more or less sympathetic with the American cause, -and that the Indians showed no enthusiasm for attacking in the face of -cannon fire, the Spanish and Americans succeeded in routing the -attackers. After this action Wisconsin’s Indians were not involved in -any important campaigns during the remaining years of the American -Revolution. - - [Illustration: CHIEF OSHKOSH (PORTRAIT BY S. M. BROOKS, COURTESY OF - THE WISCONSIN STATE HISTORICAL SOCIETY).] - -British control of Wisconsin’s Indians did not cease with the end of the -Revolutionary War. Despite the British agreement in the Treaty of Paris, -in 1783, to turn over their posts at Niagara, Detroit, and -Michillimackinac, they continued to hold these forts until after the Jay -Treaty of 1794. It was not until October, 1796, that Mackinac, the last -post to be turned over by the British, was officially occupied by -American troops. The British, however, still maintained their control -over Wisconsin’s Indians through the fur trade now operating from posts -just across the Canadian border. - -Within a month after the declaration of war against England by the -American Congress in 1812, Mackinac was retaken by the British and -Menomini and Winnebago Indians from Wisconsin. Among the Menomini were -chiefs Tomah and Oshkosh, the latter destined to become a famous -Menomini leader and friend of the Americans. Within another month Fort -Dearborn (at Chicago) was attacked by Indians and most of its civilian -and military inhabitants massacred. Menomini, Potawatomi, and Winnebago -Indians from Wisconsin took part in this attack. - - [Illustration: MENOMINI WARRIOR (FROM INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH - AMERICA).] - -The Americans were well aware of the strategic importance of Prairie du -Chien in any attempt to control Wisconsin’s Indians. In June, 1814, Fort -Shelby, probably the first building over which an American flag ever -flew in Wisconsin, was erected at this strategic location. Lt. Perkins -and sixty men were left in charge at the fort. - -The British quickly determined to drive out the Americans and succeeded -in forcing Perkins to surrender the fort on July 19, 1814. About 500 -Indians, mostly Menomini, Chippewa, Winnebago, and Sioux, took part in -the assault on the American post. - -The British renamed the post Fort McKay and managed to hold it against -the Americans until, in agreement with the Treaty of Ghent, they finally -abandoned the fort in May, 1815, and British control of Wisconsin’s -Indians was finally at an end. The fate of Wisconsin’s Indians was now -in the hands of the United States Government. - - - - - CHAPTER FIVE - THE PERIOD OF AMERICAN SETTLEMENT - - - [Illustration: uncaptioned] - -Wisconsin’s Indians, under the French and British had become -increasingly dependent upon the white man. Without the invaders’ tools, -weapons, utensils, and various other things which the Indian had come to -depend upon, he found himself unable to supply himself with the -necessities of life. The French and British traders, of course, were -interested almost exclusively in procuring furs from the Indians, and as -long as the aborigines could obtain furs for them, the traders would -supply their needs. - -The Americans, however, were primarily interested in exploiting and -settling the Indians’ land; fur trading was secondary. As they pushed -into the new territory in ever increasing numbers, first to exploit the -lead mines of southwestern Wisconsin, and then to farm the fertile soil, -the Indian was doomed to be relentlessly pushed aside. He had lost his -independence. Now he was to lose his land and the very means of his -livelihood. - -The arrival of the Americans upon the Wisconsin scene pleased neither -the Indians nor the French traders. Both relied to a great extent on the -fur trade, and they knew that the clearing of land by the settlers would -hasten the end of this activity. Many of the French, too, had Indian -blood and considered their cause as one with the Indians. The United -States government first showed poor judgment in its attempt to make -these people conform to American standards. For example, the French and -Indians were warned that common-law marriages between the two races -would no longer be tolerated, but must be legalized by either a civil or -church ceremony, and violators would face punishment. Both the French -and Indians bitterly fought what seemed to them oppression, and -eventually later decisions recognized the legality of common-law unions -of earlier regimes. - -Wisconsin’s Indian agents were for a time under the authority of two -superintendents of Indian affairs. Lewis Cass, Governor of Michigan -Territory, of which Wisconsin was a part from 1818 to 1836, was in -charge of the Indian agent at Green Bay. The agent at Prairie du Chien -worked under the direction of William Clark who, as Superintendent of -St. Louis from 1807 to 1838, had authority to the source of the -Mississippi River. These agents distributed annuities and payments due -the Indians and attempted to keep white settlers from squatting on -Indian land. The settlers, however, rudely took over Indian land and, in -the inevitable conflict that followed, the militia and army would be -called out to protect the whites. In the ensuing “peace treaty” the -Indians would be forced to cede their lands and move westward. - - [Illustration: INVADING SETTLERS (PAINTING BY A. O. TIEMANN).] - -Wisconsin’s early territorial period was also the era of the frontier -fort manned by the regular U. S. Army. Since the pay for the ordinary -soldier was very small, the army attracted men who could not succeed -elsewhere, or immigrants who wished to desert at the first opportunity -and travel westward. The officers, however, were of different character -entirely. Educated at West Point, they were by far the most educated and -cultured men in the frontier settlements. With their wives, they -represented the cream of Wisconsin society of this period. - - [Illustration: THE ENFORCING OF LEGAL MARRIAGE (PAINTING BY A. O. - TIEMANN).] - -Wisconsin had three main forts along the Fox-Wisconsin waterway. Fort -Howard was erected at Green Bay in 1816, the same year that Fort -Crawford was established at Prairie du Chien. Fort Winnebago was built -at what is now Portage in 1828, shortly after the Red Bird rebellion. -The United States army did its best to maintain peace between the -Indians and whites, and to protect the Indians from unlicensed traders, -and sometimes legitimate ones, who illegally sold whiskey to them. In -their efforts in this direction they often found themselves in conflict -with civil authorities who sometimes protected the traders apprehended -in such violations. - -The fur trade continued in Wisconsin while the population was primarily -Indian, but by 1835 it was no longer of any significance in this area. -Following the War of 1812, the United States Government set up fur trade -“factories” at Prairie du Chien and Green Bay, hoping by this means to -control some of the evils, one of the most vicious of which was the -peddling of whiskey to the Indians. The whiskey was usually diluted with -water, and adulterants such as turpentine, or even corrosive acids, -added to restore the “bite.” - -The government entry into the fur trade was unsuccessful. The factors, -as the proprietors of the trade “factories” were called, lacked -experience in dealing with the Indians. They did not give credit -advancements to them as did the other traders, and the American Fur -Company applied pressure on Congress to end this system. Gradually this -Company acquired the fur trade monopoly in this area; Solomon Juneau, -Milwaukee’s famous founder, was one of the American Fur Company’s agents -in what is now the State of Wisconsin. The gradual decadence of the fur -trade, of course, increased the hardships of Wisconsin tribes. - - [Illustration: OLD FORT WINNEBAGO (COURTESY OF THE WISCONSIN STATE - HISTORICAL SOCIETY).] - - [Illustration: THE SECOND OR STONE FORT CRAWFORD (COURTESY OF THE - WISCONSIN STATE HISTORICAL SOCIETY).] - - [Illustration: THE FIRST OR LOG FORT CRAWFORD (COURTESY OF THE - WISCONSIN STATE HISTORICAL SOCIETY).] - -As settlers began encroaching on the Indians’ land, conflicts were -inevitable. John C. Calhoun, the Secretary of War in 1825, sponsored a -plan for the removal of eastern tribes across the Mississippi to the -western plains. It was believed that by furnishing them with equipment -for hunting and farming they could survive readily and would be safe -from further pressure by white homesteaders. No one realized at this -time how soon these western lands would be overrun by the relentless -pressure of the American pioneer. The land purchased from the Indians -was to be made available to American settlers. The lands of certain -tribes of Wisconsin Indians were to be included in this overall plan. - - [Illustration: SOLOMON JUNEAU, AGED 60.] - -Unfortunately for the smooth functioning of this operation, the Indians -did not care to leave the land on which they and their ancestors had -hunted for so long a time, and travel to new hunting grounds. In many -instances they were not removed without a show of force, sometimes with -considerable blood being shed by both whites and Indians. - -In 1825, Lewis Cass and William Clark held a conference of Wisconsin -tribes at Prairie du Chien. They hoped to establish definite boundaries -for the holdings of the different tribes in order to eliminate friction -between them. This would also facilitate future land purchases from the -Indians. Roughly these boundaries were recognized: the southwest and -southeast corners of Wisconsin were allotted to the southern Chippewa, -Ottawa, and Potawatomi; the Winnebago held the remainder of southern -Wisconsin; the Menomini kept the northeast part of the state from the -Milwaukee River up; and the Chippewa held all of northern Wisconsin west -of the Menomini. These Indian territories were not to be respected for -very long by white squatters, however, and the Winnebago were to be -among the first to encounter trouble from this source. - -The fact that southwestern Wisconsin was very rich in lead was -discovered quite early in the French regime, and it is probable that the -French taught the Indians how to mine and smelt the ore. By 1811, the -Sauk and Fox are reported to have devoted almost all their attention to -lead mining, only hunting to supply themselves with meat. They exchanged -the metal with Canadian traders for the goods they needed. Some early -American traders who attempted to get in on this trade were killed by -the Indians, who feared that once the Americans learned of the value of -the lead deposits their cupidity would be aroused and the Indians would -lose their land. Later events were to prove the excellence of this -reasoning. - -Aroused by the rich deposits, Cornish miners, particularly, began to -arrive in force by 1827. The Indians were rudely expelled from their -diggings and their mines appropriated by armed whites. In the same year, -Red Bird, a young Winnebago chief, killed two settlers and scalped a -baby who, interestingly enough, survived to become the mother of a large -family and live to a ripe old age. Following this attack Red Bird and -his warriors, about forty in number, celebrated the scalp taking with a -drunken carousal at the mouth of the Bad Axe River, about forty miles -north of Prairie du Chien. Two keelboats on their way from Fort Snelling -to St. Louis were fired upon by the drunken Winnebago braves, and after -a battle of about three hours, the keelboats escaped with a loss of four -men dead and several wounded. The Indians were reported to have suffered -losses of seven dead and fourteen wounded. - - [Illustration: JUNEAU’S TRADING POST, MILWAUKEE (PAINTING BY A. O. - TIEMANN).] - - [Illustration: MENOMINI INDIANS OF THE EARLY 19TH CENTURY (PORTRAIT - BY S. M. BROOKS).] - - [Illustration: THE PIONEERS (PAINTING BY A. O. TIEMANN).] - -United States troops rapidly arrived at the scene, and after fleeing up -the Wisconsin River, Red Bird found himself and his tribe surrounded. -The Americans agreed to forget the matter of the keelboats providing the -murderers of the settlers would give themselves up for trial. On Sept. -3, 1827, Red Bird, rather than engage his people in a hopeless war -against the whites, voluntarily surrendered to Major Whistler at -Portage. Arrangements were made for the Americans to use the lead mines -until a treaty could be arranged, and in July, 1829, another Grand -Council was held at Prairie du Chien. The Winnebago, southern -Potawatomi, Chippewa, and Ottawa agreed to cede their land. The United -States Government now owned the rich lead mining country of southwestern -Wisconsin. - - [Illustration: WINNEBAGO CHIEF (PORTRAIT BY S. M. BROOKS).] - -During this period of American settlement, beginning as early as 1821 -and lasting through 1834, a migration of Indians from New York occurred -which was to add some permanent residents to Wisconsin’s Indian -population. The Oneida and Munsee settled near Green Bay, and the -Stockbridge and Brotherton Indians settled along the eastern shore of -Lake Winnebago. The Menomini ceded 500,000 acres of their land to these -tribes in 1831. - -Meanwhile the stage had been set for what was to become the most famous, -and also, perhaps, the most infamous Indian and white conflict in the -Wisconsin area. This was the so-called Black Hawk War, although it was -more of a systematic extermination of Indians by whites, hardly -deserving the term “war.” - -Black Hawk was leader of the “British band” of the Sauk with a large -village, said to number about 500 families, situated near the mouth of -the Rock River in Illinois. His people were known as the “British band” -because of their known sympathies with the English, and also since Black -Hawk and his warriors had fought with Tecumseh and the British against -the Americans in the War of 1812. - -White settlers began squatting on Black Hawk’s land as early as 1823, -despite the fact that according to treaty the Indians were not required -to give up their land until land offices had been set up, an event which -had not occurred. The Indians’ cornfields were fenced in, wigwams were -burned, and the women mistreated. Black Hawk went to the British agent -in Canada, near Detroit. He was advised that the treaties of 1804 and -1816 were being violated and that he rightfully could resist the -settlers and expect the backing of the United States Government. Black -Hawk returned and warned the settlers that they would be attacked unless -they left at once. - - [Illustration: I-TWA-KU-AM, MOHICAN LEADER (PORTRAIT BY HAMLIN).] - -The alarmed settlers sought help from the Illinois militia which was -rapidly called to arms in 1831. This show of force compelled Black Hawk -to retire to the west side of the Mississippi River with his people, and -promise not to return without government permission. Chief Keokuk, head -of the combined Sauk and Fox tribes, had already taken all of his -people, except the rebellious Black Hawk and his band, into what is now -Iowa in 1830, realizing the futility of fighting the tremendously -superior white forces. - - [Illustration: BLACK HAWK (FROM INDIAN TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA).] - -On April 6, 1832, Black Hawk crossed back into Illinois with -approximately 1000 of his people, about 400 of whom were warriors. He -had been promised aid by emissaries of the Potawatomi, Winnebago, -Ottawa, and Chippewa, but before a month had passed Black Hawk realized -he would get little aid either from these tribes or from the British in -a war against the settlers. The militia had been called out again in the -meantime, and Black Hawk now only desired to make peace and get his -people back to Iowa. He sent messengers under a white flag to Major -Stillman who was encamped nearby with about 400 volunteers. The white -flag was ignored, and three of the Indians were killed. Black Hawk had -only forty warriors with him at the time, but angered by this treachery, -he attacked Stillman’s men in what he himself called a “suicide charge.” - -The tremendously superior force of volunteers, upon seeing Black Hawk’s -charging braves, fled frantically with the first volley fired by the -Indians. As they fled they spread the alarm over most of northern -Illinois, and maintained that Black Hawk had ambushed them with 2000 -warriors. Following this event Black Hawk removed his women and children -to the Lake Koshkonong area in Wisconsin, so that they could forage for -desperately needed food and be relatively safe from attack. Black Hawk -and his warriors spent the following two months attacking settlements -along the Wisconsin-Illinois frontier. Two hundred whites and possibly -as many Indians were killed in these border skirmishes. - -Black Hawk soon found himself pursued by a greatly superior force of -militia and regular U. S. Army troops. He and his band fled through the -Madison, Wisconsin, area and were overtaken attempting to cross the -Wisconsin River, where the Battle of Wisconsin Heights took place on -July 21, 1832. Black Hawk’s braves succeeded in holding back the -Americans while the tribe crossed the river, and the following morning -one of his men made a surrender speech in the Winnebago language. No one -in the American camp understood the plea for surrender terms, since the -Winnebago followers of the Americans were not in their camp at the time. -The Indians were again compelled to flee. - -Black Hawk then divided his people into two groups, one of which -obtained rafts and canoes from friendly Winnebago, and proceeded down -the Wisconsin River, hoping to reach the Mississippi River and cross -back to Iowa. Soldiers from Prairie du Chien captured or shot most of -them. Some others were hunted down in the woods by Menomini Indians led -by white officers. As the rest of Black Hawk’s band fled overland toward -the Mississippi River, they were pursued by the combined forces of -General Atkinson, General Henry, and Major Dodd, a total force of some -four thousand men. - -When Black Hawk’s band arrived at the Mississippi River, they were met -by the steamboat “Warrior.” Black Hawk again attempted to surrender, but -the “Warrior’s” captain preferred to believe this a trick and opened -fire on the Indians. The infantry then arrived and attacked the Indians -from the rear. Men, women, and children were forced into the river at -bayonet point. Many were drowned as they attempted to swim the river, -and others were picked off by American sharpshooters from the shore. -This was the massacre of the Bad Axe River, which lasted three hours, -and in which 150 Indians were killed and as many more drowned. A band of -Sioux, brought there for the purpose by General Atkinson, set upon the -300 Indians who reached the other bank and killed about half of them. - -Only about 150 survivors remained of the thousand Indians who had -crossed with Black Hawk into Illinois in April only four months before. - -Black Hawk fled to the Winnebago, who later surrendered him to the -Americans. He was then taken on a tour through the eastern states to -impress him with the power of the American Government, and released in -June, 1833. His tribe was given a small reservation in Iowa on the Des -Moines River, where he died October 3, 1838. The treatment of Black Hawk -and his people in the so-called “Black Hawk War” will always remain a -blot on American history and a discredit to the Government. - -From the time of the “Black Hawk War” on, Wisconsin Indians were rapidly -deprived of their land. In September, 1832, the Winnebago ceded the rest -of their holdings south and east of the Fox and Wisconsin Rivers. Upon -promise of payment of about one million dollars to the Indians and their -creditors, the southern Chippewa, Ottawa, and Potawatomi, in a treaty at -Chicago, Illinois, turned over their holdings in southern Wisconsin in -1833. The Menomini ceded almost four million acres between Green Bay and -the Wolf River to the United States Government in 1836. In 1838, the -Oneida ceded most of their land in this same area to the United States. -The Chippewa, Sioux, and Winnebago, in three separate treaties, ceded -the western half of Wisconsin, above the Wisconsin River, in 1837. With -the final cession of some small holdings of the Menomini in the east -central part of the state, in 1848, the United States Government now had -possession of all Indian land in Wisconsin. - -The Indians, in most cases, had western lands assigned to them. The -United States army forcibly removed many Winnebago to Nebraska, some of -whom remain there today. Other Winnebago, homesick for Wisconsin and -afraid of the Sioux, gradually wandered back to Wisconsin where they -still are. In 1854 the Menomini were placed on a reservation on the -Upper Wolf River. Shortly after this, they sold two townships to the -Stockbridge Indians. In 1854, also, three large reservations: Lac Court -Oreilles, Lac du Flambeau, and Bad River, were assigned to the Chippewa. - - [Illustration: SURRENDER OF BLACK HAWK (MURAL BY CAL PETERS, VILLA - LOUIS, COURTESY OF THE WISCONSIN STATE HISTORICAL SOCIETY).] - - - - - CHAPTER SIX - WISCONSIN’S INDIANS TODAY - - - [Illustration: MIXED COSTUME IN FOX CEREMONIAL DANCE.] - -In considering the story of those Indians who were important in the -history of our state, we have seen that from time to time some tribes -have left the Wisconsin scene. We might well wonder what has been their -final fate and where they may be found today. As we remember the United -States Government removal plan, we are not too surprised to find many of -them located at reservations and agencies in our western United States. - -The Sauk and Fox are at agencies in Iowa, Kansas, and Oklahoma. The Sauk -and Fox reservation in Iowa has an Indian population of 473, and there -are 129 Sauk and Fox at the Kansas reservation and an additional 910 at -the Sauk and Fox reservation at the Shawnee agency in Oklahoma. - -The Kickapoo have small reservations in Oklahoma and Kansas. The Indian -population at the Kickapoo reservation in Oklahoma numbers 269; and at -the Kickapoo reservation in Kansas, 343. In addition, there are some 350 -Kickapoo living in the state of Coahuila, Mexico, having split off from -the Oklahoma band in 1852. Population figures given here for the Sauk, -Fox, and Kickapoo are from the estimates of the Office of Indian Affairs -of the United States Department of the Interior for the year 1940. - -The present whereabouts of the Mascoutens presents somewhat of a -mystery. Most students of the subject at present believe that members of -the Prairie Band of the Potawatomi, who also call themselves the -Mascoutens, are the descendents of that tribe, which is so often -referred to in early Wisconsin history. The early Mascoutens were -closely related to the Sauk, Fox, and Kickapoo, according to early -reports, in language and culture, and usually were the political allies -of these tribes as well. Some bands of the Prairie Potawatomi are found -associated with the Kickapoo in Oklahoma and Kansas, and also in Mexico. - -As for the Santee Sioux, who were in northern Wisconsin even before the -arrival of the white man, it is again difficult to give accurate present -population figures. The term Santee originally designated one band of -Indians, but eventually came to mean all of the forest bands of the -Sioux, of whom, in all probability, many never resided in Wisconsin. -There are, according to the 1940 estimate, 1,197 Sioux living on the -Santee reservation in Nebraska, and there are 585 Sioux in Minnesota who -would be included in the Santee division. If we were to include all -tribes generally classed as Santee Sioux today, expressed in round -numbers, 5,000 would probably be a conservative estimate. However, many -of these are not derived from those bands formerly living in Wisconsin. - -Returning to the Wisconsin scene today, we learn from the 1940 estimates -of the Office of Indian Affairs that the present Indian population in -Wisconsin is 13,678. Of this total, 5,605 are Chippewa, residing at the -Bad River, Lac Court Oreilles, Lac du Flambeau, and Red Cliff -reservations. Also included in this figure are the Mole Lake Chippewa -and the St. Croix band. - - [Illustration: FOX INDIAN, IOWA.] - - [Illustration: THE CHIPPEWA STILL PREPARE BUCK-SKIN.] - -Included in Wisconsin’s present Indian population are also 2,454 -Menomini, located at their reservation in Shawano County; 460 -Stockbridge and Munses, on their reservation adjoining that of the -Menomini; 1,700 Oneida, scattered around the village of Oneida, 10 miles -southwest of Green Bay; 1,498 Winnebago, on public domain land -allotments, primarily in Jackson, Wood, and Shawano counties; and 310 -Potawatomi, in Forest County. While only a small number of Potawatomi -have returned to this state since their removal, over half of the -Winnebago are now back in their Wisconsin homeland. In addition to the -Winnebago who returned to Wisconsin after their removal by the United -States Army, 1,268 remained at their reservation in Nebraska. Thus of -this reportedly numerous and powerful tribe first encountered by the -French when Nicolet landed near Green Bay, in 1634, about 2,766 still -survive. - - [Illustration: A CHARACTERISTIC WISCONSIN ONEIDA.] - - [Illustration: ELDERLY ONEIDA WOMAN.] - - [Illustration: DECORAH HENRY THUNDER, WISCONSIN WINNEBAGO.] - - [Illustration: THE CRADLE-BOARD BARELY SURVIVED AMONG THE WISCONSIN - CHIPPEWA.] - - [Illustration: YOUNG POTAWATOMI FACES A DIFFICULT WORLD.] - -The future status of Wisconsin’s Indians presents a considerable problem -to the United States Government. Their life on reservations is hardly an -easy one for the majority. Even among the Menomini, whose tribal -lumbering industry makes them economically the most prosperous in the -state, the standard of living is not high. Finding a means whereby they -can earn a decent living is probably the greatest difficulty. For the -most part they suffer for lack of adequate clothing and food, -particularly during the winter season. To alleviate the situation, a -considerable number have migrated to the cities to obtain employment, -and there are an estimated one thousand Indians living in Milwaukee, for -example, of which the largest group is Oneida. - -So far no satisfactory solution to the problem has been reached, -although some sincere attempts have been made in that direction. The -hope, of course, is that eventually the Indians will be assimilated by -the rest of our population and be able to live normal lives as United -States citizens. Without intelligently directed help this process will -take a long time, and during that period the Indians will continue to -suffer. - -The Wisconsin Indians of today are acculturated to a greater or lesser -degree: among the Chippewa, Potawatomi, Menomini, and Winnebago a -considerable amount of the traditional culture survives; among the -Stockbridge and Oneida nearly all of the old culture is lost. It is to -be hoped that all of the colorful pattern of Indian culture and -tradition is not lost in the process of assimilation. - -One thing is certain, the Indians of Wisconsin, along with most of those -of the entire United States, have suffered much at the hands of the -white man. They deserve constructive help now toward accomplishing the -ultimate adjustment to the final demands made on them by the white man’s -civilization. - - [Illustration: MODERN POTAWATOMI.] - - [Illustration: YOUNG FOLKS IN ANCIENT DRESS.] - - [Illustration: POTAWATOMI TAR-PAPERED SHACK.] - - [Illustration: uncaptioned] - - [Illustration: CABIN TYPE OF ONEIDA HOUSE.] - - [Illustration: BETTER TYPE OF ONEIDA HOUSE.] - - [Illustration: MENOMINI SAWMILL AT NEOPIT.] - - -LOCATION OF INDIAN TRIBES - - [Illustration: 1634] - - SANTEE SIOUX - MENOMINI - WINNEBAGO - - [Illustration: 1634-1673] - - OTTOWA - CHIPPEWA - SANTEE SIOUX - HURON - MENOMINI - SAUK - FOX - WINNEBAGO - POTAWATOMI - MASCOUTEN - MIAMI - KICKAPOO - ILLINOIS - - [Illustration: 1700-1760] - - CHIPPEWA - SANTEE SIOUX - MENOMINI - SAUK - FOX - WINNEBAGO - POTAWATOMI - KICKAPOO - - [Illustration: TODAY] - - RED CLIFF RES. - LA POINTE RES. - CHIPPEWA - LAC DU FLAMBEAU RES. - POTAWATOMI - ST. CROIX BAND - LAC COURT OREILLES RES. - MENOMINI - STOCKBRIDGE - WINNEBAGO - ONEIDA - - -POPULAR MILWAUKEE PUBLIC MUSEUM PUBLICATIONS - - [Illustration: PREHISTORIC INDIANS OF WISCONSIN] - -A well illustrated summary of what is known about the Indians of -Wisconsin previous to the coming of the white man, identifying such -cultural divisions as the Old Copper, Woodland, Hopewellian, Upper -Mississippi, and Middle Mississippi, and discussing their products, ways -of living, history, and health. This instructive booklet will be of -interest to readers of all ages. - 60 cents - - [Illustration: FOR BEAUTY’S SAKE] - -The Indians of the Americas employed a wide variety of beauty aids -involving tatooing, nose rings, ear plugs, lip quills, skull deforming, -lip ornamentation, hair styles, nose feathers, and head shaving, all -illustrated in this popularly treated booklet. - 15 cents - - [Illustration: MASKS OF NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS] - -Contains seventeen illustrations of masks, including illustrations of -the Iroquois false-face, Hopi Katchina, Apache Devil Dance and other -masks, with text telling how they were made and used. - 15 cents - - [Illustration: INDIAN CRADLES] - -People have long been interested in how the Indians cared for and -protected their babies. This entertaining and instructive booklet -explains the use and construction of cradles made by the Kwakiutl, Hopi, -Pomo, Chippewa, Chinook, Paiute, and Sioux Indians. Six different -cradles are illustrated showing a variety of materials and styles, -including the head-deforming cradle board. - 15 cents - - [Illustration: SHRUNKEN HEADS] - -How the Jivaro Indians of Eastern Ecuador shrunk and preserved human -heads has been a fascinating story which is told in detail in this -generously illustrated, popular booklet. - 15 cents - - [Illustration: WEST AFRICAN ART] - -A profusely illustrated eighty-four page booklet with popular and -reference value, covering such areas as the British Cameroons, Nigeria, -French Guinea, and the Gold and Ivory coasts. - 75 cents - - - - - Transcriber’s Notes - - -—Silently corrected a few typos. - -—Retained publication information from the printed edition: this eBook - is public-domain in the country of publication. - -—In the text versions only, text in italics is delimited by - _underscores_. - - - -*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE INDIANS IN WISCONSIN'S -HISTORY *** - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the -United States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part -of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm -concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark, -and may not be used if you charge for an eBook, except by following -the terms of the trademark license, including paying royalties for use -of the Project Gutenberg trademark. If you do not charge anything for -copies of this eBook, complying with the trademark license is very -easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose such as creation -of derivative works, reports, performances and research. Project -Gutenberg eBooks may be modified and printed and given away--you may -do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks not protected -by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the trademark -license, especially commercial redistribution. - -START: FULL LICENSE - -THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE -PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK - -To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free -distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work -(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project -Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full -Project Gutenberg-tm License available with this file or online at -www.gutenberg.org/license. - -Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works - -1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to -and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property -(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all -the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or -destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your -possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a -Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound -by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the -person or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph -1.E.8. - -1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be -used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who -agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few -things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works -even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See -paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this -agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below. - -1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the -Foundation" or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection -of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual -works in the collection are in the public domain in the United -States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the -United States and you are located in the United States, we do not -claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing, -displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as -all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope -that you will support the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting -free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm -works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the -Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with the work. You can easily -comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the -same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg-tm License when -you share it without charge with others. - -1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern -what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are -in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, -check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this -agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, -distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any -other Project Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no -representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any -country other than the United States. - -1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: - -1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other -immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear -prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work -on which the phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the -phrase "Project Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, -performed, viewed, copied or distributed: - - This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and - most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no - restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it - under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this - eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the - United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where - you are located before using this eBook. - -1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is -derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not -contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the -copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in -the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are -redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase "Project -Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply -either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or -obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg-tm -trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. - -1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted -with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution -must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any -additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms -will be linked to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works -posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the -beginning of this work. - -1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm -License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this -work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. - -1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this -electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without -prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with -active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project -Gutenberg-tm License. - -1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, -compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including -any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access -to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format -other than "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official -version posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm website -(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense -to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means -of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original "Plain -Vanilla ASCII" or other form. Any alternate format must include the -full Project Gutenberg-tm License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. - -1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, -performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works -unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. - -1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing -access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works -provided that: - -* You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from - the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method - you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed - to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he has - agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project - Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid - within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are - legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty - payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project - Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in - Section 4, "Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg - Literary Archive Foundation." - -* You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies - you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he - does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm - License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all - copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue - all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg-tm - works. - -* You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of - any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the - electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of - receipt of the work. - -* You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free - distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. - -1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work or group of works on different terms than -are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing -from the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the manager of -the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the Foundation as set -forth in Section 3 below. - -1.F. - -1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable -effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread -works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project -Gutenberg-tm collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may -contain "Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate -or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other -intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or -other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or -cannot be read by your equipment. - -1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right -of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project -Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all -liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal -fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT -LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE -PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE -TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE -LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR -INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH -DAMAGE. - -1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a -defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can -receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a -written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you -received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium -with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you -with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in -lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person -or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second -opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If -the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing -without further opportunities to fix the problem. - -1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth -in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO -OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT -LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. - -1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied -warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of -damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement -violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the -agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or -limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or -unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the -remaining provisions. - -1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the -trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone -providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in -accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the -production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, -including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of -the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this -or any Project Gutenberg-tm work, (b) alteration, modification, or -additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any -Defect you cause. - -Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm - -Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of -electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of -computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It -exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations -from people in all walks of life. - -Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the -assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's -goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will -remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure -and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future -generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see -Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at -www.gutenberg.org - -Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation - -The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non-profit -501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the -state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal -Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification -number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by -U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. - -The Foundation's business office is located at 809 North 1500 West, -Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up -to date contact information can be found at the Foundation's website -and official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact - -Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg -Literary Archive Foundation - -Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without -widespread public support and donations to carry out its mission of -increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be -freely distributed in machine-readable form accessible by the widest -array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations -($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt -status with the IRS. - -The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating -charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United -States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a -considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up -with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations -where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND -DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular -state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate - -While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we -have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition -against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who -approach us with offers to donate. - -International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make -any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from -outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. - -Please check the Project Gutenberg web pages for current donation -methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other -ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To -donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate - -Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works - -Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project -Gutenberg-tm concept of a library of electronic works that could be -freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and -distributed Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of -volunteer support. - -Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed -editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in -the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not -necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper -edition. - -Most people start at our website which has the main PG search -facility: www.gutenberg.org - -This website includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, -including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to -subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. |