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| author | nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org> | 2025-02-04 07:09:05 -0800 |
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| committer | nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org> | 2025-02-04 07:09:05 -0800 |
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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..8a8f18b --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #63311 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/63311) diff --git a/old/63311-0.txt b/old/63311-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 1d2da8e..0000000 --- a/old/63311-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,8734 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Methods & Aims in Archaeology, by -William Matthew Flinders Petrie - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: Methods & Aims in Archaeology - -Author: William Matthew Flinders Petrie - -Release Date: September 26, 2020 [EBook #63311] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK METHODS & AIMS IN ARCHAEOLOGY *** - - - - -Produced by MFR, Charlie Howard, and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images generously made available by The -Internet Archive) - - - - - - - - - -Transcriber’s Note - -Italics are enclosed in _underscores_, boldface in =equals signs=. - - - - - METHODS AND AIMS - IN - ARCHAEOLOGY - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration: Fig. 1. CHAIN OF BOYS CLEARING THE OSIREION AT ABYDOS. - -41 feet deep.] - - - - - METHODS & AIMS - IN - ARCHAEOLOGY - - - BY - W. M. FLINDERS PETRIE - HON. D.C.L., LL.D., LIT.D., PH.D. : F.R.S. ; HON. F.S.A. (SCOT.) : - - Member of the Imperial German Archaeological Institute; - Member of the Society of Northern Antiquaries; - Member of the Roman Society of Anthropology; - Edwards Professor of Egyptology, University College, London. - - - WITH 66 ILLUSTRATIONS - - - London - MACMILLAN AND CO., LIMITED - NEW YORK: THE MACMILLAN COMPANY - 1904 - - _All rights reserved_ - - - - -TO MY FRIENDS - - - F. LL. GRIFFITH, - E. A. GARDNER, - F. J. BLISS, - H. CARTER, - B. P. GRENFELL, - J. E. QUIBELL, - J. DUNCAN, - H. F. PETRIE, - N. DE O. DAVIES, - A. C. MACE, - D. RANDALL-MACIVER, - B. ORME, - A. E. WEIGALL, - M. A. MURRAY, - L. ECKENSTEIN, - H. STANNUS, - C. T. CURRELLY, - E. R. AYRTON, - -WHO HAVE JOINED IN VARIOUS PORTIONS OF THE WORK HERE DESCRIBED, -1884–1903. - - - - -PREFACE - - -Archaeology is the latest born of the sciences. It has but scarcely -struggled into freedom, out of the swaddling clothes of dilettante -speculations. It is still attracted by pretty things, rather than by -real knowledge. It has to find shelter with the Fine Arts or with -History, and not a single home has yet been provided for its real -growth. - -All other sciences deal with the things around us; with subjects which -may, or may not, affect us. Even medical sciences are concerned with -the mechanical structure of the body, rather than with the nature and -abilities of the mind. But the science which enquires into all the -products and works of our own species, which shows what man has been -doing in all ages and under all conditions, which reveals his mind, his -thoughts, his tastes, his feelings,--such a science touches us more -closely than any other. - -By this science, of which History forms a part, we trace the nature of -man, age after age,--his capacities, his abilities; we learn where he -succeeds, where he fails, and what his possibilities may be. - -From another point of view the subject should be considered; it -gives a more truly “liberal education” than any other subject, as -at present taught. A complete archaeological training would require -a full knowledge of history and art, a fair use of languages, and a -working familiarity with many sciences. The one-sided growth of modern -training, which produces a B.A. who knows nothing of natural science, -or else a B.Sc. who knows nothing of human nature, is assuredly not -the ideal for a reasonable man. Archaeology,--the knowledge of how man -has acquired his present position and powers--is one of the widest -studies, best fitted to open the mind, and to produce that type of wide -interests and toleration which is the highest result of education. - -Though this volume is a book of reference for those engaged in actual -work, yet it will also serve to give the public a view of the way in -which this work is done, the mode in which results are obtained, the -ends which are pursued, and the important questions which must be -considered. We have nothing here to do with the details of the facts -discovered; but deal only with the methods and aims, which have been -slowly learned in a quarter of a century. Yet every year there are -fresh methods to add, and more clear views of the aims; and far more -might easily have been said about each of the subjects here discussed. - -If in this outline there is much more reference to Egypt than to other -countries, it is for the reason that most of my own work has lain -there; and there is the more need to deal with that land, as more -exploration is going on there than elsewhere. - -I have to thank my friends for six of the photographs here used. - - W. M. FLINDERS PETRIE. - -UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, LONDON. - - - - -CONTENTS - - - CHAPTER I - - THE EXCAVATOR PAGE - - Purpose, 1; Character, 2; Experience, 3; Organization, 5; - Acquirements, 5; Demands of the work, 6 1–8 - - - CHAPTER II - - DISCRIMINATION - - Temples, 9; Towns, 10; Cemeteries, 11; Indications, 12; - Productions, 14; Pottery, 16; Style, 17; Visual - memory, 19 9–19 - - - CHAPTER III - - THE LABOURERS - - Quality, 20; Education, 21; Control, 22; Substitution, - 23; Overseers, 24; Direct system, 26; Day pay, 27; - Piecework, 29; Day and piece work, 30; Rewards, 33; - Accounts, 35; Native ways, 37 20–40 - - - CHAPTER IV - - ARRANGEMENT OF WORK - - Clearances, 41; Turning over, 43; Raising earth, 44; - Tracing walls, 46 41–47 - - - CHAPTER V - - RECORDING IN THE FIELD - - Need of record, 48; Value of record, 50; Resulting view, - 50; Marking, 51; Nature of notes, 52; Planning, 53; - Plotting, 55 48–59 - - - CHAPTER VI - - COPYING - - Paper squeezes, 60; Dry squeezes, 61; Casting, - 64; Drawing, 68; Restored forms, 71; Copying - inscriptions, 72 60–72 - - - CHAPTER VII - - PHOTOGRAPHING - - The Camera, 73; Preparing objects, 76; Lighting, 77; - Arrangement of objects, 79; Stereographs, 81; - Developing, 82 73–84 - - - CHAPTER VIII - - PRESERVATION OF OBJECTS - - Stone, 86; Pottery, 88; Textiles, 89; Wood, 89; Ivory, - 91; Papyri, 93; Bead-work, 95; Stucco, 96; Gold, 98; - Silver, 98; Copper, 99; Bronze, 100; Lead, 102; Iron, - 102; Sorting, 102 85–104 - - - CHAPTER IX - - PACKING - - Blocks, 105; Long objects, 106; Heavy stones, 107; - Pottery, 108; Softening, 109; Cases, 110; Unpacking, 111 105–113 - - - CHAPTER X - - PUBLICATION - - Arrangement, 114; Plates, 115; Processes, 117; Editions, - 119; Text, 120; Publishing, 120 114–121 - - - CHAPTER XI - - SYSTEMATIC ARCHAEOLOGY - - Systems of work, 122; Need of a _corpus_, 123; Example of - _corpus_, 124; Utility, 125; Successive ages, 126; - Sequences, 127; Sequence dates, 129; Conservation, - 130; Buildings, 130; Lighting, 131; Grouping, 132; - National Repository, 133 122–135 - - - CHAPTER XII - - ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE - - Nature of proof, 136; Legal evidence, 136; Witnesses, - 138; Material facts, 138; Exhaustion, 139; - Probabilities, 139; Legal proof, 140; _Egypt and - Europe_, 141; In XXVIth Dynasty, 142; XVIIIth Dynasty - paintings, 144; Burnt groups, 145; Rubbish mounds, - 147; Houses, 148; Scarabs, 149; Tombs in Egypt, - 150; Tombs in Greece, 152; Variation with date, 153; - Style, 154; Recapitulation, 155; XIIth Dynasty, - Kahun, 156; XIIth Dynasty in Crete, 158; Pan-graves, - 159; VIth to IIIrd Dynasties, 162; 1st Dynasty - Aegean, 164; 1st Dynasty Cretan, 166; Prehistoric, 167 136–168 - - - CHAPTER XIII - - ETHICS OF ARCHAEOLOGY - - Individual rights, 169; Destruction, 170; Restoration, - 172; Sacrifices, 173; Responsibility, 174; Rights of - the future, 175; Rights of the past, 176; Duties, - 178; Future of museums, 180; Publications, 182; State - claims, 183; State rights, 184; Excavating laws, 187 169–188 - - - CHAPTER XIV - - THE FASCINATION OF HISTORY 189–193 - - - INDEX 195–208 - - - - - LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS - - - FIGURE PAGE - - 1. Chain of boys clearing the Osireion _Front._ - - 2. } Going up the desert 1 - 3. } - - 4. Tent-life 6 - - 5. Hut-life 6 - - 6. Temple at El Hibeh 9 - - 7. Temple at Tanis 9 - - 8. Mound at Defeneh 10 - - 9. Cemetery of Zuweleyn 10 - - 10. Copper and bronze adzes 14 - - 11. Cutting-out knives 15 - - 12. Typical forms of pottery 16 - - 13. Lad and girl at Tanis 20 - - 14. Three little Muhameds 20 - - 15. Girls and boys at Tanis 24 - - 16. Girls sorting durra 24 - - 17. Line of carrier boys, Abydos 30 - - 18. Heaps thrown out, Abydos 30 - - 19. Lifting and carrying, Abydos 32 - - 20. Carrying at Royal Tombs 32 - - 21. Account card for wages 38 - - 22. Carrier boys throwing, Abydos 41 - - 23. Town site, turned over, Kahun 41 - - 24. Cutting down top of work 42 - - 25. Cemetery, Tell el Yehudiyeh 43 - - 26. Clearing a tomb, Abydos 43 - - 27. Chain at tomb of Usertesen II 44 - - 28. Chains of men at tomb of Den 44 - - 29. Plan measured from two lines 54 - - 30. Method of plotting survey 56 - - 31. Copy drawn on paper squeeze 62 - - 32. System of numbering sheets 63 - - 33. Paper squeeze 64 - - 34. Plaster cast from paper 64 - - 35. Inventory sheet 70 - - 36. Frame for drawing vases 71 - - 37. Weathered stone, sanded 71 - - 38. Throwing sand; drop-shutter view 75 - - 39. Girls resting; diagonal mirror view 75 - - 40. Tablet, with black and white filling 76 - - 41. Hypocephalus, with white filling 76 - - 42. Wooden floor of Azab 77 - - 43. Prehistoric grave, Naqada 77 - - 44. Ebony negress 78 - - 45. In tomb of Sem-nefer 78 - - 46. Foundation deposit, Aahmes II 80 - - 47. Bracelet of King Zer 80 - - 48. Pavement, Tell el Amarna 88 - - 49. Fresco of princesses, Tell el Amarna 88 - - 50. Box with diagonal bars 106 - - 51. Tray for heavy stones 107 - - 52. Box with three-way grain 110 - - 53. Box end, nailed diagonally 111 - - 54. Nile boat 112 - - 55. Camels, starting and returning 112 - - 56. Naukratite warrior 144 - - 57. Graeco-Egyptian figures 144 - - 58. Aegean vase, Tahutmes III 152 - - 59. False-necked vases 154 - - 60. Celtic and pan-grave pottery 160 - - 61. Black incised pottery 161 - - 62. Buttons, VIIth Dynasty 162 - - 63. Aegean pottery, Royal Tombs 165 - - 64. Black pottery, Cretan 166 - - 65. Khufu, builder of the great pyramid 178 - - 66. Mer-en-ptah, Pharaoh of the Exodus 178 - - [Illustration: Fig. 2. GOING UP THE DESERT, ABYDOS.] - - [Illustration: Fig. 3. GOING UP THE DESERT, ABYDOS.] - - - - -CHAPTER I - -THE EXCAVATOR - - -[Sidenote: Purpose.] - -In few kinds of work are the results so directly dependent on the -personality of the worker as they are in excavating. The old saying -that a man finds what he looks for in a subject, is too true; or if he -has not enough insight to ensure finding what he looks for, it is at -least sadly true that he does not find anything that he does not look -for. Whether it be inscriptions, carvings, papyri, or mummies that -excavators have been seeking, they have seldom preserved or cared for -anything but their own limited object. - -Of late years the notion of digging merely for profitable spoil, or -to yield a new excitement to the jaded, has spread unpleasantly--at -least in Egypt. A concession to dig is sought much like a grant of a -monastery at the Dissolution: the man who has influence or push, a -title or a trade connection, claims to try his luck at the spoils of -the land. Gold digging has at least no moral responsibility, beyond the -ruin of the speculator; but spoiling the past has an acute moral wrong -in it, which those who do it may be charitably supposed to be too -ignorant or unintelligent to see or realise. - -And some systematic outline of archaeological methods and aims is -needed, not only for those whose moral sense is so untrained that -they may ruin a site, and say “I have done no wrong”; but it may -even profit those who take up the name of archaeology when they mean -solely art, or inscriptions, or some single branch of the subject. The -most familiar teaching entitled archaeological is that of Classical -Archaeology, which in the ways of most teachers means Greek sculpture -and vase paintings. In spite of all the professorships and schools of -that subject, we are still so profoundly ignorant of the archaeology -of Greece and Italy that there is scarcely a single class of common -objects of which any one knows the history and transformations. -Certainly we know far less of the archaeology of classical lands than -we do of that of Egypt. - -[Sidenote: Character.] - -If, then, the character of the excavator thus determines his results, -our first step is to consider that character, and to give some outline -of the aptitudes and acquirements--the wit and the cunning, as our -forefathers well distinguished them--which are wanted in order to avoid -doing more harm than good. - -Firstly in every subject there is the essential division between those -who work to live, and those who live to work--the commercial, and the -scientific or artistic aim;--those who merely do what will best provide -them a living, and those whose work is their honour and the end of -their being. These two halves of mankind are by no means to be found -ready labelled by their professions. The R.A. who drops his aspirations -because portraits pay best, the scientific scholar who patents every -invention he can, are of the true commercial spirit, and verily they -have their reward. Rather let us honour the professed dealer who will -sooner sell a group to a museum than make a larger profit by playing -to the wealthy _dilettante_ and scattering things. Let us be quit, in -archaeology at least, of the brandy-and-soda young man who manipulates -his “expenses,” of the adventurous speculator, of those who think that -a title or a long purse glorifies any vanity or selfishness. - -Without the ideal of solid continuous work, certain, accurate, and -permanent,--archaeology is as futile as any other pursuit. Money alone -will not do the work; brains are the first requisite. A hundred pounds -intelligently spent will do more good and far less harm than ten -thousand squandered in doing damage. Mere money gives no moral right to -upset things according to the whim of one person. Even scholarship is -by no means all that is wanted; the engineering training of mind and -senses which Prof. Perry advocates will really fit an archaeologist -better for excavating than book-work can alone. Best of all is the -combination of the scholar and the engineer, the man of languages and -the man of physics and mathematics, when such can be found. So much for -the wit, and now of the cunning that is wanted. - -[Sidenote: Experience.] - -The most needful of all acquisitions is archaeological experience. -Without knowing well all the objects that are usually met with in an -ancient civilisation, there is no possible insight or understanding, -the meaning of what is met with cannot be grasped, and the most -curious mistakes are made. A cloud is “very like a whale,” the -pre-Christian cross is found everywhere, an arrow-straightener is -called a ceremonial staff, an oil-press becomes a sacred trilithon, -half a jackal is called a locust, and lathe chucks become “coal money.” -Of course the needed experience has to be gradually built up, and those -who first explore a civilisation must work through many mistakes. When -I first came to Egypt Dr. Birch begged me to pack and send to him a box -of pottery fragments from each great town, on the chance that from the -known history of the sites some guess could be made as to the age of -the objects; so complete was the ignorance of the archaeology a quarter -of a century ago. But when such knowledge has been once accumulated, it -is the first duty of any excavator to make himself well acquainted with -it before he attempts to discover more. At present the archaeological -experience that should be acquired before doing any responsible work -in any country ought to cover the history of the pottery century by -century, the history of beads, of tools and weapons, of the styles of -art, of the styles of inscriptions, of the burial furniture, and of the -many small objects which are now well known and dated, better in Egypt -than perhaps in any other country. - -Next to this is needed a good knowledge of the history. Not only every -dynasty, but every king of whom anything is known, should be familiar. -The general course of the civilisation, the foreign influences which -affected the country, and the conditions at different periods, should -be clearly in mind. Without such ideas the value and meaning of -discoveries cannot be grasped, and important clues and fresh knowledge -may be passed by. - -[Sidenote: Organization.] - -Organization, both of the plan of work, and of the labourers, is very -necessary. Scheming how to extract all that is possible from a given -site, how to make use of all the conditions, how to avoid difficulties; -and training labourers, keeping them all firmly in hand, making them -all friends without allowing familiarity, getting their full confidence -and their goodwill;--these requirements certainly rank high in an -excavator’s outfit. - -[Sidenote: Acquirements.] - -The power of conserving material and information; of observing all -that can be gleaned; of noticing trifling details which may imply a -great deal else; of acquiring and building up a mental picture; of -fitting everything into place, and not losing or missing any possible -clues;--all this is the soul of the work, and without it excavating is -mere dumb plodding. - -Of more external subjects, such as may be deputed to other helpers, -drawing is mainly wanted; more in mechanical exactitude of -facsimile-copying than in freehand or purely artistic work. Surveying -and practical mathematics, with plan drawing, are almost always -involved in dealing with any site. Photography is incessantly in use, -both during the course of the working and for preparing publications. -The outlines of chemistry and physics and a good knowledge of materials -are necessary to avoid blunders in handling objects and in describing -them. The ancient language of a country, all important as it is in the -study of remains, is yet in its critical aspects not so essential -during field-work. But the excavator should at least be able to take -the sense of all written material which he finds; and in Egypt that -should include hieroglyphic, hieratic, demotic, Greek, and Coptic -writing. The spoken language of the country should be fluently acquired -for simple purposes, so as to be able to direct workmen, make bargains, -and follow what is going on. To be dependent on a cook, a dragoman, -or a donkey boy, is very unsafe, and prevents that close study of -the workmen which is needed for making the best use of them. And a -general eye to the safety and condition of everything, both of work, -antiquities, and stores, is incessantly wanted if a camp is to be -successful and prosperous. - -Many of these requirements can well be undertaken by different -people; in fact, not a single living person combines all of the -requisite qualities for complete archaeological work. But all of these -requirements must be fulfilled by different members in a party, if -they are to command success as well as deserve it. In all points, -imagination and insight, the sense of all the possibilities of a case, -is to be the medium of thought both in theoretical and in practical -affairs. - -[Illustration: CAMP LIFE, ABYDOS. - -Fig. 4. Tent in desert.] - -[Illustration: CAMP LIFE, ABYDOS. - -Fig. 5. Huts at temple.] - -[Sidenote: Demands of the work.] - -In the externals of the work an excavator should be always his own best -workman. If he be the strongest on the place, so much the better; but -at all events he should be the most able in all matters of skill and -ability. Where anything is found it should be the hands of the master -that clear it from the soil; the pick and the knife should be in his -hands every day, and his readiness should be shown by the shortness -of his finger-nails and the toughness of his skin. After a week of -work in the soil, feeling for delicate things in a way that no tools -can do, the skin almost wears through, and the nails break down. But a -week or two more at it, and the excavator grows his gloves, and is in -a fit state for business, with the skin well thickened, and ready to -finger through tons of grit and sand. Nothing can be a substitute for -finger-work in extracting objects, and clearing ground delicately; and -one might as well try to play the violin in a pair of gloves as profess -to excavate with clean fingers and a pretty skin. It need hardly be -said that clothing must correspond to the work; and there must never -be a thought about clothes when one kneels in wet mud, scrapes through -narrow passages, or sits waist deep in dust. To attempt serious work -in pretty suits, shiny leggings, or starched collars, would be like -mountaineering in evening dress, or remind one of the old prints of -cricketers batting in chimney-pot hats. The man who cannot enjoy his -work without regard to appearances, who will not strip and go into the -water, or slither on slimy mud through unknown passages, had better not -profess to excavate. Alongside of his men he must live, in work hours -and out; every workman should come to him at all times for help and -advice. His courtyard must be the pay office and the court of appeal -for every one; and continual attention should be freely given to the -many little troubles of those who are to be kept properly in hand. To -suppose that work can be controlled from a distant hotel, where the -master lives in state and luxury completely out of touch with his men, -is a fallacy, like playing at farming or at stockbroking: it may be -amusing, but it is not business. And whatever is not businesslike in -archaeology is a waste of the scanty material which should be left for -those who know how to use it. An excavator must make up his mind to do -his work thoroughly and truly, or else to leave it alone for others who -will take the trouble which it deserves and requires. - -[Illustration: TEMPLE RUINS. - -Fig. 6. El Hibeh.] - -[Illustration: TEMPLE RUINS. - -Fig. 7. Tanis, with obelisks.] - - - - -CHAPTER II - -DISCRIMINATION - - -The observing of resemblances and differences, and the memory of -physical appearances required for this, are absolute requisites for -carrying on the duties of excavating. Here we deal with the appearances -in a land of sun-dried brickwork, where the accumulations are great, -as in Egypt, Syria, and Mesopotamia. In a rocky land, such as Greece, -there is not the same sheltering mud, and the appearances are therefore -very different. - -[Sidenote: Temples.] - -The nature of a site can be guessed pretty closely from its aspect. -A wide open space with mounds around it is almost certainly a temple -site; and if there are stone chips strewn over it, no doubt remains -as to its nature (Figs. 6, 7). The temples being of stone from the -XIIth Dynasty onwards, they were ruined by the removal of the material -in each age of disruption; but the houses of the towns, being always -of mud brick, continually crumbled and decayed, and so filled up the -ground with rubbish. In Egypt mud-brick towns accumulate at about 20 -inches in a century; or in the rainy Syrian climate at about 50 inches. -Herodotus describes walking on the roofs of the houses and seeing -down into the temple precincts; and in every great site in Egypt, such -as Tanis, Buto, Bubastis, Memphis, or Koptos, the plain of temple -ruins had the house mounds far above it on all sides. The temples -were ruined both for building-stone and for lime-burning. It is rare -to get any portions of a limestone building left; sandstone is often -found, and all the great temples which remain are of sandstone; granite -generally has lasted, except where it has been split up in Roman times -for millstones. The search for limestone has led to whole buildings -being upset in order to extract the limestone foundations. The basalt -pavement of Khufu, the granite pylon of Crocodilopolis, and probably -the granite temple of Iseum, have been overthrown thus. Especially in -the Delta, where no limestone hills are accessible, this destructive -search for lime has been unrelenting in all ages; and it is seldom that -ancient limestone is now met with. Hence all that can generally be -seen of a temple site is a plain of dust with a few tumbled blocks of -granite, the exposed tops of which are entirely weathered as rounded -masses. Five or ten feet down there may be a rich harvest of carvings -and inscriptions. - -[Illustration: Fig. 8. Mounds of fort, Defeneh.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 9. Sarcophagi at Zuweleyn.] - -[Sidenote: Towns.] - -A town site is always recognised (Fig. 8) by its mounds of crumbling -mud brick, strewn with potsherds if in Upper Egypt, or with burnt red -bricks on the later mounds of the Delta. Whenever a native begins to -describe a site in Lower Egypt, one inquires if there is red brick, and -if so there is no need to listen further. Generally it is possible to -date the latest age of a town by the potsherds lying on the surface; -and to allow a rate of growth of 20 inches a century down to the -visible level; if that gives a long period we may further carry down -the certainly artificial level by 4 inches in a century for the Nile -deposits when in the cultivated ground. For instance, there are mounds -in the Delta about 40 feet high, ending about 500 A.D.; this gives -about 40 feet of rise, equal to about 2400 years, or say 2000 B.C., for -the age at the present ground level. But the visible base was about -5 feet lower at 500 A.D.; and the human deposit rising at 20 inches -a century has been overlaid at the rate of 4 inches a century by the -Nile deposit. Hence the age may be reckoned by a depth of 45 feet -accumulated at 16 inches a century before 500 A.D. or about 2900 B.C. -No exact conclusion could be based on this; but it is a valuable clue -to the age to which the yet unseen foundation of a town may most likely -belong. Town mounds and ruins of buildings have generally symmetrical -forms, weathered away uniformly on all sides. But around towns are -often heaps of rubbish thrown out, the best-known example of this being -the immense heaps behind Cairo; and such accumulations usually show -their nature by the two slopes, the gradual walk-up slope, and the -steep thrown-down slope. - -[Sidenote: Cemeteries.] - -The cemetery sites on the desert have always been more or less -plundered anciently. A prehistoric site may have no external trace, as -the blown sand may cover it so evenly that there is no suspicion of -anything lying beneath. But on a gravel surface there are generally -some indications left of the hollows of the graves, and scraps of -broken pottery left about by the plunderers (Fig. 9). The historic -cemeteries are generally easier to see, as they are in rising ground, -and the holes of the tomb pits show on the surface. The difficulty is -not to find the site of a cemetery, but to find a grave in it which -still contains anything. As a rule, any tomb pit which appears still -undisturbed has been left either because it belongs to an unfinished -tomb with nothing in it, or because the tomb has already been reached -from elsewhere. At Medum an untouched walling up of a chamber had been -left, because the plunderers had tunnelled under the mass of the tomb -and broken through the floor of the chamber. At Dendereh the floor of -the chamber was entire, with the lid of the sarcophagus sunk in it, yet -untouched; it had been left so because the plunderers had mined through -from the outside under the floor to the sarcophagus, and broken through -the side of it without touching the chamber. Some untouched tombs were -left because the burials in them were known to be so poor that they -were not worth opening. All this points to the plundering being mostly -done during the lifetime of those who saw the burial. Usually only -one tomb in ten contains anything noticeable; and it is only one in a -hundred that repays the digging of the other ninety-nine. - -[Sidenote: Indications.] - -In general, on looking over a site every indication must be observed. -Sometimes there may be a slight difference in vegetation, showing the -positions of walls or of pits. In colder climates differences are shown -by the melting of hoar frost or snow; as in the square of S. Domenico -at Bologna, where some large patches--probably of ashes--show through -the cobble paving during a thaw. A shower of rain will show much in -drying; and, after a rare storm in Egypt, there are two or three -precious hours when the buried walls show clearly on the ground, and -should be hurriedly scored down before the hot sun removes the traces. -A driving wind will bare the ground so that the harder walls show -through the sand; or even a crowd of people passing will tramp into -the softer filling and show the constructions. At sunrise or sunset -ground should be carefully looked over to pick out the variations of -level and slope, which will often show then, though quite invisible in -full light. Prehistoric camp sites are noticed by the difference of -tone of the ground in walking over them; the ashes holding so much air -that the reverberation to the foot-step is quite different from that -on ordinary desert. The appearance of the surface of disturbed desert -differs much from the undisturbed: there may be slight hollows filled -with sand, which are the traces of deep pits; there may be pebbles from -deep beds thrown up, or fragments of limestone; or--best of all--chips -of worked stone or of hard rocks may tell the tale of a building whose -ruins lie beneath. The mastabas of the XIIth Dynasty at Dahshur left -scarcely any surface trace, as the stone walls had been removed, and -the gravel filling had spread out and denuded down to a level surface. -The great wall of the camp at Daphnae 40 feet thick, had been ploughed -by denudation until it was even lower than the desert on either side of -it, and the lines of it were only visible by the absence of potsherds -upon the site of the wall. - -[Illustration: - - Mid, Late, Ist, IIIrd, VIth, XIIth, XVIIIth Dyn. - Prehistoric. - -FIG. 10.--Development of copper and bronze adzes. 1:6.] - -[Sidenote: Productions.] - -Besides the discrimination of sites there is a vast subject in -the discrimination of objects and of styles. The first requisite -acquirement of a digger--his archaeological experience--consists in -discriminating and distinguishing the differences between products of -various dates. An Egyptian copper adze (Fig. 10) of the ages of middle -prehistoric, late prehistoric, early dynastic, IIIrd, VIth, XIIth, or -XVIIIth Dynasties can be told at a glance, and we only need more dated -examples to be able to separate them still more finely. A cutting-out -knife (Fig. 11), a pair of tweezers, a comb, can be dated almost as -certainly. But it is when we can look not only to differences of form, -but also to variations of colour and texture, that we have the widest -scope for discrimination. The great variety of beads in each country, -the hundreds of details of form, materials, and colour in Egypt alone, -give them an importance archaeologically above most other things. In -the prehistoric age there are a dozen materials, and many different -forms, not one of which can be confounded with later products. In the -Old Kingdom new and distinctive styles are met with, and a profusion of -small amulets on necklaces. In the XIth and XIIth Dynasties magnificent -beads of amethyst, green felspar, and carnelian outshine those of -every other age. In the XVIIIth Dynasty the immense variety of glass -and glazed beads defy enumeration, and yet are sharply characteristic -of different reigns of that age. The later times of degradation also -produce new and distinctive forms and colours; and when we reach the -Roman period a flood of glass work imitates the fashionable beryl, -amethyst, rock crystal, and other stones, with the mimicry of a forger. - -[Illustration: FIG. 11.--Development of cutting-out knives. XIIth–XIXth -Dynasties. A-A and B-B cutting edges.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 12.--One typical form of pottery of each period.] - -[Sidenote: Pottery.] - -Pottery is, however, the greatest resource of the archaeologist. For -variety of form and texture, for decoration, for rapid change, for its -quick fall into oblivion, and for its incomparable abundance, it is -in every respect the most important material for study (Fig. 12), and -it constitutes the essential alphabet of archaeology in every land. -Think for a moment how few people know the appearance of a common jug -a century old, how the crocks of Georgian times have all vanished, and -new forms are made. Even of decorated china not one piece in a thousand -in England is before the last century, and not one in a million is -three centuries old; so rapidly does breakable ware perish, and become -unknown. This not only prevents its being handed on from earlier times, -as ornaments or weapons may descend, but it prevents the copying of -older forms, and gives a free scope to rapid variation. No doubt some -standard forms may continue to be made, because they are so simple, and -so adapted to common wants, that the same causes continue to produce -them. But it is only the simplest and least characteristic types which -thus continue; the more detailed and specialised the form, the more -rapidly it changes, and gives way to new styles. In the prehistoric age -of Egypt alone there are about a thousand different forms of pottery; -and when the historic times shall be as fully recorded, probably two -or three times as many will demand notice. In Italy and Greece there -is apparently as great a variety, though--apart from painted vases--it -is very far from being fully placed on paper. And when we come to know -the archaeology of other lands, their pottery will doubtless prove -as varied and distinctive in its styles. It is then in a thorough -knowledge of pottery that any sound archaeology must be based; and -there is no wider or more important field for discrimination. With the -brief view of Palestinian pottery gained in a few weeks, on one site at -Tell Hesy (Lachish), I found it possible to ride over mounds of ruins -and see the age of them without even dismounting. - -[Sidenote: Style.] - -Beside the discrimination of broad physical differences there is the -more subtle observation of style. This cannot be discussed, or even -shown to exist, without a very wide collection of examples; yet in -a trained observer a long series of experience should result in an -unexpressed--almost intangible and incommunicable--sense of the style -of each country and each age, such that a piece of work can at once be -referred to its proper place, though not a single exact comparison can -be quoted for it. Special motives, outlines, curves, tastes, belong -to various sources so certainly and characteristically that they -show their origin at a glance. A good example of this is seen in the -bronzes of Minusinsk in Central Asia; this site is almost equidistant -from the North Sea, the Persian Gulf, and the China Sea, and the style -seems to recall by its details almost equally the taste of Northmen, -Persians, and Chinese. A good practice for such discrimination is the -analysis of common ornament around us: a rug or a wall pattern may be -analysed into its sources--here a bit from Assyria, there from Egypt, -here from Japan, there from Norway, all hashed together by the modern -designer. And until the common and obviously distinctive patterns of -each country can be named at sight, and separated into their various -sources, the observer cannot hope to gain that far more essential sense -of the national taste of each people, and the sympathetic feeling of -the relationship of any form or curve that may chance to be seen,--that -conviction of the family and source of each object, which is the -illumination of an archaeologist, the guide to fresh suggestions and -researches, the mental framework which holds all memories in place. - -[Sidenote: Visual Memory.] - -But beside this sublimated use of the permanent memory and -discrimination, there is another very crude and transient -discrimination which is also needed in actual work. A visual memory -of the site and excavations should be constantly in mind; the master -should be able to go over the whole site, and every man at work on it, -entirely from memory; he should be able to realise at once, on seeing -the place next day, exactly how every one of fifty different holes -looked the day before; and know at once where the work stood, and what -has been done since, so as to measure it up without depending on any -statements by the workmen. If a boy comes with a message that Ibrahim -or Mutwali needs direction, the master should be able to visualise the -place, inquire what has been done, and how each part now stands, and -then give sufficient temporary direction entirely from memory of the -site, and memory of what he expected to do, or to prove, or to find, -from that particular hole. The extent of this visual memory is never -realised until one meets with some who are so unlucky as not to possess -such an apparatus, and who are therefore unable to know what has been -done, and have to begin each day’s work as if they were strangers to -the place. Of all inherent mental qualifications there is perhaps -none more essential to a digger than this permanent picture of a site -in the mind. And the transient memory from day to day should include -the appearance of every hole on all sides, the meaning of it and the -purpose for which it is being dug. - - - - -CHAPTER III - -THE LABOURERS - - -[Sidenote: Quality.] - -In starting an excavation one of the first considerations is the supply -of labourers, and the selection of them. In some places it is difficult -to persuade any one to work at first; either from distrust, or from -being unaccustomed to regular employment. At Naukratis only a few men -could be persuaded to try the work in the first week or two; but so -soon as the villagers found that genuine gold coin was to be had, they -swarmed up, and some five hundred demanded to be taken. The Egyptian is -good at steady work, but the Syrian is very different, and it took some -weeks at Tell Hesy to educate men into continuous regular digging. They -would jump out of their holes every few minutes, and squat on the edge -for a talk with the next man; and only a steady weeding out of about a -third of them every week, gradually brought up the best of them into -tolerable efficiency. In Greece such difficulties are even greater, and -rational regular hard work cannot be reckoned upon, as in Egypt. - -[Illustration: Fig. 13. WORKERS AT TANIS.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 14. WORKERS AT TANIS.] - -The best age for diggers is about 15 to 20 years. After that many turn -stupid, and only a small proportion are worth having between 20 -and 40. After 40 very few are of any use, though some robust men will -continue to about 50. The Egyptian ages early; and men of 45 would be -supposed to be 65 in England. The boys are of use for carrying from -about 10 years old; and they generally look mere boys till over 20. -The ornamental man with a good beard is quite useless and lazy; and -the best workers are the scraggy under-sized youths, with wizened wiry -faces, though sometimes a well-favoured lad with pleasing face will -turn out very good (Fig. 13). In choosing boys the broad face and -square chin are necessary tokens of stamina; and the narrow feminine -faces are seldom worth much. - -Beside the mere physical strength of the fellow, the face has to be -studied for the character. The only safe guide in selecting workers -is the expression; and no influence of recommendations or connections -should weigh in the least against the judgment of the appearance. The -qualities to be considered are, first, the honesty, shown mostly by the -eyes, and by a frank and open bearing; next, the sense and ability; -and lastly, the sturdiness, and freedom from nervous weakness and -hysterical tendency to squabble. - -[Sidenote: Education.] - -When once selected, the education of the workers begins. Often some -oafs who will not understand any directions, and have no sense to work -unless encouraged by watching, may yet be brought up in a few months -to be good workers if associated with a skilful man. And almost every -boy and man will greatly improve by steady work and control. The -effect of selection and training is astonishingly seen on comparing -some old hands, who have had five or ten years at the business, side -by side with new lads. There is as much difference between their -capacities as there is between the fellah and an educated Englishman. -A gang of well-trained men need hardly any direction, especially in -cemetery work; and their observations and knowledge should always -be listened to, and will often determine matters. The freshman from -England is their inferior in everything except in recording; and at -least a season’s experience is needed before any one can afford to -disregard the judgment of a well-trained digger. The better class of -these workers are one’s personal friends, and are regarded much as old -servants are in a good household. Their feelings and self-respect must -be thought of, as among our own equals, and they will not put up with -any rudeness or contempt. A man with landed property and cattle, and -an ancestry of a couple of centuries, can afford to look down on most -Englishmen who would bully him. Such workers are of course entirely -above going into the usual Government or French work, where the lash -is used; and their good service and skill is only given for friendly -treatment. - -[Sidenote: Control.] - -Yet there is a danger in letting control slip away. It is always -needful to be firm, and to insist on obedience to orders; and constant -keeping in hand is required, not only for the rank and file but even -for the best men. An Egyptian cannot withstand temptations if often -repeated; and the fault of a collapse of character, which befalls even -the best, is mainly due to not keeping sufficient hold and influence, -and not taking sufficient trouble to ensure control. The first rule -in managing the better class of men is not to let any man get a habit -or prerogative of doing any kind of work for oneself: never let the -same man repeatedly go for purchases, or for money, or carry things, or -walk with the master, or explain phrases, or boss anybody or anything. -All such services should be carefully spread over several men; and if -there be two parties--as from opposite sides of the Nile--always keep -them well balanced in your consideration. Each will then keep a sharp -lookout on the opposition. - -Beside men and boys, girls (Fig. 15) will work very well in the Delta -and in Syria, though not in Upper Egypt. They do well at carrying; and -as they never ask for pick work they are, when well grown, worth more -than the boys. Not only will they come from the village day by day, but -they will also camp out with their fathers and brothers in camps at a -distance from home. No difficulty or unpleasantness has arisen in such -mixed camps in my work. - -[Sidenote: Substitutions.] - -A frequent trouble is from substitution of workers. The fact of being -chosen is worth something; and the worker will try to sell his place to -a substitute, and then get in again soon after on the plea of being an -old hand. So long as a substitute comes only for a day or so, he may -be tolerated. But if there arises a frequent plea of “So-and-So is ill -to-day, and wants me to work for him,” it is needful to stamp on it by -refusing all substitutes, and replying, “If he is ill, I will take him -back when he is better.” One common cause is that they wish to push in -younger and younger boys (Fig. 16), so that the fellow who was 14 or -16 at first, dwindles imperceptibly until he can hardly carry a basket. -An opposite cause is that only boys are taken on in some places because -the men cannot be trusted; and then the supreme object of the villains -of the place is to get in as substitutes for boys, so that they may -learn what is found and where to plunder at night. Most usually when -a substitute is refused the original boy turns up as well as ever. I -have known the village guards come and call a lad out on a trumped-up -charge, with a friend of the guard following close by, quite ready just -to work for the accused. - -[Sidenote: Overseers.] - -Turning now to the organization, there are two great choices to be -made, with or without Overseers, and by Day pay or Piecework. Each -system may be best under particular conditions, and the suitability of -each we will note first, before entering on detail. - -Overseers are almost always employed. They remove much of the friction; -they profess to drive the men on, and be responsible for their regular -working; and they seem indispensable parts of the business. The less -a master knows of the men and of their language the more essential an -overseer seems to be. - -[Illustration: Fig. 15. GIRLS AND BOYS IN THE WORK.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 16. GIRLS AND BOYS IN THE WORK.] - -Yet all this usefulness is the best reason for avoiding them. The more -friction they save, the less the master knows of his men, and the less -influence he has. The more they profess to drive the men, the more -hollow the fraud is, until the overseer merely serves to give notice -when the master is coming. The more indispensable they seem, the -less desirable is it to have so to trust a native. And the less a -master knows of the men and the language, the more dangerous it is to -have some one always acting in everything that goes on. Moreover, there -is nothing so demoralising to a native as wandering about, without hard -work, stick in hand, to bully men who are quite as good as himself. -Even good men soon lose their character in such conditions, and it is -needful to have some definite allotted manual work for even a leading -man. - -The results of having overseers, or _reises_, are instructive. In -one case the reis took a third of all the money given as rewards for -things, threatening to get any man dismissed who would not give this -up to him. In another case the overseers levied a sixth of all the -wages from the men, making ten times their own pay by this extortion. -Mariette’s overseers used to go to a village with a Government order -for so many men, and demand the best men they could venture on -claiming. These bought themselves off, each at a few shillings a month, -and lower men were taken, until most of the villagers were paying -heavy tribute. Reises will also bargain with a shopkeeper to put on -a third on the price of all goods supplied, and compel any messenger -sent shopping to go to that shop. In another case a museum reis was -seen bowing down to the ground and kissing the hand of the principal -_antika_-dealer of the place; doubtless for good consideration -received. In short, the dangers, losses, and troubles that come from -reises are so great that it is far better to do without them. - -[Sidenote: Direct system.] - -The system which works best is to have a careful distribution of -the best men; and, in fact, work with two or three dozen reises, -all of whom do pick-work themselves. Each well-trained man can have -half-a-dozen new hands placed near him, and he can be ordered to see -that they follow instructions. By such a wide distribution of the -authority it does not deteriorate the men, as there are too many -rivals; and being each paid for actual digging, they do not spoil with -idleness. Thus every man is directly under the master, all instructions -are given at first hand, and every one is in close touch, and not -fenced off by intermediate intriguers. Doubtless, two or three men will -come to the front by their ability and character; but though full use -should be made of them, yet they should always be kept nominally on the -same terms and work as every one else. Their reward consists in being -given all the more promising places, where things are likely to be -found, so that they may reap much more profit than others. - -In some different conditions of work overseers may be a necessary evil. -In Greece the large distances of sites from each other in the Aegean -and political conditions are a bar to employing a regular gang of -men, although the Egyptian will readily travel three or four hundred -miles to his season’s work, as far as Constantinople from Athens, -and is quite ready to do his work in spite of the scowls of a bad -neighbourhood. Fresh workers are engaged at each place in Greece, and -for their needful training overseers are considered necessary. Also at -present, owing to the continual shifting of European superintendence -by changes of students, and less frequent changes of Directors, -permanent overseers who will carry on the traditions of the modes of -working are requisite. But it is questionable whether these needs would -not be more safely met by carrying about ten or a dozen picked workmen, -who would train local hands, and at the same time work themselves. -The Greek does not seem nearly as capable of continuous hard work as -is the Egyptian, and moves much less earth in the day, and that at -about double the wages, while he is said to entirely refuse piecework. -But this difficulty would be reduced if a small picked body of hard -workers, stimulated by good piece pay, were used as a nucleus to set -the tone of steady work at each place. The Greek needs educating to -regular work, which is foreign to his nature. - -In England about as much work may be done per man as in Egypt, but at -about five or six times the cost. Hence the number employed is not so -large, twenty or thirty being a large gang, instead of 150 or 200 as in -Egypt. As they can follow directions tolerably, an overseer or foreman -is not needed, the best of the workers usually taking the lead. - -[Sidenote: Day pay.] - -The question between Day pay and Piece pay is an open one. In cases -where minute valuables may be scattered anywhere in the soil, day pay -is needful to prevent undue hurry. Or where the work is very irregular, -and time needs to be spent on moving stones, or heavy extras, day pay -must be given. But where the work is uniform, and the objects expected -are large or in known positions, then piecework is far more suitable. -Though measuring up the cubic metres of work done may take perhaps a -quarter of the master’s time, yet that is better than having to give -the whole time to spurring on the dawdling pace of day workers. - -When working by the day it is needful to give the signals for beginning -and stopping work, and to insist on regular and continuous digging. -It is impossible to be known to be away, as then no work will go -on effectively. An air of vigilant surprises has to be kept up. A -sunk approach to the work behind higher ground is essential; and, if -possible, an access to a commanding view without being seen going -to and fro. A telescope is very useful to watch if distant work is -regular. At Tanis the girls in a big pit were kept by the men walking -up and tipping baskets at the top; but the telescope showed that the -baskets were all the time empty. The immediate dismissal of fourteen -people was the result. A telescope will also show if a boy is put -up to watch for the master’s coming. Various approaches should be -arranged from different directions, and the course of work so planned -that no men can give notice to others. In this way a pleasing group of -musicians and dancers may be found in the excavations, where picks and -baskets are lying idle; and the arrangement is closed by requesting the -boys to dance on their own resources, and the transfer of your pay to -other pockets. The need of thus acting as mainspring, without which the -work goes on at an official pace, is wearing and time-wasting; and it -leaves no chance of doing writing, drawing, etc., during work hours. - -[Sidenote: Piecework.] - -Working by the piece saves all this trouble, and if the men are well -trained, and the work is simple, it goes on automatically and takes the -smallest possible amount of attention. In detached small sites men may -even be left unvisited for two or three days, merely reporting each -evening how far they have worked. In one case some lads were left to -work at a great sarcophagus for weeks unwatched, and came some miles to -report progress, and say when further attention was wanted. The pay for -that was given by contract, to cut and lift a stone lid under water, -for so many pounds. - -In piecework it is always best to keep a record of how long each piece -has taken, as the time is one element in pricing the work done.[1] -The ground varies in hardness, the depth of throwing up continually -changes, or the presence of large stones hinders the work; therefore -any exact value by a hard and fast rule is impossible. Each piece of -work done has to be judged, taking the most likely scale of payment, -and then tempering the result by the amount of time occupied. The -general rate of pay in Egypt is ½ piastre a cubic metre for loose -surface sand, ⅔ for shallow work in harder earth, ¾ for work as deep as -a man, and 1 piastre for deep pits. At this scale a poor worker will -barely earn day pay and a fine worker will make from 1½ to 2 times day -pay. The day pay in Upper Egypt is 2½ to 3 piastres (6d. to 7d.) a man, -and 1½ to 2 (3½d. to 5d.) for a boy, of fit and proper quality. - - [1] A useful notation is to use the letter of the week day, - with an hour-spot by it; thus .F is 7 A.M. Friday, M· is 2 - P.M. Monday, Ẇ is noon, Wednesday, and this spotted letter - is noted in the accounts, for the time of beginning any - piece of work. - -To take a practical case. A hole is, say, 2½ metres wide, 3½ long and 2 -deep, say 18 cubic metres. The rate will be at ¾, making 13½ piastres -or 2s. 9d. Large stones met with, or pillars or buttresses of earth -left to support objects _in situ_, are counted as work done, as the -trouble and inconvenience of leaving them in the hole is quite equal -to the removal of so much earth. If the pit above-named had taken a -four-gang (two men and two boys) less than a day, it might be cut to -12 piastres or 2s. 6d.; or if much over a day, it might be raised to -16 or 3s. 3d.; reckoning that a rate much quicker or slower than the -regular rate, shows that the ground or conditions were better or worse -than usual. It is needful to measure with distinct and visible care, -as the men are very watchful to see that they get fair measurement; -and their confidence should be gained by taking trouble to be fair -and punctilious in every detail, though never taking notice of any -wheedling or attempt to influence the account. - -[Sidenote: Day and Piecework.] - -Where the earth has to be moved to any distance beyond a few yards, -then more carriers are needed than one to each digger. The happiest -combination then is to go on paying exactly the same rate by the metre, -as if the men were working a plain pit, but to supply them with as many -boys paid by the day as may be needful to shift the earth away (Fig. -17). Sometimes two men and two boys will have six more boys to run off -the earth to fifty yards away. Any common village boys will do for this -gang, and they may be enlisted by the hundred, and distributed over the -work. But it is needful to allot these “locals” (as they are called) -specifically to known men, so that each pick-man can answer for the -time and the doings of each of his own boys. Thus there is no smudge of -irresponsibility; but each boy belongs to a man, who has for his own -interest to get the work out of him. - -[Illustration: CLEARING THE TEMPLE, ABYDOS. - -Fig. 17. Lines of carriers.] - -[Illustration: CLEARING THE TEMPLE, ABYDOS. - -Fig. 18. Heaps around area.] - -The local boys should all give the names of their villages on -enlistment, and be kept in lists according to villages, so as to group -them for payment in gold. In case of any serious theft or trouble -due to boys from one village, all the rest from that village can be -dismissed as a warning. To keep them up to time in arriving, it is -best to dismiss for the day the two or three who come latest, if they -are not well up to time. This soon enforces regularity. Any attempt to -leave before the sunset signal, is met by dismissing altogether any boy -who leaves too soon. It is best not to allow any substitution on the -plea of illness, as if that is once allowed, it soon becomes a loophole -for all the selected boys to gradually sell their places to less -desirable fellows. A favourite plan of the piecework men is to turn -all their own basket-boys into pick-boys, and then want more locals to -carry the stuff. Of course this has to be met by deducting from the -rate of pay, as the regular rates are for cutting and throwing, and -not for cutting alone. The proportion of pay if the boys are set to do -pick-work, on a gang of two men and two boys, goes as follows:-- - - +---------------+--------------------+--------------------+ - | pick 3 | pick 3 | pick 3 | - | basket 2 | pick 3 | pick 3 | - | pick 3 | pick 3 | pick 3 | - | basket 2 | basket 2 | pick 3 | - | -- | -- | -- | - | A 10 | B 11 | C 12 | - | | | | - | | 2 baskets due 4 | 4 baskets due 8 | - | | -- | -- | - | | 15 | 20 | - +---------------+--------------------+--------------------+ - -Then if in a normal four-gang, A, one boy takes a pick they become as -in B, and only have 11/15 of the piece pay, as the master has to supply -the other two baskets for the normal gang of equal numbers of picks -and baskets. Similarly if both boys take picks, as in C, the pay is -of course ⅗ of what it would normally be; the other ⅖ being spent in -supplying locals. The one absolute rule, however, is that if there are -enough old trained hands to do the cutting, no local shall be allowed -to do pick-work, as his intelligence, knowledge, and honesty are not to -be trusted without training. The combination of piece pay for cutting -and day pay for carrying is a happy one; as the piecework keeps the men -moving, and they stir up the boys on day pay (Fig. 19). - -In European countries this use of boys is scarcely possible owing to -the national education. In Greece as in England the boys are required -to go to school, and their holidays there are not at a time suitable -for excavating, while in England the holidays are occupied by the -harvest. Hence all work has to be done by men, at a higher rate of pay; -and so mechanical aids to moving earth would be more profitable than -they are in Egypt. - -[Illustration: Fig. 19. FILLING AND CARRYING, AT ABYDOS.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 20. FILLING AND CARRYING, AT ABYDOS.] - -It may be mentioned that the workers are always expected to provide -their own picks and baskets in Egypt; while ropes, crowbars, and other -tools only occasionally wanted are found by the master. If the daily -tools were also provided, they would soon be spoiled, and need constant -attention; it is bad enough to have to check and take care of ropes and -special tools. The baskets brought up need to be looked at for size, -especially those of local boys. When choosing boys, a fair size of -basket should be insisted on as a condition of employment; and if small -or broken baskets are brought up afterwards, the boy should be turned -off, in order to bring a proper basket next day. - -[Sidenote: Rewards.] - -The two objects of excavations are (1) to obtain plans and -topographical information, and (2) to obtain portable antiquities. -For the purpose of securing antiquities it is necessary to guard -against the ignorance, the carelessness, and the dishonesty of the -men employed. The best way to protect the interests of the work is -to give rewards for all the things that are found, commonly called -“the _bakhshish_ system.” If only half-a-dozen men are employed, -and the master will take care to see that they never touch the work -except while he is watching them, it may be practicable to do without -_bakhshish_. But in the ordinary course of having one or two hundred -men and boys at work over a large area, it is essential to pay partly -by results, at least in the East; in Greece, owing to the large claims -of the Government, this is scarcely practicable. - -The actual amount given should be as much as a travelling dealer -would pay to the peasant, were he buying the object. For small and -very saleable things a high rate should be given; for larger blocks, -difficult to move, a lesser rate; and for larger things of some -hundredweights a nominal present may be given without any relation to -the market value. On the whole the _bakhshish_ is usually 5 to 10 per -cent of the wages; and as it is only about 1s. in the pound on the -European values it is well worth while to secure better work by giving -it. Moreover, it is not by any means overlooked in the estimate of the -worth of the work, but--like the prizes of gold digging--it is more -than discounted in the prospects which induce desirable men to come. -The tenth of a chance of getting ten pounds is more attractive than the -certainty of getting one pound in wages; so the extra payments secure -willing workers, even better than the same amount spread in regular pay. - -It is by no means only as a safeguard to honesty. The observation -of things, and the care required to avoid breakages, are two very -necessary habits for good workmen. Many a small thing would be -overlooked and lost if it were no benefit to the finder. And digging -carefully so as to avoid breakages, makes a great difference to the -returns obtained. When giving _bakhshish_ on a broken thing, it is -well to say how much more would have been given had it been perfect. -And if fragments are missing, a large deduction should be made, and -the balance promised if the pieces can be found. A fine flint knife, -anciently broken, was produced with several chips missing; I gave 4s. -for it, but offered 16s. more for the chips, which induced the men to -sit down and turn over twenty tons of earth by hand, fingering every -grain; nearly every scrap was found, the men got the whole 20s., and I -got the whole of the largest flint knife known. In another case I kept -a lad sifting earth for three weeks, to find a minute head which he -had lost. Nothing can ensure care better than paying for it; while any -bad carelessness or disobedience to orders is met by degrading a man -to unprofitable work or dismissing him. The principle that the holder -gets the _bakhshish_ must even be extended to cases where one man has -taken things from another man’s hole; the man who has lost the things -is merely told that he should have taken better care of his work. - -[Sidenote: Accounts.] - -The account keeping is a serious matter, especially when the men are -working far from home, as then they wish to be paid irregularly. There -is first the account of earnings, by day or by piecework; second, the -account of _bakhshish_; third, the banking account of how much each man -has due to him, or, if he has just drawn gold, perhaps a small balance -against him; and fourth, the advances for market and for drawing to -send home. The simplest way of paying is Schliemann’s, giving a day’s -pay to every man every night; but it requires great quantities of -change and a long time of delay to the workers and the master. Weekly -payments are better, on the night before market day or on market -morning. The account is read through to a man, his assent obtained to -it; he is asked if he wants to draw gold, and if not, the total is -booked to him, added to his previous balance. Then for marketing, it -is best to join the men in groups of six or eight together, and give -the chief man of each group a sovereign to divide as they want it. -After market he states how much each has had, and it is deducted from -the balance of each man, while any unspent cash is returned. - -Thus the amounts which should balance in weekly accounts are, for -instance:-- - - RECEIVED. £ PT. | SPENT. £ PT. - Total to 17th Feb. 168 77 | Total to 17th Feb. 182 34 - on 19th „ 10 | Wages to 24th „ 34 16 - on 22nd „ 5 | Locals to 24th „ 9 83 - on 24th „ 20 80 | House 39 - ------- | Materials 64 - Total received 204 59½ | Personal drawings 5 - Due to men 27 79 | -------- - -------- | - Balancing total 232 41 | 232 41 - ======== | ======== - -This, of course, being the paymaster account, as apart from the -accounts in chief, and from which the accounts in chief are made up by -the head of a party. - -It is necessary to take trouble to gain the confidence of the men; -they must be convinced of the master’s good faith and precision. -Whenever there is reasonable doubt on a point, they must always be -given the benefit of it; and plenty of patience is needed to hear their -complaints, and to understand what is the real state of an objection. -Some men are so puzzle-headed that they cannot remember their account -clearly; and if so, it is best to make them name some friend with whom -all their accounts are settled. If any man wants to go far back in -accounts--and sometimes they will raise a question of four or five -weeks before--then it is well to have a friend as witness, who will -see that it is right, and close the matter, silencing any puzzled -grumbling. Egyptians will often dispute accounts against their own -interest, and remind the payer of amounts which they have received that -may have been overlooked. But it is needful to show care and interest -about the smallest amounts, so as to maintain a sense of exactness and -precision with the men. - -Some masters avoid going over accounts by giving each man a card, and -entering his account on it in figures; but as the man cannot check -it without asking a reader, this hardly meets the case. Another form -of accounts is, however, understood and desired by the men, in the -form of a tally which every one can check, and from which they can -automatically balance accounts at once. A piece of sheet zinc is ruled -in columns (Fig. 21), each of 20 squares for the 20 piastres in each -dollar; and every fifth column is lined heavier, as marking a pound. -All amounts earned are marked by spots in the columns, and amounts -paid are scored through. Thus in this example the earnings were 12, 2, -5, 9, 30, and 15 piastres; the drawings were 17, 14, 11, 4, 2, 1½, 6½ -piastres; and the balance still due between the last score and the last -spot is 17 piastres, which any man can count for himself. Such a tally -will hold five pounds of accounts, or ten if ruled on both sides. - -[Sidenote: Native ways.] - -It hardly needs saying that a small amount of doctoring is continually -wanted. Damages to hands and limbs in moving heavy stones, bruises and -strains, sore eyes, malarial fever, rheumatic headaches, indigestion, -swellings and gatherings, old sores, and many other small ailments are -of daily occurrence. A stock of medicines, and some care in applying -them, are necessary in any excavations. But it is necessary to refuse -to give medicine to any one outside of the workmen: first, because -a gratis doctor would never have time to do other work; second, on -account of infection; and third, because patients are an excuse for -spies. - -[Illustration: FIG. 21.--Account-card for native wages. Each square, -one piastre. Each column, one dollar. A spot at each amount due. A line -through the squares paid up.] - -Having now noticed the men who are required, something may be said -of those who are not required. The dealer and the spy are a constant -plague. No man must be allowed to loaf about the work, or to lie -watching it from a look-out point. And any troublesome men are best -dealt with by taking shoes or head-shawl from them, and offering to -send the clothes to the man’s sheikh to be returned to him. To get them -he must give his name, and the name of his sheikh; and that no man -will do, as he can then be dropped on by the police in future. Not a -single loafer will ever give his name and sheikh, and so they are well -kept at bay by confiscating clothing or tools. Once I took the donkey -of a troublesome man, who had fled from me; and gave it up to his -sheikh, who came to intercede next day. Doubtless it had to be redeemed -by some blackmail to the sheikh, and the needful lesson was taught. -Dealers are incessantly trying to get at the men, daily at wells or -as tobacco-sellers, and weekly in the market; and so any unexplained -persons who are seen about should be moved on and kept at a distance. - -It is supposed by some that there is a solidarity in the family of an -Egyptian, which ensures that a man’s relatives know about his actions, -and are aware if he goes wrong. But various events have shown that a -man’s own relatives may be quite in the dark about his doings, and that -a chance outsider may see, know, and tell things about a man which are -secret from his relatives living with him. Hence the guarantee of a -relative is worth practically nothing, and every man must be taken on -his own merits. It must always be remembered that excavation is for -the sake of archaeology, and is not undertaken in the interest of the -workman. Hence any doubt about a man’s character is sufficient reason -for not employing him. There is neither reason nor use in making -accusations, which after all it might be impossible to prove. But -an unostentatious weeding out of men during the fluctuations of the -work is the best means of avoiding those who seem less likely to be -trustworthy. - -A reason for not taking any man’s recommendations is that the -introduction to the work is sure to be paid for; and if Ibrahim begs -you to employ Aly, and succeeds, Aly will have to give him a lump sum -or a share of the wages. Advice _for_ a man should therefore never be -taken; though advice _against_ a man may be disinterested and useful. - -[Illustration: Fig. 22. Carrier boys throwing on mounds. Abydos.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 23. Town-site turned over, showing outer wall. -Kahun.] - - - - -CHAPTER IV - -THE ARRANGEMENT OF WORK - - -[Sidenote: Clearances.] - -A large site, such as that of a temple or a town, may be attacked in -several ways. The most cursory method is by trial pits in various -spots; pits which, if they hit anything of importance, are likely -to injure it, and certain to destroy its connection with other -things. French explorers have a love for _faire quelques sondages_, -a proceeding which often ruins a site for systematic work, and which -never shows the meaning of the positions or the nature of the plan. If -it is quite uncertain whether there be remains in the ground, the best -examination is by parallel trenches, as such give a good view of the -soil, while the stuff can be turned back and the trench filled behind -if not wanted. In case of tracing a building, trenches cut along the -lines of the walls are a good beginning; and then if more is wanted, -the plan is clear and the rooms can be emptied with foresight. - -[Illustration: Fig. 24. CUTTING DOWN FROM THE TOP EDGE OF THE WORK.] - -A favourite method with the older explorers was to clear out a whole -area (Fig. 18) and throw the stuff all round the site. This may be -needful in case of superimposed buildings, which must be studied one -by one, as only two or three periods can be planned at once, and the -upper have to be removed before the lower can be cleared. But such a -method is a clumsy waste in dealing with a simple group of buildings. -The great difficulty of it is to know where to place the stuff removed, -so as not to block future work. Before beginning any large excavation, -the amount to be shifted should be gauged, and the position of the -stuff settled beforehand. The great clearance on the side of the Medum -pyramid, to expose the temple, was planned out with the position and -size of each waste heap in the mind’s eye, and the system of paths by -which the stuff could be shifted with least fatigue. It is needful to -continually adjust the moving, so as to avoid lifting the stuff more -than really needed; and any long run down of material, either towards -the digger or away from the thrower, should be prevented, as it all has -to be lifted again in some shape. Working at the foot of a long run of -stuff is entirely wrong; such ground should be shifted in successive -levels, each level being discharged without needing to raise the earth -up again. Excavations at the Sphinx were carried on by the Government -with two men filling baskets with sand, which ran down 20 feet from the -surface to the bottom of a pit; and the baskets were then carried up by -a long train of children very slowly climbing up out of the pit on a -sand slope at the angle of running sand. Thus nearly the whole labour -was wasted by not filling the baskets at the surface and carrying them -directly away. Whenever a large pit is needed it should be begun of -full size, and lowered equally all over, so that nothing runs down -during the work. - -[Illustration: CEMETERY WORK - -Fig. 25. Mounds, at Yehudiyeh.] - -[Illustration: CEMETERY WORK - -Fig. 26. Sarcophagi, Abydos.] - -For moving earth to a distance there is no way so simple and adaptable -as a line of carrier boys (Fig. 22). Over flat ground this is the best -way up to distances of 50 or 100 yards; for longer discharges it may be -better to lay down a light railway and use trucks. The line of boys is -the only practicable way if the stuff has to be carried up a slope to -discharge, or taken over irregular paths out of the work, as is often -the case. The railway needs much time for rearranging different points -of collection and discharge; and must be in duplicate, or else the work -will be at a stand-still during rearrangement. A boy will carry 20 to -30 lbs. in a load, about 20 journeys an hour for 100 yards discharge, -thus moving about 2 tons a day. So the cost is about a piastre a cubic -metre for shifting 100 yards. - -[Sidenote: Turning over.] - -But far the more economical and rapid work is that of turning over -whenever practicable. If a site has not been often rebuilt upon, the -way is to start by a long clearance at one edge; and then a line of men -steadily cut from one side of the trench and throw back on the other -(Fig. 24), so that the trench moves across the whole site, and every -pound of earth is turned over. Each man needs a frontage of between 4 -and 6 metres in width; and the trench, if open along, should have a -clear bottom of at least 2 metres, from back to front of the work. More -usually it is worked in compartments, each man clearing about 4 metres -square, and throwing into his previous hole; each hole is then gauged -when empty and the pay assessed. If a town is cleared (Fig. 23), then -it is done chamber by chamber, each being emptied over the wall into -the previous chamber. The corners of the chambers can just be left -visible for making a plan afterwards. A great advantage of this way is -that the ground is finally left covered, so there is no great waste -heap, and the walls are all covered over again to save them from future -destruction. - -[Sidenote: Raising earth.] - -Where a deep hollow has to be cleared out it is a wasteful plan to let -the boys walk out with the basket of earth, as they have to raise the -body, which is about four times the weight of their load. So soon as -the rise is as steep as one in four, it is best to form a fixed chain -of boys (Fig. 27), each standing in a permanent place, and handing -the baskets up from one to another. About 5 feet apart horizontally -is as far as is useful; or in case of steep work (as out of pits) the -vertical lift may be 3 or 4 feet (Fig. 1). A sufficient number of -collectors at the bottom and throwers at the top are of course needed -to keep the chain in full work (Fig. 28). A well-proportioned gang -should not have any accumulations along it, and must be quietly watched -from time to time to see that all parts work equally. If the baskets -of earth lag at any point and accumulate, the boys before the point -must be thinned, and those beyond it increased. A favourite plan of the -boys is to let a basket lie unshifted and then stand upon it, as a full -basket of earth gives a pleasant footing, and there is one less to keep -moving. In this way most of the baskets can be quietly suppressed -and yet every one remains as busy as they can be with the short stock -of baskets that remain. All such misuse of baskets must be stopped at -once; but old burst baskets may be used thus with advantage. - -[Illustration: CHAINS OF WORKERS. - -Fig. 27. At tomb of Usertesen II.] - -[Illustration: CHAINS OF WORKERS. - -Fig. 28. At tomb of King Den.] - -This system of lifting is also used in a surprising way for vertical -tomb pits. An Egyptian man will stand all day with his feet on opposite -sides of a pit in foot-holes, and stoop down to take a full basket from -a man below at the level of his feet; then raise himself, and lift the -basket up at arms’ length above his head, thus lifting it 6 or 7 feet. -Three men will thus empty out a pit to 20 feet deep; but such men are -usually old tomb-robbers, and must be employed with circumspection. -More usually ropes are used, one tied to each handle of a basket, and -pulled up by a pair of men. The earth is best left in the carrying -basket, which is laid in the roped basket at the bottom, and taken -out of it at the surface. If the pit is rotten and wide at the top, -the basket has to be swung across the top two or three times, until -on letting the ropes loose it flies out 10 or 20 feet to the side of -the pit, where it is caught by the emptying boy. Clever rope-men will -let a basket fly so as to catch on the top of the dump heap and turn -over, so that it only needs clearing loose to let it go back again. -The ropes need careful watching; the men love to tie knots in them, to -grip by, whereby they wear through at the knots and drop to pieces; -also the ropes are dragged on the edge of the pit, so as to serve as a -friction-clutch when changing hands, thus wearing the rope out in two -days instead of two months; the sides of the pit should be looked at -to see if there is any sawing by the rope, and if so, the men must be -stopped. They also cut off pieces if the ropes are long; and it is best -to have all ropes in standard lengths of 8 metres, these when doubled -thrice over down to 1 metre length are quickly tested for length, and -then hanked in the middle to put by. Lastly, if not regularly delivered -into store every night, the ropes are not returned when a pit is -finished; and then they vanish, and a fresh pair is asked for when the -next pit goes deep. - -Another favourite misuse of ropes is to lash them round blocks of stone -which have to be dragged, and thus cut the rope into scraps by wearing -on the ground. Ropes can generally be put round the sides of a stone, -and kept in place by some old scraps passing beneath. - -[Sidenote: Tracing walls.] - -One of the most careful kinds of work, to which only good men can be -trained, is that of tracing out unbaked brick walls buried in rubbish. -The surrounding earth is derived from the crumbling and washing down -of the earthen wall, and therefore it is indistinguishable from the -average of the bricks themselves. Hence, if the bricks are uniform in -colour, and the mud mortar is like them, the building and its débris -are all alike. The best way to examine brickwork is by scraping a face -of the wall, and then peeling it quite clean with a dinner-knife; such -a clean smooth surface seen in shadow will show whatever can possibly -be made out of the differences of colour and texture. Vertical joints -are worth far more than horizontal, as often fallen bricks may lie -as if built together. If possible the joints should be observed by -differences of colour, and the bricks measured for comparison with -others; as the sizes vary from 7 inches to 2 feet in length, and but -seldom range over half an inch in any one building period, the size -will go a long way in showing a connection of age. If the bricks cannot -be distinguished even after leaving the face to dry for some days, -the earth should be searched by pecking with a trowel or knife to see -if there is dirt in it: only in late times are pottery chips found -usually in bricks, and charcoal scraps are very rare, hence pottery -and charcoal almost prove the earth to be mere wash and rubbish. The -clearing back of dirty earth to a vertical face of clean clay is a -satisfactory evidence of a wall. But sometimes the filling is so clean -that there is no difference between it and the wall. Then the relative -hardness will often serve to distinguish one from the other; and this -is a main means of discrimination by the workmen, who will often tell -a wall entirely by the touch under the pick. Failing all these tests, -and the strata of dirt beds, the film of stucco on the wall face will -sometimes show up, but may leave a doubt as to which side is the wall. -In the last resource the stuff should be searched with a magnifier to -see the hollows left by decomposed straw dust: in kneaded brick these -hollows lie in every direction; in blown dust and wash they lie nearly -all horizontal. It is often needful to spend half-an-hour testing and -tracing out the line of a wall, fixing the face and the top and base of -it; and such work may give the only evidence of a temple or important -building. - - - - -CHAPTER V - -RECORDING IN THE FIELD - - -[Sidenote: Need of record.] - -After finding things the first consideration is to record and preserve -all the information about them. The most ignorant dealer or plunderer -may be a very successful digger, but he will not care for the value of -a record. Recording is the absolute dividing line between plundering -and scientific work, between a dealer and a scholar. The most -blue-blooded _dilettante_ collector who digs to possess fine things, -but records no facts about them, is below the level of the dealer who -will publish an illustrated priced catalogue, and state what was found -together, and the details of the discovery. The unpardonable crime -in archaeology is destroying evidence which can never be recovered; -and every discovery does destroy evidence unless it is intelligently -recorded. Our museums are ghastly charnel-houses of murdered evidence; -the dry bones of objects are there, bare of all the facts of grouping, -locality, and dating which would give them historical life and value. -And it is only the self-evident facts of age that we already know, -which can be observed in such a useless condition. So ignorant are -curators that they will even divide up a tomb-group of objects, which -are the keys to knowledge, and foolishly scatter them up and down the -galleries merely as second-rate specimens of what is already there, -without any date or history. This is actually the case in the three -largest national museums. It is therefore imperative not only to -record, but also to publish, the facts observed; so that when in future -the elements of scientific management may come to be understood, a fit -curator may succeed in reuniting the long-severed information, as is -being to some extent happily done at Dublin. - -In recording, the first difficulty is to know what to record. To state -every fact about everything found would be useless, as no one could -wade through the mass of statements. It would be like a detective who -would photograph and measure every man on London Bridge to search for -a criminal: the complication would entirely defeat the object. It is -absolutely necessary to know how much is already known before setting -about recording more. In some periods, such as the XVIIIth Dynasty, so -much is ascertained that it is seldom that new facts can be brought to -light; and only fine or unusual discoveries are worth full publication. -On the other hand, in such an age as the early dynasties our only -resource lies in complete records of the levels or collocations of -hundreds of pots, whole or broken; and most important historical -conclusions may hang on a single potsherd. - -[Sidenote: Value of record.] - -It is plain therefore that the accuracy and certainty of the record -is necessary. At the moment that a fact is before the eye,--a fact -which may never be seen again, and perhaps never paralleled,--it is -needful for the observer to make certain of all the details, to verify -every point which is of fresh value, and to record all that is new -with certainty and exactitude. Statements with a query, or a doubt -about them, are worth nothing in themselves, and can only serve to -add to the range of similar facts that may be safely recorded from -elsewhere. Everything seen should be mentally grasped, and its meaning -and bearings comprehended at the moment of discovery, so clearly that -a definitive statement can be made, which shall be as certain and as -absolute as anything can be which depends on human senses. The observer -should at least feel no possible doubts or qualms about his recorded -facts; and what uncertainties there are should only be those which -lie beyond his perceptions. It is well to work slowly over all the -petty details of an important discovery, perhaps for half an hour, -while considering all the facts and their meaning, before finally and -irrevocably removing the main evidences of position. All this needs -practice, and a full knowledge of what is important and what is trivial. - -[Sidenote: Resulting view.] - -And not only should such a record be made at the time, but the record -should be presented finally in an intelligible form. To empty the -contents of note-books on a reader’s head is not publishing. A mass -of statements which have no point, and do not appear to lead to any -conclusion or generalisation, cannot be regarded as an efficient -publication. The meaning of each fact should be made apparent, and -the relative importance of the details should be kept in view, so -as to present the conclusions as a picture, in which each touch is -in its proper place, and where each point adds to the whole without -being disproportionately treated. Thus the final result is a statement -much like what might have been written by a contemporary of the times -in question; proved and enforced at each point by the various facts -discovered. - -In many cases our materials are not enough to give such a picture; and -then, either the blanks must be noted and the limits of uncertainty -stated, or else, at the worst, the facts must be grouped, and their -results stated, leaving the question with two or more solutions open to -future settlement. - -Thus the final result to be aimed at is a picture full of detail and -accuracy; and, where material is insufficient, with the limits of doubt -clearly laid down, so that fresh material can at once be incorporated, -and its value seen and grasped, so soon as it may be discovered. - -[Sidenote: Marking.] - -A very needful part of the recording is the marking of the objects -with their source. Generally each part of a site is distinguished by -a letter, and each group of objects found in that part by a number; -thus a cemetery may be E, another adjoining it on different ground -F, yet another G, a temple site T, and so on, sometimes using up the -whole alphabet on a varied district. Then E 17, F 8, G 65, will be -different tombs in those cemeteries, as denoted in the note-book and -on the objects. Every bone of a skeleton should be marked, and always -on one fixed position for each bone. It is best to trust to writing -the reference with China ink on the base or back of most objects; for -pottery and coarse things Brunswick black thinned with turpentine is -best; for dark stones scratching the number is safest, and also for wet -pottery at the time it is found. Jewellers’ tag-labels with strings are -useful for small objects. It is very unsafe to trust labelling only -to the wrapping papers, which may be all thrown away; separate labels -should be wrapped with the things if they cannot be marked otherwise. - -[Sidenote: Nature of notes.] - -The nature of the notes must vary with each kind of material and each -period; but we may here give some examples of the nature of such -records. - -_Town Plan._--Survey of every wall of each house; thickness of each -wall (easily neglected); reveals of doorways; doorsills if of stone; -sizes of bricks; levels of top and base of each wall if any rebuilt or -superimposed; contents of each chamber, note if on floor or in filling; -objects buried in floors; special note of position of exactly dated -objects; copies of any frescoes or decoration. - -_Tomb._--Position relative to other tombs. Size of pit, direction, -depth. Position of chamber. Filling intact, or estimate of time that it -has stood open anciently by the weathering of the sides. Objects found -loose in filling. Chamber plan. Primary or secondary burial. Position -of body, head direction, face direction, attitude of body and limbs. -Position of beads and small objects on body. Note if beads follow any -pattern or order; record order of as long groups of beads as possible -for rethreading; wrappings, amount and nature. Coffin or cartonnage; -inscription and figures, if any, often need copying or photographing -before removal, as they may fall to pieces. Skull and jaw to be -removed for measurement; or, if in rarer periods, whole skeleton to be -preserved. Position and nature of all offerings and objects placed in -the tomb. Copies of any inscriptions or paintings on the walls of the -tomb. - -To such outlines of the usual character of records are added any -special details which are but rarely found; but the above will serve to -remind an excavator of what must always be looked for. - -[Sidenote: Planning.] - -In making a plan of any large area, such as a town, it is best to -start with a rough key-plan divided into a few dozen squares, each row -of squares lettered, each column of squares numbered, so that every -square is designated, as B 5, etc. (Fig. 32). Then the detailed plan -of each square is to be made on one opening of a note-book of squared -paper, the openings running A 1, A 2, A 3; B 1, B 2, B 3, etc. Thus any -connection from one page to another can be found at once by looking for -the next letter or number: the whole plan is in the pocket, and can -be added to, chamber by chamber, as the clearing progresses. It need -hardly be said that every plan or detail should be drawn north upwards -in the note-book. Main lines are of course to be connected together by -long lines of measurement. - -As a general principle it is best to measure positions of as many -points as possible along one single line of measurement, rather than -take many piecemeal short distances and add them together. Thus (Fig. -29) a series of walls should be stated as, 66, 76, 201, 220, 257, -269, 330, 353, 434, 446 inches, rather than as lengths of 66, 10, 25, -19, 37, 12, 61, 23, 81, and 12 inches; for the total is more accurate -when measured all in one, the positions are plotted quicker, and the -comparison with any symmetric lengths of the building are easier made -on the spot, so as to detect errors. - -[Illustration: FIG. 29.--Example of a plan measured entirely from two -bounding lines.] - -In the direct measurement of groups of walls, etc., it is the quicker -and more accurate method to adopt two outside sighting lines, say one -along the north, the other along the east, of the ground, marked out by -high walls or large stones always visible, and then measure every point -out to the two sighting lines at right angles. Spaces of over 100 feet -across can be divided into separate groups. - -The general use of instruments cannot be entered upon here. But amongst -the means of work the divided rod is indispensable, and it is all that -is wanted for most small buildings that are met with. The tape is the -most practical for distances of 10 to 50 feet; and the steel tape for -accurate measuring of base lines, or long distances. The box-sextant -is for very broken ground, and isolated details, or if working alone; -and the theodolite for accurate work anywhere between the accuracy of, -say, 1 inch on 500 feet and the refinement of a ¼ of an inch on a mile. -The plane table may be convenient for approximate plans, and is simple -and rapid to use. The prismatic compass is of use for the directions of -single blocks or fragments of wall, and is handy for rough topography -(generally with paced distances), or for underground passages. - -In considering the accuracy required, if dimensions in figures are to -be given, then minute measurement is wanted, somewhat more accurate -than the original workmanship. But where only a plan is to be produced, -it is seldom practicable to show more accuracy than 1/100th inch on a -book page 10 inches high, or 1/1000th of the whole, and therefore it is -of no use to measure closer than 1 inch on a space of 200 feet or so -across. - -[Sidenote: Plotting.] - -It need hardly be said that the barbarous irregular fractions, such as -⅜ of an inch to a foot or to a mile, should never be used for plotting. -Simple decimal scales should alone be used, and generally 1/100th is -the most suitable and easy for all plans of ordinary buildings, towns, -etc.; this is further reduced by photolithography to whatever scale -will best fit the size of publication. - -[Illustration: FIG. 30.--Method of plotting a three-point survey, -_n_, _w_, _s_, the three fixed points. A the point to be found. B, C, -centres of struck circles.] - -Though the ordinary methods of survey need not be stated here, the -box-sextant is so seldom seen that some account should be given of -its use. The objection to its use on short distances, that parallax -between the direct and reflected ray causes errors, can be avoided by -overlapping the images about ¾ inch, the usual amount of the parallax. -The main use of the sextant is for three-point survey. Over broken -ground where many isolated points have to be fixed, within a few inches -on a few hundred feet, there is no method so quick and useful as the -nautical three-point method, when improved by rigid plotting. At any -three points which shall be visible from the whole of the ground, and -within its general plane, three signals are placed, best lettered by -the quarter of the horizon nearest to each, say _n_, _s_, _w_. The -three points must be so placed that the one circle passing through them -all shall not pass through points needed in the survey; otherwise -they may be in any position, though best as a triangle of about equal -sides. The three angles and one side are to be measured, thus defining -the whole triangle. Then at any point to be fixed, A, the two angles -between _n_ to _s_ and _w_ to _s_ are measured with the sextant, and -these suffice to fix the position. For plotting (Fig. 30), lay down the -triangle of the three fixed points, say to scale 1/100th (the triangle -with shaded corners _n_, _s_, _w_), and the perpendiculars to each side -of it; this is most accurately done by a large protractor with vernier, -setting out the radii and perpendiculars of the triangle from its -centre. Then tabulate the half of each base × cotan. angles observed on -that base, _e.g._ - - logs. n.n. logs. n.n. logs. n.n. - ½ bases _n_ ·27314 _s_ ·36621 _w_ ·29223 _n_ - ------ ------ ------ - x cotan. { 1 ·43223 2·705 ·26272 1·831 - angles at { 2 ·56671 3·687 ·48214 3·035 - places 1, 2, 3 { 3 ·41995 2·630 ·67709 4·754 - -Here the log. half base _n_ to _s_ is ·27314; this added to log. cotan. -of angle subtended by _n_-_s_ from station 1 is log. ·43223, giving -a value 2·705 inches. From station 1 the angle _s_-_w_ was observed; -and from stations 2 and 3 the angle _w_-_n_ was observed. All this -calculation can be rapidly done in this form, placing the sheet upon -the log. book, with the written log. half base next below the printed -log. cotan. angle, and writing down the sum of the two against the -number of the station. Then on the plan, plot these (½ base × cotan.) -on the perpendiculars of their respective bases as at B and C, marking -the station number to each. Then with compasses sweep an arc from one -centre B, with radius Bs equal to the distance from the centre to its -two points of the triangle. The same from the other centre C that has -the same number of station. The intersection of the arcs is the point A -of that station on the plan. - -Of course the prolonged perpendiculars (broken lines) are used as -often as the direct perpendiculars; the _aspect_ of the angle from -the station, whether _n_-_s_ or _s_-_n_ showing on which half of the -perpendicular we should lay off the centre. For angles over 90° the -complement of the angle should be used in calculation, the centre -then laid off on the wrong half of the perpendicular, and the arc -swept across the right half. This mode of plotting gives the fullest -accuracy, such as is never possible with the use of station-pointers, -or trial and error devices which are used in nautical survey. A field -of 40 stations can be easily calculated in an hour, and plotted in a -couple of hours more. If it is needful to work any point with pure -calculation instead of plotting, it can be accurately done by the -principle that the line joining the two centres of arcs, B and C, forms -with their common point s an equal and opposite triangle to that which -they form with the survey point A. It will be seen on looking at the -diagram that _w_-_s_, the angle by which B is plotted, is equal to the -angle _w_-_s_ from A; and similarly the angle of the half base _n_-_s_ -from C, is equal to _n_-_s_ from A. Hence the points _n_, _s_, _w_ -subtend from A, the observed angles, and A is the point from which they -must have been observed. - -For levelling, the handiest instrument is a short rigid pendulum, with -mirror attached, to hang truly vertical. The reflection of the eye -back to itself is then a truly horizontal line, and can be sighted -on to any distance. The pendulum is best made about 5 inches long, -with tetrahedral net of suspension thread, to avoid twisting, passing -through two eyes on the mirror and two eyes on the holder, and a -covering tube to shield it from wind. With this, readings can easily be -taken to an inch on 100 feet, and this is sufficient accuracy for most -archaeological work. - - - - -CHAPTER VI - -COPYING - - -[Sidenote: Paper squeezes.] - -A very needful branch of recording is the taking impressions of -inscriptions and flat reliefs. The usual method is by wet squeezing of -paper, which may be made up of any thickness, from a true mould to a -slight surface impression. If a mould is wanted for future casting, a -tough rag paper without much size should be used; but good newspaper -will do. The tougher the paper is when wet, the better. The stone must -be thoroughly cleaned and soaked. The paper is cut to the size, and, -if less than the stone, in two or more sheets. A sheet is then put in -a basin of water, rolled about to soak, and then gathered into a ball -and rolled between the hands to break the grain, just short of pulping -the surface; next shaken out like a wet handkerchief, and then laid -on the stone with enough slack to go into all the hollows. It is then -gently beaten with a spoke-brush until it is pushed into the hollows -(Fig. 33). If they are deep it is needful to use strips of paper soaked -and pulped, and laid by finger in the hollows, so as to nearly fill -them. Finally, a severe beating is given to the whole, as violent as -can be done without tearing the paper. The paper should be pulped on -the stone, and driven into every crack and porosity; using a second, -and even a third, sheet to bind it together. The pulp in the hollows -should be kneaded in with the sharp edge of the brush-back, using the -whole weight of the body to force it home. About 50 square feet of such -work is as much as can be done in a day. The precautions are: avoid -bubbles of water or air below the paper, beat quite straight without -dragging, and see that there is no creeping of the paper or shifting -on the stone. When quite dry and hard the cast may be carefully peeled -off. After heating and waxing, plaster casts may be taken from it, with -a slight oiling between each using. - -A slighter working is enough on shallow inscriptions; but such squeezes -generally need to be taken off while wet, and allowed to dry alone, -or else the paper drags flat out of the hollows when contracting in -drying. This is specially the case on polished granite, where there is -no grip on the surface. - -Surface impressions of incised carving may be taken with a single sheet -of paper beaten just enough to catch the edges of the cutting; and such -make excellent bases for inking over to produce a facsimile drawing -(Fig. 31). The impression is so much better on the inner side, that the -inking is done on that, and the figures are thus reversed in the plate. - -[Illustration: FIG. 31.--Copy made by inking a paper squeeze, 1:8. A -part of the Israel stele, with the name Israel in the last line but -one.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 32.--System of numbering sheets of connected -drawings.] - -[Sidenote: Dry squeezes.] - -But on all coloured work, and many kinds of tender stones, wet -squeezing is a crime, as it destroys the original. Fatuous tourists -and brazen students have wrecked innumerable monuments by wet -squeezing, and it is now necessarily prohibited in Egypt unless -special permission is obtained to do some object which cannot be -injured by it. Another system, that of dry squeezing, I therefore -introduced when doing the Medum tombs. A sheet of thin paper is held -over the stone, and it is pressed over each edge of the cutting so as -to leave a bend in the surface. Then, laid on a drawing-board, with an -oblique lighting, the bends are all drawn on with pencil, checking by -comparison with the stone. Sometimes it is best to draw by lamplight, -and check with the stone afterwards. The drawing should always begin -at the bottom right hand, so as not to press out the impression by the -hand; and the sheets must not be rolled before being pencilled. For -small lines, a piece of indiarubber should be used to press the paper -into the hollows. For the outlines of reliefs the thumb nail must be -used. This system is quicker and more accurate than any reduced-scale -hand drawing. Over large wall surfaces the sheets should be placed in -regular rows, lettered A, B, C (Fig. 32), and each sheet numbered in -the row, so that A 3, B 3, C 3, come one below the other. The register -of positions is kept by marking a minute cross with pencil on the wall, -so that the corners of four sheets will fall between the four arms of -the cross. Thus each fresh sheet is placed exactly to fit the sheets -which have preceded it, in the row and in the column. Any large blanks -or injuries should have their corresponding sheets duly lettered (even -if nothing is on them), and put with the drawings, so that there shall -be no hitch in placing them all in one great sheet afterwards. It may -be convenient to join up the sheets, and then redivide the drawings -at suitable spaces between the subjects for convenience of packing. -To join the sheets they must be laid together in position, a slight -cut then made with a knife to mark two sheets across the joint; then -turned back-up, adjusted by the cut, and a strip of adhesive paper put -on the joint, dabbed down and not rubbed along. Thus large sculptured -walls can be copied sheet by sheet, joined up, inked in, and then -photolithographed for plates. It is needful to remember that the Postal -Union will take rolls up to 60 centimetres length and 21 cm. diameter, -as ordinary parcels up to 5 kilograms; or 75 cm. length if not over 10 -cm. diameter and 2 kilograms of weight, by book post, open at ends. - -[Illustration: CASTING. - -Fig. 33. Paper squeeze. XII Dyn. Goddess Nekheb.] - -[Illustration: CASTING. - -Fig. 34. Plaster cast from paper. Philistine. XX Dyn.] - -[Sidenote: Casting.] - -Beside the direct material for publishing in plates, it is often -desirable to take casts and impressions, both for future reference -and also as a step toward a photograph (Fig. 34). The making of paper -impressions or squeezes has already been noted. Casting with plaster -of Paris is the principal mode of reproduction, and is such a detailed -business in itself that only a few notes can be given here, such as -might possibly be wanted in field work. The fine work for museum -purposes is outside of our aim here. The main point in handling wet -plaster is rapidity; and for that everything must be ready, and the -exact plan of work and amount of plaster settled beforehand. A basin -should be used with water equal to about two-thirds of the volume of -plaster required. Into this shake or sift dry plaster rapidly, until -the water is just filled up with it, and no free water left on the -top; it is then well proportioned, and should be violently stirred with -a large flat spoon or slip of wood and poured out in an even stream, -beginning with the middle if a flat mould, and flattening it out to -the edges. It is best to have rather too little than too much; as a -fresh lot can be mixed, with the hardened pieces of the first lot, to -serve for a backing; the first lot being, of course, spread over the -whole face to begin with. Strings, or strips of butter-muslin, should -be put through the mass, if it is large, so as to prevent it falling to -pieces if broken later on. Excellent casts are made with a thin skin of -plaster on a backing of muslin put on a frame; but this requires more -skill than plain work. About 10 minutes after casting the back should -be scraped down level, or planed with a wide-mouthed hand plane, which -is a very useful tool in finishing casts. No cast of any large size -should be left without even support for some hours after casting, as it -will settle out of shape if strained. Small quantities of plaster are -best mixed with a pocket knife in the palm of the hand. - -Moulds for casting are usually of clay for a large scale, but that -is not likely to be used in the field-work. The division of the clay -is best done by bedding threads along the face of the object at the -lines required, and then pulling them up to cut the clay. The face of -the object requires French chalk (steatite powder) on it to prevent -cohesion; oiling or greasing spoils the face of the original. For -field-work paper moulds are best, and the preparation of these as -wet squeezes has been already described. To fit the squeeze for use -as a mould, it should be heated and brushed with melted beeswax on -the face, without necessarily soaking it through. Any places that -are shiny when cold should be warmed and rubbed with cotton wool, so -that the face is the true paper cast. Then slightly oil between each -plaster casting, or else the warmth of the setting plaster will make -the wax stick to it. Several casts can be taken from one paper, if it -is carefully handled in peeling it from the plaster each time. Paper -impressions of cylinders are best made with blotting-paper, unrolled -wet, and left to dry. To remove the cockling of drying, spread a thin -coat of stiff paste on card, and press the paper squeeze lightly on it. - -Guttapercha moulds are best if many copies are required. To get a -sharp impression in this tough material a preliminary mould should -be made, of the right shape, but not sharp on the face. This should -be thoroughly cooled in water for an hour or more, and then a small -quantity of guttapercha from boiling water should be laid in the hard -mould and the object pressed in very rapidly and with maximum pressure. -Thus the hot material is forced firmly against every part and takes -a brilliant impression. Such moulds are used for electrotyping as -well as for plaster work. To produce a smooth face to a lump of hot -guttapercha, it should be pulled outwards from the middle to all sides -by thumbs and fingers, so as to produce a fresh torn face over the -whole upper surface. - -Sealing-wax is one of the handiest materials, and is used -professionally for all the coin reproductions that are published. -Only the best wax is of any use for impressions. It should never -be allowed to burn or blaze, nor even to boil, but should be gently -heated until a large mass will fall quite readily. The object should be -wetted moderately just before impressing. So soon as the wax is tough -the object should be lifted slightly to make certain that it has not -stuck, and then pressed down again till cold. If it has stuck it must -be pulled away at once, and the wax picked off while tough. Sealing-wax -casts must be oiled before plaster is put to them; and oil does not -soften or deteriorate sealing-wax if left on for years. Beeswax, or, -better, the mixture called “dentist’s wax,” makes good impressions, and -may be used for moulds. - -Tin-foil is most useful for rapid impressions, especially from a -fragile or delicate object. The thinnest should be used, such as is -wrapped round chocolate. To preserve the form of tin-foil it may be -squeezed into place with a back of beeswax, and so form a facing to a -wax mould for casting a plaster positive. Or it may be pressed alone -(forcing it on with soft indiarubber or cotton wool), and then floated, -back up, on water, while blazing sealing-wax is dropped into it to -form a backing. This mode is very handy for coin impressions, which -will travel safely in this form and look well. For round objects, -such as cylinders, a tin-foil impression should be made, beating the -foil in with a soft tooth-brush; then the foil is to be uncoiled by -rolling it upon wax so that the curve is removed without flattening the -impression; it is then ready for a plaster casting, giving a flat cast -of the round cylinder. In all cases thin gold-foil would be far better -than tin-foil; and such an impression might even be preferred to the -original object by some Oriental officials. - -[Sidenote: Drawing.] - -Drawing is still the main resource for illustration, although -photographic processes occupy so important a place. Hand-work is -essential for plans, it is the more useful method for inscriptions, -and it is the more convenient method for most small objects. There is -generally some interpretation needed, to show details which could not -possibly all be visible in one uniform lighting, as in a photograph; -and this can only be done by drawing all that can be seen in varying -lights and aspects. Another superiority of outline drawings is that -they are far more easily looked over and referred to than a much less -distinct photograph. And lastly, they cost a third or a quarter of the -amount for publication. The proper scope of photographs is stated in -the next section. - -As drawing is almost always to be reproduced by photolithography, or by -zinc block, it is essential to have it entirely in full black and white -without any grey or half tones. Hence the contrast should be kept as -strong as possible; and only China ink of full blackness should be used -for fine lines. In wide, coarse work, as full-sized inscriptions from -walls, a common writing-ink evaporated to denser quality may be used. -Ebony stain, which some use, has the disadvantage of spreading badly if -it chances to be wetted. A smooth, glazy-faced paper is good for fine -lines, and does not rag up under the pen. Cardboard is pleasant to use, -but is awkward to send by post; whereas paper drawings roll up safely -in a tube. - -A cardinal rule in drawing is that the finest line should come out -to 1/300 inch when the subject is reduced to the plate size. Thus a -drawing to be reduced to ⅓ by photolithography should have its finest -lines 1/100 inch thick. This line of 1/300 inch is the finest which is -safe not to break up in reproducing; and of course it spreads a little -in the printing. For very slight shade lines rather thinner lines may -be used, as it is no disadvantage if they should break. - -It is very desirable to have similar objects all reduced to the same -scale. For pottery ⅙ is a convenient reduction; for stone vases ⅓; for -metal tools and small objects ½. The drawings of pottery and stone -vases are easiest to do on scales ¼ and ½, as the measured diameters -have to be laid off as radii from the axis, needing halving throughout. -The further reduction is done when photographing for the lithographs; -and it is always best to have such a reduction to ⅔, if not to ½, of -the size of the drawing, in order to make it come out more delicate -than the hand-work. A very useful system for recording groups of small -objects, especially such as are found together, is to lay them out on -a sheet (say double the plate size), as arranged for the plate, and -then run a pencil round the outlines, and add as much detail as may -be needful to explain the objects; thus a pictorial inventory is made -quickly, and is far more useful and easier for reference than any -written inventory (Fig. 35). The pencil should have the wood split off -one side of the lead, and be sharpened by cutting to a chisel-edge -on the opposite side. Thus the point is vertically under the guiding -side; and when held carefully upright, outlines can well be run from -surfaces half an inch or even an inch above the paper. The size of the -sheet will, of course, depend on the amount of reduction intended. For -numbering the figures printed numbers can be gummed on to the drawing. - -[Illustration: FIG. 35.--Part of an inventory sheet, recording pieces -of ivory carving, 1:3.] - -For vases, block tints are more satisfactory than outlines. So the -drawing can be filled up with a wash of ink. Or if section lines are -wanted it is best to draw the section line, and block out the ground -outside of the vase, leaving the vase white on a black ground; then -have this reversed, black for white, in the photolithographing. The -vases may be printed in any colour which is suitable. - -[Illustration: Fig. 36. Frame for drawing fragments of vases.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 37. Weathered grave-stone; unsanded, and sanded.] - -[Sidenote: Restored forms.] - -The method for drawing a completed form of a vase from fragments is -to place the brim and the base (the curves of which can be accurately -measured against a series of concentric circles) into their true -positions, to a vertical axis; and then, if there is no complete -connection, to adjust their height on their axis so that their -curvatures (including other pieces which join them) fall into one line. -It is easier to do this with the mouth downwards. A frame is made (Fig. -36), with a vertical rod sliding up and down over the middle; a card -with concentric circles on it is placed on the floor of the frame, and -centred under the rod. Taking a piece of a brim, it is rocked to and -fro until it touches the card all along the edge, and a leg of wax is -stuck on so as to keep it at that angle. It is then slid about till -the curve fits between the concentric circles. A piece of base has -its curvature measured, by fitting a sheet of celluloid ruled with -concentric circles to the curve of it. It is then fixed on the lower -end of the vertical rod with some wax, so that the rod is in its axis. -Then the rod is slid down in its grooves until the curves of the piece -of base and of the piece of brim fall into one line. For drawing the -form the radius of the brim and of the base are already measured; the -height is taken as it stands in the frame, also the greatest radius at -the shoulder, the angle of the side with the base, and sometimes the -height from the brim to the curve at several different radii, read off -by sliding a graduated square on the concentric circles to touch the -curve. After plotting all these dimensions the curve is drawn in by -freehand, looking carefully at the fragments in position. - -[Sidenote: Copying inscriptions.] - -For hand copying inscriptions of a small size, a good method is to fold -over the paper at each line that is done, and draw the signs one by -one on to the fresh edge of paper held side by side on the stone; thus -there is no strain or loss of time by looking to and fro and finding -the place, no chance of omissions, and the facsimile is as accurate as -possible. This is especially for copying ink writing and graffiti. When -making a reduced copy by hand it is best to have a sheet of card under -the paper ruled in squares (of ¼ or up to 2 inches), with thick lines. -These show through the paper, and a frame of strings or threads is put -over the stone, of a larger size, agreeing to the scale of reduction -intended; _e.g._ for reducing a wall to ⅕, have card ruled in 1 inch -squares, and a frame of strings 5 inches apart over the wall. For lines -or columns of inscription it does to rule the column lines and only -have a long scale on a strip of wood put alongside of the column which -is being copied, so as to tally with the lines seen through the paper. - - - - -CHAPTER VII - -PHOTOGRAPHING - - -[Sidenote: Camera.] - -Photographs are essential for all objects of artistic interest, and for -expressing rounded forms for which elaborate shading would otherwise -be needed. Views of the excavations and buildings are also wanted. And -it is desirable to publish photographs as well as drawings of very -important carvings, in order to guarantee the accuracy of the drawing, -which is the more useful edition for most purposes. - -Though the ordinary knowledge of photography must be taken for granted -here, there are many details and preferences which are special to this -kind of work. The bane of practical photography is the rich amateur, -who insists on useless luxury of apparatus, and has set a fashion -in fittings which is absurdly complex. It is undesirable to have a -specially compact camera, as steadiness and convenience in use are -sacrificed for lightness and slightness, which are no object in a fixed -camp. An old-fashioned bulky camera is better for stationary work. I -have long used a tin-plate camera with plain draw-body in two pieces; -the benefit when enlarged photographs are needed is found by taking -it apart, and inserting a card tube, made up when wanted to any length -required for the enlargement. Some very simple, adaptable camera is -best, with a large plate-magazine attached to it, so that some dozens -can be carried at once. For ordinary views and small-scale objects -a simple hand camera is best. A pattern should be adopted which may -be the least liable to get out of order in a very dusty and gritty -climate; of the simplest mechanism, with a plain thrown-down pattern, -to carry a dozen flat films. As to the size of camera, the ¼ plate is -by far the most useful, being right for lantern slides and large enough -for most objects. Enlargements can be made to double size (or whole -plate) quite as good as collotype or net will reproduce them. The time -and work of using a whole-plate size are scarcely ever repaid by the -results for practical archaeology. - -The fashion of wide-angle lenses is useless for everything excepting -architecture at close quarters. And for most objects it is very -detrimental to have so short a focus, as it distorts and spoils the -perspective. It is best to use too long a focus in order to get truer -views of objects, at least 6 inches focus for a ¼ plate. There does -not seem to be any appreciable gain in the newer patterns of lenses -over the older “rapid rectilinear” or “symmetrical”; and the positive -disadvantages of some recent lenses are seen in the smaller aperture -and lack of light for focussing, and the distortion at extreme edges. -The iris diaphragm is a disadvantage, as it brings in another variable, -while the time of exposure can be varied to any extent needed. It is -best to stick to one small stop, say _f_/100, and learn exposures -entirely on that basis; then in case of poor light a larger stop, as -_f_/25 or _f_/8, can be used proportionately to shorten the time. -Small stops can be made out of a strip of tin plate or blackened card; -and the hand camera can be stopped down with a pinhole stop stuck in -front of the lens so as to work at almost any nearness and scale with -exposures of ½ or 1 minute in full sunshine. - -[Illustration: Fig. 38. Throwing sand; drop-shutter view.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 39. Girls at rest; diagonal mirror view.] - -The instantaneous shutter is a useless article for all fixed objects. -It is far better to work with a small stop which gives plenty of depth -of focus, and expose for 2 to 20 seconds, which is long enough for -_f_/100 on slow plates in Egypt. For direct enlargement of objects a -stop of _f_/200 is excellent, and only needs 30 seconds exposure. If -a shutter is wanted a simple drop can easily be extemporised (Fig. -38) fitting on to the front of the lens, and such will give fine -results. A diagonal mirror front can be made out of any decent scrap of -looking-glass, without showing any double image (Fig. 39). - -Rapid films are another fashion better avoided, as for fixed objects -there is no great hurry. The slowest films made have never caused any -practical inconvenience in my work, and they are far safer to keep and -to develop. The skew-back is never needed except for architecture; and -in the few cases where it is necessary, the effect can always be as -well obtained by taking the plate square, and then copying it skewed -in a skew-back camera. The sliding and rising front is about the only -complication that is useful in serious work; and if a long focus lens -is used a large amount of slide can be obtained; but a camera with a -free-swinging lens turning to any angle would be the best form. - -[Illustration: Fig. 40. Ivory tablet of Zer; light half with black, -dark half with white.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 41. Bronze hypocephalus, XXX Dyn.; filled in with -white.] - -[Illustration: DRESSING TOMBS FOR PHOTOGRAPHING. - -Fig. 42. Wooden floor of Azab.] - -[Illustration: DRESSING TOMBS FOR PHOTOGRAPHING. - -Fig. 43. Naqada, prehistoric.] - -[Sidenote: Preparing objects.] - -The preparation of the object is a very important point. Any sunk -carving or inscription of small size should generally be filled in -with whiting (Fig. 41) or charcoal dust, according as the material -is dark or light, so as to give a strong contrast (Fig. 40). In case -of worn inscriptions on impervious stone, such as rock crystal, the -lines may be marked with China ink, dried on, and then gently wiped -with damp fingers until only the faint hollows retain the ink. What is -hardly visible to the eye can thus be brought up clearly. If hollows -are slight and smooth, so that they will not hold a powder, brush over -with stiff paste, wipe the face clean on a damp handkerchief, and -then press in the powder. Only rather coarse powders should be used, -in order to avoid staining the object. In field-work objects should -also be carefully dressed. Reliefs upon weathered stones (Fig. 37) -should be dusted over with sand, and then lightly wiped until just -the wrought relief is cleared, and the ground is left smoothed with -sand. Stones in building should be brushed or scraped clean, so as -to contrast with the earth. Joints in walls should be picked out or -brushed so as to show clearly. Sometimes, as in a flooring of wood -(Fig. 42), the whole should be entirely brushed clean, and then the -joints packed with the lightest-coloured sand so as to contrast well. A -grave needs hand-picking, and then every bone brushing clean, and the -ground between packing with dark earth to give contrast. All pottery -and objects should be entirely cleaned around, and lifted slightly -so as to show a clear outline. The proper dressing of a grave (Fig. -43) will easily occupy two hours of work. Nothing which adds to the -contrast and clearness of an object should be neglected. Sometimes -for dark objects it is well to dust them with very fine white powder, -as with a puff-ball, so as to give some light on the darker sides. -And for objects of mottled colour, such as carved porphyry, a coat of -flake-white water-colour is best, so as to show the relief only and -not the colour. For coins and gems there is no method to compare with -photographing from plaster casts, which are always used in serious work. - -[Sidenote: Lighting.] - -The lighting is the most important element in photographing. No other -requirement is so essential, for with bad lighting nothing can be -done. The rule of the light coming from the top left hand should -always be followed where no special direction is needed. Generally a -diagonal light is best for inscriptions, as most lines are vertical -or horizontal. An object should first be held with a moderately -oblique light on the face of it, then quickly revolved in the plane -of its face, so as to see the changing effect of light from different -directions, observing what lines disappear in various positions, and -selecting the most effective direction. On setting it up, with the sun -(or other light) in the best direction, the obliquity of the light -should then be tried, tilting the object more or less, until the -details are sufficiently shown without too heavy shadows. In case of a -human face the light should be nearly vertical, and the obliquity of -it sufficient to bring out the cheek curves to the best. Of course, -the position of the object must be regulated entirely by the direction -of the light, and a figure may need to be tilted in any position. A -conical or cylindrical object must be placed with its axis pointing a -little behind or below the light, so as to lighten the whole side. For -fixed objects, such as buildings, a timetable of the best hours for -each part should be drawn up and followed. - -Beside direct lighting, subsidiary lighting is very useful. Any dark -shadows should be lighted with reflectors of white paper or card, or -actual mirror. Or during an exposure of several seconds, or more, a -transient mirror reflection can be played about the shadow, so as not -to show an edge to the light. When looking at the image on the ground -glass each part should be searched to see if any detail is lost by -shadow, or if an outline is lost against an equally dark background; -if so, some difference of lighting must be made. Various slips of card -may be fixed around the object, so as to cast shadows which will make -some part of a brightness differing from its background, and other -slips to cast lights on any dead part. For photographing an ebony -statuette (Fig. 44) I searched in the camera for each dead uniform -surface, and then fixed a slip of card so as to break the deadness with -a reflection; half a dozen such slips, at a foot or two distance, left -the figure without a single curve not brought out and intelligible. - -[Illustration: LIGHTING BY REFLECTION. - -Fig. 44. Ebony negress. XVIII Dyn.] - -[Illustration: LIGHTING BY REFLECTION. - -Fig. 45. Tomb of Sem-nefer. Gizeh.] - -Reflectors are also very useful for lighting dark subjects. Three or -four sheets of tin plate should have the edges turned up to stiffen -them, and be of slightly different sizes so as to nest together for -carrying. One planted in the sunshine outside a tomb will send a beam -in, which may be reflected again by another. With three successive -reflections, round two right angles, I have lighted an entirely dark -chamber (Fig. 45) enough to photograph with five minutes exposure and -full aperture. The successive reflections so neutralise each other’s -variations that a very uniform lighting results. - -If a flat surface with different colour is the object, then a light -exactly from behind the camera is best, so as to avoid any shadows. A -faint ink-writing on rough pottery will appear with a back light when -it seems quite hopeless in a side light. For papyri two equal electric -arc lights are placed, one on each side of the camera, so that there -can be no shadows and no reflections. - -[Sidenote: Arrangement of objects.] - -Backgrounds should be considered. For most objects there is nothing so -good as black velvet, as a long exposure can be taken so as to bring -out the shadows on the object, without any glare from the background. -The ground should extend far beyond the object, as any bright surface -near the object may make internal reflections in the camera. In short, -no bright surface should be visible within 60° of the axis of the -lens. For dark objects of which the outline alone is important a light -ground might be used; though even here probably a black ground and long -exposure would be better. A glass background with light or dark surface -some distance behind it is used sometimes, so as to avoid all shadows -from objects. But in many cases a shadow is positively useful, and adds -to the intelligibility of the view. - -The direction of the camera is too often horizontal. For portable -objects a vertical position is generally better, and for groups it is -essential (Fig. 46). The background on which the objects are laid can -be tilted so as to get oblique light from sun or window, and the camera -tilted equally from the vertical by shifting the legs. Scraps of wax -can be stuck on below objects, so as to keep them in any exact position -required for lighting or viewing, or scraps of charcoal used as wedges -which do not show on the black backing. There is no need to trouble -about depth of focus, as the insertion of a small stop, as _f_/100, is -enough to bring up every part sharp. I have taken a bracelet (Fig. 47) -with the sides at 7 and 9 inches from the lens both in perfectly sharp -focus. In fact, a subject may be contracted into the plate by putting -it out of focus, and then focussed by the stop. For all cases of -large-scale photographs or enlargements it is best to focus by shifting -the distance from object to lens, and not from lens to plate. - -[Illustration: - -Fig. 46. Foundation deposit, laid out horizontally.] - -[Illustration: - -Fig. 47. Bracelet of King Zer, 7 and 9 ins. from lens.] - -In setting up the camera everything should be done as far as possible -before looking into it,--the distance measured for the scale required, -the camera set square with the plane of the object in both directions, -and set so as to have the object upright on the plate. All of this can -be far better dealt with from outside. The actual focussing and slight -adjustments can then be done when viewing the ground glass. For skew -positions it is best to hold the camera in the hand where it ought -to be, keeping the legs turned up from the ground; and then drop the -legs one after another, so as to touch the ground or some object; -thus the camera will be left standing in the required position. The -stand should not have the legs packed by folding sideways; but they -should be capable of being shortened to the single length while fixed -to the camera, as it is often needful to support it only a foot from -the ground. A stand should be so made as to give the greatest range -of height. A common fault of beginners is not covering the plate, but -letting the image be smaller than necessary. Unless working to some -uniform scale, an object should be shown as large as the plate allows; -always remembering that a lantern slide will seldom take more than 3 -inches diameter, and hardly a full 3 inches square. It is convenient -to fill a ¼ plate with a group, of which the least important objects -are at the sides, and so can be omitted in a lantern-slide print. A -most troublesome matter is taking a series of wall scenes so that they -will fit exactly together at the edges. Probably it pays best to do -them approximately in the field, and then enlarge in a copying camera -on to a ruled ground, and so remove all irregularities of scale and -of skewness. For working to a uniform scale it is best to fix it by -keeping the focal length unchanged and measuring the distance of the -camera from the object, and not to refer to the size on the glass. - -[Sidenote: Stereographs.] - -Stereographic views are most useful for confused masses of objects, -such as a field of ruins. And if there are no moving parts there is -no need to take them simultaneously. By shifting the camera to one -side, and taking a second plate, a perfect stereograph is obtained; -and whereever the chance is not to be repeated, and two plates are -taken to ensure success, a shift should be made so that both may be -used together. The amount of shift varies with the distance; for near -objects the distance between the eyes, 2½ or 3 inches, may suffice; for -a general view a foot or 2 feet is better, so as to give more solidity -than is naturally seen. Small objects must not be shifted by rotating -the object if there are sharp shadows, as such are falsified by the -turning; otherwise a slight twist of the object does for the second -view. - -[Sidenote: Developing.] - -It is undesirable to leave developing till long afterwards. In general -all negatives should be developed the evening after they are exposed; -thus the future exposures can be regulated, any defective plates can -be repeated, and deterioration and risks due to keeping are avoided. -In the variety of developers the old pyrogallic acid remains still -one of the most reliable. The fanciful instructions about proportions -are exploded at once by a glance at the table compiled by Captain -Abney. By adopting the mean proportions of all the makers, which is 1 -soda carbonate, 1 soda sulphite, and 20 water, as a stock solution, -and adding about 3 grains per ¼ plate of pyrogallic when using, very -uniformly good results are obtained with short exposures. Of course -long exposures require bromide; but that is very seldom needful. Extra -local developing by tilting the dish, or painting with a brush, is -useful in case of shadows. Tabloid developers are best avoided, as -they cause delay in dissolving; and made-up solutions are cumbrous -and expensive. The quantities needed can always be put out by guess, -taking ¼ of an 8-ounce bottle at a time of soda salts, and weighing -pyrogallic for once to know the look of it. For hyposulphite of soda -fill the bottle ⅓ full of crystals, and fill up with water. If a less -strong and more graded picture is needed then glycin seems preferable -to pyrogallic acid. - -No dark room is needed; developing can always be done in the evening. -A red paper envelope split at the bottom and put round the chimney of -an ordinary lamp, will best screen the light. The diffused light of -a room will not hurt slow plates in developing, and a sheet of brown -paper over each tray makes all safe. A first soak in weak pyrogallic -solution, to flatten the films, is best before developing. For washing -where water may be scarce it suffices to have a row of six soup plates -of water, and to pass each film through each plate for five minutes, -so completing the washing of each in half an hour. A zinc box with 6 -or 8 divisions, shifting the negatives forward through each division, -will also work well. For drying it is best to have a row of pins along -the edge of a shelf, and then to punch out a small hole in a corner -of the film and hang it up, with the gelatine face under the shelf to -keep dust from it. A dusty evening in Egypt will leave each film like -a piece of sandpaper; and in case of this the films can be afterwards -rapidly washed under a stream of water, wiping with a lump of -cotton-wool. This will be enough without resoaking the film. Owing to -the dryness of the air in Egypt films generally curl up in drying, and -if forcibly flattened they are liable to strip. They are best packed -in lots of about 50, coiled up together as a cylinder, and wrapped in -a turn of paper. When in England they can be flattened out by being -left near an open window in damp weather, or dipped in water and left -to dry. For quick drying, films may with care be stood inside a fender -before a fire, and finished over a lamp chimney. I have thus dried them -in about twenty minutes. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII - -PRESERVATION OF OBJECTS - - -The preservation of the objects that are found is a necessary duty -of the finder. To disclose things only to destroy them, when a more -skilful or patient worker might have added them to the world’s -treasures, is a hideous fault. And the excavator must be ready for all -emergencies, for all classes of objects in all stages of decay, and -deal with each without delays, and often with scanty and unsuitable -means at hand for their treatment. Some familiarity with chemistry and -physics and properties of materials, is one of the first requisites for -an excavator. All this applies in a lesser degree to the difficulties -of transport, which is also part of the preservation of the antiquities. - -As conditions so infinitely vary it is useless to lay down any fixed -rules for treatment. Such rules would hinder the use of common sense, -which is essential to success. But examples of how different materials -are affected, and how difficulties have been met, will lead to the -excavator thinking out a fit treatment for each case as it arises. In -all this we are stating field practice only, and not dealing with -museum methods, which differ by having far more command of resources, -and by not having to deal with any of the troublesome cases which do -not survive to reach a museum. - -[Sidenote: Stone.] - -The great enemy of stonework is salt. In Egypt this permeates the -soil so that nothing is free from it; and any object near the surface -has much salt accumulated in it by evaporation. The effect of salt is -to disintegrate the stone, and make it flake or fall away in powder. -If there is the faintest taste of salt on a stone slab it should be -laid to dry, face down, on the ground; for I have seen a fine block -of sculpture entirely destroyed by being left for a single day face -upward. When the stone is once dry it is safe in Egypt, but in a -damp country it may begin a course of slow destruction by continual -recrystallization of salt. Sculptures have been entirely wrecked by -being cemented into the wall of a museum; the wet of the cement brought -all the salt to the face and ruined it. The only treatment for salt in -stone or any other material is long soaking in water. If a canal is at -hand, stones may be sunk in it for some weeks, face down. Or barrels -or zinc trays may be used, and the water changed every two or three -days, for five or six times. After such soaking the stone must be left -to dry face down, so that all the remaining salt will come out on the -back. Where there is not much salt it would be best to lay the stone -back upwards to dry, brush off any salt which comes out, and then wet -the ground below, so that more water may be drawn up to evaporate on -the back. If this was continued until no salt appeared the stone would -be cleaned, and the face could not be injured. Sometimes a face is -already flaking, and then the stone must be kept quite flat in soaking -and drying, so that each flake will be left in place, and can be stuck -down afterwards. Granite is often entirely disintegrated into separate -crystals, if it has lain near the surface. It is then even impossible -to turn the block over to copy it, as there is no cohesion left in the -mass. The only salvation possible for such a block would be to make a -thick plaster or cement coat to the exposed parts, under cut, and turn -the whole over with a board beneath it, and then saturate it hot with -paraffin wax. - -The face of limestone is often in tender condition, and will not bear -wet brushing to clean it. Dry picking and brushing is then the only -resource. If long exposed to damp, limestone dissolves throughout -the body of it, so that it becomes spongy, and like putty with the -contained water. A large sarcophagus lid in this state at Denderah was -brought up to the house, then covered with 3 or 4 inches of sand, and -left to dry slowly for some weeks; otherwise it would have cracked to -chips by contraction on the face. When quite dry it was very porous, -but in safe state for copying and transport. I have seen a slab of -limestone in perfect condition, reduced to a shapeless paste by a few -minutes of sharp rain. - -The original stucco facing often remains on limestone, and also the -colour. If the carving has been fine it is best to remove the stucco, -which is generally much less detailed. But if the stucco is an -improvement on the carving, and especially if there is colour, it must -be preserved. This is best done by fixing it with thin tapioca water, -just so thick that it will soak into the stone without leaving any -glair when dry. This treatment also does for limestone with a rotten -face. - -The same tapioca water may be used for fixing colours on stucco, as I -did on the Tell el Amarna pavement (Fig. 48); and the thickness must be -graduated to the porosity, so that it will just soak entirely into the -material. Any film left on the face will peel away. - -[Illustration: FRESCOES, TELL EL AMARNA. - -Fig. 48. Plants and animals.] - -[Illustration: FRESCOES, TELL EL AMARNA. - -Fig. 49. The two princesses.] - -[Sidenote: Pottery.] - -Pottery has not much to fear except salt, and that should be soaked -out as from stone. Glazed pottery with salt in it is more difficult -to clear, as it takes so long to get any change in and out of it. But -a persistent soaking will clear it in the course of some weeks; and, -if necessary, partly drying it in intervals, will bring the salt out -of the cracks, whence it can be dusted off. The commonest failing of -glazes is decomposition. The green turn brown, by the decomposition -of the iron from green silicate to brown oxide; and this may take -place from the porous interior without breaking the external face. The -blue glazes go white; and this can be partly remedied by warming and -soaking with paraffin wax, which fills the fine cracks and displays the -remaining colour again. Sometimes the outer coat of clear glaze over -faience inlay is decomposed, without spoiling the faience below. In -this case it is like a picture of which the varnish is gone brown,--it -only needs cleaning. The decomposed glaze can be scraped off, or rubbed -with fine emery paper, until the faience is clean, and then a coat -of paraffin wax clears the colour and preserves it from decomposition. -When glazed ware, especially of the earliest times, is first found, it -is very tender and soft. It then needs the most careful handling, and -must not be brushed or cleaned until it is quite dry and hardened. - -[Sidenote: Textiles.] - -Textiles are also often saturated with salt, especially the Coptic -garments which are in graves near the surface. They may be safely -soaked to remove the salt and the organic matter, and then dried by -pressing in a towel and laying between sheets of paper. The most tender -examples might perhaps be best treated by placing with half a dozen -sheets of blotting-paper over and under, and keeping wet below while -evaporating on the top; this would carry the salt out to the top of the -blotting paper. In any long soaking of organic stuffs a little carbolic -acid is desirable, to prevent souring and putrefaction of the material. -In every case the threads of textiles are liable to crumble, and any -great amount of washing will tend to reduce a good deal to powder. -Ironing is always desirable to consolidate the stuff. - -[Sidenote: Wood.] - -Wood does not suffer so much from salt as from rot and white ants. Any -salt may be soaked out; or, if the wood is tender and will not bear -that, a very stiff jelly should be made, so that it will just melt at -boiling: the wood dropped in when the jelly liquefies, and left in the -jelly cold for a week or two. Then the salt will dialyse out into the -jelly, without any free water softening the wood. On remelting the -jelly the wood can be removed, and the salt will be left in the jelly. -The gelatine will strengthen and improve the wood. This process can be -used excellently for ivories or bones, which would be ruined by soaking -in water. Whole skeletons can be set in stiff size, and taken out weeks -after, freed from salt, as was done to those from Medum, now in the -College of Surgeons. - -Rotted wood is very tender to handle; and from its continued -contraction when exposed to the air it will fall to pieces. If nearly -dry, but rotted, the best safeguard is to coat it with beeswax or -paraffin wax; if it can be lifted threads can be slipped round it, -and the whole dipped in hot wax until soaked. Or it may have a rapid -coat of wax chilled upon it, which protects it and binds it together -for travelling, and which can be soaked into it by piecemeal heating -afterwards. If the wood will not bear lifting, it may be coated by -dashing on superheated paraffin wax almost at boiling-point. This -will soak deep into the wood like hot water, and consolidate it so -that it can be moved quite safely. The same processes apply also to -stuccoed wood, which needs such safeguards, as otherwise the stucco all -falls off by the continued shrinkage of the wood. The great stuccoed -sarcophagus at Hawara was preserved by heating the surface with a wire -dish of charcoal burning about six inches above it, and flooding the -surface with melted wax so soon as it was enough heated to absorb it. -Perhaps superheated paraffin wax would have carried enough heat with it -to soak in without the charcoal fire. For all heating of wax it is best -to use a cast-iron saucepan, as soldered tins may give way before the -wax boils. Another treatment, especially suited for large objects, is -painting with several coats of wax dissolved in benzol. - -Wood which is very wet is more difficult to manage. It may be kept for -long under water, like the wood from the Glastonbury lake village. And -it may be consolidated with silicate solution, as has been well done -in examples from Silchester. Or it may be removed from water and laid -in glycerine with the top exposed; thus the water will evaporate and -diffuse, and glycerine take its place. - -[Sidenote: Ivory.] - -Ivory is mainly liable to flaking, especially if in wet soil. When any -ivory is seen not in a firm condition, the earth should be carefully -worked round so as to find the limits of the ivory, be it a single -piece or a collection together. Then the mass should be under-cut down -to a firm stratum, and lifted out in a whole block of earth. This -should be left to dry slowly; and after a week or two the earth should -be gently brushed away with a camel-hair brush, aided by picking with -a stout pin. As each piece of ivory is seen it should be carefully -followed, and if quite dry it may probably be removed entire. If still -liable to flake, it can then be soaked in melted paraffin wax. If the -ivory is too rotted to be detached from the earth, then the whole -mass would have to be baked to rather over blood heat, and saturated -with paraffin wax. After that it could be safely dissected by careful -picking. In case of finding large groups of ivories in the ground, -too extensive to take out in a block to dry, probably it would do to -isolate them, then lay a few inches of sand on the top, and light a -fire over them: after slow burning for a few days the ground would be -baked dry below, and could be saturated with wax before lifting the -mass. - -It sometimes happens that ivories in wet soil get concreted crystalline -carbonate of lime upon them, which is much harder than the ivory. -This being crystalline is not saturated with wax when the ivory is so -treated. Hence after waxing the ivory the surface should be cleaned -with benzol or ether on cotton-wool, and then painted with nitric acid -to dissolve the crystalline lime. Even strong nitric acid will only -dull the surface of waxed ivory, and not remove any perceptible amount, -while it dissolves the concretion rapidly. Probably the darkening of -the ivory caused by soaking in wax can be mainly removed by heating -fuller’s earth to over boiling-point, and then rapidly packing the -ivory in the earth and pressing it: the heat would melt the wax on the -surface, it will be absorbed by the earth, and the face of the ivory -will be left dry of wax. The ivories from Nineveh were solidified with -gelatine; but that would probably break up very tender ivories by the -amount of water. In case however of much salt in ivory the best way to -treat it is to drop it in stiff hot gelatine, cool it, and let it lie -in the consolidated mass for a week or two, for the salt to dialyse -out. Another way, if the mass is not much cut into hollows, is to lash -the ivory closely with thread or fine twine, and then soak it in water -to remove the salt; the twine prevents it falling to pieces, and it can -be dipped in wax when dry, and the twine removed. - -[Sidenote: Papyri.] - -Papyri require most careful treatment at every stage. They are often -found in a very fragile state, and if the roll has to be carried -without special packing in wool it is best to wrap it in a damp -handkerchief at once. For unrolling rolls, or flattening out crushed -papyri, damping is needful. There is no need to steam them, as has -been done in museums. By dipping a towel or handkerchief in water, and -wringing it as dry as possible, there is enough moisture to penetrate -to a papyrus closely wrapped in it. If there were many turns then -carbolised water would be best, so as to avoid any decomposing during -a long penetration of the damp. Usually a single night is enough for -damping through half a dozen folds or turns, enough to render the -papyrus quite pliable. It can then be unrolled, or uncreased with the -fingers; and as each inch of it is laid flat it should be secured by -turning down newspaper or blotting-paper over it and sliding a board or -book over the flattened part. After leaving it between a dozen leaves -of paper to absorb the moisture for some days under pressure it is dry -and firm. Small pieces can well be carried in books, and larger sheets -in piles of paper between boards. When the papyrus is too rotted to be -damped, as the crossed layers of it would part, then it can only be cut -to pieces with a sharp penknife at every fold and turn; and each piece -fastened down on a sheet at once in place. This was the only possible -way to open the great Ptolemaic revenue papyrus over 40 feet long; even -a single turn of the roll needed to be cut into dozens of pieces. - -For fastening down papyrus it is fatal to gum or paste it on to a sheet -of card, as the gradual contraction of the gum will break up the layers -of the papyrus. The safest way of all for very rotted papyri is to rub -a sheet of glass with beeswax, lay the papyrus on it, and press with -a warm hand until it sticks to the wax; then cover with another sheet -of glass. For ordinary firm papyri minute spots of paste, as small -as possible, should be put at every inch or two round the edges, and -farther apart in the middle; then a sheet of thin soft paper should -be pressed on it, to serve as a backing. Thus there is no wide space -pasted which can contract in future; and even if the papyrus has to -be remounted the paper can be torn to pieces behind it. The sheet of -mounting paper should be fixed under glass. But it is a mistake to -attach card to glass round the edges, as it bags away by damp and -warping, and leaves a large air space, which is very detrimental. -It is best to place the mounting paper between two sheets of glass; -or, for the sake of lightness and safety, the back may be of thin -picture-back-board, well baked dry, and free from cracks and knots. For -fastening the edges thin leather or linen may be glued around. - -Dealing with carbonised papyri is an art in itself. So far as field -work goes the main work is to remove the earth entirely from the top -of the papyrus, so as to leave no weight upon it: then under-cut, and -take out the whole lump, with a block of earth under it. The papyri -must then, in the house, be carefully separated, one document from -another, by splitting apart and lifting with an ivory paper knife or -blunt table knife, the lighter the better, so as to feel the way with -it. Each separate roll should then be wrapped in soft paper (never -cotton-wool) and packed a few together, in small tin boxes. Thus they -will travel safely and without loss. The museum work is outside of our -scope; but broadly the Neapolitan plan of holding the pieces in place -with adhesive paper on the back is not so good as separate treatment of -each piece, laying it down in position on a sheet of glass with small -touches of paste, or perhaps pressing it on to waxed glass like the -rotted papyri. Burnt papyri are read by the difference of reflection of -the surface, and hence must be viewed with light from behind the eye, -or light reflected by a mirror placed almost between the eye and the -papyrus. - -[Sidenote: Bead-work.] - -Bead-work is often found in a state in which it cannot be moved owing -to rotting of the threads. Elaborate decoration with the winged scarab, -four genii, inscriptions, etc., is found on mummies of about the XXVth -Dynasty. But, if the threads are decayed, the beads are merely lying in -position, and will fall away if the mummy be tilted or shaken. In such -a case I have opened the wooden coffin very gently, cutting out the -pegs by which it was fastened. Having melted a pot of wax on a stove in -the tomb, I then dashed spoonfuls of it over the beads; it needs to be -thrown sharply, so as to splash out, or it runs off all in one line. -The wax must be only just barely liquid, or it will penetrate to below -the beads. When a sheet of wax is thus put over all the beads, the -sheet may be lifted up, and the pattern is seen in a clean condition, -reversed on the under side. The sheet can then be fixed with more wax -into a tray of wood, so as to keep it safely. If any of the beads are -not firm they can be heated and pressed farther into the wax. Strings -of beads are seldom found with the thread strong enough to hold -together. The earth should be loosened with a penknife, and blown away, -so as to disclose as long a line as possible, then the order of the -beads should be noted for restringing them, in the original pattern. -The tracing out and noting of a string of beads in a grave may often -occupy an hour or two hours, keeping the face close to the ground so as -to blew the dust away exactly, without disturbing the beads. - -[Sidenote: Stucco.] - -Stucco on wood we have already noticed, under the preservation of wood. -However firm the stucco may seem at first, the gradual contraction of -the wood will make it fall away; but when once saturated with paraffin -wax, this movement is stopped, and the stucco is held on to the basis. - -Stucco on mud bricks is a difficult material to preserve. Three -instances may be given of dealing with it. Where the coat was a mere -whitewash on mud plastering, as at Tell el Amarna (Fig. 49), I removed -the bricks behind it by cutting them gently to pieces with a chisel; -thus the coat of mud plaster was left standing up a foot or more in -air, although it was entirely friable owing to white ants having eaten -out the straw from it. Then placing a box lid covered with sheets of -paper against the face, it was firmly grasped behind, and turned over -with the lid to support it, face down. Lying on the box lid it was -taken to the house; a frame of parallel bars of wood was made, each -an inch wide and an inch apart; each bar was coated with mud-and-sand -mortar, and then the frame was pressed gently on the back of the -fresco, and puddled in with mortar between the bars. On then reversing -the frame and box lid, the fresco was left resting on the frame, -with a bedding which was perfectly true, and incapable of warping or -contraction. To pack this a sheet of cotton wool was placed on the -face, a thin board cut to size placed over this, and string lashed -tightly round the face board and notches in the ends of the frame -bars. In this state it travelled quite safely, although the material -was so tender that a finger would push through it anywhere; this was -illustrated by a museum attendant at Cairo, when ordered to carry one -of the frames of fresco. - -Where the stucco is thicker, about 1/16 inch, but wholly shattered -into minute chips, none over ¼ inch across, a different treatment was -necessary, as at Medum. The mass of plaster and stucco was laid face -down, the mud cut away behind it till about a square inch of shattered -plaster was bared at the back; this was covered with a thin coat of -fresh plaster (mixed in the palm of the hand); then another square -inch was bared and coated, and so on, until the whole of the mud was -removed and the old stucco all lay smeared with a thin coat of fresh -plaster on the back. A large slate was then cut to size; a pudding of -liquid plaster was poured on to the stucco and pressed out as thin as -could be with the slate. When it was set, the old painted stucco was -thus securely cemented on to the slate; light, tough, and portable, it -travelled to America in perfect state. - -The third method is where the surfaces are curved. By cutting away the -back as thin as is safe, and setting in a firm backing of cement, even -this difficult subject may be dealt with, and removed safely. - -[Sidenote: Gold.] - -_Metals_ do not require much treatment in the field; but it is needful -to understand the condition of them in order to know how they can -be safely treated. Gold should be cleaned as little as possible, as -the old red surface is the best appearance of it; a little brushing -with camel-hair brush and plain water to remove the dust is generally -enough. Where there is much silver in it, as in electrum, the surface -is dark with chloride of silver; this may be removed with strong -ammonia or cyanide of potassium. Gold-foil often requires straightening -out into its former shape, but it must not be burnished in so doing, as -that expands the form. - -[Sidenote: Silver.] - -Silver is one of the most troublesome metals, as it is so very readily -attacked by chlorine and sulphur; and, moreover, it undergoes a -colloidal rearrangement by which it breaks readily into irregular -curved grains, and it is in this state as rotten as rotten brass. If -deeply corroded nothing can well be done to it; the lumpy crust shows -more of the original form than the metal would show if bared. When the -corrosion is but slight it may be removed, either by solution in strong -ammonia or cyanide of potassium, or by reduction. To bring the chloride -into the state of porous metal, it is only needful to place it with -zinc or iron in a solution of salt or weak vinegar or lemon juice, and -in a few hours the whole of the chlorine has gone over to the fresh -metal. The powdery silver left can be mainly brushed away in water, and -a little picking with a bone point will loosen it entirely. Of course, -the whole of the silver removed has come out of the body of the metal, -which is left porous and tender, although the face may be unbroken. It -will not bear, therefore, the same cleaning as new and strong metal. In -the case of silver coins in fine condition, each coin should be reduced -separately, and the whole of the old silver weighed with it before -cleaning it away, so as to recover the original weight. Silver must -never be put bare in a tin box, as the chlorine forms chloride of tin, -which deliquesces, and then attacks the iron and stains the silver with -brown rust. Often there is both chloride and lime on the surface, and -alternations of ammonia and weak acid are required for cleaning. - -[Sidenote: Copper.] - -Copper objects are distinguished from bronze by retaining usually their -pliability. This renders them much easier to clean, as they are seldom -deeply corroded, and the red oxide upon them will generally flake off -clean by blows, and leave the original face in perfect condition. A -very light hammer should be used, and sharp scaling blows be given, so -as to flake off even half-an-inch breadth of scale at once, without -ever touching the old face. In hollows which cannot so easily be -struck, an iron nail may be used as a punch, and struck so as to crush -the red oxide little by little. A copper object which scales freely is -a treat to clean, as the old face can be entirely bared, and appears of -a beautiful red-brown colour with all the detail quite perfect. Very -thin copper may, however, have entirely passed into green carbonate, -if buried in a damp soil; and in this case nothing can be done except -washing off the earth and dirt. - -[Sidenote: Bronze.] - -Bronze and brass need much more care than copper, as they contain a -mixture of alloys of very different oxidability; hence much of the -material all through the mass will have moved up to the surface and -been corroded there, while the form and size of the original may at -present contain only half the metal in a very porous and brittle -condition. In some cases bronzes may be scaled by blows like copper, -and they then appear in their best condition. But more often they are -too brittle, or the corrosion adheres too tightly, for it to be thus -removed. For cleaning off small quantities of green carbonate, vinegar -left to stand for some days does well. But the proper solvent of both -carbonate and oxide is dilute hydrochloric acid, about 1 to 10 or 20 -of water, as this will not attack the metal, but only the corroded -parts. The objection to this solvent is that it leaves a thick mud of -white oxy-chloride of copper, which is difficult to brush off, and -which stains the skin green in handling. The treatment is to brush -off as much as can be easily removed, and then pickle in hyposulphite -of soda, which dissolves the white coat; if used hot and strong this -will clean the metal to a bright metallic condition. After all these -solutions, a long washing in many waters for two or three days is -needed to remove all trace of salts which might afterwards make further -corrosion. Minute traces of chlorides are specially dangerous, as -they decompose with carbonic acid in the air, forming carbonate, and -liberating the chlorine to attack more metal; thus a trace of chloride -will eat through any amount of copper. The extent to which bronzes -should be cleaned, should be ruled by the fullest display of original -workmanship: so long as more detail can be shown more crust should be -removed. But, if possible, some of the coat of red oxide should be left -on plain parts as a guarantee of the age of the work. To bare bronzes -entirely, and then oil and smoke them, is barbarous treatment, to be -seen in some museums. If something is desired over the bare metal, the -bronze may be left in a shallow pan of water, soaking for some weeks, -by which it will gain a tinge of red oxide over it which is suitable -and pleasing. Another mode of scaling is to heat the bronze over a fire -or in melted lead, and then plunge in cold water, which loosens the -scale from it. It often happens that a bronze has the original face -broken up by corrosion, and then no cleaning is of any use, the mass -of green carbonate shows more than any other surface would do. This -last and worst state is indicated by cracks in the outer coat, due to -further expansion of the inner body. A cracked bronze is best left -alone. - -A frequent disease of bronzes is the formation of small granules of -translucent bright green rust. This is attributed to an organic growth, -which is infectious, and may spread through a collection. One of the -worst instances I dipped in carbolic acid, and this absolutely stopped -the attack, proving that it is not due to action of chlorine. But we -must not take this as a certain proof of the organic nature of the -mischief, in view of the inhibitory effect of anæsthetics, etc., in -stopping electric and chemical action. - -[Sidenote: Lead.] - -Lead is usually coated with white carbonate, the outer face of which -shows more than the metallic surface beneath. It should therefore be -let alone; but if it shows signs of further changes, due to salts in it -acting with damp, then soaking in several waters will probably make it -safe. If carbonate continued to be formed, I should try saturating with -paraffin wax. - -[Sidenote: Iron.] - -Iron can seldom be cleaned; but if it has only a little superficial -rust, this may be removed by placing it in the strongest nitric acid, -which dissolves the oxide but renders the iron passive. For ordinarily -rusted iron all that can be done is to arrest further changes. A -long soaking in water to remove all salts, and then baking dry and -saturating with wax, is a safe treatment and always available. - -[Sidenote: Sorting.] - -Sorting and joining fragments is sometimes very essential. In the -royal tombs of the Ist Dynasty we collected thousands of pieces of -stone bowls and vases. Only a very small number out of such cartloads -of fragments were of value as they lay; but so far as they could be -reconstructed they gave an important series of forms. To extract any -result it was needful to place together all the pieces that belonged to -each separate vase; and the same work frequently had to be done on a -lesser scale in dealing with groups of broken stone and pottery. Taking -the whole of the fragments which can be supposed by their position to -belong together, they are first sorted over for quality, making as many -divisions as are quite safe to be distinguished one from the other, so -that there shall be no chance of parts of one bowl being classed in -two different divisions. All the pieces of one division, sometimes as -many as 500 of one quality, are then to be laid out on tables,--the -pieces of brim placed at the top of the tables, and classed according -to form and curvature; the pieces of middle of the vase along the -middle of the table, all carefully laid with the axis vertical; the -pieces of base at the nearer edge of the table, classed according to -diameter. Taking then the first piece of brim, it is held at each end -of each other piece to which it can possibly belong; every possible -fit is thus found. Each piece of brim is to be thus tried with all -that follow it, those before it having been already tried with it. -When all the possible junctions of brim have been made, then a row -of joined brim pieces are to be laid on a board, and the angle which -each broken edge makes with the vertical is to be looked for among all -the broken sides of the middle pieces, looking for such slope at both -upper and lower sides if the tops are not distinguishable from the -bottoms of the pieces. Thus, say the first broken edge of brim slopes -at [Illustration] 20°, every piece broken at 20° [Illustration] or -[Illustration] must be compared to see if it will fit. At least twenty -different directions of fracture can be mentally distinguished, and -the slight curve and irregularities increase this to at least fifty -varieties, so that each piece of brim only needs actual touching with -about 2 per cent of the pieces of middle. When every possible fit -of brim to middle pieces is made, then the bases can be similarly -compared, having first fitted them by sorting the curvatures. A -load of 500 pieces will take several hours of this sorting, at the -end of which every possible fit will have been made. Not more than -half-an-hour or one hour at a time can be usefully given to such -sorting, as the eye and attention become too much fatigued to observe -the fits. When finished, all the fragments belonging to one bowl are -to be wrapped together, and a number given to the parcel; and the -odd pieces can be thrown away unless worth having singly. The method -for drawing the completed forms has been described in the chapter on -drawing. - - - - -CHAPTER IX - -PACKING - - -[Sidenote: Blocks.] - -Before packing carved blocks it is generally best to saw off the backs, -so as to lighten the quantity. A face should always be sawn from each -end up to the middle, leaving it about twice as thick in the middle -as at the ends, so as to bear the strain of travelling. If a block is -so wide on the face that it is liable to be broken in transit, the -best course is to saw it in pieces, cutting from the back through to -½ or 1 inch from the face, and then snapping it, so that the face -can be rejoined perfectly. Limestone is sawn with a large rip saw or -stonemason’s saw, using a hammer and chisel if any flinty portions are -met with, and also using some hammer dressing. Soft Silsileh sandstone -may be cut with pieces of tin plate, such as petroleum tins or biscuit -tins; or else with a thin strip of wood set with wire nails to serve as -teeth of a saw. The harder stones must be moved as found, for the cost -of reducing the weight would be more than that of carrying it. - -[Illustration: FIG. 50.--Box for flat slab of stone, lid of diagonal -bars.] - -[Sidenote: Long objects.] - -In all questions of packing long objects, it must be remembered that -the best points of support for equality of strains are at 21 per -cent (say ⅕) from each end. Any long stone must therefore be held in -its case by cross bars or thicker pads or hay at ⅕ from each end. It -is impossible to reckon on a case being so rigid, and so perfectly -fitting, that it will give uniform support all along, with a much -smaller elasticity than that of the stone. The utmost any case can -do for stone is to deaden blows and shocks, and to hold the stone so -that it is equally likely to break in the middle or at the supports; -and this is gained by the grip at ⅕ from each end. A good packing for -small slabs that are not liable to break, is a shallow box (Fig. 50), -with the stone face down on dried fodder or straw, and two cross bars -parallel and diagonal on the top, to hold the stone in. Such a box is -easily lifted by the bars, saves all Customs examination, and will not -tempt thieves. In all instances remember that it is useless to put -general softening round stones in a box. The best points to take the -pressure should be considered, and then thick pads nailed on the box -to catch those best points of contact. - -[Illustration: FIG. 51.--Tray for carrying heavy blocks of stone, -lashed on by ropes through the holes.] - -[Sidenote: Heavy stones.] - -The largest stones cannot usefully have any case; as a case which would -not be cracked up by the weight in moving, would be so thick and heavy -that it would make the stone far less moveable. If the stone is strong -it only needs three or four thicknesses of old clothes and sacking -tightly roped on, in order to travel safely. If it has a tender face, -a skin of board may be put over that with some cotton-wool padding -under the sacking cover. It is best for blocks of 1 to 4 cwt. to make -a tray (Fig. 51) with poles projecting a foot at each corner to serve -as handles, and then lash the block firmly on the tray. This encourages -porters to lift it rather than throw it over. Such things as granite -columns or colossi need no cover, but only softening of wood or pads, -put under bearing points during moving. On shipboard they travel best -laid at the bottom of a cargo of beans in bulk or bales of cotton, -which wedge them tight. - -[Sidenote: Pottery.] - -Pottery is the most troublesome stuff to pack. The difficulty lies -in keeping the packing material at the right places, and preventing -it lumping together and so letting the contacts become bare. All -the larger hollows must be filled with small pottery, or very light -boxes, or empty tins, so that the packing cannot shift together. For -large jars it is best to roll up straw in cloth to form cushions 1 to -2 inches thick, and nail these on the box at the points of contact; -always observing if the jar can get loose by skewing into the diagonal. -It is often needful to tie cotton stuff over the mouths of jars to -prevent the packing working loose into the jar. For flat open forms, -such as dishes and wide bowls, a stack should be made with the flattest -below, so that each dish rests solely on its centre, and all the edges -are free. A very little softening between them, and a firm block (such -as a round tin pot) in the top one to take the pressure, will make them -all travel with a solid contact right through the centres, so that each -brim only carries its own weight. Even thin glass dishes can be packed -safely in stacks in this way. - -Glazed pottery is sometimes very fragile and full of cracks. To save it -from falling apart it should be wound with string crossing diagonally -in every direction, as tightly as it can be pulled. This firmly binds -the jar so that it cannot fall apart. A couple of inches of tightly -rammed softening all round it, will make it then travel quite safely. - -[Sidenote: Softening.] - -The material for packing, or _softening_, varies with the country and -the season. In England there is nothing so good as the fine shavings -known as “wood-wool.” In Egypt the best stuff is _helbeh_, a dried -green crop which is very clinging, and holds in any position in which -it is thrust. _Tibn_, or chopped straw, is also useful for ramming -tight in small spaces. Firm cushions on fixed bearing points are -made by rolling up straw in old cloth, and nailing the edges on the -box, so that the pressure can never reach the nails. Rough country -cotton can be had, but it is dear; and two or three pounds of prepared -cotton wool in sheets should be taken for packing delicate things. -Plenty of whitey-brown kitchen paper should be taken for wrapping; -and some cartridge paper or brown paper for parcels. Stocks of nested -parcel-post boxes are very useful; but sliding lids fall out loose by -contraction, and glued joints crack to pieces. The domestic stock of -biscuit boxes and food tins of course all come in for varied use. - -[Sidenote: Cases.] - -The making of cases is little understood, and least by professional -case-makers. Cases are often supplied in London with the grain entirely -running round them, and nothing to prevent their splitting around and -dropping in two parts. The most perfect construction is that with the -grain running in all three directions (Fig. 52), but such boxes have -the disadvantage that the lid cannot be entirely removed. The most -practical form is with internal corner-posts, and the sides nailed -to these with all the grain running around. First the end boards are -nailed on to the corner strips, and then the side boards nailed on. All -the nails should be driven diagonally (Fig. 53), alternately one way -and the other, so that no board can be drawn off without splitting the -wood. And the end nails should always be close to the edge, and rake -deep down into the comer strip, to avoid splitting the end; thus the -edge of the board cannot part off with all the lid or bottom nailed to -it. For as the whole weight comes on the last inch of the sides on to -which the bottom is nailed, unless that is well held on it often parts -from the rest of the side. The lid is of course nailed on with upright -nails so as to draw off; and a large number of short nails, projecting -only ¾ inch, is the best for this, as if large nails are used the lid -splits during opening and leaves the nail in the side. - -[Illustration: FIG. 52.--Box without cross bars, the grain running in -all three dimensions.] - -If a case is long, it is best to have some other upright strips down -the sides. Partitions bearing against these strips are good to keep -weight from riding down when the box is dropped on one end. If objects -vary much in density it is convenient to pack a heavy compartment in -the middle and a light one at each end of a case. Any bars or boards -used to hold down heavy pieces from shifting should not be nailed -through the sides, as damage is often done by the violence needed to -loosen them in unpacking. Such bars should be held in place by side -strips, or other solid articles in the packing. Tin pots are very -convenient to protect small and delicate things, and to hold heavy -objects from shifting about. - -[Illustration: FIG. 53.--End of a box in course of making, to show the -diagonal driving of the nails.] - -[Sidenote: Unpacking.] - -The packer must always remember that the unpacker will not know the -contents of a case, nor any precautions that are needful. The best -arrangements, which may seem infallible, may be entirely upset by the -unpacker opening the case at the bottom; hence no papers of directions -in a case should be relied upon. Also the unpacking is generally left -in museums to be done by rough labourers, who may entirely overlook -needful precautions or even throw away most valuable things in the -boxes. It is dangerous, therefore, to pack small objects in straw; -nothing under 100 cubic inches should be put separately in the packing, -anything less being put together in paper parcels. It must always be -remembered that a careless unpacker may unwrap everything, and throw -away the papers; hence no labelling or directions should be solely put -on the wrappers. Even labels with objects are not safe; as in several -museums the labels have been thrown away, or else stacked in a pile -together. Labels should have printed on the back in big red letters, -“To be kept with the object.” Marking upon each object is necessary, -whenever possible. The best way to learn the difficulties and fallacies -of packing is to carefully study the causes of any disasters found in -the unpacking. - -[Illustration: TRANSPORT IN EGYPT. - -Fig. 54. Two Nile boats; laden with straw.] - -[Illustration: TRANSPORT IN EGYPT. - -Fig. 55. Camels starting at dawn. The return at noonday.] - - -APPENDIX - -LIST OF TOOLS, ETC., TO BE PROVIDED FOR WORK - -_For Excavating._--Crowbars, ropes,[2] large hammers, cold-chisels, -stone-saw, saw-files, sieves (fine wire), native sieves.[2] - -_For Cleaning Objects, etc._--Dusting-brush, nail-brush, tooth-brushes, -paraffin wax. - -_For Packing._--Paper bags, jewellers’ tag labels, reams of kitchen -paper, nests of boxes, brush to mark boxes, hammers, saws, chisels, -brace and bits, pincers, stout pliers, files, awls, spokeshave, -screw-drivers, screws, wire nails,[2] square, hone-stone. - -_For House._--Locks, hinges, bell. - -_For Copying and Planning._--Cartridge paper, thin journal paper,[2] -rag paper for squeezes, spoke brush, paint brushes for outlines, -colours for colour copying, drawing boards (several cheap ones, various -sizes), tapes, 2-metre rods for gauging work and planning, prismatic -compass, box sextant, vertical mirror level. - - [2] These can be obtained in any Egyptian town. - - - - -CHAPTER X - -PUBLICATION - - -[Sidenote: Arrangement.] - -The final shape of the publication of the record has to be borne in -mind in all the progress of it. The arrangement of the plates must -precede the writing of the details of the work. In past generations the -ideal was to define in words the conclusions and speculations of an -author, and, where unavoidably necessary, to illustrate them by some -costly engravings. How inefficient such publication may be, is seen at -once in Greenwell’s _British Barrows_, a work full of important detail, -which has to be painfully understood from hundreds of pages of text, -where plans--and little else--are needed. Indeed the only means of -using the information is to reconstruct plans from the intricate text. -As form can now be almost as cheaply expressed as words, the ideal is -widely changed. The reader is to be put first of all in possession of -all the facts and materials, and the author’s conclusions are only a -co-ordination, presented to enable the reader to grasp the material, -and to feel clearly the effect of it on his sum of ideas, or organised -sense of the nature of things. Hence nowadays the main structure of a -book on any descriptive science is its plates, and the text is to show -the meaning and relation of the facts already expressed by form. The -plates, therefore, are the first thing to prepare; and when they are -complete it is time to put in words the conclusions which have been -reached. - -[Sidenote: Plates.] - -The orderly arrangement of the material in plates is the first duty. -The drawings are each to be made with the final scale in view, so that -the lines may be of proper thickness, neither faint nor coarse. The -material must be classified according to its nature,--views, plans, -inscriptions, sculpture, small objects, pottery, etc. In each class, -the historical order must be followed, objects that are to be compared -placed together, and the material arranged in an orderly shape, so -that it gives a clear impression, and can be easily found again from -memory. The details of the squareness and alignment of the various -drawings on a plate are much more serious than might be supposed; -needless irregularity confuses and disappoints the eye and starves -the memory, distinctly detracting from the use and value of the work. -Obviously every object on a plate must have a number for reference; -and in a long series it is best for the numbers to run through several -plates; so that “sealing 157” or “mark 642” is a complete reference -and definition. A uniform scale should be used throughout a plate, or -a series of the same class, and it should be stated in the heading of -the plate. Every plate should have stated in its heading the source, -nature, age, and scale of the objects; for these render reference far -easier, and also give a value to loose plates apart from the volume. -The use of double-page plates is often desirable, in order to show the -whole of a large class at one view; the only drawback to them is that -objects are more difficult to find in turning over the leaves. At every -point it must be remembered that nearly all foreign students, and most -English ones, will know the plates but not the text; that the plates -will be the material practically used for comparison, and building up -a view of the subject; and therefore that they should be as far as -possible self-contained and self-explanatory, with full lettering upon -them, and should comprise the main results of the work in diagram. -To help reference to the text, the list of plates should have the -page references to each plate stated, to show where it is described -and dealt with in the text. The facility of using, remembering, and -referring to the plates should be the first consideration. It is even -well to remember to make the right-hand edge, or outer edge, of each -plate the strongest part, with the most striking objects and best -arrangement, and let the other edge be a residual, as this ensures the -best eye-grasp in turning over the leaves. - -The amount of plates must depend upon the subject; but it is none too -much if the area of plates is double that of the text, or twice as -many plates as there are pages. Folding-out plates should be avoided -where possible; a double page on a deep guard, so as to lie flat when -the book is opened, is the largest that should be ordinarily used. The -most absurdly inconvenient shape is to have wide margins to a plate, -and a fold at side and another at base, to make it fit the book. It -is best to remedy such folly by taking the plates out, cutting them -to book size if margins allow, and resetting without folds. The wild -freaks of recent books in Egyptology are incomprehensible. We see -some with plates which might be bound with text, yet printed with -gigantic margins and issued in an entirely different size, so that -they cannot be bound, or even stand on the same shelf with the text; -some plates put on guards of tissue paper, so that they tear out of -the book in turning over; one serial in parts with the plates starting -fresh numbers with every separate paper, thus one part has half a -dozen “Plate 1” in it, making printed references to the work quite -impossible; other publications with the plates all renumbered and -rearranged after printing, and double references throughout; others -with scattered numbers of the plates issued, and intermediate numbers -to appear later, after many years or never; some with plates without -any numbers to the objects, and stray references in the text showing -that they are usually counted by the author from the base upward, and -from right to left. Every absurdity which want of design, forethought, -and common sense could perpetrate, seems to be found in these -monumental works. - -[Sidenote: Processes.] - -The processes used for plates vary greatly in cost and quality. The -cheapest is photolithography from line drawings; but only black and -white can be given thus, without any half-tones, and the illustrations -must be all together on a plate, and cannot be placed in the text. Yet -as it can be done at less than 2d. a square inch for 250, or 6d. for -2000, it enables a much larger quantity of illustration to be given -than would be possible otherwise. Relief process from line drawings -costs 4d. a square inch for the blocks alone, without printing on -paper; but as it can be placed with the text and printed together, it -has a great advantage, especially for small subjects. - -Collotype is next in cost, being 6d. a square inch for 250, or 2s. for -2000, but less than this cost in Germany. It has the same disadvantage -in being restricted to whole plates, and not mixable with text, but -it gives the half-tones well from photographs, and in fine examples -is almost as good as a silver print. The finest I have seen were from -Berlin. It is best to supply glass positives to the collotyper, and -leave him to make such negatives as may suit him. If negatives are sent -they are often destroyed. Net process gives half-tones, though with too -coarse a grain for very delicate details. The cost is about double that -of relief blocks, but as it reproduces photographs which can be mixed -with the text it has an enormous use now, from cheap newspapers up to -art publications. A disadvantage is that it requires a highly glazed -paper to print upon, such as is unpleasant to read, heavy to hold, and -liable to decay. Its duration therefore is distinctly ephemeral. - -For special subjects the more costly processes are requisite. -Chromo-lithography may be expected to cost about half as much again -as photolithography for each colour used. As seldom less than four -colours are efficient it costs at least six times as much as the line -plates; thus the cheapest colour plate begins at the cost of the best -net process; and it may easily come to three or four times that -amount. But probably the three-colour photography will soon abolish -chromo-lithography, and work much cheaper, perhaps at three or four -times the price of collotype. - -The autotype, platinotype, heliogravure, Swan electric engraving, and -other processes all have their place for special subjects, but seldom -come into the general run of archaeological illustration. - -[Sidenote: Editions.] - -A very successful policy for costly works of research is to issue a -magnificent edition for libraries, book-collectors, and rich amateurs; -and then to have a much larger edition, deficient in a few of the most -costly and least necessary plates, sold at a cheap rate for students -and the general public. Thus one great work of coloured folio plates -costs £20 or 3s. a plate for the complete edition; whereas with a -few plates deficient it is only £6 or 1s. a plate. Thus the cost of -production is borne by those who demand magnificence, and the results -are yet within reach of students. - -Another useful arrangement is to issue a public edition for general -reading, and an appendix of extra plates for students, which would -overweight a general edition. Thus a 2000 edition of the popular half -of the plates may cost £400, and a 250 edition of the students’ half -of the plates may cost £100, so saving £300, which would be uselessly -spent on 1750 copies that are not wanted, and which would only be a -dead-weight to the main work. - -[Sidenote: Text.] - -In arrangement of the text the main necessity is ready reference, and -a form which can be remembered. The way to this is by classifying the -material, dividing into chapters and paragraphs, each with a title, -and above all making a good index, which ought to be about a tenth of -the length of the work. A list of plates should have page references -for each plate. Remember that all smaller type, footnotes, and tables -are far more expensive than straightforward printing. - -The general nature of the record of results has been already dealt with -under the recording; and the need of giving an organic handling of the -whole has been pointed out. - -[Sidenote: Publishing.] - -As to publication, if any publisher will undertake to issue a work of -research at his own risk, well and good. If the author gets a gradually -increasing royalty after the first 100 copies, that is as much as can -be expected from this class of literature. But in no case have any -profit-sharing agreement. Usually such a work will have to be issued -at the author’s risk, and a few of the pitfalls of such arrangements -may be noted. Let the manuscript really be in final condition, down -to every stop, before it goes to the printer; consider the details of -headlines, paragraphing, insertion of illustrations, arrangements of -any tables or lists, (counting the letters), and in short leave nothing -undefined. Have an agreement with the printer for terms, including an -average of, say, two author’s alterations in every page, none to alter -the length of any page: this allows for inevitable small improvements, -without leaving an entire uncertainty in the charges. Correct the -proofs in red for the author’s alterations, in black for the printer’s -errors. If alterations exceed the allowance, reckon on paying for -the resetting of the worst pages, so as to bring the average to the -allowance on the rest. Beside the contract for printing and binding, -have a contract with the lithographer, another with the collotyper, and -another with the bookseller, for his terms of commission on sales. Thus -the author knows exactly where he is, and no unpleasantness can arise -from unexpected charges. - -After publication, the binder and plate-printer should be asked for -any blocks used; and to send up any “overs” or spoilt plates; as such -are often valuable afterwards to cut up for special uses, and may save -spoiling copies of the book. All photographs and drawings supplied to -the plate- or block-maker should also be asked for if not returned at -once. - - - - -CHAPTER XI - -SYSTEMATIC ARCHAEOLOGY - - -[Sidenote: Systems of Work.] - -A science can hardly be said to exist until it has a developed system -of work, and its possibilities of value for teaching purposes depend -entirely on the organization of its methods. Geology was a chaos -before the generalisation of the successive order of the strata, and -the method of the determination of a stratum by its fossils, gave the -subject a working system. Astronomy was a maze until the Newtonian -laws produced methods of analysis. Chemistry could not be said to have -any methods until the use of the balance and the theory of atomic -combination made possible the last century of development. So far, -archaeology cannot be said to have systematised any working methods -except those of artistic comparison and of epigraphy, and these can -only cover a small part of the space and time which need to be studied. - -Two general modes of work, however, have been begun, beside that of -artistic comparison; and it only needs that they should be fully -carried out in order to produce a thoroughly systematic archaeology. -These methods are (1) the complete definition of facts by means of a -_corpus_ of all known varieties of objects, in terms of which every -object can be defined; and (2) the arrangement of material in its order -of development by statistical methods and comparison, which bring out -the original sequence of construction. These two methods of work may -prove to be, for archaeology, what the balance and atomic theory have -been for chemistry,--the necessary foundation for systematic knowledge -and exact theory. - -[Sidenote: Need of a _corpus_.] - -The collection of known objects in a _corpus_ was well done by the -early systematisers, especially Montfaucon; and though his work is -nearly two centuries old, it has not yet been superseded by better -productions in every department. Since that appeared, the mass of new -material which has been collected, especially in the last fifty years, -cannot be mastered by one man, if he is ever to find time for original -work; and the whole subject is near coming to a standstill owing -to the dead weight of preparations which are required before going -further. Until a generation of systematisers shall arise, archaeology -can scarcely progress without continual waste of material and loss by -duplication of work. Moreover, there is no general reference work, and -no notation efficient for recording new discoveries. - -What is now urgently needed is for some scholars to each take one -branch of work, to collect all that is known, especially of dated -material; and then to publish all type examples, showing how the -subject varied from century to century, and to attach a system of -letters and numbers to every variety, so that any specimen can be -denoted merely by its _corpus_ number. This should be done at least for -all implements of stone and of metal, all pottery, all stone and metal -vases, all beads and personal ornaments, jewellery, clothing, domestic -utensils, and all motives of design and ornamentation. - -With such a definite notation once laid down, it would be possible -to record discoveries, and especially groups of objects, rapidly and -in a small compass. It would also be possible to compile results of -excavations and the contents of museums in simple indices. In order to -work systematically in archaeology we ought to be able to look in an -index and find at once where, and of what epoch, is every instance of -a particular object: say, of a key, type M 27, or of a vase, type D -64. Such indices should be continued by supplements issued every ten -or twenty years. At present, if one would ascertain the parallels to a -particular form, it is necessary to search through hundreds of volumes -and to visit all the museums--a matter of months of work. Progress in -archaeology, as an exact science, is practically impossible; it should -be easy and rapid, were all the known material always to be found at -once in a _corpus_ and indices. - -[Sidenote: Example of _corpus_.] - -Only one _corpus_ has yet been formed, and that is restricted to only -one country, one period, and one material--the prehistoric pottery of -Egypt (see _Nagada_ and _Diospolis Parva_). An outline of the system -there followed will serve to show the actual working of a _corpus_, -though for each different subject the details will need separate -consideration. The whole of this pottery comprises about a thousand -varieties. Each class of pottery is denoted by its initial letter; -P for polished, B for black-topped, etc. Each form in a class is -numbered, from 1 to 99, and each sub-variety is lettered. Thus R 63 -_c_ means rough pottery, type 63, variety _c_; and this completely -defines the example. The numbers are not always continuous, but gaps -in the series are left where there is much difference between the -forms. In this manner it is possible to add new forms without upsetting -the system, and new sub-varieties can be brought in by using small -letters. The forms are best classified by beginning with the most open -and flat dishes, and proceeding to the most closed forms, with narrow -necks ending. The point of reaching verticality in the sides is a -well-defined middle point. - -[Sidenote: Utility.] - -The practical utility of such a _corpus_ is found at once when -excavating. Formerly it was needful to keep dozens of broken specimens, -which were of no value except for the fact of being found along with -other vases. Now the excavator merely needs to look over the _corpus_ -of plates, and writes down on the plan of the tomb, say, B 23, P 35 -_b_, C 15, F 72, thus the whole record is made, and not a single piece -need be kept unless it is a good specimen. How essential such a record -is for future progress we shall see below. - -The most obvious step now would be to corporate all the pottery of -Italy. A _corpus_ from Pompeii would be the best starting-point, -as being all of one period and well dated; then a _corpus_ of -Constantinian forms, a _corpus_ of Republican forms, and a _corpus_ of -each of the prehistoric periods. The early history of the Forum at -Rome hangs now upon the safety of little groups of potsherds lying in -a shed, yet unclassed and unstudied, and certain to be swept away some -day by some one who does not value them. Instead of this we ought to -have a _corpus_ for reference, and then the contents of each of the -archaic wells could be at once denoted and published by the numbers of -the types; the historic material would be safe, and could be studied -at any future time irrespective of the conservation of the heaps of -sherds. Carry this out in Greece, and, instead of piles of pottery -lying in the fields or on the terraces of a classical site from the -prehistoric town levels, each piece could be noted by its number, and -all could be published to make the history of the site accessible. -Without a _corpus_ such discoveries are but a pathetic destruction -of material; with _corpus_ notation they would form the basis of a -thorough history of the site and of all its changes. - -All that is needed to produce a _corpus_ from a collection is a month -or two of work by a draughtsman, who has an accurate eye for form, -working to a uniform scale, and systematising the material conveniently -for future reference. Some subjects would require collecting from many -sources, but generally all the pottery of one period can be found -together in one museum. - -[Sidenote: Successive ages.] - -We now turn to the second method for archaeological research. This is -the synthetical arrangement of the material in the original order. The -most obvious arrangement is that by contemporary dating, as by years -named in a chronicle or on coins, or by successive reigns of kings. -But outside of this method there yet lies the greater part of human -history, which can only be reconstructed by some internal evidence of -successive periods. - -A couple of generations ago there were laid down the main divisions of -successive ages of stone, bronze, and iron; and then the division of -the stone age into palaeolithic and neolithic. After that followed the -separation of palaeolithic into four main periods in France, more or -less applicable to other lands. Further definition was yet found to be -necessary, and the neolithic and bronze ages were marked off into many -classes, which had to be distinguished by the names of places where -they were first found; and thus we reach a multitude of names, such as -Mycenaean, Hallstattian, the period of La Tène, etc. Such a piecemeal -plan is well enough for a beginning; but it is not capable of exact -definition, it is cumbersome, and it does not express the relation of -one period to another. - -[Sidenote: Sequences.] - -Before we can think of subdividing a period into a continuous notation, -the first requisite is to be able to place the material into its -original order or sequence. Let us suppose some old country mansion, -where it has been the habit to close permanently any room in which an -owner had died, and leave everything in it undisturbed. If we went -through such a series of rooms we could not doubt their order of date -if we looked at their contents. The William IV room could not be put -to the middle of George III’s reign; the George II room could not be -supposed to go between those of James II and Anne. Each room full of -furniture would have some links of style with that of the generation -before, and of the generation after it, and no real doubt could exist -as to the sequence of the whole series. What is true of a room full of -furniture is equally true of a grave full of pottery. If we compare -together a series of groups of pottery which are not separated by any -long time, there will always be found some relationship between the -forms in different groups: one group will be seen to fall between two -others if it contains forms to be found in each of the other groups, -though these others may have nothing in common together. A fragment of -the alphabet, K L M N O P, must fall between H I J K L and O P Q R, and -proves their connection. - -Thus if each form lasted in use for a uniform length of time the -problem would be fairly simple. But it is complicated by the plainer -forms lasting far longer in use than the complex or highly decorated -forms; some may go on being made for a thousand years, others may not -have been made for even ten years. Hence it is needful to resort to -various statistical modes of sorting, which differ in each case. A -complete instance of the process is given in _Diospolis Parva_, pp. 4–8. - -On the other hand, the sorting of material is greatly helped by any -clear series of forms derived one from the other; especially a series -of degradation, and reduction of useful elements to mere ornament. It -is well, however, to have a check on one end of a series, by connecting -it to known times, so as to prove which way it proceeds. - -[Sidenote: Sequence dates.] - -What notation should be used to express a series of sequences must -vary with conditions. Where we can deal with a larger number--many -hundreds--of good graves, each containing plenty of material, then a -scale of equal numbers of graves is perhaps the fairest that can be -taken. Thus for a scale of sequence dates, for the pottery named above, -I adopted 50 numbers, each representing 20 graves. - -The final result is to express the time-range of each type of pottery -and of other objects in the graves in terms of the scale of sequence -of the tombs. Thus the date of certain forms may be stated as 33–42 -sequence date; 37–70 sequence date; 45–48 sequence date, etc. And when -this is once established it is easy to date all further graves by -arranging the dates of each object found in a grave, for instance in -actual cases:-- - - Sequence dates. Sequence dates. - 30–36 35–68 - 32–68 60–69 - 30–42 68–78 - 31–34 68–78 - ----- ----- - Limits 32–34 68 - -The larger the group the more closely it is dated, by reason of the -various forms having a very small common ground of dating. - -This system enables us to deal with material which is entirely undated -otherwise; and the larger the quantity of it the more accurate are the -results. There is no reason now why prehistoric ages, from which there -are groups of remains, should not be dealt with as surely and clearly -as the historic ages with recorded dates. - -[Sidenote: Conservation.] - -Yet another all-important matter for the systematic archaeology of the -future must be here mentioned, especially as it greatly affects the -future schemes of field-work. The first requirement for systematic work -of study is material sufficient to work on. And to provide this there -must be both discovery and conservation. During the last century there -has been a gradual growth of archaeological perception; and in place of -only caring for beautiful and striking objects there has arisen some -interest in whatever can throw light on the past civilisations. But -unhappily the ideas of conservation have not kept pace with the work -of discovery. The present system of museums is the most serious bar to -the progress of archaeology. The building, which is the mere modern -shell, of no interest, and often of no beauty, is the master of the -collection, which is restrained and crippled by such conditions that -its use is impaired and its growth is stopped. The past is vanishing -before our modern changes yearly and daily. There is ever less and less -to preserve. And everything possible must be garnered before it has -entirely vanished. The present has its most serious duty to history in -saving the past for the benefit of the future. - -[Sidenote: Buildings.] - -In a museum the collection is the essential; the building is the -mere accident of the surroundings of the collection, and it should -completely conform to all the requirements. Yet can it be believed -that, even in the last year or two, enormous national museums--as at -Cairo and Brussels--have been built without the smallest regard to the -collection, or the opinions of the curators? The result at Cairo is the -most deplorable sacrifice of the art and history of a great country to -the follies and childish vanity of an incompetent and unsympathetic -architect. We will not stay to detail the entire unsuitability of that -building in style, form, size, and lighting; the constructive questions -of what is needed for a proper museum are our subject. - -[Sidenote: Lighting.] - -After the common purpose of all buildings--security from man and -nature--the first requirements in a museum are lighting and grouping. -Whatever interferes with these is a detriment which should be avoided -or removed. Lighting must be (1) direct, not from reflection by walls; -(2) full, but not dazzling; (3) in exactly the right direction. Of -all the precious statues of antiquity there is not one that has had -a tenth of its value spent on the best lighting possible. Most are -in hopelessly bad positions, as the Aphrodite of Melos in a weak, -diffused, sidelight; and none have the simplest blinds to change the -direction of the light, so as to study the surface in varying lighting. -To know what a figure requires, only take a fine statuette in the -hand, and try what can be made of it by the variation of direction, -obliquity, and amount of lighting. Then see how hopeless it is to know -a statue in one fixed lighting, even if that be suitable. The only -person competent to arrange the lighting of objects, and especially -statuary, is a successful photographer who has well practised the -lighting of portable figures. An almost vertical light is essential -for all human figures in the round or flat; but it needs most delicate -adjustment to bring out the more important modelling, and many -different directions of light to shew all that there is in the work. -What is true of statuary is true in a lesser degree of every other -object. No other qualities can possibly atone for defects of lighting -in a museum. No building with a bad light can be called properly a -museum; it may be an architect’s triumph, a civic ornament, a costly -patchwork, a marvel of folly, but a museum it is not, if it is unfit -for the first requirements of a collection. - -[Sidenote: Grouping.] - -The second great requirement, that of grouping, includes the -intelligent display of objects so as to shew their relation to -each other in development, their connection as found together, the -preservation of the whole of the material that should be preserved, and -its comparison by means of casts. - -The relation of objects in development requires free space in a museum, -and the absence of any pinching consideration of how to utilise every -square foot. Their connection as found together in tombs and groups -also requires free space, more than is yet to be had in any English -museum. The preservation of the whole of the needful material is still -more utterly beyond the limits of any of the present museums. Every -year a great deal of entirely irreplaceable material is thrown away, or -neglected on the spot, because there is no hope whatever of preserving -it. In the British Museum space costs several pounds a square foot, -and only objects of great value can be reasonably preserved there. We -are driven, then, to the conclusion that the progress of archaeology -and the preservation of the past, as it comes into our hands year by -year, is essentially a question of free space. And that is practically -entirely a question of cheap space. To refuse to preserve anything that -is not worth some pounds per square foot, is the death of archaeology; -and yet such are the necessary conditions in our present museums, -however much we may expand them in their costly conditions. If we once -think of what the condition of affairs will be fifty years hence, when -many periods and places will be exhausted, and yet nothing but showy -objects are preserved, we see that the future knowledge of archaeology -is helplessly bound up in the question of our immediate expansion of -conservation. - -[Sidenote: National Repository.] - -We see then how absolutely necessary for archaeology and ethnology it -is to have a National Repository, where the cost of space shall never -be detrimental to the collection. I need not enter on the details of -how such a repository could be carried out, as I have fully discussed -them at the British Association, and the Society of Arts (see _Jour. -S. A._ No. 2, 478, price 6d.); but an outline of the conditions and -cost will shew the practicability of the proposal. All objects of -value to a thief should be kept in the strong custody of city museums; -but the great majority of specimens that should be preserved are too -bulky or too unsaleable to be stolen, beside casts which no one would -steal, and such do not, therefore, need more than general supervision. -A square mile of land, within an hour’s journey from London, should -be secured; and built over with uniform plain brickwork and cement -galleries, at the rate of 20,000 square feet a year, so providing 8 -miles of galleries 50 feet wide in a century, with room yet for several -centuries of expansion at the same rate. A staff of about 30 persons -would suffice to arrange the new material at this rate; and having -abundant space, no time would be wasted by frequent shifting of old -material. Everything should be photographically registered as it came -in. Glass should be placed over all objects which can deteriorate; but -the amount of dirt would be a minimum in the country, and with the -air-supply filtered from dust. - -The total cost of land, building, materials, and staff would be covered -by a budget of £10,000 a year. And this is the normal _increase_ of the -British Museum budget every four years. Hence if the British Museum -were to find room by clearing out objects which are not liable to be -stolen, for a few years, and placing them in the Repository, the cost -of the Repository would be paid for to all time. A mere retardation -of growth of the British Museum for five or ten years would entirely -make up for the cost of the Repository twenty times its size. That -this provision is perfectly practicable is not denied; that it would -be far cheaper than continued expansion in highly expensive conditions -is certain; and that it is essential for the growth of archaeology and -ethnology is sadly obvious. Let us hope that if we are too hide-bound -in England to grasp the new conditions of research, that at least -in America some one will provide such a storehouse for all time; -where some day the history of the world may be studied, when we have -hopelessly lost the chance of preserving what might at present be had -for the asking. If we are to make up our minds to ignore and lose what -is now being lost and destroyed every year owing to our ignorance and -blindness, we must look to the New World to rescue from our misuse the -material we now throw away, and so preserve the history of mankind. - - - - -CHAPTER XII - -ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE - - -[Sidenote: Nature of proof.] - -The nature of proof is more complex than it seems to be at first sight. -True enough, all proof is merely a matter of common sense; it does -not appeal to any different faculty. And though a proof may follow as -simply as possible from the facts, yet it cannot be understood by one -who is not familiar with the facts to begin with. Trigonometry is the -most obvious common sense to any one familiar with the formulae; and -the formulae themselves are only common sense to any one who takes the -trouble to argue them through. Yet, for all that, trigonometry is not -obvious to the ignorant. In the same way the evidences about the past -of man are simple and clear when the facts and methods from which they -are deduced are already known. Yet it requires a good familiarity with -the material before the conclusions can be felt to be self-evident -results. - -[Sidenote: Legal evidence.] - -To follow clearly what evidence and proof means, it is best to refer -to a class of evidence which is most familiar to the reader. What is -commonly called _legal evidence_ is the best-known example, as it is -met every day in law cases and police reports. Evidence is based on -the same principles, in whatever subject it may be; there is not one -logic for the present, and a different logic for the past. But the -kind of evidence, the exactitude, the certainty, which is considered -enough to determine a property or a life, is rightly looked on as -conclusive for all reasonable purposes. The laws of such evidence have -been threshed over for generations past; and it is well known what kind -of proofs may be relied upon, and what are dubious. If we then compare -this class of evidence with that which we accept in studying the past -history of man, we shall see more clearly what kinds of proof are -admissible, and how far it is reasonable to depend upon our results. - -In examining legal evidence we see that it all falls under one of -four heads--(1) witnesses, (2) material objects, (3) exhaustion, and -(4) probabilities. These four kinds of evidence are of very different -values; any one of them may be stronger than the others in a given -case, and each kind has its own special weakness. - -1. _Witnesses_ provide the most clear and connected proof, and the -least liable to misunderstanding; but yet a proof which is entirely -dependent on veracity, on intelligence, on absence of prejudice, and -on clear memory, and is hence the least dependable kind of evidence in -some cases. - -2. _Material facts_, which may be very conclusive; such as A’s -footprint in B’s garden, or A’s chisel left in B’s house, at a -burglary. If the fact is certain, the conclusion is proved; but the -danger lies in misunderstanding the fact. - -3. _Exhaustion_, which may prove A guilty because no one else could -have done the deed; as when A and B are seen in a railway carriage at -one station, and at the next stoppage B is found murdered and A leaves -the carriage. There may be not a trace of other evidence, but this is -enough. - -4. _Probability_, as when A is last seen with B, and B proceeds to deal -with the property of murdered A. This kind of evidence is enough to -hang a man, solely from presumption. - -Now let us look at these kinds of evidence about the past of man. - -[Sidenote: Witnesses.] - -1. _Witnesses_, the documents, which give a clear and connected -statement. They may be either primary, as a stone inscription or an -autograph letter; or secondary, as compiled histories or subsequent -copies. No other kind of evidence is so easy to follow; yet this is -a proof in which we are entirely at the mercy of the prejudices, the -ill-will, the frauds, and the blunders of others, and it is hence -the least dependable kind of evidence in some cases. The speeches of -Thucydides, the bias of Suetonius, the wonders of Livy, the romances of -William of Malmesbury, and the forgery called Richard of Cirencester, -each plunge us deeper and deeper into the doubtfulness of written -documents; to say nothing of the casket letters or Ossian. - -[Sidenote: Material facts.] - -2. _Material facts_, when rightly understood, are the most conclusive -evidence. They may be in a single object, as a palaeolithic flint -rechipped over and over in later ages; or a foreign ornament used on an -object of dated style, as a Maori tatued head in a daguerreotype would -prove the tatuing to be known between 1840 and 1860; or a restruck -coin with one type over another, as Barchocheb over Hadrian; or an -added inscription, so familiar on Egyptian statues. Or the evidence -may consist in a collocation of objects, such as a group of things -found together in a tomb; or the superposition of strata of ruins in -a town. In the case of a single object there are few possibilities -of misunderstanding the evidence; but in strata or tomb-groups there -is a chance of older things being reused. Such chances of error -are, however, extinguished by the recurrence of instances; and the -finding of certain things together in several cases under different -circumstances is one of the strongest kinds of evidence, such, for -instance, as the name of Amenhotep III often found with the Mykenaean -pottery, both in Greece and in Egypt. - -[Sidenote: Exhaustion.] - -3. _Exhaustion_ may prove a point; as, for instance, the Iconoclasts in -Greece or Reformers and Puritans in England were the only destroyers of -images and pictures, or Akhenaten was the only man who erased the name -of Amen. Such destructions therefore are evidence of the age and the -man. - -[Sidenote: Probabilities.] - -4. _Probabilities_, as, for instance, the fact that the Saxons erased -the Romano-Britons, makes it probable that Silchester, Uriconium, and -other late Roman towns which were burnt, were destroyed by the Saxons. - -We see thus that each kind of proof which is accepted legally is also -used archaeologically, and is subject to much the same failings. Legal -evidence may fail by mistaking the nature of the facts, such as that -some rabbit’s blood on a knife is human blood; so may archaeology -mistake by ignorance, as when the Mykenaean treasure was called -Byzantine. - -Or legal evidence may fail by wrong inferences from facts, such as that -some human blood on a knife is due to a murder, while it has come from -the owner’s finger. So archaeology erred from a wrong inference in -calling the treasure of Troy “the treasure of Priam.” - -Or legal evidence may fail owing to mere prejudice, thus ignoring the -truth. So archaeology has suffered from the prejudice that nothing in -Greece can be older than the VIIIth century B.C. - -[Sidenote: Legal proof.] - -It is supposed sometimes, by those unfamiliar with the subject, that -archaeological evidence is so doubtful or so slight that it cannot -be relied upon, and is not to be compared with the certainties of -legal proof. Let us see then what legal proof is in important cases. -In one case a will was lost, and the mere memory of its contents, -stated by a survivor who had assisted in writing it, was accepted -as sufficient proof of what had been in it, and the property was -distributed accordingly. In another case property was left by A to B, -or failing B to C; B also made a will leaving it to D. A and B were -killed together in an accident, and the slightest observation of which -moved last, determined whether C or D had the property. Again, there -are innumerable cases of setting a will aside because of the testator -not being of a sound mind for disposing of property; and various -assertions of irrelevant facts by various interested parties are held -to reveal the true mental capacity of a person to a judge and jury. In -a murder trial the question of whether one or both of the assailants -were guilty was held proved by the deceased having been tied by two -different forms of knots. In another trial the mere presumption due to -concealing a body and dealing with the property of a murdered person -was enough to hang a man. Such are some of the evidences which are held -good in law to settle questions of life and property. - -Happily archaeology is relieved from the terrible dilemma of being -bound to come to a conclusion at once, as the law has to do. Questions -can be left pending, and it is not peremptorily needful to act one -way or another. An open mind can be kept on difficult and obscure -points; and a matter can be discussed in fresh lights, without keeping -a prisoner standing in the dock the whole time. Legal conclusions are -often wrong; though, as the law can do no wrong, a free pardon is all -the sufferer gets when his innocence is proved. But if legal proofs, -arguments, and conclusions were kept freely open to revision for years; -if they were printed in every textbook for beginners; if all students -were encouraged to find fresh evidence, and to upset what was laid -down, and if the high-road to position lay in reversing the decisions -of past authorities, it seems only too likely that there would be a -greater wreckage of bad cases and bad law than there now is of bad -archaeology. - -[Sidenote: Egypt and Europe.] - -For an example of the nature of archaeological evidence it will be -best to study the connections of Egypt with early Europe. This subject -is not only a fascinating one historically, but it includes a great -variety of different kinds of evidence,--from paintings, from groups -found in tombs, from remains of palaces, from objects exactly dated by -royal names, from objects dated by their nature and style; and evidence -which is of various degrees of certainty. Moreover this evidence has -been more actively and continually attacked than any other class of -discoveries of late years, and hence the most that can be argued -against it is well known. - -[Sidenote: In XXVIth Dynasty.] - -Until 1883 nothing was known of the Greeks in Egypt before the -Ptolemaic age; the accounts of Herodotus about the Greek mercenaries, -and their connection with the XXVIth Dynasty, stood solely as a -literary statement, without a scrap of tangible evidence. At the close -of that year I bought an archaic Greek statuette in Cairo (Fig. 56); -and on enquiring about the source of it, I heard of Nebireh, and hunted -out the site in the Western Delta. There I found the ground covered -with archaic Greek pottery dating throughout the XXVIth Dynasty, and -it was evident that a great Greek city had existed there. Next year, -at the close of 1884, I began exploring it, and found on the first day -there, a decree of the people of Naukratis. Here then the evidence of -Greek occupation depended upon the presence of thousands of pieces -of Greek pottery and sculpture; and to imagine that these had all -been imported by Egyptians was beyond any possible supposition. A -town containing almost entirely Greek remains, and with only clumsy -imitations of Egyptian subjects, was certainly occupied by Greeks. And -as there is no instance or probability of Greeks having imported great -quantities of vases made in earlier times, this place contained good -evidence for Greeks having lived there from the VIIth century B.C. As -such it was generally accepted; but the dedication by the Naukratites -was withheld from the public for six months by over-cautious -authorities, for fear that something else might contradict it. This is -a case where what was undoubtedly good evidence should rather have been -stated at once, with a reservation that it was very improbable that -the stone had been brought from another site, or dedicated anywhere -except in Naukratis. The evidence of the pottery shewed that Naukratis -dated from the middle of the VIIth century; and this agrees with the -statement by Athenaeus that a statue was dedicated there in the 23rd -Olympiad, 688 B.C. - -In the next season, the spring of 1886, I went down to Defeneh, and -there found a great mass of Greek pottery of the same period as that -of Naukratis. Here again, then, the Greeks had inhabited the site; and -the evidence was clear that this was a great camp of Greek mercenaries. -The modern name Defeneh so closely agrees to the ancient Daphnae that -no one hesitated to accept their equivalence. Here the identification -rests, then, not on a contemporary inscription, but on a modern Arabic -name. - -Important evidence about the manufactures of these places is given by -the pottery. Although the two sites were occupied at the same period -by Ionian Greeks, yet the bulk of the pottery on one site differs from -that on the other. The conclusion is that probably it was made locally -by Greek potters, and not brought by traders from Greek towns, as -trade would probably have imported from the same sources to both sites. -The evidence here is from the difference of classes. - -Another conclusion is drawn from the few varieties of painted pottery -which are found in common at both sites. From the levels at which they -were found at Naukratis these varieties were dated at various years -between 610 and 550 B.C.; and such varieties were found together in a -chamber at Defeneh with jar sealings bearing royal names of Psamtek -II and Aahmes, and therefore dated between 595 and 565 B.C., as the -Greeks were removed from the camp in the latter year. The evidence -here is from the collocation of objects; those dated by the levels at -which other things were found at Naukratis agreeing with those dated by -mixture with Egyptian sealings at Defeneh. - -[Illustration: THE GREEKS IN EGYPT. - -Fig. 56. Warrior, in alabaster. Naukratis, XXVI Dyn.] - -[Illustration: THE GREEKS IN EGYPT. - -Fig. 57. Graeco-Egyptian vases. Abydos, XVIII Dyn.] - -[Sidenote: XVIIIth Dynasty paintings.] - -We now turn to the great group of dating of the XVIIIth–XXth Dynasties; -and as the nature of the evidence is our present consideration we shall -classify it according to the kind of source of the evidence. The most -certain dating is that of offerings painted on the walls of tombs, as -it is always agreed that such represent objects which were in current -use when the tomb was decorated; they therefore are not older than the -tomb, nor can the paintings have been added later. Of this class are -the paintings of vases in the tomb of Rekhmara, under Tahutmes III in -the XVIIIth Dynasty; these vases are shewn as being brought in by the -Kefti foreigners, and strongly resemble the vases found in Cyprus, -Mykenae, and other Greek sites. Here the connection of Egypt in -the XVIIIth Dynasty with people who made such vases is certain; but -the vases might be older than the scene, or such vases might continue -to be made to a later time, hence the connection with any given epoch -on Greek soil is only a strong probability but not absolute. Another -dated painting is that of stirrup vases (to use a more convenient word -than “pseud-amphorae,” “false-necked vases,” or “_bügel kanne_”) among -the offerings in the paintings on the tomb of Ramessu III of the XXth -Dynasty. That such forms were familiar at that date is absolute; but -they might be older vases preserved in the Royal Treasury, or might be -imitations by Egyptians of older foreign forms, like English repetition -of Chinese patterns. - -[Sidenote: Burnt groups.] - -The next class of evidence is that of objects which have been placed -in such conditions that they cannot have been disturbed after a given -date. This evidence is given by several deposits of groups of vases, -clothing, etc., which were burnt in pits sunk in the floors of houses, -and then earthed over. Such groups cannot possibly have been disturbed -later on to insert objects, as the charcoal and ashes are undisturbed, -and the foreign objects are likewise burnt. Hence the evidence of the -Egyptian objects if clearly dated must carry the foreign objects to the -same date. Several such groups have been found at Gurob. In one were -many Egyptian objects all agreeing well to the date of Amenhotep III, -as fixed by a glazed pottery kohl tube; in another a group agreeing -with the date of Tutankhamen, which was shewn by some fragile pendants -which could not have long survived in use; another group agrees to -the age of Ramessu II, who is named on a pendant of glazed ware; and -a fourth group agrees to the rougher style of Sety II, which is dated -by a dish with his name. The character of the Egyptian objects thus -points to each of these dated objects being contemporary with the rest -of their group, and therefore truly dating the group. Now in these -groups were first, five well-made globular stirrup vases (see Fig. 59); -second, pieces of several stirrup vases of a later form; third, the -neck of a later and coarser stirrup vase; and fourth, two much later -coarse and unpainted stirrup vases. Here the changes in the character -of the vases agree with the relative dates given by the Egyptian -objects. The stirrup vases might be all older than the Egyptian -dates, but that is very improbable by the regular degradation of them -according with the dates; and the groups cannot be later than the dated -objects as they agree well with the date of such Egyptian things fixed -in other cases. It is then extremely improbable that the stirrup vases -should not belong to the periods of the Egyptian kings whose names are -found with them. Variation in either direction is prohibited by these -limitations. - -We may add that there are two other burnt groups without kings’ names, -and the connection of stirrup vases with Egyptian objects in these -agrees well with the connection shewn by the other groups. Another -such grouping was in a burial in open ground at Abydos; there several -examples of Graeco-Egyptian ware (Fig. 57), two figures and a ring vase -with pomegranates and lotus flowers, were found with Egyptian pottery -and beads of the XVIIIth Dynasty. - -[Sidenote: Rubbish mounds.] - -A somewhat similar grouping is afforded by the rubbish mounds of the -palace of Akhenaten at Tell el Amarna. There the palace was entirely -deserted after the reign of his successor, about 1360 B.C., and the -town ruined finally by Horemheb, 1330 B.C. It seems then impossible to -suppose anything later being mixed up with the rubbish heaps, which -contained nearly a hundred dated objects, none later than 1360 B.C. -The supposition has even been suggested that some unknown people, -who left no other traces, have at some later time come laden with -hundreds of potsherds, and dug over the rubbish mounds to mix them -together. Such are the wild fancies which must be resorted to if the -evidence is to be upset. The rubbish mounds consist of some thousands -of tons of potsherds and dust; and among these, entirely mixed with -them, were found nearly a hundred rings and objects of Akhenaten and -his successor, and over 1300 pieces of Aegean pottery, representing -probably 800 vases. The palace, which was deserted after 1360 B.C., -also contained several pieces of the same pottery. Here the great -quantity of the material of all kinds precludes all the suppositions -that might be made about isolated specimens. The mounds are too large -for later material to be mixed with them; the dated objects are too -many to be accidental, or to have been older than the mounds; and the -Aegean vases are too many to have been preserved from earlier times. -The whole conditions prove that all the objects were in common use -contemporaneously. - -[Sidenote: Houses.] - -A somewhat less certain dating is given by remains found in houses. -At the palace of Akhenaten the definite date of its ruin fairly shews -the Aegean pottery in it to be contemporary with his generation. In a -house at Gurob, Aegean pottery was found with wood-carving of the XIXth -Dynasty and a ring of the late XVIIIth Dynasty, and also under the -walls of a house which was built at the close of the XVIIIth Dynasty. -These are not precise datings, and are open to claims that the houses -were later than the evidence shews; but such connections give a strong -presumption. - -Similar, but converse, evidence is given from the Greek side. At -Mykenae was found a figure of a monkey in violet glaze (No. 4573 -Athens); this is of Egyptian work and bears the name of Amenhotep II. -A piece of glaze found in a building by the lion gate has the name of -Amenhotep III. A scarab of Thyi, his queen, was found in the palace of -Mykenae. And three large jars of drab-coloured Egyptian pottery (4569 -Athens), such as is quite unknown from Greek sources, were also found -at Mykenae. Now these examples prove the import of Egyptian things of -the XVIIIth and XIXth Dynasties before the fall of Mykenae; they do -not give an exact dating as their time-connection on the Greek side is -unstated, and they might belong to any part of the history of the town. -But their agreement in age gives a strong presumption that the latter -half of the XVIIIth Dynasty was contemporary with some part of the -flourishing period of foreign trade at Mykenae. - -[Sidenote: Scarabs.] - -At this point we should notice an assertion often made, that Egyptian -objects, especially scarabs, often bore the names of kings who were -earlier than the date of the manufacture. This is sometimes the -case, and on this ground it has been attempted to discredit all -evidence about scarabs. Now an exactly similar case occurs in Roman -coinage, where at eight different periods restorations of coins of -earlier emperors took place, no less than twenty emperors being thus -commemorated. Yet no one has impugned the evidence of Roman coins -in dating an excavation, on the ground that as some were restored -therefore none are of certain value. Similarly seven kings restored -the scarabs of earlier times, twelve different kings being thus -commemorated; but that is no reason for discrediting the age of the -remaining ninety-nine scarabs out of every hundred. The restorations, -say of the XIIth Dynasty kings by Tahutmes III, are as obvious as the -restorations of earlier emperors by Gallienus. No doubt to a person -ignorant of coins the subject would seem uncertain and confused; but -then scientific evidence is not expected to appeal to those who are -ignorant of the subject, whether it be coins or scarabs. We must then -credit the evidence of scarabs for dating, although there are some -restored in a different style, and although some case might be found -where a scarab had been reused at a much later date than that of its -manufacture. Such exceptions are certainly not one per cent of the -whole, and cannot therefore be invoked to explain away the whole of -the instances. - -[Sidenote: Tombs in Egypt.] - -The largest class of evidence is that from collocation in tombs. -The weak points of this are (1) reuse of tombs so that primary -and secondary interments may be mixed; this should be obvious in -any properly conducted excavation, and cannot be brought in as an -hypothesis unless some mixture of date can be otherwise proved: (2) -the tomb contents being older than the dated object, and so brought -to too low a date, which is very unlikely, as a whole group of things -would not be preserved for long together: (3) the dated object being -older than the tomb, which is practically the only danger. A few rare -examples have been seen of older objects being reburied, but so rarely -that only a very small proportion of cases could be thus explained. The -great majority of things in hand at any one time belong to within a -generation or two. In our own time, although we treasure older things -more than did the people of any past age, yet not one per cent of what -we have is over a hundred years old. In late Roman coinage the waste -was such that in a hundred years only an eighth survived in use, and -in half a century more only a twenty-fifth remained. It is very rarely -that beads or pendants of very different ages are mixed in ancient -necklaces, or that scarabs of reigns far apart are buried together. I -do not remember a mixture of more than two contiguous reigns in any -group of scarabs that I have found. Hence this possibility of an older -object being reused may occur rarely, but cannot be called upon in the -whole of the cases, or even for any perceptible proportion of them. -In certainly nine cases out of ten we must expect that a dated object -was buried within less than two or three generations from its original -period. - -The tomb groups containing Aegean pottery are, it so happens, not so -well dated as the burnt groups; and are therefore inferior to the burnt -groups, both on this account, as well as by the greater possibility -of mixture. The Maket tomb at Kahun is the principal example. The -dated objects in that are of Tahutmes II and III; and though at first -I supposed it to be of later age on the strength of some beads not -then known before the XIXth or XXth Dynasty, yet as such beads were -afterwards found in a deposit of Tahutmes III at Koptos, there is -no reason for questioning that the whole is of his age. Also the -experience of the past dozen years has shewn that such a date agrees -well to all the other objects in the tomb. The absence of blue painted -pottery does not imply a date after the disuse of it in the XXth -Dynasty, but before that style came into use in the middle of the -XVIIIth Dynasty. In this tomb was a fine Aegean vase (Fig. 58) with -ivy-spray pattern, which is thus dated to about 1500 B.C. The burials -were quite undisturbed and therefore the vase cannot belong to a later -date, but might possibly be earlier. - -Other examples have not this precise dating. At Kahun a burial in the -open ground, and undisturbed, had scarabs and objects of the style of -the middle or end of the XVIIIth Dynasty, with a stirrup vase from -the Aegean (_Kahun_, p. 32). The undisturbed tomb at Gurob containing -the beautiful wooden statuette of Res, certainly of the XVIIIth -Dynasty, had in an opposite chamber a stirrup vase, which must have -been buried at the same period. Another burial at Gurob had a piece -of a stirrup vase with beads exactly like those of Ramessu II. And at -Naqada a tomb which by the style of the painting, must have belonged to -the beginning or middle of the XVIIIth Dynasty, had been so entirely -plundered that the only object left was a fine globular stirrup vase. -In these cases there is no exact dating, but a consensus of style in -each case of the XVIIIth or early XIXth Dynasty; and the connection -of the Aegean pottery with it is in some cases absolute and in others -only presumptive. The argument for date of the pottery rests then in -these cases on the uniformity of the period connected with it, and the -absence of any discrepant dating. - -[Illustration: FIG. 58.--Aegean vase of Tahutmes III. Maket tomb. 1:3.] - -[Sidenote: Tombs in Greece.] - -Now this argument is greatly reinforced if we can shew that the same -connection of period exists on the other side. At Ialysos in Rhodes -a tomb with Aegean pottery contained a scarab of Amenhotep III. At -Mykenae, grave No. 49 contained also glazed ware of Amenhotep III. At -Enkomi in Cyprus in grave 93 a scarab of Queen Thyi was found with -Aegean pottery. And from the same cemetery comes a metal ring of her -son Amenhotep IV. These cases therefore connect one period of the -Aegean remains with the Egyptian reigns from 1414 to 1365 B.C. If on -one hand it might be supposed that the single Greek objects in Egyptian -tombs were older than the time of their burial, here on the other hand -the possibility is reversed, and the single Egyptian objects in Greece -could only be older and not later than the group with which they were -buried. As on both sides the dating is the same--the latter part of the -XVIIIth Dynasty--it shows that in both countries the groups contained -objects of contemporary date. If we were to further refine on the -question, and enquire whether the differences of date of the reigns -in Egypt correspond to equal differences in Greece, we are met by the -lack of all relative dating yet assignable to the Greek tombs; on that -side we have only a vague statement of “Mykenaean period,” or some such -generality; and it is therefore only that period in general that we can -assign to the XVIIIth–XIXth Dynasty in Egypt. - -[Sidenote: Variation with date.] - -We may, however, see a little further into detail on the Egyptian side -by observing how the stirrup vases vary in form and work. At Naqada, -probably under Tahutmes III, was a globular form, with simple broad -bands, and dull face. At Gurob under Amenhotep III the vases have more -broad bands and a polished face (Fig. 59). Under Tutankhamen there -were fine lines appearing between the bands. Under Ramessu II the form -is coarser. And under Sety II is only a coarse unpainted imitation. -Lastly, under Ramessu VI at Tell el Yehudiyeh were some rude debased -copies. Here the relative style of the vases agrees with the varying -date of the objects found with each; and hence we are justified in not -only placing one general period in Greece as contemporary with another -period in Egypt, but also in connecting the varied forms with the -reigns which are named with them. The evidence which we gain from the -mere general admixture, without any proof of the objects originating in -the generation by which they were buried, is here further carried on -into evidence for the exact age of each type by the sequence of style -agreeing to the sequence of the dated objects. - -[Illustration: FIG. 59.--False-necked vases from Egypt. - -XVIIIth Dyn. Amenhotep III. Tutankhamen. - -XIXth Dyn. Ramessu II. Sety II. - -XXth Dyn. Ramessu III. Ramessu VI.] - -[Sidenote: Style.] - -We now turn to a question of style alone. In grave 93 at Enkomi was -found a gold collar of Egyptian work with nine different patterns in -it; of these, eight are well known as designs of the time of Amenhotep -IV, and the ninth is a variant of such. As these designs are not known -in such forms at a century later or earlier, this collar cannot have -been made far from 1400 B.C.; and as it is of slight and tender fabric -it cannot have long been in use. Hence the date of its burial and of -the tomb must be in the fourteenth century B.C. Of other examples of -style, which may be quoted as important, is a great group of blue -glazed ware of the same form, colour, and designs, as the vases of -Ramessu II, but found in grave 66 at Enkomi; a gold pin, with a hole -in the middle, of the XVIIIth–XIXth Dynasty found at Gurob, like one -from grave 66 at Enkomi; a group of bronze vases with lotus handles -found in the Idaean cave in Crete, exactly of the fabric of those of -the XVIIIth–XIXth Dynasty; a figure of a swimming girl holding a dish, -carved in bone, from the Idaean cave, a favourite design in the XVIIIth -Dynasty; and some other instances of similar style, ornament, and -processes, which need hardly reinforce the general argument. - -[Sidenote: Recapitulation.] - -To recapitulate the evidences of the XVIIIth–XXth Dynasty:-- - - _Evidence of paintings._ Tombs of Rekhmara and Ramessu III. - - Result. Aegean objects possibly older than the paintings. - - _Evidence of burnt groups._ Four, from Amenhotep III to Sety II. - - Result. Aegean pottery possibly older than the groups. - - _Evidence of rubbish heaps._ Tell el Amarna. - - Result. Aegean pottery certainly contemporary with Amenhotep IV. - - _Evidence of houses._ Tell el Amarna, Gurob, Mykenae. - - Result. Aegean pottery probably of XVIIIth Dynasty. Greek houses - probably of XVIIIth Dynasty. - - _Evidence of tombs._ Maket tomb; tombs at Gurob, Mykenae, and Enkomi. - - Result. Aegean pottery possibly older than Tahutmes III; probably - of XVIIIth–XIXth Dynasty or possibly older; Greek tombs of - XVIIIth Dynasty, or possibly later. - - _Evidence of style._ Gold collar. Idaean vases and carving. - - Result. Importations to Greece of XVIIIth Dynasty, and perhaps - XIXth; copy of XVIIIth Dynasty design, possibly later. - -The possible deviations from the probable results are thus seen to -balance one another, some leaving the limit only open to earlier times -and some only to later times, so that change cannot be accepted in -either direction. - -[Sidenote: XIIth Dynasty, Kahun.] - -We now go back to an earlier stage in the history, that of the XIIth -Dynasty. Some ten years ago the stage which we have already discussed -was the “fighting frontier” of the subject; five years ago the XIIth -Dynasty was the fighting frontier; now this is almost pacified, and the -struggle against prepossessions is carried back to the still earlier -periods. - -The view back to the XIIth Dynasty was first opened out in excavating -the rubbish mounds of the town of Kahun. This town was entirely built -at one time for the workmen employed on the pyramid of Usertesen II, -this then is the starting date. While the houses were fully occupied -a large rubbish mound was accumulated outside of the walls. When the -official work of building ceased at the finishing of the pyramid, we -may conclude that the town began to dwindle, as I found many of the -houses and streets had been used as rubbish holes for waste of the -XIIth Dynasty. Therefore the less convenient and accessible rubbish -heap outside of the walls is probably entirely of the reign of -Usertesen II. As it does not contain any Egyptian material that could -be dated later than that, the evidence of the shrinkage of the town -should be accepted as giving a probable limit to the age of the outer -heaps. - -In these heaps the great bulk was of regular Egyptian pottery of -the XIIth Dynasty, filling up a depth of 6 or 8 feet in parts, and -therefore very unlikely to become mixed with later objects dropped by -accident. Now with this pottery thus certified as to its age, were -found pieces of several kinds hitherto entirely unknown. Black ware -decorated with white spiral lines, and with yellow and red lines and -circles of dots, red pottery with white returning spirals, and with -painting in red, white, and green. The style was obviously of the -Aegean family, so much so that even the best authorities asserted that -these were pieces of Naukratite pottery of the XXVIth Dynasty and shut -their eyes to the great difference of fabric and material. For some -years I protested that the evidence of finding was absolute for the -XIIth Dynasty date, and that no such pottery was known at a later date -to which this could be compared. But some general resemblance to the -style of the XXVIth Dynasty was allowed to calm the archaeological -conscience of my friends into ignoring all the positive evidence. No -such pottery was known on Greek soil at an early date; therefore none -existed; therefore this could not be of that date. This argument is -still in full favour for other and earlier periods. But a shock of -surprise came when delicate black pottery with white painting and red -was found at Kamares in Crete, and published by Mr. Myres in 1895; -and later the same style of pottery was so largely found that Messrs. -Hogarth and Welch write in 1901 that “so far from that ware being a -rarity, it is to be looked for in Crete wherever any strata of remains -underlie the Mykenaean. It occurred in our digging at Knossos at all -points at which the early town was probed to the rock” (_J.H.S._ xxi. -78). The pre-Mykenaean period is now before us and is found to agree -entirely with the dating already reached on unimpeachable grounds at -Kahun. That we may recognise connections between Greece and Egypt in -the XIIth Dynasty is now orthodox, and we may proceed to see what -further evidence appears for this dating. - -[Sidenote: XIIth Dynasty, Crete.] - -At Knossos was found a portion of an Egyptian seated figure in diorite -bearing an inscription of Ab-nub-mes-uazet-user, which from the style -is probably of the XIIth Dynasty. - -At Praesos were found several globular beads of carnelian and of -amethyst such as are well known in the XIIth Dynasty, and the latter -material is not found dated to a later period in Egypt. - -At Knossos was found a globular alabaster vase of the regular type of -the XIIth Dynasty; and also the alabaster vase lid of King Khyan, -whose date is unfortunately not fixed on the Egyptian side, but who is -probably of the XVIth Dynasty, though perhaps of the XIth. - -The long period now known in Greece before the civilization which is -dated to the XVIIIth Dynasty compels such a presumption of connection -with far earlier periods, and the connection is so well shewn by the -Kamares ware, that the evidence for the XIIth Dynasty relationship -scarcely needs further support. It depends on identity of style of -highly decorated pottery, and of beads; and the transport of two pieces -of Egyptian work. - -[Sidenote: Pan graves.] - -Another connection of this age is shewn by the “pan-grave” pottery -found in Egypt. This class of shallow circular graves is dated to -the close of the XIIth Dynasty by several discoveries of worn and -damaged objects of the XIIth Dynasty in the graves, without anything -that could be fixed to a later date. In these graves is a large class -of non-Egyptian pottery; some of it black and red, highly polished; -others, rude thick pottery with incised patterns. The similarity of -the black and red to the style of the prehistoric pottery of Egypt is -obvious; it is a later branch of the same fabric. And when we consider -from what other land that may have come into Egypt, we naturally look -to the similar forms found in the Celtic pottery of Southern Spain by -Bonsor (Fig. 60), as indicating that it belongs to the western Libyan -culture. Again, the rough incised pottery is of the same Celtic family -found in Spain, showing a western source. The suggestion lately put -forward that these may have come into Egypt from the East is wholly -baseless. It is in Spain and the allied Celtic pottery of Europe that -we find the types which were brought into Egypt by the rude invaders -at the close of the XIIth Dynasty. So that a connection of the western -barbaric culture of the bronze age with the close of the XIIth Dynasty -must be concluded, from the evidence of similar pottery intruded into -Egypt, and associated in graves with the objects of that age. - -[Illustration: FIG. 60.--Celtic and pan-grave pottery and ornament. - -Central Europe. Yorkshire. (_J. Anth. Inst._ xxxii., pl. xxvii.) - -South Spain. (_Rev. Arch._ xxxv. 121–2.) - -Diospolis, Egypt. (_Diospolis_, xxxviii., xl.)] - -It is probably then to the same invaders that we should look for the -source of the black incised ware (Fig. 61) with patterns filled with -white, and of characteristically western--Italic or Greek--forms, which -is found in Kahun in the XIIth Dynasty, and in burials at Khataaneh -of the XIIIth Dynasty. It is the latest stage of a class of imported -pottery which recurs at intervals from the early prehistoric age -onwards. A piece of this pottery was found in one of the “pan graves,” -thus linking it with the other foreign pottery brought in at that -period. It has been found at Hissarlik in the lowest levels, in Bosnia -at Butmir, and of prehistoric to XIIIth Dynasty age in Egypt. - -[Illustration: FIG. 61.--Black incised pottery, with white filling.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 62.--Buttons of ivory, carnelian, glazed steatite, -etc. VIIth Dyn. - -The upper row with misapplied Egyptian designs. - -The lower row with entirely un-Egyptian designs. 2:3.] - -[Sidenote: VIth to IIIrd Dynasties.] - -On going back another stage to the Old Kingdom, of the IVth to VIth -Dynasties, we still find links between Egypt and the West. In the -VIth dynasty is found a class of non-Egyptian buttons (Fig. 62) with -devices, which in some cases may have been used as seals; more than a -hundred of these are now known, and in no case are they of Egyptian -fabric, as when an Egyptian subject was copied it was always in a -mistaken manner. Now a close parallel to many of the designs is found -on Cretan engraved stones, and it is therefore to that civilisation -that we must look for the source of a considerable foreign importation, -which probably accompanied a movement of population at the overthrow -of the civilisation of the Old Kingdom. The actual incomers may have -passed by sea from the islands, or by land along Africa. - -On turning to Crete we see in the noble lamp with lotus capital found -at Knossos, a type which cannot have been derived from anything that -we know of the XIIth Dynasty in Egypt. The free buds around the band -had long since become lost at that time; and even in the Vth Dynasty on -the Abusir capital they are less distinct. A form belonging to the Vth -Dynasty is the only one that is at all likely to have been the origin -of this fine Cretan capital. Again a vase with two handles from Knossos -is certainly an exact copy in local stone, of the regular Egyptian type -of the Old Kingdom, which was quite unknown later. And two pieces of -the brims of bowls, one of Egyptian diorite, the other of liparite, -are of exactly the type made in the close of the IIIrd Dynasty at -Medum, and in the early IVth Dynasty at Gizeh; this might perhaps last -until the Vth Dynasty, but we could not suppose it to come later, as -it would have been quite out of the run of later forms. The copying of -motives and forms which passed entirely out of use, is a strong form -of evidence; a single object might survive to later times, but for a -form to be copied it must be the familiar and usual form at the time -when the copy is made. Hence we cannot place the familiarity with these -Egyptian types in Crete later than the Vth or perhaps IVth Dynasty. - -Still earlier, the Western influence on Egypt is seen by the black -incised bowls, of which one piece was found inside a mastaba of the -time of Sneferu (end of IIIrd Dynasty), and another piece between two -mastabas of about the same age at Dendereh, where it must have been -buried in sand at the period of the building. Another piece of such -black incised pottery was found in the tomb of King Zer of the Ist -Dynasty; see Fig. 61. - -[Sidenote: Ist Dynasty, Aegean.] - -This brings us back to a surprising series of pieces of painted -pottery from the Royal Tombs of the Ist Dynasty (Fig. 63). The forms -are Aegean; the material, the facing, the colouring, the varieties -of pattern, all belong distinctively to the Aegean. The opinion of -Professors Furtwängler and Wolters is that these belong to the earliest -type of Island pottery. Certainly there is nothing like them found -in Egypt, except the confessedly Aegean pottery of later times. One -prehistoric Egyptian vase has been compared with them, but it has -no resemblance in form, material, facing, or colouring, and only an -approximation to one of the patterns. They stand unquestionably in line -with other Aegean ware. These pieces are found scattered in several of -the Royal Tombs; and those from the earlier tombs are of an earlier -style. Thus there is no absolute proof, but only a strong presumption, -that these belong to the age of the tombs of the Ist Dynasty. - -Further evidence is, however, given by a portion of the original tomb -offerings of King Zer, which were left untouched by all the plunderers -and destroyers. In one corner-chamber of his tomb were an alabaster -vase of regular Ist Dynasty type, four pottery jars of the same age, -and nine jars of foreign ware, different in forms, in material, and in -facing, from any Egyptian pottery of that age, but agreeing in all -these characteristics with Aegean pottery, and including a vase of the -same nature as the painted pottery, but without decoration. The whole -group was cemented together by the burning of the unguents which had -been buried in the jars. - -[Illustration: FIG. 63.--Pottery of earliest Aegean style. From Royal -Tombs of the Ist Dynasty, Egypt.] - -Here is then a case like that of the Kamares pottery at Kahun. The -evidence is clear, there is no visible loophole for avoiding the -archaeological conclusion. And the only argument against it is that no -such pottery has been found in Greece, but only more advanced styles -of such fabric under later conditions. Now that the Knossos finds have -led all those who see their value to grant a connection in the IIIrd -or IVth Dynasty, we may soon see the fighting frontier pushed over to -include this great and distinctive group of the early Ist Dynasty. - -[Sidenote: Ist Dynasty, Cretan.] - -Nor does this stand alone. This year another class of foreign pottery -has been found in the ruins of the temple of Abydos, of the Ist -Dynasty, and perhaps somewhat before it (Fig. 64). The material is -unlike any in Egypt, a dense black pottery; the facing of it is usually -highly burnished, unlike Egyptian of that age; the forms are wholly -un-Egyptian, the long pointed amphora with curved neck, and the hollow -feet to vases, being unmistakably of the Greek family. Exactly similar -pottery in material and finish, is found in fragments of the later -Neolithic period at Knossos; a piece from Egypt and one from Knossos -when seen side by side seem as if they had been broken from the same -jar. The forms of the Cretan examples are not yet re-established, but -some at least are the same as the Egyptian examples. As most of the -cups of this type at Abydos had contained a brilliant red haematite -paint, it is very likely that the pottery came over as vehicles for -trade products. - -Yet again in the Ist Dynasty deposit of ivory and glazed objects in the -temple of Abydos, was a cast copper figure of foreign style which is of -the same family as the copper figures found in the Diktaean cave. - -[Illustration: FIG. 64.--Polished black pottery of Cretan origin. -Temple of Abydos. Dyn. I.] - -[Sidenote: Prehistoric.] - -And all this leads us back to the Egyptian prehistoric age. There -we see commonly painted on the pottery, and on walls of a tomb, the -large ships then in use. Some had as many as 60 oars, yet we see the -greatest of the Venetian fighting galleys had only 24 on a side. A -rowing ship is useless on the Nile, except for sometimes getting down -stream, as no rowing would suffice to take a large vessel continuously -up against the current. But the rowing galley has been the vessel of -the Mediterranean, from the French navy back to the Phoenician, and -no one knows how long before. These great vessels, which bore various -ensigns showing the ports from which they started, must have been -concerned in important business; probably trading the oil and skins -and wood one way, and the dates and corn of Egypt in return. Among -their imports were probably the foreign bowls of black incised ware, -filled in with white, which are found even as far back as near the -beginning of the prehistoric civilisation. They clearly belong to that -foreign class which is found as far apart as Spain, Bosnia, and Troy; -and the original home of this pottery has yet to be found, in that -Mediterranean region about which we are just beginning to discover our -own ignorance. - -If at present our evidence of connection between Egypt and the West, -before the XIIth Dynasty, rests upon the identity of styles and -fabrics, we must remember how that same class of evidence in later -periods has been amply reinforced by dated objects with inscriptions, -found in most unequivocal positions. And we may then at last reach the -conception that after all, civilisation started at much the same time -all round the Mediterranean, but advanced rather sooner in Egypt than -on the northern shores. - -In this study of the facts which link together the early history of -Europe with that of Egypt, we have now seen the varied sources and -values of the different kinds of archaeological evidence; and the modes -by which the accumulation of different evidences may reinforce the -conclusions, and render them more exact. - - - - -CHAPTER XIII - -THE ETHICS OF ARCHAEOLOGY - - -[Sidenote: Individual rights.] - -At first sight, ethics might not seem to have more to do with -archaeology than with chemistry or astronomy. Yet even in those -subjects an entire monopoly of some useful material, or the destruction -of the only records of irreplaceable observations, would bring in -serious questions of individual right. It is notorious what a large -element of conduct is involved in biology, where species are being -destroyed every year, where the rabbit and the thistle have been -wantonly made the curse of a continent, and where a mixture is taking -place which will efface the results of ages of segregation. In -archaeology there is perhaps a greater range of ethical questions, -of the individual _versus_ the community, than in any other science. -And the results of action are the more serious as the material is -very limited, and perhaps no other chance of observation may ever -occur. In most sciences the opportunity of experiment and observation -is unlimited. If an alloy is spoiled it can be remade at once, if a -star is not examined to-night it may be next night, if a plant is not -grown this year it may be next year. But Theodoric’s gold armour -once melted, we shall never know what it was like; the heads of the -Parthenon statues once burnt to lime, are gone for ever; or the Turin -papyrus once broken up, we can hardly hope ever to recover all the -history it contained. - -[Sidenote: Destruction.] - -The destruction that has gone on, and is now going on continuously, -seems as if it could leave scarcely anything for the information of -future ages. Every year sees wiped out the remains which have lasted -for thousands of years past. Now, in our own day, the antiquities of -South Africa and of Central and South America have been destroyed as -rapidly as they can be found. Elsewhere, engineers of every nation -use up buildings as quarries or wreck them for the sake of temporary -profit, or for more legitimate purposes as in the submersion of -Philae and Nubia. Speculators, native and European, tear to pieces -every tomb they can find in the East, and sell the few showy proceeds -that have thus lost their meaning and their history. Governments set -commissioners to look after things, who leave the antiquities to -be plundered while they are living in useless ease. And the casual -discoveries that are made perish in a ghastly manner. The Saxon -regalia of Harold, the treasures of Thomas à Becket’s shrine, the -burial of Alfred, the burial of Theodoric, and the summer palace -of Pekin, have within modern memory all gone the same way as the -wonders that perished in the French sack of Rome or the Greek sack -of Persia. However we may deplore this, our present consideration is -destruction by archaeologists, and what their responsibilities are in -difficult situations. In all ages there has been destruction for gold -and valuables, and in the Renascence a ruthless seizure of marbles -and stone work. To that succeeded destruction for the sake of art, -excavations in which everything was wrecked for the chance of finding -a beautiful statue. Then in the last generation or two, inscriptions -became valued, and temple sites in Greece and in Egypt, and palaces in -Babylonia, have been turned over, and nothing saved except a stone or a -tablet which was inscribed. At last a few people are beginning to see -that history is far wider than any one of these former aims, and that, -if ever we are to understand the past, every fragment from it must be -studied and made to tell all it can. - -But still there continues the plundering of sites in the interest -of show museums, where display is thought of before knowledge, as -is unhappily the case in many national collections. To secure an -attractive specimen, a tomb will be wrecked, a wall destroyed, a temple -dragged to pieces and its history lost, a cemetery cleared out with no -record of its burials. And when carefully authenticated and recorded -specimens reach museums, their fate is not yet a safe one, especially -in local museums. Stones will be built into walls, and ruined by the -damp bringing salt out; objects are left to drop to pieces from lack of -chemical knowledge, or from the official dread of the responsibility -of doing right instead of allowing wrong. Information is deliberately -destroyed; labels are thrown away or heaped together out of the way -in a glass case where the objects are artistically displayed, with no -more history than if they had come from a dealer. Groups of things, -whose whole value consists in their collocation as they were found, are -scattered up and down a museum as if they had no meaning. Or priceless -antiquities will be left out for years of exposure to weather, as -certain sculptures were in London, until at last they received worthy -safeguarding in defiance of the Treasury. Unhappily far too many of -those who are responsible for keeping the things which have at last -reached a haven, need educating in the elements of their profession. - -[Sidenote: Restoration.] - -This leads to another difficult question, that of restoration. The -horrible destruction which has gone on under that term is now somewhat -recognised, after much, or most, of the original buildings of our -ancestors have disappeared beneath scraping and recutting, so that -we only possess a copy of what has been. And in museums till within -the last few years, statues were so elaborately built up out of what -was--or was not--to be had, that it is often a difficult preliminary -study to set aside the shams. In the Louvre there is the honesty of -stating how much has been added to the original; and the list is -sometimes so long that it is hard to make out what gave the first -idea to the restorer for building up his work. Yet in many cases some -mere supports are needful, and the best museums now make such helps -as distinct as possible from the original. The only full solution of -the matter is the great extension of the use of casts; and the ideal -museum of sculpture would have the originals untouched on one side of a -gallery, and the full restoration of casts of the same things on the -other side. - -[Sidenote: Sacrifices.] - -When we stand face to face with a problem like that, of the Forum at -Rome there rise a multitude of questions which have intricate and -far-reaching solutions. The removal of the latest of the pavements of -the Forum has been bitterly resented. The Sacred Way is gone, and what -is there for sentiment to dwell on! Yet who would reasonably prefer the -Lower Empire to the Twelve Caesars? And then is not the Republic still -more interesting and less known? And then the Kings hold a prerogative -of glamour to every schoolboy; and what was Rome before the Kings? -We see the inevitable result of such a crowd of interests, in the -honeycomb of pits and planks and tunnels and iron girders which now -bewilder the visitor, where formerly he walked down the Sacred Way and -blessed his soul in romantic peace. - -Now this elaborate treatment is most desirable, but is scarcely -attainable unless there is a strong public interest, and a government -willing to carry out proper conservation. Let us turn to a different -set of conditions, as at the temple of Osiris at Abydos. There were -more than a dozen different levels of building; all the lower ones -only of mud brick; the whole of the lower levels under the high Nile, -and certain to be a mud swamp so soon as the Nile rose next summer. To -treat such a place like the Forum would have involved enormous iron -substructure layer under layer, and a wide drying area for hundreds -of yards around, at a cost of certainly five figures. No one would be -likely to give a hundredth of the cost to attain that end. If any -part were left without clearing to the bottom, the next high Nile -would make entire pudding of it. And so the permanent preservation of -such a site was impossible. All that could be done whenever it was -begun, was to dig it in as dry a season as possible, when the water -was at its lowest; to clear it entirely to water level; and to make -plans, levelling, and records, of every wall and every detail, removing -everything that stood in the way of going lower. Henceforward that -temple site, instead of existing in unseen layers of solid earth, -exists only on paper. - -[Sidenote: Responsibility.] - -Now here is a great responsibility. Whatever is not done in such an -excavation can never be done. The site is gone for ever; and who knows -what further interests and new points of research may be thought of -in future, which ought to have received attention. Are we justified -morally in thus destroying a temple site, a cemetery, a town, while we -may feel certain that others would see more in it in future? If a site -would continue untouched, and always equally open to research, it would -be wrong to exhaust such places. But what are the conditions? In Egypt -sites are continually passing under cultivation, and once cultivated -no one would ever know more about them. They are being continually dug -away for earth to spread on the fields, and all that lies in them is -scattered and lost. The stonework is continually the prey of engineers -and lime-burners. The Nile is always rising, so that every few -centuries makes ground inaccessible that was previously out of water. -And the probable movement of invention and appliances will most likely -bring under cultivation in future most of the cemetery sites which are -now bare desert. In the last few years most of the cemetery and temple -sites of Nubia have been blotted out by the new lake for irrigation. -Further, on any site of cemetery, temple, or town which is known to -contain anything, the native will dig by night if he cannot do so by -day, and will leave nothing but a wreck behind. It is sadly unlikely -that there will be anything left to excavate in Egypt a century -hence; all the known sites will be exhausted in twenty years more at -the present rate. A thousand years hence--a trifle in the history of -Egypt--people will look back on these present generations as the golden -days when discoveries came thickly year by year, and when there was -always something to be found. And therefore the best thing that can be -done under all these conditions is to work with the fullest care and -detail in recording, to publish everything fully, and to then trust the -history of Egypt to a few hundred copies of books instead of to solid -walls and hidden cemeteries. The destruction which is needful to attain -knowledge is justified if the fullest knowledge is obtained by it, and -if that is so safely recorded that it will not again be lost. The only -test of right is the procuring the greatest amount of knowledge now and -in future. - -[Sidenote: Rights of the future.] - -Here we are landed in a question on which very different positions -are taken. What are the rights of the future? Why should we limit our -action, or our immediate benefit or interest, for the sake of the -future? If ever this question comes into practical dealings, it does -so in historical work. Any one who is above the immediate consideration -of food and starvation, does consider the future. Our public buildings -are preserved for the use of coming generations; our libraries and -museums are largely for the benefit of those yet unborn. Was not the -future of England the great charge, the inspiring aim of Alfred, of -Edward I, of William III? Do we not even now spend ungrudgingly for the -great future of our colonies? In every direction we unquestioningly -assume that the future has its rights; that distant generations of our -own flesh and blood are far more to us than present millions of other -races; that the knowledge, the possessions, the aims, that we have -inherited are but a trust to be passed on to the nation yet to be. - -And to those who live not only in the present but also in past ages by -insight and association, the transitory stewardship of things becomes -the only view possible. In this generation I possess a gem, a scarab, -a carving: it is almost indestructible, it may be lost for a time but -will reappear again a thousand, five thousand, twenty thousand years -hence in some one else’s hands, and be again a delight and a revelation -of past thought, as it is to-day. We have no right to destroy or -suppress what happens just for the present to be in our power. To do so -is to take the position of a Vandal in the sack of Rome. - -[Sidenote: Rights of the past.] - -The past also has its rights, though statues may be misappropriated -and churches be “restored.” A work that has cost days, weeks, or -years of toil has a right to existence. To murder a man a week before -his time we call a crime; what are we to call the murder of years -of his labour? Or, without touching life, what difference is there -between putting a man in prison for a year so that he cannot work, and -destroying a year’s work when it is done? If anything, the balance is -in favour of preventing rather than destroying his work. Every monument -we see has been lovingly intended, carefully carved, piously erected, -in hopes that it would last. And who are we to defeat all that thought -and labour? Every tablet, every little scarab, is a portion of life -solidified;--so much will, so much labour, so much living reality. When -we look closely into the work we seem almost to watch the hand that did -it; this stone is a day, a week, of the life of some living man. I know -his mind, his feeling, by what he has thought and done on this stone. -I live with him in looking into his work, and admiring, and valuing -it. Shall I then turn on him like a wild beast and kill so much of his -life? Surely if we would draw back from wiping out a few years of the -life of some man with whom we have no sympathies, far more should we -shrink from even hurting the beautiful and cherished result of the life -of a man whose mind we admire and honour in his work. I give my life -to do so much work in it, and if I were to know that every night the -work of the day would be annihilated, I had rather be relieved of the -trouble of living. In all worth, in all realness, the life of past men -preserved to us has rights as veritably as the life of present men. - -The work of the archaeologist is to save lives; to go to some senseless -mound of earth, some hidden cemetery, and thence bring into the -comradeship of man some portions of the lives of this sculptor, of -that artist, of the other scribe; to make their labour familiar to us -as a friend; to resuscitate them again, and make them to live in the -thoughts, the imaginations, the longing, of living men and women; to -place so much of their living personality current side by side with our -own labours and our own thoughts. And has not the past its rights, as -well as the present and the future? - -What care then, what conscience, must be put into the work of -preserving as much as possible of the past lives which those about -us are wishing to know and to share in. The mummy of Rameses or of -Thothmes, the portrait of the builder of the great pyramid (Fig. -65), or of the Pharaoh of the Exodus (Fig. 66) is a permanent mental -possession of all cultivated mankind, as long as our literature shall -last. The knowledge of the growth of the great civilisation of Egypt, -from the days of men clad in goat-skins to the height of its power, has -all been reconstructed in the past ten years, and will be part of the -common stock of our knowledge of man, so long as civilisation continues. - -[Illustration: Fig. 65. The Builder of the Great Pyramid.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 66. The Pharaoh of the Exodus.] - -[Sidenote: Duties.] - -With the responsibilities before us of saving and caring for this past -life of mankind, what must be our ethical view of the rights and duties -of an archaeologist? Conservation must be his first duty, and where -needful even destruction of the less important in order to conserve -the more important. To uncover a monument, and leave it to perish -by exposure or by plundering, to destroy thus what has lasted for -thousands of years and might last for thousands to come, is a crime. -Yet it is the incessant failing of the thoughtless amateur, who -knows nothing of the business; and far too often also the inexcusable -malpractice of those who know better. To wantonly destroy a monument -by cutting pieces out, whether to put them in a museum or to hide -them in a pile of curiosities, is unjustifiable if the whole can be -preserved entire. In the case of only fragments remaining, a selection -often must be chosen; yet even then copies of the whole of the material -should be made and published all together. To unearth whole tombs or -chambers full of objects, whether in an Egyptian cemetery or a Roman -camp, and neglect to record and publish the facts of the position or -groups of the objects, should debar the inefficient explorer from ever -touching such places again. To remove things without ascertaining all -that is possible about their age, meaning, and connections, is as -inexcusable as it is easy. To undertake excavating, and so take the -responsibilities for preserving a multitude of delicate and valuable -things, unless one is prepared to deal with them efficiently, both -mechanically and chemically, is like undertaking a surgical operation -in ignorance of anatomy. To turn over a site without making any plans, -or recording the positions and relations of things, may be plundering, -but it is not archaeology. To remove and preserve only the pretty and -interesting pieces, and leave the rest behind unnoticed, and separated -from what gave them a value and a meaning, proves the spirit of a -dealer and not that of a scholar. To leave a site merely plundered, -without any attempt to work out its history, to see the meaning of the -remains found, or to publish what may serve future students of the -place or the subject, is to throw away the opportunities which have -been snatched from those who might hate used them property. - -To suppose that excavating--one of the affairs which needs the widest -knowledge--can be taken up by persons who are ignorant of most or all -of the technical requirements, is a fatuity which has led, and still -leads, to the most miserable catastrophes. Far better let things lie -a few centuries longer under the ground, if they can be let alone, -than repeat the vandalisms of past ages without the excuse of being a -barbarian. - -[Sidenote: Future of Museums.] - -We must always have regard to what may be the condition of sites and -of knowledge five hundred or five thousand years hence. For if you -will deal with thousands of years you must take thousands of years -into account. If a site is certain to be destroyed by natural causes, -or the cupidity of man, then an imperfect examination and a defective -record of it is better than none. But to ensure the fullest knowledge, -and the most complete preservation of things, in the long run, should -be the real aim. To raid the whole of past ages, and put all that we -think effective into museums, is only to ensure that such things will -perish in course of time. A museum is only a temporary place. There is -not one storehouse in the world that has lasted a couple of thousand -years. Only two or three bronze statues have come down to us from -classical times preserved by each generation. A few pieces of gold work -have been treasured for a little over a thousand years, but only in -North Italy. And the whole of our present active clearance of things, -that have hitherto lasted safe underground for six thousand years or -more, practically ensures that they shall not last one thousand longer. -The gold work will be the first thing to disappear, as it is even now -disappearing every few years from museums into the melting-pot. And it -is a serious question whether we are morally justified in thus ensuring -its destruction by exposure. As a counsel of perfection I should like -to see twenty electrotypes made of every bit of ancient gold and -silver work, and these dispersed over all countries. It might then be -considered whether it would not be a noble act to bury the whole of the -gold where it would cost a national undertaking to recover it, say in a -hundred fathoms of water, and so preserve it for future ages, when only -a few wrecks of the electrotypes would have survived. The future of the -rest of museum treasures cannot so certainly be anticipated. Bronze is -sure to disappear in warfare sooner or later, especially as metals grow -scarcer owing to exhaustion of mines. Ivories will probably vanish, -like most fragile things, by mechanical damage. Pottery and vases will -go the same way as the museum of Kertch, which was bashed to pieces -by a disappointed European soldiery. Stone carving has a promise of -longer life, especially if it is reused in buildings, and so saved from -exposure and wear; for instance, whenever the Baptistry of Pisa may -fall to pieces, a mine of Latin inscriptions will come to light. But, -broadly speaking, there is no likelihood that the majority of things -now in museums will yet be preserved anything like as long as they -have already lasted. The hordes of anarchy and of Asia have never left -Europe alone for more than a few centuries. - -[Sidenote: Publications.] - -It is then to the written record, and the published illustrations, -that the future will have mainly to look. Our books will probably not -last more than a few hundred years; and it will be reprints of the -most valued, and summaries of the others that will be the sources of -knowledge in the future thousands. The wide spread of publications in -different countries, which are never likely to all undergo eclipses -simultaneously, is the best guarantee for the permanence of knowledge. -But by the time the First Dynasty has doubled its age, we cannot -expect, that the greater part of our record of it will still be -known. Certainly the inefficient and inconclusive books will vanish -first; and the more compact and generally used a work is, the longer -are its chances of life. We must always remember therefore that in -archaeological work we are removing what would be as solid proof -to future ages as it is now to us; and we are trusting all future -knowledge of the facts to inflammable paper, and the goodwill of -successive generations, many of whom may have very different interests. -Had any past age of civilisation dug up and removed every trace of the -earlier times, and committed all the results to their literature, we -should not be able to learn anything but some brief summary, nor glean -but a few trifling fragments, which would have lost their meaning and -connection. - -[Sidenote: State Claims.] - -And here we come against another large ethical question of the rights -of the individual against the community, in the claim made by the state -to interfere with property in antiquities, in ways in which it does -not interfere with any other property. From past ages the English law -has claimed for the Crown all treasure accidentally discovered. Such a -law is the best way to ensure that no such discoveries are made known, -and to drive the finder to put all such treasures in the melting pot. -The actual gain to the Crown is ignorably trivial, certainly not an -average of a thousand pounds a year; yet, in order to grab this trifle, -the law drove all such treasures to destruction. At last an improvement -was made by the Crown only demanding specimens needed for the national -collection, and paying intrinsic value for them. Even some old -candlesticks, the proceeds of an XVIIIth century burglary, were claimed -when accidentally found. - -And when the state does not claim, the landlord or tenant makes a -claim, which is just as bad, as such claims lead workmen always to -conceal and sell surreptitiously the antiquities which are continually -found in all working in old towns. The only law which could act for -the full preservation of antiquities would be the grant of the entire -rights to the finder if he proclaims his find, but no rights in what -he does not proclaim. The actual average gains of an average landlord -_per annum_ by discoveries of antiquities are at present incalculably -small, probably not a farthing in the pound on the rental or anything -near that. Hence there would be no perceptible loss by granting finds -to the finder; and everything would be saved and preserved as it was -found. At least a beginning could be made by landlords and public -bodies offering full intrinsic value for any gold and silver found on -their premises; they could not lose by that, and they might gain large -profits in the archaeological value of things. To suppose that (without -great precautions) they can get the whole value of finds by simply -claiming them, is fatuous. - -This same fatuous idea pervades many governments. It is thought that -by simply making a law, digging can be prevented, or antiquities can -be kept in a country. Such laws merely enforce an extensive illicit -system, through which valuable and important things can readily be -removed in defiance of law, whenever they are found. There is not a -country from which any antiquity could not be removed by sufficient -care in smuggling. Every national museum has its underground feeders, -knows how to defeat the laws of other countries, and incessantly grows -in spite of laws. To seize property without paying its real value -is seldom a profitable proceeding in the long run, and that is what -every government tries to do with antiquities. The Italian government -has confiscated a large part of the values of private collections, by -forbidding the exportation of any important picture or statue. And yet -such things can and do leave Italy. The Greek government, as well as -the Turkish, forbid the exportation of any and every kind of antiquity; -yet fine things from both lands continually come over to the West. - -[Sidenote: State Rights.] - -These confiscatory laws, these claims on private property on behalf -of the state, are more or less illogical nibblings on a wide claim -which no state has ventured yet to formulate,--namely, that all -objects of past generations are public property. This means, if -fully carried out, that no person can own any object of antiquity as -private property. No private collections would be possible in such a -condition, all would belong to the state. Of course there is a huge -amount of material which is duplicate, and not needed in a national -collection; but the state claims would be maintained if all collections -must be placed in a public building, (such as a local museum) where -they could be seen. The energy of collectors, the transfer of specimens -from one to another, would not be stopped, only the objects would be -compulsorily visible in a public place. And everything wanted for a -national collection would be transferred. This condition of things is -slowly being reached by the state buying important objects continually, -when they are sold on changing hands. But the logical outcome of the -present laws and present tendency would be this nationalisation of all -antiquities. Whether such a result would be satisfactory at all points -may be doubted; but it is clearly a position to which all changes at -present tend. If fully and honourably carried out by the state paying -the finder full value for all it took, and giving up confiscation of -all sorts, the result would probably be the best that could happen for -archaeology. - -One great result of defining the position thus, would be to prevent any -ancient buildings being destroyed or altered without state consent. If -every structure, say, over five hundred years old, needed three months’ -notice to an inspector before it could be pulled down or dealt with, -there would be a great check on the present changes. Every cathedral -and church, every castle and manor-house, would need special licence -for changes in all parts older than the prescribed limit. A notice of -one week might be required for the destruction of structures as yet not -known, which were unearthed in course of digging. Such a protection of -monuments would not affect vested interests or property values nearly -as much as an ordinary railway bill that passes through Parliament -without a protest; and it seems not too much to hope that such a -protection of all monuments of historic interest might be carried out. -The legal position might take the form of pronouncing all ancient -buildings, stone circles, and earthworks the ultimate property of the -Crown, with the existing owners having full powers as trustees for the -Crown to preserve, use, and enjoy such property, and to sell or devise -such trusteeship in every way as if the property was not beyond the age -limit of private property. Only the right of destruction and alteration -would be reserved. - -A state register of works of art is desired by Professor Ernest -Gardner, who proposes that (1) the ownership of works of ancient art -and sculptures and pictures by great masters should be entered on a -register in charge of a public registrar; (2) the registrar should have -a right to see to the safety of such objects; (3) any fairly qualified -scholar may apply to be entered on a register of students kept by the -registrar; (4) owners of registered works must fix times for exhibition -to students or to the public, or else a registered student must be -allowed to see any work within a reasonable period; (5) the owner, if -absent, must appoint some one to preserve and exhibit such works; (6) -in case of sale of a work to a foreign country, the government shall -have the option of retaining it at the price fixed for the sale. - -[Sidenote: Excavating Laws.] - -The attitude of foreign governments regarding scientific excavating has -not been happy. Too often the prohibitions have been used not in the -interests of archaeology, but for promoting plundering. Because it is -easy to drop on an open excavation, all regular excavations have been -fenced with severe difficulties and costs; while in Greece and Turkey -none of the proceeds have been allowed to the finder. On the other -hand, it is difficult to always drop on a surreptitious native, and the -sympathy of the courts--in Egypt at least--is openly on the side of -the plundering native, who is seldom punished for anything. Hence the -curious situation is that the whole values of the property have been -solely created by the labours and study of the archaeologist; yet he is -almost debarred from using the material which an ignorant peasant may -dig and destroy as he pleases. - -The form of law which is wanted is (1) the punishment of all -destruction or removal of antiquities, by a special court, independent -of local sympathies or favouring of the plunderer; (2) the rigid -requirement of technical knowledge and ability in those who excavate, -with the condition that everything is published promptly, and that -nothing found can be sold or pass except into a public museum; (3) -the right of the government of each country to such objects as are -necessary to the national collection, on reimbursing whatever may have -been given as bakhshish to the finder, and some proportion of the costs -according to the case. - - - - -CHAPTER XIV - -THE FASCINATION OF HISTORY - - -The love of past times, the craving for that which is gone, is one of -the more obscure instincts which appears to be brought forward by the -wider growth of interests of the mind. It takes many forms; it appeals -to the intellect, to the curiosity, to the affections; yet it is really -a single instinct, and one which, from its strength, must spring from a -primal cause. - -The sense of loss touches us at every sunset, and in anticipation -tinges all the afternoon with the sense of lengthening shadows. Even -the things that seem most common, least worthy, when in use, all gain -some being as time passes. Each little thing, that carelessly we value -not at first, grows rich with store of years. As Antony says-- - - You all do know this mantle: I remember - The first time ever Caesar put it on; - ’Twas on a summer’s evening in his tent, - That day he overcame the Nervii. - -Still more do places gain their hold upon us, unheeded at the time. -A store of memories of days spent amid strong associations, that -stirred and built the mind, are the truest riches in all after-life. -We dwell upon those portions of the past, those days at Athens, or -Florence, or in the Forum, as on a treasure; they are a portion of our -life crystallised into the structure of our thoughts--a haven of the -imagination. - -And how much deeper still is the sense of the past when we turn to -friends,--or even closer yet. One whom perhaps we hardly heeded in our -daily life, is dignified at once by the irrevocable. But all this is -merely our personal regret: the direct, selfish, individual interest. - - But the tender grace of a day that is dead - Will never come back to me. - -Let us step from this out into the past beyond our personal touch. See -now a churchyard, tall in grass, with the dial on its stand, which each -generation has passed by--how full of memories of gone years it is, -how the eye clings to its weathered disc and minds that so it was on -the day of Trafalgar or the Boyne; while by its side is the old carved -sarcophagus tomb of some Turkey merchant, silently showing his virtues -to each changing time, and calming the mind with quiet age. We love -such for the sake of the past, which draws us to its bosom to make one -more link in the long chain. - -And pass inside the church, where Tudor and Edwardian, and Norman and -Saxon, have each poured out their souls; in which every stone seems -saturated with their longings; where pleadings and rejoicings seem to -mutely fill the dead air; where the walls have echoed every bride and -every infant and every mourner through all the changing generations; -where _Fæder ure_ has yielded to _pater noster_ before even our -familiar supplications were ever heard. This indeed holds us as if it -were a place where we can actually live with the past selves that have -made us, and be at one with those who would have craved to see us in -the ages beyond them. - -And if past loves and hopes seem thus to give their life to the -lasting walls, how fearful is the breath of terror that clings round -every stone of the Colosseum. One single mangled death there made ten -thousand fiends of men who sat on those benches; and every year had -its thousands of such agonies, through all the centuries. The mass of -horror beyond all thought that dwells in that arena, is only exceeded -by the thousandfold fire of cruelty that has burnt on those seats -around. The place is hell petrified. - -And, within a stone’s throw of that, how the whole past, from which our -present ages have sprung, lives before us in the Forum. The triumphs -where the beauty of Greek art served but to make the clumsy westerner -gape; where the noblest blood of other lands,--Perseus, Caractacus, -Zenobia,--has stood abased; where the barbaric Goth has fiercely joyed -in splendid pillage of its wondrous wealth; where Theodoric and Karl -had each hoped to restore the shattered decay, with the rough material -of their own kin, which needed yet a thousand years of hewing; a space -of greater hopes and dreads, greater successes and failures, than any -other acre that we know. - -And yet, before all this, there passed age after age of men, who built -up civilisations which we just begin to perceive. The golden splendour -of Mykenae, the earlier magnificence of Minoan Knossos, the delicate -wares of still older Crete, all live with the same life as ourselves, -all are precious to us as if we had made them, all make us fellow minds -with those who thought and fashioned and treasured such things in like -manner to ourselves. - -Turn now to our own land, and on a wide western moor stand within a -ring of grey stones, which our own flesh and blood there placed in -faith and trust, for something greater than the cares of daily life; -so far from us in generations, so far from us in thoughts, that we can -hardly grasp the pulse of the same life with them, and feel what they -felt. Yet it draws us like those sounds which were the first music to -man, the sough of the wind in the wood, and the lap of the wave on the -shore, ever the sweetest yet to ourselves. And the grey stones still -touch us and bind our thoughts and our love of all our forefathers to -themselves in elemental memories. - -What underlies all this fascination of the past? What is it that thus -moves men - - In thinking of the days that are no more? - -It is the same great attraction, whether it be a personal memory, or -the being of our forefathers, or a page strong with past life in some -history, or the handling of the drinking bowls of the oldest kings of -the earth as they come from the dust of Egypt. It is but one sense in -varied forms. It is the love of life. - -In primal seas first sprang that love of life,--of preservation, of -continuity of life. Even long before man it led to the moral growth -of self-sacrifice, of affection, of social union. In man it led the -Stoic on to the brotherhood of all men, and the responsibility of -man for man. It has led the modern forward to the brotherhood of all -existing life, the responsibility for the animal as well as the man. -It now leads us on to clinging to the life of our ancestors, their -being, and their natures; and beyond that to the fascination of all -history, as being the continuity of life, the ever-shifting changes of -the one great chain which we see around us at its present stage, and -of which we form part. The man who knows and dwells in history adds a -new dimension to his existence; he no longer lives in the one plane -of present ways and thoughts, he lives in the whole space of life, -past, present, and dimly future. He sees the present narrow line of -existence, momentarily fluctuating, as one stage, like innumerable -other stages that have each been the all-important present to the -short-sighted people of their own day. He values the present as the -most complete age of history for study, as explaining the past. He -values the past as the long continuity that has brought about the -result of the present, in which he happens to breathe. He lives in all -time; the ages are his, all live alike to him; the present is not more -real than the past, any more than the room in which he sits is more -real than the rest of the world. Cleaving to that one stream of life -which branch by branch has flowed through so many channels in all the -ages, and still runs on into the future, he can give account of the -Fascination of History. - - - - -INDEX - - - Ab-nub-mes-uazet-user statuette, 158 - - Abusir lotus capital, 163 - - Abydos, Osireion, chain clearing, _frontispiece_ - - „ temple, black pottery, 166 - - „ „ copper figure, 166 - - „ „ excavation of, 173 - - Account keeping, 35–37 - - Accumulations of town, rate of, 9, 11 - - Accuracy in levelling, 59 - - „ „ observing, 50 - - „ „ recording, 49–50 - - Accusations against workmen, 40 - - Adjustment of stuff in moving, 42 - - „ „ vase-fragments, 70–71 - - Advances of money, 35 - - Adzes, dating of, 14 - - Aegean pottery, 145–170 - - Age of objects in plate-heading, 115 - - „ „ towns, 11 - - Akhenaten (Amenhotep IV), 147, 148, 152, 154, 155 - - Alignment of drawings, 115 - - Amateur digging, 1, 3, 48, 179, 180 - - Amenhotep II, 148 - - „ III, 139, 145, 148, 152, 153–155 - - „ IV (Akhenaten), 147, 148, 152, 154, 155 - - America, possible saving of history by, 134 - - Amphora, Cretan, 166 - - Ancient civilisations, 191–192 - - Angles, calculation of, 57, 58 - - „ of vases measured, 71, 103 - - Antiquities, exportation of, 184 - - „ exposure of, 172 - - „ nationalisation of, 185 - - „ preservation of, 85–104 - - „ sale of, 187 - - „ securing of, 33 - - „ smuggling of, 184 - - „ thrown away, 132 - - Approaches to site of work, 28 - - Arabic, necessity for, 6 - - Archaeological duties, 177–178 - - „ evidence, 136–168 - - „ experience, 3, 4, 14 - - „ responsibilities, 170, 178 - - Archaeology, classical, 2 - - „ conditions of progress, 130 - - „ hindered by present museums, 130 - - „ mistakes in, 139–140 - - „ narrow definition of, 2 - - „ progress depends on space, 133 - - „ systematic, 122–135 - - Architecture, photographing of, 74, 75, 78 - - Arrangement of objects, 79 - - „ „ plates, 114–117 - - „ „ text, 119–120 - - „ „ work, 41–47 - - „ with publishers, 120 - - Athenaeus confirmed, 143 - - Author’s alterations, 120–121 - - Autotypes, 119 - - Awls, 113 - - Azab, wooden floor of, 77 - - - Backgrounds for photography, 79 - - Backing of frescoes, 96–98 - - _Bakhshish_, 33–35, 188 - - „ accounts, 35 - - Banking accounts of men, 35 - - Barrels for soaking stones, 86 - - Bases of vases drawn, 70–71 - - „ „ „ sorted, 103 - - Basket-boys, and picks, 31–32 - - Baskets, 33, 44–45 - - Beads, 14, 15 - - „ pattern of, 52, 95, 96 - - „ position of, 52, 95 - - „ seldom of mixed ages, 150 - - Bead-work, 95 - - Beeswax, 66, 67, 71, 80, 90, 95, 102 - - Bell, 113 - - Benzol, 92 - - „ wax in, 91 - - Black incised ware, 160–162, 163–164, 167 - - „ velvet for backgrounds, 79 - - Blank sheets in spacing drawings, 63 - - Block-tints for vases, 70 - - Blocks returned after use, 121 - - „ zinc, 68 - - Blotting-paper, 89 - - Boats, prehistoric, 167 - - Bone point, 98 - - Bones, cleaning of, 76 - - „ marking, 51 - - „ preserving, 90 - - Bonsor, discoveries in Spain, 159–160 - - Book-post for drawings, 64 - - „ seller, 121 - - Bosnia, black incised ware, 161, 162, 167 - - Boxes, grain of wood in, 110 - - „ making of, 109–111 - - „ nailing of, 110 - - „ nests of, 109, 113 - - „ with bars, 106 - - Box-sextant, 55–56, 113 - - Boys, ages of, 20–21 - - „ chain of, 44, _front._ - - „ collecting, 44 - - „ in work, 24 - - „ throwing, 44 - - „ use of, 32 - - Brace and bits, 113 - - Bracelet of Zer, 80 - - Brass, treatment of, 100 - - Brick, burnt, 10 - - „ mounds, 10 - - „ walls, tracing of, 46–47 - - „ -work, 9 - - Bricks, age of, 47 - - „ colour of, 46 - - „ size of, 47, 52 - - Brims of vases drawn, 70–71 - - „ „ „ sorted, 103 - - British Museum, growth of, 134 - - Bronze, destruction of, 181 - - „ hypocephalus, 76 - - „ statues, preservation of, 180 - - „ treatment of, 100–101 - - „ vases, Idaean cave, 155 - - Brunswick black, marking with, 52 - - Brushes, 91, 98, 112, 113 - - Brushing, 86, 87, 89, 98, 100 - - Bügelkanne, _see False-necked vases_ - - Builder of Great Pyramid, 178 - - Buildings, destruction of, 185–186 - - „ photographing, 75, 78 - - „ planning, 52–55 - - „ restoration of, 172, 185 - - Burials, primary and secondary, 52 - - „ undisturbed, 12 - - Burnt groups, 145–146 - - „ papyri, 95 - - Buttons of VI–VII Dyn., 162 - - Buttresses left in digging, 30 - - - Cairo museum a failure, 131 - - „ rubbish-mounds, 11 - - Calculation of angles, 57 - - Camel-hair brush, 91, 98 - - „ transport, 112 - - Camera, 73–75 - - „ copying-, 81 - - „ direction of, 80 - - „ hand-, 74, 75 - - „ -legs, 81 - - „ pattern of, 73–74 - - „ setting up of, 80 - - „ size of, 74 - - „ -stand, 81 - - Camp requirements, 6 - - Carbolic acid, 89, 101 - - Carbonised papyri, 94 - - Card blackened for small stops, 75 - - „ -board for drawing, 68 - - „ slips, 78 - - „ tube, 74 - - „ with concentric circles, 71 - - Carefulness, means of securing, 34 - - Carrier-boys, 30, 41, 43 - - Carrying, 30, 32 - - Cartonnage, 52 - - Cartridge-paper, 109, 113 - - Cases, grain of wood in, 110 - - „ making of, 109–111 - - „ nailing of, 110 - - „ with bars, 106 - - Casting, 64–66 - - „ backs of frescoes, 97–98 - - Casts of statues, 172–173 - - „ plaster, 64–66 - - „ „ photographing from, 77 - - Celluloid, 71 - - Celtic pottery like pan-grave, 159–160 - - Cementing disintegrated granite, 87 - - „ sculptures in walls, 86, 171 - - Cemetery site, nature of, 11, 12 - - Chain of boys, _frontispiece_, 44 - - Chambers, contents of, 52 - - „ emptying of, 44 - - Charcoal, 47, 80, 90 - - „ dust, 76 - - Chemical knowledge, need of, 85, 171 - - Chromo-lithography, 118 - - China ink, drawing with, 68 - - „ „ marking with, 52, 76 - - Choice of facts in recording, 49 - - „ „ workmen, 21 - - Claims of landlord, 183 - - „ „ State, 183–184 - - Classification of material, 115, 119–120 - - Clay moulds, 65 - - Cleaning of bones, 76 - - „ „ bronzes, 100–101 - - „ „ gold, 98 - - „ „ iron, 102 - - „ „ pottery, 76 - - „ „ silver, 98, 99 - - Clearance at edge, 43 - - „ from bottom, 42 - - „ of sites, 41–43, 174, 181 - - Clues in digging, 5 - - Coffin, 52 - - Coinage, wastage of, 150 - - Coin impressions, 66, 67, 77 - - „ restorations, 149 - - Coins, casting, 77 - - „ cleaning, 99 - - Cold chisel, 112, 113 - - Collectors, 48, 185 - - Collotype, 74, 118 - - Colossi, transport of, 107 - - Colour on slabs, 87 - - „ preservation of, 87–88 - - „ -printing for vases, 70 - - Columns, packing of, 107 - - Commerce, prehistoric, 167 - - Commission on sales, 121 - - Commissioners, utility of, 170 - - Compass, prismatic, 55, 113 - - Compasses, 57 - - Complex forms fade soon, 128 - - Conservation, 5, 130–135 - - Contracts, 121 - - Copper figures, 166 - - „ treatment of, 99 - - Copying graffiti, 72 - - „ inscriptions, 61–63, 72 - - „ walls, 61–63, 72 - - Corner-posts to boxes, 109 - - _Corpus_ of pottery, 124 - - „ system, 123–126 - - Cost of publication of drawings, 68, 117 - - „ „ „ „ photographs, 118 - - „ „ „ „ text, 120 - - Cotton, 109 - - „ wool, 66, 97, 107, 109 - - „ „ not with papyri, 94 - - Cretan connections, XVIII Dyn., 155 - - „ „ XII „ , 158 - - „ „ VI „ , 162 - - „ „ IV „ , 163 - - „ „ I „ , 166 - - Cross-bars in packing, 106 - - „ partitions in packing, 111 - - Crowbars, 33, 112 - - Crown property, 183, 186 - - Crystal, inscriptions on, 76 - - Cultivation of sites, 174 - - Curators of museums, 49, 172 - - Cutting down from edge of work, 42 - - Cutting-out knives, dating of, 15 - - Cylinders, impressions of, 66, 67 - - - Damping of papyri, 93 - - Daphnae, 10, 13, 143–144 - - Dark room, 83 - - Dated objects, 4, 14–15, 52 - - Dating of adzes, 14 - - „ „ beads, 14 - - „ „ cutting-out knives, 15 - - „ „ mounds, 17 - - „ „ objects in general, 4, 14–17 - - Day and piece work combined, 30, 32 - - „ -pay, 24, 27–31 - - Dealers in antiquities, 3, 25, 38–39, 48 - - Decomposition of glazes, 88 - - Decoration in bead-work, 95 - - Defeneh, 10, 13, 143–144 - - Den, tomb of, 44 - - Dentist’s wax, 67 - - Deposits, foundation, 80 - - Desert views, 1 - - Destruction by wet-squeezing, 61 - - „ of antiquities, 170–171, 172 - - „ „ buildings, 10, 185–186 - - „ „ evidence, 48 - - „ „ information, 171 - - „ „ monuments, 179 - - „ „ sculptures, 86, 172 - - „ „ site, 174 - - Detail, verification of, 50 - - Developers, 82–83 - - „ proportions in, 82 - - Developing, 82–84 - - Development of tools, 14 - - Diagonal bars for box-lids, 106 - - „ driving of nails, 110, 111 - - „ lighting, 77 - - „ mirror in photographing, 75 - - Digging by amateurs, 1, 3, 48, 179, 180 - - „ purpose of, 1 - - „ regularity of, 28 - - Diktaean copper figures, 166 - - Dilettante work, 1, 3, 48 - - Diorite bowl, Crete, 163 - - „ statue, Crete, 158 - - Diospolis Parva, pottery from, 160 - - Direction of lighting, 77 - - Discoveries, age of, 175 - - „ casual, 170 - - Discrimination of sites, 9 - - „ „ style, 14, 17–18 - - „ „ walls, 46–47 - - Disintegration of granite, 87 - - „ „ stone by salt, 86 - - Disobedience to orders, 35 - - Distance from lens, 80 - - Distinguishing brick-walls, 46–47 - - Distortion in photography, 74 - - Divided rod, 54–55, 113 - - Doctoring of natives, 38 - - „ „ workmen, 37–38 - - Door-sills, 52 - - „ ways, 52 - - Double-plates, 116 - - Drab pottery at Mykenae, 148 - - Draughtsman wanted for _corpus_, 126 - - Drawing boards, 113 - - „ by lamplight, 62 - - „ facsimile, 5, 68 - - „ from squeezes, 62–63 - - „ interpretation in, 68 - - „ plan, 5, 68 - - „ thickness of lines in, 69, 115 - - „ vases from fragments, 70–71 - - Drawings, cutting up, 63 - - „ packing of, 63–64 - - „ posting of, 64 - - „ reduction of, 69 - - „ reproduction of, 68, 115 - - „ returned after use, 121 - - „ scales of, 69 - - Dressing of graves, 76–77 - - „ „ objects, 76 - - Driving of nails, 110, 111 - - Drop-shutter view, 75 - - Dry squeezes, 61–63 - - - Ebony stain, 68 - - „ statuette, 78 - - Editions, varieties of, 119 - - Egypt and Europe, 141–168 - _see Europe_ - - Electro-types, 181 - - Electrum, 98 - - El Hibeh, 9 - - Engineers, wrecking by, 170, 174 - - Engraving, Swan electric, 119 - - Enkomi, tombs at, 152, 154, 155, 156 - - Enlarged photographs, 74, 75, 80, 81 - - Ether, 92 - - Ethics of archaeology, 169–188 - - Europe and Egypt, - XXVI Dyn., 142–144 - XVIII „ , 144–156 - XII „ , 156–161 - VI „ , 162, 167 - IV „ , 163, 165, 167 - I „ , 164–166, 167 - - prehistoric, 167–168 - - Evidence, by collocation, 139, 150 - - „ by scarabs and coins, 149 - - „ failures of, 139–140 - - „ from burnt groups, 145–146 - - „ „ copied forms, 163 - - „ „ houses, 148 - - „ „ paintings, 144–145 - - „ „ rubbish mounds, 147, 156–157 - - „ „ tombs, 150–153 - - „ in a single object, 138 - - „ nature of, 136–140 - - Excavation, hindrance to, 187 - - „ purpose of, 1 - - „ recording results of, 124 - - Excavator, qualifications of, 1–7, 19, 36, 85 - - „ responsibilities of, 1, 8, 174 - - Exhaustion, evidence by, 137, 139 - - „ of metals, 181 - - „ „ sites, 174–175 - - Exodus, Pharaoh of, 178 - - Experience, archaeological, 3–4 - - Exposure in photography, 75, 78, 79, 82 - - „ of sites, 178 - - Extortion by overseers, 25 - - Extra plates for students, 119 - - - Faces, flaking of, 87 - - „ of limestone, 87, 88 - - Facts, stating of, 50 - - False-necked vases, 145, 146, 153–154 - - „ „ „ variation with age, 153–154 - - Families of workmen, 39 - - Fascination of history, 189–193 - - Files, 113 - - Filling, 13, 47, 52 - - „ and carrying, 32 - - Films, curling of, 83 - - „ packing of, 83–84 - - „ rapidity of, 75 - - Finest lines in drawing, 69 - - Finger-work in excavating, 6–7 - - Flake-white, use of, 77 - - Flaking of faces, 87 - - Flint knife obtained whole, 34–35 - - Flooring, wooden, 76, 77 - - Focus, 74–75, 80, 81 - - Foil, gold, 67–68 - - „ tin, 67 - - Foot-notes, 120 - - Foreigners’ use of plates, 116 - - Forms of pottery, 16–17 - - „ „ „ duration of, 128–129 - - Fort-mounds, Defeneh, 10 - - Forum, excavation of, 173 - - „ interest of, 191 - - „ pottery at, 126 - - Foundation deposit, 80 - - Fragments, means of securing, 34 - - „ method of drawing, 70–71 - - „ sorting and joining, 102–104 - - Frame for drawing vase-fragments, 70–71 - - „ „ supporting fresco, 96–97 - - „ of strings for scale-drawing, 72 - - „ with backing of muslin, 65 - - Free-swinging lens, 80 - - French chalk, 65 - - Frescoes, 52, 88, 96–97 - - Fuller’s earth, 92 - - Furniture, successive ages of, 127 - - Future ages, rights of, 175–176 - - „ condition of museums, 133 - - „ destruction of museums, 180–182 - - - Gang, proportions of, 44 - - Gangs of workmen, 26, 27, 32 - - Gauging of stuff to be removed, 42 - - Gelatine for extracting salt, 89–90, 92 - - Gems, photographing, 77 - - Girls as workers, 23, 24, 75 - - Gizeh, tomb of Sem-nefer, 78 - - Glass background, 79 - - „ waxed for papyri, 94, 95 - - Glaze, decomposition of, 88 - - Glycerine, 91 - - Glycin, 83 - - Gold collar from Enkomi, 154 - - „ foil, 67–68, 98 - - „ pin, Cypriote, 155 - - „ preservation of, 180–181 - - „ treatment of, 98 - - „ value offered for, 184 - - Governments, attitude of, 183, 187 - - Graeco-Egyptian vases, 144 - - Graffiti, copying, 72 - - Grave, age of, by sequence-dates, 129 - - „ dressing of, 76–77 - - Greece, _see Europe_ - - „ conditions of work in, 26, 32, 33 - - Greek pottery, 17 - - „ workmen, 26–27 - - Greeks in Egypt, 142–144, 146 - - Grouping in museums, 132 - - „ of objects as evidence, 139 - - Groups in museums, 172 - - „ numbering of, 51 - - „ of ivories, 91 - - „ of objects, 48–49, 51, 69, 115, 172, 179 - - „ photographing of, 80, 81 - - Guards to plates, 116, 117 - - Gum, contraction of, 93 - - Gurob, 145, 148, 151, 152, 153, 156 - - Guttapercha moulds, 66 - - - Haematite paint, 166 - - Hammer dressing, 105 - - „ light, 99 - - „ sledge, 112 - - Headings of plates, 115 - - Head-lines of text, 120 - - Head-shawls, seizure of, 39 - - _Helbeh_, 109 - - Heliogravure, 119 - - Hinges, 113 - - History, fascination of, 189–193 - - „ importance of, 4–5, 171, 193 - - „ knowledge of, 4–5 - - Hibeh, El, 9 - - Hissarlik, black incised ware, 161, 167 - - Holes, excavated, 43 - - „ in bricks, 47 - - Hollow feet to vases, 166 - - Hollows in ground, 11, 12, 13, 44 - - Hollows in inscriptions, 76 - - „ „ packing, 108 - - Hone-stone, 113 - - Honesty in workmen, 22, 34, 37 - - Horemheb, 147 - - Horizontal position, photographing, 80 - - Huts, mud, of excavators, 6 - - Hypocephalus, bronze, 76 - - - Ialysos, tomb at, 152 - - Idaean cave, bronze vases, 155 - - „ „ carved dish, 155 - - Idleness, remedies for, 21, 28 - - Illness among workmen, 31, 37–38 - - Impressions of cylinders, 66 - - Indestructibility of small antiquities, 176 - - Index to books, 120 - - India-rubber for dry-squeezing, 63 - - Indications after rain, 13 - - „ of nature of site, 12, 13 - - Indices of types required, 124 - - Infectious illness, 38 - - Inking in of drawings, 61, 63, 68 - - „ „ „ squeezes, 61 - - Inks for drawing, 52, 68 - - Ink-writing copied, 72 - - „ „ photographed, 79 - - Inscriptions, columns and lines, 72 - - „ copying, 60–63, 72 - - „ „ before removal, 53 - - „ made legible, 76 - - „ on stone, 76 - - „ sanded, 76 - - Insight in excavating, 4–6 - - Inspectorship of antiquities, 185 - - Instantaneous shutter, 75 - - Instruments, use of, 54–55 - - Inventory-sheets for small objects, 69–70 - - Iron, treatment of, 102 - - Ironing textiles, 89 - - Irregularities in plates, 115 - - Israel stele, 62 - - Ivory, destruction of, 181 - - „ preservation of, 90–92 - - „ tablet of Zer, 76 - - - Jaw, removal for measurement, 53 - - Jelly for extracting salt, 89–90 - - Jewellers’ tag-labels, 52, 113 - - Joining fragments, 102–104 - - „ sheets of drawings, 63 - - Jointing of brickwork, 46, 76 - - „ „ flooring, 76 - - - Kahun, black incised pottery, 160 - - „ burials at, 151 - - „ rubbish mound at, 156–158 - - „ town site turned over, 41 - - Kamares pottery, 158–159 - - Kefti bring vases, 144 - - Key-plans, 53 - - Khataaneh, black incised ware, 160 - - Khufu, portrait of, 178 - - Khyan vase lid, 159 - - Kitchen-paper, 109, 113 - - Knife, cutting-out, development of, 15 - - „ dinner-, uses of, 46–47, 94 - - „ pen, 65, 93 - - Knossos, carving, 163 - - „ Egyptian figure from, 158 - - „ pottery, 158, 166 - - „ vase lid of Khyan, 159 - - „ vases from, 158, 163 - - Knowledge in recording, 49 - - „ requisite for excavating, 187 - - „ systematic, 123 - - Koptos, 151 - - - Labelling objects, 52, 112 - - Labels in museums, 112, 171 - - „ „ packing, 112 - - Labourers, control of, 5, 7, 22–23 - - „ qualities of, 21 - - „ selection of, 20 - - „ training of, 5, 21–22 - - Lachish, pottery at, 17 - - Lamp, Cretan, 163 - - Languages, knowledge of, required, 5–6 - - Lantern-slides, 74, 81 - - Laws, present, concerning archaeology, 182–184 - - „ requisite, concerning archaeology, 185–188 - - Laying out for photographing, 80 - - Lead, treatment of, 102 - - Legal evidences, 136–138 - - „ proof accepted, 140–141 - - Legal uncertainties, 140–141 - - Length of bricks, 47 - - „ „ ropes, 46 - - Lens, distance from, 80 - - „ free-swinging, 76 - - „ wide-angle, 74 - - Lettering of plates, 116 - - Letters used for distinguishing sites, 51 - - Levelling-mirror, 58–59, 113 - - Levels of buildings, 173 - - „ „ pottery for dating, 144 - - „ „ walls, 52 - - Libyan influence, 159 - - Lids of boxes, 110 - - Lifting in removing, 42, 44, 45 - - Lighting by reflection, 78 - - „ in photography, 77–79 - - „ of museums, 131–132 - - Lime-burners, destruction by, 10, 174 - - Linen, glued, 94 - - Lines, thickness of, in drawing, 69 - - Liparite bowl, Crete, 163 - - List of plates, 116, 120 - - Lithography, chromo-, 118 - - „ photo-, 55, 68–70, 117 - - Locals according to villages, 31 - - „ for carrying, 30–38 - - Locks, 113 - - Logarithms, 57 - - Lotus capital, 163 - - - Magnifier, use in work, 47 - - Maket tomb, 151–152, 156 - - Manuscript, readiness for printing, 120 - - Margins to plates, 116, 117 - - Market money, 35–36 - - Marking of bones, 51 - - „ „ objects, 51–52, 112 - - Material facts, evidence of, 137, 138 - - Materials, presentment of, 50–51 - - „ properties of, 85 - - Measurement, accuracy of, 55 - - „ in planning, 53–55 - - „ in photography, 80 - - „ of vase-fragments, 71 - - „ „ walls, 54 - - „ „ work, 28, 30 - - Mechanical contrivances, 33, 43, 71, 72 - - Medicines, 38 - - Mediterranean civilisation, 141–168 - - Medum tombs, 62–63 - - Memory, in excavating, 18–19 - - Mer-en-ptah, portrait of, 178 - - Metals, treatment of, 98–102 - - Method of plotting 3-point survey, 56 - - Metre rod, 54–55, 113 - - Mill-stones, Roman, 10 - - Mirror, 78, 95 - - „ diagonal, 75 - - „ levelling, 58–59, 113 - - Mistakes in naming objects, 3–4 - - „ „ publication, 117 - - Misuse of ropes, 45–46 - - Mixture of objects of various ages, 150 - - Monkey, violet glazed, 148 - - Montfaucon, 123 - - Moulds for casting, 60, 65–68 - - Mounds of fort, Defeneh, 10 - - „ „ town, 10, 11 - - „ position of, 42 - - „ throwing on, 41 - - Mounting papyri, 94 - - Moving of earth, 30, 43 - - Mud-brick mounds, 10 - - „ „ sun-dried, 9 - - „ „ walls, tracing of, 46 - - Museums, buildings unsuitable, 130–131 - - „ curators of, 49, 172 - - „ future of, 180–182 - - „ grouping in, 132–133 - - „ groups of objects in, 172 - - „ growth of, 184 - - „ lighting of, 131 - - „ methods in, 86, 95, 101 - - „ plundering for, 171 - - „ present, hinder archaeology, 130 - - „ preservation in, 180–182 - - „ requirements of, 131–135 - - „ sculptures in, 86, 172–173 - - „ space needed in, 132–135 - - „ unpacking in, 112 - - „ use of, 176 - - Muslin, 65 - - Mykenae, objects from, 140, 148, 152, 156 - - Mykenaean period, 127, 153 - - - Nails, 113 - - „ diagonal driving of, 110, 111 - - „ use of, 99 - - Naqada, dressing of tomb, 77 - - National Repository needed, 133–135 - - Nationalisation of antiquities, 185 - - Native digging, 175, 187 - - Naukratis, 142–144 - - Nebireh, 142 - - Negatives, 82–84, 118 - - Negress, ebony, 78 - - Nekheb, goddess, 64 - - Neolithic vase at Knossos, 166 - - Net process, 118 - - Nile boats, 112 - - „ rise of, 174 - - Nitric acid, 92 - - Notation of successive ages, 127 - - „ „ time in work, 29 - - Note-taking in excavations, 52 - - Nubian shore, submersion of, 170, 175 - - Numbering of groups, 51 - - „ „ objects on plates, 115 - - „ „ plates, 117 - - „ „ sheets of drawings, 63–64 - - Numbers, printed, 70 - - „ scratched on, 52 - - - Obelisks at Tanis, 9 - - Objects, groups of, 48–49, 51, 69, 115, 172, 179 - - „ inventory of, 69 - - „ numbering of, 51 - - „ outlining of, 69–70 - - „ position of, 50, 52, 179 - - „ preparing, 76 - - „ scale of drawing, 69 - - Oblique lighting, 77 - - Observation, 9 - - Oiling of moulds, 61, 66 - - Organization of work, 5 - - „ „ workmen, 5, 24, 31 - - Order, historical, in plates, 115 - - Outlining of small objects, 69–70 - - Overseer or _reis_, 24–26 - - Overlapping images, 56 - - Overs, 121 - - - Packer, 111 - - Packing frescoes, 97 - - „ glass, 108 - - „ materials, 109 - - „ pottery, 108–109 - - „ stones, 105–108 - - Pads in packing, 106, 107 - - Page-references to plates, 116, 120 - - Paint-brushes, 113 - - „ red, in cups, 166 - - Paintings on tombs as evidence, 144–145 - - Palestinian pottery, 17 - - Pan-graves, 159–160 - - Paper bags, 113 - - „ for drawing, 68, 113 - - „ „ packing, 109, 113 - - „ „ printing, 118 - - „ „ squeezing, 60, 113 - - „ moulds, 60–61 - - „ squeezes, 60–61, 64 - - Papyri, photographing of, 79 - - „ treatment of, 93–95 - - Paraffin wax, 87, 89, 90, 91, 96, 102, 112 - - Parcel-post boxes, 109, 113 - - „ „ for drawings, 64 - - Partitions in boxes, 111 - - Passages, underground, 55 - - Past quickly vanishing, 130 - - „ love of, 189–193 - - „ rights of, 176–178 - - Pasting of papyri, 93, 94 - - Patterns of gold collar, 154–155 - - Payment by results, 33 - - „ deductions for locals, 31 - - „ proportions in, 31–32 - - „ rate of, 29 - - „ weekly, 35 - - Pencil-cutting for outlining, 69–70 - - Pendulum-mirror, 58 - - Periods, of bronze and stone, 127 - - „ successive, 127–130 - - Pharaoh of Exodus, 178 - - Philae, submersion of, 170 - - Philistine, 64 - - Photographic apparatus, 73 - - „ developers, 82–83 - - „ developing, 82–84 - - „ drying, 83 - - „ enlarging, 74, 80, 81 - - „ films, 75 - - „ reflectors, 78 - - „ register of objects, 134 - - „ washing, 83 - - Photographing and drawing, 73 - - „ of buildings, 73 - - „ „ excavations, 73 - - „ „ papyri, 79 - - „ „ views, 74, 81 - - „ „ wall-scenes, 81 - - Photography, 73–84 - - „ backgrounds in, 79 - - „ dark room for, 83 - - „ diagonal mirror in, 75 - - „ drop-shutter in, 75 - - „ lighting in, 77 - - „ scale in, 80–81 - - „ shadows in, 79 - - „ skew-back, 75 - - „ stereographic, 81–82 - - Photo-lithography, 117 - - „ „ colours reversed in, 70 - - „ „ for drawings, 68 - - „ „ „ plans, 55 - - „ „ reduction for, 69 - - Physics, 85 - - Pickling of bronzes, 100 - - Picks and baskets, 31–33 - - Piece and day work combined, 30, 32 - - Piece pay, 27 - - „ work, 24, 29–31 - - Pillars left in digging, 30 - - Pincers, 113 - - Pins, 83, 91 - - Pit, excavation of, 42, 45, 52 - - Placing of stuff removed, 42 - - Plan, 33 - - „ accuracy of, 55 - - „ drawing, 5, 53 - - „ measurement of, 53–55 - - „ of chambers, 44, 52, 53 - - „ „ towns, 52, 53 - - Plane, 65 - - „ -table, 55 - - Platinotypes, 119 - - Plaster, casts, 61, 64–66 - - „ coats of, 87, 97 - - „ handling of, 64 - - Plates, book, 114–119 - - „ „ double, 116 - - „ „ loose, 115–116 - - „ „ spoilt, 121 - - „ magazine for, 74 - - „ photographing from, 77 - - „ rapidity of, 75 - - „ size of image, 81 - - Pliers, 113 - - Plotting, 55–59 - - „ vase dimensions, 71 - - Plunderers, 12, 48 - - Plundering of sites, 11, 171, 178–179 - - Points of support in packing, 105–106 - - Pompeii, _corpus_ of pottery needed, 125 - - Position of objects, 50, 52, 53 - - „ in photographing, 78 - - Positives, 118 - - Postage of drawings, 64 - - Potsherds, 10, 12 - - Pottery, Aegean, 145–170 - - „ black incised, 160–162, 163–164, 167 - - „ chips, 47 - - „ _corpus_, 124–126 - - „ destruction of, 181 - - „ duration of forms, 128 - - „ Greek, 142, 147, 148 - - „ of prehistoric age, 17, 167 - - „ „ I Dyn., 164 - - „ „ XII „ , 157, 159 - - „ „ XVIII „ , 148, 153–154 - - „ packing of, 108–109 - - „ painted, from Kahun, 157–158 - - „ preservation of, 88–89 - - „ salt in, 88–89 - - „ scale for drawing, 69 - - „ typical forms, 16 - - „ value for dating, 15–17, 128–129 - - Praesos beads of XII Dyn., 158 - - Prehistoric ages, 167–168 - - „ camp site, 13 - - „ cemetery site, 11 - - „ sequences, 129 - - „ shipping, 167 - - „ tomb dressed, 77 - - Preparing objects for photographing, 76 - - Presentment of material, 50–51 - - Preservation in museums, 180–181 - - „ of antiquities, 85–104, 176–188 - - „ „ bones, 90 - - „ „ colour, 87–88 - - „ „ gold-work, 181 - - „ „ information, 5, 48 - - „ „ ivories, 90–92 - - „ „ papyri, 92–95 - - „ „ pottery, 88–89 - - „ „ sarcophagi, 87, 90 - - „ „ stone, 86–87, 181 - - „ „ stucco, 87–88, 90 - - „ „ wood, 89–91 - - Princesses in fresco, 88 - - Printed numbers for plates, 70 - - Printer’s agreement, 120–121 - - „ errors, 120 - - Printing, colour-, for vases, 70 - - Prismatic compass, 55, 113 - - Probability, evidence from, 138, 139 - - Processes for plates, 117–119 - - Prohibition of wet squeezing, 62 - - Proof, nature of, 136 - - Properties of materials, 85 - - Proportions in mixing developers, 82 - - Protractor, 57 - - Pseud-amphorae, _see False-necked vases_ - - Publication, 114–121 - - „ detailed, 175 - - „ mistakes in, 117 - - „ necessity of, 182 - - „ past methods of, 114 - - „ permanence of, 182 - - Publishers, agreements with, 120 - - Pyramid, great, Builder of, 178 - - - Railway, light, 43 - - Ramessu II, 146, 152, 153, 154, 155 - - „ III, 145, 154, 155 - - „ VI, 153, 154 - - Rate of payment, 29–30 - - Recommendations of workmen, 40 - - Reconstruction of stone vases, 102–104 - - Record by _corpus_ system, 125 - - „ importance of, 48, 175 - - „ in piecework, 29 - - „ publication of, 114 - - Recrystallisation of salt, 86 - - Red paint, 166 - - Reference-numbers on plates, 115 - - „ to plates, 115–116 - - „ to text, 119–120 - - Reflections in lighting, 78 - - Reflectors, 78 - - Register of sheets, 63–64 - - „ „ works of art, 186–187 - - _Reis_ or overseer, 24–26 - - Rekhmara, tomb of, 144, 155 - - Relief-process, 118 - - Reliefs, copying of, 60 - - Repository needed, 133–135 - - Res, statuette of, 152 - - Responsibilities, in excavating, 1, 8, 174–175 - - „ of archaeologists, 170, 182 - - Restorations, 172, 176 - - „ of scarabs, 149 - - „ of stone vases, 70–71, 102–104 - - Results, presentment of, 50–51 - - Rethreading of beads, 96 - - Re-use of tombs, 150 - - Rights of the future, 175 - - „ „ „ past, 176–178 - - Rise of Nile, 174 - - Rolls of drawings by post, 64, 68 - - „ „ papyri, 92–94 - - Ropes, 33, 45, 112 - - „ length of, 46 - - „ preservation of, 45–46 - - Rotted bead-work, 95 - - „ ivory, 91–92 - - „ papyrus, 93 - - „ silver, 98 - - „ wood, 90–91 - - Royalties on books, 120 - - Rubbish-mounds, 11 - - Rust in bronze, 101 - - „ „ iron, 102 - - - Sacking for packing, 107 - - Salt in metals, 100, 102 - - „ „ pottery, 88–89 - - „ „ stones, 86 - - „ „ textiles, 89 - - „ „ wood, 89 - - Sand, throwing, 75 - - Sanding of tender stones, 87 - - „ „ weathered stones, 71, 76 - - Sarcophagi at Abydos, 43 - - „ „ Zuweleyn, 10 - - „ preservation of, 87, 90 - - Sauce-pan, cast-iron, 90 - - Saw-files, 112 - - Sawing, 105 - - Saws, 105, 112, 113 - - Scale-drawing, frame for, 72 - - „ mentioned on plate-heading, 115 - - „ of drawing for plates, 69, 115 - - „ „ „ „ tools, 69 - - „ „ „ „ vases, 69 - - „ „ payment, 29 - - „ „ plotting, 55 - - Scaling of bronze, 101 - - „ „ copper, 99 - - Scarabs, few posthumous, 149 - - „ restorations of, 149 - - „ seldom long in use, 150 - - Screw-driver, 113 - - Screws, 113 - - Sculpture, casts of, 172 - - „ cemented in walls, 86 - - „ lighting of, 131–132 - - „ museum of, 172 - - Sealing-wax moulds, 66–67 - - Search for fragments, 34–35, 102–104 - - Section-lines for stone vases, 70 - - Selection of facts in recording, 49 - - Separation of objects in museums, 49 - - Sequence dates, 129 - - Sequences in a mansion, 127 - - Serials published, 117 - - Series of forms of stone vases, 102 - - Sety II, 146, 153, 155 - - Sextant, box-, 55–56, 113 - - Shade-lines in drawing, 69 - - Sheet of card ruled, 72 - - Sheets of inventories, 69–70 - - Shifting of stuff, 42 - - Shutter, drop-, 75 - - Sieve, native, 112 - - „ wire, 112 - - Sifting earth, 35 - - Sighting-lines, 54 - - Signals for work, 28 - - „ survey, 56–57 - - Silicate solution, 91 - - Silver coins, 99 - - „ treatment of, 98–99 - - Site of cemetery, 11–12 - - „ „ temple, 9–10 - - „ „ town, 10–11 - - Size of bricks, 47, 52 - - „ „ sheets for reduction, 70 - - Skeletons, marking of, 51 - - „ preservation of, 53, 90 - - Skew-back camera, 75 - - Skull, removal for measurement, 52 - - Slate backing to frescoes, 97 - - Sliding of earth, 42 - - Slopes of rubbish-mounds, 11 - - Smuggling of antiquities, 184 - - Sneferu, black incised ware, 163 - - Soaking of bronzes, 101 - - „ „ iron, 102 - - „ „ lead, 102 - - „ „ pottery, 88 - - „ „ stones, 86 - - „ „ textiles, 89 - - Softening in packing, 106, 108–109 - - Sorting fragments, 102–104 - - Spain, pottery from, 159–160, 167 - - Speculators, destruction by, 170 - - Spies, 38–39 - - Spoke-brush, use of, 60–61, 113 - - „ shave, 113 - - Square, 113 - - Squareness on plates, 115 - - Squares of plans, 53 - - Squeezes, dry, 61–63 - - „ wet, 60–61 - - Stain, ebony, 68 - - State claims, 182–184 - - „ register of works of art, 186–187 - - „ rights, 184–187 - - Stations, surveying, 57–58 - - Statistical sorting of pottery, 128 - - Statuary, casts of, 172 - - „ lighting of, 131–132 - - „ preservation of, 180 - - „ restoration of, 172 - - Statuette, ebony, 78 - - Stirrup vases, 145, 146, 154 - - „ „ variation with age, 153–154 - - Stone chips, 9, 13 - - „ of buildings, 76 - - „ vases, block-tints for, 70 - - „ „ drawing from fragments, 71 - - „ „ sorting fragments, 102–104 - - - Stones, large, 30 - - „ moving of, 27 - - „ salt in, 86 - - „ scale of drawing, 69 - - Stops in manuscripts, 120 - - „ „ photographing, 74–75 - - Storing of antiquities, 6 - - „ „ ropes, 46 - - Straw for packing, 108, 109, 112 - - Strings of beads, 95–96 - - Stucco, coloured, 88 - - „ facing, 87 - - „ on bricks, 96 - - „ on walls, 47 - - „ on wood, 96 - - Students’ plates, 119 - - Style, discrimination of, 14, 17–18 - - Successive ages, classed, 126 - - Super-heated wax for preserving, 90 - - Superimposed buildings, 41–42 - - Support, points of, in packing, 105–106 - - Survey, three-point, 56 - - Surveying, 5, 53–59 - - „ of walls, 52 - - Survival of museums, 180–181 - - „ „ things in use, 128, 150 - - Systematic archaeology, 122–135 - - „ work in excavating, 2 - - Systematizers needed, 123 - - - Tables, printing of, 120 - - Tablet, ivory, 76 - - Tahutmes II, 151 - - „ III, 151, 152, 153 - - Tally for accounts, 37–38 - - Tanis, with obelisks, 9 - - „ workers at, 20 - - Tape-measure, 55, 113 - - „ steel-, 55 - - Tapioca-water, 88 - - Telescope used in work, 28 - - Tell el Amarna, frescoes at, 88 - - „ „ „ vases at, 147, 148, 155, 156 - - „ „ Yehudiyeh, cemetery mounds, 43 - - Temple, causes of ruin, 10 - - „ evidence of, 47 - - „ site, clearance of, 41–47 - - „ „ nature of, 9–10 - - Tenting in desert, 6 - - Textiles, 89 - - Theodolite, 55 - - Thickness of lines in drawing, 69 - - Threads, 65, 90, 92, 95 - - Three-colour photography, 119 - - Three-point survey, 56 - - Throwing, 30, 41 - - „ sand, 75 - - Thyi, Queen, 148, 152 - - _Tibn_, 109 - - Tilting in photography, 80 - - Tin-foil moulds, 67 - - „ plate for reflectors, 78–79 - - „ „ „ sawing, 105 - - „ „ „ small stops, 75 - - „ pots, 108, 111 - - „ saucepans, 90 - - Tints, block, for vases, 70 - - Tomb groups, 48–49, 51 - - „ „ scattered, 49 - - „ of Sem-nefer, 78 - - „ -robbers, 45 - - Tombs, evidence from, 150–153 - - „ mixture of contents, 150 - - „ numbering of, 51 - - „ position of, 52 - - „ proportion of important, 12 - - „ reuse of, 150 - - „ unplundered, 12 - - „ wrecking of, 171 - - Tools necessary to work, 33, 112–113 - - „ provision of, 33 - - Tooth-brush, uses for, 67, 112 - - Topography, 33 - - Town, planning of, 52 - - „ site, clearance of, 41, 44 - - „ „ nature of, 10 - - „ „ rate of accumulation, 10–11 - - „ „ turned over, 41 - - Tracing out walls, 13, 41, 46–47 - - Transport of antiquities, 85, 97, 107–108, 112 - - Tray with poles, 107 - - „ wooden, 95 - - Treasure trove, 183 - - Trenching ground, 41, 43 - - Trial-pits, 41 - - Troy, black incised ware, 161, 167 - - Trucks, 43 - - Turning back, 41 - - „ over, 41, 43 - - Tutankhamen, 145, 153, 154 - - - Uncertainties, legal, 140–141 - - Underground passages, 55 - - Undisturbed tombs, 12 - - Uniformity of scale, 115 - - Unpacker, 111–112 - - Unpacking of boxes, 111–112 - - Unplundered tombs, 12 - - Unpunctuality, remedies for, 31 - - Unrolling of papyri, 93–94 - - Unsanded stones, 71, 76 - - Usertesen II, 44, 157 - - - Valuables, finding of, 27 - - Variation of vases with age, 153–154 - - Vases, block tints for, 70 - - „ drawn from fragments, 70–71 - - „ measurement of angles, 71 - - „ scale of drawing, 69 - - Vertical lighting, 77 - - „ mirror level, 58–59, 113 - - „ position of camera, 80 - - - Wages in Egypt, 29 - - „ „ England, 27 - - „ „ Greece, 27 - - Wall-scenes, photographing of, 81 - - Walls, copying, 61–63, 72 - - „ face of, 47 - - „ surveying of, 52 - - „ thickness of, 52 - - „ tracing of, 13, 41, 46–47 - - „ visible after rain, 13 - - Warrior in alabaster, 144 - - Washing of negatives, 83 - - „ out salt, 86, 88, 89, 100 - - Wastage of coinage, 150 - - Water-colours, 77, 113 - - Wax, bees-, 66, 67, 71, 80, 90, 95, 102 - - „ dentist’s, 67 - - „ paraffin, 87, 89, 90, 91, 96, 102, 112 - - Waxed glass for papyri, 94 - - Weathered stones, sanding of, 71, 76 - - Weeding-out of workmen, 40 - - Weights carried by boy, 43 - - Western, _see Europe_ - - Wet squeezes, 60–61 - - White ants, 89, 96 - - „ filling of black ware, 161 - - „ flake-, use of, 77 - - „ -wash on walls, 96 - - Whiting for inscriptions, 76 - - Wide-angle lens, 74 - - Wills, contradictory, 140 - - Witnesses, evidence of, 137, 138 - - „ veracity of, 138 - - Wood flooring, 76, 77 - - „ rotted, 90–91 - - „ salt in, 89 - - „ tray, 95 - - „ wet, 91 - - „ white ants in, 89 - - „ -wool, 109 - - Work, irregular, 27 - - Workmen at Tanis, 20 - - „ chains of, 44 - - „ control of, 5, 7, 22–23 - - „ distribution of, 26 - - „ English, 27, 32 - - „ Greek, 26–27, 32 - - „ management of, 36 - - „ organization of, 24, 26, 29, 31 - - „ qualities of, 21 - - „ selection of, 20–21 - - „ substitution of, 23, 31 - - „ training of, 5, 26, 34 - - Wrapping-paper, 109 - - Wrappings, 52 - - Wrecking by engineers, 170, 174 - - „ „ lime-burners, 174 - - „ „ natives, 175 - - „ of tombs, 171 - - - Yorkshire, pottery from, 160 - - - Zer, Aegean pottery of, 164–165 - - „ black incised ware, 164 - - „ bracelet of, 80 - - „ ivory tablet of, 76 - - Zinc, box for washing, 83 - - „ blocks, 68, 118 - - „ tally for accounts, 37–38 - - „ trays for soaking stones, 86 - - Zuweleyn, sarcophagi at, 10 - - -THE END - - -_Printed by_ R. & R. CLARK, LIMITED, _Edinburgh_. - - - - -WORKS BY W. M. FLINDERS PETRIE - - - =THE PYRAMIDS & TEMPLES OF GIZEH.= (Out of print). - - =TANIS I.= 19 plates, 25s. _Quaritch._ - - =TANIS II.= =Nebesheh and Defenneh.= 64 plates, 25s. _Kegan Paul - and Co._ - - =NAUKRATIS I.= 45 plates, 25s. _Quaritch._ - - =HIEROGLYPHIC PAPYRUS FROM TANIS.= (Out of print). - - =A SEASON IN EGYPT, 1887.= 32 plates, 12s. (Out of print). - - =RACIAL PORTRAITS.= 190 Photographs from Egyptian Monuments, 45s. - _Murray, 37 Dartmouth Park Hill, N.W._ - - =HISTORICAL SCARABS.= (Out of print). - - =HAWARA, BIAHMU, AND ARSINOE.= (Out of print). - - =KAHUN, GUROB, AND HAWARA.= (Out of print). - - =ILLAHUN, KAHUN, AND GUROB.= 33 plates, 16s. (Out of print). - - =TELL EL HESY= (=Lachish=). 10 plates, 10s. 6d. _Alexander Watt._ - - =MEDUM.= 36 plates, 24s. 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You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: Methods & Aims in Archaeology - -Author: William Matthew Flinders Petrie - -Release Date: September 26, 2020 [EBook #63311] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK METHODS & AIMS IN ARCHAEOLOGY *** - - - - -Produced by MFR, Charlie Howard, and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images generously made available by The -Internet Archive) - - - - - - -</pre> - - -<div class="transnote"> -<p class="center"><span class="large bold">Transcriber’s -Note</span></p> <p>Larger versions of most illustrations -may be seen by right-clicking them and -selecting an option to view them separately, or by double-tapping -and/or stretching them.</p> - -<p class="covernote">Cover created by Transcriber, using artwork -from the original book, and placed in the -Public Domain.</p> - -</div> - -<h1>METHODS AND AIMS<br /> -<span class="small">IN</span><br /> -<span class="larger gesperrt">ARCHAEOLOGY</span></h1> - -<hr /> -<div class="figcenter" style="max-width: 10em;"> - <img src="images/i_000.png" width="634" height="177" alt="" /></div> - -<hr /> -<div id="il_1" class="newpage figcenter" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img src="images/i_001.jpg" width="1585" height="2785" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p>Fig. 1. <span class="smcap">Chain of boys clearing the Osireion at Abydos.</span></p> - <p>41 feet deep.</p> -</div></div> - -<hr /> - -<div class="newpage p4 center"> -<p class="large wspace vspace"> -METHODS & AIMS<br /> -<span class="small">IN</span><br /> -<span class="large gesperrt">ARCHAEOLOGY</span></p> - -<p class="p4 small">BY</p> - -<p class="p1 vspace"><span class="large">W. M. FLINDERS PETRIE</span><br /> -<span class="small">HON. D.C.L., LL.D., LIT.D., PH.D. : F.R.S. ; HON. F.S.A. (SCOT.) :</span></p> - -<p class="p1 small">Member of the Imperial German Archaeological Institute;<br /> -Member of the Society of Northern Antiquaries;<br /> -Member of the Roman Society of Anthropology;<br /> -Edwards Professor of Egyptology, University College, London.</p> - -<p class="p4 smaller wspace">WITH 66 ILLUSTRATIONS</p> - -<p class="p4 vspace"><span class="larger bold">London</span><br /> -<span class="larger wspace">MACMILLAN AND CO., <span class="smcap">Limited</span></span><br /> -<span class="smaller wspace">NEW YORK: THE MACMILLAN COMPANY</span> -1904</p> - -<p class="p2 small"><i>All rights reserved</i></p> -</div> - -<hr /> - -<div class="chapter newpage p4"> -<p class="center larger b1">TO MY FRIENDS</p> -</div> - -<div class="narrow15"> -<ul class="vspace wspace smaller"> -<li>F. LL. GRIFFITH,</li> -<li>E. A. GARDNER,</li> -<li>F. J. BLISS,</li> -<li>H. CARTER,</li> -<li>B. P. GRENFELL,</li> -<li>J. E. QUIBELL,</li> -<li>J. DUNCAN,</li> -<li>H. F. PETRIE,</li> -<li>N. DE O. DAVIES,</li> -<li>A. C. MACE,</li> -<li>D. RANDALL-MACIVER,</li> -<li>B. ORME,</li> -<li>A. E. WEIGALL,</li> -<li>M. A. MURRAY,</li> -<li>L. ECKENSTEIN,</li> -<li>H. STANNUS,</li> -<li>C. T. CURRELLY,</li> -<li>E. R. AYRTON, -</li> -</ul> -</div> - -<p class="p2 center vspace smaller">WHO HAVE JOINED IN VARIOUS PORTIONS OF THE WORK HERE -DESCRIBED, 1884–1903.</p> - -<hr /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_vii">vii</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PREFACE">PREFACE</h2> -</div> - -<p class="in0"><span class="firstword">Archaeology</span> is the latest born of the sciences. -It has but scarcely struggled into freedom, out of -the swaddling clothes of dilettante speculations. It -is still attracted by pretty things, rather than by real -knowledge. It has to find shelter with the Fine -Arts or with History, and not a single home has yet -been provided for its real growth.</p> - -<p>All other sciences deal with the things around us; -with subjects which may, or may not, affect us. -Even medical sciences are concerned with the -mechanical structure of the body, rather than with -the nature and abilities of the mind. But the science -which enquires into all the products and works of -our own species, which shows what man has been -doing in all ages and under all conditions, which -reveals his mind, his thoughts, his tastes, his feelings,—such -a science touches us more closely than any -other.</p> - -<p>By this science, of which History forms a part, -we trace the nature of man, age after age,—his<span class="pagenum" id="Page_viii">viii</span> -capacities, his abilities; we learn where he succeeds, -where he fails, and what his possibilities -may be.</p> - -<p>From another point of view the subject should be -considered; it gives a more truly “liberal education” -than any other subject, as at present taught. A -complete archaeological training would require a full -knowledge of history and art, a fair use of languages, -and a working familiarity with many sciences. The -one-sided growth of modern training, which produces -a B.A. who knows nothing of natural science, or else -a B.Sc. who knows nothing of human nature, is -assuredly not the ideal for a reasonable man. -Archaeology,—the knowledge of how man has -acquired his present position and powers—is one of -the widest studies, best fitted to open the mind, and -to produce that type of wide interests and toleration -which is the highest result of education.</p> - -<p>Though this volume is a book of reference for -those engaged in actual work, yet it will also serve -to give the public a view of the way in which this -work is done, the mode in which results are obtained, -the ends which are pursued, and the important -questions which must be considered. We have -nothing here to do with the details of the facts -discovered; but deal only with the methods and aims, -which have been slowly learned in a quarter of a -century. Yet every year there are fresh methods to -add, and more clear views of the aims; and far more<span class="pagenum" id="Page_ix">ix</span> -might easily have been said about each of the -subjects here discussed.</p> - -<p>If in this outline there is much more reference to -Egypt than to other countries, it is for the reason -that most of my own work has lain there; and there -is the more need to deal with that land, as more -exploration is going on there than elsewhere.</p> - -<p>I have to thank my friends for six of the -photographs here used.</p> - -<p class="sigright"> -W. M. FLINDERS PETRIE. -</p> - -<p class="in0 in1 smaller"><span class="smcap">University College, London.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xi">xi</span></span></p> - -<hr /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CONTENTS">CONTENTS</h2> -</div> - -<table id="toc" summary="Contents"> -<tr> - <td class="tdc chap" colspan="2">CHAPTER I</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc chapsub" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">The Excavator</span></td> -</tr> -<tr class="small"> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">PAGE</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Purpose, <a href="#sn_1">1</a>; Character, <a href="#sn_2">2</a>; Experience, <a href="#sn_3">3</a>; Organization, <a href="#sn_4">5</a>; Acquirements, <a href="#sn_5">5</a>; Demands of the work, <a href="#sn_6">6</a></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_I">1–8</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc chap" colspan="2">CHAPTER II</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc chapsub" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Discrimination</span></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Temples, <a href="#sn_7">9</a>; Towns, <a href="#sn_8">10</a>; Cemeteries, <a href="#sn_9">11</a>; Indications, <a href="#sn_10">12</a>; Productions, <a href="#sn_11">14</a>; Pottery, <a href="#sn_12">16</a>; Style, <a href="#sn_13">17</a>; Visual memory, <a href="#sn_14">19</a></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_II">9–19</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc chap" colspan="2">CHAPTER III</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc chapsub" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">The Labourers</span></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Quality, <a href="#sn_15">20</a>; Education, <a href="#sn_16">21</a>; Control, <a href="#sn_17">22</a>; Substitution, <a href="#sn_18">23</a>; Overseers, <a href="#sn_19">24</a>; Direct system, <a href="#sn_20">26</a>; Day pay, <a href="#sn_21">27</a>; Piecework, <a href="#sn_22">29</a>; Day and piece work, <a href="#sn_23">30</a>; Rewards, <a href="#sn_24">33</a>; Accounts, <a href="#sn_25">35</a>; Native ways, <a href="#sn_26">37</a></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_III">20–40</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xii">xii</span></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc chap" colspan="2">CHAPTER IV</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc chapsub" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Arrangement of Work</span></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Clearances, <a href="#sn_27">41</a>; Turning over, <a href="#sn_28">43</a>; Raising earth, <a href="#sn_29">44</a>; Tracing walls, <a href="#sn_30">46</a></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">41–47</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc chap" colspan="2">CHAPTER V</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc chapsub" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Recording in the Field</span></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Need of record, <a href="#sn_31">48</a>; Value of record, <a href="#sn_32">50</a>; Resulting view, <a href="#sn_33">50</a>; Marking, <a href="#sn_34">51</a>; Nature of notes, <a href="#sn_35">52</a>; Planning, <a href="#sn_36">53</a>; Plotting, <a href="#sn_37">55</a></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_V">48–59</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc chap" colspan="2">CHAPTER VI</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc chapsub" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Copying</span></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Paper squeezes, <a href="#sn_38">60</a>; Dry squeezes, <a href="#sn_39">61</a>; Casting, <a href="#sn_40">64</a>; Drawing, <a href="#sn_41">68</a>; Restored forms, <a href="#sn_42">71</a>; Copying inscriptions, <a href="#sn_43">72</a></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">60–72</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc chap" colspan="2">CHAPTER VII</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc chapsub" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Photographing</span></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">The Camera, <a href="#sn_44">73</a>; Preparing objects, <a href="#sn_45">76</a>; Lighting, <a href="#sn_46">77</a>; Arrangement of objects, <a href="#sn_47">79</a>; Stereographs, <a href="#sn_48">81</a>; Developing, <a href="#sn_49">82</a></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">73–84</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc chap" colspan="2">CHAPTER VIII</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc chapsub" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Preservation of Objects</span></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Stone, <a href="#sn_50">86</a>; Pottery, <a href="#sn_51">88</a>; Textiles, <a href="#sn_52">89</a>; Wood, <a href="#sn_53">89</a>; Ivory, <a href="#sn_54">91</a>; Papyri, <a href="#sn_55">93</a>; Bead-work, <a href="#sn_56">95</a>; Stucco, <a href="#sn_57">96</a>; Gold, <a href="#sn_58">98</a>; Silver, <a href="#sn_59">98</a>; Copper, <a href="#sn_60">99</a>; Bronze, <a href="#sn_61">100</a>; Lead, <a href="#sn_62">102</a>; Iron, <a href="#sn_63">102</a>; Sorting, <a href="#sn_64">102</a></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">85–104</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xiii">xiii</span></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc chap" colspan="2">CHAPTER IX</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc chapsub" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Packing</span></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Blocks, <a href="#sn_65">105</a>; Long objects, <a href="#sn_66">106</a>; Heavy stones, <a href="#sn_67">107</a>; Pottery, <a href="#sn_68">108</a>; Softening, <a href="#sn_69">109</a>; Cases, <a href="#sn_70">110</a>; Unpacking, <a href="#sn_71">111</a></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_IX">105–113</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc chap" colspan="2">CHAPTER X</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc chapsub" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Publication</span></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Arrangement, <a href="#sn_72">114</a>; Plates, <a href="#sn_73">115</a>; Processes, <a href="#sn_74">117</a>; Editions, <a href="#sn_75">119</a>; Text, <a href="#sn_76">120</a>; Publishing, <a href="#sn_77">120</a></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_X">114–121</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc chap" colspan="2">CHAPTER XI</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc chapsub" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Systematic Archaeology</span></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Systems of work, <a href="#sn_78">122</a>; Need of a <i>corpus</i>, <a href="#sn_79">123</a>; Example of <i>corpus</i>, <a href="#sn_80">124</a>; Utility, <a href="#sn_81">125</a>; Successive ages, <a href="#sn_82">126</a>; Sequences, <a href="#sn_83">127</a>; Sequence dates, <a href="#sn_84">129</a>; Conservation, <a href="#sn_85">130</a>; Buildings, <a href="#sn_86">130</a>; Lighting, <a href="#sn_87">131</a>; Grouping, <a href="#sn_88">132</a>; National Repository, <a href="#sn_89">133</a></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_XI">122–135</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc chap" colspan="2">CHAPTER XII</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc chapsub" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Archaeological Evidence</span></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Nature of proof, <a href="#sn_90">136</a>; Legal evidence, <a href="#sn_91">136</a>; Witnesses, <a href="#sn_92">138</a>; Material facts, <a href="#sn_93">138</a>; Exhaustion, <a href="#sn_94">139</a>; Probabilities, <a href="#sn_95">139</a>; Legal proof, <a href="#sn_96">140</a>; <i>Egypt and Europe</i>, <a href="#sn_97">141</a>; In XXVIth Dynasty, <a href="#sn_98">142</a>; XVIIIth Dynasty paintings, <a href="#sn_99">144</a>; Burnt groups, <a href="#sn_100">145</a>; Rubbish mounds, <a href="#sn_101">147</a>; Houses, <a href="#sn_102">148</a>; Scarabs, <a href="#sn_103">149</a>; Tombs in Egypt, <a href="#sn_104">150</a>; Tombs in Greece, <a href="#sn_105">152</a>; Variation with date, <a href="#sn_106">153</a>; Style, <a href="#sn_107">154</a>; Recapitulation, <a href="#sn_108">155</a>; XIIth Dynasty, Kahun, <a href="#sn_109">156</a>; XIIth Dynasty in Crete, <a href="#sn_110">158</a>; Pan-graves, <a href="#sn_111">159</a>; VIth to IIIrd Dynasties, <a href="#sn_112">162</a>; 1st Dynasty Aegean, <a href="#sn_113">164</a>; 1st Dynasty Cretan, <a href="#sn_114">166</a>; Prehistoric, <a href="#sn_115">167</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xiv">xiv</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_XII">136–168</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc chap" colspan="2">CHAPTER XIII</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc chapsub" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Ethics of Archaeology</span></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Individual rights, <a href="#sn_116">169</a>; Destruction, <a href="#sn_117">170</a>; Restoration, <a href="#sn_118">172</a>; Sacrifices, <a href="#sn_119">173</a>; Responsibility, <a href="#sn_120">174</a>; Rights of the future, <a href="#sn_121">175</a>; Rights of the past, <a href="#sn_122">176</a>; Duties, <a href="#sn_123">178</a>; Future of museums, <a href="#sn_124">180</a>; Publications, <a href="#sn_125">182</a>; State claims, <a href="#sn_126">183</a>; State rights, <a href="#sn_127">184</a>; Excavating laws, <a href="#sn_128">187</a></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIII">169–188</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc chap" colspan="2">CHAPTER XIV</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">The Fascination of History</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIV">189–193</a></td> -</tr> -<tr class="p1"> - <td class="tdl">INDEX</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#INDEX">195–208</a></td> -</tr> -</table> - -<hr /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xv">xv</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS">LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</h2> -</div> - -<table id="loi" summary="List of Illustrations"> -<tr class="small"> - <td class="tdl" colspan="2">FIGURE</td> - <td class="tdr">PAGE</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> 1.</td> - <td class="tdl">Chain of boys clearing the Osireion</td> - <td class="tdr"><i><a href="#il_1">Front.</a></i></td> -</tr> -<tr class="nobpad"> - <td class="tdl"> 2.}</td> - <td class="tdl mid" rowspan="2">Going up the desert</td> - <td class="tdr mid" rowspan="2"><a href="#il_2">1</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> 3.}</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> 4.</td> - <td class="tdl">Tent-life</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#il_4">6</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> 5.</td> - <td class="tdl">Hut-life</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#il_5">6</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> 6.</td> - <td class="tdl">Temple at El Hibeh</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#il_6">9</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> 7.</td> - <td class="tdl">Temple at Tanis</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#il_7">9</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> 8.</td> - <td class="tdl">Mound at Defeneh</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#il_8">10</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> 9.</td> - <td class="tdl">Cemetery of Zuweleyn</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#il_9">10</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">10.</td> - <td class="tdl">Copper and bronze adzes</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#il_10">14</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">11.</td> - <td class="tdl">Cutting-out knives</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#il_11">15</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">12.</td> - <td class="tdl">Typical forms of pottery</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#il_12">16</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">13.</td> - <td class="tdl">Lad and girl at Tanis</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#il_13">20</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">14.</td> - <td class="tdl">Three little Muhameds</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#il_14">20</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">15.</td> - <td class="tdl">Girls and boys at Tanis</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#il_15">24</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">16.</td> - <td class="tdl">Girls sorting durra</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#il_16">24</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">17.</td> - <td class="tdl">Line of carrier boys, Abydos</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#il_17">30</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">18.</td> - <td class="tdl">Heaps thrown out, Abydos</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#il_18">30</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">19.</td> - <td class="tdl">Lifting and carrying, Abydos</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#il_19">32</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">20.</td> - <td class="tdl">Carrying at Royal Tombs</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#il_20">32</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">21.</td> - <td class="tdl">Account card for wages</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#il_21">38</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xvi">xvi</span></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">22.</td> - <td class="tdl">Carrier boys throwing, Abydos</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#il_22">41</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">23.</td> - <td class="tdl">Town site, turned over, Kahun</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#il_23">41</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">24.</td> - <td class="tdl">Cutting down top of work</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#il_24">42</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">25.</td> - <td class="tdl">Cemetery, Tell el Yehudiyeh</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#il_25">43</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">26.</td> - <td class="tdl">Clearing a tomb, Abydos</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#il_26">43</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">27.</td> - <td class="tdl">Chain at tomb of Usertesen II</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#il_27">44</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">28.</td> - <td class="tdl">Chains of men at tomb of Den</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#il_28">44</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">29.</td> - <td class="tdl">Plan measured from two lines</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#il_29">54</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">30.</td> - <td class="tdl">Method of plotting survey</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#il_30">56</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">31.</td> - <td class="tdl">Copy drawn on paper squeeze</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#il_31">62</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">32.</td> - <td class="tdl">System of numbering sheets</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#il_32">63</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">33.</td> - <td class="tdl">Paper squeeze</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#il_33">64</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">34.</td> - <td class="tdl">Plaster cast from paper</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#il_34">64</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">35.</td> - <td class="tdl">Inventory sheet</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#il_35">70</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">36.</td> - <td class="tdl">Frame for drawing vases</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#il_36">71</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">37.</td> - <td class="tdl">Weathered stone, sanded</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#il_37">71</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">38.</td> - <td class="tdl">Throwing sand; drop-shutter view</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#il_38">75</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">39.</td> - <td class="tdl">Girls resting; diagonal mirror view</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#il_39">75</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">40.</td> - <td class="tdl">Tablet, with black and white filling</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#il_40">76</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">41.</td> - <td class="tdl">Hypocephalus, with white filling</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#il_41">76</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">42.</td> - <td class="tdl">Wooden floor of Azab</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#il_42">77</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">43.</td> - <td class="tdl">Prehistoric grave, Naqada</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#il_43">77</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">44.</td> - <td class="tdl">Ebony negress</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#il_44">78</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">45.</td> - <td class="tdl">In tomb of Sem-nefer</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#il_45">78</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">46.</td> - <td class="tdl">Foundation deposit, Aahmes II</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#il_46">80</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">47.</td> - <td class="tdl">Bracelet of King Zer</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#il_47">80</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">48.</td> - <td class="tdl">Pavement, Tell el Amarna</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#il_48">88</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">49.</td> - <td class="tdl">Fresco of princesses, Tell el Amarna</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#il_49">88</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">50.</td> - <td class="tdl">Box with diagonal bars</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#il_50">106</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">51.</td> - <td class="tdl">Tray for heavy stones</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#il_51">107</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">52.</td> - <td class="tdl">Box with three-way grain</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#il_52">110</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xvii">xvii</span></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">53.</td> - <td class="tdl">Box end, nailed diagonally</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#il_53">111</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">54.</td> - <td class="tdl">Nile boat</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#il_54">112</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">55.</td> - <td class="tdl">Camels, starting and returning</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#il_55">112</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">56.</td> - <td class="tdl">Naukratite warrior</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#il_56">144</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">57.</td> - <td class="tdl">Graeco-Egyptian figures</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#il_57">144</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">58.</td> - <td class="tdl">Aegean vase, Tahutmes III</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#il_58">152</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">59.</td> - <td class="tdl">False-necked vases</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#il_59">154</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">60.</td> - <td class="tdl">Celtic and pan-grave pottery</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#il_60">160</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">61.</td> - <td class="tdl">Black incised pottery</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#il_61">161</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">62.</td> - <td class="tdl">Buttons, VIIth Dynasty</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#il_62">162</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">63.</td> - <td class="tdl">Aegean pottery, Royal Tombs</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#il_63">165</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">64.</td> - <td class="tdl">Black pottery, Cretan</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#il_64">166</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">65.</td> - <td class="tdl">Khufu, builder of the great pyramid</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#il_65">178</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">66.</td> - <td class="tdl">Mer-en-ptah, Pharaoh of the Exodus</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#il_66">178</a></td> -</tr> -</table> - -<hr /> -<div id="il_2" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 26em;"> - <img src="images/i_002.jpg" width="1629" height="1422" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Fig. 2. <span class="smcap">Going up the desert, Abydos.</span></div></div> - -<div id="il_3" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 26em;"> - <img src="images/i_002b.jpg" width="1619" height="1202" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Fig. 3. <span class="smcap">Going up the desert, Abydos.</span></div></div> -<hr /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1">1</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I<br /> - -<span class="subhead">THE EXCAVATOR</span></h2> -</div> - -<div id="sn_1" class="sidenote">Purpose.</div> - -<p class="in0"><span class="firstword">In</span> few kinds of work are the results so directly -dependent on the personality of the worker as they -are in excavating. The old saying that -a man finds what he looks for in a -subject, is too true; or if he has not enough insight -to ensure finding what he looks for, it is at least -sadly true that he does not find anything that he -does not look for. Whether it be inscriptions, -carvings, papyri, or mummies that excavators have -been seeking, they have seldom preserved or cared -for anything but their own limited object.</p> - -<p>Of late years the notion of digging merely for -profitable spoil, or to yield a new excitement to the -jaded, has spread unpleasantly—at least in Egypt. -A concession to dig is sought much like a grant of -a monastery at the Dissolution: the man who has -influence or push, a title or a trade connection, claims -to try his luck at the spoils of the land. Gold -digging has at least no moral responsibility, beyond -the ruin of the speculator; but spoiling the past has -an acute moral wrong in it, which those who do it<span class="pagenum" id="Page_2">2</span> -may be charitably supposed to be too ignorant or -unintelligent to see or realise.</p> - -<p>And some systematic outline of archaeological -methods and aims is needed, not only for those -whose moral sense is so untrained that they may -ruin a site, and say “I have done no wrong”; but -it may even profit those who take up the name of -archaeology when they mean solely art, or inscriptions, -or some single branch of the subject. The most -familiar teaching entitled archaeological is that of -Classical Archaeology, which in the ways of most -teachers means Greek sculpture and vase paintings. -In spite of all the professorships and schools of that -subject, we are still so profoundly ignorant of the -archaeology of Greece and Italy that there is scarcely -a single class of common objects of which any one -knows the history and transformations. Certainly -we know far less of the archaeology of classical lands -than we do of that of Egypt.</p> - -<div id="sn_2" class="sidenote">Character.</div> - -<p>If, then, the character of the excavator thus -determines his results, our first step is to consider -that character, and to give some outline -of the aptitudes and acquirements—the -wit and the cunning, as our forefathers well distinguished -them—which are wanted in order to avoid -doing more harm than good.</p> - -<p>Firstly in every subject there is the essential -division between those who work to live, and those -who live to work—the commercial, and the scientific -or artistic aim;—those who merely do what will best -provide them a living, and those whose work is their -honour and the end of their being. These two -halves of mankind are by no means to be found<span class="pagenum" id="Page_3">3</span> -ready labelled by their professions. The R.A. who -drops his aspirations because portraits pay best, the -scientific scholar who patents every invention he can, -are of the true commercial spirit, and verily they -have their reward. Rather let us honour the professed -dealer who will sooner sell a group to a -museum than make a larger profit by playing to the -wealthy <i>dilettante</i> and scattering things. Let us be -quit, in archaeology at least, of the brandy-and-soda -young man who manipulates his “expenses,” of the -adventurous speculator, of those who think that a title -or a long purse glorifies any vanity or selfishness.</p> - -<p>Without the ideal of solid continuous work, certain, -accurate, and permanent,—archaeology is as futile -as any other pursuit. Money alone will not do the -work; brains are the first requisite. A hundred -pounds intelligently spent will do more good and -far less harm than ten thousand squandered in doing -damage. Mere money gives no moral right to upset -things according to the whim of one person. Even -scholarship is by no means all that is wanted; the -engineering training of mind and senses which Prof. -Perry advocates will really fit an archaeologist better -for excavating than book-work can alone. Best of -all is the combination of the scholar and the engineer, -the man of languages and the man of physics and -mathematics, when such can be found. So much -for the wit, and now of the cunning that is wanted.</p> - -<div id="sn_3" class="sidenote">Experience.</div> - -<p>The most needful of all acquisitions is archaeological -experience. Without knowing well all the -objects that are usually met with in an -ancient civilisation, there is no possible -insight or understanding, the meaning of what is met<span class="pagenum" id="Page_4">4</span> -with cannot be grasped, and the most curious -mistakes are made. A cloud is “very like a whale,” -the pre-Christian cross is found everywhere, an arrow-straightener -is called a ceremonial staff, an oil-press -becomes a sacred trilithon, half a jackal is called a -locust, and lathe chucks become “coal money.” Of -course the needed experience has to be gradually -built up, and those who first explore a civilisation -must work through many mistakes. When I first -came to Egypt Dr. Birch begged me to pack and -send to him a box of pottery fragments from each -great town, on the chance that from the known -history of the sites some guess could be made as to -the age of the objects; so complete was the ignorance -of the archaeology a quarter of a century ago. But -when such knowledge has been once accumulated, it -is the first duty of any excavator to make himself -well acquainted with it before he attempts to discover -more. At present the archaeological experience -that should be acquired before doing any responsible -work in any country ought to cover the history of -the pottery century by century, the history of beads, -of tools and weapons, of the styles of art, of the -styles of inscriptions, of the burial furniture, and of -the many small objects which are now well known -and dated, better in Egypt than perhaps in any other -country.</p> - -<p>Next to this is needed a good knowledge of the -history. Not only every dynasty, but every king of -whom anything is known, should be familiar. The -general course of the civilisation, the foreign influences -which affected the country, and the conditions at -different periods, should be clearly in mind. Without<span class="pagenum" id="Page_5">5</span> -such ideas the value and meaning of discoveries -cannot be grasped, and important clues and fresh -knowledge may be passed by.</p> - -<div id="sn_4" class="sidenote">Organization.</div> - -<p>Organization, both of the plan of work, and of -the labourers, is very necessary. Scheming how to -extract all that is possible from a given -site, how to make use of all the conditions, -how to avoid difficulties; and training labourers, -keeping them all firmly in hand, making them all -friends without allowing familiarity, getting their full -confidence and their goodwill;—these requirements -certainly rank high in an excavator’s outfit.</p> - -<div id="sn_5" class="sidenote">Acquirements.</div> - -<p>The power of conserving material and information; -of observing all that can be gleaned; of -noticing trifling details which may imply -a great deal else; of acquiring and -building up a mental picture; of fitting everything -into place, and not losing or missing any possible -clues;—all this is the soul of the work, and without -it excavating is mere dumb plodding.</p> - -<p>Of more external subjects, such as may be deputed -to other helpers, drawing is mainly wanted; more in -mechanical exactitude of facsimile-copying than in -freehand or purely artistic work. Surveying and -practical mathematics, with plan drawing, are almost -always involved in dealing with any site. Photography -is incessantly in use, both during the course -of the working and for preparing publications. The -outlines of chemistry and physics and a good knowledge -of materials are necessary to avoid blunders -in handling objects and in describing them. The -ancient language of a country, all important as it is -in the study of remains, is yet in its critical aspects<span class="pagenum" id="Page_6">6</span> -not so essential during field-work. But the excavator -should at least be able to take the sense of all written -material which he finds; and in Egypt that should -include hieroglyphic, hieratic, demotic, Greek, and -Coptic writing. The spoken language of the country -should be fluently acquired for simple purposes, so -as to be able to direct workmen, make bargains, and -follow what is going on. To be dependent on a -cook, a dragoman, or a donkey boy, is very unsafe, -and prevents that close study of the workmen which -is needed for making the best use of them. And a -general eye to the safety and condition of everything, -both of work, antiquities, and stores, is incessantly -wanted if a camp is to be successful and prosperous.</p> - -<p>Many of these requirements can well be undertaken -by different people; in fact, not a single living -person combines all of the requisite qualities for -complete archaeological work. But all of these -requirements must be fulfilled by different members -in a party, if they are to command success as well as -deserve it. In all points, imagination and insight, -the sense of all the possibilities of a case, is to be -the medium of thought both in theoretical and in -practical affairs.</p> - -<div id="il_4" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 26em;"> - <img src="images/i_006.jpg" width="1618" height="1219" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Camp life, Abydos.</span></p> - <p>Fig. 4. Tent in desert.</p> -</div></div> - -<div id="il_5" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 26em;"> - <img src="images/i_006b.jpg" width="1612" height="1437" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Camp life, Abydos.</span></p> - <p>Fig. 5. Huts at temple.</p> -</div></div> - -<div id="sn_6" class="sidenote">Demands of the work.</div> - -<p>In the externals of the work an excavator should -be always his own best workman. If he be the -strongest on the place, so much the -better; but at all events he should be -the most able in all matters of skill and ability. -Where anything is found it should be the hands of -the master that clear it from the soil; the pick and -the knife should be in his hands every day, and his -readiness should be shown by the shortness of his<span class="pagenum" id="Page_7">7</span> -finger-nails and the toughness of his skin. After a -week of work in the soil, feeling for delicate things -in a way that no tools can do, the skin almost wears -through, and the nails break down. But a week or -two more at it, and the excavator grows his gloves, -and is in a fit state for business, with the skin well -thickened, and ready to finger through tons of -grit and sand. Nothing can be a substitute for -finger-work in extracting objects, and clearing ground -delicately; and one might as well try to play the -violin in a pair of gloves as profess to excavate with -clean fingers and a pretty skin. It need hardly be -said that clothing must correspond to the work; and -there must never be a thought about clothes when -one kneels in wet mud, scrapes through narrow -passages, or sits waist deep in dust. To attempt -serious work in pretty suits, shiny leggings, or -starched collars, would be like mountaineering in -evening dress, or remind one of the old prints of -cricketers batting in chimney-pot hats. The man -who cannot enjoy his work without regard to appearances, -who will not strip and go into the water, or -slither on slimy mud through unknown passages, -had better not profess to excavate. Alongside of -his men he must live, in work hours and out; every -workman should come to him at all times for help -and advice. His courtyard must be the pay office -and the court of appeal for every one; and continual -attention should be freely given to the many little -troubles of those who are to be kept properly in -hand. To suppose that work can be controlled -from a distant hotel, where the master lives in state -and luxury completely out of touch with his men, is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_8">8</span> -a fallacy, like playing at farming or at stockbroking: -it may be amusing, but it is not business. And -whatever is not businesslike in archaeology is a waste -of the scanty material which should be left for those -who know how to use it. An excavator must make -up his mind to do his work thoroughly and truly, -or else to leave it alone for others who will take the -trouble which it deserves and requires.</p> - -<div id="il_6" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 26em;"> - <img src="images/i_009.jpg" width="1602" height="1394" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Temple ruins.</span></p> - <p>Fig. 6. El Hibeh.</p> -</div></div> - -<div id="il_7" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img src="images/i_009b.jpg" width="1598" height="1249" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Temple ruins.</span></p> - <p>Fig. 7. Tanis, with obelisks.</p> -</div></div> - -<hr /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_9">9</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II<br /> - -<span class="subhead">DISCRIMINATION</span></h2> -</div> - -<p class="in0"><span class="firstword">The</span> observing of resemblances and differences, and -the memory of physical appearances required for -this, are absolute requisites for carrying on the duties -of excavating. Here we deal with the appearances -in a land of sun-dried brickwork, where the accumulations -are great, as in Egypt, Syria, and Mesopotamia. -In a rocky land, such as Greece, there is not the -same sheltering mud, and the appearances are therefore -very different.</p> - -<div id="sn_7" class="sidenote">Temples.</div> - -<p>The nature of a site can be guessed pretty closely -from its aspect. A wide open space with mounds -around it is almost certainly a temple -site; and if there are stone chips strewn -over it, no doubt remains as to its nature (Figs. <a href="#il_6">6</a>, <a href="#il_7">7</a>). -The temples being of stone from the XIIth Dynasty -onwards, they were ruined by the removal of the -material in each age of disruption; but the houses -of the towns, being always of mud brick, continually -crumbled and decayed, and so filled up the ground -with rubbish. In Egypt mud-brick towns accumulate -at about 20 inches in a century; or in the -rainy Syrian climate at about 50 inches. Herodotus -describes walking on the roofs of the houses and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_10">10</span> -seeing down into the temple precincts; and in every -great site in Egypt, such as Tanis, Buto, Bubastis, -Memphis, or Koptos, the plain of temple ruins had -the house mounds far above it on all sides. The -temples were ruined both for building-stone and for -lime-burning. It is rare to get any portions of a -limestone building left; sandstone is often found, -and all the great temples which remain are of sandstone; -granite generally has lasted, except where it -has been split up in Roman times for millstones. -The search for limestone has led to whole buildings -being upset in order to extract the limestone foundations. -The basalt pavement of Khufu, the granite -pylon of Crocodilopolis, and probably the granite -temple of Iseum, have been overthrown thus. -Especially in the Delta, where no limestone hills are -accessible, this destructive search for lime has been -unrelenting in all ages; and it is seldom that -ancient limestone is now met with. Hence all that -can generally be seen of a temple site is a plain of -dust with a few tumbled blocks of granite, the exposed -tops of which are entirely weathered as -rounded masses. Five or ten feet down there may -be a rich harvest of carvings and inscriptions.</p> - -<div id="il_8" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 26em;"> - <img src="images/i_010.jpg" width="1625" height="1222" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Fig. 8. Mounds of fort, Defeneh.</div></div> - -<div id="il_9" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 26em;"> - <img src="images/i_010b.jpg" width="1625" height="1423" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Fig. 9. Sarcophagi at Zuweleyn.</div></div> - -<div id="sn_8" class="sidenote">Towns.</div> - -<p>A town site is always recognised (<a href="#il_8">Fig. 8</a>) by its -mounds of crumbling mud brick, strewn with potsherds -if in Upper Egypt, or with burnt -red bricks on the later mounds of the -Delta. Whenever a native begins to describe a site -in Lower Egypt, one inquires if there is red brick, -and if so there is no need to listen further. Generally -it is possible to date the latest age of a town by the -potsherds lying on the surface; and to allow a rate<span class="pagenum" id="Page_11">11</span> -of growth of 20 inches a century down to the visible -level; if that gives a long period we may further -carry down the certainly artificial level by 4 inches -in a century for the Nile deposits when in the -cultivated ground. For instance, there are mounds -in the Delta about 40 feet high, ending about -500 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>; this gives about 40 feet of rise, equal to -about 2400 years, or say 2000 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>, for the age at -the present ground level. But the visible base was -about 5 feet lower at 500 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>; and the human -deposit rising at 20 inches a century has been overlaid -at the rate of 4 inches a century by the Nile -deposit. Hence the age may be reckoned by a -depth of 45 feet accumulated at 16 inches a century -before 500 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> or about 2900 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> No exact -conclusion could be based on this; but it is a -valuable clue to the age to which the yet unseen -foundation of a town may most likely belong. -Town mounds and ruins of buildings have generally -symmetrical forms, weathered away uniformly on all -sides. But around towns are often heaps of rubbish -thrown out, the best-known example of this being -the immense heaps behind Cairo; and such accumulations -usually show their nature by the two -slopes, the gradual walk-up slope, and the steep -thrown-down slope.</p> - -<div id="sn_9" class="sidenote">Cemeteries.</div> - -<p>The cemetery sites on the desert have always -been more or less plundered anciently. A prehistoric -site may have no external -trace, as the blown sand may cover it -so evenly that there is no suspicion of anything -lying beneath. But on a gravel surface there are -generally some indications left of the hollows of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_12">12</span> -graves, and scraps of broken pottery left about by -the plunderers (<a href="#il_9">Fig. 9</a>). The historic cemeteries -are generally easier to see, as they are in rising -ground, and the holes of the tomb pits show on the -surface. The difficulty is not to find the site of a -cemetery, but to find a grave in it which still -contains anything. As a rule, any tomb pit which -appears still undisturbed has been left either because -it belongs to an unfinished tomb with nothing in it, -or because the tomb has already been reached from -elsewhere. At Medum an untouched walling up of -a chamber had been left, because the plunderers had -tunnelled under the mass of the tomb and broken -through the floor of the chamber. At Dendereh -the floor of the chamber was entire, with the lid of -the sarcophagus sunk in it, yet untouched; it had -been left so because the plunderers had mined -through from the outside under the floor to the -sarcophagus, and broken through the side of it without -touching the chamber. Some untouched tombs -were left because the burials in them were known to -be so poor that they were not worth opening. All -this points to the plundering being mostly done -during the lifetime of those who saw the burial. -Usually only one tomb in ten contains anything -noticeable; and it is only one in a hundred that -repays the digging of the other ninety-nine.</p> - -<div id="sn_10" class="sidenote">Indications.</div> - -<p>In general, on looking over a site every indication -must be observed. Sometimes there may be a slight -difference in vegetation, showing the -positions of walls or of pits. In colder -climates differences are shown by the melting of hoar -frost or snow; as in the square of S. Domenico at<span class="pagenum" id="Page_13">13</span> -Bologna, where some large patches—probably of -ashes—show through the cobble paving during a -thaw. A shower of rain will show much in drying; -and, after a rare storm in Egypt, there are two or -three precious hours when the buried walls show -clearly on the ground, and should be hurriedly scored -down before the hot sun removes the traces. A -driving wind will bare the ground so that the harder -walls show through the sand; or even a crowd of -people passing will tramp into the softer filling and -show the constructions. At sunrise or sunset ground -should be carefully looked over to pick out the variations -of level and slope, which will often show then, -though quite invisible in full light. Prehistoric camp -sites are noticed by the difference of tone of the -ground in walking over them; the ashes holding so -much air that the reverberation to the foot-step is -quite different from that on ordinary desert. The -appearance of the surface of disturbed desert differs -much from the undisturbed: there may be slight -hollows filled with sand, which are the traces of deep -pits; there may be pebbles from deep beds thrown -up, or fragments of limestone; or—best of all—chips -of worked stone or of hard rocks may tell the tale of -a building whose ruins lie beneath. The mastabas -of the XIIth Dynasty at Dahshur left scarcely any -surface trace, as the stone walls had been removed, -and the gravel filling had spread out and denuded -down to a level surface. The great wall of the camp -at Daphnae 40 feet thick, had been ploughed by denudation -until it was even lower than the desert on -either side of it, and the lines of it were only visible -by the absence of potsherds upon the site of the wall.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_14">14</span></p> - -<div id="il_10" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img src="images/i_014.png" width="1600" height="886" alt="" /> - <div class="captionl"> - <p class="in0"><span class="locked">Mid, Late, Ist, IIIrd, VIth, XIIth, XVIIIth Dyn.</span><br /> - Prehistoric.</p> - </div> - <div class="caption"> - <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 10.</span>—Development of copper and bronze adzes. 1:6.</p> -</div></div> - -<div id="sn_11" class="sidenote">Productions.</div> - -<p>Besides the discrimination of sites there is a vast -subject in the discrimination of objects and of styles. -The first requisite acquirement of a -digger—his archaeological experience—consists -in discriminating and distinguishing the -differences between products of various dates. An -Egyptian copper adze (<a href="#il_10">Fig. 10</a>) of the ages of middle -prehistoric, late prehistoric, early dynastic, IIIrd, -VIth, XIIth, or XVIIIth Dynasties can be told at a -glance, and we only need more dated examples to be -able to separate them still more finely. A cutting-out -knife (<a href="#il_11">Fig. 11</a>), a pair of tweezers, a comb, can be -dated almost as certainly. But it is when we can look -not only to differences of form, but also to variations -of colour and texture, that we have the widest scope -for discrimination. The great variety of beads in -each country, the hundreds of details of form, -materials, and colour in Egypt alone, give them an -importance archaeologically above most other things. -In the prehistoric age there are a dozen materials,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_15">15</span> -and many different forms, not one of which can -be confounded with later products. In the Old -Kingdom new and distinctive styles are met with, -and a profusion of small amulets on necklaces. In -the XIth and XIIth Dynasties magnificent beads of -amethyst, green felspar, and carnelian outshine those -of every other age. In the XVIIIth Dynasty the -immense variety of glass and glazed beads defy -enumeration, and yet are sharply characteristic of -different reigns of that age. The later times of -degradation also produce new and distinctive forms -and colours; and when we reach the Roman period -a flood of glass work imitates the fashionable beryl, -amethyst, rock crystal, and other stones, with the -mimicry of a forger.</p> - -<div id="il_11" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 26em;"> - <img src="images/i_015.png" width="1653" height="1093" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 11.</span>—Development of cutting-out knives. XIIth–XIXth Dynasties. -A-A and B-B cutting edges.</div></div> - -<div id="il_12" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 26em;"> - <img src="images/i_016.png" width="1643" height="1539" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 12.</span>—One typical form of pottery of each period.</div></div> - -<div id="sn_12" class="sidenote">Pottery.</div> - -<p>Pottery is, however, the greatest resource of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_16">16</span> -archaeologist. For variety of form and texture, for -decoration, for rapid change, for its quick -fall into oblivion, and for its incomparable -abundance, it is in every respect the most important -material for study (<a href="#il_12">Fig. 12</a>), and it constitutes the -essential alphabet of archaeology in every land. -Think for a moment how few people know the -appearance of a common jug a century old, how the -crocks of Georgian times have all vanished, and new -forms are made. Even of decorated china not one -piece in a thousand in England is before the last -century, and not one in a million is three centuries<span class="pagenum" id="Page_17">17</span> -old; so rapidly does breakable ware perish, and -become unknown. This not only prevents its being -handed on from earlier times, as ornaments or weapons -may descend, but it prevents the copying of older -forms, and gives a free scope to rapid variation. No -doubt some standard forms may continue to be -made, because they are so simple, and so adapted to -common wants, that the same causes continue to -produce them. But it is only the simplest and least -characteristic types which thus continue; the more -detailed and specialised the form, the more rapidly it -changes, and gives way to new styles. In the -prehistoric age of Egypt alone there are about a -thousand different forms of pottery; and when the -historic times shall be as fully recorded, probably two -or three times as many will demand notice. In Italy -and Greece there is apparently as great a variety, -though—apart from painted vases—it is very far -from being fully placed on paper. And when we -come to know the archaeology of other lands, their -pottery will doubtless prove as varied and distinctive -in its styles. It is then in a thorough knowledge of -pottery that any sound archaeology must be based; -and there is no wider or more important field for discrimination. -With the brief view of Palestinian pottery -gained in a few weeks, on one site at Tell Hesy (Lachish), -I found it possible to ride over mounds of ruins -and see the age of them without even dismounting.</p> - -<div id="sn_13" class="sidenote">Style.</div> - -<p>Beside the discrimination of broad physical differences -there is the more subtle observation of style. -This cannot be discussed, or even shown -to exist, without a very wide collection of -examples; yet in a trained observer a long series of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_18">18</span> -experience should result in an unexpressed—almost -intangible and incommunicable—sense of the style of -each country and each age, such that a piece of work -can at once be referred to its proper place, though -not a single exact comparison can be quoted for it. -Special motives, outlines, curves, tastes, belong to -various sources so certainly and characteristically -that they show their origin at a glance. A good -example of this is seen in the bronzes of Minusinsk in -Central Asia; this site is almost equidistant from the -North Sea, the Persian Gulf, and the China Sea, and -the style seems to recall by its details almost equally -the taste of Northmen, Persians, and Chinese. A -good practice for such discrimination is the analysis -of common ornament around us: a rug or a wall -pattern may be analysed into its sources—here a bit -from Assyria, there from Egypt, here from Japan, -there from Norway, all hashed together by the modern -designer. And until the common and obviously -distinctive patterns of each country can be named at -sight, and separated into their various sources, the -observer cannot hope to gain that far more essential -sense of the national taste of each people, and the -sympathetic feeling of the relationship of any form -or curve that may chance to be seen,—that conviction -of the family and source of each object, which is the -illumination of an archaeologist, the guide to fresh -suggestions and researches, the mental framework -which holds all memories in place.</p> - -<div id="sn_14" class="sidenote">Visual Memory.</div> - -<p>But beside this sublimated use of the permanent -memory and discrimination, there is another very -crude and transient discrimination which is also needed -in actual work. A visual memory of the site and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_19">19</span> -excavations should be constantly in mind; the -master should be able to go over the -whole site, and every man at work on it, -entirely from memory; he should be able to realise -at once, on seeing the place next day, exactly how -every one of fifty different holes looked the day -before; and know at once where the work stood, and -what has been done since, so as to measure it up -without depending on any statements by the workmen. -If a boy comes with a message that Ibrahim -or Mutwali needs direction, the master should be able -to visualise the place, inquire what has been done, -and how each part now stands, and then give -sufficient temporary direction entirely from memory -of the site, and memory of what he expected to do, -or to prove, or to find, from that particular hole. -The extent of this visual memory is never realised -until one meets with some who are so unlucky as -not to possess such an apparatus, and who are therefore -unable to know what has been done, and have -to begin each day’s work as if they were strangers to -the place. Of all inherent mental qualifications there -is perhaps none more essential to a digger than this -permanent picture of a site in the mind. And the -transient memory from day to day should include the -appearance of every hole on all sides, the meaning -of it and the purpose for which it is being dug.</p> -<hr /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_20">20</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III<br /> - -<span class="subhead">THE LABOURERS</span></h2> -</div> - -<div id="sn_15" class="sidenote">Quality.</div> - -<p class="in0"><span class="firstword">In</span> starting an excavation one of the first considerations -is the supply of labourers, and the selection of -them. In some places it is difficult to -persuade any one to work at first; either -from distrust, or from being unaccustomed to regular -employment. At Naukratis only a few men could -be persuaded to try the work in the first week or -two; but so soon as the villagers found that genuine -gold coin was to be had, they swarmed up, and some -five hundred demanded to be taken. The Egyptian -is good at steady work, but the Syrian is very -different, and it took some weeks at Tell Hesy to -educate men into continuous regular digging. They -would jump out of their holes every few minutes, -and squat on the edge for a talk with the next -man; and only a steady weeding out of about a third -of them every week, gradually brought up the best -of them into tolerable efficiency. In Greece such -difficulties are even greater, and rational regular hard -work cannot be reckoned upon, as in Egypt.</p> - -<div id="il_13" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 26em;"> - <img src="images/i_020.jpg" width="1610" height="1431" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Fig. 13. <span class="smcap">Workers at Tanis.</span></div></div> - -<div id="il_14" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 26em;"> - <img src="images/i_020b.jpg" width="1617" height="1211" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Fig. 14. <span class="smcap">Workers at Tanis.</span></div></div> - -<p>The best age for diggers is about 15 to 20 years. -After that many turn stupid, and only a small proportion<span class="pagenum" id="Page_21">21</span> -are worth having between 20 and 40. After -40 very few are of any use, though some robust men -will continue to about 50. The Egyptian ages -early; and men of 45 would be supposed to be 65 -in England. The boys are of use for carrying from -about 10 years old; and they generally look mere -boys till over 20. The ornamental man with a good -beard is quite useless and lazy; and the best workers -are the scraggy under-sized youths, with wizened wiry -faces, though sometimes a well-favoured lad with -pleasing face will turn out very good (<a href="#il_13">Fig. 13</a>). In -choosing boys the broad face and square chin are -necessary tokens of stamina; and the narrow feminine -faces are seldom worth much.</p> - -<p>Beside the mere physical strength of the fellow, -the face has to be studied for the character. The -only safe guide in selecting workers is the expression; -and no influence of recommendations or connections -should weigh in the least against the judgment of -the appearance. The qualities to be considered are, -first, the honesty, shown mostly by the eyes, and by -a frank and open bearing; next, the sense and -ability; and lastly, the sturdiness, and freedom from -nervous weakness and hysterical tendency to squabble.</p> - -<div id="sn_16" class="sidenote">Education.</div> - -<p>When once selected, the education of the workers -begins. Often some oafs who will not understand -any directions, and have no sense to -work unless encouraged by watching, may -yet be brought up in a few months to be good -workers if associated with a skilful man. And almost -every boy and man will greatly improve by steady -work and control. The effect of selection and training -is astonishingly seen on comparing some old<span class="pagenum" id="Page_22">22</span> -hands, who have had five or ten years at the business, -side by side with new lads. There is as much difference -between their capacities as there is between the -fellah and an educated Englishman. A gang of -well-trained men need hardly any direction, especially -in cemetery work; and their observations and knowledge -should always be listened to, and will often -determine matters. The freshman from England is -their inferior in everything except in recording; and -at least a season’s experience is needed before any -one can afford to disregard the judgment of a well-trained -digger. The better class of these workers are -one’s personal friends, and are regarded much as old -servants are in a good household. Their feelings and -self-respect must be thought of, as among our own -equals, and they will not put up with any rudeness -or contempt. A man with landed property and cattle, -and an ancestry of a couple of centuries, can afford -to look down on most Englishmen who would bully -him. Such workers are of course entirely above -going into the usual Government or French work, -where the lash is used; and their good service and -skill is only given for friendly treatment.</p> - -<div id="sn_17" class="sidenote">Control.</div> - -<p>Yet there is a danger in letting control slip away. -It is always needful to be firm, and to insist on -obedience to orders; and constant keeping -in hand is required, not only for the -rank and file but even for the best men. An -Egyptian cannot withstand temptations if often -repeated; and the fault of a collapse of character, -which befalls even the best, is mainly due to not -keeping sufficient hold and influence, and not taking -sufficient trouble to ensure control. The first rule<span class="pagenum" id="Page_23">23</span> -in managing the better class of men is not to let -any man get a habit or prerogative of doing any -kind of work for oneself: never let the same man -repeatedly go for purchases, or for money, or carry -things, or walk with the master, or explain phrases, -or boss anybody or anything. All such services -should be carefully spread over several men; and if -there be two parties—as from opposite sides of the -Nile—always keep them well balanced in your consideration. -Each will then keep a sharp lookout on -the opposition.</p> - -<p>Beside men and boys, girls (<a href="#il_15">Fig. 15</a>) will work -very well in the Delta and in Syria, though not in -Upper Egypt. They do well at carrying; and as -they never ask for pick work they are, when well -grown, worth more than the boys. Not only will -they come from the village day by day, but they -will also camp out with their fathers and brothers in -camps at a distance from home. No difficulty or -unpleasantness has arisen in such mixed camps in -my work.</p> - -<div id="sn_18" class="sidenote">Substitutions.</div> - -<p>A frequent trouble is from substitution of workers. -The fact of being chosen is worth something; and -the worker will try to sell his place to a -substitute, and then get in again soon -after on the plea of being an old hand. So long -as a substitute comes only for a day or so, he may -be tolerated. But if there arises a frequent plea of -“So-and-So is ill to-day, and wants me to work for -him,” it is needful to stamp on it by refusing all -substitutes, and replying, “If he is ill, I will take him -back when he is better.” One common cause is -that they wish to push in younger and younger<span class="pagenum" id="Page_24">24</span> -boys (<a href="#il_16">Fig. 16</a>), so that the fellow who was 14 or -16 at first, dwindles imperceptibly until he can -hardly carry a basket. An opposite cause is that -only boys are taken on in some places because the -men cannot be trusted; and then the supreme -object of the villains of the place is to get in as -substitutes for boys, so that they may learn what is -found and where to plunder at night. Most usually -when a substitute is refused the original boy turns -up as well as ever. I have known the village guards -come and call a lad out on a trumped-up charge, -with a friend of the guard following close by, quite -ready just to work for the accused.</p> - -<div id="sn_19" class="sidenote">Overseers.</div> - -<p>Turning now to the organization, there are two -great choices to be made, with or without Overseers, -and by Day pay or Piecework. Each -system may be best under particular -conditions, and the suitability of each we will note -first, before entering on detail.</p> - -<p>Overseers are almost always employed. They -remove much of the friction; they profess to drive -the men on, and be responsible for their regular -working; and they seem indispensable parts of the -business. The less a master knows of the men and -of their language the more essential an overseer -seems to be.</p> - -<div id="il_15" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 26em;"> - <img src="images/i_024.jpg" width="1627" height="1413" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Fig. 15. <span class="smcap">Girls and boys in the work.</span></div></div> - -<div id="il_16" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 26em;"> - <img src="images/i_024b.jpg" width="1627" height="1202" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Fig. 16. <span class="smcap">Girls and boys in the work.</span></div></div> - -<p>Yet all this usefulness is the best reason for -avoiding them. The more friction they save, the -less the master knows of his men, and the less -influence he has. The more they profess to drive -the men, the more hollow the fraud is, until the -overseer merely serves to give notice when the -master is coming. The more indispensable they<span class="pagenum" id="Page_25">25</span> -seem, the less desirable is it to have so to trust a -native. And the less a master knows of the men -and the language, the more dangerous it is to have -some one always acting in everything that goes on. -Moreover, there is nothing so demoralising to a -native as wandering about, without hard work, stick -in hand, to bully men who are quite as good as -himself. Even good men soon lose their character -in such conditions, and it is needful to have some -definite allotted manual work for even a leading -man.</p> - -<p>The results of having overseers, or <i>reises</i>, are -instructive. In one case the reis took a third of all -the money given as rewards for things, threatening -to get any man dismissed who would not give this -up to him. In another case the overseers levied a -sixth of all the wages from the men, making ten -times their own pay by this extortion. Mariette’s -overseers used to go to a village with a Government -order for so many men, and demand the best men -they could venture on claiming. These bought -themselves off, each at a few shillings a month, and -lower men were taken, until most of the villagers -were paying heavy tribute. Reises will also bargain -with a shopkeeper to put on a third on the price of -all goods supplied, and compel any messenger sent -shopping to go to that shop. In another case a -museum reis was seen bowing down to the ground -and kissing the hand of the principal <i>antika</i>-dealer -of the place; doubtless for good consideration received. -In short, the dangers, losses, and troubles -that come from reises are so great that it is far -better to do without them.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_26">26</span></p> - -<div id="sn_20" class="sidenote">Direct system.</div> - -<p>The system which works best is to have a careful -distribution of the best men; and, in fact, work with -two or three dozen reises, all of whom -do pick-work themselves. Each well-trained -man can have half-a-dozen new hands placed -near him, and he can be ordered to see that they -follow instructions. By such a wide distribution of -the authority it does not deteriorate the men, as -there are too many rivals; and being each paid for -actual digging, they do not spoil with idleness. -Thus every man is directly under the master, all -instructions are given at first hand, and every one -is in close touch, and not fenced off by intermediate -intriguers. Doubtless, two or three men will come -to the front by their ability and character; but -though full use should be made of them, yet they -should always be kept nominally on the same terms -and work as every one else. Their reward consists -in being given all the more promising places, where -things are likely to be found, so that they may -reap much more profit than others.</p> - -<p>In some different conditions of work overseers -may be a necessary evil. In Greece the large -distances of sites from each other in the Aegean and -political conditions are a bar to employing a regular -gang of men, although the Egyptian will readily -travel three or four hundred miles to his season’s -work, as far as Constantinople from Athens, and is -quite ready to do his work in spite of the scowls of -a bad neighbourhood. Fresh workers are engaged -at each place in Greece, and for their needful training -overseers are considered necessary. Also at -present, owing to the continual shifting of European<span class="pagenum" id="Page_27">27</span> -superintendence by changes of students, and less -frequent changes of Directors, permanent overseers -who will carry on the traditions of the modes of -working are requisite. But it is questionable whether -these needs would not be more safely met by carrying -about ten or a dozen picked workmen, who -would train local hands, and at the same time work -themselves. The Greek does not seem nearly as -capable of continuous hard work as is the Egyptian, -and moves much less earth in the day, and that at -about double the wages, while he is said to entirely -refuse piecework. But this difficulty would be reduced -if a small picked body of hard workers, -stimulated by good piece pay, were used as a nucleus -to set the tone of steady work at each place. The -Greek needs educating to regular work, which is -foreign to his nature.</p> - -<p>In England about as much work may be done -per man as in Egypt, but at about five or six times -the cost. Hence the number employed is not so -large, twenty or thirty being a large gang, instead -of 150 or 200 as in Egypt. As they can follow -directions tolerably, an overseer or foreman is not -needed, the best of the workers usually taking the -lead.</p> - -<div id="sn_21" class="sidenote">Day pay.</div> - -<p>The question between Day pay and Piece pay is -an open one. In cases where minute valuables may -be scattered anywhere in the soil, day -pay is needful to prevent undue hurry. -Or where the work is very irregular, and time needs -to be spent on moving stones, or heavy extras, day -pay must be given. But where the work is uniform, -and the objects expected are large or in known<span class="pagenum" id="Page_28">28</span> -positions, then piecework is far more suitable. -Though measuring up the cubic metres of work -done may take perhaps a quarter of the master’s -time, yet that is better than having to give the whole -time to spurring on the dawdling pace of day workers.</p> - -<p>When working by the day it is needful to give -the signals for beginning and stopping work, and to -insist on regular and continuous digging. It is -impossible to be known to be away, as then no work -will go on effectively. An air of vigilant surprises -has to be kept up. A sunk approach to the work -behind higher ground is essential; and, if possible, -an access to a commanding view without being seen -going to and fro. A telescope is very useful to -watch if distant work is regular. At Tanis the -girls in a big pit were kept by the men walking up -and tipping baskets at the top; but the telescope -showed that the baskets were all the time empty. -The immediate dismissal of fourteen people was the -result. A telescope will also show if a boy is put -up to watch for the master’s coming. Various -approaches should be arranged from different directions, -and the course of work so planned that no -men can give notice to others. In this way a -pleasing group of musicians and dancers may be -found in the excavations, where picks and baskets -are lying idle; and the arrangement is closed by -requesting the boys to dance on their own resources, -and the transfer of your pay to other pockets. The -need of thus acting as mainspring, without which -the work goes on at an official pace, is wearing and -time-wasting; and it leaves no chance of doing -writing, drawing, etc., during work hours.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_29">29</span></p> - -<div id="sn_22" class="sidenote">Piecework.</div> - -<p>Working by the piece saves all this trouble, and -if the men are well trained, and the work is simple, -it goes on automatically and takes the -smallest possible amount of attention. -In detached small sites men may even be left unvisited -for two or three days, merely reporting each -evening how far they have worked. In one case -some lads were left to work at a great sarcophagus -for weeks unwatched, and came some miles to report -progress, and say when further attention was wanted. -The pay for that was given by contract, to cut and -lift a stone lid under water, for so many pounds.</p> - -<p>In piecework it is always best to keep a record of -how long each piece has taken, as the time is one -element in pricing the work done.<a id="FNanchor_1" href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">1</a> The ground -varies in hardness, the depth of throwing up continually -changes, or the presence of large stones -hinders the work; therefore any exact value by a -hard and fast rule is impossible. Each piece of -work done has to be judged, taking the most likely -scale of payment, and then tempering the result by -the amount of time occupied. The general rate of -pay in Egypt is ½ piastre a cubic metre for loose -surface sand, ⅔ for shallow work in harder earth, ¾ -for work as deep as a man, and 1 piastre for deep -pits. At this scale a poor worker will barely earn -day pay and a fine worker will make from 1½ to 2 -times day pay. The day pay in Upper Egypt is 2½ -to 3 piastres (6d. to 7d.) a man, and 1½ to 2 (3½d. -to 5d.) for a boy, of fit and proper quality.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1" href="#FNanchor_1" class="fnanchor">1</a> A useful notation is to use the letter of the week day, with an -hour-spot by it; thus .F is 7 <span class="allsmcap">A.M.</span> Friday, M· is 2 <span class="allsmcap">P.M.</span> Monday, Ẇ -is noon, Wednesday, and this spotted letter is noted in the accounts, for -the time of beginning any piece of work.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_30">30</span></p> - -</div> - -<p>To take a practical case. A hole is, say, 2½ -metres wide, 3½ long and 2 deep, say 18 cubic -metres. The rate will be at ¾, making 13½ piastres -or 2s. 9d. Large stones met with, or pillars or -buttresses of earth left to support objects <i>in situ</i>, are -counted as work done, as the trouble and inconvenience -of leaving them in the hole is quite equal -to the removal of so much earth. If the pit above-named -had taken a four-gang (two men and two -boys) less than a day, it might be cut to 12 piastres -or 2s. 6d.; or if much over a day, it might be raised -to 16 or 3s. 3d.; reckoning that a rate much -quicker or slower than the regular rate, shows that -the ground or conditions were better or worse than -usual. It is needful to measure with distinct and -visible care, as the men are very watchful to see that -they get fair measurement; and their confidence -should be gained by taking trouble to be fair and -punctilious in every detail, though never taking -notice of any wheedling or attempt to influence the -account.</p> - -<div id="sn_23" class="sidenote">Day and Piecework.</div> - -<p>Where the earth has to be moved to any distance -beyond a few yards, then more carriers are needed -than one to each digger. The happiest -combination then is to go on paying -exactly the same rate by the metre, as if the men -were working a plain pit, but to supply them with -as many boys paid by the day as may be needful to -shift the earth away (<a href="#il_17">Fig. 17</a>). Sometimes two men -and two boys will have six more boys to run off the -earth to fifty yards away. Any common village -boys will do for this gang, and they may be enlisted -by the hundred, and distributed over the work. But<span class="pagenum" id="Page_31">31</span> -it is needful to allot these “locals” (as they are -called) specifically to known men, so that each pick-man -can answer for the time and the doings of each -of his own boys. Thus there is no smudge of irresponsibility; -but each boy belongs to a man, who -has for his own interest to get the work out of him.</p> - -<div id="il_17" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 26em;"> - <img src="images/i_030.jpg" width="1615" height="1216" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Clearing the temple, Abydos.</span></p> - <p>Fig. 17. Lines of carriers.</p> -</div></div> - -<div id="il_18" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 26em;"> - <img src="images/i_030b.jpg" width="1615" height="1406" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Clearing the temple, Abydos.</span></p> - <p>Fig. 18. Heaps around area.</p> -</div></div> - -<p>The local boys should all give the names of their -villages on enlistment, and be kept in lists according -to villages, so as to group them for payment in gold. -In case of any serious theft or trouble due to boys -from one village, all the rest from that village can be -dismissed as a warning. To keep them up to time -in arriving, it is best to dismiss for the day the two -or three who come latest, if they are not well up to -time. This soon enforces regularity. Any attempt -to leave before the sunset signal, is met by dismissing -altogether any boy who leaves too soon. It is best -not to allow any substitution on the plea of illness, -as if that is once allowed, it soon becomes a loophole -for all the selected boys to gradually sell their -places to less desirable fellows. A favourite plan of -the piecework men is to turn all their own basket-boys -into pick-boys, and then want more locals to -carry the stuff. Of course this has to be met by -deducting from the rate of pay, as the regular rates -are for cutting and throwing, and not for cutting -alone. The proportion of pay if the boys are set to -do pick-work, on a gang of two men and two boys, -goes as <span class="locked">follows:—</span></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_32">32</span></p> - -<table id="t32" class="tw25" summary="Pay proportions"> -<tr class="bt"> - <td class="tdl bl">pick</td> - <td class="tdr">3</td> - <td class="tdl bl">pick</td> - <td class="tdr">3</td> - <td class="tdl bl">pick</td> - <td class="tdr br">3</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl bl">basket</td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td class="tdl bl">pick</td> - <td class="tdr">3</td> - <td class="tdl bl">pick</td> - <td class="tdr br">3</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl bl">pick</td> - <td class="tdr">3</td> - <td class="tdl bl">pick</td> - <td class="tdr">3</td> - <td class="tdl bl">pick</td> - <td class="tdr br">3</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl bl">basket</td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td class="tdl bl">basket</td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td class="tdl bl">pick</td> - <td class="tdr br">3</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc in2 bl">A</td> - <td class="tdr"><span class="rt">10</span></td> - <td class="tdc bl">B</td> - <td class="tdr"><span class="rt">11</span></td> - <td class="tdc bl">C</td> - <td class="tdr br"><span class="rt">12</span></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl bl"> </td> - <td class="tdr"> </td> - <td class="tdl bl in0">2 baskets due</td> - <td class="tdr mid">4</td> - <td class="tdl bl in0">4 baskets due</td> - <td class="tdr mid br">8</td> -</tr> -<tr class="bb"> - <td class="tdl bl"></td> - <td class="tdr"> </td> - <td class="tdl bl"></td> - <td class="tdr"><span class="rt">15</span></td> - <td class="tdl bl"></td> - <td class="tdr br"><span class="rt">20</span></td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p>Then if in a normal four-gang, A, one boy takes a -pick they become as in B, and only have 11/15 of the -piece pay, as the master has to supply the other two -baskets for the normal gang of equal numbers of picks -and baskets. Similarly if both boys take picks, as in -C, the pay is of course ⅗ of what it would normally -be; the other ⅖ being spent in supplying locals. -The one absolute rule, however, is that if there are -enough old trained hands to do the cutting, no local -shall be allowed to do pick-work, as his intelligence, -knowledge, and honesty are not to be trusted without -training. The combination of piece pay for -cutting and day pay for carrying is a happy one; as -the piecework keeps the men moving, and they stir -up the boys on day pay (<a href="#il_19">Fig. 19</a>).</p> - -<p>In European countries this use of boys is scarcely -possible owing to the national education. In Greece -as in England the boys are required to go to school, -and their holidays there are not at a time suitable -for excavating, while in England the holidays are -occupied by the harvest. Hence all work has to be -done by men, at a higher rate of pay; and so<span class="pagenum" id="Page_33">33</span> -mechanical aids to moving earth would be more -profitable than they are in Egypt.</p> - -<div id="il_19" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 24em;"> - <img src="images/i_032.jpg" width="1493" height="1680" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Fig. 19. <span class="smcap">Filling and carrying, at Abydos.</span> -</div></div> - -<div id="il_20" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 26em;"> - <img src="images/i_032b.jpg" width="1636" height="952" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Fig. 20. <span class="smcap">Filling and carrying, at Abydos.</span> -</div></div> - -<p>It may be mentioned that the workers are always -expected to provide their own picks and baskets in -Egypt; while ropes, crowbars, and other tools only -occasionally wanted are found by the master. If the -daily tools were also provided, they would soon be -spoiled, and need constant attention; it is bad -enough to have to check and take care of ropes and -special tools. The baskets brought up need to be -looked at for size, especially those of local boys. -When choosing boys, a fair size of basket should be -insisted on as a condition of employment; and if -small or broken baskets are brought up afterwards, -the boy should be turned off, in order to bring a -proper basket next day.</p> - -<div id="sn_24" class="sidenote">Rewards.</div> - -<p>The two objects of excavations are (1) to obtain -plans and topographical information, and (2) to -obtain portable antiquities. For the -purpose of securing antiquities it is -necessary to guard against the ignorance, the carelessness, -and the dishonesty of the men employed. -The best way to protect the interests of the work is -to give rewards for all the things that are found, -commonly called “the <i>bakhshish</i> system.” If only -half-a-dozen men are employed, and the master will -take care to see that they never touch the work except -while he is watching them, it may be practicable to -do without <i>bakhshish</i>. But in the ordinary course of -having one or two hundred men and boys at work -over a large area, it is essential to pay partly by results, -at least in the East; in Greece, owing to the large -claims of the Government, this is scarcely practicable.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_34">34</span></p> - -<p>The actual amount given should be as much as a -travelling dealer would pay to the peasant, were he -buying the object. For small and very saleable -things a high rate should be given; for larger blocks, -difficult to move, a lesser rate; and for larger things -of some hundredweights a nominal present may be -given without any relation to the market value. On -the whole the <i>bakhshish</i> is usually 5 to 10 per cent -of the wages; and as it is only about 1s. in the -pound on the European values it is well worth while -to secure better work by giving it. Moreover, it is -not by any means overlooked in the estimate of the -worth of the work, but—like the prizes of gold -digging—it is more than discounted in the prospects -which induce desirable men to come. The tenth of -a chance of getting ten pounds is more attractive -than the certainty of getting one pound in wages; -so the extra payments secure willing workers, even -better than the same amount spread in regular pay.</p> - -<p>It is by no means only as a safeguard to honesty. -The observation of things, and the care required to -avoid breakages, are two very necessary habits for -good workmen. Many a small thing would be overlooked -and lost if it were no benefit to the finder. -And digging carefully so as to avoid breakages, -makes a great difference to the returns obtained. -When giving <i>bakhshish</i> on a broken thing, it is well -to say how much more would have been given had -it been perfect. And if fragments are missing, a -large deduction should be made, and the balance -promised if the pieces can be found. A fine flint -knife, anciently broken, was produced with several -chips missing; I gave 4s. for it, but offered 16s.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_35">35</span> -more for the chips, which induced the men to sit -down and turn over twenty tons of earth by hand, -fingering every grain; nearly every scrap was found, -the men got the whole 20s., and I got the whole of -the largest flint knife known. In another case I -kept a lad sifting earth for three weeks, to find a -minute head which he had lost. Nothing can ensure -care better than paying for it; while any bad carelessness -or disobedience to orders is met by degrading -a man to unprofitable work or dismissing him. -The principle that the holder gets the <i>bakhshish</i> -must even be extended to cases where one man has -taken things from another man’s hole; the man who -has lost the things is merely told that he should have -taken better care of his work.</p> - -<div id="sn_25" class="sidenote">Accounts.</div> - -<p>The account keeping is a serious matter, especially -when the men are working far from home, as then -they wish to be paid irregularly. There -is first the account of earnings, by day or -by piecework; second, the account of <i>bakhshish</i>; -third, the banking account of how much each man -has due to him, or, if he has just drawn gold, perhaps -a small balance against him; and fourth, the -advances for market and for drawing to send home. -The simplest way of paying is Schliemann’s, giving -a day’s pay to every man every night; but it requires -great quantities of change and a long time of -delay to the workers and the master. Weekly payments -are better, on the night before market day or -on market morning. The account is read through -to a man, his assent obtained to it; he is asked if he -wants to draw gold, and if not, the total is booked -to him, added to his previous balance. Then for<span class="pagenum" id="Page_36">36</span> -marketing, it is best to join the men in groups of -six or eight together, and give the chief man of each -group a sovereign to divide as they want it. After -market he states how much each has had, and it is -deducted from the balance of each man, while any -unspent cash is returned.</p> - -<p>Thus the amounts which should balance in weekly -accounts are, for <span class="locked">instance:—</span></p> - -<table id="t36" class="tw35" summary="Weekly account balances"> -<tr> - <td class="tdc"><span class="smcap">Received.</span></td> - <td class="tdc">£</td> - <td class="tdc"><span class="smcap">Pt.</span></td> - <td class="tdc bl"><span class="smcap">Spent.</span></td> - <td class="tdc">£</td> - <td class="tdc"><span class="smcap">Pt.</span></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Total to 17th Feb.</td> - <td class="tdc">168 </td> - <td class="tdc br">77</td> - <td class="tdl">Total to 17th Feb.</td> - <td class="tdc">182 </td> - <td class="tdc">34</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="in2">on 19th „</span></td> - <td class="tdc">10</td> - <td class="tdc br"></td> - <td class="tdl">Wages to 24th „</td> - <td class="tdc">34</td> - <td class="tdc">16</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="in2">on 22nd „</span></td> - <td class="tdc"> 5</td> - <td class="tdc br"></td> - <td class="tdl">Locals to 24th „</td> - <td class="tdc"> 9</td> - <td class="tdc">83</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="in2">on 24th „</span></td> - <td class="tdc"><span class="bb">20</span></td> - <td class="tdc br"><span class="bb">80</span></td> - <td class="tdl">House</td> - <td class="tdc"></td> - <td class="tdc">39</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="br" colspan="3"></td> - <td class="tdl">Materials</td> - <td class="tdc"></td> - <td class="tdc">64</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Total received</td> - <td class="tdc">204 </td> - <td class="tdc br"> 59½</td> - <td class="tdl">Personal drawings</td> - <td class="tdc"> 5</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Due to men</td> - <td class="tdc">27</td> - <td class="tdc br">79</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Balancing total</td> - <td class="tdc"><span class="bbd btt">232 </span></td> - <td class="tdc br"><span class="bbd btt">41</span></td> - <td class="tdl"></td> - <td class="tdc"><span class="bbd btt">232 </span></td> - <td class="tdc"><span class="bbd btt">41</span></td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p class="in0">This, of course, being the paymaster account, as -apart from the accounts in chief, and from which the -accounts in chief are made up by the head of a party.</p> - -<p>It is necessary to take trouble to gain the confidence -of the men; they must be convinced of the -master’s good faith and precision. Whenever there -is reasonable doubt on a point, they must always be -given the benefit of it; and plenty of patience is -needed to hear their complaints, and to understand -what is the real state of an objection. Some men -are so puzzle-headed that they cannot remember -their account clearly; and if so, it is best to make -them name some friend with whom all their accounts -are settled. If any man wants to go far back in -accounts—and sometimes they will raise a question<span class="pagenum" id="Page_37">37</span> -of four or five weeks before—then it is well to have -a friend as witness, who will see that it is right, and -close the matter, silencing any puzzled grumbling. -Egyptians will often dispute accounts against their -own interest, and remind the payer of amounts which -they have received that may have been overlooked. -But it is needful to show care and interest about the -smallest amounts, so as to maintain a sense of exactness -and precision with the men.</p> - -<p>Some masters avoid going over accounts by giving -each man a card, and entering his account on it in -figures; but as the man cannot check it without -asking a reader, this hardly meets the case. Another -form of accounts is, however, understood and desired -by the men, in the form of a tally which every one -can check, and from which they can automatically -balance accounts at once. A piece of sheet zinc is -ruled in columns (<a href="#il_21">Fig. 21</a>), each of 20 squares for -the 20 piastres in each dollar; and every fifth column -is lined heavier, as marking a pound. All amounts -earned are marked by spots in the columns, and -amounts paid are scored through. Thus in this -example the earnings were 12, 2, 5, 9, 30, and 15 -piastres; the drawings were 17, 14, 11, 4, 2, 1½, 6½ -piastres; and the balance still due between the last -score and the last spot is 17 piastres, which any -man can count for himself. Such a tally will hold -five pounds of accounts, or ten if ruled on both sides.</p> - -<div id="sn_26" class="sidenote">Native ways.</div> - -<p>It hardly needs saying that a small amount of -doctoring is continually wanted. Damages to hands -and limbs in moving heavy stones, bruises -and strains, sore eyes, malarial fever, -rheumatic headaches, indigestion, swellings and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_38">38</span> -gatherings, old sores, and many other small ailments -are of daily occurrence. A stock of medicines, and -some care in applying them, are necessary in any -excavations. But it is necessary to refuse to give -medicine to any one outside of the workmen: first, -because a gratis doctor would never have time to -do other work; second, on account of infection; and -third, because patients are an excuse for spies.</p> - -<div id="il_21" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 27em;"> - <img src="images/i_038.png" width="1674" height="1505" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 21.</span>—Account-card for native wages. Each square, one piastre. Each column, - one dollar. A spot at each amount due. A line through the squares paid up. -</div></div> - -<p>Having now noticed the men who are required, -something may be said of those who are not required. -The dealer and the spy are a constant plague. No -man must be allowed to loaf about the work, or to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_39">39</span> -lie watching it from a look-out point. And any -troublesome men are best dealt with by taking shoes -or head-shawl from them, and offering to send the -clothes to the man’s sheikh to be returned to him. -To get them he must give his name, and the name -of his sheikh; and that no man will do, as he can -then be dropped on by the police in future. Not a -single loafer will ever give his name and sheikh, and -so they are well kept at bay by confiscating clothing -or tools. Once I took the donkey of a troublesome -man, who had fled from me; and gave it up to his -sheikh, who came to intercede next day. Doubtless -it had to be redeemed by some blackmail to the -sheikh, and the needful lesson was taught. Dealers -are incessantly trying to get at the men, daily at -wells or as tobacco-sellers, and weekly in the market; -and so any unexplained persons who are seen about -should be moved on and kept at a distance.</p> - -<p>It is supposed by some that there is a solidarity -in the family of an Egyptian, which ensures that a -man’s relatives know about his actions, and are -aware if he goes wrong. But various events have -shown that a man’s own relatives may be quite in -the dark about his doings, and that a chance outsider -may see, know, and tell things about a man -which are secret from his relatives living with him. -Hence the guarantee of a relative is worth practically -nothing, and every man must be taken on his own -merits. It must always be remembered that excavation -is for the sake of archaeology, and is not -undertaken in the interest of the workman. Hence -any doubt about a man’s character is sufficient reason -for not employing him. There is neither reason nor<span class="pagenum" id="Page_40">40</span> -use in making accusations, which after all it might -be impossible to prove. But an unostentatious weeding -out of men during the fluctuations of the work -is the best means of avoiding those who seem less -likely to be trustworthy.</p> - -<p>A reason for not taking any man’s recommendations -is that the introduction to the work is sure to -be paid for; and if Ibrahim begs you to employ -Aly, and succeeds, Aly will have to give him a lump -sum or a share of the wages. Advice <i>for</i> a man -should therefore never be taken; though advice -<i>against</i> a man may be disinterested and useful.</p> - -<div id="il_22" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 26em;"> - <img src="images/i_041.jpg" width="1619" height="1212" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Fig. 22. Carrier boys throwing on mounds. Abydos. -</div></div> - -<div id="il_23" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 26em;"> - <img src="images/i_041b.jpg" width="1619" height="1391" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Fig. 23. Town-site turned over, showing outer wall. Kahun. -</div></div> -<hr /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_41">41</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV<br /> - -<span class="subhead">THE ARRANGEMENT OF WORK</span></h2> -</div> - -<div id="sn_27" class="sidenote">Clearances.</div> - -<p class="in0"><span class="firstword">A large</span> site, such as that of a temple or a town, -may be attacked in several ways. The most cursory -method is by trial pits in various spots; -pits which, if they hit anything of importance, -are likely to injure it, and certain to -destroy its connection with other things. French -explorers have a love for <i>faire quelques sondages</i>, a -proceeding which often ruins a site for systematic -work, and which never shows the meaning of the -positions or the nature of the plan. If it is quite -uncertain whether there be remains in the ground, -the best examination is by parallel trenches, as such -give a good view of the soil, while the stuff can be -turned back and the trench filled behind if not -wanted. In case of tracing a building, trenches cut -along the lines of the walls are a good beginning; -and then if more is wanted, the plan is clear and -the rooms can be emptied with foresight.</p> - -<div id="il_24" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 26em;"> - <img src="images/i_042.jpg" width="1615" height="2340" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Fig. 24. <span class="smcap">Cutting down from the top edge of the work.</span> -</div></div> - -<p>A favourite method with the older explorers was -to clear out a whole area (<a href="#il_18">Fig. 18</a>) and throw the -stuff all round the site. This may be needful in -case of superimposed buildings, which must be<span class="pagenum" id="Page_42">42</span> -studied one by one, as only two or three periods -can be planned at once, and the upper have to be -removed before the lower can be cleared. But such -a method is a clumsy waste in dealing with a simple -group of buildings. The great difficulty of it is to -know where to place the stuff removed, so as not -to block future work. Before beginning any large -excavation, the amount to be shifted should be -gauged, and the position of the stuff settled beforehand. -The great clearance on the side of the -Medum pyramid, to expose the temple, was planned -out with the position and size of each waste heap -in the mind’s eye, and the system of paths by which -the stuff could be shifted with least fatigue. It is -needful to continually adjust the moving, so as to -avoid lifting the stuff more than really needed; -and any long run down of material, either towards -the digger or away from the thrower, should be -prevented, as it all has to be lifted again in some -shape. Working at the foot of a long run of stuff -is entirely wrong; such ground should be shifted in -successive levels, each level being discharged without -needing to raise the earth up again. Excavations -at the Sphinx were carried on by the Government -with two men filling baskets with sand, which ran -down 20 feet from the surface to the bottom of a -pit; and the baskets were then carried up by a -long train of children very slowly climbing up out -of the pit on a sand slope at the angle of running -sand. Thus nearly the whole labour was wasted by -not filling the baskets at the surface and carrying -them directly away. Whenever a large pit is needed -it should be begun of full size, and lowered equally<span class="pagenum" id="Page_43">43</span> -all over, so that nothing runs down during the -work.</p> - -<div id="il_25" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 23em;"> - <img src="images/i_043.jpg" width="1422" height="1134" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Cemetery work</span></p> - <p>Fig. 25. Mounds, at Yehudiyeh.</p> -</div></div> - -<div id="il_26" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 24em;"> - <img src="images/i_043b.jpg" width="1480" height="1468" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Cemetery work</span></p> - <p>Fig. 26. Sarcophagi, Abydos.</p> -</div></div> - -<p>For moving earth to a distance there is no way -so simple and adaptable as a line of carrier boys -(<a href="#il_22">Fig. 22</a>). Over flat ground this is the best way -up to distances of 50 or 100 yards; for longer discharges -it may be better to lay down a light railway -and use trucks. The line of boys is the only -practicable way if the stuff has to be carried up a -slope to discharge, or taken over irregular paths out -of the work, as is often the case. The railway -needs much time for rearranging different points of -collection and discharge; and must be in duplicate, -or else the work will be at a stand-still during rearrangement. -A boy will carry 20 to 30 lbs. in a -load, about 20 journeys an hour for 100 yards -discharge, thus moving about 2 tons a day. So -the cost is about a piastre a cubic metre for shifting -100 yards.</p> - -<div id="sn_28" class="sidenote">Turning over.</div> - -<p>But far the more economical and rapid work is -that of turning over whenever practicable. If a site -has not been often rebuilt upon, the way -is to start by a long clearance at one -edge; and then a line of men steadily cut from one -side of the trench and throw back on the other (<a href="#il_24">Fig. 24</a>), -so that the trench moves across the whole site, -and every pound of earth is turned over. Each -man needs a frontage of between 4 and 6 -metres in width; and the trench, if open along, -should have a clear bottom of at least 2 metres, -from back to front of the work. More usually it is -worked in compartments, each man clearing about -4 metres square, and throwing into his previous<span class="pagenum" id="Page_44">44</span> -hole; each hole is then gauged when empty and -the pay assessed. If a town is cleared (<a href="#il_23">Fig. 23</a>), -then it is done chamber by chamber, each being -emptied over the wall into the previous chamber. -The corners of the chambers can just be left visible -for making a plan afterwards. A great advantage -of this way is that the ground is finally left covered, -so there is no great waste heap, and the walls are -all covered over again to save them from future -destruction.</p> - -<div id="sn_29" class="sidenote">Raising earth.</div> - -<p>Where a deep hollow has to be cleared out it is -a wasteful plan to let the boys walk out with the -basket of earth, as they have to raise the -body, which is about four times the -weight of their load. So soon as the rise is as steep -as one in four, it is best to form a fixed chain of boys -(<a href="#il_27">Fig. 27</a>), each standing in a permanent place, and -handing the baskets up from one to another. About -5 feet apart horizontally is as far as is useful; or -in case of steep work (as out of pits) the vertical -lift may be 3 or 4 feet (<a href="#il_1">Fig. 1</a>). A sufficient number -of collectors at the bottom and throwers at the -top are of course needed to keep the chain in full -work (<a href="#il_28">Fig. 28</a>). A well-proportioned gang should -not have any accumulations along it, and must be -quietly watched from time to time to see that all -parts work equally. If the baskets of earth lag at -any point and accumulate, the boys before the point -must be thinned, and those beyond it increased. A -favourite plan of the boys is to let a basket lie unshifted -and then stand upon it, as a full basket of -earth gives a pleasant footing, and there is one less -to keep moving. In this way most of the baskets<span class="pagenum" id="Page_45">45</span> -can be quietly suppressed and yet every one remains -as busy as they can be with the short stock of baskets -that remain. All such misuse of baskets must be -stopped at once; but old burst baskets may be used -thus with advantage.</p> - -<div id="il_27" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 24em;"> - <img src="images/i_044.jpg" width="1482" height="1554" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Chains of workers.</span></p> - <p>Fig. 27. At tomb of Usertesen II.</p> -</div></div> - -<div id="il_28" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 26em;"> - <img src="images/i_044b.jpg" width="1647" height="1104" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Chains of workers.</span></p> - <p>Fig. 28. At tomb of King Den.</p> -</div></div> - -<p>This system of lifting is also used in a surprising -way for vertical tomb pits. An Egyptian man will -stand all day with his feet on opposite sides of a pit -in foot-holes, and stoop down to take a full basket -from a man below at the level of his feet; then raise -himself, and lift the basket up at arms’ length above -his head, thus lifting it 6 or 7 feet. Three men -will thus empty out a pit to 20 feet deep; but -such men are usually old tomb-robbers, and must be -employed with circumspection. More usually ropes -are used, one tied to each handle of a basket, and -pulled up by a pair of men. The earth is best left -in the carrying basket, which is laid in the roped -basket at the bottom, and taken out of it at the -surface. If the pit is rotten and wide at the top, the -basket has to be swung across the top two or three -times, until on letting the ropes loose it flies out 10 -or 20 feet to the side of the pit, where it is caught -by the emptying boy. Clever rope-men will let a -basket fly so as to catch on the top of the dump heap -and turn over, so that it only needs clearing loose to -let it go back again. The ropes need careful watching; -the men love to tie knots in them, to grip by, -whereby they wear through at the knots and drop to -pieces; also the ropes are dragged on the edge of the -pit, so as to serve as a friction-clutch when changing -hands, thus wearing the rope out in two days instead -of two months; the sides of the pit should be looked<span class="pagenum" id="Page_46">46</span> -at to see if there is any sawing by the rope, and if -so, the men must be stopped. They also cut off -pieces if the ropes are long; and it is best to have -all ropes in standard lengths of 8 metres, these when -doubled thrice over down to 1 metre length are -quickly tested for length, and then hanked in the -middle to put by. Lastly, if not regularly delivered -into store every night, the ropes are not returned -when a pit is finished; and then they vanish, and a -fresh pair is asked for when the next pit goes deep.</p> - -<p>Another favourite misuse of ropes is to lash them -round blocks of stone which have to be dragged, and -thus cut the rope into scraps by wearing on the -ground. Ropes can generally be put round the sides -of a stone, and kept in place by some old scraps -passing beneath.</p> - -<div id="sn_30" class="sidenote">Tracing walls.</div> - -<p>One of the most careful kinds of work, to which -only good men can be trained, is that of tracing out -unbaked brick walls buried in rubbish. -The surrounding earth is derived from -the crumbling and washing down of the earthen wall, -and therefore it is indistinguishable from the average -of the bricks themselves. Hence, if the bricks are -uniform in colour, and the mud mortar is like them, -the building and its débris are all alike. The best -way to examine brickwork is by scraping a face of -the wall, and then peeling it quite clean with a -dinner-knife; such a clean smooth surface seen in -shadow will show whatever can possibly be made out -of the differences of colour and texture. Vertical -joints are worth far more than horizontal, as often -fallen bricks may lie as if built together. If possible -the joints should be observed by differences of colour,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_47">47</span> -and the bricks measured for comparison with others; -as the sizes vary from 7 inches to 2 feet in length, -and but seldom range over half an inch in any one -building period, the size will go a long way in showing -a connection of age. If the bricks cannot be -distinguished even after leaving the face to dry for -some days, the earth should be searched by pecking -with a trowel or knife to see if there is dirt -in it: only in late times are pottery chips found -usually in bricks, and charcoal scraps are very rare, -hence pottery and charcoal almost prove the earth to -be mere wash and rubbish. The clearing back of -dirty earth to a vertical face of clean clay is a satisfactory -evidence of a wall. But sometimes the filling -is so clean that there is no difference between it and -the wall. Then the relative hardness will often serve -to distinguish one from the other; and this is a main -means of discrimination by the workmen, who will -often tell a wall entirely by the touch under the pick. -Failing all these tests, and the strata of dirt beds, -the film of stucco on the wall face will sometimes -show up, but may leave a doubt as to which side is -the wall. In the last resource the stuff should be -searched with a magnifier to see the hollows left by -decomposed straw dust: in kneaded brick these -hollows lie in every direction; in blown dust and -wash they lie nearly all horizontal. It is often needful -to spend half-an-hour testing and tracing out the -line of a wall, fixing the face and the top and base -of it; and such work may give the only evidence of -a temple or important building.</p> -<hr /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_48">48</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V<br /> - -<span class="subhead">RECORDING IN THE FIELD</span></h2> -</div> - -<div id="sn_31" class="sidenote">Need of record.</div> - -<p class="in0"><span class="firstword">After</span> finding things the first consideration is to -record and preserve all the information about them. -The most ignorant dealer or plunderer -may be a very successful digger, but he -will not care for the value of a record. Recording -is the absolute dividing line between plundering and -scientific work, between a dealer and a scholar. The -most blue-blooded <i>dilettante</i> collector who digs to -possess fine things, but records no facts about them, -is below the level of the dealer who will publish an -illustrated priced catalogue, and state what was -found together, and the details of the discovery. -The unpardonable crime in archaeology is destroying -evidence which can never be recovered; and every -discovery does destroy evidence unless it is intelligently -recorded. Our museums are ghastly -charnel-houses of murdered evidence; the dry bones -of objects are there, bare of all the facts of grouping, -locality, and dating which would give them historical -life and value. And it is only the self-evident facts -of age that we already know, which can be observed -in such a useless condition. So ignorant are<span class="pagenum" id="Page_49">49</span> -curators that they will even divide up a tomb-group -of objects, which are the keys to knowledge, and -foolishly scatter them up and down the galleries -merely as second-rate specimens of what is already -there, without any date or history. This is actually -the case in the three largest national museums. It -is therefore imperative not only to record, but also -to publish, the facts observed; so that when in -future the elements of scientific management may -come to be understood, a fit curator may succeed in -reuniting the long-severed information, as is being -to some extent happily done at Dublin.</p> - -<p>In recording, the first difficulty is to know what -to record. To state every fact about everything -found would be useless, as no one could wade -through the mass of statements. It would be like a -detective who would photograph and measure every -man on London Bridge to search for a criminal: the -complication would entirely defeat the object. It is -absolutely necessary to know how much is already -known before setting about recording more. In -some periods, such as the XVIIIth Dynasty, so much -is ascertained that it is seldom that new facts can be -brought to light; and only fine or unusual discoveries -are worth full publication. On the other hand, in -such an age as the early dynasties our only resource -lies in complete records of the levels or collocations -of hundreds of pots, whole or broken; and most -important historical conclusions may hang on a -single potsherd.</p> - -<div id="sn_32" class="sidenote">Value of record.</div> - -<p>It is plain therefore that the accuracy and certainty -of the record is necessary. At the moment that a -fact is before the eye,—a fact which may never<span class="pagenum" id="Page_50">50</span> -be seen again, and perhaps never paralleled,—it is -needful for the observer to make certain -of all the details, to verify every point -which is of fresh value, and to record all that is new -with certainty and exactitude. Statements with a -query, or a doubt about them, are worth nothing in -themselves, and can only serve to add to the range -of similar facts that may be safely recorded from -elsewhere. Everything seen should be mentally -grasped, and its meaning and bearings comprehended -at the moment of discovery, so clearly that a -definitive statement can be made, which shall be as -certain and as absolute as anything can be which -depends on human senses. The observer should at -least feel no possible doubts or qualms about his -recorded facts; and what uncertainties there are -should only be those which lie beyond his perceptions. -It is well to work slowly over all the petty -details of an important discovery, perhaps for half -an hour, while considering all the facts and their -meaning, before finally and irrevocably removing the -main evidences of position. All this needs practice, -and a full knowledge of what is important and what -is trivial.</p> - -<div id="sn_33" class="sidenote">Resulting view.</div> - -<p>And not only should such a record be made at -the time, but the record should be presented finally -in an intelligible form. To empty the -contents of note-books on a reader’s -head is not publishing. A mass of statements which -have no point, and do not appear to lead to any -conclusion or generalisation, cannot be regarded as -an efficient publication. The meaning of each fact -should be made apparent, and the relative importance<span class="pagenum" id="Page_51">51</span> -of the details should be kept in view, so as to -present the conclusions as a picture, in which each -touch is in its proper place, and where each point -adds to the whole without being disproportionately -treated. Thus the final result is a statement much -like what might have been written by a contemporary -of the times in question; proved and enforced at -each point by the various facts discovered.</p> - -<p>In many cases our materials are not enough to -give such a picture; and then, either the blanks -must be noted and the limits of uncertainty stated, -or else, at the worst, the facts must be grouped, and -their results stated, leaving the question with two or -more solutions open to future settlement.</p> - -<p>Thus the final result to be aimed at is a picture -full of detail and accuracy; and, where material is -insufficient, with the limits of doubt clearly laid -down, so that fresh material can at once be incorporated, -and its value seen and grasped, so soon -as it may be discovered.</p> - -<div id="sn_34" class="sidenote">Marking.</div> - -<p>A very needful part of the recording is the -marking of the objects with their source. Generally -each part of a site is distinguished by a -letter, and each group of objects found -in that part by a number; thus a cemetery may be -E, another adjoining it on different ground F, yet -another G, a temple site T, and so on, sometimes -using up the whole alphabet on a varied district. -Then E 17, F 8, G 65, will be different tombs in -those cemeteries, as denoted in the note-book and on -the objects. Every bone of a skeleton should be -marked, and always on one fixed position for each -bone. It is best to trust to writing the reference<span class="pagenum" id="Page_52">52</span> -with China ink on the base or back of most objects; -for pottery and coarse things Brunswick black -thinned with turpentine is best; for dark stones -scratching the number is safest, and also for wet -pottery at the time it is found. Jewellers’ tag-labels -with strings are useful for small objects. It is very -unsafe to trust labelling only to the wrapping papers, -which may be all thrown away; separate labels -should be wrapped with the things if they cannot be -marked otherwise.</p> - -<div id="sn_35" class="sidenote">Nature of notes.</div> - -<p>The nature of the notes must vary with each -kind of material and each period; but we may here -give some examples of the nature of -such records.</p> - -<p><i>Town Plan.</i>—Survey of every wall of each -house; thickness of each wall (easily neglected); -reveals of doorways; doorsills if of stone; sizes of -bricks; levels of top and base of each wall if any -rebuilt or superimposed; contents of each chamber, -note if on floor or in filling; objects buried in floors; -special note of position of exactly dated objects; -copies of any frescoes or decoration.</p> - -<p><i>Tomb.</i>—Position relative to other tombs. Size of -pit, direction, depth. Position of chamber. Filling -intact, or estimate of time that it has stood open -anciently by the weathering of the sides. Objects -found loose in filling. Chamber plan. Primary or -secondary burial. Position of body, head direction, -face direction, attitude of body and limbs. Position -of beads and small objects on body. Note if beads -follow any pattern or order; record order of as long -groups of beads as possible for rethreading; wrappings, -amount and nature. Coffin or cartonnage; inscription<span class="pagenum" id="Page_53">53</span> -and figures, if any, often need copying or photographing -before removal, as they may fall to pieces. -Skull and jaw to be removed for measurement; or, -if in rarer periods, whole skeleton to be preserved. -Position and nature of all offerings and objects -placed in the tomb. Copies of any inscriptions or -paintings on the walls of the tomb.</p> - -<p>To such outlines of the usual character of records -are added any special details which are but rarely -found; but the above will serve to remind an excavator -of what must always be looked for.</p> - -<div id="sn_36" class="sidenote">Planning.</div> - -<p>In making a plan of any large area, such as a -town, it is best to start with a rough key-plan divided -into a few dozen squares, each row of -squares lettered, each column of squares -numbered, so that every square is designated, as -B 5, etc. (<a href="#il_32">Fig. 32</a>). Then the detailed plan of each -square is to be made on one opening of a note-book -of squared paper, the openings running A 1, A 2, -A 3; B 1, B 2, B 3, etc. Thus any connection from -one page to another can be found at once by looking -for the next letter or number: the whole plan is -in the pocket, and can be added to, chamber by -chamber, as the clearing progresses. It need hardly -be said that every plan or detail should be -drawn north upwards in the note-book. Main lines -are of course to be connected together by long lines -of measurement.</p> - -<p>As a general principle it is best to measure -positions of as many points as possible along one -single line of measurement, rather than take many -piecemeal short distances and add them together. -Thus (<a href="#il_29">Fig. 29</a>) a series of walls should be stated as,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_54">54</span> -66, 76, 201, 220, 257, 269, 330, 353, 434, 446 -inches, rather than as lengths of 66, 10, 25, 19, 37, -12, 61, 23, 81, and 12 inches; for the total is more -accurate when measured all in one, the positions are -plotted quicker, and the comparison with any symmetric -lengths of the building are easier made on -the spot, so as to detect errors.</p> - -<div id="il_29" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 26em;"> - <img src="images/i_054.png" width="1607" height="1008" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 29.</span>—Example of a plan measured entirely from two bounding lines. -</div></div> - -<p>In the direct measurement of groups of walls, etc., -it is the quicker and more accurate method to adopt -two outside sighting lines, say one along the north, -the other along the east, of the ground, marked out -by high walls or large stones always visible, and then -measure every point out to the two sighting lines at -right angles. Spaces of over 100 feet across can be -divided into separate groups.</p> - -<p>The general use of instruments cannot be entered -upon here. But amongst the means of work the -divided rod is indispensable, and it is all that is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_55">55</span> -wanted for most small buildings that are met with. -The tape is the most practical for distances of 10 to -50 feet; and the steel tape for accurate measuring -of base lines, or long distances. The box-sextant is -for very broken ground, and isolated details, or if -working alone; and the theodolite for accurate work -anywhere between the accuracy of, say, 1 inch on -500 feet and the refinement of a ¼ of an inch -on a mile. The plane table may be convenient for -approximate plans, and is simple and rapid to use. -The prismatic compass is of use for the directions of -single blocks or fragments of wall, and is handy for -rough topography (generally with paced distances), -or for underground passages.</p> - -<p>In considering the accuracy required, if dimensions -in figures are to be given, then minute measurement -is wanted, somewhat more accurate than the original -workmanship. But where only a plan is to be produced, -it is seldom practicable to show more accuracy -than 1/100th inch on a book page 10 inches high, or -1/1000th of the whole, and therefore it is of no use to -measure closer than 1 inch on a space of 200 feet -or so across.</p> - -<div id="sn_37" class="sidenote">Plotting.</div> - -<p>It need hardly be said that the barbarous irregular -fractions, such as ⅜ of an inch to a foot or to -a mile, should never be used for plotting. -Simple decimal scales should alone be -used, and generally 1/100th is the most suitable and -easy for all plans of ordinary buildings, towns, etc.; -this is further reduced by photolithography to whatever -scale will best fit the size of publication.</p> - -<div id="il_30" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 28em;"> - <img src="images/i_056.png" width="1760" height="1119" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 30.</span>—Method of plotting a three-point survey, <i>n</i>, <i>w</i>, <i>s</i>, the three fixed points. - A the point to be found. B, C, centres of struck circles. -</div></div> - -<p>Though the ordinary methods of survey need not -be stated here, the box-sextant is so seldom seen that<span class="pagenum" id="Page_56">56</span> -some account should be given of its use. The -objection to its use on short distances, that parallax -between the direct and reflected ray causes errors, -can be avoided by overlapping the images about ¾ -inch, the usual amount of the parallax. The main -use of the sextant is for three-point survey. Over -broken ground where many isolated points have to -be fixed, within a few inches on a few hundred feet, -there is no method so quick and useful as the nautical -three-point method, when improved by rigid plotting. -At any three points which shall be visible from the -whole of the ground, and within its general plane, -three signals are placed, best lettered by the quarter -of the horizon nearest to each, say <i>n</i>, <i>s</i>, <i>w</i>. The three -points must be so placed that the one circle passing -through them all shall not pass through points<span class="pagenum" id="Page_57">57</span> -needed in the survey; otherwise they may be in any -position, though best as a triangle of about equal -sides. The three angles and one side are to be -measured, thus defining the whole triangle. Then at -any point to be fixed, A, the two angles between -<i>n</i> to <i>s</i> and <i>w</i> to <i>s</i> are measured with the sextant, -and these suffice to fix the position. For plotting -(<a href="#il_30">Fig. 30</a>), lay down the triangle of the three fixed -points, say to scale 1/100th (the triangle with shaded -corners <i>n</i>, <i>s</i>, <i>w</i>), and the perpendiculars to each side -of it; this is most accurately done by a large protractor -with vernier, setting out the radii and perpendiculars -of the triangle from its centre. Then -tabulate the half of each base × cotan. angles observed -on that base, <i>e.g.</i></p> - -<table id="t57" class="tw30" summary="Box sextant calculation example"> -<tr> - <td class="tdc"></td> - <td class="tdc"></td> - <td class="tdc">logs.</td> - <td class="tdc">n.n.</td> - <td class="tdc">logs.</td> - <td class="tdc">n.n.</td> - <td class="tdc">logs.</td> - <td class="tdc">n.n.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc">½ bases</td> - <td class="tdc"><i> n</i></td> - <td class="tdc"><span class="bbt">·27314</span></td> - <td class="tdc"></td> - <td class="tdc"><i>s</i> <span class="bbt">·36621</span></td> - <td class="tdc"></td> - <td class="tdc"><i>w</i> <span class="bbt">·29223</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><i>n</i></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc" rowspan="3">x cotan.<br />angles at<br />places 1, 2, 3</td> - <td class="tdc">{ 1</td> - <td class="tdc">·43223</td> - <td class="tdc">2·705</td> - <td class="tdc">·26272</td> - <td class="tdc">1·831</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc">{ 2</td> - <td class="tdc">·56671</td> - <td class="tdc">3·687</td> - <td class="tdc"></td> - <td class="tdc"></td> - <td class="tdc">·48214</td> - <td class="tdc">3·035</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc">{ 3</td> - <td class="tdc">·41995</td> - <td class="tdc">2·630</td> - <td class="tdc"></td> - <td class="tdc"></td> - <td class="tdc">·67709</td> - <td class="tdc">4·754</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p class="in0">Here the log. half base <i>n</i> to <i>s</i> is ·27314; this added -to log. cotan. of angle subtended by <i>n</i>-<i>s</i> from station -1 is log. ·43223, giving a value 2·705 inches. From -station 1 the angle <i>s</i>-<i>w</i> was observed; and from -stations 2 and 3 the angle <i>w</i>-<i>n</i> was observed. All -this calculation can be rapidly done in this form, placing -the sheet upon the log. book, with the written log. -half base next below the printed log. cotan. angle, -and writing down the sum of the two against the -number of the station. Then on the plan, plot these -(½ base × cotan.) on the perpendiculars of their -respective bases as at B and C, marking the station -number to each. Then with compasses sweep an arc<span class="pagenum" id="Page_58">58</span> -from one centre B, with radius Bs equal to the distance -from the centre to its two points of the triangle. -The same from the other centre C that has the same -number of station. The intersection of the arcs is -the point A of that station on the plan.</p> - -<p>Of course the prolonged perpendiculars (broken -lines) are used as often as the direct perpendiculars; -the <i>aspect</i> of the angle from the station, whether <i>n</i>-<i>s</i> -or <i>s</i>-<i>n</i> showing on which half of the perpendicular -we should lay off the centre. For angles over 90° -the complement of the angle should be used in calculation, -the centre then laid off on the wrong half -of the perpendicular, and the arc swept across the -right half. This mode of plotting gives the fullest -accuracy, such as is never possible with the use of -station-pointers, or trial and error devices which are -used in nautical survey. A field of 40 stations can -be easily calculated in an hour, and plotted in a -couple of hours more. If it is needful to work any -point with pure calculation instead of plotting, it can -be accurately done by the principle that the line -joining the two centres of arcs, B and C, forms with -their common point s an equal and opposite triangle -to that which they form with the survey point A. -It will be seen on looking at the diagram that <i>w</i>-<i>s</i>, -the angle by which B is plotted, is equal to the angle -<i>w</i>-<i>s</i> from A; and similarly the angle of the half -base <i>n</i>-<i>s</i> from C, is equal to <i>n</i>-<i>s</i> from A. Hence -the points <i>n</i>, <i>s</i>, <i>w</i> subtend from A, the observed -angles, and A is the point from which they must -have been observed.</p> - -<p>For levelling, the handiest instrument is a short -rigid pendulum, with mirror attached, to hang truly<span class="pagenum" id="Page_59">59</span> -vertical. The reflection of the eye back to itself is -then a truly horizontal line, and can be sighted on to -any distance. The pendulum is best made about 5 -inches long, with tetrahedral net of suspension thread, -to avoid twisting, passing through two eyes on the -mirror and two eyes on the holder, and a covering -tube to shield it from wind. With this, readings can -easily be taken to an inch on 100 feet, and this is -sufficient accuracy for most archaeological work.</p> -<hr /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_60">60</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI<br /> - -<span class="subhead">COPYING</span></h2> -</div> - -<div id="sn_38" class="sidenote">Paper squeezes.</div> - -<p class="in0"><span class="firstword">A very</span> needful branch of recording is the taking -impressions of inscriptions and flat reliefs. The -usual method is by wet squeezing of -paper, which may be made up of any -thickness, from a true mould to a slight surface -impression. If a mould is wanted for future casting, -a tough rag paper without much size should be -used; but good newspaper will do. The tougher the -paper is when wet, the better. The stone must be -thoroughly cleaned and soaked. The paper is cut -to the size, and, if less than the stone, in two or -more sheets. A sheet is then put in a basin of -water, rolled about to soak, and then gathered into a -ball and rolled between the hands to break the grain, -just short of pulping the surface; next shaken out -like a wet handkerchief, and then laid on the stone -with enough slack to go into all the hollows. It is -then gently beaten with a spoke-brush until it is -pushed into the hollows (<a href="#il_33">Fig. 33</a>). If they are deep -it is needful to use strips of paper soaked and pulped, -and laid by finger in the hollows, so as to nearly -fill them. Finally, a severe beating is given to the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_61">61</span> -whole, as violent as can be done without tearing the -paper. The paper should be pulped on the stone, -and driven into every crack and porosity; using a -second, and even a third, sheet to bind it together. -The pulp in the hollows should be kneaded in with -the sharp edge of the brush-back, using the whole -weight of the body to force it home. About 50 -square feet of such work is as much as can be done -in a day. The precautions are: avoid bubbles of -water or air below the paper, beat quite straight -without dragging, and see that there is no creeping -of the paper or shifting on the stone. When quite -dry and hard the cast may be carefully peeled off. -After heating and waxing, plaster casts may be taken -from it, with a slight oiling between each using.</p> - -<p>A slighter working is enough on shallow inscriptions; -but such squeezes generally need to be taken -off while wet, and allowed to dry alone, or else the -paper drags flat out of the hollows when contracting -in drying. This is specially the case on polished -granite, where there is no grip on the surface.</p> - -<p>Surface impressions of incised carving may be -taken with a single sheet of paper beaten just enough -to catch the edges of the cutting; and such make -excellent bases for inking over to produce a facsimile -drawing (<a href="#il_31">Fig. 31</a>). The impression is so much better -on the inner side, that the inking is done on that, -and the figures are thus reversed in the plate.</p> - -<div id="il_31" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 24em;"> - <img src="images/i_062.png" width="1532" height="1518" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 31.</span>—Copy made by inking a paper squeeze, 1:8. A part of the Israel stele, - with the name Israel in the last line but one. -</div></div> - -<div id="il_32" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 16em;"> - <img src="images/i_063.png" width="1012" height="617" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 32.</span>—System of numbering sheets of connected drawings. -</div></div> - -<div id="sn_39" class="sidenote">Dry squeezes.</div> - -<p>But on all coloured work, and many kinds of -tender stones, wet squeezing is a crime, as it -destroys the original. Fatuous tourists -and brazen students have wrecked -innumerable monuments by wet squeezing, and it<span class="pagenum" id="Page_62">62</span> -is now necessarily prohibited in Egypt unless special -permission is obtained to do some object which -cannot be injured by it. Another system, that of -dry squeezing, I therefore introduced when doing -the Medum tombs. A sheet of thin paper is held -over the stone, and it is pressed over each edge of -the cutting so as to leave a bend in the surface. -Then, laid on a drawing-board, with an oblique -lighting, the bends are all drawn on with pencil, -checking by comparison with the stone. Sometimes -it is best to draw by lamplight, and check with the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_63">63</span> -stone afterwards. The drawing should always begin -at the bottom right hand, so as not to press out the -impression by the hand; and the sheets must not -be rolled before being pencilled. For small lines, a -piece of indiarubber should be used to press the -paper into the hollows. For the outlines of reliefs -the thumb nail must be used. This system is -quicker and more accurate than any reduced-scale -hand drawing. Over large wall surfaces the sheets -should be placed in regular rows, lettered A, B, C -(<a href="#il_32">Fig. 32</a>), and each sheet numbered in the row, so -that A 3, B 3, C 3, come one below the other. The -register of positions is kept by marking a minute -cross with pencil on the wall, so that the corners of -four sheets will fall between the four arms of the -cross. Thus each fresh sheet is placed exactly -to fit the sheets which have preceded it, in the -row and in the column. Any large blanks or -injuries should have their corresponding sheets duly -lettered (even if nothing is on them), and put with -the drawings, so that there shall be no hitch in -placing them all in one great sheet afterwards.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_64">64</span> -It may be convenient to join up the sheets, -and then redivide the drawings at suitable spaces -between the subjects for convenience of packing. -To join the sheets they must be laid together in -position, a slight cut then made with a knife to -mark two sheets across the joint; then turned back-up, -adjusted by the cut, and a strip of adhesive -paper put on the joint, dabbed down and not rubbed -along. Thus large sculptured walls can be copied -sheet by sheet, joined up, inked in, and then photolithographed -for plates. It is needful to remember -that the Postal Union will take rolls up to 60 centimetres -length and 21 cm. diameter, as ordinary -parcels up to 5 kilograms; or 75 cm. length if -not over 10 cm. diameter and 2 kilograms of weight, -by book post, open at ends.</p> - -<div id="il_33" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 19em;"> - <img src="images/i_064.jpg" width="1155" height="1260" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Casting.</span></p> - <p>Fig. 33. Paper squeeze. XII Dyn. Goddess Nekheb.</p> -</div></div> - -<div id="il_34" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 19em;"> - <img src="images/i_064b.jpg" width="1164" height="1368" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Casting.</span></p> - <p>Fig. 34. Plaster cast from paper. Philistine. XX Dyn.</p> -</div></div> - -<div id="sn_40" class="sidenote">Casting.</div> - -<p>Beside the direct material for publishing in plates, -it is often desirable to take casts and impressions, -both for future reference and also as a -step toward a photograph (<a href="#il_34">Fig. 34</a>). -The making of paper impressions or squeezes has -already been noted. Casting with plaster of Paris -is the principal mode of reproduction, and is such a -detailed business in itself that only a few notes can -be given here, such as might possibly be wanted in -field work. The fine work for museum purposes is -outside of our aim here. The main point in handling -wet plaster is rapidity; and for that everything must -be ready, and the exact plan of work and amount of -plaster settled beforehand. A basin should be used -with water equal to about two-thirds of the volume -of plaster required. Into this shake or sift dry -plaster rapidly, until the water is just filled up with<span class="pagenum" id="Page_65">65</span> -it, and no free water left on the top; it is then well -proportioned, and should be violently stirred with a -large flat spoon or slip of wood and poured out in -an even stream, beginning with the middle if a flat -mould, and flattening it out to the edges. It is best -to have rather too little than too much; as a fresh -lot can be mixed, with the hardened pieces of the -first lot, to serve for a backing; the first lot being, -of course, spread over the whole face to begin with. -Strings, or strips of butter-muslin, should be put -through the mass, if it is large, so as to prevent it -falling to pieces if broken later on. Excellent casts -are made with a thin skin of plaster on a backing of -muslin put on a frame; but this requires more skill -than plain work. About 10 minutes after casting -the back should be scraped down level, or planed -with a wide-mouthed hand plane, which is a very -useful tool in finishing casts. No cast of any large -size should be left without even support for some -hours after casting, as it will settle out of shape if -strained. Small quantities of plaster are best mixed -with a pocket knife in the palm of the hand.</p> - -<p>Moulds for casting are usually of clay for a large -scale, but that is not likely to be used in the field-work. -The division of the clay is best done by -bedding threads along the face of the object at the -lines required, and then pulling them up to cut the -clay. The face of the object requires French chalk -(steatite powder) on it to prevent cohesion; oiling or -greasing spoils the face of the original. For field-work -paper moulds are best, and the preparation of -these as wet squeezes has been already described. -To fit the squeeze for use as a mould, it should be<span class="pagenum" id="Page_66">66</span> -heated and brushed with melted beeswax on the -face, without necessarily soaking it through. Any -places that are shiny when cold should be warmed -and rubbed with cotton wool, so that the face is the -true paper cast. Then slightly oil between each -plaster casting, or else the warmth of the setting -plaster will make the wax stick to it. Several -casts can be taken from one paper, if it is carefully -handled in peeling it from the plaster each time. -Paper impressions of cylinders are best made with -blotting-paper, unrolled wet, and left to dry. To -remove the cockling of drying, spread a thin coat of -stiff paste on card, and press the paper squeeze -lightly on it.</p> - -<p>Guttapercha moulds are best if many copies are -required. To get a sharp impression in this tough -material a preliminary mould should be made, of the -right shape, but not sharp on the face. This should -be thoroughly cooled in water for an hour or more, -and then a small quantity of guttapercha from boiling -water should be laid in the hard mould and the -object pressed in very rapidly and with maximum -pressure. Thus the hot material is forced firmly -against every part and takes a brilliant impression. -Such moulds are used for electrotyping as well as -for plaster work. To produce a smooth face to a -lump of hot guttapercha, it should be pulled outwards -from the middle to all sides by thumbs and -fingers, so as to produce a fresh torn face over the -whole upper surface.</p> - -<p>Sealing-wax is one of the handiest materials, and -is used professionally for all the coin reproductions -that are published. Only the best wax is of any<span class="pagenum" id="Page_67">67</span> -use for impressions. It should never be allowed to -burn or blaze, nor even to boil, but should be gently -heated until a large mass will fall quite readily. -The object should be wetted moderately just before -impressing. So soon as the wax is tough the object -should be lifted slightly to make certain that it has -not stuck, and then pressed down again till cold. If -it has stuck it must be pulled away at once, and the -wax picked off while tough. Sealing-wax casts must -be oiled before plaster is put to them; and oil does -not soften or deteriorate sealing-wax if left on for -years. Beeswax, or, better, the mixture called -“dentist’s wax,” makes good impressions, and may -be used for moulds.</p> - -<p>Tin-foil is most useful for rapid impressions, -especially from a fragile or delicate object. The -thinnest should be used, such as is wrapped round -chocolate. To preserve the form of tin-foil it may -be squeezed into place with a back of beeswax, and -so form a facing to a wax mould for casting a -plaster positive. Or it may be pressed alone (forcing -it on with soft indiarubber or cotton wool), and -then floated, back up, on water, while blazing sealing-wax -is dropped into it to form a backing. This -mode is very handy for coin impressions, which will -travel safely in this form and look well. For round -objects, such as cylinders, a tin-foil impression should -be made, beating the foil in with a soft tooth-brush; -then the foil is to be uncoiled by rolling it upon -wax so that the curve is removed without flattening -the impression; it is then ready for a plaster casting, -giving a flat cast of the round cylinder. In all cases -thin gold-foil would be far better than tin-foil; and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_68">68</span> -such an impression might even be preferred to the -original object by some Oriental officials.</p> - -<div id="sn_41" class="sidenote">Drawing.</div> - -<p>Drawing is still the main resource for illustration, -although photographic processes occupy so important -a place. Hand-work is essential for -plans, it is the more useful method for -inscriptions, and it is the more convenient method -for most small objects. There is generally some interpretation -needed, to show details which could not -possibly all be visible in one uniform lighting, as in -a photograph; and this can only be done by drawing -all that can be seen in varying lights and aspects. -Another superiority of outline drawings is that they -are far more easily looked over and referred to than -a much less distinct photograph. And lastly, they -cost a third or a quarter of the amount for publication. -The proper scope of photographs is stated in -the next section.</p> - -<p>As drawing is almost always to be reproduced by -photolithography, or by zinc block, it is essential to -have it entirely in full black and white without any -grey or half tones. Hence the contrast should be -kept as strong as possible; and only China ink of -full blackness should be used for fine lines. In -wide, coarse work, as full-sized inscriptions from -walls, a common writing-ink evaporated to denser -quality may be used. Ebony stain, which some use, -has the disadvantage of spreading badly if it chances -to be wetted. A smooth, glazy-faced paper is good -for fine lines, and does not rag up under the pen. -Cardboard is pleasant to use, but is awkward to send -by post; whereas paper drawings roll up safely in a -tube.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_69">69</span></p> - -<p>A cardinal rule in drawing is that the finest line -should come out to 1/300 inch when the subject is reduced -to the plate size. Thus a drawing to be -reduced to ⅓ by photolithography should have its -finest lines 1/100 inch thick. This line of 1/300 inch -is the finest which is safe not to break up in reproducing; -and of course it spreads a little in the -printing. For very slight shade lines rather thinner -lines may be used, as it is no disadvantage if they -should break.</p> - -<p>It is very desirable to have similar objects all reduced -to the same scale. For pottery ⅙ is a convenient -reduction; for stone vases ⅓; for metal tools -and small objects ½. The drawings of pottery and -stone vases are easiest to do on scales ¼ and ½, as the -measured diameters have to be laid off as radii from -the axis, needing halving throughout. The further -reduction is done when photographing for the lithographs; -and it is always best to have such a reduction -to ⅔, if not to ½, of the size of the drawing, in order to -make it come out more delicate than the hand-work. -A very useful system for recording groups of small -objects, especially such as are found together, is to -lay them out on a sheet (say double the plate size), -as arranged for the plate, and then run a pencil -round the outlines, and add as much detail as may -be needful to explain the objects; thus a pictorial -inventory is made quickly, and is far more useful and -easier for reference than any written inventory (<a href="#il_35">Fig. 35</a>). -The pencil should have the wood split off one -side of the lead, and be sharpened by cutting to a -chisel-edge on the opposite side. Thus the point is -vertically under the guiding side; and when held<span class="pagenum" id="Page_70">70</span> -carefully upright, outlines can well be run from -surfaces half an inch or even an inch above the paper. -The size of the sheet will, of course, depend on the -amount of reduction intended. For numbering the -figures printed numbers can be gummed on to the -drawing.</p> - -<div id="il_35" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 26em;"> - <img src="images/i_070.png" width="1608" height="1219" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 35.</span>—Part of an inventory sheet, recording pieces of ivory carving, 1:3. -</div></div> - -<p>For vases, block tints are more satisfactory than -outlines. So the drawing can be filled up with a -wash of ink. Or if section lines are wanted it is -best to draw the section line, and block out the -ground outside of the vase, leaving the vase white on -a black ground; then have this reversed, black for -white, in the photolithographing. The vases may be -printed in any colour which is suitable.</p> - -<div id="il_36" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 26em;"> - <img src="images/i_071.jpg" width="1638" height="1322" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Fig. 36. Frame for drawing fragments of vases. -</div></div> - -<div id="il_37" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 26em;"> - <img src="images/i_071b.jpg" width="1638" height="1209" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Fig. 37. Weathered grave-stone; unsanded, and sanded. -</div></div> - -<div id="sn_42" class="sidenote">Restored forms.</div> - -<p>The method for drawing a completed form of a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_71">71</span> -vase from fragments is to place the brim and the -base (the curves of which can be accurately -measured against a series of concentric -circles) into their true positions, to a vertical -axis; and then, if there is no complete connection, to -adjust their height on their axis so that their -curvatures (including other pieces which join them) -fall into one line. It is easier to do this with the -mouth downwards. A frame is made (<a href="#il_36">Fig. 36</a>), with -a vertical rod sliding up and down over the middle; -a card with concentric circles on it is placed on the -floor of the frame, and centred under the rod. -Taking a piece of a brim, it is rocked to and fro -until it touches the card all along the edge, and a -leg of wax is stuck on so as to keep it at that angle. -It is then slid about till the curve fits between the -concentric circles. A piece of base has its curvature -measured, by fitting a sheet of celluloid ruled with -concentric circles to the curve of it. It is then fixed -on the lower end of the vertical rod with some wax, -so that the rod is in its axis. Then the rod is slid -down in its grooves until the curves of the piece of -base and of the piece of brim fall into one line. -For drawing the form the radius of the brim and of -the base are already measured; the height is taken -as it stands in the frame, also the greatest radius at -the shoulder, the angle of the side with the base, and -sometimes the height from the brim to the curve at -several different radii, read off by sliding a graduated -square on the concentric circles to touch the curve. -After plotting all these dimensions the curve is drawn -in by freehand, looking carefully at the fragments in -position.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_72">72</span></p> - -<div id="sn_43" class="sidenote">Copying inscriptions.</div> - -<p>For hand copying inscriptions of a small size, a -good method is to fold over the paper at each line -that is done, and draw the signs one by -one on to the fresh edge of paper held side -by side on the stone; thus there is no strain or loss -of time by looking to and fro and finding the place, -no chance of omissions, and the facsimile is as -accurate as possible. This is especially for copying -ink writing and graffiti. When making a reduced -copy by hand it is best to have a sheet of card under -the paper ruled in squares (of ¼ or up to 2 inches), -with thick lines. These show through the paper, -and a frame of strings or threads is put over the -stone, of a larger size, agreeing to the scale of reduction -intended; <i>e.g.</i> for reducing a wall to ⅕, have -card ruled in 1 inch squares, and a frame of strings -5 inches apart over the wall. For lines or columns -of inscription it does to rule the column lines and -only have a long scale on a strip of wood put alongside -of the column which is being copied, so as to -tally with the lines seen through the paper.</p> -<hr /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_73">73</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII<br /> - -<span class="subhead">PHOTOGRAPHING</span></h2> -</div> - -<div id="sn_44" class="sidenote">Camera.</div> - -<p class="in0"><span class="firstword">Photographs</span> are essential for all objects of artistic -interest, and for expressing rounded forms for which -elaborate shading would otherwise be -needed. Views of the excavations and -buildings are also wanted. And it is desirable to -publish photographs as well as drawings of very important -carvings, in order to guarantee the accuracy -of the drawing, which is the more useful edition for -most purposes.</p> - -<p>Though the ordinary knowledge of photography -must be taken for granted here, there are many -details and preferences which are special to this kind -of work. The bane of practical photography is the -rich amateur, who insists on useless luxury of apparatus, -and has set a fashion in fittings which is -absurdly complex. It is undesirable to have a -specially compact camera, as steadiness and convenience -in use are sacrificed for lightness and slightness, -which are no object in a fixed camp. An -old-fashioned bulky camera is better for stationary -work. I have long used a tin-plate camera with -plain draw-body in two pieces; the benefit when<span class="pagenum" id="Page_74">74</span> -enlarged photographs are needed is found by taking -it apart, and inserting a card tube, made up when -wanted to any length required for the enlargement. -Some very simple, adaptable camera is best, with a -large plate-magazine attached to it, so that some -dozens can be carried at once. For ordinary views -and small-scale objects a simple hand camera is -best. A pattern should be adopted which may be -the least liable to get out of order in a very dusty -and gritty climate; of the simplest mechanism, with -a plain thrown-down pattern, to carry a dozen flat -films. As to the size of camera, the ¼ plate is by -far the most useful, being right for lantern slides -and large enough for most objects. Enlargements -can be made to double size (or whole plate) quite as -good as collotype or net will reproduce them. The -time and work of using a whole-plate size are scarcely -ever repaid by the results for practical archaeology.</p> - -<p>The fashion of wide-angle lenses is useless for -everything excepting architecture at close quarters. -And for most objects it is very detrimental to have -so short a focus, as it distorts and spoils the perspective. -It is best to use too long a focus in order -to get truer views of objects, at least 6 inches focus -for a ¼ plate. There does not seem to be any -appreciable gain in the newer patterns of lenses over -the older “rapid rectilinear” or “symmetrical”; and -the positive disadvantages of some recent lenses are -seen in the smaller aperture and lack of light for -focussing, and the distortion at extreme edges. The -iris diaphragm is a disadvantage, as it brings in -another variable, while the time of exposure can be -varied to any extent needed. It is best to stick to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_75">75</span> -one small stop, say <i>f</i>/100, and learn exposures -entirely on that basis; then in case of poor light -a larger stop, as <i>f</i>/25 or <i>f</i>/8, can be used proportionately -to shorten the time. Small stops can be made -out of a strip of tin plate or blackened card; and -the hand camera can be stopped down with a pinhole -stop stuck in front of the lens so as to work -at almost any nearness and scale with exposures of -½ or 1 minute in full sunshine.</p> - -<div id="il_38" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 26em;"> - <img src="images/i_075.jpg" width="1621" height="1437" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Fig. 38. Throwing sand; drop-shutter view. -</div></div> - -<div id="il_39" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 26em;"> - <img src="images/i_075b.jpg" width="1621" height="1212" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Fig. 39. Girls at rest; diagonal mirror view. -</div></div> - -<p>The instantaneous shutter is a useless article for -all fixed objects. It is far better to work with a -small stop which gives plenty of depth of focus, and -expose for 2 to 20 seconds, which is long enough -for <i>f</i>/100 on slow plates in Egypt. For direct enlargement -of objects a stop of <i>f</i>/200 is excellent, -and only needs 30 seconds exposure. If a shutter -is wanted a simple drop can easily be extemporised -(<a href="#il_38">Fig. 38</a>) fitting on to the front of the lens, and -such will give fine results. A diagonal mirror front -can be made out of any decent scrap of looking-glass, -without showing any double image (<a href="#il_39">Fig. 39</a>).</p> - -<p>Rapid films are another fashion better avoided, -as for fixed objects there is no great hurry. The -slowest films made have never caused any practical -inconvenience in my work, and they are far safer -to keep and to develop. The skew-back is never -needed except for architecture; and in the few cases -where it is necessary, the effect can always be as -well obtained by taking the plate square, and then -copying it skewed in a skew-back camera. The -sliding and rising front is about the only complication -that is useful in serious work; and if a long -focus lens is used a large amount of slide can be<span class="pagenum" id="Page_76">76</span> -obtained; but a camera with a free-swinging lens -turning to any angle would be the best form.</p> - -<div id="il_40" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 15em;"> - <img src="images/i_076.jpg" width="932" height="1184" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Fig. 40. Ivory tablet of Zer; light half with black, dark half with white. -</div></div> - -<div id="il_41" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img src="images/i_076b.jpg" width="1572" height="1492" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Fig. 41. Bronze hypocephalus, XXX Dyn.; filled in with white. -</div></div> - -<div id="il_42" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 26em;"> - <img src="images/i_077.jpg" width="1608" height="1308" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Dressing tombs for photographing.</span></p> - <p>Fig. 42. Wooden floor of Azab.</p> -</div></div> - -<div id="il_43" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 26em;"> - <img src="images/i_077b.jpg" width="1608" height="1294" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Dressing tombs for photographing.</span> - <p>Fig. 43. Naqada, prehistoric.</p> -</div></div> - -<div id="sn_45" class="sidenote">Preparing objects.</div> - -<p>The preparation of the object is a very important -point. Any sunk carving or inscription of small size -should generally be filled in with whiting -(<a href="#il_41">Fig. 41</a>) or charcoal dust, according as -the material is dark or light, so as to give a strong -contrast (<a href="#il_40">Fig. 40</a>). In case of worn inscriptions on -impervious stone, such as rock crystal, the lines may -be marked with China ink, dried on, and then gently -wiped with damp fingers until only the faint hollows -retain the ink. What is hardly visible to the eye -can thus be brought up clearly. If hollows are slight -and smooth, so that they will not hold a powder, -brush over with stiff paste, wipe the face clean on -a damp handkerchief, and then press in the powder. -Only rather coarse powders should be used, in order -to avoid staining the object. In field-work objects -should also be carefully dressed. Reliefs upon -weathered stones (<a href="#il_37">Fig. 37</a>) should be dusted over -with sand, and then lightly wiped until just the -wrought relief is cleared, and the ground is left -smoothed with sand. Stones in building should be -brushed or scraped clean, so as to contrast with -the earth. Joints in walls should be picked out or -brushed so as to show clearly. Sometimes, as in a -flooring of wood (<a href="#il_42">Fig. 42</a>), the whole should be -entirely brushed clean, and then the joints packed -with the lightest-coloured sand so as to contrast well. -A grave needs hand-picking, and then every bone -brushing clean, and the ground between packing -with dark earth to give contrast. All pottery and -objects should be entirely cleaned around, and lifted<span class="pagenum" id="Page_77">77</span> -slightly so as to show a clear outline. The proper -dressing of a grave (<a href="#il_43">Fig. 43</a>) will easily occupy two -hours of work. Nothing which adds to the contrast -and clearness of an object should be neglected. -Sometimes for dark objects it is well to dust them -with very fine white powder, as with a puff-ball, so -as to give some light on the darker sides. And for -objects of mottled colour, such as carved porphyry, -a coat of flake-white water-colour is best, so as to -show the relief only and not the colour. For coins -and gems there is no method to compare with photographing -from plaster casts, which are always used -in serious work.</p> - -<div id="sn_46" class="sidenote">Lighting.</div> - -<p>The lighting is the most important element in -photographing. No other requirement is so essential, -for with bad lighting nothing can be -done. The rule of the light coming -from the top left hand should always be followed -where no special direction is needed. Generally a -diagonal light is best for inscriptions, as most lines -are vertical or horizontal. An object should first be -held with a moderately oblique light on the face of -it, then quickly revolved in the plane of its face, so -as to see the changing effect of light from different -directions, observing what lines disappear in various -positions, and selecting the most effective direction. -On setting it up, with the sun (or other light) in the -best direction, the obliquity of the light should then -be tried, tilting the object more or less, until the -details are sufficiently shown without too heavy -shadows. In case of a human face the light should -be nearly vertical, and the obliquity of it sufficient -to bring out the cheek curves to the best. Of course,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_78">78</span> -the position of the object must be regulated entirely -by the direction of the light, and a figure may need -to be tilted in any position. A conical or cylindrical -object must be placed with its axis pointing a little -behind or below the light, so as to lighten the whole -side. For fixed objects, such as buildings, a timetable -of the best hours for each part should be -drawn up and followed.</p> - -<p>Beside direct lighting, subsidiary lighting is very -useful. Any dark shadows should be lighted with -reflectors of white paper or card, or actual mirror. -Or during an exposure of several seconds, or more, -a transient mirror reflection can be played about the -shadow, so as not to show an edge to the light. -When looking at the image on the ground glass -each part should be searched to see if any detail is -lost by shadow, or if an outline is lost against an -equally dark background; if so, some difference of -lighting must be made. Various slips of card may -be fixed around the object, so as to cast shadows -which will make some part of a brightness differing -from its background, and other slips to cast lights -on any dead part. For photographing an ebony -statuette (<a href="#il_44">Fig. 44</a>) I searched in the camera for each -dead uniform surface, and then fixed a slip of card -so as to break the deadness with a reflection; half -a dozen such slips, at a foot or two distance, left the -figure without a single curve not brought out and -intelligible.</p> - -<div id="il_44" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 26em;"> - <img src="images/i_078.jpg" width="1642" height="1541" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Lighting by reflection.</span></p> - <p>Fig. 44. Ebony negress. XVIII Dyn.</p> -</div></div> - -<div id="il_45" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 26em;"> - <img src="images/i_07b.jpg" width="1642" height="1065" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Lighting by reflection.</span></p> - <p>Fig. 45. Tomb of Sem-nefer. Gizeh.</p> -</div></div> - -<p>Reflectors are also very useful for lighting dark -subjects. Three or four sheets of tin plate should -have the edges turned up to stiffen them, and be of -slightly different sizes so as to nest together for<span class="pagenum" id="Page_79">79</span> -carrying. One planted in the sunshine outside a -tomb will send a beam in, which may be reflected -again by another. With three successive reflections, -round two right angles, I have lighted an entirely -dark chamber (<a href="#il_45">Fig. 45</a>) enough to photograph with -five minutes exposure and full aperture. The -successive reflections so neutralise each other’s variations -that a very uniform lighting results.</p> - -<p>If a flat surface with different colour is the object, -then a light exactly from behind the camera is best, -so as to avoid any shadows. A faint ink-writing on -rough pottery will appear with a back light when it -seems quite hopeless in a side light. For papyri two -equal electric arc lights are placed, one on each side -of the camera, so that there can be no shadows and -no reflections.</p> - -<div id="sn_47" class="sidenote">Arrangement of objects.</div> - -<p>Backgrounds should be considered. For most -objects there is nothing so good as black velvet, as -a long exposure can be taken so as to -bring out the shadows on the object, -without any glare from the background. The -ground should extend far beyond the object, as any -bright surface near the object may make internal -reflections in the camera. In short, no bright -surface should be visible within 60° of the axis of -the lens. For dark objects of which the outline -alone is important a light ground might be used; -though even here probably a black ground and long -exposure would be better. A glass background with -light or dark surface some distance behind it is used -sometimes, so as to avoid all shadows from objects. -But in many cases a shadow is positively useful, -and adds to the intelligibility of the view.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_80">80</span></p> - -<p>The direction of the camera is too often horizontal. -For portable objects a vertical position is -generally better, and for groups it is essential -(<a href="#il_46">Fig. 46</a>). The background on which the objects -are laid can be tilted so as to get oblique light from -sun or window, and the camera tilted equally from -the vertical by shifting the legs. Scraps of wax -can be stuck on below objects, so as to keep them -in any exact position required for lighting or viewing, -or scraps of charcoal used as wedges which do -not show on the black backing. There is no need -to trouble about depth of focus, as the insertion of a -small stop, as <i>f</i>/100, is enough to bring up every -part sharp. I have taken a bracelet (<a href="#il_47">Fig. 47</a>) with -the sides at 7 and 9 inches from the lens both in -perfectly sharp focus. In fact, a subject may be -contracted into the plate by putting it out of focus, -and then focussed by the stop. For all cases of -large-scale photographs or enlargements it is best -to focus by shifting the distance from object to lens, -and not from lens to plate.</p> - -<div id="il_46" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 26em;"> - <img src="images/i_080.jpg" width="1624" height="1459" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"> - <p>Fig. 46. Foundation deposit, laid out horizontally.</p> -</div></div> - -<div id="il_47" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 26em;"> - <img src="images/i_080b.jpg" width="1622" height="1092" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"> - <p>Fig. 47. Bracelet of King Zer, 7 and 9 ins. from lens.</p> -</div></div> - -<p>In setting up the camera everything should be -done as far as possible before looking into it,—the -distance measured for the scale required, the camera -set square with the plane of the object in both -directions, and set so as to have the object upright -on the plate. All of this can be far better dealt -with from outside. The actual focussing and slight -adjustments can then be done when viewing the -ground glass. For skew positions it is best to hold -the camera in the hand where it ought to be, keeping -the legs turned up from the ground; and then drop -the legs one after another, so as to touch the ground<span class="pagenum" id="Page_81">81</span> -or some object; thus the camera will be left standing -in the required position. The stand should not -have the legs packed by folding sideways; but they -should be capable of being shortened to the single -length while fixed to the camera, as it is often needful -to support it only a foot from the ground. A -stand should be so made as to give the greatest -range of height. A common fault of beginners is -not covering the plate, but letting the image be -smaller than necessary. Unless working to some -uniform scale, an object should be shown as large as -the plate allows; always remembering that a lantern -slide will seldom take more than 3 inches diameter, -and hardly a full 3 inches square. It is convenient -to fill a ¼ plate with a group, of which the least -important objects are at the sides, and so can be -omitted in a lantern-slide print. A most troublesome -matter is taking a series of wall scenes so that -they will fit exactly together at the edges. Probably -it pays best to do them approximately in the -field, and then enlarge in a copying camera on to a -ruled ground, and so remove all irregularities of -scale and of skewness. For working to a uniform -scale it is best to fix it by keeping the focal length -unchanged and measuring the distance of the camera -from the object, and not to refer to the size on the -glass.</p> - -<div id="sn_48" class="sidenote">Stereographs.</div> - -<p>Stereographic views are most useful for confused -masses of objects, such as a field of ruins. And if -there are no moving parts there is no -need to take them simultaneously. By -shifting the camera to one side, and taking a second -plate, a perfect stereograph is obtained; and whereever<span class="pagenum" id="Page_82">82</span> -the chance is not to be repeated, and two plates -are taken to ensure success, a shift should be made -so that both may be used together. The amount of -shift varies with the distance; for near objects the -distance between the eyes, 2½ or 3 inches, may -suffice; for a general view a foot or 2 feet is -better, so as to give more solidity than is naturally -seen. Small objects must not be shifted by rotating -the object if there are sharp shadows, as such are -falsified by the turning; otherwise a slight twist of -the object does for the second view.</p> - -<div id="sn_49" class="sidenote">Developing.</div> - -<p>It is undesirable to leave developing till long -afterwards. In general all negatives should be -developed the evening after they are -exposed; thus the future exposures can -be regulated, any defective plates can be repeated, -and deterioration and risks due to keeping are -avoided. In the variety of developers the old -pyrogallic acid remains still one of the most reliable. -The fanciful instructions about proportions are exploded -at once by a glance at the table compiled by -Captain Abney. By adopting the mean proportions -of all the makers, which is 1 soda carbonate, 1 soda -sulphite, and 20 water, as a stock solution, and -adding about 3 grains per ¼ plate of pyrogallic when -using, very uniformly good results are obtained with -short exposures. Of course long exposures require -bromide; but that is very seldom needful. Extra -local developing by tilting the dish, or painting with -a brush, is useful in case of shadows. Tabloid -developers are best avoided, as they cause delay in -dissolving; and made-up solutions are cumbrous -and expensive. The quantities needed can always<span class="pagenum" id="Page_83">83</span> -be put out by guess, taking ¼ of an 8-ounce bottle -at a time of soda salts, and weighing pyrogallic for -once to know the look of it. For hyposulphite of -soda fill the bottle ⅓ full of crystals, and fill -up with water. If a less strong and more graded -picture is needed then glycin seems preferable to -pyrogallic acid.</p> - -<p>No dark room is needed; developing can always -be done in the evening. A red paper envelope -split at the bottom and put round the chimney of -an ordinary lamp, will best screen the light. The -diffused light of a room will not hurt slow plates in -developing, and a sheet of brown paper over each -tray makes all safe. A first soak in weak pyrogallic -solution, to flatten the films, is best before developing. -For washing where water may be scarce it suffices -to have a row of six soup plates of water, and to -pass each film through each plate for five minutes, -so completing the washing of each in half an hour. -A zinc box with 6 or 8 divisions, shifting the negatives -forward through each division, will also work -well. For drying it is best to have a row of pins -along the edge of a shelf, and then to punch out a -small hole in a corner of the film and hang it up, -with the gelatine face under the shelf to keep dust -from it. A dusty evening in Egypt will leave each -film like a piece of sandpaper; and in case of this -the films can be afterwards rapidly washed under a -stream of water, wiping with a lump of cotton-wool. -This will be enough without resoaking the film. -Owing to the dryness of the air in Egypt films -generally curl up in drying, and if forcibly flattened -they are liable to strip. They are best packed in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_84">84</span> -lots of about 50, coiled up together as a cylinder, -and wrapped in a turn of paper. When in England -they can be flattened out by being left near an open -window in damp weather, or dipped in water and -left to dry. For quick drying, films may with care -be stood inside a fender before a fire, and finished -over a lamp chimney. I have thus dried them in -about twenty minutes.</p> -<hr /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_85">85</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VIII">CHAPTER VIII<br /> - -<span class="subhead">PRESERVATION OF OBJECTS</span></h2> -</div> - -<p class="in0"><span class="firstword">The</span> preservation of the objects that are found is a -necessary duty of the finder. To disclose things -only to destroy them, when a more skilful or patient -worker might have added them to the world’s -treasures, is a hideous fault. And the excavator -must be ready for all emergencies, for all classes of -objects in all stages of decay, and deal with each -without delays, and often with scanty and unsuitable -means at hand for their treatment. Some familiarity -with chemistry and physics and properties of materials, -is one of the first requisites for an excavator. All -this applies in a lesser degree to the difficulties of -transport, which is also part of the preservation of -the antiquities.</p> - -<p>As conditions so infinitely vary it is useless to -lay down any fixed rules for treatment. Such rules -would hinder the use of common sense, which is -essential to success. But examples of how different -materials are affected, and how difficulties have been -met, will lead to the excavator thinking out a fit -treatment for each case as it arises. In all this we -are stating field practice only, and not dealing with<span class="pagenum" id="Page_86">86</span> -museum methods, which differ by having far more -command of resources, and by not having to deal -with any of the troublesome cases which do not -survive to reach a museum.</p> - -<div id="sn_50" class="sidenote">Stone.</div> - -<p>The great enemy of stonework is salt. In -Egypt this permeates the soil so that nothing is free -from it; and any object near the surface -has much salt accumulated in it by -evaporation. The effect of salt is to disintegrate -the stone, and make it flake or fall away in powder. -If there is the faintest taste of salt on a stone slab -it should be laid to dry, face down, on the ground; -for I have seen a fine block of sculpture entirely -destroyed by being left for a single day face upward. -When the stone is once dry it is safe in Egypt, but -in a damp country it may begin a course of slow -destruction by continual recrystallization of salt. -Sculptures have been entirely wrecked by being -cemented into the wall of a museum; the wet of -the cement brought all the salt to the face and -ruined it. The only treatment for salt in stone or -any other material is long soaking in water. If a -canal is at hand, stones may be sunk in it for some -weeks, face down. Or barrels or zinc trays may be -used, and the water changed every two or three -days, for five or six times. After such soaking the -stone must be left to dry face down, so that all the -remaining salt will come out on the back. Where -there is not much salt it would be best to lay the -stone back upwards to dry, brush off any salt which -comes out, and then wet the ground below, so that -more water may be drawn up to evaporate on the -back. If this was continued until no salt appeared<span class="pagenum" id="Page_87">87</span> -the stone would be cleaned, and the face could not -be injured. Sometimes a face is already flaking, -and then the stone must be kept quite flat in soaking -and drying, so that each flake will be left in place, -and can be stuck down afterwards. Granite is often -entirely disintegrated into separate crystals, if it has -lain near the surface. It is then even impossible to -turn the block over to copy it, as there is no cohesion -left in the mass. The only salvation possible for -such a block would be to make a thick plaster or -cement coat to the exposed parts, under cut, and -turn the whole over with a board beneath it, and -then saturate it hot with paraffin wax.</p> - -<p>The face of limestone is often in tender condition, -and will not bear wet brushing to clean it. Dry -picking and brushing is then the only resource. If -long exposed to damp, limestone dissolves throughout -the body of it, so that it becomes spongy, and -like putty with the contained water. A large sarcophagus -lid in this state at Denderah was brought -up to the house, then covered with 3 or 4 inches -of sand, and left to dry slowly for some weeks; -otherwise it would have cracked to chips by contraction -on the face. When quite dry it was very -porous, but in safe state for copying and transport. -I have seen a slab of limestone in perfect condition, -reduced to a shapeless paste by a few minutes of -sharp rain.</p> - -<p>The original stucco facing often remains on limestone, -and also the colour. If the carving has been -fine it is best to remove the stucco, which is generally -much less detailed. But if the stucco is an -improvement on the carving, and especially if there<span class="pagenum" id="Page_88">88</span> -is colour, it must be preserved. This is best done -by fixing it with thin tapioca water, just so thick -that it will soak into the stone without leaving any -glair when dry. This treatment also does for limestone -with a rotten face.</p> - -<p>The same tapioca water may be used for fixing -colours on stucco, as I did on the Tell el Amarna -pavement (<a href="#il_48">Fig. 48</a>); and the thickness must be -graduated to the porosity, so that it will just soak -entirely into the material. Any film left on the -face will peel away.</p> - -<div id="il_48" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 26em;"> - <img src="images/i_088.jpg" width="1638" height="1459" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Frescoes, Tell el Amarna.</span></p> - <p>Fig. 48. Plants and animals.</p> -</div></div> - -<div id="il_49" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 26em;"> - <img src="images/i_088b.jpg" width="1638" height="1126" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Frescoes, Tell el Amarna.</span></p> - <p>Fig. 49. The two princesses.</p> -</div></div> - -<div id="sn_51" class="sidenote">Pottery.</div> - -<p>Pottery has not much to fear except salt, and -that should be soaked out as from stone. Glazed -pottery with salt in it is more difficult -to clear, as it takes so long to get any -change in and out of it. But a persistent soaking -will clear it in the course of some weeks; and, if -necessary, partly drying it in intervals, will bring -the salt out of the cracks, whence it can be dusted -off. The commonest failing of glazes is decomposition. -The green turn brown, by the decomposition -of the iron from green silicate to brown oxide; and -this may take place from the porous interior without -breaking the external face. The blue glazes go -white; and this can be partly remedied by warming -and soaking with paraffin wax, which fills the fine -cracks and displays the remaining colour again. -Sometimes the outer coat of clear glaze over faience -inlay is decomposed, without spoiling the faience -below. In this case it is like a picture of which the -varnish is gone brown,—it only needs cleaning. -The decomposed glaze can be scraped off, or rubbed -with fine emery paper, until the faience is clean, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_89">89</span> -then a coat of paraffin wax clears the colour and -preserves it from decomposition. When glazed -ware, especially of the earliest times, is first found, -it is very tender and soft. It then needs the most -careful handling, and must not be brushed or cleaned -until it is quite dry and hardened.</p> - -<div id="sn_52" class="sidenote">Textiles.</div> - -<p>Textiles are also often saturated with salt, especially -the Coptic garments which are in graves near -the surface. They may be safely soaked -to remove the salt and the organic -matter, and then dried by pressing in a towel and -laying between sheets of paper. The most tender -examples might perhaps be best treated by placing -with half a dozen sheets of blotting-paper over and -under, and keeping wet below while evaporating on -the top; this would carry the salt out to the top of -the blotting paper. In any long soaking of organic -stuffs a little carbolic acid is desirable, to prevent -souring and putrefaction of the material. In every -case the threads of textiles are liable to crumble, -and any great amount of washing will tend to reduce -a good deal to powder. Ironing is always desirable -to consolidate the stuff.</p> - -<div id="sn_53" class="sidenote">Wood.</div> - -<p>Wood does not suffer so much from salt as from -rot and white ants. Any salt may be soaked out; -or, if the wood is tender and will not -bear that, a very stiff jelly should be -made, so that it will just melt at boiling: the wood -dropped in when the jelly liquefies, and left in the -jelly cold for a week or two. Then the salt will -dialyse out into the jelly, without any free water -softening the wood. On remelting the jelly the -wood can be removed, and the salt will be left in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_90">90</span> -the jelly. The gelatine will strengthen and improve -the wood. This process can be used excellently for -ivories or bones, which would be ruined by soaking -in water. Whole skeletons can be set in stiff size, -and taken out weeks after, freed from salt, as was -done to those from Medum, now in the College of -Surgeons.</p> - -<p>Rotted wood is very tender to handle; and from -its continued contraction when exposed to the air -it will fall to pieces. If nearly dry, but rotted, the -best safeguard is to coat it with beeswax or paraffin -wax; if it can be lifted threads can be slipped round -it, and the whole dipped in hot wax until soaked. -Or it may have a rapid coat of wax chilled upon it, -which protects it and binds it together for travelling, -and which can be soaked into it by piecemeal heating -afterwards. If the wood will not bear lifting, it -may be coated by dashing on superheated paraffin -wax almost at boiling-point. This will soak deep -into the wood like hot water, and consolidate it so -that it can be moved quite safely. The same processes -apply also to stuccoed wood, which needs -such safeguards, as otherwise the stucco all falls off -by the continued shrinkage of the wood. The -great stuccoed sarcophagus at Hawara was preserved -by heating the surface with a wire dish of charcoal -burning about six inches above it, and flooding the -surface with melted wax so soon as it was enough -heated to absorb it. Perhaps superheated paraffin -wax would have carried enough heat with it to soak -in without the charcoal fire. For all heating of -wax it is best to use a cast-iron saucepan, as soldered -tins may give way before the wax boils. Another<span class="pagenum" id="Page_91">91</span> -treatment, especially suited for large objects, is painting -with several coats of wax dissolved in benzol.</p> - -<p>Wood which is very wet is more difficult to -manage. It may be kept for long under water, like -the wood from the Glastonbury lake village. And -it may be consolidated with silicate solution, as has -been well done in examples from Silchester. Or it -may be removed from water and laid in glycerine -with the top exposed; thus the water will evaporate -and diffuse, and glycerine take its place.</p> - -<div id="sn_54" class="sidenote">Ivory.</div> - -<p>Ivory is mainly liable to flaking, especially if in -wet soil. When any ivory is seen not in a firm -condition, the earth should be carefully -worked round so as to find the limits of -the ivory, be it a single piece or a collection together. -Then the mass should be under-cut down to a firm -stratum, and lifted out in a whole block of earth. -This should be left to dry slowly; and after a week -or two the earth should be gently brushed away with -a camel-hair brush, aided by picking with a stout pin. -As each piece of ivory is seen it should be carefully -followed, and if quite dry it may probably be removed -entire. If still liable to flake, it can then be -soaked in melted paraffin wax. If the ivory is too -rotted to be detached from the earth, then the whole -mass would have to be baked to rather over blood -heat, and saturated with paraffin wax. After that it -could be safely dissected by careful picking. In -case of finding large groups of ivories in the ground, -too extensive to take out in a block to dry, probably -it would do to isolate them, then lay a few inches of -sand on the top, and light a fire over them: after -slow burning for a few days the ground would be<span class="pagenum" id="Page_92">92</span> -baked dry below, and could be saturated with wax -before lifting the mass.</p> - -<p>It sometimes happens that ivories in wet soil get -concreted crystalline carbonate of lime upon them, -which is much harder than the ivory. This being -crystalline is not saturated with wax when the ivory -is so treated. Hence after waxing the ivory the -surface should be cleaned with benzol or ether on -cotton-wool, and then painted with nitric acid to -dissolve the crystalline lime. Even strong nitric acid -will only dull the surface of waxed ivory, and not -remove any perceptible amount, while it dissolves -the concretion rapidly. Probably the darkening of the -ivory caused by soaking in wax can be mainly removed -by heating fuller’s earth to over boiling-point, -and then rapidly packing the ivory in the earth and -pressing it: the heat would melt the wax on the -surface, it will be absorbed by the earth, and the face -of the ivory will be left dry of wax. The ivories -from Nineveh were solidified with gelatine; but that -would probably break up very tender ivories by the -amount of water. In case however of much salt in -ivory the best way to treat it is to drop it in stiff -hot gelatine, cool it, and let it lie in the consolidated -mass for a week or two, for the salt to dialyse out. -Another way, if the mass is not much cut into -hollows, is to lash the ivory closely with thread or fine -twine, and then soak it in water to remove the salt; -the twine prevents it falling to pieces, and it can be -dipped in wax when dry, and the twine removed.</p> - -<div id="sn_55" class="sidenote">Papyri.</div> - -<p>Papyri require most careful treatment at every -stage. They are often found in a very fragile state, -and if the roll has to be carried without special packing<span class="pagenum" id="Page_93">93</span> -in wool it is best to wrap it in a damp handkerchief -at once. For unrolling rolls, or -flattening out crushed papyri, damping is -needful. There is no need to steam them, as has -been done in museums. By dipping a towel or -handkerchief in water, and wringing it as dry as -possible, there is enough moisture to penetrate to a -papyrus closely wrapped in it. If there were many -turns then carbolised water would be best, so as to -avoid any decomposing during a long penetration of -the damp. Usually a single night is enough for -damping through half a dozen folds or turns, enough -to render the papyrus quite pliable. It can then be -unrolled, or uncreased with the fingers; and as each -inch of it is laid flat it should be secured by turning -down newspaper or blotting-paper over it and sliding -a board or book over the flattened part. After leaving -it between a dozen leaves of paper to absorb -the moisture for some days under pressure it is dry -and firm. Small pieces can well be carried in books, -and larger sheets in piles of paper between boards. -When the papyrus is too rotted to be damped, as -the crossed layers of it would part, then it can only -be cut to pieces with a sharp penknife at every fold -and turn; and each piece fastened down on a sheet -at once in place. This was the only possible way -to open the great Ptolemaic revenue papyrus over -40 feet long; even a single turn of the roll needed -to be cut into dozens of pieces.</p> - -<p>For fastening down papyrus it is fatal to gum or -paste it on to a sheet of card, as the gradual contraction -of the gum will break up the layers of the -papyrus. The safest way of all for very rotted<span class="pagenum" id="Page_94">94</span> -papyri is to rub a sheet of glass with beeswax, lay -the papyrus on it, and press with a warm hand until -it sticks to the wax; then cover with another sheet -of glass. For ordinary firm papyri minute spots of -paste, as small as possible, should be put at every -inch or two round the edges, and farther apart in the -middle; then a sheet of thin soft paper should be -pressed on it, to serve as a backing. Thus there is -no wide space pasted which can contract in future; -and even if the papyrus has to be remounted the -paper can be torn to pieces behind it. The sheet -of mounting paper should be fixed under glass. But -it is a mistake to attach card to glass round the -edges, as it bags away by damp and warping, and -leaves a large air space, which is very detrimental. -It is best to place the mounting paper between two -sheets of glass; or, for the sake of lightness and -safety, the back may be of thin picture-back-board, -well baked dry, and free from cracks and knots. For -fastening the edges thin leather or linen may be -glued around.</p> - -<p>Dealing with carbonised papyri is an art in itself. -So far as field work goes the main work is to remove -the earth entirely from the top of the papyrus, so as -to leave no weight upon it: then under-cut, and take -out the whole lump, with a block of earth under it. -The papyri must then, in the house, be carefully -separated, one document from another, by splitting -apart and lifting with an ivory paper knife or blunt -table knife, the lighter the better, so as to feel the -way with it. Each separate roll should then be -wrapped in soft paper (never cotton-wool) and packed -a few together, in small tin boxes. Thus they will<span class="pagenum" id="Page_95">95</span> -travel safely and without loss. The museum work is -outside of our scope; but broadly the Neapolitan plan -of holding the pieces in place with adhesive paper on -the back is not so good as separate treatment of -each piece, laying it down in position on a sheet of -glass with small touches of paste, or perhaps pressing -it on to waxed glass like the rotted papyri. Burnt -papyri are read by the difference of reflection of the -surface, and hence must be viewed with light from -behind the eye, or light reflected by a mirror placed -almost between the eye and the papyrus.</p> - -<div id="sn_56" class="sidenote">Bead-work.</div> - -<p>Bead-work is often found in a state in which it -cannot be moved owing to rotting of the threads. -Elaborate decoration with the winged -scarab, four genii, inscriptions, etc., is -found on mummies of about the XXVth Dynasty. -But, if the threads are decayed, the beads are merely -lying in position, and will fall away if the mummy -be tilted or shaken. In such a case I have opened -the wooden coffin very gently, cutting out the pegs -by which it was fastened. Having melted a pot of -wax on a stove in the tomb, I then dashed spoonfuls -of it over the beads; it needs to be thrown sharply, -so as to splash out, or it runs off all in one line. -The wax must be only just barely liquid, or it will -penetrate to below the beads. When a sheet of wax -is thus put over all the beads, the sheet may be lifted -up, and the pattern is seen in a clean condition, -reversed on the under side. The sheet can then be -fixed with more wax into a tray of wood, so as to -keep it safely. If any of the beads are not firm they -can be heated and pressed farther into the wax. -Strings of beads are seldom found with the thread<span class="pagenum" id="Page_96">96</span> -strong enough to hold together. The earth should -be loosened with a penknife, and blown away, so as to -disclose as long a line as possible, then the order of -the beads should be noted for restringing them, in -the original pattern. The tracing out and noting of -a string of beads in a grave may often occupy an -hour or two hours, keeping the face close to the -ground so as to blew the dust away exactly, without -disturbing the beads.</p> - -<div id="sn_57" class="sidenote">Stucco.</div> - -<p>Stucco on wood we have already noticed, under -the preservation of wood. However firm the stucco -may seem at first, the gradual contraction -of the wood will make it fall away; but -when once saturated with paraffin wax, this movement -is stopped, and the stucco is held on to the -basis.</p> - -<p>Stucco on mud bricks is a difficult material to -preserve. Three instances may be given of dealing -with it. Where the coat was a mere whitewash on -mud plastering, as at Tell el Amarna (<a href="#il_49">Fig. 49</a>), I -removed the bricks behind it by cutting them gently -to pieces with a chisel; thus the coat of mud plaster -was left standing up a foot or more in air, although -it was entirely friable owing to white ants having -eaten out the straw from it. Then placing a box lid -covered with sheets of paper against the face, it was -firmly grasped behind, and turned over with the lid -to support it, face down. Lying on the box lid it -was taken to the house; a frame of parallel bars of -wood was made, each an inch wide and an inch -apart; each bar was coated with mud-and-sand -mortar, and then the frame was pressed gently on -the back of the fresco, and puddled in with mortar<span class="pagenum" id="Page_97">97</span> -between the bars. On then reversing the frame and -box lid, the fresco was left resting on the frame, with -a bedding which was perfectly true, and incapable -of warping or contraction. To pack this a sheet of -cotton wool was placed on the face, a thin board cut -to size placed over this, and string lashed tightly -round the face board and notches in the ends of the -frame bars. In this state it travelled quite safely, -although the material was so tender that a finger -would push through it anywhere; this was illustrated -by a museum attendant at Cairo, when ordered to -carry one of the frames of fresco.</p> - -<p>Where the stucco is thicker, about 1/16 inch, but -wholly shattered into minute chips, none over ¼ inch -across, a different treatment was necessary, as at -Medum. The mass of plaster and stucco was laid -face down, the mud cut away behind it till about a -square inch of shattered plaster was bared at the -back; this was covered with a thin coat of fresh -plaster (mixed in the palm of the hand); then -another square inch was bared and coated, and so on, -until the whole of the mud was removed and the old -stucco all lay smeared with a thin coat of fresh -plaster on the back. A large slate was then cut to -size; a pudding of liquid plaster was poured on to -the stucco and pressed out as thin as could be with -the slate. When it was set, the old painted stucco -was thus securely cemented on to the slate; light, -tough, and portable, it travelled to America in perfect -state.</p> - -<p>The third method is where the surfaces are curved. -By cutting away the back as thin as is safe, and -setting in a firm backing of cement, even this<span class="pagenum" id="Page_98">98</span> -difficult subject may be dealt with, and removed -safely.</p> - -<div id="sn_58" class="sidenote">Gold.</div> - -<p><i>Metals</i> do not require much treatment in the -field; but it is needful to understand the condition -of them in order to know how they can -be safely treated. Gold should be -cleaned as little as possible, as the old red surface -is the best appearance of it; a little brushing with -camel-hair brush and plain water to remove the dust -is generally enough. Where there is much silver in -it, as in electrum, the surface is dark with chloride of -silver; this may be removed with strong ammonia -or cyanide of potassium. Gold-foil often requires -straightening out into its former shape, but it must not -be burnished in so doing, as that expands the form.</p> - -<div id="sn_59" class="sidenote">Silver.</div> - -<p>Silver is one of the most troublesome metals, as -it is so very readily attacked by chlorine and sulphur; -and, moreover, it undergoes a colloidal -rearrangement by which it breaks readily -into irregular curved grains, and it is in this state as -rotten as rotten brass. If deeply corroded nothing -can well be done to it; the lumpy crust shows more -of the original form than the metal would show if -bared. When the corrosion is but slight it may be -removed, either by solution in strong ammonia or -cyanide of potassium, or by reduction. To bring -the chloride into the state of porous metal, it is only -needful to place it with zinc or iron in a solution of -salt or weak vinegar or lemon juice, and in a few -hours the whole of the chlorine has gone over to the -fresh metal. The powdery silver left can be mainly -brushed away in water, and a little picking with a -bone point will loosen it entirely. Of course, the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_99">99</span> -whole of the silver removed has come out of the -body of the metal, which is left porous and tender, -although the face may be unbroken. It will not -bear, therefore, the same cleaning as new and strong -metal. In the case of silver coins in fine condition, -each coin should be reduced separately, and the -whole of the old silver weighed with it before cleaning -it away, so as to recover the original weight. -Silver must never be put bare in a tin box, as the -chlorine forms chloride of tin, which deliquesces, and -then attacks the iron and stains the silver with brown -rust. Often there is both chloride and lime on the -surface, and alternations of ammonia and weak acid -are required for cleaning.</p> - -<div id="sn_60" class="sidenote">Copper.</div> - -<p>Copper objects are distinguished from bronze by -retaining usually their pliability. This renders them -much easier to clean, as they are seldom -deeply corroded, and the red oxide upon -them will generally flake off clean by blows, and -leave the original face in perfect condition. A very -light hammer should be used, and sharp scaling -blows be given, so as to flake off even half-an-inch -breadth of scale at once, without ever touching the -old face. In hollows which cannot so easily be -struck, an iron nail may be used as a punch, and -struck so as to crush the red oxide little by little. -A copper object which scales freely is a treat to -clean, as the old face can be entirely bared, and -appears of a beautiful red-brown colour with all the -detail quite perfect. Very thin copper may, however, -have entirely passed into green carbonate, if buried -in a damp soil; and in this case nothing can be -done except washing off the earth and dirt.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_100">100</span></p> - -<div id="sn_61" class="sidenote">Bronze.</div> - -<p>Bronze and brass need much more care than -copper, as they contain a mixture of alloys of very -different oxidability; hence much of the -material all through the mass will have -moved up to the surface and been corroded there, -while the form and size of the original may at -present contain only half the metal in a very porous -and brittle condition. In some cases bronzes may -be scaled by blows like copper, and they then -appear in their best condition. But more often they -are too brittle, or the corrosion adheres too tightly, -for it to be thus removed. For cleaning off small -quantities of green carbonate, vinegar left to stand -for some days does well. But the proper solvent of -both carbonate and oxide is dilute hydrochloric acid, -about 1 to 10 or 20 of water, as this will not attack -the metal, but only the corroded parts. The -objection to this solvent is that it leaves a thick mud -of white oxy-chloride of copper, which is difficult to -brush off, and which stains the skin green in handling. -The treatment is to brush off as much as can -be easily removed, and then pickle in hyposulphite -of soda, which dissolves the white coat; if used hot -and strong this will clean the metal to a bright -metallic condition. After all these solutions, a long -washing in many waters for two or three days is -needed to remove all trace of salts which might -afterwards make further corrosion. Minute traces of -chlorides are specially dangerous, as they decompose -with carbonic acid in the air, forming carbonate, and -liberating the chlorine to attack more metal; thus a -trace of chloride will eat through any amount of -copper. The extent to which bronzes should be<span class="pagenum" id="Page_101">101</span> -cleaned, should be ruled by the fullest display of -original workmanship: so long as more detail can -be shown more crust should be removed. But, if -possible, some of the coat of red oxide should be left -on plain parts as a guarantee of the age of the work. -To bare bronzes entirely, and then oil and smoke -them, is barbarous treatment, to be seen in some -museums. If something is desired over the bare -metal, the bronze may be left in a shallow pan of -water, soaking for some weeks, by which it will gain -a tinge of red oxide over it which is suitable and -pleasing. Another mode of scaling is to heat the -bronze over a fire or in melted lead, and then plunge -in cold water, which loosens the scale from it. It -often happens that a bronze has the original face -broken up by corrosion, and then no cleaning is of -any use, the mass of green carbonate shows more -than any other surface would do. This last and -worst state is indicated by cracks in the outer coat, -due to further expansion of the inner body. A -cracked bronze is best left alone.</p> - -<p>A frequent disease of bronzes is the formation of -small granules of translucent bright green rust. -This is attributed to an organic growth, which is -infectious, and may spread through a collection. -One of the worst instances I dipped in carbolic acid, -and this absolutely stopped the attack, proving that -it is not due to action of chlorine. But we must not -take this as a certain proof of the organic nature -of the mischief, in view of the inhibitory effect of -anæsthetics, etc., in stopping electric and chemical -action.</p> - -<div id="sn_62" class="sidenote">Lead.</div> - -<p>Lead is usually coated with white carbonate, the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_102">102</span> -outer face of which shows more than the metallic -surface beneath. It should therefore be -let alone; but if it shows signs of further -changes, due to salts in it acting with damp, then -soaking in several waters will probably make it safe. -If carbonate continued to be formed, I should try -saturating with paraffin wax.</p> - -<div id="sn_63" class="sidenote">Iron.</div> - -<p>Iron can seldom be cleaned; but if it has only a -little superficial rust, this may be removed by placing -it in the strongest nitric acid, which dissolves -the oxide but renders the iron -passive. For ordinarily rusted iron all that can be -done is to arrest further changes. A long soaking -in water to remove all salts, and then baking dry -and saturating with wax, is a safe treatment and -always available.</p> - -<div id="sn_64" class="sidenote">Sorting.</div> - -<p>Sorting and joining fragments is sometimes very -essential. In the royal tombs of the Ist Dynasty -we collected thousands of pieces of stone -bowls and vases. Only a very small -number out of such cartloads of fragments were of -value as they lay; but so far as they could be reconstructed -they gave an important series of forms. -To extract any result it was needful to place together -all the pieces that belonged to each separate vase; -and the same work frequently had to be done on -a lesser scale in dealing with groups of broken -stone and pottery. Taking the whole of the fragments -which can be supposed by their position to -belong together, they are first sorted over for quality, -making as many divisions as are quite safe to be -distinguished one from the other, so that there shall -be no chance of parts of one bowl being classed in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_103">103</span> -two different divisions. All the pieces of one -division, sometimes as many as 500 of one quality, -are then to be laid out on tables,—the pieces of -brim placed at the top of the tables, and classed -according to form and curvature; the pieces of -middle of the vase along the middle of the table, all -carefully laid with the axis vertical; the pieces of -base at the nearer edge of the table, classed according -to diameter. Taking then the first piece of -brim, it is held at each end of each other piece to -which it can possibly belong; every possible fit is -thus found. Each piece of brim is to be thus tried -with all that follow it, those before it having been -already tried with it. When all the possible junctions -of brim have been made, then a row of joined brim -pieces are to be laid on a board, and the angle which -each broken edge makes with the vertical is to be -looked for among all the broken sides of the middle -pieces, looking for such slope at both upper and -lower sides if the tops are not distinguishable from -the bottoms of the pieces. Thus, say the first -broken edge of brim slopes at - <img class="sym" src="images/i_103a.png" width="58" height="62" alt="symbol opening down-right" /> 20°, every -piece broken at 20° - <img class="sym" src="images/i_103b.png" width="58" height="60" alt="symbol opening down-right" /> or - <img class="sym" src="images/i_103c.png" width="58" height="61" alt="symbol opening up-left" /> must be compared -to see if it will fit. At least twenty -different directions of fracture can be mentally distinguished, -and the slight curve and irregularities -increase this to at least fifty varieties, so that each -piece of brim only needs actual touching with about -2 per cent of the pieces of middle. When every -possible fit of brim to middle pieces is made, then -the bases can be similarly compared, having first -fitted them by sorting the curvatures. A load of -500 pieces will take several hours of this sorting, at<span class="pagenum" id="Page_104">104</span> -the end of which every possible fit will have been -made. Not more than half-an-hour or one hour -at a time can be usefully given to such sorting, as -the eye and attention become too much fatigued to -observe the fits. When finished, all the fragments -belonging to one bowl are to be wrapped together, -and a number given to the parcel; and the odd -pieces can be thrown away unless worth having -singly. The method for drawing the completed -forms has been described in the chapter on drawing.</p> - -<hr /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_105">105</span></p> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_IX">CHAPTER IX<br /> - -<span class="subhead">PACKING</span></h2> -</div> - -<div id="sn_65" class="sidenote">Blocks.</div> - -<p class="in0"><span class="firstword">Before</span> packing carved blocks it is generally best to -saw off the backs, so as to lighten the quantity. A -face should always be sawn from each -end up to the middle, leaving it about -twice as thick in the middle as at the ends, so -as to bear the strain of travelling. If a block is -so wide on the face that it is liable to be broken in -transit, the best course is to saw it in pieces, cutting -from the back through to ½ or 1 inch from the face, -and then snapping it, so that the face can be rejoined -perfectly. Limestone is sawn with a large -rip saw or stonemason’s saw, using a hammer and -chisel if any flinty portions are met with, and also -using some hammer dressing. Soft Silsileh sandstone -may be cut with pieces of tin plate, such as -petroleum tins or biscuit tins; or else with a thin -strip of wood set with wire nails to serve as teeth -of a saw. The harder stones must be moved as -found, for the cost of reducing the weight would be -more than that of carrying it.</p> - -<div id="il_50" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 17em;"> - <img src="images/i_106.png" width="1045" height="752" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 50.</span>—Box for flat slab of stone, lid of diagonal bars. -</div></div> - -<div id="sn_66" class="sidenote">Long objects.</div> - -<p>In all questions of packing long objects, it must -be remembered that the best points of support for<span class="pagenum" id="Page_106">106</span> -equality of strains are at 21 per cent (say ⅕) from -each end. Any long stone must therefore be held -in its case by cross bars or thicker pads -or hay at ⅕ from each end. It is -impossible to reckon on a case being so rigid, and -so perfectly fitting, that it will give uniform support -all along, with a much smaller elasticity than that of -the stone. The utmost any case can do for stone -is to deaden blows and shocks, and to hold the stone -so that it is equally likely to break in the middle -or at the supports; and this is gained by the grip -at ⅕ from each end. A good packing for small -slabs that are not liable to break, is a shallow box -(<a href="#il_50">Fig. 50</a>), with the stone face down on dried fodder -or straw, and two cross bars parallel and diagonal -on the top, to hold the stone in. Such a box is -easily lifted by the bars, saves all Customs examination, -and will not tempt thieves. In all instances -remember that it is useless to put general softening -round stones in a box. The best points to take -the pressure should be considered, and then thick<span class="pagenum" id="Page_107">107</span> -pads nailed on the box to catch those best points -of contact.</p> - -<div id="il_51" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img src="images/i_107.png" width="1561" height="842" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 51.</span>—Tray for carrying heavy blocks of stone, lashed on by ropes through - the holes. -</div></div> - -<div id="sn_67" class="sidenote">Heavy stones.</div> - -<p>The largest stones cannot usefully have any case; -as a case which would not be cracked up by the -weight in moving, would be so thick and -heavy that it would make the stone -far less moveable. If the stone is strong it only -needs three or four thicknesses of old clothes and -sacking tightly roped on, in order to travel safely. -If it has a tender face, a skin of board may be put -over that with some cotton-wool padding under the -sacking cover. It is best for blocks of 1 to 4 -cwt. to make a tray (<a href="#il_51">Fig. 51</a>) with poles projecting -a foot at each corner to serve as handles, and then -lash the block firmly on the tray. This encourages -porters to lift it rather than throw it over. Such -things as granite columns or colossi need no cover, -but only softening of wood or pads, put under bearing -points during moving. On shipboard they<span class="pagenum" id="Page_108">108</span> -travel best laid at the bottom of a cargo of beans in -bulk or bales of cotton, which wedge them tight.</p> - -<div id="sn_68" class="sidenote">Pottery.</div> - -<p>Pottery is the most troublesome stuff to pack. -The difficulty lies in keeping the packing material -at the right places, and preventing it -lumping together and so letting the -contacts become bare. All the larger hollows must -be filled with small pottery, or very light boxes, or -empty tins, so that the packing cannot shift together. -For large jars it is best to roll up straw in cloth to -form cushions 1 to 2 inches thick, and nail these -on the box at the points of contact; always observing -if the jar can get loose by skewing into the -diagonal. It is often needful to tie cotton stuff -over the mouths of jars to prevent the packing -working loose into the jar. For flat open forms, -such as dishes and wide bowls, a stack should be -made with the flattest below, so that each dish rests -solely on its centre, and all the edges are free. A -very little softening between them, and a firm block -(such as a round tin pot) in the top one to take the -pressure, will make them all travel with a solid -contact right through the centres, so that each brim -only carries its own weight. Even thin glass dishes -can be packed safely in stacks in this way.</p> - -<p>Glazed pottery is sometimes very fragile and full -of cracks. To save it from falling apart it should -be wound with string crossing diagonally in every -direction, as tightly as it can be pulled. This firmly -binds the jar so that it cannot fall apart. A couple -of inches of tightly rammed softening all round it, -will make it then travel quite safely.</p> - -<div id="sn_69" class="sidenote">Softening.</div> - -<p>The material for packing, or <i>softening</i>, varies with<span class="pagenum" id="Page_109">109</span> -the country and the season. In England there is -nothing so good as the fine shavings -known as “wood-wool.” In Egypt the -best stuff is <i>helbeh</i>, a dried green crop which is very -clinging, and holds in any position in which it is -thrust. <i>Tibn</i>, or chopped straw, is also useful for -ramming tight in small spaces. Firm cushions on -fixed bearing points are made by rolling up straw -in old cloth, and nailing the edges on the box, so -that the pressure can never reach the nails. Rough -country cotton can be had, but it is dear; and two -or three pounds of prepared cotton wool in sheets -should be taken for packing delicate things. Plenty -of whitey-brown kitchen paper should be taken for -wrapping; and some cartridge paper or brown -paper for parcels. Stocks of nested parcel-post -boxes are very useful; but sliding lids fall out loose -by contraction, and glued joints crack to pieces. -The domestic stock of biscuit boxes and food tins -of course all come in for varied use.</p> - -<div id="sn_70" class="sidenote">Cases.</div> - -<p>The making of cases is little understood, and -least by professional case-makers. Cases are often -supplied in London with the grain -entirely running round them, and nothing -to prevent their splitting around and dropping in -two parts. The most perfect construction is that -with the grain running in all three directions (<a href="#il_52">Fig. 52)</a>, -but such boxes have the disadvantage that the -lid cannot be entirely removed. The most practical -form is with internal corner-posts, and the sides -nailed to these with all the grain running around. -First the end boards are nailed on to the corner strips, -and then the side boards nailed on. All the nails<span class="pagenum" id="Page_110">110</span> -should be driven diagonally (<a href="#il_53">Fig. 53</a>), alternately one -way and the other, so that no board can be drawn -off without splitting the wood. And the end nails -should always be close to the edge, and rake deep -down into the comer strip, to avoid splitting the -end; thus the edge of the board cannot part off -with all the lid or bottom nailed to it. For as the -whole weight comes on the last inch of the sides -on to which the bottom is nailed, unless that is well -held on it often parts from the rest of the side. The -lid is of course nailed on with upright nails so as to -draw off; and a large number of short nails, projecting -only ¾ inch, is the best for this, as if large -nails are used the lid splits during opening and -leaves the nail in the side.</p> - -<div id="il_52" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 24em;"> - <img src="images/i_110.png" width="1528" height="1217" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 52.</span>—Box without cross bars, the grain running in all three dimensions. -</div></div> - -<p>If a case is long, it is best to have some other<span class="pagenum" id="Page_111">111</span> -upright strips down the sides. Partitions bearing -against these strips are good to keep weight from -riding down when the box is dropped on one end. -If objects vary much in density it is convenient to -pack a heavy compartment in the middle and a -light one at each end of a case. Any bars or -boards used to hold down heavy pieces from shifting -should not be nailed through the sides, as damage -is often done by the violence needed to loosen them -in unpacking. Such bars should be held in place by -side strips, or other solid articles in the packing. Tin -pots are very convenient to protect small and delicate -things, and to hold heavy objects from shifting about.</p> - -<div id="il_53" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 24em;"> - <img src="images/i_111.png" width="1478" height="983" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 53.</span>—End of a box in course of making, to show the diagonal driving - of the nails. -</div></div> - -<div id="sn_71" class="sidenote">Unpacking.</div> - -<p>The packer must always remember that the unpacker -will not know the contents of a case, nor -any precautions that are needful. The -best arrangements, which may seem -infallible, may be entirely upset by the unpacker<span class="pagenum" id="Page_112">112</span> -opening the case at the bottom; hence no papers -of directions in a case should be relied upon. Also -the unpacking is generally left in museums to be -done by rough labourers, who may entirely overlook -needful precautions or even throw away most -valuable things in the boxes. It is dangerous, -therefore, to pack small objects in straw; nothing -under 100 cubic inches should be put separately -in the packing, anything less being put together in -paper parcels. It must always be remembered that -a careless unpacker may unwrap everything, and -throw away the papers; hence no labelling or -directions should be solely put on the wrappers. -Even labels with objects are not safe; as in several -museums the labels have been thrown away, or else -stacked in a pile together. Labels should have -printed on the back in big red letters, “To be kept -with the object.” Marking upon each object is -necessary, whenever possible. The best way to -learn the difficulties and fallacies of packing is to -carefully study the causes of any disasters found in -the unpacking.</p> - -<div id="il_54" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 26em;"> - <img src="images/i_112.jpg" width="1612" height="1422" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Transport in Egypt.</span></p> - <p>Fig. 54. Two Nile boats; laden with straw.</p> -</div></div> - -<div id="il_55" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 26em;"> - <img src="images/i_112b.jpg" width="1612" height="1197" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Transport in Egypt.</span></p> - <p>Fig. 55. Camels starting at dawn. The return at noonday.</p> -</div></div> - -<h3>APPENDIX<br /> -<span class="subhead wspace">LIST OF TOOLS, ETC., TO BE PROVIDED FOR WORK</span></h3> - -<p><i>For Excavating.</i>—Crowbars, ropes,<a href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">2</a> large hammers, -cold-chisels, stone-saw, saw-files, sieves (fine wire), native -sieves.<a href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">2</a></p> - -<p><i>For Cleaning Objects, etc.</i>—Dusting-brush, nail-brush, -tooth-brushes, paraffin wax.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_113">113</span></p> - -<p><i>For Packing.</i>—Paper bags, jewellers’ tag labels, reams -of kitchen paper, nests of boxes, brush to mark boxes, -hammers, saws, chisels, brace and bits, pincers, stout pliers, -files, awls, spokeshave, screw-drivers, screws, wire nails,<a href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">2</a> -square, hone-stone.</p> - -<p><i>For House.</i>—Locks, hinges, bell.</p> - -<p><i>For Copying and Planning.</i>—Cartridge paper, thin -journal paper,<a id="FNanchor_2" href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">2</a> rag paper for squeezes, spoke brush, paint -brushes for outlines, colours for colour copying, drawing -boards (several cheap ones, various sizes), tapes, 2-metre -rods for gauging work and planning, prismatic compass, -box sextant, vertical mirror level.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_2" href="#FNanchor_2" class="fnanchor">2</a> These can be obtained in any Egyptian town.</p> -</div> - -<hr /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_114">114</span></p> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_X">CHAPTER X<br /> - -<span class="subhead">PUBLICATION</span></h2> -</div> - -<div id="sn_72" class="sidenote">Arrangement.</div> - -<p class="in0"><span class="firstword">The</span> final shape of the publication of the record has -to be borne in mind in all the progress of it. The -arrangement of the plates must precede -the writing of the details of the work. In -past generations the ideal was to define in words the -conclusions and speculations of an author, and, where -unavoidably necessary, to illustrate them by some -costly engravings. How inefficient such publication -may be, is seen at once in Greenwell’s <i>British -Barrows</i>, a work full of important detail, which has -to be painfully understood from hundreds of pages -of text, where plans—and little else—are needed. -Indeed the only means of using the information is to -reconstruct plans from the intricate text. As form -can now be almost as cheaply expressed as words, -the ideal is widely changed. The reader is to be -put first of all in possession of all the facts and -materials, and the author’s conclusions are only a -co-ordination, presented to enable the reader to -grasp the material, and to feel clearly the effect of it -on his sum of ideas, or organised sense of the nature -of things. Hence nowadays the main structure of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_115">115</span> -a book on any descriptive science is its plates, and -the text is to show the meaning and relation of the -facts already expressed by form. The plates, therefore, -are the first thing to prepare; and when they -are complete it is time to put in words the conclusions -which have been reached.</p> - -<div id="sn_73" class="sidenote">Plates.</div> - -<p>The orderly arrangement of the material in plates -is the first duty. The drawings are each to be made -with the final scale in view, so that -the lines may be of proper thickness, -neither faint nor coarse. The material must be -classified according to its nature,—views, plans, inscriptions, -sculpture, small objects, pottery, etc. In -each class, the historical order must be followed, -objects that are to be compared placed together, and -the material arranged in an orderly shape, so that it -gives a clear impression, and can be easily found -again from memory. The details of the squareness -and alignment of the various drawings on a plate -are much more serious than might be supposed; -needless irregularity confuses and disappoints the -eye and starves the memory, distinctly detracting -from the use and value of the work. Obviously -every object on a plate must have a number for -reference; and in a long series it is best for the -numbers to run through several plates; so that -“sealing 157” or “mark 642” is a complete reference -and definition. A uniform scale should be -used throughout a plate, or a series of the same class, -and it should be stated in the heading of the plate. -Every plate should have stated in its heading the -source, nature, age, and scale of the objects; for -these render reference far easier, and also give a value<span class="pagenum" id="Page_116">116</span> -to loose plates apart from the volume. The use of -double-page plates is often desirable, in order to show -the whole of a large class at one view; the only -drawback to them is that objects are more difficult to -find in turning over the leaves. At every point it -must be remembered that nearly all foreign students, -and most English ones, will know the plates but not -the text; that the plates will be the material practically -used for comparison, and building up a view -of the subject; and therefore that they should be as -far as possible self-contained and self-explanatory, -with full lettering upon them, and should comprise -the main results of the work in diagram. To help -reference to the text, the list of plates should have -the page references to each plate stated, to show -where it is described and dealt with in the text. -The facility of using, remembering, and referring to -the plates should be the first consideration. It is -even well to remember to make the right-hand edge, -or outer edge, of each plate the strongest part, with -the most striking objects and best arrangement, and -let the other edge be a residual, as this ensures the -best eye-grasp in turning over the leaves.</p> - -<p>The amount of plates must depend upon the -subject; but it is none too much if the area of plates -is double that of the text, or twice as many plates -as there are pages. Folding-out plates should be -avoided where possible; a double page on a deep -guard, so as to lie flat when the book is opened, is -the largest that should be ordinarily used. The -most absurdly inconvenient shape is to have wide -margins to a plate, and a fold at side and another at -base, to make it fit the book. It is best to remedy<span class="pagenum" id="Page_117">117</span> -such folly by taking the plates out, cutting them to -book size if margins allow, and resetting without -folds. The wild freaks of recent books in Egyptology -are incomprehensible. We see some with plates -which might be bound with text, yet printed with -gigantic margins and issued in an entirely different -size, so that they cannot be bound, or even stand on -the same shelf with the text; some plates put on -guards of tissue paper, so that they tear out of the -book in turning over; one serial in parts with the -plates starting fresh numbers with every separate -paper, thus one part has half a dozen “Plate 1” in -it, making printed references to the work quite impossible; -other publications with the plates all -renumbered and rearranged after printing, and -double references throughout; others with scattered -numbers of the plates issued, and intermediate -numbers to appear later, after many years or never; -some with plates without any numbers to the -objects, and stray references in the text showing that -they are usually counted by the author from the base -upward, and from right to left. Every absurdity -which want of design, forethought, and common -sense could perpetrate, seems to be found in these -monumental works.</p> - -<div id="sn_74" class="sidenote">Processes.</div> - -<p>The processes used for plates vary greatly in cost -and quality. The cheapest is photolithography from -line drawings; but only black and -white can be given thus, without any -half-tones, and the illustrations must be all together -on a plate, and cannot be placed in the text. Yet -as it can be done at less than 2d. a square inch for 250, -or 6d. for 2000, it enables a much larger quantity of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_118">118</span> -illustration to be given than would be possible otherwise. -Relief process from line drawings costs 4d. a -square inch for the blocks alone, without printing on -paper; but as it can be placed with the text and -printed together, it has a great advantage, especially -for small subjects.</p> - -<p>Collotype is next in cost, being 6d. a square inch -for 250, or 2s. for 2000, but less than this cost in -Germany. It has the same disadvantage in being -restricted to whole plates, and not mixable with text, -but it gives the half-tones well from photographs, -and in fine examples is almost as good as a silver -print. The finest I have seen were from Berlin. It -is best to supply glass positives to the collotyper, -and leave him to make such negatives as may suit -him. If negatives are sent they are often destroyed. -Net process gives half-tones, though with too coarse -a grain for very delicate details. The cost is about -double that of relief blocks, but as it reproduces -photographs which can be mixed with the text it has -an enormous use now, from cheap newspapers up to -art publications. A disadvantage is that it requires -a highly glazed paper to print upon, such as is unpleasant -to read, heavy to hold, and liable to decay. -Its duration therefore is distinctly ephemeral.</p> - -<p>For special subjects the more costly processes are -requisite. Chromo-lithography may be expected to -cost about half as much again as photolithography -for each colour used. As seldom less than four -colours are efficient it costs at least six times as -much as the line plates; thus the cheapest colour -plate begins at the cost of the best net process; and -it may easily come to three or four times that<span class="pagenum" id="Page_119">119</span> -amount. But probably the three-colour photography -will soon abolish chromo-lithography, and work much -cheaper, perhaps at three or four times the price of -collotype.</p> - -<p>The autotype, platinotype, heliogravure, Swan -electric engraving, and other processes all have their -place for special subjects, but seldom come into the -general run of archaeological illustration.</p> - -<div id="sn_75" class="sidenote">Editions.</div> - -<p>A very successful policy for costly works of -research is to issue a magnificent edition for libraries, -book-collectors, and rich amateurs; -and then to have a much larger edition, -deficient in a few of the most costly and least -necessary plates, sold at a cheap rate for students -and the general public. Thus one great work of -coloured folio plates costs £20 or 3s. a plate for the -complete edition; whereas with a few plates deficient -it is only £6 or 1s. a plate. Thus the cost of production -is borne by those who demand magnificence, -and the results are yet within reach of students.</p> - -<p>Another useful arrangement is to issue a public -edition for general reading, and an appendix of extra -plates for students, which would overweight a general -edition. Thus a 2000 edition of the popular half -of the plates may cost £400, and a 250 edition of -the students’ half of the plates may cost £100, so -saving £300, which would be uselessly spent on 1750 -copies that are not wanted, and which would only be -a dead-weight to the main work.</p> - -<div id="sn_76" class="sidenote">Text.</div> - -<p>In arrangement of the text the main necessity is -ready reference, and a form which can be remembered. -The way to this is by classifying the material, dividing -into chapters and paragraphs, each with a title,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_120">120</span> -and above all making a good index, which ought -to be about a tenth of the length of the -work. A list of plates should have -page references for each plate. Remember that -all smaller type, footnotes, and tables are far more -expensive than straightforward printing.</p> - -<p>The general nature of the record of results has -been already dealt with under the recording; and -the need of giving an organic handling of the whole -has been pointed out.</p> - -<div id="sn_77" class="sidenote">Publishing.</div> - -<p>As to publication, if any publisher will undertake -to issue a work of research at his own risk, well -and good. If the author gets a gradually -increasing royalty after the first 100 -copies, that is as much as can be expected from this -class of literature. But in no case have any profit-sharing -agreement. Usually such a work will have -to be issued at the author’s risk, and a few of the -pitfalls of such arrangements may be noted. Let -the manuscript really be in final condition, down to -every stop, before it goes to the printer; consider -the details of headlines, paragraphing, insertion of -illustrations, arrangements of any tables or lists, -(counting the letters), and in short leave nothing -undefined. Have an agreement with the printer for -terms, including an average of, say, two author’s -alterations in every page, none to alter the length of -any page: this allows for inevitable small improvements, -without leaving an entire uncertainty in the -charges. Correct the proofs in red for the author’s -alterations, in black for the printer’s errors. If -alterations exceed the allowance, reckon on paying -for the resetting of the worst pages, so as to bring<span class="pagenum" id="Page_121">121</span> -the average to the allowance on the rest. Beside -the contract for printing and binding, have a contract -with the lithographer, another with the collotyper, -and another with the bookseller, for his terms -of commission on sales. Thus the author knows -exactly where he is, and no unpleasantness can arise -from unexpected charges.</p> - -<p>After publication, the binder and plate-printer -should be asked for any blocks used; and to send -up any “overs” or spoilt plates; as such are often -valuable afterwards to cut up for special uses, -and may save spoiling copies of the book. All -photographs and drawings supplied to the plate- or -block-maker should also be asked for if not returned -at once.</p> -<hr /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_122">122</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XI">CHAPTER XI<br /> - -<span class="subhead">SYSTEMATIC ARCHAEOLOGY</span></h2> -</div> - -<div id="sn_78" class="sidenote">Systems of Work.</div> - -<p class="in0"><span class="firstword">A science</span> can hardly be said to exist until it has -a developed system of work, and its possibilities of -value for teaching purposes depend entirely -on the organization of its methods. -Geology was a chaos before the generalisation of the -successive order of the strata, and the method of -the determination of a stratum by its fossils, gave the -subject a working system. Astronomy was a maze -until the Newtonian laws produced methods of -analysis. Chemistry could not be said to have any -methods until the use of the balance and the theory -of atomic combination made possible the last century -of development. So far, archaeology cannot be said -to have systematised any working methods except -those of artistic comparison and of epigraphy, and -these can only cover a small part of the space and -time which need to be studied.</p> - -<p>Two general modes of work, however, have been -begun, beside that of artistic comparison; and it only -needs that they should be fully carried out in order -to produce a thoroughly systematic archaeology. -These methods are (1) the complete definition of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_123">123</span> -facts by means of a <i>corpus</i> of all known varieties of -objects, in terms of which every object can be -defined; and (2) the arrangement of material in its -order of development by statistical methods and -comparison, which bring out the original sequence -of construction. These two methods of work may -prove to be, for archaeology, what the balance and -atomic theory have been for chemistry,—the necessary -foundation for systematic knowledge and exact -theory.</p> - -<div id="sn_79" class="sidenote">Need of a <i class="sans">corpus</i>.</div> - -<p>The collection of known objects in a <i>corpus</i> was -well done by the early systematisers, especially -Montfaucon; and though his work is -nearly two centuries old, it has not yet -been superseded by better productions in every -department. Since that appeared, the mass of new -material which has been collected, especially in the -last fifty years, cannot be mastered by one man, if -he is ever to find time for original work; and the -whole subject is near coming to a standstill owing to -the dead weight of preparations which are required -before going further. Until a generation of systematisers -shall arise, archaeology can scarcely progress -without continual waste of material and loss by -duplication of work. Moreover, there is no general -reference work, and no notation efficient for recording -new discoveries.</p> - -<p>What is now urgently needed is for some scholars -to each take one branch of work, to collect all that -is known, especially of dated material; and then to -publish all type examples, showing how the subject -varied from century to century, and to attach a -system of letters and numbers to every variety, so<span class="pagenum" id="Page_124">124</span> -that any specimen can be denoted merely by its -<i>corpus</i> number. This should be done at least for -all implements of stone and of metal, all pottery, all -stone and metal vases, all beads and personal ornaments, -jewellery, clothing, domestic utensils, and all -motives of design and ornamentation.</p> - -<p>With such a definite notation once laid down, it -would be possible to record discoveries, and especially -groups of objects, rapidly and in a small compass. -It would also be possible to compile results of excavations -and the contents of museums in simple indices. -In order to work systematically in archaeology we -ought to be able to look in an index and find at -once where, and of what epoch, is every instance of -a particular object: say, of a key, type M 27, or of -a vase, type D 64. Such indices should be continued -by supplements issued every ten or twenty -years. At present, if one would ascertain the -parallels to a particular form, it is necessary to -search through hundreds of volumes and to visit -all the museums—a matter of months of work. -Progress in archaeology, as an exact science, is -practically impossible; it should be easy and rapid, -were all the known material always to be found at -once in a <i>corpus</i> and indices.</p> - -<div id="sn_80" class="sidenote">Example of <i class="sans">corpus</i>.</div> - -<p>Only one <i>corpus</i> has yet been formed, and that -is restricted to only one country, one period, and -one material—the prehistoric pottery -of Egypt (see <i>Nagada</i> and <i>Diospolis -Parva</i>). An outline of the system there followed -will serve to show the actual working of a <i>corpus</i>, -though for each different subject the details will -need separate consideration. The whole of this<span class="pagenum" id="Page_125">125</span> -pottery comprises about a thousand varieties. Each -class of pottery is denoted by its initial letter; P for -polished, B for black-topped, etc. Each form in a -class is numbered, from 1 to 99, and each sub-variety -is lettered. Thus R 63 <i>c</i> means rough -pottery, type 63, variety <i>c</i>; and this completely -defines the example. The numbers are not always -continuous, but gaps in the series are left where -there is much difference between the forms. In -this manner it is possible to add new forms without -upsetting the system, and new sub-varieties can be -brought in by using small letters. The forms are -best classified by beginning with the most open and -flat dishes, and proceeding to the most closed forms, -with narrow necks ending. The point of reaching -verticality in the sides is a well-defined middle point.</p> - -<div id="sn_81" class="sidenote">Utility.</div> - -<p>The practical utility of such a <i>corpus</i> is found at -once when excavating. Formerly it was needful to -keep dozens of broken specimens, which -were of no value except for the fact of -being found along with other vases. Now the -excavator merely needs to look over the <i>corpus</i> of -plates, and writes down on the plan of the tomb, -say, B 23, P 35 <i>b</i>, C 15, F 72, thus the whole record -is made, and not a single piece need be kept unless -it is a good specimen. How essential such a record -is for future progress we shall see below.</p> - -<p>The most obvious step now would be to corporate -all the pottery of Italy. A <i>corpus</i> from Pompeii -would be the best starting-point, as being all of one -period and well dated; then a <i>corpus</i> of Constantinian -forms, a <i>corpus</i> of Republican forms, and a <i>corpus</i> of -each of the prehistoric periods. The early history<span class="pagenum" id="Page_126">126</span> -of the Forum at Rome hangs now upon the safety -of little groups of potsherds lying in a shed, yet -unclassed and unstudied, and certain to be swept -away some day by some one who does not value -them. Instead of this we ought to have a <i>corpus</i> -for reference, and then the contents of each of the -archaic wells could be at once denoted and published -by the numbers of the types; the historic material -would be safe, and could be studied at any future -time irrespective of the conservation of the heaps of -sherds. Carry this out in Greece, and, instead of -piles of pottery lying in the fields or on the terraces -of a classical site from the prehistoric town levels, -each piece could be noted by its number, and all -could be published to make the history of the site -accessible. Without a <i>corpus</i> such discoveries are -but a pathetic destruction of material; with <i>corpus</i> -notation they would form the basis of a thorough -history of the site and of all its changes.</p> - -<p>All that is needed to produce a <i>corpus</i> from a -collection is a month or two of work by a draughtsman, -who has an accurate eye for form, working to -a uniform scale, and systematising the material -conveniently for future reference. Some subjects -would require collecting from many sources, but -generally all the pottery of one period can be found -together in one museum.</p> - -<div id="sn_82" class="sidenote">Successive ages.</div> - -<p>We now turn to the second method for archaeological -research. This is the synthetical arrangement -of the material in the original order. -The most obvious arrangement is that -by contemporary dating, as by years named in a -chronicle or on coins, or by successive reigns of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_127">127</span> -kings. But outside of this method there yet lies -the greater part of human history, which can only -be reconstructed by some internal evidence of successive -periods.</p> - -<p>A couple of generations ago there were laid -down the main divisions of successive ages of stone, -bronze, and iron; and then the division of the stone -age into palaeolithic and neolithic. After that followed -the separation of palaeolithic into four main -periods in France, more or less applicable to other -lands. Further definition was yet found to be -necessary, and the neolithic and bronze ages were -marked off into many classes, which had to be -distinguished by the names of places where they -were first found; and thus we reach a multitude of -names, such as Mycenaean, Hallstattian, the period -of La Tène, etc. Such a piecemeal plan is well -enough for a beginning; but it is not capable of -exact definition, it is cumbersome, and it does not -express the relation of one period to another.</p> - -<div id="sn_83" class="sidenote">Sequences.</div> - -<p>Before we can think of subdividing a period into -a continuous notation, the first requisite is to be -able to place the material into its original -order or sequence. Let us suppose some -old country mansion, where it has been the habit to -close permanently any room in which an owner had -died, and leave everything in it undisturbed. If we -went through such a series of rooms we could not -doubt their order of date if we looked at their -contents. The William IV room could not be put -to the middle of George III’s reign; the George II -room could not be supposed to go between those of -James II and Anne. Each room full of furniture<span class="pagenum" id="Page_128">128</span> -would have some links of style with that of the -generation before, and of the generation after it, -and no real doubt could exist as to the sequence of -the whole series. What is true of a room full of -furniture is equally true of a grave full of pottery. -If we compare together a series of groups of pottery -which are not separated by any long time, there -will always be found some relationship between the -forms in different groups: one group will be seen to -fall between two others if it contains forms to be -found in each of the other groups, though these -others may have nothing in common together. A -fragment of the alphabet, K L M N O P, must fall -between H I J K L and O P Q R, and proves their -connection.</p> - -<p>Thus if each form lasted in use for a uniform -length of time the problem would be fairly simple. -But it is complicated by the plainer forms lasting -far longer in use than the complex or highly -decorated forms; some may go on being made for -a thousand years, others may not have been made -for even ten years. Hence it is needful to resort to -various statistical modes of sorting, which differ in -each case. A complete instance of the process is -given in <i>Diospolis Parva</i>, pp. 4–8.</p> - -<p>On the other hand, the sorting of material is -greatly helped by any clear series of forms derived -one from the other; especially a series of degradation, -and reduction of useful elements to mere -ornament. It is well, however, to have a check on -one end of a series, by connecting it to known times, -so as to prove which way it proceeds.</p> - -<div id="sn_84" class="sidenote">Sequence dates.</div> - -<p>What notation should be used to express a series<span class="pagenum" id="Page_129">129</span> -of sequences must vary with conditions. Where we -can deal with a larger number—many -hundreds—of good graves, each containing -plenty of material, then a scale of equal numbers -of graves is perhaps the fairest that can be taken. -Thus for a scale of sequence dates, for the pottery -named above, I adopted 50 numbers, each representing -20 graves.</p> - -<p>The final result is to express the time-range of -each type of pottery and of other objects in the -graves in terms of the scale of sequence of the -tombs. Thus the date of certain forms may be -stated as 33–42 sequence date; 37–70 sequence -date; 45–48 sequence date, etc. And when this is -once established it is easy to date all further graves -by arranging the dates of each object found in a -grave, for instance in actual <span class="locked">cases:—</span></p> - -<table id="t129" class="tw20" summary="Sequence dates"> -<tr> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc lrpad">Sequence dates.</td> - <td class="tdc lrpad">Sequence dates.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">30–36</td> - <td class="tdc">35–68</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">32–68</td> - <td class="tdc">60–69</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">30–42</td> - <td class="tdc">68–78</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"><span class="rb">31–34</span></td> - <td class="tdc"><span class="rb">68–78</span></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc">Limits</td> - <td class="tdc">32–34</td> - <td class="tdc">68</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p class="in0">The larger the group the more closely it is dated, -by reason of the various forms having a very small -common ground of dating.</p> - -<p>This system enables us to deal with material -which is entirely undated otherwise; and the larger -the quantity of it the more accurate are the results. -There is no reason now why prehistoric ages, from -which there are groups of remains, should not be<span class="pagenum" id="Page_130">130</span> -dealt with as surely and clearly as the historic ages -with recorded dates.</p> - -<div id="sn_85" class="sidenote">Conservation.</div> - -<p>Yet another all-important matter for the systematic -archaeology of the future must be here -mentioned, especially as it greatly affects -the future schemes of field-work. The -first requirement for systematic work of study is -material sufficient to work on. And to provide this -there must be both discovery and conservation. -During the last century there has been a gradual -growth of archaeological perception; and in place -of only caring for beautiful and striking objects -there has arisen some interest in whatever can throw -light on the past civilisations. But unhappily the -ideas of conservation have not kept pace with the -work of discovery. The present system of museums -is the most serious bar to the progress of archaeology. -The building, which is the mere modern shell, of no -interest, and often of no beauty, is the master of the -collection, which is restrained and crippled by such -conditions that its use is impaired and its growth is -stopped. The past is vanishing before our modern -changes yearly and daily. There is ever less and -less to preserve. And everything possible must be -garnered before it has entirely vanished. The -present has its most serious duty to history in -saving the past for the benefit of the future.</p> - -<div id="sn_86" class="sidenote">Buildings.</div> - -<p>In a museum the collection is the essential; the -building is the mere accident of the surroundings of -the collection, and it should completely -conform to all the requirements. Yet -can it be believed that, even in the last year or -two, enormous national museums—as at Cairo and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_131">131</span> -Brussels—have been built without the smallest regard -to the collection, or the opinions of the curators? -The result at Cairo is the most deplorable sacrifice -of the art and history of a great country to the -follies and childish vanity of an incompetent and -unsympathetic architect. We will not stay to detail -the entire unsuitability of that building in style, -form, size, and lighting; the constructive questions -of what is needed for a proper museum are our -subject.</p> - -<div id="sn_87" class="sidenote">Lighting.</div> - -<p>After the common purpose of all buildings—security -from man and nature—the first requirements -in a museum are lighting and -grouping. Whatever interferes with -these is a detriment which should be avoided or -removed. Lighting must be (1) direct, not from -reflection by walls; (2) full, but not dazzling; (3) -in exactly the right direction. Of all the precious -statues of antiquity there is not one that has had a -tenth of its value spent on the best lighting possible. -Most are in hopelessly bad positions, as the -Aphrodite of Melos in a weak, diffused, sidelight; -and none have the simplest blinds to change the -direction of the light, so as to study the surface in -varying lighting. To know what a figure requires, -only take a fine statuette in the hand, and try what -can be made of it by the variation of direction, -obliquity, and amount of lighting. Then see how -hopeless it is to know a statue in one fixed lighting, -even if that be suitable. The only person competent -to arrange the lighting of objects, and especially -statuary, is a successful photographer who has well -practised the lighting of portable figures. An<span class="pagenum" id="Page_132">132</span> -almost vertical light is essential for all human -figures in the round or flat; but it needs most -delicate adjustment to bring out the more important -modelling, and many different directions of light to -shew all that there is in the work. What is true of -statuary is true in a lesser degree of every other -object. No other qualities can possibly atone for -defects of lighting in a museum. No building with -a bad light can be called properly a museum; it -may be an architect’s triumph, a civic ornament, a -costly patchwork, a marvel of folly, but a museum -it is not, if it is unfit for the first requirements of a -collection.</p> - -<div id="sn_88" class="sidenote">Grouping.</div> - -<p>The second great requirement, that of grouping, -includes the intelligent display of objects so as to -shew their relation to each other in -development, their connection as found -together, the preservation of the whole of the -material that should be preserved, and its comparison -by means of casts.</p> - -<p>The relation of objects in development requires -free space in a museum, and the absence of any -pinching consideration of how to utilise every square -foot. Their connection as found together in tombs -and groups also requires free space, more than is yet -to be had in any English museum. The preservation -of the whole of the needful material is still -more utterly beyond the limits of any of the present -museums. Every year a great deal of entirely -irreplaceable material is thrown away, or neglected -on the spot, because there is no hope whatever of -preserving it. In the British Museum space costs -several pounds a square foot, and only objects of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_133">133</span> -great value can be reasonably preserved there. We -are driven, then, to the conclusion that the progress -of archaeology and the preservation of the past, as it -comes into our hands year by year, is essentially a -question of free space. And that is practically -entirely a question of cheap space. To refuse to -preserve anything that is not worth some pounds per -square foot, is the death of archaeology; and yet such -are the necessary conditions in our present museums, -however much we may expand them in their costly -conditions. If we once think of what the condition -of affairs will be fifty years hence, when many -periods and places will be exhausted, and yet -nothing but showy objects are preserved, we see -that the future knowledge of archaeology is helplessly -bound up in the question of our immediate -expansion of conservation.</p> - -<div id="sn_89" class="sidenote">National Repository.</div> - -<p>We see then how absolutely necessary for archaeology -and ethnology it is to have a National -Repository, where the cost of space shall -never be detrimental to the collection. -I need not enter on the details of how such a -repository could be carried out, as I have fully -discussed them at the British Association, and the -Society of Arts (see <i>Jour. S. A.</i> No. 2, 478, price 6d.); -but an outline of the conditions and cost will shew -the practicability of the proposal. All objects of -value to a thief should be kept in the strong custody -of city museums; but the great majority of specimens -that should be preserved are too bulky or too -unsaleable to be stolen, beside casts which no one -would steal, and such do not, therefore, need more -than general supervision. A square mile of land,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_134">134</span> -within an hour’s journey from London, should be -secured; and built over with uniform plain brickwork -and cement galleries, at the rate of 20,000 square feet -a year, so providing 8 miles of galleries 50 feet wide -in a century, with room yet for several centuries of -expansion at the same rate. A staff of about 30 -persons would suffice to arrange the new material at -this rate; and having abundant space, no time would -be wasted by frequent shifting of old material. -Everything should be photographically registered as -it came in. Glass should be placed over all objects -which can deteriorate; but the amount of dirt would -be a minimum in the country, and with the air-supply -filtered from dust.</p> - -<p>The total cost of land, building, materials, and -staff would be covered by a budget of £10,000 a -year. And this is the normal <i>increase</i> of the British -Museum budget every four years. Hence if the -British Museum were to find room by clearing out -objects which are not liable to be stolen, for a few -years, and placing them in the Repository, the cost -of the Repository would be paid for to all time. A -mere retardation of growth of the British Museum -for five or ten years would entirely make up for the -cost of the Repository twenty times its size. That -this provision is perfectly practicable is not denied; -that it would be far cheaper than continued expansion -in highly expensive conditions is certain; and -that it is essential for the growth of archaeology and -ethnology is sadly obvious. Let us hope that if we -are too hide-bound in England to grasp the new -conditions of research, that at least in America some -one will provide such a storehouse for all time;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_135">135</span> -where some day the history of the world may be -studied, when we have hopelessly lost the chance of -preserving what might at present be had for the -asking. If we are to make up our minds to ignore -and lose what is now being lost and destroyed every -year owing to our ignorance and blindness, we must -look to the New World to rescue from our misuse -the material we now throw away, and so preserve -the history of mankind.</p> -<hr /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_136">136</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XII">CHAPTER XII<br /> - -<span class="subhead">ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE</span></h2> -</div> - -<div id="sn_90" class="sidenote">Nature of proof.</div> - -<p class="in0"><span class="firstword">The</span> nature of proof is more complex than it seems -to be at first sight. True enough, all proof is merely -a matter of common sense; it does not -appeal to any different faculty. And -though a proof may follow as simply as possible -from the facts, yet it cannot be understood by one -who is not familiar with the facts to begin with. -Trigonometry is the most obvious common sense to -any one familiar with the formulae; and the formulae -themselves are only common sense to any one who -takes the trouble to argue them through. Yet, for -all that, trigonometry is not obvious to the ignorant. -In the same way the evidences about the past of -man are simple and clear when the facts and methods -from which they are deduced are already known. -Yet it requires a good familiarity with the material before -the conclusions can be felt to be self-evident results.</p> - -<div id="sn_91" class="sidenote">Legal evidence.</div> - -<p>To follow clearly what evidence and proof means, -it is best to refer to a class of evidence which is -most familiar to the reader. What is -commonly called <i>legal evidence</i> is the -best-known example, as it is met every day in law<span class="pagenum" id="Page_137">137</span> -cases and police reports. Evidence is based on the -same principles, in whatever subject it may be; -there is not one logic for the present, and a different -logic for the past. But the kind of evidence, the -exactitude, the certainty, which is considered enough -to determine a property or a life, is rightly looked -on as conclusive for all reasonable purposes. The -laws of such evidence have been threshed over for -generations past; and it is well known what kind of -proofs may be relied upon, and what are dubious. If -we then compare this class of evidence with that which -we accept in studying the past history of man, we shall -see more clearly what kinds of proof are admissible, -and how far it is reasonable to depend upon our results.</p> - -<p>In examining legal evidence we see that it all -falls under one of four heads—(1) witnesses, (2) -material objects, (3) exhaustion, and (4) probabilities. -These four kinds of evidence are of very different -values; any one of them may be stronger than the -others in a given case, and each kind has its own -special weakness.</p> - -<p>1. <i>Witnesses</i> provide the most clear and connected -proof, and the least liable to misunderstanding; -but yet a proof which is entirely dependent on -veracity, on intelligence, on absence of prejudice, and -on clear memory, and is hence the least dependable -kind of evidence in some cases.</p> - -<p>2. <i>Material facts</i>, which may be very conclusive; -such as A’s footprint in B’s garden, or A’s chisel -left in B’s house, at a burglary. If the fact is certain, -the conclusion is proved; but the danger lies in -misunderstanding the fact.</p> - -<p>3. <i>Exhaustion</i>, which may prove A guilty because<span class="pagenum" id="Page_138">138</span> -no one else could have done the deed; as when A -and B are seen in a railway carriage at one station, -and at the next stoppage B is found murdered and -A leaves the carriage. There may be not a trace of -other evidence, but this is enough.</p> - -<p>4. <i>Probability</i>, as when A is last seen with B, and -B proceeds to deal with the property of murdered A. -This kind of evidence is enough to hang a man, solely -from presumption.</p> - -<p>Now let us look at these kinds of evidence about -the past of man.</p> - -<div id="sn_92" class="sidenote">Witnesses.</div> - -<p>1. <i>Witnesses</i>, the documents, which give a clear -and connected statement. They may be either -primary, as a stone inscription or an -autograph letter; or secondary, as compiled -histories or subsequent copies. No other kind -of evidence is so easy to follow; yet this is a proof -in which we are entirely at the mercy of the prejudices, -the ill-will, the frauds, and the blunders of -others, and it is hence the least dependable kind of -evidence in some cases. The speeches of Thucydides, -the bias of Suetonius, the wonders of Livy, the -romances of William of Malmesbury, and the forgery -called Richard of Cirencester, each plunge us deeper -and deeper into the doubtfulness of written documents; -to say nothing of the casket letters or Ossian.</p> - -<div id="sn_93" class="sidenote">Material facts.</div> - -<p>2. <i>Material facts</i>, when rightly understood, are -the most conclusive evidence. They may be in a -single object, as a palaeolithic flint rechipped -over and over in later ages; or -a foreign ornament used on an object of dated style, -as a Maori tatued head in a daguerreotype would -prove the tatuing to be known between 1840 and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_139">139</span> -1860; or a restruck coin with one type over another, -as Barchocheb over Hadrian; or an added inscription, -so familiar on Egyptian statues. Or the -evidence may consist in a collocation of objects, -such as a group of things found together in a tomb; -or the superposition of strata of ruins in a town. -In the case of a single object there are few possibilities -of misunderstanding the evidence; but in -strata or tomb-groups there is a chance of older -things being reused. Such chances of error are, however, -extinguished by the recurrence of instances; -and the finding of certain things together in several -cases under different circumstances is one of the -strongest kinds of evidence, such, for instance, as -the name of Amenhotep III often found with the -Mykenaean pottery, both in Greece and in Egypt.</p> - -<div id="sn_94" class="sidenote">Exhaustion.</div> - -<p>3. <i>Exhaustion</i> may prove a point; as, for instance, -the Iconoclasts in Greece or Reformers and Puritans -in England were the only destroyers of -images and pictures, or Akhenaten was -the only man who erased the name of Amen. Such -destructions therefore are evidence of the age and -the man.</p> - -<div id="sn_95" class="sidenote">Probabilities.</div> - -<p>4. <i>Probabilities</i>, as, for instance, the fact that the -Saxons erased the Romano-Britons, makes -it probable that Silchester, Uriconium, -and other late Roman towns which were burnt, were -destroyed by the Saxons.</p> - -<p>We see thus that each kind of proof which is -accepted legally is also used archaeologically, and is -subject to much the same failings. Legal evidence -may fail by mistaking the nature of the facts, such -as that some rabbit’s blood on a knife is human<span class="pagenum" id="Page_140">140</span> -blood; so may archaeology mistake by ignorance, as -when the Mykenaean treasure was called Byzantine.</p> - -<p>Or legal evidence may fail by wrong inferences -from facts, such as that some human blood on a -knife is due to a murder, while it has come from the -owner’s finger. So archaeology erred from a wrong -inference in calling the treasure of Troy “the treasure -of Priam.”</p> - -<p>Or legal evidence may fail owing to mere prejudice, -thus ignoring the truth. So archaeology has -suffered from the prejudice that nothing in Greece -can be older than the VIIIth century <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span></p> - -<div id="sn_96" class="sidenote">Legal proof.</div> - -<p>It is supposed sometimes, by those unfamiliar -with the subject, that archaeological evidence is so -doubtful or so slight that it cannot be -relied upon, and is not to be compared -with the certainties of legal proof. Let us see then -what legal proof is in important cases. In one case -a will was lost, and the mere memory of its contents, -stated by a survivor who had assisted in writing it, -was accepted as sufficient proof of what had been in -it, and the property was distributed accordingly. -In another case property was left by A to B, or -failing B to C; B also made a will leaving it to D. -A and B were killed together in an accident, and -the slightest observation of which moved last, determined -whether C or D had the property. Again, -there are innumerable cases of setting a will aside -because of the testator not being of a sound mind -for disposing of property; and various assertions of -irrelevant facts by various interested parties are held -to reveal the true mental capacity of a person to a -judge and jury. In a murder trial the question of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_141">141</span> -whether one or both of the assailants were guilty -was held proved by the deceased having been tied -by two different forms of knots. In another trial -the mere presumption due to concealing a body and -dealing with the property of a murdered person was -enough to hang a man. Such are some of the -evidences which are held good in law to settle -questions of life and property.</p> - -<p>Happily archaeology is relieved from the terrible -dilemma of being bound to come to a conclusion at -once, as the law has to do. Questions can be left -pending, and it is not peremptorily needful to act -one way or another. An open mind can be kept on -difficult and obscure points; and a matter can be -discussed in fresh lights, without keeping a prisoner -standing in the dock the whole time. Legal conclusions -are often wrong; though, as the law can do -no wrong, a free pardon is all the sufferer gets when -his innocence is proved. But if legal proofs, arguments, -and conclusions were kept freely open to -revision for years; if they were printed in every textbook -for beginners; if all students were encouraged -to find fresh evidence, and to upset what was laid -down, and if the high-road to position lay in reversing -the decisions of past authorities, it seems only -too likely that there would be a greater wreckage of -bad cases and bad law than there now is of bad -archaeology.</p> - -<div id="sn_97" class="sidenote">Egypt and Europe.</div> - -<p>For an example of the nature of archaeological -evidence it will be best to study the connections of -Egypt with early Europe. This subject -is not only a fascinating one historically, -but it includes a great variety of different kinds of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_142">142</span> -evidence,—from paintings, from groups found in -tombs, from remains of palaces, from objects exactly -dated by royal names, from objects dated by their -nature and style; and evidence which is of various -degrees of certainty. Moreover this evidence has -been more actively and continually attacked than -any other class of discoveries of late years, and hence -the most that can be argued against it is well known.</p> - -<div id="sn_98" class="sidenote">In XXVIth Dynasty.</div> - -<p>Until 1883 nothing was known of the Greeks in -Egypt before the Ptolemaic age; the accounts of -Herodotus about the Greek mercenaries, -and their connection with the XXVIth -Dynasty, stood solely as a literary statement, without -a scrap of tangible evidence. At the close of that -year I bought an archaic Greek statuette in Cairo -(<a href="#il_56">Fig. 56</a>); and on enquiring about the source of it, -I heard of Nebireh, and hunted out the site in the -Western Delta. There I found the ground covered -with archaic Greek pottery dating throughout the -XXVIth Dynasty, and it was evident that a great -Greek city had existed there. Next year, at the -close of 1884, I began exploring it, and found on -the first day there, a decree of the people of Naukratis. -Here then the evidence of Greek occupation -depended upon the presence of thousands of pieces -of Greek pottery and sculpture; and to imagine that -these had all been imported by Egyptians was -beyond any possible supposition. A town containing -almost entirely Greek remains, and with only clumsy -imitations of Egyptian subjects, was certainly occupied -by Greeks. And as there is no instance or -probability of Greeks having imported great quantities -of vases made in earlier times, this place contained<span class="pagenum" id="Page_143">143</span> -good evidence for Greeks having lived there from the -VIIth century <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> As such it was generally accepted; -but the dedication by the Naukratites was withheld -from the public for six months by over-cautious -authorities, for fear that something else might contradict -it. This is a case where what was undoubtedly -good evidence should rather have been -stated at once, with a reservation that it was very -improbable that the stone had been brought from -another site, or dedicated anywhere except in Naukratis. -The evidence of the pottery shewed that -Naukratis dated from the middle of the VIIth -century; and this agrees with the statement by -Athenaeus that a statue was dedicated there in the -23rd Olympiad, 688 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span></p> - -<p>In the next season, the spring of 1886, I went -down to Defeneh, and there found a great mass of -Greek pottery of the same period as that of Naukratis. -Here again, then, the Greeks had inhabited the -site; and the evidence was clear that this was a -great camp of Greek mercenaries. The modern -name Defeneh so closely agrees to the ancient -Daphnae that no one hesitated to accept their -equivalence. Here the identification rests, then, not -on a contemporary inscription, but on a modern -Arabic name.</p> - -<p>Important evidence about the manufactures of -these places is given by the pottery. Although the -two sites were occupied at the same period by -Ionian Greeks, yet the bulk of the pottery on one -site differs from that on the other. The conclusion -is that probably it was made locally by Greek -potters, and not brought by traders from Greek<span class="pagenum" id="Page_144">144</span> -towns, as trade would probably have imported from -the same sources to both sites. The evidence here -is from the difference of classes.</p> - -<p>Another conclusion is drawn from the few varieties -of painted pottery which are found in common at -both sites. From the levels at which they were -found at Naukratis these varieties were dated at -various years between 610 and 550 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>; and such -varieties were found together in a chamber at Defeneh -with jar sealings bearing royal names of Psamtek II -and Aahmes, and therefore dated between 595 and -565 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>, as the Greeks were removed from the -camp in the latter year. The evidence here is from -the collocation of objects; those dated by the levels -at which other things were found at Naukratis -agreeing with those dated by mixture with Egyptian -sealings at Defeneh.</p> - -<div id="il_56" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 18em;"> - <img src="images/i_144.jpg" width="1107" height="1170" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">The Greeks in Egypt.</span></p> - <p>Fig. 56. Warrior, in alabaster. Naukratis, XXVI Dyn.</p> -</div></div> - -<div id="il_57" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 26em;"> - <img src="images/i_144b.jpg" width="1612" height="1509" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">The Greeks in Egypt.</span></p> - <p>Fig. 57. Graeco-Egyptian vases. Abydos, XVIII Dyn.</p> -</div></div> - -<div id="sn_99" class="sidenote">XVIIIth Dynasty paintings.</div> - -<p>We now turn to the great group of dating of -the XVIIIth–XXth Dynasties; and as the nature of -the evidence is our present consideration -we shall classify it according to the -kind of source of the evidence. The most certain -dating is that of offerings painted on the walls of -tombs, as it is always agreed that such represent -objects which were in current use when the tomb -was decorated; they therefore are not older than -the tomb, nor can the paintings have been added -later. Of this class are the paintings of vases in -the tomb of Rekhmara, under Tahutmes III in -the XVIIIth Dynasty; these vases are shewn as -being brought in by the Kefti foreigners, and -strongly resemble the vases found in Cyprus, -Mykenae, and other Greek sites. Here the connection<span class="pagenum" id="Page_145">145</span> -of Egypt in the XVIIIth Dynasty with people -who made such vases is certain; but the vases might -be older than the scene, or such vases might continue -to be made to a later time, hence the connection -with any given epoch on Greek soil is only a strong -probability but not absolute. Another dated painting -is that of stirrup vases (to use a more convenient -word than “pseud-amphorae,” “false-necked vases,” -or “<i>bügel kanne</i>”) among the offerings in the paintings -on the tomb of Ramessu III of the XXth -Dynasty. That such forms were familiar at that -date is absolute; but they might be older vases -preserved in the Royal Treasury, or might be -imitations by Egyptians of older foreign forms, like -English repetition of Chinese patterns.</p> - -<div id="sn_100" class="sidenote">Burnt groups.</div> - -<p>The next class of evidence is that of objects -which have been placed in such conditions that they -cannot have been disturbed after a given -date. This evidence is given by several -deposits of groups of vases, clothing, etc., which -were burnt in pits sunk in the floors of houses, and -then earthed over. Such groups cannot possibly -have been disturbed later on to insert objects, as the -charcoal and ashes are undisturbed, and the foreign -objects are likewise burnt. Hence the evidence of -the Egyptian objects if clearly dated must carry the -foreign objects to the same date. Several such -groups have been found at Gurob. In one were -many Egyptian objects all agreeing well to the date -of Amenhotep III, as fixed by a glazed pottery -kohl tube; in another a group agreeing with the -date of Tutankhamen, which was shewn by some -fragile pendants which could not have long survived<span class="pagenum" id="Page_146">146</span> -in use; another group agrees to the age of Ramessu -II, who is named on a pendant of glazed ware; and -a fourth group agrees to the rougher style of Sety -II, which is dated by a dish with his name. The -character of the Egyptian objects thus points to -each of these dated objects being contemporary -with the rest of their group, and therefore truly -dating the group. Now in these groups were first, -five well-made globular stirrup vases (see <a href="#il_59">Fig. 59</a>); -second, pieces of several stirrup vases of a later -form; third, the neck of a later and coarser -stirrup vase; and fourth, two much later coarse -and unpainted stirrup vases. Here the changes in -the character of the vases agree with the relative -dates given by the Egyptian objects. The stirrup -vases might be all older than the Egyptian dates, -but that is very improbable by the regular degradation -of them according with the dates; and the groups -cannot be later than the dated objects as they agree -well with the date of such Egyptian things fixed -in other cases. It is then extremely improbable -that the stirrup vases should not belong to the -periods of the Egyptian kings whose names are -found with them. Variation in either direction is -prohibited by these limitations.</p> - -<p>We may add that there are two other burnt groups -without kings’ names, and the connection of stirrup -vases with Egyptian objects in these agrees well -with the connection shewn by the other groups. -Another such grouping was in a burial in open -ground at Abydos; there several examples of -Graeco-Egyptian ware (<a href="#il_57">Fig. 57</a>), two figures and a -ring vase with pomegranates and lotus flowers, were<span class="pagenum" id="Page_147">147</span> -found with Egyptian pottery and beads of the -XVIIIth Dynasty.</p> - -<div id="sn_101" class="sidenote">Rubbish mounds.</div> - -<p>A somewhat similar grouping is afforded by the -rubbish mounds of the palace of Akhenaten at Tell -el Amarna. There the palace was -entirely deserted after the reign of his -successor, about 1360 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>, and the town ruined -finally by Horemheb, 1330 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> It seems then -impossible to suppose anything later being mixed -up with the rubbish heaps, which contained nearly a -hundred dated objects, none later than 1360 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> -The supposition has even been suggested that some -unknown people, who left no other traces, have at -some later time come laden with hundreds of potsherds, -and dug over the rubbish mounds to mix -them together. Such are the wild fancies which -must be resorted to if the evidence is to be upset. -The rubbish mounds consist of some thousands of -tons of potsherds and dust; and among these, -entirely mixed with them, were found nearly a -hundred rings and objects of Akhenaten and his -successor, and over 1300 pieces of Aegean pottery, -representing probably 800 vases. The palace, -which was deserted after 1360 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>, also contained -several pieces of the same pottery. Here the -great quantity of the material of all kinds precludes -all the suppositions that might be made -about isolated specimens. The mounds are too -large for later material to be mixed with them; -the dated objects are too many to be accidental, -or to have been older than the mounds; and the -Aegean vases are too many to have been preserved -from earlier times. The whole conditions<span class="pagenum" id="Page_148">148</span> -prove that all the objects were in common use -contemporaneously.</p> - -<div id="sn_102" class="sidenote">Houses.</div> - -<p>A somewhat less certain dating is given by -remains found in houses. At the palace of -Akhenaten the definite date of its ruin -fairly shews the Aegean pottery in it to -be contemporary with his generation. In a house -at Gurob, Aegean pottery was found with wood-carving -of the XIXth Dynasty and a ring of the -late XVIIIth Dynasty, and also under the walls of -a house which was built at the close of the XVIIIth -Dynasty. These are not precise datings, and are -open to claims that the houses were later than the -evidence shews; but such connections give a strong -presumption.</p> - -<p>Similar, but converse, evidence is given from the -Greek side. At Mykenae was found a figure of a -monkey in violet glaze (No. 4573 Athens); this is -of Egyptian work and bears the name of Amenhotep -II. A piece of glaze found in a building by the -lion gate has the name of Amenhotep III. A -scarab of Thyi, his queen, was found in the palace -of Mykenae. And three large jars of drab-coloured -Egyptian pottery (4569 Athens), such as is quite -unknown from Greek sources, were also found at -Mykenae. Now these examples prove the import -of Egyptian things of the XVIIIth and XIXth -Dynasties before the fall of Mykenae; they do -not give an exact dating as their time-connection -on the Greek side is unstated, and they might -belong to any part of the history of the town. -But their agreement in age gives a strong presumption -that the latter half of the XVIIIth<span class="pagenum" id="Page_149">149</span> -Dynasty was contemporary with some part of the -flourishing period of foreign trade at Mykenae.</p> - -<div id="sn_103" class="sidenote">Scarabs.</div> - -<p>At this point we should notice an assertion often -made, that Egyptian objects, especially scarabs, often -bore the names of kings who were earlier -than the date of the manufacture. This -is sometimes the case, and on this ground it has -been attempted to discredit all evidence about -scarabs. Now an exactly similar case occurs in -Roman coinage, where at eight different periods -restorations of coins of earlier emperors took place, -no less than twenty emperors being thus commemorated. -Yet no one has impugned the evidence -of Roman coins in dating an excavation, on the -ground that as some were restored therefore none -are of certain value. Similarly seven kings restored -the scarabs of earlier times, twelve different kings -being thus commemorated; but that is no reason -for discrediting the age of the remaining ninety-nine -scarabs out of every hundred. The restorations, -say of the XIIth Dynasty kings by Tahutmes -III, are as obvious as the restorations of earlier -emperors by Gallienus. No doubt to a person -ignorant of coins the subject would seem uncertain and -confused; but then scientific evidence is not expected -to appeal to those who are ignorant of the subject, -whether it be coins or scarabs. We must then -credit the evidence of scarabs for dating, although -there are some restored in a different style, and -although some case might be found where a scarab -had been reused at a much later date than that of -its manufacture. Such exceptions are certainly not -one per cent of the whole, and cannot therefore<span class="pagenum" id="Page_150">150</span> -be invoked to explain away the whole of the -instances.</p> - -<div id="sn_104" class="sidenote">Tombs in Egypt.</div> - -<p>The largest class of evidence is that from collocation -in tombs. The weak points of this are (1) -reuse of tombs so that primary and -secondary interments may be mixed; -this should be obvious in any properly conducted excavation, -and cannot be brought in as an hypothesis -unless some mixture of date can be otherwise -proved: (2) the tomb contents being older than -the dated object, and so brought to too low a -date, which is very unlikely, as a whole group of -things would not be preserved for long together: -(3) the dated object being older than the tomb, -which is practically the only danger. A few rare -examples have been seen of older objects being -reburied, but so rarely that only a very small proportion -of cases could be thus explained. The great -majority of things in hand at any one time belong -to within a generation or two. In our own time, -although we treasure older things more than did the -people of any past age, yet not one per cent of what -we have is over a hundred years old. In late Roman -coinage the waste was such that in a hundred years -only an eighth survived in use, and in half a -century more only a twenty-fifth remained. It is -very rarely that beads or pendants of very different -ages are mixed in ancient necklaces, or that -scarabs of reigns far apart are buried together. I -do not remember a mixture of more than two -contiguous reigns in any group of scarabs that I have -found. Hence this possibility of an older object -being reused may occur rarely, but cannot be called<span class="pagenum" id="Page_151">151</span> -upon in the whole of the cases, or even for any -perceptible proportion of them. In certainly nine -cases out of ten we must expect that a dated object -was buried within less than two or three generations -from its original period.</p> - -<p>The tomb groups containing Aegean pottery are, -it so happens, not so well dated as the burnt groups; -and are therefore inferior to the burnt groups, both -on this account, as well as by the greater possibility -of mixture. The Maket tomb at Kahun is the -principal example. The dated objects in that are of -Tahutmes II and III; and though at first I supposed -it to be of later age on the strength of some beads -not then known before the XIXth or XXth Dynasty, -yet as such beads were afterwards found in a deposit -of Tahutmes III at Koptos, there is no reason for -questioning that the whole is of his age. Also the -experience of the past dozen years has shewn that -such a date agrees well to all the other objects in -the tomb. The absence of blue painted pottery does -not imply a date after the disuse of it in the XXth -Dynasty, but before that style came into use in the -middle of the XVIIIth Dynasty. In this tomb was -a fine Aegean vase (<a href="#il_58">Fig. 58</a>) with ivy-spray pattern, -which is thus dated to about 1500 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> The burials -were quite undisturbed and therefore the vase cannot -belong to a later date, but might possibly be earlier.</p> - -<p>Other examples have not this precise dating. -At Kahun a burial in the open ground, and undisturbed, -had scarabs and objects of the style of the -middle or end of the XVIIIth Dynasty, with a stirrup -vase from the Aegean (<i>Kahun</i>, p. 32). The undisturbed -tomb at Gurob containing the beautiful wooden<span class="pagenum" id="Page_152">152</span> -statuette of Res, certainly of the XVIIIth Dynasty, -had in an opposite chamber a stirrup vase, which -must have been buried at the same period. Another -burial at Gurob had a piece of a stirrup vase with -beads exactly like those of Ramessu II. And at -Naqada a tomb which by the style of the painting, -must have belonged to the beginning or middle of -the XVIIIth Dynasty, had been so entirely plundered -that the only object left was a fine globular stirrup -vase. In these cases -there is no exact dating, -but a consensus of style -in each case of the -XVIIIth or early XIXth -Dynasty; and the connection -of the Aegean -pottery with it is in some -cases absolute and in -others only presumptive. The argument for date -of the pottery rests then in these cases on the -uniformity of the period connected with it, and the -absence of any discrepant dating.</p> - -<div id="il_58" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 13em;"> - <img src="images/i_152.png" width="775" height="440" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 58.</span>—Aegean vase of Tahutmes III. - Maket tomb. 1:3. -</div></div> - -<div id="sn_105" class="sidenote">Tombs in Greece.</div> - -<p>Now this argument is greatly reinforced if we can -shew that the same connection of period exists on -the other side. At Ialysos in Rhodes a -tomb with Aegean pottery contained a -scarab of Amenhotep III. At Mykenae, grave No. -49 contained also glazed ware of Amenhotep III. -At Enkomi in Cyprus in grave 93 a scarab of Queen -Thyi was found with Aegean pottery. And from -the same cemetery comes a metal ring of her son -Amenhotep IV. These cases therefore connect one -period of the Aegean remains with the Egyptian<span class="pagenum" id="Page_153">153</span> -reigns from 1414 to 1365 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> If on one hand it -might be supposed that the single Greek objects in -Egyptian tombs were older than the time of their -burial, here on the other hand the possibility is -reversed, and the single Egyptian objects in Greece -could only be older and not later than the group -with which they were buried. As on both sides the -dating is the same—the latter part of the XVIIIth -Dynasty—it shows that in both countries the groups -contained objects of contemporary date. If we were -to further refine on the question, and enquire whether -the differences of date of the reigns in Egypt correspond -to equal differences in Greece, we are met by -the lack of all relative dating yet assignable to the -Greek tombs; on that side we have only a vague -statement of “Mykenaean period,” or some such -generality; and it is therefore only that period in -general that we can assign to the XVIIIth–XIXth -Dynasty in Egypt.</p> - -<div id="sn_106" class="sidenote">Variation with date.</div> - -<p>We may, however, see a little further into detail -on the Egyptian side by observing how the stirrup -vases vary in form and work. At Naqada, -probably under Tahutmes III, was a -globular form, with simple broad bands, and dull -face. At Gurob under Amenhotep III the vases -have more broad bands and a polished face (<a href="#il_59">Fig. 59</a>). -Under Tutankhamen there were fine lines appearing -between the bands. Under Ramessu II the form is -coarser. And under Sety II is only a coarse unpainted -imitation. Lastly, under Ramessu VI at -Tell el Yehudiyeh were some rude debased copies. -Here the relative style of the vases agrees with the -varying date of the objects found with each; and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_154">154</span> -hence we are justified in not only placing one general -period in Greece as contemporary with another period -in Egypt, but also in connecting the varied forms -with the reigns which are named with them. The -evidence which we gain from the mere general admixture, -without any proof of the objects originating -in the generation by which they were buried, is here -further carried on into evidence for the exact age -of each type by the sequence of style agreeing to -the sequence of the dated objects.</p> - -<div id="il_59" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 24em;"> - <img src="images/i_154.png" width="1505" height="1369" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 59.</span>—False-necked vases from Egypt.</p> - <table id="tfig59" class="smaller" summary="vases"> - <tr> - <td class="tdc">XVIIIth Dyn.<br />Amenhotep III.<br />Tutankhamen.</td> - <td class="tdc">XIXth Dyn.<br />Ramessu II.<br />Sety II.</td> - <td class="tdc">XXth Dyn.<br />Ramessu III.<br />Ramessu VI.</td> - </tr> - </table> -</div></div> - -<div id="sn_107" class="sidenote">Style.</div> - -<p>We now turn to a question of style alone. In -grave 93 at Enkomi was found a gold collar of -Egyptian work with nine different patterns -in it; of these, eight are well known as -designs of the time of Amenhotep IV, and the ninth<span class="pagenum" id="Page_155">155</span> -is a variant of such. As these designs are not -known in such forms at a century later or earlier, -this collar cannot have been made far from 1400 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>; -and as it is of slight and tender fabric it cannot have -long been in use. Hence the date of its burial and -of the tomb must be in the fourteenth century <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> -Of other examples of style, which may be quoted as -important, is a great group of blue glazed ware of -the same form, colour, and designs, as the vases of -Ramessu II, but found in grave 66 at Enkomi; a -gold pin, with a hole in the middle, of the XVIIIth–XIXth -Dynasty found at Gurob, like one from grave -66 at Enkomi; a group of bronze vases with lotus -handles found in the Idaean cave in Crete, exactly -of the fabric of those of the XVIIIth–XIXth Dynasty; -a figure of a swimming girl holding a dish, carved -in bone, from the Idaean cave, a favourite design in -the XVIIIth Dynasty; and some other instances of -similar style, ornament, and processes, which need -hardly reinforce the general argument.</p> - -<div id="sn_108" class="sidenote">Recapitulation.</div> - -<p>To recapitulate the evidences of the XVIIIth–XXth -<span class="locked">Dynasty:—</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot hang"> - -<p class="p2"><i>Evidence of paintings.</i> Tombs of -Rekhmara and Ramessu III.</p> - -<p class="in2">Result. Aegean objects possibly older than -the paintings.</p> - -<p><i>Evidence of burnt groups.</i> Four, from Amenhotep -III to Sety II.</p> - -<p class="in2">Result. Aegean pottery possibly older than -the groups.</p> - -<p><i>Evidence of rubbish heaps.</i> Tell el Amarna.</p> - -<p class="in2">Result. Aegean pottery certainly contemporary -with Amenhotep IV.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_156">156</span></p> - -<p><i>Evidence of houses.</i> Tell el Amarna, Gurob, -Mykenae.</p> - -<p class="in2">Result. Aegean pottery probably of XVIIIth -Dynasty. Greek houses probably of XVIIIth -Dynasty.</p> - -<p><i>Evidence of tombs.</i> Maket tomb; tombs at -Gurob, Mykenae, and Enkomi.</p> - -<p class="in2">Result. Aegean pottery possibly older than -Tahutmes III; probably of XVIIIth–XIXth -Dynasty or possibly older; Greek tombs of -XVIIIth Dynasty, or possibly later.</p> - -<p><i>Evidence of style.</i> Gold collar. Idaean vases and -carving.</p> - -<p class="in2">Result. Importations to Greece of XVIIIth -Dynasty, and perhaps XIXth; copy of -XVIIIth Dynasty design, possibly later.</p></div> - -<p>The possible deviations from the probable results -are thus seen to balance one another, some leaving -the limit only open to earlier times and some only -to later times, so that change cannot be accepted in -either direction.</p> - -<div id="sn_109" class="sidenote">XIIth Dynasty, Kahun.</div> - -<p>We now go back to an earlier stage in the -history, that of the XIIth Dynasty. Some ten years -ago the stage which we have already -discussed was the “fighting frontier” of -the subject; five years ago the XIIth Dynasty was -the fighting frontier; now this is almost pacified, and -the struggle against prepossessions is carried back to -the still earlier periods.</p> - -<p>The view back to the XIIth Dynasty was first -opened out in excavating the rubbish mounds of the -town of Kahun. This town was entirely built at -one time for the workmen employed on the pyramid<span class="pagenum" id="Page_157">157</span> -of Usertesen II, this then is the starting date. While -the houses were fully occupied a large rubbish -mound was accumulated outside of the walls. When -the official work of building ceased at the finishing -of the pyramid, we may conclude that the town -began to dwindle, as I found many of the houses -and streets had been used as rubbish holes for waste -of the XIIth Dynasty. Therefore the less convenient -and accessible rubbish heap outside of the -walls is probably entirely of the reign of Usertesen II. -As it does not contain any Egyptian material that -could be dated later than that, the evidence of the -shrinkage of the town should be accepted as giving -a probable limit to the age of the outer heaps.</p> - -<p>In these heaps the great bulk was of regular -Egyptian pottery of the XIIth Dynasty, filling up a -depth of 6 or 8 feet in parts, and therefore very -unlikely to become mixed with later objects dropped -by accident. Now with this pottery thus certified -as to its age, were found pieces of several kinds -hitherto entirely unknown. Black ware decorated -with white spiral lines, and with yellow and red lines -and circles of dots, red pottery with white returning -spirals, and with painting in red, white, and green. -The style was obviously of the Aegean family, so -much so that even the best authorities asserted that -these were pieces of Naukratite pottery of the -XXVIth Dynasty and shut their eyes to the great -difference of fabric and material. For some years -I protested that the evidence of finding was absolute -for the XIIth Dynasty date, and that no such pottery -was known at a later date to which this could be -compared. But some general resemblance to the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_158">158</span> -style of the XXVIth Dynasty was allowed to calm -the archaeological conscience of my friends into -ignoring all the positive evidence. No such pottery -was known on Greek soil at an early date; therefore -none existed; therefore this could not be of that -date. This argument is still in full favour for other -and earlier periods. But a shock of surprise came -when delicate black pottery with white painting and -red was found at Kamares in Crete, and published -by Mr. Myres in 1895; and later the same style -of pottery was so largely found that Messrs. Hogarth -and Welch write in 1901 that “so far from that -ware being a rarity, it is to be looked for in Crete -wherever any strata of remains underlie the Mykenaean. -It occurred in our digging at Knossos at all -points at which the early town was probed to the -rock” (<i>J.H.S.</i> xxi. 78). The pre-Mykenaean period -is now before us and is found to agree entirely -with the dating already reached on unimpeachable -grounds at Kahun. That we may recognise connections -between Greece and Egypt in the XIIth -Dynasty is now orthodox, and we may proceed to -see what further evidence appears for this dating.</p> - -<div id="sn_110" class="sidenote">XIIth Dynasty, Crete.</div> - -<p>At Knossos was found a portion of an Egyptian -seated figure in diorite bearing an inscription of -Ab-nub-mes-uazet-user, which from the -style is probably of the XIIth Dynasty.</p> - -<p>At Praesos were found several globular beads of -carnelian and of amethyst such as are well known -in the XIIth Dynasty, and the latter material is -not found dated to a later period in Egypt.</p> - -<p>At Knossos was found a globular alabaster vase -of the regular type of the XIIth Dynasty; and also<span class="pagenum" id="Page_159">159</span> -the alabaster vase lid of King Khyan, whose date is -unfortunately not fixed on the Egyptian side, but -who is probably of the XVIth Dynasty, though -perhaps of the XIth.</p> - -<p>The long period now known in Greece before -the civilization which is dated to the XVIIIth -Dynasty compels such a presumption of connection -with far earlier periods, and the connection is so -well shewn by the Kamares ware, that the evidence -for the XIIth Dynasty relationship scarcely needs -further support. It depends on identity of style of -highly decorated pottery, and of beads; and the -transport of two pieces of Egyptian work.</p> - -<div id="sn_111" class="sidenote">Pan graves.</div> - -<p>Another connection of this age is shewn by the -“pan-grave” pottery found in Egypt. This class of -shallow circular graves is dated to the -close of the XIIth Dynasty by several -discoveries of worn and damaged objects of the -XIIth Dynasty in the graves, without anything that -could be fixed to a later date. In these graves is a -large class of non-Egyptian pottery; some of it -black and red, highly polished; others, rude thick -pottery with incised patterns. The similarity of the -black and red to the style of the prehistoric pottery -of Egypt is obvious; it is a later branch of the -same fabric. And when we consider from what -other land that may have come into Egypt, we -naturally look to the similar forms found in the -Celtic pottery of Southern Spain by Bonsor (<a href="#il_60">Fig. 60</a>), -as indicating that it belongs to the western -Libyan culture. Again, the rough incised pottery is -of the same Celtic family found in Spain, showing a -western source. The suggestion lately put forward<span class="pagenum" id="Page_160">160</span> -that these may have come into Egypt from the East -is wholly baseless. It is in Spain and the allied -Celtic pottery of Europe that we find the types -which were brought into Egypt by the rude invaders -at the close of the XIIth Dynasty. So that a connection -of the western barbaric culture of the bronze -age with the close of the XIIth Dynasty must be -concluded, from the evidence of similar pottery intruded -into Egypt, and associated in graves with the -objects of that age.</p> - -<div id="il_60" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 26em;"> - <img src="images/i_160.png" width="1605" height="887" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 60.</span>—Celtic and pan-grave pottery and ornament.</p> - <table id="tfig160" class="smaller" summary="Pottery"> - <tr> - <td class="tdc">Central Europe.<br />Yorkshire.<br />(<i>J. Anth. Inst.</i><br />xxxii., pl. xxvii.)</td> - <td class="tdc">South Spain.<br />(<i>Rev. Arch.</i><br />xxxv. 121–2.)</td> - <td class="tdc">Diospolis, Egypt.<br />(<i>Diospolis</i>,<br />xxxviii., xl.)</td> - </tr> - </table> -</div></div> - -<p>It is probably then to the same invaders that we -should look for the source of the black incised ware -(<a href="#il_61">Fig. 61</a>) with patterns filled with white, and of -characteristically western—Italic or Greek—forms, -which is found in Kahun in the XIIth Dynasty, and -in burials at Khataaneh of the XIIIth Dynasty. It -is the latest stage of a class of imported pottery -which recurs at intervals from the early prehistoric -age onwards. A piece of this pottery was found in -one of the “pan graves,” thus linking it with the -other foreign pottery brought in at that period. It -has been found at Hissarlik in the lowest levels, in -Bosnia at Butmir, and of prehistoric to XIIIth -Dynasty age in Egypt.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_161">161</span></p> - -<div id="il_61" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 26em;"> - <img src="images/i_161.jpg" width="1645" height="2495" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 61.</span>—Black incised pottery, with white filling. -</div></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_162">162</span></p> - -<div id="il_62" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img src="images/i_162.png" width="1537" height="762" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 62.</span>—Buttons of ivory, carnelian, glazed steatite, etc. VIIth Dyn.</p> - <p>The upper row with misapplied Egyptian designs.</p> - <p>The lower row with entirely un-Egyptian designs. 2:3.</p> -</div></div> - -<div id="sn_112" class="sidenote">VIth to IIIrd Dynasties.</div> - -<p>On going back another stage to the Old Kingdom, -of the IVth to VIth Dynasties, we still find links -between Egypt and the West. In the -VIth dynasty is found a class of non-Egyptian -buttons (<a href="#il_62">Fig. 62</a>) with devices, which in -some cases may have been used as seals; more -than a hundred of these are now known, and in no -case are they of Egyptian fabric, as when an -Egyptian subject was copied it was always in a -mistaken manner. Now a close parallel to many of -the designs is found on Cretan engraved stones, and -it is therefore to that civilisation that we must look -for the source of a considerable foreign importation, -which probably accompanied a movement of population -at the overthrow of the civilisation of the Old<span class="pagenum" id="Page_163">163</span> -Kingdom. The actual incomers may have passed -by sea from the islands, or by land along Africa.</p> - -<p>On turning to Crete we see in the noble lamp -with lotus capital found at Knossos, a type which -cannot have been derived from anything that we -know of the XIIth Dynasty in Egypt. The free -buds around the band had long since become lost -at that time; and even in the Vth Dynasty on the -Abusir capital they are less distinct. A form -belonging to the Vth Dynasty is the only one that -is at all likely to have been the origin of this fine -Cretan capital. Again a vase with two handles from -Knossos is certainly an exact copy in local stone, -of the regular Egyptian type of the Old Kingdom, -which was quite unknown later. And two pieces of -the brims of bowls, one of Egyptian diorite, the -other of liparite, are of exactly the type made in -the close of the IIIrd Dynasty at Medum, and in -the early IVth Dynasty at Gizeh; this might perhaps -last until the Vth Dynasty, but we could not suppose -it to come later, as it would have been quite out of the -run of later forms. The copying of motives and -forms which passed entirely out of use, is a strong -form of evidence; a single object might survive to -later times, but for a form to be copied it must be -the familiar and usual form at the time when the -copy is made. Hence we cannot place the familiarity -with these Egyptian types in Crete later than the -Vth or perhaps IVth Dynasty.</p> - -<p>Still earlier, the Western influence on Egypt is -seen by the black incised bowls, of which one piece -was found inside a mastaba of the time of Sneferu -(end of IIIrd Dynasty), and another piece between<span class="pagenum" id="Page_164">164</span> -two mastabas of about the same age at Dendereh, -where it must have been buried in sand at the -period of the building. Another piece of such -black incised pottery was found in the tomb of -King Zer of the Ist Dynasty; see <a href="#il_61">Fig. 61</a>.</p> - -<div id="sn_113" class="sidenote">Ist Dynasty, Aegean.</div> - -<p>This brings us back to a surprising series of -pieces of painted pottery from the Royal Tombs of -the Ist Dynasty (<a href="#il_63">Fig. 63</a>). The forms -are Aegean; the material, the facing, the -colouring, the varieties of pattern, all belong distinctively -to the Aegean. The opinion of Professors -Furtwängler and Wolters is that these belong to the -earliest type of Island pottery. Certainly there is -nothing like them found in Egypt, except the -confessedly Aegean pottery of later times. One -prehistoric Egyptian vase has been compared with -them, but it has no resemblance in form, material, -facing, or colouring, and only an approximation to -one of the patterns. They stand unquestionably in -line with other Aegean ware. These pieces are -found scattered in several of the Royal Tombs; and -those from the earlier tombs are of an earlier style. -Thus there is no absolute proof, but only a strong -presumption, that these belong to the age of the -tombs of the Ist Dynasty.</p> - -<p>Further evidence is, however, given by a portion -of the original tomb offerings of King Zer, which -were left untouched by all the plunderers and -destroyers. In one corner-chamber of his tomb -were an alabaster vase of regular Ist Dynasty type, -four pottery jars of the same age, and nine jars of -foreign ware, different in forms, in material, and in -facing, from any Egyptian pottery of that age, but<span class="pagenum" id="Page_165">165</span> -agreeing in all these characteristics with Aegean -pottery, and including a vase of the same nature as -the painted pottery, but without decoration. The -whole group was cemented together by the burning -of the unguents which had been buried in the jars.</p> - -<div id="il_63" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img src="images/i_165.png" width="1540" height="1336" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 63.</span>—Pottery of earliest Aegean style. From Royal Tombs of the - Ist Dynasty, Egypt. -</div></div> - -<p>Here is then a case like that of the Kamares -pottery at Kahun. The evidence is clear, there is -no visible loophole for avoiding the archaeological -conclusion. And the only argument against it is -that no such pottery has been found in Greece, but -only more advanced styles of such fabric under -later conditions. Now that the Knossos finds -have led all those who see their value to grant a -connection in the IIIrd or IVth Dynasty, we may<span class="pagenum" id="Page_166">166</span> -soon see the fighting frontier pushed over to include -this great and distinctive group of the early Ist -Dynasty.</p> - -<div id="sn_114" class="sidenote">Ist Dynasty, Cretan.</div> - -<p>Nor does this stand alone. This year another -class of foreign pottery has been found in the ruins -of the temple of Abydos, of the Ist -Dynasty, and perhaps somewhat before -it (<a href="#il_64">Fig. 64</a>). The material is unlike any in Egypt, -a dense black pottery; the facing of it -is usually highly burnished, unlike Egyptian -of that age; the forms are wholly -un-Egyptian, the long pointed amphora -with curved neck, and the hollow feet -to vases, being unmistakably of the -Greek family. Exactly similar pottery -in material and finish, is found in fragments -of the later Neolithic period at -Knossos; a piece from Egypt and one -from Knossos when seen side by side -seem as if they had been broken from -the same jar. The forms of the Cretan -examples are not yet re-established, -but some at least are the same as the -Egyptian examples. As most of the -cups of this type at Abydos had contained -a brilliant red haematite paint, it -is very likely that the pottery came -over as vehicles for trade products.</p> - -<p>Yet again in the Ist Dynasty deposit of ivory -and glazed objects in the temple of Abydos, was a -cast copper figure of foreign style which is of the -same family as the copper figures found in the -Diktaean cave.</p> - -<div id="il_64" class="figright" style="max-width: 6em;"> - <img src="images/i_166.png" width="331" height="1276" alt="" /> - <div class="captionl"><p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Fig. 64.</span>—Polished - black pottery of Cretan origin. Temple of Abydos. Dyn. I.</p> -</div></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_167">167</span></p> - -<div id="sn_115" class="sidenote">Prehistoric.</div> - -<p>And all this leads us back to the Egyptian prehistoric -age. There we see commonly painted on -the pottery, and on walls of a tomb, the -large ships then in use. Some had as -many as 60 oars, yet we see the greatest of the -Venetian fighting galleys had only 24 on a side. -A rowing ship is useless on the Nile, except for -sometimes getting down stream, as no rowing would -suffice to take a large vessel continuously up against -the current. But the rowing galley has been the -vessel of the Mediterranean, from the French navy -back to the Phoenician, and no one knows how long -before. These great vessels, which bore various -ensigns showing the ports from which they started, -must have been concerned in important business; -probably trading the oil and skins and wood one -way, and the dates and corn of Egypt in return. -Among their imports were probably the foreign -bowls of black incised ware, filled in with white, -which are found even as far back as near the -beginning of the prehistoric civilisation. They -clearly belong to that foreign class which is found -as far apart as Spain, Bosnia, and Troy; and the -original home of this pottery has yet to be found, -in that Mediterranean region about which we are just -beginning to discover our own ignorance.</p> - -<p>If at present our evidence of connection between -Egypt and the West, before the XIIth Dynasty, rests -upon the identity of styles and fabrics, we must -remember how that same class of evidence in later -periods has been amply reinforced by dated objects -with inscriptions, found in most unequivocal positions. -And we may then at last reach the conception that<span class="pagenum" id="Page_168">168</span> -after all, civilisation started at much the same time -all round the Mediterranean, but advanced rather -sooner in Egypt than on the northern shores.</p> - -<p>In this study of the facts which link together -the early history of Europe with that of Egypt, we -have now seen the varied sources and values of the -different kinds of archaeological evidence; and the -modes by which the accumulation of different evidences -may reinforce the conclusions, and render -them more exact.</p> -<hr /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_169">169</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XIII">CHAPTER XIII<br /> - -<span class="subhead">THE ETHICS OF ARCHAEOLOGY</span></h2> -</div> - -<div id="sn_116" class="sidenote">Individual rights.</div> - -<p class="in0"><span class="firstword">At</span> first sight, ethics might not seem to have more -to do with archaeology than with chemistry or -astronomy. Yet even in those subjects -an entire monopoly of some useful -material, or the destruction of the only records of -irreplaceable observations, would bring in serious -questions of individual right. It is notorious what -a large element of conduct is involved in biology, -where species are being destroyed every year, where -the rabbit and the thistle have been wantonly made -the curse of a continent, and where a mixture is taking -place which will efface the results of ages of segregation. -In archaeology there is perhaps a greater -range of ethical questions, of the individual <i>versus</i> -the community, than in any other science. And -the results of action are the more serious as the -material is very limited, and perhaps no other chance -of observation may ever occur. In most sciences -the opportunity of experiment and observation is -unlimited. If an alloy is spoiled it can be remade -at once, if a star is not examined to-night it may -be next night, if a plant is not grown this year it<span class="pagenum" id="Page_170">170</span> -may be next year. But Theodoric’s gold armour -once melted, we shall never know what it was like; -the heads of the Parthenon statues once burnt to -lime, are gone for ever; or the Turin papyrus once -broken up, we can hardly hope ever to recover all -the history it contained.</p> - -<div id="sn_117" class="sidenote">Destruction.</div> - -<p>The destruction that has gone on, and is now -going on continuously, seems as if it could leave -scarcely anything for the information of -future ages. Every year sees wiped out -the remains which have lasted for thousands of years -past. Now, in our own day, the antiquities of South -Africa and of Central and South America have been -destroyed as rapidly as they can be found. Elsewhere, -engineers of every nation use up buildings as -quarries or wreck them for the sake of temporary -profit, or for more legitimate purposes as in the -submersion of Philae and Nubia. Speculators, native -and European, tear to pieces every tomb they can -find in the East, and sell the few showy proceeds -that have thus lost their meaning and their history. -Governments set commissioners to look after things, -who leave the antiquities to be plundered while they -are living in useless ease. And the casual discoveries -that are made perish in a ghastly manner. The -Saxon regalia of Harold, the treasures of Thomas -à Becket’s shrine, the burial of Alfred, the burial of -Theodoric, and the summer palace of Pekin, have -within modern memory all gone the same way as -the wonders that perished in the French sack of -Rome or the Greek sack of Persia. However we -may deplore this, our present consideration is destruction -by archaeologists, and what their responsibilities<span class="pagenum" id="Page_171">171</span> -are in difficult situations. In all ages there has -been destruction for gold and valuables, and in the -Renascence a ruthless seizure of marbles and stone -work. To that succeeded destruction for the sake -of art, excavations in which everything was wrecked -for the chance of finding a beautiful statue. Then -in the last generation or two, inscriptions became -valued, and temple sites in Greece and in Egypt, -and palaces in Babylonia, have been turned over, -and nothing saved except a stone or a tablet which -was inscribed. At last a few people are beginning -to see that history is far wider than any one of these -former aims, and that, if ever we are to understand -the past, every fragment from it must be studied and -made to tell all it can.</p> - -<p>But still there continues the plundering of sites -in the interest of show museums, where display is -thought of before knowledge, as is unhappily the -case in many national collections. To secure an -attractive specimen, a tomb will be wrecked, a wall -destroyed, a temple dragged to pieces and its history -lost, a cemetery cleared out with no record of its -burials. And when carefully authenticated and recorded -specimens reach museums, their fate is not -yet a safe one, especially in local museums. Stones -will be built into walls, and ruined by the damp -bringing salt out; objects are left to drop to pieces -from lack of chemical knowledge, or from the official -dread of the responsibility of doing right instead of -allowing wrong. Information is deliberately destroyed; -labels are thrown away or heaped together -out of the way in a glass case where the objects are -artistically displayed, with no more history than if<span class="pagenum" id="Page_172">172</span> -they had come from a dealer. Groups of things, -whose whole value consists in their collocation as -they were found, are scattered up and down a -museum as if they had no meaning. Or priceless -antiquities will be left out for years of exposure -to weather, as certain sculptures were in London, -until at last they received worthy safeguarding -in defiance of the Treasury. Unhappily far too -many of those who are responsible for keeping -the things which have at last reached a -haven, need educating in the elements of their -profession.</p> - -<div id="sn_118" class="sidenote">Restoration.</div> - -<p>This leads to another difficult question, that of -restoration. The horrible destruction which has -gone on under that term is now somewhat -recognised, after much, or most, of -the original buildings of our ancestors have disappeared -beneath scraping and recutting, so that we -only possess a copy of what has been. And in -museums till within the last few years, statues were -so elaborately built up out of what was—or was not—to -be had, that it is often a difficult preliminary -study to set aside the shams. In the Louvre there -is the honesty of stating how much has been added -to the original; and the list is sometimes so long -that it is hard to make out what gave the first -idea to the restorer for building up his work. Yet -in many cases some mere supports are needful, and -the best museums now make such helps as distinct -as possible from the original. The only full solution -of the matter is the great extension of the use of -casts; and the ideal museum of sculpture would -have the originals untouched on one side of a gallery,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_173">173</span> -and the full restoration of casts of the same things -on the other side.</p> - -<div id="sn_119" class="sidenote">Sacrifices.</div> - -<p>When we stand face to face with a problem like -that, of the Forum at Rome there rise a multitude -of questions which have intricate and -far-reaching solutions. The removal of -the latest of the pavements of the Forum has been -bitterly resented. The Sacred Way is gone, and -what is there for sentiment to dwell on! Yet who -would reasonably prefer the Lower Empire to the -Twelve Caesars? And then is not the Republic -still more interesting and less known? And then -the Kings hold a prerogative of glamour to every -schoolboy; and what was Rome before the Kings? -We see the inevitable result of such a crowd of -interests, in the honeycomb of pits and planks and -tunnels and iron girders which now bewilder the -visitor, where formerly he walked down the Sacred -Way and blessed his soul in romantic peace.</p> - -<p>Now this elaborate treatment is most desirable, -but is scarcely attainable unless there is a strong -public interest, and a government willing to carry -out proper conservation. Let us turn to a different -set of conditions, as at the temple of Osiris at -Abydos. There were more than a dozen different -levels of building; all the lower ones only of mud -brick; the whole of the lower levels under the high -Nile, and certain to be a mud swamp so soon as the -Nile rose next summer. To treat such a place like -the Forum would have involved enormous iron -substructure layer under layer, and a wide drying -area for hundreds of yards around, at a cost of certainly -five figures. No one would be likely to give<span class="pagenum" id="Page_174">174</span> -a hundredth of the cost to attain that end. If any -part were left without clearing to the bottom, the -next high Nile would make entire pudding of it. -And so the permanent preservation of such a site -was impossible. All that could be done whenever -it was begun, was to dig it in as dry a season as -possible, when the water was at its lowest; to clear -it entirely to water level; and to make plans, -levelling, and records, of every wall and every detail, -removing everything that stood in the way of going -lower. Henceforward that temple site, instead of -existing in unseen layers of solid earth, exists only -on paper.</p> - -<div id="sn_120" class="sidenote">Responsibility.</div> - -<p>Now here is a great responsibility. Whatever -is not done in such an excavation can never be done. -The site is gone for ever; and who knows -what further interests and new points -of research may be thought of in future, which ought -to have received attention. Are we justified morally -in thus destroying a temple site, a cemetery, a town, -while we may feel certain that others would see -more in it in future? If a site would continue untouched, -and always equally open to research, it -would be wrong to exhaust such places. But what -are the conditions? In Egypt sites are continually -passing under cultivation, and once cultivated no one -would ever know more about them. They are being -continually dug away for earth to spread on the -fields, and all that lies in them is scattered and lost. -The stonework is continually the prey of engineers -and lime-burners. The Nile is always rising, so -that every few centuries makes ground inaccessible -that was previously out of water. And the probable<span class="pagenum" id="Page_175">175</span> -movement of invention and appliances will most -likely bring under cultivation in future most of the -cemetery sites which are now bare desert. In the -last few years most of the cemetery and temple sites -of Nubia have been blotted out by the new lake for -irrigation. Further, on any site of cemetery, temple, -or town which is known to contain anything, the -native will dig by night if he cannot do so by day, -and will leave nothing but a wreck behind. It is -sadly unlikely that there will be anything left to -excavate in Egypt a century hence; all the known -sites will be exhausted in twenty years more at the -present rate. A thousand years hence—a trifle in -the history of Egypt—people will look back on these -present generations as the golden days when discoveries -came thickly year by year, and when there -was always something to be found. And therefore -the best thing that can be done under all these conditions -is to work with the fullest care and detail in -recording, to publish everything fully, and to then -trust the history of Egypt to a few hundred copies -of books instead of to solid walls and hidden cemeteries. -The destruction which is needful to attain -knowledge is justified if the fullest knowledge is -obtained by it, and if that is so safely recorded that -it will not again be lost. The only test of right is -the procuring the greatest amount of knowledge now -and in future.</p> - -<div id="sn_121" class="sidenote">Rights of the future.</div> - -<p>Here we are landed in a question on which very -different positions are taken. What are the rights -of the future? Why should we limit -our action, or our immediate benefit or -interest, for the sake of the future? If ever this<span class="pagenum" id="Page_176">176</span> -question comes into practical dealings, it does so in -historical work. Any one who is above the immediate -consideration of food and starvation, does -consider the future. Our public buildings are preserved -for the use of coming generations; our libraries -and museums are largely for the benefit of those yet -unborn. Was not the future of England the great -charge, the inspiring aim of Alfred, of Edward I, of -William III? Do we not even now spend ungrudgingly -for the great future of our colonies? In every -direction we unquestioningly assume that the future -has its rights; that distant generations of our own -flesh and blood are far more to us than present -millions of other races; that the knowledge, the -possessions, the aims, that we have inherited are but -a trust to be passed on to the nation yet to be.</p> - -<p>And to those who live not only in the present but -also in past ages by insight and association, the -transitory stewardship of things becomes the only -view possible. In this generation I possess a gem, -a scarab, a carving: it is almost indestructible, it -may be lost for a time but will reappear again a -thousand, five thousand, twenty thousand years hence -in some one else’s hands, and be again a delight and -a revelation of past thought, as it is to-day. We -have no right to destroy or suppress what happens -just for the present to be in our power. To do so is to -take the position of a Vandal in the sack of Rome.</p> - -<div id="sn_122" class="sidenote">Rights of the past.</div> - -<p>The past also has its rights, though statues may -be misappropriated and churches be “restored.” -A work that has cost days, weeks, or -years of toil has a right to existence. -To murder a man a week before his time we call a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_177">177</span> -crime; what are we to call the murder of years of -his labour? Or, without touching life, what difference -is there between putting a man in prison for a year -so that he cannot work, and destroying a year’s work -when it is done? If anything, the balance is in -favour of preventing rather than destroying his -work. Every monument we see has been lovingly -intended, carefully carved, piously erected, in hopes -that it would last. And who are we to defeat all -that thought and labour? Every tablet, every little -scarab, is a portion of life solidified;—so much will, -so much labour, so much living reality. When we -look closely into the work we seem almost to watch -the hand that did it; this stone is a day, a week, of -the life of some living man. I know his mind, his -feeling, by what he has thought and done on this -stone. I live with him in looking into his work, and -admiring, and valuing it. Shall I then turn on him -like a wild beast and kill so much of his life? -Surely if we would draw back from wiping out a few -years of the life of some man with whom we have no -sympathies, far more should we shrink from even -hurting the beautiful and cherished result of the life -of a man whose mind we admire and honour in his -work. I give my life to do so much work in it, and -if I were to know that every night the work of the -day would be annihilated, I had rather be relieved of -the trouble of living. In all worth, in all realness, -the life of past men preserved to us has rights as -veritably as the life of present men.</p> - -<p>The work of the archaeologist is to save lives; -to go to some senseless mound of earth, some hidden -cemetery, and thence bring into the comradeship of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_178">178</span> -man some portions of the lives of this sculptor, of -that artist, of the other scribe; to make their labour -familiar to us as a friend; to resuscitate them again, -and make them to live in the thoughts, the imaginations, -the longing, of living men and women; to -place so much of their living personality current side -by side with our own labours and our own thoughts. -And has not the past its rights, as well as the present -and the future?</p> - -<p>What care then, what conscience, must be put -into the work of preserving as much as possible of -the past lives which those about us are wishing to -know and to share in. The mummy of Rameses -or of Thothmes, the portrait of the builder of the -great pyramid (<a href="#il_65">Fig. 65</a>), or of the Pharaoh of the -Exodus (<a href="#il_66">Fig. 66</a>) is a permanent mental possession -of all cultivated mankind, as long as our literature -shall last. The knowledge of the growth of the -great civilisation of Egypt, from the days of men -clad in goat-skins to the height of its power, has all -been reconstructed in the past ten years, and will be -part of the common stock of our knowledge of man, -so long as civilisation continues.</p> - -<div id="il_65" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img src="images/i_178.jpg" width="1546" height="1419" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Fig. 65. The Builder of the Great Pyramid. -</div></div> - -<div id="il_66" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 21em;"> - <img src="images/i_178b.jpg" width="1306" height="1246" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Fig. 66. The Pharaoh of the Exodus. -</div></div> - -<div id="sn_123" class="sidenote">Duties.</div> - -<p>With the responsibilities before us of saving and -caring for this past life of mankind, what must be -our ethical view of the rights and duties -of an archaeologist? Conservation must -be his first duty, and where needful even destruction -of the less important in order to conserve the more -important. To uncover a monument, and leave it -to perish by exposure or by plundering, to destroy -thus what has lasted for thousands of years and -might last for thousands to come, is a crime. Yet<span class="pagenum" id="Page_179">179</span> -it is the incessant failing of the thoughtless amateur, -who knows nothing of the business; and far too -often also the inexcusable malpractice of those who -know better. To wantonly destroy a monument by -cutting pieces out, whether to put them in a museum -or to hide them in a pile of curiosities, is unjustifiable -if the whole can be preserved entire. In the -case of only fragments remaining, a selection often -must be chosen; yet even then copies of the whole -of the material should be made and published all -together. To unearth whole tombs or chambers full -of objects, whether in an Egyptian cemetery or a -Roman camp, and neglect to record and publish the -facts of the position or groups of the objects, should -debar the inefficient explorer from ever touching -such places again. To remove things without ascertaining -all that is possible about their age, meaning, -and connections, is as inexcusable as it is easy. To -undertake excavating, and so take the responsibilities -for preserving a multitude of delicate and valuable -things, unless one is prepared to deal with them -efficiently, both mechanically and chemically, is like -undertaking a surgical operation in ignorance of -anatomy. To turn over a site without making any -plans, or recording the positions and relations of -things, may be plundering, but it is not archaeology. -To remove and preserve only the pretty and interesting -pieces, and leave the rest behind unnoticed, and -separated from what gave them a value and a -meaning, proves the spirit of a dealer and not that -of a scholar. To leave a site merely plundered, -without any attempt to work out its history, to see -the meaning of the remains found, or to publish<span class="pagenum" id="Page_180">180</span> -what may serve future students of the place or the -subject, is to throw away the opportunities which -have been snatched from those who might hate used -them property.</p> - -<p>To suppose that excavating—one of the affairs -which needs the widest knowledge—can be taken up -by persons who are ignorant of most or all of the -technical requirements, is a fatuity which has led, -and still leads, to the most miserable catastrophes. -Far better let things lie a few centuries longer under -the ground, if they can be let alone, than repeat the -vandalisms of past ages without the excuse of being -a barbarian.</p> - -<div id="sn_124" class="sidenote">Future of Museums.</div> - -<p>We must always have regard to what may be the -condition of sites and of knowledge five hundred or -five thousand years hence. For if you -will deal with thousands of years you -must take thousands of years into account. If a -site is certain to be destroyed by natural causes, or -the cupidity of man, then an imperfect examination -and a defective record of it is better than none. -But to ensure the fullest knowledge, and the most -complete preservation of things, in the long run, -should be the real aim. To raid the whole of past -ages, and put all that we think effective into museums, -is only to ensure that such things will perish in -course of time. A museum is only a temporary -place. There is not one storehouse in the world -that has lasted a couple of thousand years. Only -two or three bronze statues have come down to us -from classical times preserved by each generation. -A few pieces of gold work have been treasured for -a little over a thousand years, but only in North<span class="pagenum" id="Page_181">181</span> -Italy. And the whole of our present active clearance -of things, that have hitherto lasted safe underground -for six thousand years or more, practically ensures -that they shall not last one thousand longer. The -gold work will be the first thing to disappear, as -it is even now disappearing every few years from -museums into the melting-pot. And it is a serious -question whether we are morally justified in thus -ensuring its destruction by exposure. As a counsel -of perfection I should like to see twenty electrotypes -made of every bit of ancient gold and silver work, -and these dispersed over all countries. It might -then be considered whether it would not be a noble -act to bury the whole of the gold where it would -cost a national undertaking to recover it, say in a -hundred fathoms of water, and so preserve it for -future ages, when only a few wrecks of the electrotypes -would have survived. The future of the rest -of museum treasures cannot so certainly be anticipated. -Bronze is sure to disappear in warfare sooner -or later, especially as metals grow scarcer owing to -exhaustion of mines. Ivories will probably vanish, -like most fragile things, by mechanical damage. -Pottery and vases will go the same way as the -museum of Kertch, which was bashed to pieces by -a disappointed European soldiery. Stone carving -has a promise of longer life, especially if it is reused -in buildings, and so saved from exposure and wear; -for instance, whenever the Baptistry of Pisa may fall -to pieces, a mine of Latin inscriptions will come to -light. But, broadly speaking, there is no likelihood -that the majority of things now in museums will yet -be preserved anything like as long as they have<span class="pagenum" id="Page_182">182</span> -already lasted. The hordes of anarchy and of Asia -have never left Europe alone for more than a few -centuries.</p> - -<div id="sn_125" class="sidenote">Publications.</div> - -<p>It is then to the written record, and the published -illustrations, that the future will have mainly to look. -Our books will probably not last more -than a few hundred years; and it will -be reprints of the most valued, and summaries of the -others that will be the sources of knowledge in the -future thousands. The wide spread of publications -in different countries, which are never likely to all -undergo eclipses simultaneously, is the best guarantee -for the permanence of knowledge. But by the time -the First Dynasty has doubled its age, we cannot -expect, that the greater part of our record of it will -still be known. Certainly the inefficient and inconclusive -books will vanish first; and the more compact -and generally used a work is, the longer are its -chances of life. We must always remember therefore -that in archaeological work we are removing what -would be as solid proof to future ages as it is now to -us; and we are trusting all future knowledge of the -facts to inflammable paper, and the goodwill of -successive generations, many of whom may have -very different interests. Had any past age of civilisation -dug up and removed every trace of the earlier -times, and committed all the results to their literature, -we should not be able to learn anything but some -brief summary, nor glean but a few trifling fragments, -which would have lost their meaning and connection.</p> - -<div id="sn_126" class="sidenote">State Claims.</div> - -<p>And here we come against another large ethical -question of the rights of the individual against the -community, in the claim made by the state to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_183">183</span> -interfere with property in antiquities, in ways in -which it does not interfere with any -other property. From past ages the -English law has claimed for the Crown all treasure -accidentally discovered. Such a law is the best way -to ensure that no such discoveries are made known, -and to drive the finder to put all such treasures in -the melting pot. The actual gain to the Crown is -ignorably trivial, certainly not an average of a thousand -pounds a year; yet, in order to grab this trifle, -the law drove all such treasures to destruction. At -last an improvement was made by the Crown only -demanding specimens needed for the national collection, -and paying intrinsic value for them. Even -some old candlesticks, the proceeds of an XVIIIth -century burglary, were claimed when accidentally -found.</p> - -<p>And when the state does not claim, the landlord -or tenant makes a claim, which is just as bad, as such -claims lead workmen always to conceal and sell -surreptitiously the antiquities which are continually -found in all working in old towns. The only law -which could act for the full preservation of antiquities -would be the grant of the entire rights to the finder -if he proclaims his find, but no rights in what he -does not proclaim. The actual average gains of -an average landlord <i>per annum</i> by discoveries of -antiquities are at present incalculably small, probably -not a farthing in the pound on the rental or anything -near that. Hence there would be no perceptible -loss by granting finds to the finder; and everything -would be saved and preserved as it was found. At -least a beginning could be made by landlords and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_184">184</span> -public bodies offering full intrinsic value for any gold -and silver found on their premises; they could not -lose by that, and they might gain large profits in -the archaeological value of things. To suppose that -(without great precautions) they can get the whole -value of finds by simply claiming them, is fatuous.</p> - -<p>This same fatuous idea pervades many governments. -It is thought that by simply making a law, -digging can be prevented, or antiquities can be kept -in a country. Such laws merely enforce an extensive -illicit system, through which valuable and important -things can readily be removed in defiance of law, -whenever they are found. There is not a country -from which any antiquity could not be removed by -sufficient care in smuggling. Every national museum -has its underground feeders, knows how to defeat the -laws of other countries, and incessantly grows in -spite of laws. To seize property without paying -its real value is seldom a profitable proceeding in the -long run, and that is what every government tries -to do with antiquities. The Italian government has -confiscated a large part of the values of private -collections, by forbidding the exportation of any important -picture or statue. And yet such things can -and do leave Italy. The Greek government, as well -as the Turkish, forbid the exportation of any and -every kind of antiquity; yet fine things from both -lands continually come over to the West.</p> - -<div id="sn_127" class="sidenote">State Rights.</div> - -<p>These confiscatory laws, these claims on private -property on behalf of the state, are more or less -illogical nibblings on a wide claim which -no state has ventured yet to formulate,—namely, -that all objects of past generations are<span class="pagenum" id="Page_185">185</span> -public property. This means, if fully carried out, -that no person can own any object of antiquity as -private property. No private collections would be -possible in such a condition, all would belong to the -state. Of course there is a huge amount of material -which is duplicate, and not needed in a national -collection; but the state claims would be maintained -if all collections must be placed in a public building, -(such as a local museum) where they could be seen. -The energy of collectors, the transfer of specimens -from one to another, would not be stopped, only the -objects would be compulsorily visible in a public -place. And everything wanted for a national -collection would be transferred. This condition of -things is slowly being reached by the state buying -important objects continually, when they are sold on -changing hands. But the logical outcome of the -present laws and present tendency would be this -nationalisation of all antiquities. Whether such a -result would be satisfactory at all points may be -doubted; but it is clearly a position to which all -changes at present tend. If fully and honourably -carried out by the state paying the finder full value -for all it took, and giving up confiscation of all sorts, -the result would probably be the best that could -happen for archaeology.</p> - -<p>One great result of defining the position thus, -would be to prevent any ancient buildings being -destroyed or altered without state consent. If every -structure, say, over five hundred years old, needed -three months’ notice to an inspector before it could -be pulled down or dealt with, there would be a great -check on the present changes. Every cathedral and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_186">186</span> -church, every castle and manor-house, would need -special licence for changes in all parts older than the -prescribed limit. A notice of one week might be -required for the destruction of structures as yet not -known, which were unearthed in course of digging. -Such a protection of monuments would not affect -vested interests or property values nearly as much -as an ordinary railway bill that passes through -Parliament without a protest; and it seems not too -much to hope that such a protection of all monuments -of historic interest might be carried out. -The legal position might take the form of pronouncing -all ancient buildings, stone circles, and -earthworks the ultimate property of the Crown, -with the existing owners having full powers as -trustees for the Crown to preserve, use, and enjoy -such property, and to sell or devise such trusteeship -in every way as if the property was not -beyond the age limit of private property. Only -the right of destruction and alteration would be -reserved.</p> - -<p>A state register of works of art is desired by -Professor Ernest Gardner, who proposes that (1) the -ownership of works of ancient art and sculptures -and pictures by great masters should be entered on -a register in charge of a public registrar; (2) the -registrar should have a right to see to the safety of -such objects; (3) any fairly qualified scholar may -apply to be entered on a register of students kept -by the registrar; (4) owners of registered works -must fix times for exhibition to students or to the -public, or else a registered student must be allowed -to see any work within a reasonable period; (5) the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_187">187</span> -owner, if absent, must appoint some one to preserve -and exhibit such works; (6) in case of sale of a -work to a foreign country, the government shall -have the option of retaining it at the price fixed for -the sale.</p> - -<div id="sn_128" class="sidenote">Excavating Laws.</div> - -<p>The attitude of foreign governments regarding -scientific excavating has not been happy. Too -often the prohibitions have been used -not in the interests of archaeology, but -for promoting plundering. Because it is easy to -drop on an open excavation, all regular excavations -have been fenced with severe difficulties -and costs; while in Greece and Turkey none of -the proceeds have been allowed to the finder. On -the other hand, it is difficult to always drop on -a surreptitious native, and the sympathy of the -courts—in Egypt at least—is openly on the side -of the plundering native, who is seldom punished -for anything. Hence the curious situation is that -the whole values of the property have been solely -created by the labours and study of the archaeologist; -yet he is almost debarred from using the material -which an ignorant peasant may dig and destroy as -he pleases.</p> - -<p>The form of law which is wanted is (1) the -punishment of all destruction or removal of antiquities, -by a special court, independent of local -sympathies or favouring of the plunderer; (2) the -rigid requirement of technical knowledge and ability -in those who excavate, with the condition that -everything is published promptly, and that nothing -found can be sold or pass except into a public -museum; (3) the right of the government of each<span class="pagenum" id="Page_188">188</span> -country to such objects as are necessary to the -national collection, on reimbursing whatever may -have been given as bakhshish to the finder, and -some proportion of the costs according to the -case.</p> -<hr /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_189">189</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XIV">CHAPTER XIV<br /> - -<span class="subhead">THE FASCINATION OF HISTORY</span></h2> -</div> - -<p class="in0"><span class="firstword">The</span> love of past times, the craving for that which -is gone, is one of the more obscure instincts which -appears to be brought forward by the wider growth -of interests of the mind. It takes many forms; it -appeals to the intellect, to the curiosity, to the -affections; yet it is really a single instinct, and one -which, from its strength, must spring from a primal -cause.</p> - -<p>The sense of loss touches us at every sunset, -and in anticipation tinges all the afternoon with the -sense of lengthening shadows. Even the things -that seem most common, least worthy, when in use, -all gain some being as time passes. Each little -thing, that carelessly we value not at first, grows -rich with store of years. As Antony <span class="locked">says—</span></p> - -<div class="poetry-container pw25"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">You all do know this mantle: I remember</div> - <div class="verse indent0">The first time ever Caesar put it on;</div> - <div class="verse indent0">’Twas on a summer’s evening in his tent,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">That day he overcame the Nervii.</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>Still more do places gain their hold upon us, -unheeded at the time. A store of memories of -days spent amid strong associations, that stirred<span class="pagenum" id="Page_190">190</span> -and built the mind, are the truest riches in all after-life. -We dwell upon those portions of the past, -those days at Athens, or Florence, or in the Forum, -as on a treasure; they are a portion of our life -crystallised into the structure of our thoughts—a -haven of the imagination.</p> - -<p>And how much deeper still is the sense of the -past when we turn to friends,—or even closer yet. -One whom perhaps we hardly heeded in our daily -life, is dignified at once by the irrevocable. But all -this is merely our personal regret: the direct, selfish, -individual interest.</p> - -<div class="poetry-container pw25"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">But the tender grace of a day that is dead</div> - <div class="verse indent2">Will never come back to me.</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>Let us step from this out into the past beyond -our personal touch. See now a churchyard, tall in -grass, with the dial on its stand, which each generation -has passed by—how full of memories of gone -years it is, how the eye clings to its weathered disc -and minds that so it was on the day of Trafalgar -or the Boyne; while by its side is the old carved -sarcophagus tomb of some Turkey merchant, silently -showing his virtues to each changing time, and -calming the mind with quiet age. We love such -for the sake of the past, which draws us to its -bosom to make one more link in the long chain.</p> - -<p>And pass inside the church, where Tudor and -Edwardian, and Norman and Saxon, have each -poured out their souls; in which every stone seems -saturated with their longings; where pleadings and -rejoicings seem to mutely fill the dead air; where -the walls have echoed every bride and every infant<span class="pagenum" id="Page_191">191</span> -and every mourner through all the changing generations; -where <i>Fæder ure</i> has yielded to <i>pater noster</i> -before even our familiar supplications were ever -heard. This indeed holds us as if it were a place -where we can actually live with the past selves that -have made us, and be at one with those who would -have craved to see us in the ages beyond them.</p> - -<p>And if past loves and hopes seem thus to give -their life to the lasting walls, how fearful is the -breath of terror that clings round every stone of the -Colosseum. One single mangled death there made -ten thousand fiends of men who sat on those benches; -and every year had its thousands of such agonies, -through all the centuries. The mass of horror -beyond all thought that dwells in that arena, is only -exceeded by the thousandfold fire of cruelty that -has burnt on those seats around. The place is hell -petrified.</p> - -<p>And, within a stone’s throw of that, how the -whole past, from which our present ages have sprung, -lives before us in the Forum. The triumphs where -the beauty of Greek art served but to make the clumsy -westerner gape; where the noblest blood of other -lands,—Perseus, Caractacus, Zenobia,—has stood -abased; where the barbaric Goth has fiercely joyed -in splendid pillage of its wondrous wealth; where -Theodoric and Karl had each hoped to restore the -shattered decay, with the rough material of their own -kin, which needed yet a thousand years of hewing; -a space of greater hopes and dreads, greater successes -and failures, than any other acre that we know.</p> - -<p>And yet, before all this, there passed age after -age of men, who built up civilisations which we<span class="pagenum" id="Page_192">192</span> -just begin to perceive. The golden splendour -of Mykenae, the earlier magnificence of Minoan -Knossos, the delicate wares of still older Crete, all -live with the same life as ourselves, all are precious -to us as if we had made them, all make us fellow -minds with those who thought and fashioned and -treasured such things in like manner to ourselves.</p> - -<p>Turn now to our own land, and on a wide western -moor stand within a ring of grey stones, which our -own flesh and blood there placed in faith and trust, -for something greater than the cares of daily life; -so far from us in generations, so far from us in -thoughts, that we can hardly grasp the pulse of the -same life with them, and feel what they felt. Yet it -draws us like those sounds which were the first -music to man, the sough of the wind in the wood, -and the lap of the wave on the shore, ever the -sweetest yet to ourselves. And the grey stones still -touch us and bind our thoughts and our love of all -our forefathers to themselves in elemental memories.</p> - -<p>What underlies all this fascination of the past? -What is it that thus moves men</p> - -<div class="poetry-container pw25"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">In thinking of the days that are no more?</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<p class="in0">It is the same great attraction, whether it be a -personal memory, or the being of our forefathers, or a -page strong with past life in some history, or the -handling of the drinking bowls of the oldest kings of -the earth as they come from the dust of Egypt. It is -but one sense in varied forms. It is the love of life.</p> - -<p>In primal seas first sprang that love of life,—of -preservation, of continuity of life. Even long before -man it led to the moral growth of self-sacrifice, of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_193">193</span> -affection, of social union. In man it led the Stoic on -to the brotherhood of all men, and the responsibility -of man for man. It has led the modern forward to -the brotherhood of all existing life, the responsibility -for the animal as well as the man. It now leads us -on to clinging to the life of our ancestors, their -being, and their natures; and beyond that to the -fascination of all history, as being the continuity of -life, the ever-shifting changes of the one great chain -which we see around us at its present stage, and of -which we form part. The man who knows and dwells -in history adds a new dimension to his existence; -he no longer lives in the one plane of present ways -and thoughts, he lives in the whole space of life, past, -present, and dimly future. He sees the present -narrow line of existence, momentarily fluctuating, as -one stage, like innumerable other stages that have -each been the all-important present to the short-sighted -people of their own day. He values the -present as the most complete age of history for study, -as explaining the past. He values the past as the -long continuity that has brought about the result of -the present, in which he happens to breathe. He -lives in all time; the ages are his, all live alike to -him; the present is not more real than the past, any -more than the room in which he sits is more real -than the rest of the world. Cleaving to that one -stream of life which branch by branch has flowed -through so many channels in all the ages, and still -runs on into the future, he can give account of the -Fascination of History.</p> -<hr /> - -<div class="chapter"><div class="index"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_195">195</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak p1" id="INDEX">INDEX</h2> - -<ul class="index"> -<li class="ifrst">Ab-nub-mes-uazet-user statuette, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Abusir lotus capital, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Abydos, Osireion, chain clearing, <i>frontispiece</i></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> temple, black pottery, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> copper figure, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> excavation of, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Account keeping, <a href="#Page_35">35–37</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Accumulations of town, rate of, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Accuracy in levelling, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> observing, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> recording, <a href="#Page_49">49–50</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Accusations against workmen, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Adjustment of stuff in moving, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> vase-fragments, <a href="#Page_70">70–71</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Advances of money, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Adzes, dating of, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Aegean pottery, <a href="#Page_145">145–170</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Age of objects in plate-heading, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> towns, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Akhenaten (Amenhotep IV), <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Alignment of drawings, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Amateur digging, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Amenhotep II, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> III, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153–155</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> IV (Akhenaten), <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li> - -<li class="indx">America, possible saving of history by, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Amphora, Cretan, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ancient civilisations, <a href="#Page_191">191–192</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Angles, calculation of, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> of vases measured, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Antiquities, exportation of, <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> exposure of, <a href="#Page_172">172</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> nationalisation of, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> preservation of, <a href="#Page_85">85–104</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> sale of, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> securing of, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> smuggling of, <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> thrown away, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Approaches to site of work, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Arabic, necessity for, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Archaeological duties, <a href="#Page_177">177–178</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> evidence, <a href="#Page_136">136–168</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> experience, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> responsibilities, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Archaeology, classical, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> conditions of progress, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> hindered by present museums, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> mistakes in, <a href="#Page_139">139–140</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> narrow definition of, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> progress depends on space, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> systematic, <a href="#Page_122">122–135</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Architecture, photographing of, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Arrangement of objects, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> plates, <a href="#Page_114">114–117</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> text, <a href="#Page_119">119–120</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> work, <a href="#Page_41">41–47</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> with publishers, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Athenaeus confirmed, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Author’s alterations, <a href="#Page_120">120–121</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_196">196</span>Autotypes, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Awls, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Azab, wooden floor of, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Backgrounds for photography, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Backing of frescoes, <a href="#Page_96">96–98</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Bakhshish</i>, <a href="#Page_33">33–35</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> accounts, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Banking accounts of men, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Barrels for soaking stones, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bases of vases drawn, <a href="#Page_70">70–71</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> sorted, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Basket-boys, and picks, <a href="#Page_31">31–32</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Baskets, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44–45</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Beads, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> pattern of, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> position of, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> seldom of mixed ages, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bead-work, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Beeswax, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bell, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Benzol, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> wax in, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Black incised ware, <a href="#Page_160">160–162</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163–164</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> velvet for backgrounds, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Blank sheets in spacing drawings, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Block-tints for vases, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Blocks returned after use, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> zinc, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Blotting-paper, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Boats, prehistoric, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bone point, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bones, cleaning of, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> marking, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> preserving, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bonsor, discoveries in Spain, <a href="#Page_159">159–160</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Book-post for drawings, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> seller, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bosnia, black incised ware, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Boxes, grain of wood in, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> making of, <a href="#Page_109">109–111</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> nailing of, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> nests of, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> with bars, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Box-sextant, <a href="#Page_55">55–56</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Boys, ages of, <a href="#Page_20">20–21</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> chain of, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <i>front.</i></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> collecting, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> in work, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> throwing, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> use of, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Brace and bits, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bracelet of Zer, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Brass, treatment of, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Brick, burnt, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> mounds, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> walls, tracing of, <a href="#Page_46">46–47</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> -work, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bricks, age of, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> colour of, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> size of, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Brims of vases drawn, <a href="#Page_70">70–71</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> sorted, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li> - -<li class="indx">British Museum, growth of, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bronze, destruction of, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> hypocephalus, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> statues, preservation of, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> treatment of, <a href="#Page_100">100–101</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> vases, Idaean cave, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Brunswick black, marking with, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Brushes, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Brushing, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bügelkanne, <i>see False-necked vases</i></li> - -<li class="indx">Builder of Great Pyramid, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Buildings, destruction of, <a href="#Page_185">185–186</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> photographing, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> planning, <a href="#Page_52">52–55</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> restoration of, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Burials, primary and secondary, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> undisturbed, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Burnt groups, <a href="#Page_145">145–146</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> papyri, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Buttons of VI–VII Dyn., <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Buttresses left in digging, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Cairo museum a failure, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> rubbish-mounds, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Calculation of angles, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Camel-hair brush, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> transport, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Camera, <a href="#Page_73">73–75</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> copying-, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> direction of, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> hand-, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> -legs, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> pattern of, <a href="#Page_73">73–74</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> setting up of, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> size of, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> -stand, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Camp requirements, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_197">197</span>Carbolic acid, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Carbonised papyri, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Card blackened for small stops, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> -board for drawing, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> slips, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> tube, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> with concentric circles, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Carefulness, means of securing, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Carrier-boys, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Carrying, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cartonnage, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cartridge-paper, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cases, grain of wood in, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> making of, <a href="#Page_109">109–111</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> nailing of, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> with bars, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Casting, <a href="#Page_64">64–66</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> backs of frescoes, <a href="#Page_97">97–98</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Casts of statues, <a href="#Page_172">172–173</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> plaster, <a href="#Page_64">64–66</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> photographing from, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Celluloid, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Celtic pottery like pan-grave, <a href="#Page_159">159–160</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cementing disintegrated granite, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> sculptures in walls, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cemetery site, nature of, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Chain of boys, <i>frontispiece</i>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Chambers, contents of, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> emptying of, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Charcoal, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> dust, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Chemical knowledge, need of, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Chromo-lithography, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li> - -<li class="indx">China ink, drawing with, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> marking with, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Choice of facts in recording, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> workmen, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Claims of landlord, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> State, <a href="#Page_183">183–184</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Classification of material, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119–120</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Clay moulds, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cleaning of bones, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> bronzes, <a href="#Page_100">100–101</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> gold, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> iron, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> pottery, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> silver, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Clearance at edge, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> from bottom, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> of sites, <a href="#Page_41">41–43</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Clues in digging, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Coffin, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Coinage, wastage of, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Coin impressions, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> restorations, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Coins, casting, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> cleaning, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cold chisel, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Collectors, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Collotype, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Colossi, transport of, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Colour on slabs, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> preservation of, <a href="#Page_87">87–88</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> -printing for vases, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Columns, packing of, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Commerce, prehistoric, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Commission on sales, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Commissioners, utility of, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Compass, prismatic, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Compasses, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Complex forms fade soon, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Conservation, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130–135</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Contracts, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Copper figures, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> treatment of, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Copying graffiti, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> inscriptions, <a href="#Page_61">61–63</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> walls, <a href="#Page_61">61–63</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Corner-posts to boxes, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Corpus</i> of pottery, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> system, <a href="#Page_123">123–126</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cost of publication of drawings, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> photographs, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> text, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cotton, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> wool, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> not with papyri, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cretan connections, XVIII Dyn., <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> XII <span class="ixditto">„</span>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> VI <span class="ixditto">„</span>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> IV <span class="ixditto">„</span>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> I <span class="ixditto">„</span>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cross-bars in packing, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> partitions in packing, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Crowbars, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Crown property, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Crystal, inscriptions on, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cultivation of sites, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Curators of museums, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_198">198</span>Cutting down from edge of work, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cutting-out knives, dating of, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cylinders, impressions of, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Damping of papyri, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Daphnae, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143–144</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Dark room, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Dated objects, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14–15</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Dating of adzes, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> beads, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> cutting-out knives, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> mounds, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> objects in general, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14–17</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Day and piece work combined, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> -pay, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27–31</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Dealers in antiquities, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38–39</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Decomposition of glazes, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Decoration in bead-work, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Defeneh, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143–144</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Den, tomb of, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Dentist’s wax, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Deposits, foundation, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Desert views, <a href="#Page_1">1</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Destruction by wet-squeezing, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> of antiquities, <a href="#Page_170">170–171</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> buildings, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185–186</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> evidence, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> information, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> monuments, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> sculptures, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> site, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Detail, verification of, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Developers, <a href="#Page_82">82–83</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> proportions in, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Developing, <a href="#Page_82">82–84</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Development of tools, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Diagonal bars for box-lids, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> driving of nails, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> lighting, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> mirror in photographing, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Digging by amateurs, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> purpose of, <a href="#Page_1">1</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> regularity of, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Diktaean copper figures, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Dilettante work, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Diorite bowl, Crete, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> statue, Crete, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Diospolis Parva, pottery from, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Direction of lighting, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Discoveries, age of, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> casual, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Discrimination of sites, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> style, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17–18</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> walls, <a href="#Page_46">46–47</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Disintegration of granite, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> stone by salt, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Disobedience to orders, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Distance from lens, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Distinguishing brick-walls, <a href="#Page_46">46–47</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Distortion in photography, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Divided rod, <a href="#Page_54">54–55</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Doctoring of natives, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> workmen, <a href="#Page_37">37–38</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Door-sills, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> ways, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Double-plates, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Drab pottery at Mykenae, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Draughtsman wanted for <i>corpus</i>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Drawing boards, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> by lamplight, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> facsimile, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> from squeezes, <a href="#Page_62">62–63</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> interpretation in, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> plan, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> thickness of lines in, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> vases from fragments, <a href="#Page_70">70–71</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Drawings, cutting up, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> packing of, <a href="#Page_63">63–64</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> posting of, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> reduction of, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> reproduction of, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> returned after use, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> scales of, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Dressing of graves, <a href="#Page_76">76–77</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> objects, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Driving of nails, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Drop-shutter view, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Dry squeezes, <a href="#Page_61">61–63</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Ebony stain, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> statuette, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Editions, varieties of, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Egypt and Europe, <a href="#Page_141">141–168</a></li> -<li class="isub1"><i>see Europe</i></li> - -<li class="indx">Electro-types, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Electrum, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li> - -<li class="indx">El Hibeh, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Engineers, wrecking by, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Engraving, Swan electric, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Enkomi, tombs at, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_199">199</span>Enlarged photographs, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ether, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ethics of archaeology, <a href="#Page_169">169–188</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Europe and Egypt,</li> -<li class="isub1">XXVI Dyn., <a href="#Page_142">142–144</a></li> -<li class="isub1">XVIII <span class="ixditto">„</span>, <a href="#Page_144">144–156</a></li> -<li class="isub1">XII <span class="ixditto">„</span>, <a href="#Page_156">156–161</a></li> -<li class="isub1">VI <span class="ixditto">„</span>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li> -<li class="isub1">IV <span class="ixditto">„</span>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li> -<li class="isub1">I <span class="ixditto">„</span>, <a href="#Page_164">164–166</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li> - -<li class="indx">prehistoric, <a href="#Page_167">167–168</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Evidence, by collocation, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> by scarabs and coins, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> failures of, <a href="#Page_139">139–140</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> from burnt groups, <a href="#Page_145">145–146</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> copied forms, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> houses, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> paintings, <a href="#Page_144">144–145</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> rubbish mounds, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156–157</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> tombs, <a href="#Page_150">150–153</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> in a single object, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> nature of, <a href="#Page_136">136–140</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Excavation, hindrance to, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> purpose of, <a href="#Page_1">1</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> recording results of, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Excavator, qualifications of, <a href="#Page_1">1–7</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> responsibilities of, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Exhaustion, evidence by, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> of metals, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> sites, <a href="#Page_174">174–175</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Exodus, Pharaoh of, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Experience, archaeological, <a href="#Page_3">3–4</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Exposure in photography, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> of sites, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Extortion by overseers, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Extra plates for students, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Faces, flaking of, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> of limestone, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Facts, stating of, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li> - -<li class="indx">False-necked vases, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153–154</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> variation with age, <a href="#Page_153">153–154</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Families of workmen, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Fascination of history, <a href="#Page_189">189–193</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Files, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Filling, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> and carrying, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Films, curling of, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> packing of, <a href="#Page_83">83–84</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> rapidity of, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Finest lines in drawing, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Finger-work in excavating, <a href="#Page_6">6–7</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Flake-white, use of, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Flaking of faces, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Flint knife obtained whole, <a href="#Page_34">34–35</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Flooring, wooden, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Focus, <a href="#Page_74">74–75</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Foil, gold, <a href="#Page_67">67–68</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> tin, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Foot-notes, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Foreigners’ use of plates, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Forms of pottery, <a href="#Page_16">16–17</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> duration of, <a href="#Page_128">128–129</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Fort-mounds, Defeneh, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Forum, excavation of, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> interest of, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> pottery at, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Foundation deposit, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Fragments, means of securing, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> method of drawing, <a href="#Page_70">70–71</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> sorting and joining, <a href="#Page_102">102–104</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Frame for drawing vase-fragments, <a href="#Page_70">70–71</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> supporting fresco, <a href="#Page_96">96–97</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> of strings for scale-drawing, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> with backing of muslin, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Free-swinging lens, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> - -<li class="indx">French chalk, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Frescoes, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96–97</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Fuller’s earth, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Furniture, successive ages of, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Future ages, rights of, <a href="#Page_175">175–176</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> condition of museums, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> destruction of museums, <a href="#Page_180">180–182</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Gang, proportions of, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Gangs of workmen, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Gauging of stuff to be removed, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Gelatine for extracting salt, <a href="#Page_89">89–90</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Gems, photographing, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Girls as workers, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Gizeh, tomb of Sem-nefer, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Glass background, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> waxed for papyri, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_200">200</span>Glaze, decomposition of, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Glycerine, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Glycin, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Gold collar from Enkomi, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> foil, <a href="#Page_67">67–68</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> pin, Cypriote, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> preservation of, <a href="#Page_180">180–181</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> treatment of, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> value offered for, <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Governments, attitude of, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Graeco-Egyptian vases, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Graffiti, copying, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Grave, age of, by sequence-dates, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> dressing of, <a href="#Page_76">76–77</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Greece, <i>see Europe</i></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> conditions of work in, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Greek pottery, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> workmen, <a href="#Page_26">26–27</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Greeks in Egypt, <a href="#Page_142">142–144</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Grouping in museums, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> of objects as evidence, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Groups in museums, <a href="#Page_172">172</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> numbering of, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> of ivories, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> of objects, <a href="#Page_48">48–49</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> photographing of, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Guards to plates, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Gum, contraction of, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Gurob, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Guttapercha moulds, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Haematite paint, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hammer dressing, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> light, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> sledge, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Headings of plates, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Head-lines of text, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Head-shawls, seizure of, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Helbeh</i>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Heliogravure, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hinges, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> - -<li class="indx">History, fascination of, <a href="#Page_189">189–193</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> importance of, <a href="#Page_4">4–5</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> knowledge of, <a href="#Page_4">4–5</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hibeh, El, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hissarlik, black incised ware, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Holes, excavated, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> in bricks, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hollow feet to vases, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hollows in ground, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hollows in inscriptions, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> packing, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hone-stone, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Honesty in workmen, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Horemheb, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Horizontal position, photographing, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Huts, mud, of excavators, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hypocephalus, bronze, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Ialysos, tomb at, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Idaean cave, bronze vases, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> carved dish, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Idleness, remedies for, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Illness among workmen, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37–38</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Impressions of cylinders, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Indestructibility of small antiquities, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Index to books, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li> - -<li class="indx">India-rubber for dry-squeezing, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Indications after rain, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> of nature of site, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Indices of types required, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Infectious illness, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Inking in of drawings, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> squeezes, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Inks for drawing, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ink-writing copied, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> photographed, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Inscriptions, columns and lines, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> copying, <a href="#Page_60">60–63</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> before removal, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> made legible, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> on stone, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> sanded, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Insight in excavating, <a href="#Page_4">4–6</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Inspectorship of antiquities, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Instantaneous shutter, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Instruments, use of, <a href="#Page_54">54–55</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Inventory-sheets for small objects, <a href="#Page_69">69–70</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Iron, treatment of, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ironing textiles, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Irregularities in plates, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Israel stele, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ivory, destruction of, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> preservation of, <a href="#Page_90">90–92</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> tablet of Zer, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Jaw, removal for measurement, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_201">201</span>Jelly for extracting salt, <a href="#Page_89">89–90</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Jewellers’ tag-labels, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Joining fragments, <a href="#Page_102">102–104</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> sheets of drawings, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Jointing of brickwork, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> flooring, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Kahun, black incised pottery, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> burials at, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> rubbish mound at, <a href="#Page_156">156–158</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> town site turned over, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Kamares pottery, <a href="#Page_158">158–159</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Kefti bring vases, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Key-plans, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Khataaneh, black incised ware, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Khufu, portrait of, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Khyan vase lid, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Kitchen-paper, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Knife, cutting-out, development of, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> dinner-, uses of, <a href="#Page_46">46–47</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> pen, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Knossos, carving, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> Egyptian figure from, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> pottery, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> vase lid of Khyan, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> vases from, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Knowledge in recording, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> requisite for excavating, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> systematic, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Koptos, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Labelling objects, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Labels in museums, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> packing, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Labourers, control of, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22–23</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> qualities of, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> selection of, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> training of, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21–22</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lachish, pottery at, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lamp, Cretan, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Languages, knowledge of, required, <a href="#Page_5">5–6</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lantern-slides, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Laws, present, concerning archaeology, <a href="#Page_182">182–184</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> requisite, concerning archaeology, <a href="#Page_185">185–188</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Laying out for photographing, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lead, treatment of, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Legal evidences, <a href="#Page_136">136–138</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> proof accepted, <a href="#Page_140">140–141</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Legal uncertainties, <a href="#Page_140">140–141</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Length of bricks, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> ropes, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lens, distance from, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> free-swinging, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> wide-angle, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lettering of plates, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Letters used for distinguishing sites, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Levelling-mirror, <a href="#Page_58">58–59</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Levels of buildings, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> pottery for dating, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> walls, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Libyan influence, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lids of boxes, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lifting in removing, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lighting by reflection, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> in photography, <a href="#Page_77">77–79</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> of museums, <a href="#Page_131">131–132</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lime-burners, destruction by, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Linen, glued, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lines, thickness of, in drawing, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Liparite bowl, Crete, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></li> - -<li class="indx">List of plates, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lithography, chromo-, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> photo-, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68–70</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Locals according to villages, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> for carrying, <a href="#Page_30">30–38</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Locks, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Logarithms, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lotus capital, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Magnifier, use in work, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Maket tomb, <a href="#Page_151">151–152</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Manuscript, readiness for printing, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Margins to plates, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Market money, <a href="#Page_35">35–36</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Marking of bones, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> objects, <a href="#Page_51">51–52</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Material facts, evidence of, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Materials, presentment of, <a href="#Page_50">50–51</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> properties of, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Measurement, accuracy of, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> in planning, <a href="#Page_53">53–55</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> in photography, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> of vase-fragments, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> walls, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> work, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mechanical contrivances, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Medicines, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mediterranean civilisation, <a href="#Page_141">141–168</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_202">202</span>Medum tombs, <a href="#Page_62">62–63</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Memory, in excavating, <a href="#Page_18">18–19</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mer-en-ptah, portrait of, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Metals, treatment of, <a href="#Page_98">98–102</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Method of plotting 3-point survey, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Metre rod, <a href="#Page_54">54–55</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mill-stones, Roman, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mirror, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> diagonal, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> levelling, <a href="#Page_58">58–59</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mistakes in naming objects, <a href="#Page_3">3–4</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> publication, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Misuse of ropes, <a href="#Page_45">45–46</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mixture of objects of various ages, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Monkey, violet glazed, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Montfaucon, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Moulds for casting, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65–68</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mounds of fort, Defeneh, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> town, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> position of, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> throwing on, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mounting papyri, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Moving of earth, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mud-brick mounds, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> sun-dried, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> walls, tracing of, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Museums, buildings unsuitable, <a href="#Page_130">130–131</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> curators of, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> future of, <a href="#Page_180">180–182</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> grouping in, <a href="#Page_132">132–133</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> groups of objects in, <a href="#Page_172">172</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> growth of, <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> lighting of, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> methods in, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> plundering for, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> present, hinder archaeology, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> preservation in, <a href="#Page_180">180–182</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> requirements of, <a href="#Page_131">131–135</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> sculptures in, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172–173</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> space needed in, <a href="#Page_132">132–135</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> unpacking in, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> use of, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Muslin, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mykenae, objects from, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mykenaean period, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Nails, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> diagonal driving of, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> use of, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Naqada, dressing of tomb, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li> - -<li class="indx">National Repository needed, <a href="#Page_133">133–135</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Nationalisation of antiquities, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Native digging, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Naukratis, <a href="#Page_142">142–144</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Nebireh, <a href="#Page_142">142</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Negatives, <a href="#Page_82">82–84</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Negress, ebony, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Nekheb, goddess, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Neolithic vase at Knossos, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Net process, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Nile boats, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> rise of, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Nitric acid, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Notation of successive ages, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> time in work, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Note-taking in excavations, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Nubian shore, submersion of, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Numbering of groups, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> objects on plates, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> plates, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> sheets of drawings, <a href="#Page_63">63–64</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Numbers, printed, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> scratched on, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Obelisks at Tanis, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Objects, groups of, <a href="#Page_48">48–49</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> inventory of, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> numbering of, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> outlining of, <a href="#Page_69">69–70</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> position of, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> preparing, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> scale of drawing, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Oblique lighting, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Observation, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Oiling of moulds, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Organization of work, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> workmen, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Order, historical, in plates, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Outlining of small objects, <a href="#Page_69">69–70</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Overseer or <i>reis</i>, <a href="#Page_24">24–26</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Overlapping images, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Overs, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Packer, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Packing frescoes, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> glass, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> materials, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_203">203</span><span class="ixditto">„</span> pottery, <a href="#Page_108">108–109</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> stones, <a href="#Page_105">105–108</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pads in packing, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Page-references to plates, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Paint-brushes, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> red, in cups, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Paintings on tombs as evidence, <a href="#Page_144">144–145</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Palestinian pottery, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pan-graves, <a href="#Page_159">159–160</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Paper bags, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> for drawing, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> packing, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> printing, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> squeezing, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> moulds, <a href="#Page_60">60–61</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> squeezes, <a href="#Page_60">60–61</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Papyri, photographing of, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> treatment of, <a href="#Page_93">93–95</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Paraffin wax, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Parcel-post boxes, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> for drawings, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Partitions in boxes, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Passages, underground, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Past quickly vanishing, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> love of, <a href="#Page_189">189–193</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> rights of, <a href="#Page_176">176–178</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pasting of papyri, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Patterns of gold collar, <a href="#Page_154">154–155</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Payment by results, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> deductions for locals, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> proportions in, <a href="#Page_31">31–32</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> rate of, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> weekly, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pencil-cutting for outlining, <a href="#Page_69">69–70</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pendulum-mirror, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Periods, of bronze and stone, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> successive, <a href="#Page_127">127–130</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pharaoh of Exodus, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Philae, submersion of, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Philistine, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Photographic apparatus, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> developers, <a href="#Page_82">82–83</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> developing, <a href="#Page_82">82–84</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> drying, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> enlarging, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> films, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> reflectors, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> register of objects, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> washing, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Photographing and drawing, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> of buildings, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> excavations, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> papyri, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> views, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> wall-scenes, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Photography, <a href="#Page_73">73–84</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> backgrounds in, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> dark room for, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> diagonal mirror in, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> drop-shutter in, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> lighting in, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> scale in, <a href="#Page_80">80–81</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> shadows in, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> skew-back, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> stereographic, <a href="#Page_81">81–82</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Photo-lithography, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> colours reversed in, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> for drawings, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> plans, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> reduction for, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Physics, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pickling of bronzes, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Picks and baskets, <a href="#Page_31">31–33</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Piece and day work combined, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Piece pay, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> work, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29–31</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pillars left in digging, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pincers, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pins, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pit, excavation of, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Placing of stuff removed, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Plan, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> accuracy of, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> drawing, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> measurement of, <a href="#Page_53">53–55</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> of chambers, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> towns, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Plane, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> -table, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Platinotypes, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Plaster, casts, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64–66</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> coats of, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> handling of, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Plates, book, <a href="#Page_114">114–119</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> double, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> loose, <a href="#Page_115">115–116</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> spoilt, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> magazine for, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> photographing from, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_204">204</span><span class="ixditto">„</span> rapidity of, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> size of image, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pliers, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Plotting, <a href="#Page_55">55–59</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> vase dimensions, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Plunderers, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Plundering of sites, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178–179</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Points of support in packing, <a href="#Page_105">105–106</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pompeii, <i>corpus</i> of pottery needed, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Position of objects, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> in photographing, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Positives, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Postage of drawings, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Potsherds, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pottery, Aegean, <a href="#Page_145">145–170</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> black incised, <a href="#Page_160">160–162</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163–164</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> chips, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <i>corpus</i>, <a href="#Page_124">124–126</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> destruction of, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> duration of forms, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> Greek, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> of prehistoric age, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> I Dyn., <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> XII <span class="ixditto">„</span>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> XVIII <span class="ixditto">„</span>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153–154</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> packing of, <a href="#Page_108">108–109</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> painted, from Kahun, <a href="#Page_157">157–158</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> preservation of, <a href="#Page_88">88–89</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> salt in, <a href="#Page_88">88–89</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> scale for drawing, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> typical forms, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> value for dating, <a href="#Page_15">15–17</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128–129</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Praesos beads of XII Dyn., <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Prehistoric ages, <a href="#Page_167">167–168</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> camp site, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> cemetery site, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> sequences, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> shipping, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> tomb dressed, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Preparing objects for photographing, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Presentment of material, <a href="#Page_50">50–51</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Preservation in museums, <a href="#Page_180">180–181</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> of antiquities, <a href="#Page_85">85–104</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176–188</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> bones, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> colour, <a href="#Page_87">87–88</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> gold-work, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> information, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> ivories, <a href="#Page_90">90–92</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> papyri, <a href="#Page_92">92–95</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> pottery, <a href="#Page_88">88–89</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> sarcophagi, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> stone, <a href="#Page_86">86–87</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> stucco, <a href="#Page_87">87–88</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> wood, <a href="#Page_89">89–91</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Princesses in fresco, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Printed numbers for plates, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Printer’s agreement, <a href="#Page_120">120–121</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> errors, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Printing, colour-, for vases, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Prismatic compass, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Probability, evidence from, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Processes for plates, <a href="#Page_117">117–119</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Prohibition of wet squeezing, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Proof, nature of, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Properties of materials, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Proportions in mixing developers, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Protractor, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pseud-amphorae, <i>see False-necked vases</i></li> - -<li class="indx">Publication, <a href="#Page_114">114–121</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> detailed, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> mistakes in, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> necessity of, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> past methods of, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> permanence of, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Publishers, agreements with, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pyramid, great, Builder of, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Railway, light, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ramessu II, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> III, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> VI, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Rate of payment, <a href="#Page_29">29–30</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Recommendations of workmen, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Reconstruction of stone vases, <a href="#Page_102">102–104</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Record by <i>corpus</i> system, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> importance of, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> in piecework, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> publication of, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Recrystallisation of salt, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Red paint, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Reference-numbers on plates, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> to plates, <a href="#Page_115">115–116</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> to text, <a href="#Page_119">119–120</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Reflections in lighting, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Reflectors, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Register of sheets, <a href="#Page_63">63–64</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_205">205</span><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> works of art, <a href="#Page_186">186–187</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Reis</i> or overseer, <a href="#Page_24">24–26</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Rekhmara, tomb of, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Relief-process, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Reliefs, copying of, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Repository needed, <a href="#Page_133">133–135</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Res, statuette of, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Responsibilities, in excavating, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174–175</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> of archaeologists, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Restorations, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> of scarabs, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> of stone vases, <a href="#Page_70">70–71</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102–104</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Results, presentment of, <a href="#Page_50">50–51</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Rethreading of beads, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Re-use of tombs, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Rights of the future, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> past, <a href="#Page_176">176–178</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Rise of Nile, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Rolls of drawings by post, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> papyri, <a href="#Page_92">92–94</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ropes, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> length of, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> preservation of, <a href="#Page_45">45–46</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Rotted bead-work, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> ivory, <a href="#Page_91">91–92</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> papyrus, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> silver, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> wood, <a href="#Page_90">90–91</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Royalties on books, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Rubbish-mounds, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Rust in bronze, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> iron, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Sacking for packing, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Salt in metals, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> pottery, <a href="#Page_88">88–89</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> stones, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> textiles, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> wood, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sand, throwing, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sanding of tender stones, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> weathered stones, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sarcophagi at Abydos, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> Zuweleyn, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> preservation of, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sauce-pan, cast-iron, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Saw-files, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sawing, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Saws, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Scale-drawing, frame for, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> mentioned on plate-heading, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> of drawing for plates, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> tools, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> vases, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> payment, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> plotting, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Scaling of bronze, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> copper, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Scarabs, few posthumous, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> restorations of, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> seldom long in use, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Screw-driver, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Screws, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sculpture, casts of, <a href="#Page_172">172</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> cemented in walls, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> lighting of, <a href="#Page_131">131–132</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> museum of, <a href="#Page_172">172</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sealing-wax moulds, <a href="#Page_66">66–67</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Search for fragments, <a href="#Page_34">34–35</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102–104</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Section-lines for stone vases, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Selection of facts in recording, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Separation of objects in museums, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sequence dates, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sequences in a mansion, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Serials published, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Series of forms of stone vases, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sety II, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sextant, box-, <a href="#Page_55">55–56</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Shade-lines in drawing, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sheet of card ruled, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sheets of inventories, <a href="#Page_69">69–70</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Shifting of stuff, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Shutter, drop-, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sieve, native, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> wire, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sifting earth, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sighting-lines, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Signals for work, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> survey, <a href="#Page_56">56–57</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Silicate solution, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Silver coins, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> treatment of, <a href="#Page_98">98–99</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Site of cemetery, <a href="#Page_11">11–12</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> temple, <a href="#Page_9">9–10</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> town, <a href="#Page_10">10–11</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Size of bricks, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> sheets for reduction, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Skeletons, marking of, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> preservation of, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_206">206</span>Skew-back camera, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Skull, removal for measurement, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Slate backing to frescoes, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sliding of earth, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Slopes of rubbish-mounds, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Smuggling of antiquities, <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sneferu, black incised ware, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Soaking of bronzes, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> iron, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> lead, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> pottery, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> stones, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> textiles, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Softening in packing, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108–109</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sorting fragments, <a href="#Page_102">102–104</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Spain, pottery from, <a href="#Page_159">159–160</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Speculators, destruction by, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Spies, <a href="#Page_38">38–39</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Spoke-brush, use of, <a href="#Page_60">60–61</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> shave, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Square, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Squareness on plates, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Squares of plans, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Squeezes, dry, <a href="#Page_61">61–63</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> wet, <a href="#Page_60">60–61</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Stain, ebony, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li> - -<li class="indx">State claims, <a href="#Page_182">182–184</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> register of works of art, <a href="#Page_186">186–187</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> rights, <a href="#Page_184">184–187</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Stations, surveying, <a href="#Page_57">57–58</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Statistical sorting of pottery, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Statuary, casts of, <a href="#Page_172">172</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> lighting of, <a href="#Page_131">131–132</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> preservation of, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> restoration of, <a href="#Page_172">172</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Statuette, ebony, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Stirrup vases, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> variation with age, <a href="#Page_153">153–154</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Stone chips, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> of buildings, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> vases, block-tints for, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> drawing from fragments, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> sorting fragments, <a href="#Page_102">102–104</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Stones, large, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> moving of, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> salt in, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> scale of drawing, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Stops in manuscripts, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> photographing, <a href="#Page_74">74–75</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Storing of antiquities, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> ropes, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Straw for packing, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Strings of beads, <a href="#Page_95">95–96</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Stucco, coloured, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> facing, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> on bricks, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> on walls, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> on wood, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Students’ plates, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Style, discrimination of, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17–18</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Successive ages, classed, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Super-heated wax for preserving, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Superimposed buildings, <a href="#Page_41">41–42</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Support, points of, in packing, <a href="#Page_105">105–106</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Survey, three-point, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Surveying, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53–59</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> of walls, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Survival of museums, <a href="#Page_180">180–181</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> things in use, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Systematic archaeology, <a href="#Page_122">122–135</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> work in excavating, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Systematizers needed, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Tables, printing of, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tablet, ivory, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tahutmes II, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> III, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tally for accounts, <a href="#Page_37">37–38</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tanis, with obelisks, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> workers at, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tape-measure, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> steel-, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tapioca-water, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Telescope used in work, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tell el Amarna, frescoes at, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> vases at, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> Yehudiyeh, cemetery mounds, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Temple, causes of ruin, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> evidence of, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> site, clearance of, <a href="#Page_41">41–47</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> nature of, <a href="#Page_9">9–10</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tenting in desert, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Textiles, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Theodolite, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Thickness of lines in drawing, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Threads, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_207">207</span>Three-colour photography, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Three-point survey, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Throwing, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> sand, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Thyi, Queen, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Tibn</i>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tilting in photography, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tin-foil moulds, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> plate for reflectors, <a href="#Page_78">78–79</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> sawing, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> small stops, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> pots, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> saucepans, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tints, block, for vases, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tomb groups, <a href="#Page_48">48–49</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> scattered, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> of Sem-nefer, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> -robbers, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tombs, evidence from, <a href="#Page_150">150–153</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> mixture of contents, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> numbering of, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> position of, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> proportion of important, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> reuse of, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> unplundered, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> wrecking of, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tools necessary to work, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112–113</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> provision of, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tooth-brush, uses for, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Topography, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Town, planning of, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> site, clearance of, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> nature of, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> rate of accumulation, <a href="#Page_10">10–11</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> turned over, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tracing out walls, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46–47</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Transport of antiquities, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107–108</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tray with poles, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> wooden, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Treasure trove, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Trenching ground, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Trial-pits, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Troy, black incised ware, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Trucks, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Turning back, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> over, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tutankhamen, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Uncertainties, legal, <a href="#Page_140">140–141</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Underground passages, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Undisturbed tombs, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Uniformity of scale, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Unpacker, <a href="#Page_111">111–112</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Unpacking of boxes, <a href="#Page_111">111–112</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Unplundered tombs, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Unpunctuality, remedies for, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Unrolling of papyri, <a href="#Page_93">93–94</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Unsanded stones, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Usertesen II, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Valuables, finding of, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Variation of vases with age, <a href="#Page_153">153–154</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Vases, block tints for, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> drawn from fragments, <a href="#Page_70">70–71</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> measurement of angles, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> scale of drawing, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Vertical lighting, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> mirror level, <a href="#Page_58">58–59</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> position of camera, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Wages in Egypt, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> England, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> Greece, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Wall-scenes, photographing of, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Walls, copying, <a href="#Page_61">61–63</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> face of, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> surveying of, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> thickness of, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> tracing of, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46–47</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> visible after rain, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Warrior in alabaster, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Washing of negatives, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> out salt, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Wastage of coinage, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Water-colours, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Wax, bees-, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> dentist’s, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> paraffin, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Waxed glass for papyri, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Weathered stones, sanding of, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Weeding-out of workmen, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Weights carried by boy, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Western, <i>see Europe</i></li> - -<li class="indx">Wet squeezes, <a href="#Page_60">60–61</a></li> - -<li class="indx">White ants, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> filling of black ware, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> flake-, use of, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> -wash on walls, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Whiting for inscriptions, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Wide-angle lens, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Wills, contradictory, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Witnesses, evidence of, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> veracity of, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Wood flooring, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> rotted, <a href="#Page_90">90–91</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> salt in, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> tray, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> wet, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> white ants in, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> -wool, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Work, irregular, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Workmen at Tanis, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> chains of, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> control of, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22–23</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> distribution of, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> English, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> Greek, <a href="#Page_26">26–27</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> management of, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> organization of, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> qualities of, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> selection of, <a href="#Page_20">20–21</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> substitution of, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> training of, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Wrapping-paper, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Wrappings, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Wrecking by engineers, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> lime-burners, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> <span class="ixditto">„</span> natives, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> of tombs, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Yorkshire, pottery from, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Zer, Aegean pottery of, <a href="#Page_164">164–165</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> black incised ware, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> bracelet of, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> ivory tablet of, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Zinc, box for washing, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> blocks, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> tally for accounts, <a href="#Page_37">37–38</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="ixditto">„</span> trays for soaking stones, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Zuweleyn, sarcophagi at, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li> -</ul> -</div></div> - -<p class="p4 center wspace">THE END</p> - 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By <span class="smcap">W. Warde Fowler</span>, Lincoln College, -Oxford. 6s. <span class="fright">[<i>Ready.</i></span></p> - -<div class="smaller"> - -<p><i>SPECTATOR.</i>—“This work is intended as an introduction to the study of the religion -of the Romans, and a very faithful and accurate piece of work it is, as indeed might be -expected by those who know Mr. Fowler’s previous studies of ancient life.”</p> - -<p><i>LITERATURE.</i>—“Mr. Fowler has admirably summed up the results of the folklore -school as far as Rome is concerned; and it is much to have a scholar’s unprejudiced opinion -on them. 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Alike as a storehouse of critically-sifted facts and as a tentative essay -towards the synthetic arrangement of these facts, Mr. Fowler’s book seems to us to mark a -very distinct advance upon anything that has yet been done.”</p> -</div> - -<p class="p1 hang larger"><b>GREEK SCULPTURE.</b> By Prof. <span class="smcap">Ernest A. Gardner</span>, M.A., -University College, London. Part. I. 5s. Part II. 5s. -Or in one volume. 10s. <span class="fright">[<i>Ready.</i></span></p> - -<div class="smaller"> - -<p><i>ATHENÆUM.</i>—“The introduction alone, which runs to over forty pages, makes the -book indispensable to every student of the subject.”</p> - -<p><i>CLASSICAL REVIEW.</i>—“The good qualities which were conspicuous in the first part of -Prof Gardner’s handbook are as characteristic of the second, and it is not too much to say -that the whole book easily takes rank before all other English elementary treatises on -Greek sculpture.... There are few books of the kind which can be so freely recommended -as Prof. Gardner’s.”</p> - -<p><i>GUARDIAN.</i>—“Mr. Gardner’s book may be confidently recommended as the best and -most trustworthy sketch of Greek sculpture hitherto published in the English language.”</p> -</div> - -<p class="p1 hang larger"><b>A HANDBOOK OF GREEK CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY.</b> -By <span class="smcap">A. H. J. Greenidge</span>, M.A., Hertford College, Oxford. -With Map. 5s. <span class="fright">[<i>Ready.</i></span></p> - -<div class="smaller"> - -<p><i>CLASSICAL REVIEW.</i>—“He can be original even in the treatment of the most familiar -themes; the style is fresh and vigorous, and the explanations are, as a rule, clear. The book -is, from its nature, mainly intended for beginners, by whom it is likely to be extensively -used, but at the same time more advanced students may gather not a few suggestive hints -from its pages.”</p> - -<p><i>SPEAKER.</i>—“A really valuable handbook on the constitutional history of Greece.”</p> - -<p><i>SPECTATOR.</i>—“This book will be of great use to teachers in schools where the language -and literature of Hellas are properly cultivated, as well as to University tutors, and is quite -within the intellectual grasp of ordinary undergraduates, to whom we earnestly recommend -it.”</p> -</div> - -<p class="p1 hang larger"><b>A HANDBOOK OF GREEK AND ROMAN COINS.</b> By -<span class="smcap">George F. Hill</span>, M.A., British Museum. 9s. <span class="fright">[<i>Ready.</i></span></p> - -<div class="smaller"> - -<p><i>ATHENÆUM.</i>—“Quite worthy of the traditions of the British Museum Coin Room.... -We cannot too much praise the fifteen beautiful plates of photographic reproductions which -close this book. Mr. Hill has collected the flower of all Greek and Roman art in this small -compass.”</p> - -<p><i>LITERATURE.</i>—“Mr. Hill has succeeded very deftly in providing exactly the type of -information of which the student so often stands in need. The volume forms an admirable -conspectus of the monetary history of Greece and Rome in less than 800 pages.”</p> -</div> - -<p class="p1 hang larger"><b>THE DESTRUCTION OF ANCIENT ROME</b>: A History of the -Monuments. By <span class="smcap">Rodolfo Lanciani</span>, University of Rome. -6s. <span class="fright">[<i>Ready.</i></span></p> - -<div class="smaller"> - -<p><i>GUARDIAN.</i>—“We are glad to learn from the preface to this volume that the professor -has in contemplation an extensive work on the latter part of this subject, the ‘History of -the Excavations,’ and meanwhile the present instalment will be welcomed by all who have -felt the fascination of the story of the survival or destruction of the ancient monuments.”</p> - -<p><i>WESTMINSTER BUDGET.</i>—“A most enlightening little work, which gives a real -insight into the scholarly and scientific method on which modern excavation proceeds.”</p> -</div> - -<p class="p1 hang larger"><b>ROMAN PUBLIC LIFE.</b> By <span class="smcap">A. H. J. Greenidge</span>, M.A., -Hertford College, Oxford. 10s. 6d. <span class="fright">[<i>Ready.</i></span></p> - -<div class="smaller"> - -<p><i>SPECTATOR.</i>—“Both logical in arrangement and lucid in exposition. And its subject -is most wisely chosen, because it is the public life of the Romans which has been an -example to all time.”</p> - -<p><i>PILOT.</i>—“The style of the book is throughout clear and interesting, and at the same -time many minute and debatable points are carefully discussed, and almost every statement -is supported by references to original authorities, or better still, by quotations from -them. It is a healthy sign that English scholarship is now able to produce such books as this.”</p> -</div> - -<p class="p1 hang larger"><b>CHRISTIAN ART AND ARCHÆOLOGY.</b> A Handbook to -the Monuments of the Early Church. By <span class="smcap">Walter -Lowrie</span>, M.A., Late Fellow of the American School of -Classical Studies at Rome. 10s. 6d. <span class="fright">[<i>Ready.</i></span></p> - -<div class="smaller"> - -<p><i>PILOT.</i>—“A most useful and judicious epitome of a difficult subject.... The volume -is likely to take its place among the most successful of the excellent series to which -it belongs.”</p> - -<p><i>ATHENÆUM.</i>—“Mr. Lowrie is to be thanked for a most interesting book, in which he -has collected a great amount of hitherto inaccessible information in a very convenient form.... -This book should do much to diffuse knowledge about a subject that awakens a wide -and keen interest.”</p> - -<p><i>GUARDIAN.</i>—“The best handbook to the artistic monuments of the first six centuries -of the Christian Church which has appeared in English, perhaps in any language.”</p> -</div> - -<p class="p1 center larger">MACMILLAN AND CO., <span class="smcap">Ltd.</span>, LONDON.</p> - -<h3 class="newpage">WORKS ON ARCHÆOLOGY AND ANTIQUITIES</h3> - -<div class="hang"> - -<p><b>ANCIENT ATHENS.</b> By <span class="smcap">Ernest Arthur Gardner</span>, Yates Professor -of Archæology in University College, London; formerly -Director of the British School at Athens. With numerous Illustrations, -Plans, and Maps. 8vo. Gilt top. 21s. net.</p> - -<p><b>LIFE IN ANCIENT EGYPT.</b> By <span class="smcap">A. Erman</span>. Translated by <span class="smcap">H. -M. Tirard</span>. Illustrated. Super royal 8vo. 21s. net.</p> - -<p><b>POMPEII: ITS LIFE AND ART.</b> By <span class="smcap">Auguste Mau</span>. Translated -by <span class="smcap">Francis W. Kelsey</span>. New and cheaper edition. Illustrated. -Extra crown 8vo. 10s. 6d. net.</p> - -<p><b>SCULPTURED TOMBS OF HELLAS.</b> By Professor <span class="smcap">Percy -Gardner</span>, Litt.D. With 30 Plates and 87 Engravings in the -text. Super royal 8vo. 25s. net.</p> - -<p><b>SAMOS AND SAMIAN COINS: AN ESSAY.</b> By the -Author. 8vo. 7s. 6d.</p> - -<p><b>DR. SCHLIEMANN’S EXCAVATIONS AT TROY, TIRYNS, -MYCENÆ, ORCHOMENOS, ITHACA, IN THE LIGHT OF RECENT -KNOWLEDGE.</b> By Dr. <span class="smcap">C. Schuchhardt</span>. Translated by -<span class="smcap">Eugenie Sellers</span>. With a Preface by <span class="smcap">Walter Leaf</span>, Litt.D. -Illustrated. 8vo. 18s. net.</p> - -<p><b>BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE IN GREECE. THE MONASTERY -OF SAINT LUKE OF STIRIS IN PHOCIS, AND THE DEPENDENT -MONASTERY OF SAINT NICOLAS IN THE FIELDS, -NEAR SKRIPOU IN BŒOTIA.</b> By <span class="smcap">Robert Weir Schultz</span> and -<span class="smcap">Sidney Howard Barnsley</span>. Imperial 4to. Three guineas net.</p> - -<p><b>THE ANNUAL OF THE BRITISH SCHOOL AT ATHENS.</b> -Crown 4to. No. I. Session 1894–1895. 3s. 6d. net. No. II. -Session 1895–1896. 10s. 6d. net. No. III. Session 1896–1897. -10s. 6d. net. No. IV. Session 1897–1898. 7s. 6d. -net. No. V. 1898–1899. 7s. 6d. net. No. VI. 1899–1900. -10s. 6d. net. No. VII. 1900–1901. 12s. 6d. net. No. VIII. -1901–1902. 17s. net.</p> - -<p><b>MACMILLAN’S GUIDES.</b> Neatly and Strongly Bound in Limp -Red Cloth, with Rounded Corners. Globe 8vo.</p> - -<p><b>ITALY.</b> Third Edition. With 51 Maps and Plans. Price 10s. -net.</p> - -<p><b>THE WESTERN MEDITERRANEAN [Including Sicily].</b> With -21 Maps and Plans. Price 9s. net.</p> - -<p><b>THE EASTERN MEDITERRANEAN [Including Greece and -the Greek Islands.]</b> With 27 Maps and Plans. Price 9s. net.</p></div> - -<p class="p1 center larger">LONDON: MACMILLAN AND CO., <span class="smcap">Limited</span>.</p> -</div> - -<div class="chapter"><div class="transnote"> -<h2 class="nobreak p1" id="Transcribers_Notes">Transcriber’s Notes</h2> - -<p>Punctuation, hyphenation, and spelling were made -consistent when a predominant preference was found -in the original book; otherwise they were not changed. -Inconsistencies between the main text and Index were -resolved in favor of the main text.</p> - -<p>Simple typographical errors were corrected; unbalanced -quotation marks were remedied when the change was -obvious, and otherwise left unbalanced.</p> - -<p>Illustrations in this eBook have been positioned -between paragraphs and outside quotations. In versions -of this eBook that support hyperlinks, the page -references in the List of Illustrations lead to the -corresponding illustrations.</p> - -<p>Descriptions in the List of Illustrations often -are more informative than the captions printed -with the illustrations.</p> - -<p>The half-page photographs were printed two to a -page, one above the other, and often with a shared -caption. In this eBook each photograph is shown -with its own caption.</p> - -<p>Footnote 2 in the Appendix on <a href="#Page_112">page 112</a> originally -was two identical footnotes, because that -Appendix crossed a page boundary.</p> - -<p>The index was not checked for proper alphabetization -or correct page references.</p> - -<p><a href="#Page_124">Page 124</a>: “Nagada” may be a misprint for “Naqada”.</p> -</div></div> - - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Methods & Aims in Archaeology, by -William Matthew Flinders Petrie - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK METHODS & AIMS IN ARCHAEOLOGY *** - -***** This file should be named 63311-h.htm or 63311-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/6/3/3/1/63311/ - -Produced by MFR, Charlie Howard, and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images generously made available by The -Internet Archive) - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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