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If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: Methods & Aims in Archaeology - -Author: William Matthew Flinders Petrie - -Release Date: September 26, 2020 [EBook #63311] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK METHODS & AIMS IN ARCHAEOLOGY *** - - - - -Produced by MFR, Charlie Howard, and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images generously made available by The -Internet Archive) - - - - - - - - - -Transcriber’s Note - -Italics are enclosed in _underscores_, boldface in =equals signs=. - - - - - METHODS AND AIMS - IN - ARCHAEOLOGY - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration: Fig. 1. CHAIN OF BOYS CLEARING THE OSIREION AT ABYDOS. - -41 feet deep.] - - - - - METHODS & AIMS - IN - ARCHAEOLOGY - - - BY - W. M. FLINDERS PETRIE - HON. D.C.L., LL.D., LIT.D., PH.D. : F.R.S. ; HON. F.S.A. (SCOT.) : - - Member of the Imperial German Archaeological Institute; - Member of the Society of Northern Antiquaries; - Member of the Roman Society of Anthropology; - Edwards Professor of Egyptology, University College, London. - - - WITH 66 ILLUSTRATIONS - - - London - MACMILLAN AND CO., LIMITED - NEW YORK: THE MACMILLAN COMPANY - 1904 - - _All rights reserved_ - - - - -TO MY FRIENDS - - - F. LL. GRIFFITH, - E. A. GARDNER, - F. J. BLISS, - H. CARTER, - B. P. GRENFELL, - J. E. QUIBELL, - J. DUNCAN, - H. F. PETRIE, - N. DE O. DAVIES, - A. C. MACE, - D. RANDALL-MACIVER, - B. ORME, - A. E. WEIGALL, - M. A. MURRAY, - L. ECKENSTEIN, - H. STANNUS, - C. T. CURRELLY, - E. R. AYRTON, - -WHO HAVE JOINED IN VARIOUS PORTIONS OF THE WORK HERE DESCRIBED, -1884–1903. - - - - -PREFACE - - -Archaeology is the latest born of the sciences. It has but scarcely -struggled into freedom, out of the swaddling clothes of dilettante -speculations. It is still attracted by pretty things, rather than by -real knowledge. It has to find shelter with the Fine Arts or with -History, and not a single home has yet been provided for its real -growth. - -All other sciences deal with the things around us; with subjects which -may, or may not, affect us. Even medical sciences are concerned with -the mechanical structure of the body, rather than with the nature and -abilities of the mind. But the science which enquires into all the -products and works of our own species, which shows what man has been -doing in all ages and under all conditions, which reveals his mind, his -thoughts, his tastes, his feelings,--such a science touches us more -closely than any other. - -By this science, of which History forms a part, we trace the nature of -man, age after age,--his capacities, his abilities; we learn where he -succeeds, where he fails, and what his possibilities may be. - -From another point of view the subject should be considered; it -gives a more truly “liberal education” than any other subject, as -at present taught. A complete archaeological training would require -a full knowledge of history and art, a fair use of languages, and a -working familiarity with many sciences. The one-sided growth of modern -training, which produces a B.A. who knows nothing of natural science, -or else a B.Sc. who knows nothing of human nature, is assuredly not -the ideal for a reasonable man. Archaeology,--the knowledge of how man -has acquired his present position and powers--is one of the widest -studies, best fitted to open the mind, and to produce that type of wide -interests and toleration which is the highest result of education. - -Though this volume is a book of reference for those engaged in actual -work, yet it will also serve to give the public a view of the way in -which this work is done, the mode in which results are obtained, the -ends which are pursued, and the important questions which must be -considered. We have nothing here to do with the details of the facts -discovered; but deal only with the methods and aims, which have been -slowly learned in a quarter of a century. Yet every year there are -fresh methods to add, and more clear views of the aims; and far more -might easily have been said about each of the subjects here discussed. - -If in this outline there is much more reference to Egypt than to other -countries, it is for the reason that most of my own work has lain -there; and there is the more need to deal with that land, as more -exploration is going on there than elsewhere. - -I have to thank my friends for six of the photographs here used. - - W. M. FLINDERS PETRIE. - -UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, LONDON. - - - - -CONTENTS - - - CHAPTER I - - THE EXCAVATOR PAGE - - Purpose, 1; Character, 2; Experience, 3; Organization, 5; - Acquirements, 5; Demands of the work, 6 1–8 - - - CHAPTER II - - DISCRIMINATION - - Temples, 9; Towns, 10; Cemeteries, 11; Indications, 12; - Productions, 14; Pottery, 16; Style, 17; Visual - memory, 19 9–19 - - - CHAPTER III - - THE LABOURERS - - Quality, 20; Education, 21; Control, 22; Substitution, - 23; Overseers, 24; Direct system, 26; Day pay, 27; - Piecework, 29; Day and piece work, 30; Rewards, 33; - Accounts, 35; Native ways, 37 20–40 - - - CHAPTER IV - - ARRANGEMENT OF WORK - - Clearances, 41; Turning over, 43; Raising earth, 44; - Tracing walls, 46 41–47 - - - CHAPTER V - - RECORDING IN THE FIELD - - Need of record, 48; Value of record, 50; Resulting view, - 50; Marking, 51; Nature of notes, 52; Planning, 53; - Plotting, 55 48–59 - - - CHAPTER VI - - COPYING - - Paper squeezes, 60; Dry squeezes, 61; Casting, - 64; Drawing, 68; Restored forms, 71; Copying - inscriptions, 72 60–72 - - - CHAPTER VII - - PHOTOGRAPHING - - The Camera, 73; Preparing objects, 76; Lighting, 77; - Arrangement of objects, 79; Stereographs, 81; - Developing, 82 73–84 - - - CHAPTER VIII - - PRESERVATION OF OBJECTS - - Stone, 86; Pottery, 88; Textiles, 89; Wood, 89; Ivory, - 91; Papyri, 93; Bead-work, 95; Stucco, 96; Gold, 98; - Silver, 98; Copper, 99; Bronze, 100; Lead, 102; Iron, - 102; Sorting, 102 85–104 - - - CHAPTER IX - - PACKING - - Blocks, 105; Long objects, 106; Heavy stones, 107; - Pottery, 108; Softening, 109; Cases, 110; Unpacking, 111 105–113 - - - CHAPTER X - - PUBLICATION - - Arrangement, 114; Plates, 115; Processes, 117; Editions, - 119; Text, 120; Publishing, 120 114–121 - - - CHAPTER XI - - SYSTEMATIC ARCHAEOLOGY - - Systems of work, 122; Need of a _corpus_, 123; Example of - _corpus_, 124; Utility, 125; Successive ages, 126; - Sequences, 127; Sequence dates, 129; Conservation, - 130; Buildings, 130; Lighting, 131; Grouping, 132; - National Repository, 133 122–135 - - - CHAPTER XII - - ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE - - Nature of proof, 136; Legal evidence, 136; Witnesses, - 138; Material facts, 138; Exhaustion, 139; - Probabilities, 139; Legal proof, 140; _Egypt and - Europe_, 141; In XXVIth Dynasty, 142; XVIIIth Dynasty - paintings, 144; Burnt groups, 145; Rubbish mounds, - 147; Houses, 148; Scarabs, 149; Tombs in Egypt, - 150; Tombs in Greece, 152; Variation with date, 153; - Style, 154; Recapitulation, 155; XIIth Dynasty, - Kahun, 156; XIIth Dynasty in Crete, 158; Pan-graves, - 159; VIth to IIIrd Dynasties, 162; 1st Dynasty - Aegean, 164; 1st Dynasty Cretan, 166; Prehistoric, 167 136–168 - - - CHAPTER XIII - - ETHICS OF ARCHAEOLOGY - - Individual rights, 169; Destruction, 170; Restoration, - 172; Sacrifices, 173; Responsibility, 174; Rights of - the future, 175; Rights of the past, 176; Duties, - 178; Future of museums, 180; Publications, 182; State - claims, 183; State rights, 184; Excavating laws, 187 169–188 - - - CHAPTER XIV - - THE FASCINATION OF HISTORY 189–193 - - - INDEX 195–208 - - - - - LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS - - - FIGURE PAGE - - 1. Chain of boys clearing the Osireion _Front._ - - 2. } Going up the desert 1 - 3. } - - 4. Tent-life 6 - - 5. Hut-life 6 - - 6. Temple at El Hibeh 9 - - 7. Temple at Tanis 9 - - 8. Mound at Defeneh 10 - - 9. Cemetery of Zuweleyn 10 - - 10. Copper and bronze adzes 14 - - 11. Cutting-out knives 15 - - 12. Typical forms of pottery 16 - - 13. Lad and girl at Tanis 20 - - 14. Three little Muhameds 20 - - 15. Girls and boys at Tanis 24 - - 16. Girls sorting durra 24 - - 17. Line of carrier boys, Abydos 30 - - 18. Heaps thrown out, Abydos 30 - - 19. Lifting and carrying, Abydos 32 - - 20. Carrying at Royal Tombs 32 - - 21. Account card for wages 38 - - 22. Carrier boys throwing, Abydos 41 - - 23. Town site, turned over, Kahun 41 - - 24. Cutting down top of work 42 - - 25. Cemetery, Tell el Yehudiyeh 43 - - 26. Clearing a tomb, Abydos 43 - - 27. Chain at tomb of Usertesen II 44 - - 28. Chains of men at tomb of Den 44 - - 29. Plan measured from two lines 54 - - 30. Method of plotting survey 56 - - 31. Copy drawn on paper squeeze 62 - - 32. System of numbering sheets 63 - - 33. Paper squeeze 64 - - 34. Plaster cast from paper 64 - - 35. Inventory sheet 70 - - 36. Frame for drawing vases 71 - - 37. Weathered stone, sanded 71 - - 38. Throwing sand; drop-shutter view 75 - - 39. Girls resting; diagonal mirror view 75 - - 40. Tablet, with black and white filling 76 - - 41. Hypocephalus, with white filling 76 - - 42. Wooden floor of Azab 77 - - 43. Prehistoric grave, Naqada 77 - - 44. Ebony negress 78 - - 45. In tomb of Sem-nefer 78 - - 46. Foundation deposit, Aahmes II 80 - - 47. Bracelet of King Zer 80 - - 48. Pavement, Tell el Amarna 88 - - 49. Fresco of princesses, Tell el Amarna 88 - - 50. Box with diagonal bars 106 - - 51. Tray for heavy stones 107 - - 52. Box with three-way grain 110 - - 53. Box end, nailed diagonally 111 - - 54. Nile boat 112 - - 55. Camels, starting and returning 112 - - 56. Naukratite warrior 144 - - 57. Graeco-Egyptian figures 144 - - 58. Aegean vase, Tahutmes III 152 - - 59. False-necked vases 154 - - 60. Celtic and pan-grave pottery 160 - - 61. Black incised pottery 161 - - 62. Buttons, VIIth Dynasty 162 - - 63. Aegean pottery, Royal Tombs 165 - - 64. Black pottery, Cretan 166 - - 65. Khufu, builder of the great pyramid 178 - - 66. Mer-en-ptah, Pharaoh of the Exodus 178 - - [Illustration: Fig. 2. GOING UP THE DESERT, ABYDOS.] - - [Illustration: Fig. 3. GOING UP THE DESERT, ABYDOS.] - - - - -CHAPTER I - -THE EXCAVATOR - - -[Sidenote: Purpose.] - -In few kinds of work are the results so directly dependent on the -personality of the worker as they are in excavating. The old saying -that a man finds what he looks for in a subject, is too true; or if he -has not enough insight to ensure finding what he looks for, it is at -least sadly true that he does not find anything that he does not look -for. Whether it be inscriptions, carvings, papyri, or mummies that -excavators have been seeking, they have seldom preserved or cared for -anything but their own limited object. - -Of late years the notion of digging merely for profitable spoil, or -to yield a new excitement to the jaded, has spread unpleasantly--at -least in Egypt. A concession to dig is sought much like a grant of a -monastery at the Dissolution: the man who has influence or push, a -title or a trade connection, claims to try his luck at the spoils of -the land. Gold digging has at least no moral responsibility, beyond the -ruin of the speculator; but spoiling the past has an acute moral wrong -in it, which those who do it may be charitably supposed to be too -ignorant or unintelligent to see or realise. - -And some systematic outline of archaeological methods and aims is -needed, not only for those whose moral sense is so untrained that -they may ruin a site, and say “I have done no wrong”; but it may -even profit those who take up the name of archaeology when they mean -solely art, or inscriptions, or some single branch of the subject. The -most familiar teaching entitled archaeological is that of Classical -Archaeology, which in the ways of most teachers means Greek sculpture -and vase paintings. In spite of all the professorships and schools of -that subject, we are still so profoundly ignorant of the archaeology -of Greece and Italy that there is scarcely a single class of common -objects of which any one knows the history and transformations. -Certainly we know far less of the archaeology of classical lands than -we do of that of Egypt. - -[Sidenote: Character.] - -If, then, the character of the excavator thus determines his results, -our first step is to consider that character, and to give some outline -of the aptitudes and acquirements--the wit and the cunning, as our -forefathers well distinguished them--which are wanted in order to avoid -doing more harm than good. - -Firstly in every subject there is the essential division between those -who work to live, and those who live to work--the commercial, and the -scientific or artistic aim;--those who merely do what will best provide -them a living, and those whose work is their honour and the end of -their being. These two halves of mankind are by no means to be found -ready labelled by their professions. The R.A. who drops his aspirations -because portraits pay best, the scientific scholar who patents every -invention he can, are of the true commercial spirit, and verily they -have their reward. Rather let us honour the professed dealer who will -sooner sell a group to a museum than make a larger profit by playing -to the wealthy _dilettante_ and scattering things. Let us be quit, in -archaeology at least, of the brandy-and-soda young man who manipulates -his “expenses,” of the adventurous speculator, of those who think that -a title or a long purse glorifies any vanity or selfishness. - -Without the ideal of solid continuous work, certain, accurate, and -permanent,--archaeology is as futile as any other pursuit. Money alone -will not do the work; brains are the first requisite. A hundred pounds -intelligently spent will do more good and far less harm than ten -thousand squandered in doing damage. Mere money gives no moral right to -upset things according to the whim of one person. Even scholarship is -by no means all that is wanted; the engineering training of mind and -senses which Prof. Perry advocates will really fit an archaeologist -better for excavating than book-work can alone. Best of all is the -combination of the scholar and the engineer, the man of languages and -the man of physics and mathematics, when such can be found. So much for -the wit, and now of the cunning that is wanted. - -[Sidenote: Experience.] - -The most needful of all acquisitions is archaeological experience. -Without knowing well all the objects that are usually met with in an -ancient civilisation, there is no possible insight or understanding, -the meaning of what is met with cannot be grasped, and the most -curious mistakes are made. A cloud is “very like a whale,” the -pre-Christian cross is found everywhere, an arrow-straightener is -called a ceremonial staff, an oil-press becomes a sacred trilithon, -half a jackal is called a locust, and lathe chucks become “coal money.” -Of course the needed experience has to be gradually built up, and those -who first explore a civilisation must work through many mistakes. When -I first came to Egypt Dr. Birch begged me to pack and send to him a box -of pottery fragments from each great town, on the chance that from the -known history of the sites some guess could be made as to the age of -the objects; so complete was the ignorance of the archaeology a quarter -of a century ago. But when such knowledge has been once accumulated, it -is the first duty of any excavator to make himself well acquainted with -it before he attempts to discover more. At present the archaeological -experience that should be acquired before doing any responsible work -in any country ought to cover the history of the pottery century by -century, the history of beads, of tools and weapons, of the styles of -art, of the styles of inscriptions, of the burial furniture, and of the -many small objects which are now well known and dated, better in Egypt -than perhaps in any other country. - -Next to this is needed a good knowledge of the history. Not only every -dynasty, but every king of whom anything is known, should be familiar. -The general course of the civilisation, the foreign influences which -affected the country, and the conditions at different periods, should -be clearly in mind. Without such ideas the value and meaning of -discoveries cannot be grasped, and important clues and fresh knowledge -may be passed by. - -[Sidenote: Organization.] - -Organization, both of the plan of work, and of the labourers, is very -necessary. Scheming how to extract all that is possible from a given -site, how to make use of all the conditions, how to avoid difficulties; -and training labourers, keeping them all firmly in hand, making them -all friends without allowing familiarity, getting their full confidence -and their goodwill;--these requirements certainly rank high in an -excavator’s outfit. - -[Sidenote: Acquirements.] - -The power of conserving material and information; of observing all -that can be gleaned; of noticing trifling details which may imply a -great deal else; of acquiring and building up a mental picture; of -fitting everything into place, and not losing or missing any possible -clues;--all this is the soul of the work, and without it excavating is -mere dumb plodding. - -Of more external subjects, such as may be deputed to other helpers, -drawing is mainly wanted; more in mechanical exactitude of -facsimile-copying than in freehand or purely artistic work. Surveying -and practical mathematics, with plan drawing, are almost always -involved in dealing with any site. Photography is incessantly in use, -both during the course of the working and for preparing publications. -The outlines of chemistry and physics and a good knowledge of materials -are necessary to avoid blunders in handling objects and in describing -them. The ancient language of a country, all important as it is in the -study of remains, is yet in its critical aspects not so essential -during field-work. But the excavator should at least be able to take -the sense of all written material which he finds; and in Egypt that -should include hieroglyphic, hieratic, demotic, Greek, and Coptic -writing. The spoken language of the country should be fluently acquired -for simple purposes, so as to be able to direct workmen, make bargains, -and follow what is going on. To be dependent on a cook, a dragoman, -or a donkey boy, is very unsafe, and prevents that close study of -the workmen which is needed for making the best use of them. And a -general eye to the safety and condition of everything, both of work, -antiquities, and stores, is incessantly wanted if a camp is to be -successful and prosperous. - -Many of these requirements can well be undertaken by different -people; in fact, not a single living person combines all of the -requisite qualities for complete archaeological work. But all of these -requirements must be fulfilled by different members in a party, if -they are to command success as well as deserve it. In all points, -imagination and insight, the sense of all the possibilities of a case, -is to be the medium of thought both in theoretical and in practical -affairs. - -[Illustration: CAMP LIFE, ABYDOS. - -Fig. 4. Tent in desert.] - -[Illustration: CAMP LIFE, ABYDOS. - -Fig. 5. Huts at temple.] - -[Sidenote: Demands of the work.] - -In the externals of the work an excavator should be always his own best -workman. If he be the strongest on the place, so much the better; but -at all events he should be the most able in all matters of skill and -ability. Where anything is found it should be the hands of the master -that clear it from the soil; the pick and the knife should be in his -hands every day, and his readiness should be shown by the shortness -of his finger-nails and the toughness of his skin. After a week of -work in the soil, feeling for delicate things in a way that no tools -can do, the skin almost wears through, and the nails break down. But a -week or two more at it, and the excavator grows his gloves, and is in -a fit state for business, with the skin well thickened, and ready to -finger through tons of grit and sand. Nothing can be a substitute for -finger-work in extracting objects, and clearing ground delicately; and -one might as well try to play the violin in a pair of gloves as profess -to excavate with clean fingers and a pretty skin. It need hardly be -said that clothing must correspond to the work; and there must never -be a thought about clothes when one kneels in wet mud, scrapes through -narrow passages, or sits waist deep in dust. To attempt serious work -in pretty suits, shiny leggings, or starched collars, would be like -mountaineering in evening dress, or remind one of the old prints of -cricketers batting in chimney-pot hats. The man who cannot enjoy his -work without regard to appearances, who will not strip and go into the -water, or slither on slimy mud through unknown passages, had better not -profess to excavate. Alongside of his men he must live, in work hours -and out; every workman should come to him at all times for help and -advice. His courtyard must be the pay office and the court of appeal -for every one; and continual attention should be freely given to the -many little troubles of those who are to be kept properly in hand. To -suppose that work can be controlled from a distant hotel, where the -master lives in state and luxury completely out of touch with his men, -is a fallacy, like playing at farming or at stockbroking: it may be -amusing, but it is not business. And whatever is not businesslike in -archaeology is a waste of the scanty material which should be left for -those who know how to use it. An excavator must make up his mind to do -his work thoroughly and truly, or else to leave it alone for others who -will take the trouble which it deserves and requires. - -[Illustration: TEMPLE RUINS. - -Fig. 6. El Hibeh.] - -[Illustration: TEMPLE RUINS. - -Fig. 7. Tanis, with obelisks.] - - - - -CHAPTER II - -DISCRIMINATION - - -The observing of resemblances and differences, and the memory of -physical appearances required for this, are absolute requisites for -carrying on the duties of excavating. Here we deal with the appearances -in a land of sun-dried brickwork, where the accumulations are great, -as in Egypt, Syria, and Mesopotamia. In a rocky land, such as Greece, -there is not the same sheltering mud, and the appearances are therefore -very different. - -[Sidenote: Temples.] - -The nature of a site can be guessed pretty closely from its aspect. -A wide open space with mounds around it is almost certainly a temple -site; and if there are stone chips strewn over it, no doubt remains -as to its nature (Figs. 6, 7). The temples being of stone from the -XIIth Dynasty onwards, they were ruined by the removal of the material -in each age of disruption; but the houses of the towns, being always -of mud brick, continually crumbled and decayed, and so filled up the -ground with rubbish. In Egypt mud-brick towns accumulate at about 20 -inches in a century; or in the rainy Syrian climate at about 50 inches. -Herodotus describes walking on the roofs of the houses and seeing -down into the temple precincts; and in every great site in Egypt, such -as Tanis, Buto, Bubastis, Memphis, or Koptos, the plain of temple -ruins had the house mounds far above it on all sides. The temples -were ruined both for building-stone and for lime-burning. It is rare -to get any portions of a limestone building left; sandstone is often -found, and all the great temples which remain are of sandstone; granite -generally has lasted, except where it has been split up in Roman times -for millstones. The search for limestone has led to whole buildings -being upset in order to extract the limestone foundations. The basalt -pavement of Khufu, the granite pylon of Crocodilopolis, and probably -the granite temple of Iseum, have been overthrown thus. Especially in -the Delta, where no limestone hills are accessible, this destructive -search for lime has been unrelenting in all ages; and it is seldom that -ancient limestone is now met with. Hence all that can generally be -seen of a temple site is a plain of dust with a few tumbled blocks of -granite, the exposed tops of which are entirely weathered as rounded -masses. Five or ten feet down there may be a rich harvest of carvings -and inscriptions. - -[Illustration: Fig. 8. Mounds of fort, Defeneh.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 9. Sarcophagi at Zuweleyn.] - -[Sidenote: Towns.] - -A town site is always recognised (Fig. 8) by its mounds of crumbling -mud brick, strewn with potsherds if in Upper Egypt, or with burnt red -bricks on the later mounds of the Delta. Whenever a native begins to -describe a site in Lower Egypt, one inquires if there is red brick, and -if so there is no need to listen further. Generally it is possible to -date the latest age of a town by the potsherds lying on the surface; -and to allow a rate of growth of 20 inches a century down to the -visible level; if that gives a long period we may further carry down -the certainly artificial level by 4 inches in a century for the Nile -deposits when in the cultivated ground. For instance, there are mounds -in the Delta about 40 feet high, ending about 500 A.D.; this gives -about 40 feet of rise, equal to about 2400 years, or say 2000 B.C., for -the age at the present ground level. But the visible base was about -5 feet lower at 500 A.D.; and the human deposit rising at 20 inches -a century has been overlaid at the rate of 4 inches a century by the -Nile deposit. Hence the age may be reckoned by a depth of 45 feet -accumulated at 16 inches a century before 500 A.D. or about 2900 B.C. -No exact conclusion could be based on this; but it is a valuable clue -to the age to which the yet unseen foundation of a town may most likely -belong. Town mounds and ruins of buildings have generally symmetrical -forms, weathered away uniformly on all sides. But around towns are -often heaps of rubbish thrown out, the best-known example of this being -the immense heaps behind Cairo; and such accumulations usually show -their nature by the two slopes, the gradual walk-up slope, and the -steep thrown-down slope. - -[Sidenote: Cemeteries.] - -The cemetery sites on the desert have always been more or less -plundered anciently. A prehistoric site may have no external trace, as -the blown sand may cover it so evenly that there is no suspicion of -anything lying beneath. But on a gravel surface there are generally -some indications left of the hollows of the graves, and scraps of -broken pottery left about by the plunderers (Fig. 9). The historic -cemeteries are generally easier to see, as they are in rising ground, -and the holes of the tomb pits show on the surface. The difficulty is -not to find the site of a cemetery, but to find a grave in it which -still contains anything. As a rule, any tomb pit which appears still -undisturbed has been left either because it belongs to an unfinished -tomb with nothing in it, or because the tomb has already been reached -from elsewhere. At Medum an untouched walling up of a chamber had been -left, because the plunderers had tunnelled under the mass of the tomb -and broken through the floor of the chamber. At Dendereh the floor of -the chamber was entire, with the lid of the sarcophagus sunk in it, yet -untouched; it had been left so because the plunderers had mined through -from the outside under the floor to the sarcophagus, and broken through -the side of it without touching the chamber. Some untouched tombs were -left because the burials in them were known to be so poor that they -were not worth opening. All this points to the plundering being mostly -done during the lifetime of those who saw the burial. Usually only -one tomb in ten contains anything noticeable; and it is only one in a -hundred that repays the digging of the other ninety-nine. - -[Sidenote: Indications.] - -In general, on looking over a site every indication must be observed. -Sometimes there may be a slight difference in vegetation, showing the -positions of walls or of pits. In colder climates differences are shown -by the melting of hoar frost or snow; as in the square of S. Domenico -at Bologna, where some large patches--probably of ashes--show through -the cobble paving during a thaw. A shower of rain will show much in -drying; and, after a rare storm in Egypt, there are two or three -precious hours when the buried walls show clearly on the ground, and -should be hurriedly scored down before the hot sun removes the traces. -A driving wind will bare the ground so that the harder walls show -through the sand; or even a crowd of people passing will tramp into -the softer filling and show the constructions. At sunrise or sunset -ground should be carefully looked over to pick out the variations of -level and slope, which will often show then, though quite invisible in -full light. Prehistoric camp sites are noticed by the difference of -tone of the ground in walking over them; the ashes holding so much air -that the reverberation to the foot-step is quite different from that -on ordinary desert. The appearance of the surface of disturbed desert -differs much from the undisturbed: there may be slight hollows filled -with sand, which are the traces of deep pits; there may be pebbles from -deep beds thrown up, or fragments of limestone; or--best of all--chips -of worked stone or of hard rocks may tell the tale of a building whose -ruins lie beneath. The mastabas of the XIIth Dynasty at Dahshur left -scarcely any surface trace, as the stone walls had been removed, and -the gravel filling had spread out and denuded down to a level surface. -The great wall of the camp at Daphnae 40 feet thick, had been ploughed -by denudation until it was even lower than the desert on either side of -it, and the lines of it were only visible by the absence of potsherds -upon the site of the wall. - -[Illustration: - - Mid, Late, Ist, IIIrd, VIth, XIIth, XVIIIth Dyn. - Prehistoric. - -FIG. 10.--Development of copper and bronze adzes. 1:6.] - -[Sidenote: Productions.] - -Besides the discrimination of sites there is a vast subject in -the discrimination of objects and of styles. The first requisite -acquirement of a digger--his archaeological experience--consists in -discriminating and distinguishing the differences between products of -various dates. An Egyptian copper adze (Fig. 10) of the ages of middle -prehistoric, late prehistoric, early dynastic, IIIrd, VIth, XIIth, or -XVIIIth Dynasties can be told at a glance, and we only need more dated -examples to be able to separate them still more finely. A cutting-out -knife (Fig. 11), a pair of tweezers, a comb, can be dated almost as -certainly. But it is when we can look not only to differences of form, -but also to variations of colour and texture, that we have the widest -scope for discrimination. The great variety of beads in each country, -the hundreds of details of form, materials, and colour in Egypt alone, -give them an importance archaeologically above most other things. In -the prehistoric age there are a dozen materials, and many different -forms, not one of which can be confounded with later products. In the -Old Kingdom new and distinctive styles are met with, and a profusion of -small amulets on necklaces. In the XIth and XIIth Dynasties magnificent -beads of amethyst, green felspar, and carnelian outshine those of -every other age. In the XVIIIth Dynasty the immense variety of glass -and glazed beads defy enumeration, and yet are sharply characteristic -of different reigns of that age. The later times of degradation also -produce new and distinctive forms and colours; and when we reach the -Roman period a flood of glass work imitates the fashionable beryl, -amethyst, rock crystal, and other stones, with the mimicry of a forger. - -[Illustration: FIG. 11.--Development of cutting-out knives. XIIth–XIXth -Dynasties. A-A and B-B cutting edges.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 12.--One typical form of pottery of each period.] - -[Sidenote: Pottery.] - -Pottery is, however, the greatest resource of the archaeologist. For -variety of form and texture, for decoration, for rapid change, for its -quick fall into oblivion, and for its incomparable abundance, it is -in every respect the most important material for study (Fig. 12), and -it constitutes the essential alphabet of archaeology in every land. -Think for a moment how few people know the appearance of a common jug -a century old, how the crocks of Georgian times have all vanished, and -new forms are made. Even of decorated china not one piece in a thousand -in England is before the last century, and not one in a million is -three centuries old; so rapidly does breakable ware perish, and become -unknown. This not only prevents its being handed on from earlier times, -as ornaments or weapons may descend, but it prevents the copying of -older forms, and gives a free scope to rapid variation. No doubt some -standard forms may continue to be made, because they are so simple, and -so adapted to common wants, that the same causes continue to produce -them. But it is only the simplest and least characteristic types which -thus continue; the more detailed and specialised the form, the more -rapidly it changes, and gives way to new styles. In the prehistoric age -of Egypt alone there are about a thousand different forms of pottery; -and when the historic times shall be as fully recorded, probably two -or three times as many will demand notice. In Italy and Greece there -is apparently as great a variety, though--apart from painted vases--it -is very far from being fully placed on paper. And when we come to know -the archaeology of other lands, their pottery will doubtless prove -as varied and distinctive in its styles. It is then in a thorough -knowledge of pottery that any sound archaeology must be based; and -there is no wider or more important field for discrimination. With the -brief view of Palestinian pottery gained in a few weeks, on one site at -Tell Hesy (Lachish), I found it possible to ride over mounds of ruins -and see the age of them without even dismounting. - -[Sidenote: Style.] - -Beside the discrimination of broad physical differences there is the -more subtle observation of style. This cannot be discussed, or even -shown to exist, without a very wide collection of examples; yet in -a trained observer a long series of experience should result in an -unexpressed--almost intangible and incommunicable--sense of the style -of each country and each age, such that a piece of work can at once be -referred to its proper place, though not a single exact comparison can -be quoted for it. Special motives, outlines, curves, tastes, belong -to various sources so certainly and characteristically that they -show their origin at a glance. A good example of this is seen in the -bronzes of Minusinsk in Central Asia; this site is almost equidistant -from the North Sea, the Persian Gulf, and the China Sea, and the style -seems to recall by its details almost equally the taste of Northmen, -Persians, and Chinese. A good practice for such discrimination is the -analysis of common ornament around us: a rug or a wall pattern may be -analysed into its sources--here a bit from Assyria, there from Egypt, -here from Japan, there from Norway, all hashed together by the modern -designer. And until the common and obviously distinctive patterns of -each country can be named at sight, and separated into their various -sources, the observer cannot hope to gain that far more essential sense -of the national taste of each people, and the sympathetic feeling of -the relationship of any form or curve that may chance to be seen,--that -conviction of the family and source of each object, which is the -illumination of an archaeologist, the guide to fresh suggestions and -researches, the mental framework which holds all memories in place. - -[Sidenote: Visual Memory.] - -But beside this sublimated use of the permanent memory and -discrimination, there is another very crude and transient -discrimination which is also needed in actual work. A visual memory -of the site and excavations should be constantly in mind; the master -should be able to go over the whole site, and every man at work on it, -entirely from memory; he should be able to realise at once, on seeing -the place next day, exactly how every one of fifty different holes -looked the day before; and know at once where the work stood, and what -has been done since, so as to measure it up without depending on any -statements by the workmen. If a boy comes with a message that Ibrahim -or Mutwali needs direction, the master should be able to visualise the -place, inquire what has been done, and how each part now stands, and -then give sufficient temporary direction entirely from memory of the -site, and memory of what he expected to do, or to prove, or to find, -from that particular hole. The extent of this visual memory is never -realised until one meets with some who are so unlucky as not to possess -such an apparatus, and who are therefore unable to know what has been -done, and have to begin each day’s work as if they were strangers to -the place. Of all inherent mental qualifications there is perhaps -none more essential to a digger than this permanent picture of a site -in the mind. And the transient memory from day to day should include -the appearance of every hole on all sides, the meaning of it and the -purpose for which it is being dug. - - - - -CHAPTER III - -THE LABOURERS - - -[Sidenote: Quality.] - -In starting an excavation one of the first considerations is the supply -of labourers, and the selection of them. In some places it is difficult -to persuade any one to work at first; either from distrust, or from -being unaccustomed to regular employment. At Naukratis only a few men -could be persuaded to try the work in the first week or two; but so -soon as the villagers found that genuine gold coin was to be had, they -swarmed up, and some five hundred demanded to be taken. The Egyptian is -good at steady work, but the Syrian is very different, and it took some -weeks at Tell Hesy to educate men into continuous regular digging. They -would jump out of their holes every few minutes, and squat on the edge -for a talk with the next man; and only a steady weeding out of about a -third of them every week, gradually brought up the best of them into -tolerable efficiency. In Greece such difficulties are even greater, and -rational regular hard work cannot be reckoned upon, as in Egypt. - -[Illustration: Fig. 13. WORKERS AT TANIS.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 14. WORKERS AT TANIS.] - -The best age for diggers is about 15 to 20 years. After that many turn -stupid, and only a small proportion are worth having between 20 -and 40. After 40 very few are of any use, though some robust men will -continue to about 50. The Egyptian ages early; and men of 45 would be -supposed to be 65 in England. The boys are of use for carrying from -about 10 years old; and they generally look mere boys till over 20. -The ornamental man with a good beard is quite useless and lazy; and -the best workers are the scraggy under-sized youths, with wizened wiry -faces, though sometimes a well-favoured lad with pleasing face will -turn out very good (Fig. 13). In choosing boys the broad face and -square chin are necessary tokens of stamina; and the narrow feminine -faces are seldom worth much. - -Beside the mere physical strength of the fellow, the face has to be -studied for the character. The only safe guide in selecting workers -is the expression; and no influence of recommendations or connections -should weigh in the least against the judgment of the appearance. The -qualities to be considered are, first, the honesty, shown mostly by the -eyes, and by a frank and open bearing; next, the sense and ability; -and lastly, the sturdiness, and freedom from nervous weakness and -hysterical tendency to squabble. - -[Sidenote: Education.] - -When once selected, the education of the workers begins. Often some -oafs who will not understand any directions, and have no sense to work -unless encouraged by watching, may yet be brought up in a few months -to be good workers if associated with a skilful man. And almost every -boy and man will greatly improve by steady work and control. The -effect of selection and training is astonishingly seen on comparing -some old hands, who have had five or ten years at the business, side -by side with new lads. There is as much difference between their -capacities as there is between the fellah and an educated Englishman. -A gang of well-trained men need hardly any direction, especially in -cemetery work; and their observations and knowledge should always -be listened to, and will often determine matters. The freshman from -England is their inferior in everything except in recording; and at -least a season’s experience is needed before any one can afford to -disregard the judgment of a well-trained digger. The better class of -these workers are one’s personal friends, and are regarded much as old -servants are in a good household. Their feelings and self-respect must -be thought of, as among our own equals, and they will not put up with -any rudeness or contempt. A man with landed property and cattle, and -an ancestry of a couple of centuries, can afford to look down on most -Englishmen who would bully him. Such workers are of course entirely -above going into the usual Government or French work, where the lash -is used; and their good service and skill is only given for friendly -treatment. - -[Sidenote: Control.] - -Yet there is a danger in letting control slip away. It is always -needful to be firm, and to insist on obedience to orders; and constant -keeping in hand is required, not only for the rank and file but even -for the best men. An Egyptian cannot withstand temptations if often -repeated; and the fault of a collapse of character, which befalls even -the best, is mainly due to not keeping sufficient hold and influence, -and not taking sufficient trouble to ensure control. The first rule -in managing the better class of men is not to let any man get a habit -or prerogative of doing any kind of work for oneself: never let the -same man repeatedly go for purchases, or for money, or carry things, or -walk with the master, or explain phrases, or boss anybody or anything. -All such services should be carefully spread over several men; and if -there be two parties--as from opposite sides of the Nile--always keep -them well balanced in your consideration. Each will then keep a sharp -lookout on the opposition. - -Beside men and boys, girls (Fig. 15) will work very well in the Delta -and in Syria, though not in Upper Egypt. They do well at carrying; and -as they never ask for pick work they are, when well grown, worth more -than the boys. Not only will they come from the village day by day, but -they will also camp out with their fathers and brothers in camps at a -distance from home. No difficulty or unpleasantness has arisen in such -mixed camps in my work. - -[Sidenote: Substitutions.] - -A frequent trouble is from substitution of workers. The fact of being -chosen is worth something; and the worker will try to sell his place to -a substitute, and then get in again soon after on the plea of being an -old hand. So long as a substitute comes only for a day or so, he may -be tolerated. But if there arises a frequent plea of “So-and-So is ill -to-day, and wants me to work for him,” it is needful to stamp on it by -refusing all substitutes, and replying, “If he is ill, I will take him -back when he is better.” One common cause is that they wish to push in -younger and younger boys (Fig. 16), so that the fellow who was 14 or -16 at first, dwindles imperceptibly until he can hardly carry a basket. -An opposite cause is that only boys are taken on in some places because -the men cannot be trusted; and then the supreme object of the villains -of the place is to get in as substitutes for boys, so that they may -learn what is found and where to plunder at night. Most usually when -a substitute is refused the original boy turns up as well as ever. I -have known the village guards come and call a lad out on a trumped-up -charge, with a friend of the guard following close by, quite ready just -to work for the accused. - -[Sidenote: Overseers.] - -Turning now to the organization, there are two great choices to be -made, with or without Overseers, and by Day pay or Piecework. Each -system may be best under particular conditions, and the suitability of -each we will note first, before entering on detail. - -Overseers are almost always employed. They remove much of the friction; -they profess to drive the men on, and be responsible for their regular -working; and they seem indispensable parts of the business. The less -a master knows of the men and of their language the more essential an -overseer seems to be. - -[Illustration: Fig. 15. GIRLS AND BOYS IN THE WORK.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 16. GIRLS AND BOYS IN THE WORK.] - -Yet all this usefulness is the best reason for avoiding them. The more -friction they save, the less the master knows of his men, and the less -influence he has. The more they profess to drive the men, the more -hollow the fraud is, until the overseer merely serves to give notice -when the master is coming. The more indispensable they seem, the -less desirable is it to have so to trust a native. And the less a -master knows of the men and the language, the more dangerous it is to -have some one always acting in everything that goes on. Moreover, there -is nothing so demoralising to a native as wandering about, without hard -work, stick in hand, to bully men who are quite as good as himself. -Even good men soon lose their character in such conditions, and it is -needful to have some definite allotted manual work for even a leading -man. - -The results of having overseers, or _reises_, are instructive. In -one case the reis took a third of all the money given as rewards for -things, threatening to get any man dismissed who would not give this -up to him. In another case the overseers levied a sixth of all the -wages from the men, making ten times their own pay by this extortion. -Mariette’s overseers used to go to a village with a Government order -for so many men, and demand the best men they could venture on -claiming. These bought themselves off, each at a few shillings a month, -and lower men were taken, until most of the villagers were paying -heavy tribute. Reises will also bargain with a shopkeeper to put on -a third on the price of all goods supplied, and compel any messenger -sent shopping to go to that shop. In another case a museum reis was -seen bowing down to the ground and kissing the hand of the principal -_antika_-dealer of the place; doubtless for good consideration -received. In short, the dangers, losses, and troubles that come from -reises are so great that it is far better to do without them. - -[Sidenote: Direct system.] - -The system which works best is to have a careful distribution of -the best men; and, in fact, work with two or three dozen reises, -all of whom do pick-work themselves. Each well-trained man can have -half-a-dozen new hands placed near him, and he can be ordered to see -that they follow instructions. By such a wide distribution of the -authority it does not deteriorate the men, as there are too many -rivals; and being each paid for actual digging, they do not spoil with -idleness. Thus every man is directly under the master, all instructions -are given at first hand, and every one is in close touch, and not -fenced off by intermediate intriguers. Doubtless, two or three men will -come to the front by their ability and character; but though full use -should be made of them, yet they should always be kept nominally on the -same terms and work as every one else. Their reward consists in being -given all the more promising places, where things are likely to be -found, so that they may reap much more profit than others. - -In some different conditions of work overseers may be a necessary evil. -In Greece the large distances of sites from each other in the Aegean -and political conditions are a bar to employing a regular gang of -men, although the Egyptian will readily travel three or four hundred -miles to his season’s work, as far as Constantinople from Athens, -and is quite ready to do his work in spite of the scowls of a bad -neighbourhood. Fresh workers are engaged at each place in Greece, and -for their needful training overseers are considered necessary. Also at -present, owing to the continual shifting of European superintendence -by changes of students, and less frequent changes of Directors, -permanent overseers who will carry on the traditions of the modes of -working are requisite. But it is questionable whether these needs would -not be more safely met by carrying about ten or a dozen picked workmen, -who would train local hands, and at the same time work themselves. -The Greek does not seem nearly as capable of continuous hard work as -is the Egyptian, and moves much less earth in the day, and that at -about double the wages, while he is said to entirely refuse piecework. -But this difficulty would be reduced if a small picked body of hard -workers, stimulated by good piece pay, were used as a nucleus to set -the tone of steady work at each place. The Greek needs educating to -regular work, which is foreign to his nature. - -In England about as much work may be done per man as in Egypt, but at -about five or six times the cost. Hence the number employed is not so -large, twenty or thirty being a large gang, instead of 150 or 200 as in -Egypt. As they can follow directions tolerably, an overseer or foreman -is not needed, the best of the workers usually taking the lead. - -[Sidenote: Day pay.] - -The question between Day pay and Piece pay is an open one. In cases -where minute valuables may be scattered anywhere in the soil, day pay -is needful to prevent undue hurry. Or where the work is very irregular, -and time needs to be spent on moving stones, or heavy extras, day pay -must be given. But where the work is uniform, and the objects expected -are large or in known positions, then piecework is far more suitable. -Though measuring up the cubic metres of work done may take perhaps a -quarter of the master’s time, yet that is better than having to give -the whole time to spurring on the dawdling pace of day workers. - -When working by the day it is needful to give the signals for beginning -and stopping work, and to insist on regular and continuous digging. -It is impossible to be known to be away, as then no work will go -on effectively. An air of vigilant surprises has to be kept up. A -sunk approach to the work behind higher ground is essential; and, if -possible, an access to a commanding view without being seen going -to and fro. A telescope is very useful to watch if distant work is -regular. At Tanis the girls in a big pit were kept by the men walking -up and tipping baskets at the top; but the telescope showed that the -baskets were all the time empty. The immediate dismissal of fourteen -people was the result. A telescope will also show if a boy is put -up to watch for the master’s coming. Various approaches should be -arranged from different directions, and the course of work so planned -that no men can give notice to others. In this way a pleasing group of -musicians and dancers may be found in the excavations, where picks and -baskets are lying idle; and the arrangement is closed by requesting the -boys to dance on their own resources, and the transfer of your pay to -other pockets. The need of thus acting as mainspring, without which the -work goes on at an official pace, is wearing and time-wasting; and it -leaves no chance of doing writing, drawing, etc., during work hours. - -[Sidenote: Piecework.] - -Working by the piece saves all this trouble, and if the men are well -trained, and the work is simple, it goes on automatically and takes the -smallest possible amount of attention. In detached small sites men may -even be left unvisited for two or three days, merely reporting each -evening how far they have worked. In one case some lads were left to -work at a great sarcophagus for weeks unwatched, and came some miles to -report progress, and say when further attention was wanted. The pay for -that was given by contract, to cut and lift a stone lid under water, -for so many pounds. - -In piecework it is always best to keep a record of how long each piece -has taken, as the time is one element in pricing the work done.[1] -The ground varies in hardness, the depth of throwing up continually -changes, or the presence of large stones hinders the work; therefore -any exact value by a hard and fast rule is impossible. Each piece of -work done has to be judged, taking the most likely scale of payment, -and then tempering the result by the amount of time occupied. The -general rate of pay in Egypt is ½ piastre a cubic metre for loose -surface sand, ⅔ for shallow work in harder earth, ¾ for work as deep as -a man, and 1 piastre for deep pits. At this scale a poor worker will -barely earn day pay and a fine worker will make from 1½ to 2 times day -pay. The day pay in Upper Egypt is 2½ to 3 piastres (6d. to 7d.) a man, -and 1½ to 2 (3½d. to 5d.) for a boy, of fit and proper quality. - - [1] A useful notation is to use the letter of the week day, - with an hour-spot by it; thus .F is 7 A.M. Friday, M· is 2 - P.M. Monday, Ẇ is noon, Wednesday, and this spotted letter - is noted in the accounts, for the time of beginning any - piece of work. - -To take a practical case. A hole is, say, 2½ metres wide, 3½ long and 2 -deep, say 18 cubic metres. The rate will be at ¾, making 13½ piastres -or 2s. 9d. Large stones met with, or pillars or buttresses of earth -left to support objects _in situ_, are counted as work done, as the -trouble and inconvenience of leaving them in the hole is quite equal -to the removal of so much earth. If the pit above-named had taken a -four-gang (two men and two boys) less than a day, it might be cut to -12 piastres or 2s. 6d.; or if much over a day, it might be raised to -16 or 3s. 3d.; reckoning that a rate much quicker or slower than the -regular rate, shows that the ground or conditions were better or worse -than usual. It is needful to measure with distinct and visible care, -as the men are very watchful to see that they get fair measurement; -and their confidence should be gained by taking trouble to be fair -and punctilious in every detail, though never taking notice of any -wheedling or attempt to influence the account. - -[Sidenote: Day and Piecework.] - -Where the earth has to be moved to any distance beyond a few yards, -then more carriers are needed than one to each digger. The happiest -combination then is to go on paying exactly the same rate by the metre, -as if the men were working a plain pit, but to supply them with as many -boys paid by the day as may be needful to shift the earth away (Fig. -17). Sometimes two men and two boys will have six more boys to run off -the earth to fifty yards away. Any common village boys will do for this -gang, and they may be enlisted by the hundred, and distributed over the -work. But it is needful to allot these “locals” (as they are called) -specifically to known men, so that each pick-man can answer for the -time and the doings of each of his own boys. Thus there is no smudge of -irresponsibility; but each boy belongs to a man, who has for his own -interest to get the work out of him. - -[Illustration: CLEARING THE TEMPLE, ABYDOS. - -Fig. 17. Lines of carriers.] - -[Illustration: CLEARING THE TEMPLE, ABYDOS. - -Fig. 18. Heaps around area.] - -The local boys should all give the names of their villages on -enlistment, and be kept in lists according to villages, so as to group -them for payment in gold. In case of any serious theft or trouble -due to boys from one village, all the rest from that village can be -dismissed as a warning. To keep them up to time in arriving, it is -best to dismiss for the day the two or three who come latest, if they -are not well up to time. This soon enforces regularity. Any attempt to -leave before the sunset signal, is met by dismissing altogether any boy -who leaves too soon. It is best not to allow any substitution on the -plea of illness, as if that is once allowed, it soon becomes a loophole -for all the selected boys to gradually sell their places to less -desirable fellows. A favourite plan of the piecework men is to turn -all their own basket-boys into pick-boys, and then want more locals to -carry the stuff. Of course this has to be met by deducting from the -rate of pay, as the regular rates are for cutting and throwing, and -not for cutting alone. The proportion of pay if the boys are set to do -pick-work, on a gang of two men and two boys, goes as follows:-- - - +---------------+--------------------+--------------------+ - | pick 3 | pick 3 | pick 3 | - | basket 2 | pick 3 | pick 3 | - | pick 3 | pick 3 | pick 3 | - | basket 2 | basket 2 | pick 3 | - | -- | -- | -- | - | A 10 | B 11 | C 12 | - | | | | - | | 2 baskets due 4 | 4 baskets due 8 | - | | -- | -- | - | | 15 | 20 | - +---------------+--------------------+--------------------+ - -Then if in a normal four-gang, A, one boy takes a pick they become as -in B, and only have 11/15 of the piece pay, as the master has to supply -the other two baskets for the normal gang of equal numbers of picks -and baskets. Similarly if both boys take picks, as in C, the pay is -of course ⅗ of what it would normally be; the other ⅖ being spent in -supplying locals. The one absolute rule, however, is that if there are -enough old trained hands to do the cutting, no local shall be allowed -to do pick-work, as his intelligence, knowledge, and honesty are not to -be trusted without training. The combination of piece pay for cutting -and day pay for carrying is a happy one; as the piecework keeps the men -moving, and they stir up the boys on day pay (Fig. 19). - -In European countries this use of boys is scarcely possible owing to -the national education. In Greece as in England the boys are required -to go to school, and their holidays there are not at a time suitable -for excavating, while in England the holidays are occupied by the -harvest. Hence all work has to be done by men, at a higher rate of pay; -and so mechanical aids to moving earth would be more profitable than -they are in Egypt. - -[Illustration: Fig. 19. FILLING AND CARRYING, AT ABYDOS.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 20. FILLING AND CARRYING, AT ABYDOS.] - -It may be mentioned that the workers are always expected to provide -their own picks and baskets in Egypt; while ropes, crowbars, and other -tools only occasionally wanted are found by the master. If the daily -tools were also provided, they would soon be spoiled, and need constant -attention; it is bad enough to have to check and take care of ropes and -special tools. The baskets brought up need to be looked at for size, -especially those of local boys. When choosing boys, a fair size of -basket should be insisted on as a condition of employment; and if small -or broken baskets are brought up afterwards, the boy should be turned -off, in order to bring a proper basket next day. - -[Sidenote: Rewards.] - -The two objects of excavations are (1) to obtain plans and -topographical information, and (2) to obtain portable antiquities. -For the purpose of securing antiquities it is necessary to guard -against the ignorance, the carelessness, and the dishonesty of the -men employed. The best way to protect the interests of the work is -to give rewards for all the things that are found, commonly called -“the _bakhshish_ system.” If only half-a-dozen men are employed, -and the master will take care to see that they never touch the work -except while he is watching them, it may be practicable to do without -_bakhshish_. But in the ordinary course of having one or two hundred -men and boys at work over a large area, it is essential to pay partly -by results, at least in the East; in Greece, owing to the large claims -of the Government, this is scarcely practicable. - -The actual amount given should be as much as a travelling dealer -would pay to the peasant, were he buying the object. For small and -very saleable things a high rate should be given; for larger blocks, -difficult to move, a lesser rate; and for larger things of some -hundredweights a nominal present may be given without any relation to -the market value. On the whole the _bakhshish_ is usually 5 to 10 per -cent of the wages; and as it is only about 1s. in the pound on the -European values it is well worth while to secure better work by giving -it. Moreover, it is not by any means overlooked in the estimate of the -worth of the work, but--like the prizes of gold digging--it is more -than discounted in the prospects which induce desirable men to come. -The tenth of a chance of getting ten pounds is more attractive than the -certainty of getting one pound in wages; so the extra payments secure -willing workers, even better than the same amount spread in regular pay. - -It is by no means only as a safeguard to honesty. The observation -of things, and the care required to avoid breakages, are two very -necessary habits for good workmen. Many a small thing would be -overlooked and lost if it were no benefit to the finder. And digging -carefully so as to avoid breakages, makes a great difference to the -returns obtained. When giving _bakhshish_ on a broken thing, it is -well to say how much more would have been given had it been perfect. -And if fragments are missing, a large deduction should be made, and -the balance promised if the pieces can be found. A fine flint knife, -anciently broken, was produced with several chips missing; I gave 4s. -for it, but offered 16s. more for the chips, which induced the men to -sit down and turn over twenty tons of earth by hand, fingering every -grain; nearly every scrap was found, the men got the whole 20s., and I -got the whole of the largest flint knife known. In another case I kept -a lad sifting earth for three weeks, to find a minute head which he -had lost. Nothing can ensure care better than paying for it; while any -bad carelessness or disobedience to orders is met by degrading a man -to unprofitable work or dismissing him. The principle that the holder -gets the _bakhshish_ must even be extended to cases where one man has -taken things from another man’s hole; the man who has lost the things -is merely told that he should have taken better care of his work. - -[Sidenote: Accounts.] - -The account keeping is a serious matter, especially when the men are -working far from home, as then they wish to be paid irregularly. There -is first the account of earnings, by day or by piecework; second, the -account of _bakhshish_; third, the banking account of how much each man -has due to him, or, if he has just drawn gold, perhaps a small balance -against him; and fourth, the advances for market and for drawing to -send home. The simplest way of paying is Schliemann’s, giving a day’s -pay to every man every night; but it requires great quantities of -change and a long time of delay to the workers and the master. Weekly -payments are better, on the night before market day or on market -morning. The account is read through to a man, his assent obtained to -it; he is asked if he wants to draw gold, and if not, the total is -booked to him, added to his previous balance. Then for marketing, it -is best to join the men in groups of six or eight together, and give -the chief man of each group a sovereign to divide as they want it. -After market he states how much each has had, and it is deducted from -the balance of each man, while any unspent cash is returned. - -Thus the amounts which should balance in weekly accounts are, for -instance:-- - - RECEIVED. £ PT. | SPENT. £ PT. - Total to 17th Feb. 168 77 | Total to 17th Feb. 182 34 - on 19th „ 10 | Wages to 24th „ 34 16 - on 22nd „ 5 | Locals to 24th „ 9 83 - on 24th „ 20 80 | House 39 - ------- | Materials 64 - Total received 204 59½ | Personal drawings 5 - Due to men 27 79 | -------- - -------- | - Balancing total 232 41 | 232 41 - ======== | ======== - -This, of course, being the paymaster account, as apart from the -accounts in chief, and from which the accounts in chief are made up by -the head of a party. - -It is necessary to take trouble to gain the confidence of the men; -they must be convinced of the master’s good faith and precision. -Whenever there is reasonable doubt on a point, they must always be -given the benefit of it; and plenty of patience is needed to hear their -complaints, and to understand what is the real state of an objection. -Some men are so puzzle-headed that they cannot remember their account -clearly; and if so, it is best to make them name some friend with whom -all their accounts are settled. If any man wants to go far back in -accounts--and sometimes they will raise a question of four or five -weeks before--then it is well to have a friend as witness, who will -see that it is right, and close the matter, silencing any puzzled -grumbling. Egyptians will often dispute accounts against their own -interest, and remind the payer of amounts which they have received that -may have been overlooked. But it is needful to show care and interest -about the smallest amounts, so as to maintain a sense of exactness and -precision with the men. - -Some masters avoid going over accounts by giving each man a card, and -entering his account on it in figures; but as the man cannot check -it without asking a reader, this hardly meets the case. Another form -of accounts is, however, understood and desired by the men, in the -form of a tally which every one can check, and from which they can -automatically balance accounts at once. A piece of sheet zinc is ruled -in columns (Fig. 21), each of 20 squares for the 20 piastres in each -dollar; and every fifth column is lined heavier, as marking a pound. -All amounts earned are marked by spots in the columns, and amounts -paid are scored through. Thus in this example the earnings were 12, 2, -5, 9, 30, and 15 piastres; the drawings were 17, 14, 11, 4, 2, 1½, 6½ -piastres; and the balance still due between the last score and the last -spot is 17 piastres, which any man can count for himself. Such a tally -will hold five pounds of accounts, or ten if ruled on both sides. - -[Sidenote: Native ways.] - -It hardly needs saying that a small amount of doctoring is continually -wanted. Damages to hands and limbs in moving heavy stones, bruises and -strains, sore eyes, malarial fever, rheumatic headaches, indigestion, -swellings and gatherings, old sores, and many other small ailments are -of daily occurrence. A stock of medicines, and some care in applying -them, are necessary in any excavations. But it is necessary to refuse -to give medicine to any one outside of the workmen: first, because -a gratis doctor would never have time to do other work; second, on -account of infection; and third, because patients are an excuse for -spies. - -[Illustration: FIG. 21.--Account-card for native wages. Each square, -one piastre. Each column, one dollar. A spot at each amount due. A line -through the squares paid up.] - -Having now noticed the men who are required, something may be said -of those who are not required. The dealer and the spy are a constant -plague. No man must be allowed to loaf about the work, or to lie -watching it from a look-out point. And any troublesome men are best -dealt with by taking shoes or head-shawl from them, and offering to -send the clothes to the man’s sheikh to be returned to him. To get them -he must give his name, and the name of his sheikh; and that no man -will do, as he can then be dropped on by the police in future. Not a -single loafer will ever give his name and sheikh, and so they are well -kept at bay by confiscating clothing or tools. Once I took the donkey -of a troublesome man, who had fled from me; and gave it up to his -sheikh, who came to intercede next day. Doubtless it had to be redeemed -by some blackmail to the sheikh, and the needful lesson was taught. -Dealers are incessantly trying to get at the men, daily at wells or -as tobacco-sellers, and weekly in the market; and so any unexplained -persons who are seen about should be moved on and kept at a distance. - -It is supposed by some that there is a solidarity in the family of an -Egyptian, which ensures that a man’s relatives know about his actions, -and are aware if he goes wrong. But various events have shown that a -man’s own relatives may be quite in the dark about his doings, and that -a chance outsider may see, know, and tell things about a man which are -secret from his relatives living with him. Hence the guarantee of a -relative is worth practically nothing, and every man must be taken on -his own merits. It must always be remembered that excavation is for -the sake of archaeology, and is not undertaken in the interest of the -workman. Hence any doubt about a man’s character is sufficient reason -for not employing him. There is neither reason nor use in making -accusations, which after all it might be impossible to prove. But -an unostentatious weeding out of men during the fluctuations of the -work is the best means of avoiding those who seem less likely to be -trustworthy. - -A reason for not taking any man’s recommendations is that the -introduction to the work is sure to be paid for; and if Ibrahim begs -you to employ Aly, and succeeds, Aly will have to give him a lump sum -or a share of the wages. Advice _for_ a man should therefore never be -taken; though advice _against_ a man may be disinterested and useful. - -[Illustration: Fig. 22. Carrier boys throwing on mounds. Abydos.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 23. Town-site turned over, showing outer wall. -Kahun.] - - - - -CHAPTER IV - -THE ARRANGEMENT OF WORK - - -[Sidenote: Clearances.] - -A large site, such as that of a temple or a town, may be attacked in -several ways. The most cursory method is by trial pits in various -spots; pits which, if they hit anything of importance, are likely -to injure it, and certain to destroy its connection with other -things. French explorers have a love for _faire quelques sondages_, -a proceeding which often ruins a site for systematic work, and which -never shows the meaning of the positions or the nature of the plan. If -it is quite uncertain whether there be remains in the ground, the best -examination is by parallel trenches, as such give a good view of the -soil, while the stuff can be turned back and the trench filled behind -if not wanted. In case of tracing a building, trenches cut along the -lines of the walls are a good beginning; and then if more is wanted, -the plan is clear and the rooms can be emptied with foresight. - -[Illustration: Fig. 24. CUTTING DOWN FROM THE TOP EDGE OF THE WORK.] - -A favourite method with the older explorers was to clear out a whole -area (Fig. 18) and throw the stuff all round the site. This may be -needful in case of superimposed buildings, which must be studied one -by one, as only two or three periods can be planned at once, and the -upper have to be removed before the lower can be cleared. But such a -method is a clumsy waste in dealing with a simple group of buildings. -The great difficulty of it is to know where to place the stuff removed, -so as not to block future work. Before beginning any large excavation, -the amount to be shifted should be gauged, and the position of the -stuff settled beforehand. The great clearance on the side of the Medum -pyramid, to expose the temple, was planned out with the position and -size of each waste heap in the mind’s eye, and the system of paths by -which the stuff could be shifted with least fatigue. It is needful to -continually adjust the moving, so as to avoid lifting the stuff more -than really needed; and any long run down of material, either towards -the digger or away from the thrower, should be prevented, as it all has -to be lifted again in some shape. Working at the foot of a long run of -stuff is entirely wrong; such ground should be shifted in successive -levels, each level being discharged without needing to raise the earth -up again. Excavations at the Sphinx were carried on by the Government -with two men filling baskets with sand, which ran down 20 feet from the -surface to the bottom of a pit; and the baskets were then carried up by -a long train of children very slowly climbing up out of the pit on a -sand slope at the angle of running sand. Thus nearly the whole labour -was wasted by not filling the baskets at the surface and carrying them -directly away. Whenever a large pit is needed it should be begun of -full size, and lowered equally all over, so that nothing runs down -during the work. - -[Illustration: CEMETERY WORK - -Fig. 25. Mounds, at Yehudiyeh.] - -[Illustration: CEMETERY WORK - -Fig. 26. Sarcophagi, Abydos.] - -For moving earth to a distance there is no way so simple and adaptable -as a line of carrier boys (Fig. 22). Over flat ground this is the best -way up to distances of 50 or 100 yards; for longer discharges it may be -better to lay down a light railway and use trucks. The line of boys is -the only practicable way if the stuff has to be carried up a slope to -discharge, or taken over irregular paths out of the work, as is often -the case. The railway needs much time for rearranging different points -of collection and discharge; and must be in duplicate, or else the work -will be at a stand-still during rearrangement. A boy will carry 20 to -30 lbs. in a load, about 20 journeys an hour for 100 yards discharge, -thus moving about 2 tons a day. So the cost is about a piastre a cubic -metre for shifting 100 yards. - -[Sidenote: Turning over.] - -But far the more economical and rapid work is that of turning over -whenever practicable. If a site has not been often rebuilt upon, the -way is to start by a long clearance at one edge; and then a line of men -steadily cut from one side of the trench and throw back on the other -(Fig. 24), so that the trench moves across the whole site, and every -pound of earth is turned over. Each man needs a frontage of between 4 -and 6 metres in width; and the trench, if open along, should have a -clear bottom of at least 2 metres, from back to front of the work. More -usually it is worked in compartments, each man clearing about 4 metres -square, and throwing into his previous hole; each hole is then gauged -when empty and the pay assessed. If a town is cleared (Fig. 23), then -it is done chamber by chamber, each being emptied over the wall into -the previous chamber. The corners of the chambers can just be left -visible for making a plan afterwards. A great advantage of this way is -that the ground is finally left covered, so there is no great waste -heap, and the walls are all covered over again to save them from future -destruction. - -[Sidenote: Raising earth.] - -Where a deep hollow has to be cleared out it is a wasteful plan to let -the boys walk out with the basket of earth, as they have to raise the -body, which is about four times the weight of their load. So soon as -the rise is as steep as one in four, it is best to form a fixed chain -of boys (Fig. 27), each standing in a permanent place, and handing -the baskets up from one to another. About 5 feet apart horizontally -is as far as is useful; or in case of steep work (as out of pits) the -vertical lift may be 3 or 4 feet (Fig. 1). A sufficient number of -collectors at the bottom and throwers at the top are of course needed -to keep the chain in full work (Fig. 28). A well-proportioned gang -should not have any accumulations along it, and must be quietly watched -from time to time to see that all parts work equally. If the baskets -of earth lag at any point and accumulate, the boys before the point -must be thinned, and those beyond it increased. A favourite plan of the -boys is to let a basket lie unshifted and then stand upon it, as a full -basket of earth gives a pleasant footing, and there is one less to keep -moving. In this way most of the baskets can be quietly suppressed -and yet every one remains as busy as they can be with the short stock -of baskets that remain. All such misuse of baskets must be stopped at -once; but old burst baskets may be used thus with advantage. - -[Illustration: CHAINS OF WORKERS. - -Fig. 27. At tomb of Usertesen II.] - -[Illustration: CHAINS OF WORKERS. - -Fig. 28. At tomb of King Den.] - -This system of lifting is also used in a surprising way for vertical -tomb pits. An Egyptian man will stand all day with his feet on opposite -sides of a pit in foot-holes, and stoop down to take a full basket from -a man below at the level of his feet; then raise himself, and lift the -basket up at arms’ length above his head, thus lifting it 6 or 7 feet. -Three men will thus empty out a pit to 20 feet deep; but such men are -usually old tomb-robbers, and must be employed with circumspection. -More usually ropes are used, one tied to each handle of a basket, and -pulled up by a pair of men. The earth is best left in the carrying -basket, which is laid in the roped basket at the bottom, and taken -out of it at the surface. If the pit is rotten and wide at the top, -the basket has to be swung across the top two or three times, until -on letting the ropes loose it flies out 10 or 20 feet to the side of -the pit, where it is caught by the emptying boy. Clever rope-men will -let a basket fly so as to catch on the top of the dump heap and turn -over, so that it only needs clearing loose to let it go back again. -The ropes need careful watching; the men love to tie knots in them, to -grip by, whereby they wear through at the knots and drop to pieces; -also the ropes are dragged on the edge of the pit, so as to serve as a -friction-clutch when changing hands, thus wearing the rope out in two -days instead of two months; the sides of the pit should be looked at -to see if there is any sawing by the rope, and if so, the men must be -stopped. They also cut off pieces if the ropes are long; and it is best -to have all ropes in standard lengths of 8 metres, these when doubled -thrice over down to 1 metre length are quickly tested for length, and -then hanked in the middle to put by. Lastly, if not regularly delivered -into store every night, the ropes are not returned when a pit is -finished; and then they vanish, and a fresh pair is asked for when the -next pit goes deep. - -Another favourite misuse of ropes is to lash them round blocks of stone -which have to be dragged, and thus cut the rope into scraps by wearing -on the ground. Ropes can generally be put round the sides of a stone, -and kept in place by some old scraps passing beneath. - -[Sidenote: Tracing walls.] - -One of the most careful kinds of work, to which only good men can be -trained, is that of tracing out unbaked brick walls buried in rubbish. -The surrounding earth is derived from the crumbling and washing down -of the earthen wall, and therefore it is indistinguishable from the -average of the bricks themselves. Hence, if the bricks are uniform in -colour, and the mud mortar is like them, the building and its débris -are all alike. The best way to examine brickwork is by scraping a face -of the wall, and then peeling it quite clean with a dinner-knife; such -a clean smooth surface seen in shadow will show whatever can possibly -be made out of the differences of colour and texture. Vertical joints -are worth far more than horizontal, as often fallen bricks may lie -as if built together. If possible the joints should be observed by -differences of colour, and the bricks measured for comparison with -others; as the sizes vary from 7 inches to 2 feet in length, and but -seldom range over half an inch in any one building period, the size -will go a long way in showing a connection of age. If the bricks cannot -be distinguished even after leaving the face to dry for some days, -the earth should be searched by pecking with a trowel or knife to see -if there is dirt in it: only in late times are pottery chips found -usually in bricks, and charcoal scraps are very rare, hence pottery -and charcoal almost prove the earth to be mere wash and rubbish. The -clearing back of dirty earth to a vertical face of clean clay is a -satisfactory evidence of a wall. But sometimes the filling is so clean -that there is no difference between it and the wall. Then the relative -hardness will often serve to distinguish one from the other; and this -is a main means of discrimination by the workmen, who will often tell -a wall entirely by the touch under the pick. Failing all these tests, -and the strata of dirt beds, the film of stucco on the wall face will -sometimes show up, but may leave a doubt as to which side is the wall. -In the last resource the stuff should be searched with a magnifier to -see the hollows left by decomposed straw dust: in kneaded brick these -hollows lie in every direction; in blown dust and wash they lie nearly -all horizontal. It is often needful to spend half-an-hour testing and -tracing out the line of a wall, fixing the face and the top and base of -it; and such work may give the only evidence of a temple or important -building. - - - - -CHAPTER V - -RECORDING IN THE FIELD - - -[Sidenote: Need of record.] - -After finding things the first consideration is to record and preserve -all the information about them. The most ignorant dealer or plunderer -may be a very successful digger, but he will not care for the value of -a record. Recording is the absolute dividing line between plundering -and scientific work, between a dealer and a scholar. The most -blue-blooded _dilettante_ collector who digs to possess fine things, -but records no facts about them, is below the level of the dealer who -will publish an illustrated priced catalogue, and state what was found -together, and the details of the discovery. The unpardonable crime -in archaeology is destroying evidence which can never be recovered; -and every discovery does destroy evidence unless it is intelligently -recorded. Our museums are ghastly charnel-houses of murdered evidence; -the dry bones of objects are there, bare of all the facts of grouping, -locality, and dating which would give them historical life and value. -And it is only the self-evident facts of age that we already know, -which can be observed in such a useless condition. So ignorant are -curators that they will even divide up a tomb-group of objects, which -are the keys to knowledge, and foolishly scatter them up and down the -galleries merely as second-rate specimens of what is already there, -without any date or history. This is actually the case in the three -largest national museums. It is therefore imperative not only to -record, but also to publish, the facts observed; so that when in future -the elements of scientific management may come to be understood, a fit -curator may succeed in reuniting the long-severed information, as is -being to some extent happily done at Dublin. - -In recording, the first difficulty is to know what to record. To state -every fact about everything found would be useless, as no one could -wade through the mass of statements. It would be like a detective who -would photograph and measure every man on London Bridge to search for -a criminal: the complication would entirely defeat the object. It is -absolutely necessary to know how much is already known before setting -about recording more. In some periods, such as the XVIIIth Dynasty, so -much is ascertained that it is seldom that new facts can be brought to -light; and only fine or unusual discoveries are worth full publication. -On the other hand, in such an age as the early dynasties our only -resource lies in complete records of the levels or collocations of -hundreds of pots, whole or broken; and most important historical -conclusions may hang on a single potsherd. - -[Sidenote: Value of record.] - -It is plain therefore that the accuracy and certainty of the record -is necessary. At the moment that a fact is before the eye,--a fact -which may never be seen again, and perhaps never paralleled,--it is -needful for the observer to make certain of all the details, to verify -every point which is of fresh value, and to record all that is new -with certainty and exactitude. Statements with a query, or a doubt -about them, are worth nothing in themselves, and can only serve to -add to the range of similar facts that may be safely recorded from -elsewhere. Everything seen should be mentally grasped, and its meaning -and bearings comprehended at the moment of discovery, so clearly that -a definitive statement can be made, which shall be as certain and as -absolute as anything can be which depends on human senses. The observer -should at least feel no possible doubts or qualms about his recorded -facts; and what uncertainties there are should only be those which -lie beyond his perceptions. It is well to work slowly over all the -petty details of an important discovery, perhaps for half an hour, -while considering all the facts and their meaning, before finally and -irrevocably removing the main evidences of position. All this needs -practice, and a full knowledge of what is important and what is trivial. - -[Sidenote: Resulting view.] - -And not only should such a record be made at the time, but the record -should be presented finally in an intelligible form. To empty the -contents of note-books on a reader’s head is not publishing. A mass -of statements which have no point, and do not appear to lead to any -conclusion or generalisation, cannot be regarded as an efficient -publication. The meaning of each fact should be made apparent, and -the relative importance of the details should be kept in view, so -as to present the conclusions as a picture, in which each touch is -in its proper place, and where each point adds to the whole without -being disproportionately treated. Thus the final result is a statement -much like what might have been written by a contemporary of the times -in question; proved and enforced at each point by the various facts -discovered. - -In many cases our materials are not enough to give such a picture; and -then, either the blanks must be noted and the limits of uncertainty -stated, or else, at the worst, the facts must be grouped, and their -results stated, leaving the question with two or more solutions open to -future settlement. - -Thus the final result to be aimed at is a picture full of detail and -accuracy; and, where material is insufficient, with the limits of doubt -clearly laid down, so that fresh material can at once be incorporated, -and its value seen and grasped, so soon as it may be discovered. - -[Sidenote: Marking.] - -A very needful part of the recording is the marking of the objects -with their source. Generally each part of a site is distinguished by -a letter, and each group of objects found in that part by a number; -thus a cemetery may be E, another adjoining it on different ground -F, yet another G, a temple site T, and so on, sometimes using up the -whole alphabet on a varied district. Then E 17, F 8, G 65, will be -different tombs in those cemeteries, as denoted in the note-book and -on the objects. Every bone of a skeleton should be marked, and always -on one fixed position for each bone. It is best to trust to writing -the reference with China ink on the base or back of most objects; for -pottery and coarse things Brunswick black thinned with turpentine is -best; for dark stones scratching the number is safest, and also for wet -pottery at the time it is found. Jewellers’ tag-labels with strings are -useful for small objects. It is very unsafe to trust labelling only -to the wrapping papers, which may be all thrown away; separate labels -should be wrapped with the things if they cannot be marked otherwise. - -[Sidenote: Nature of notes.] - -The nature of the notes must vary with each kind of material and each -period; but we may here give some examples of the nature of such -records. - -_Town Plan._--Survey of every wall of each house; thickness of each -wall (easily neglected); reveals of doorways; doorsills if of stone; -sizes of bricks; levels of top and base of each wall if any rebuilt or -superimposed; contents of each chamber, note if on floor or in filling; -objects buried in floors; special note of position of exactly dated -objects; copies of any frescoes or decoration. - -_Tomb._--Position relative to other tombs. Size of pit, direction, -depth. Position of chamber. Filling intact, or estimate of time that it -has stood open anciently by the weathering of the sides. Objects found -loose in filling. Chamber plan. Primary or secondary burial. Position -of body, head direction, face direction, attitude of body and limbs. -Position of beads and small objects on body. Note if beads follow any -pattern or order; record order of as long groups of beads as possible -for rethreading; wrappings, amount and nature. Coffin or cartonnage; -inscription and figures, if any, often need copying or photographing -before removal, as they may fall to pieces. Skull and jaw to be -removed for measurement; or, if in rarer periods, whole skeleton to be -preserved. Position and nature of all offerings and objects placed in -the tomb. Copies of any inscriptions or paintings on the walls of the -tomb. - -To such outlines of the usual character of records are added any -special details which are but rarely found; but the above will serve to -remind an excavator of what must always be looked for. - -[Sidenote: Planning.] - -In making a plan of any large area, such as a town, it is best to -start with a rough key-plan divided into a few dozen squares, each row -of squares lettered, each column of squares numbered, so that every -square is designated, as B 5, etc. (Fig. 32). Then the detailed plan -of each square is to be made on one opening of a note-book of squared -paper, the openings running A 1, A 2, A 3; B 1, B 2, B 3, etc. Thus any -connection from one page to another can be found at once by looking for -the next letter or number: the whole plan is in the pocket, and can -be added to, chamber by chamber, as the clearing progresses. It need -hardly be said that every plan or detail should be drawn north upwards -in the note-book. Main lines are of course to be connected together by -long lines of measurement. - -As a general principle it is best to measure positions of as many -points as possible along one single line of measurement, rather than -take many piecemeal short distances and add them together. Thus (Fig. -29) a series of walls should be stated as, 66, 76, 201, 220, 257, -269, 330, 353, 434, 446 inches, rather than as lengths of 66, 10, 25, -19, 37, 12, 61, 23, 81, and 12 inches; for the total is more accurate -when measured all in one, the positions are plotted quicker, and the -comparison with any symmetric lengths of the building are easier made -on the spot, so as to detect errors. - -[Illustration: FIG. 29.--Example of a plan measured entirely from two -bounding lines.] - -In the direct measurement of groups of walls, etc., it is the quicker -and more accurate method to adopt two outside sighting lines, say one -along the north, the other along the east, of the ground, marked out by -high walls or large stones always visible, and then measure every point -out to the two sighting lines at right angles. Spaces of over 100 feet -across can be divided into separate groups. - -The general use of instruments cannot be entered upon here. But amongst -the means of work the divided rod is indispensable, and it is all that -is wanted for most small buildings that are met with. The tape is the -most practical for distances of 10 to 50 feet; and the steel tape for -accurate measuring of base lines, or long distances. The box-sextant -is for very broken ground, and isolated details, or if working alone; -and the theodolite for accurate work anywhere between the accuracy of, -say, 1 inch on 500 feet and the refinement of a ¼ of an inch on a mile. -The plane table may be convenient for approximate plans, and is simple -and rapid to use. The prismatic compass is of use for the directions of -single blocks or fragments of wall, and is handy for rough topography -(generally with paced distances), or for underground passages. - -In considering the accuracy required, if dimensions in figures are to -be given, then minute measurement is wanted, somewhat more accurate -than the original workmanship. But where only a plan is to be produced, -it is seldom practicable to show more accuracy than 1/100th inch on a -book page 10 inches high, or 1/1000th of the whole, and therefore it is -of no use to measure closer than 1 inch on a space of 200 feet or so -across. - -[Sidenote: Plotting.] - -It need hardly be said that the barbarous irregular fractions, such as -⅜ of an inch to a foot or to a mile, should never be used for plotting. -Simple decimal scales should alone be used, and generally 1/100th is -the most suitable and easy for all plans of ordinary buildings, towns, -etc.; this is further reduced by photolithography to whatever scale -will best fit the size of publication. - -[Illustration: FIG. 30.--Method of plotting a three-point survey, -_n_, _w_, _s_, the three fixed points. A the point to be found. B, C, -centres of struck circles.] - -Though the ordinary methods of survey need not be stated here, the -box-sextant is so seldom seen that some account should be given of -its use. The objection to its use on short distances, that parallax -between the direct and reflected ray causes errors, can be avoided by -overlapping the images about ¾ inch, the usual amount of the parallax. -The main use of the sextant is for three-point survey. Over broken -ground where many isolated points have to be fixed, within a few inches -on a few hundred feet, there is no method so quick and useful as the -nautical three-point method, when improved by rigid plotting. At any -three points which shall be visible from the whole of the ground, and -within its general plane, three signals are placed, best lettered by -the quarter of the horizon nearest to each, say _n_, _s_, _w_. The -three points must be so placed that the one circle passing through them -all shall not pass through points needed in the survey; otherwise -they may be in any position, though best as a triangle of about equal -sides. The three angles and one side are to be measured, thus defining -the whole triangle. Then at any point to be fixed, A, the two angles -between _n_ to _s_ and _w_ to _s_ are measured with the sextant, and -these suffice to fix the position. For plotting (Fig. 30), lay down the -triangle of the three fixed points, say to scale 1/100th (the triangle -with shaded corners _n_, _s_, _w_), and the perpendiculars to each side -of it; this is most accurately done by a large protractor with vernier, -setting out the radii and perpendiculars of the triangle from its -centre. Then tabulate the half of each base × cotan. angles observed on -that base, _e.g._ - - logs. n.n. logs. n.n. logs. n.n. - ½ bases _n_ ·27314 _s_ ·36621 _w_ ·29223 _n_ - ------ ------ ------ - x cotan. { 1 ·43223 2·705 ·26272 1·831 - angles at { 2 ·56671 3·687 ·48214 3·035 - places 1, 2, 3 { 3 ·41995 2·630 ·67709 4·754 - -Here the log. half base _n_ to _s_ is ·27314; this added to log. cotan. -of angle subtended by _n_-_s_ from station 1 is log. ·43223, giving -a value 2·705 inches. From station 1 the angle _s_-_w_ was observed; -and from stations 2 and 3 the angle _w_-_n_ was observed. All this -calculation can be rapidly done in this form, placing the sheet upon -the log. book, with the written log. half base next below the printed -log. cotan. angle, and writing down the sum of the two against the -number of the station. Then on the plan, plot these (½ base × cotan.) -on the perpendiculars of their respective bases as at B and C, marking -the station number to each. Then with compasses sweep an arc from one -centre B, with radius Bs equal to the distance from the centre to its -two points of the triangle. The same from the other centre C that has -the same number of station. The intersection of the arcs is the point A -of that station on the plan. - -Of course the prolonged perpendiculars (broken lines) are used as -often as the direct perpendiculars; the _aspect_ of the angle from -the station, whether _n_-_s_ or _s_-_n_ showing on which half of the -perpendicular we should lay off the centre. For angles over 90° the -complement of the angle should be used in calculation, the centre -then laid off on the wrong half of the perpendicular, and the arc -swept across the right half. This mode of plotting gives the fullest -accuracy, such as is never possible with the use of station-pointers, -or trial and error devices which are used in nautical survey. A field -of 40 stations can be easily calculated in an hour, and plotted in a -couple of hours more. If it is needful to work any point with pure -calculation instead of plotting, it can be accurately done by the -principle that the line joining the two centres of arcs, B and C, forms -with their common point s an equal and opposite triangle to that which -they form with the survey point A. It will be seen on looking at the -diagram that _w_-_s_, the angle by which B is plotted, is equal to the -angle _w_-_s_ from A; and similarly the angle of the half base _n_-_s_ -from C, is equal to _n_-_s_ from A. Hence the points _n_, _s_, _w_ -subtend from A, the observed angles, and A is the point from which they -must have been observed. - -For levelling, the handiest instrument is a short rigid pendulum, with -mirror attached, to hang truly vertical. The reflection of the eye -back to itself is then a truly horizontal line, and can be sighted -on to any distance. The pendulum is best made about 5 inches long, -with tetrahedral net of suspension thread, to avoid twisting, passing -through two eyes on the mirror and two eyes on the holder, and a -covering tube to shield it from wind. With this, readings can easily be -taken to an inch on 100 feet, and this is sufficient accuracy for most -archaeological work. - - - - -CHAPTER VI - -COPYING - - -[Sidenote: Paper squeezes.] - -A very needful branch of recording is the taking impressions of -inscriptions and flat reliefs. The usual method is by wet squeezing of -paper, which may be made up of any thickness, from a true mould to a -slight surface impression. If a mould is wanted for future casting, a -tough rag paper without much size should be used; but good newspaper -will do. The tougher the paper is when wet, the better. The stone must -be thoroughly cleaned and soaked. The paper is cut to the size, and, -if less than the stone, in two or more sheets. A sheet is then put in -a basin of water, rolled about to soak, and then gathered into a ball -and rolled between the hands to break the grain, just short of pulping -the surface; next shaken out like a wet handkerchief, and then laid -on the stone with enough slack to go into all the hollows. It is then -gently beaten with a spoke-brush until it is pushed into the hollows -(Fig. 33). If they are deep it is needful to use strips of paper soaked -and pulped, and laid by finger in the hollows, so as to nearly fill -them. Finally, a severe beating is given to the whole, as violent as -can be done without tearing the paper. The paper should be pulped on -the stone, and driven into every crack and porosity; using a second, -and even a third, sheet to bind it together. The pulp in the hollows -should be kneaded in with the sharp edge of the brush-back, using the -whole weight of the body to force it home. About 50 square feet of such -work is as much as can be done in a day. The precautions are: avoid -bubbles of water or air below the paper, beat quite straight without -dragging, and see that there is no creeping of the paper or shifting -on the stone. When quite dry and hard the cast may be carefully peeled -off. After heating and waxing, plaster casts may be taken from it, with -a slight oiling between each using. - -A slighter working is enough on shallow inscriptions; but such squeezes -generally need to be taken off while wet, and allowed to dry alone, -or else the paper drags flat out of the hollows when contracting in -drying. This is specially the case on polished granite, where there is -no grip on the surface. - -Surface impressions of incised carving may be taken with a single sheet -of paper beaten just enough to catch the edges of the cutting; and such -make excellent bases for inking over to produce a facsimile drawing -(Fig. 31). The impression is so much better on the inner side, that the -inking is done on that, and the figures are thus reversed in the plate. - -[Illustration: FIG. 31.--Copy made by inking a paper squeeze, 1:8. A -part of the Israel stele, with the name Israel in the last line but -one.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 32.--System of numbering sheets of connected -drawings.] - -[Sidenote: Dry squeezes.] - -But on all coloured work, and many kinds of tender stones, wet -squeezing is a crime, as it destroys the original. Fatuous tourists -and brazen students have wrecked innumerable monuments by wet -squeezing, and it is now necessarily prohibited in Egypt unless -special permission is obtained to do some object which cannot be -injured by it. Another system, that of dry squeezing, I therefore -introduced when doing the Medum tombs. A sheet of thin paper is held -over the stone, and it is pressed over each edge of the cutting so as -to leave a bend in the surface. Then, laid on a drawing-board, with an -oblique lighting, the bends are all drawn on with pencil, checking by -comparison with the stone. Sometimes it is best to draw by lamplight, -and check with the stone afterwards. The drawing should always begin -at the bottom right hand, so as not to press out the impression by the -hand; and the sheets must not be rolled before being pencilled. For -small lines, a piece of indiarubber should be used to press the paper -into the hollows. For the outlines of reliefs the thumb nail must be -used. This system is quicker and more accurate than any reduced-scale -hand drawing. Over large wall surfaces the sheets should be placed in -regular rows, lettered A, B, C (Fig. 32), and each sheet numbered in -the row, so that A 3, B 3, C 3, come one below the other. The register -of positions is kept by marking a minute cross with pencil on the wall, -so that the corners of four sheets will fall between the four arms of -the cross. Thus each fresh sheet is placed exactly to fit the sheets -which have preceded it, in the row and in the column. Any large blanks -or injuries should have their corresponding sheets duly lettered (even -if nothing is on them), and put with the drawings, so that there shall -be no hitch in placing them all in one great sheet afterwards. It may -be convenient to join up the sheets, and then redivide the drawings -at suitable spaces between the subjects for convenience of packing. -To join the sheets they must be laid together in position, a slight -cut then made with a knife to mark two sheets across the joint; then -turned back-up, adjusted by the cut, and a strip of adhesive paper put -on the joint, dabbed down and not rubbed along. Thus large sculptured -walls can be copied sheet by sheet, joined up, inked in, and then -photolithographed for plates. It is needful to remember that the Postal -Union will take rolls up to 60 centimetres length and 21 cm. diameter, -as ordinary parcels up to 5 kilograms; or 75 cm. length if not over 10 -cm. diameter and 2 kilograms of weight, by book post, open at ends. - -[Illustration: CASTING. - -Fig. 33. Paper squeeze. XII Dyn. Goddess Nekheb.] - -[Illustration: CASTING. - -Fig. 34. Plaster cast from paper. Philistine. XX Dyn.] - -[Sidenote: Casting.] - -Beside the direct material for publishing in plates, it is often -desirable to take casts and impressions, both for future reference -and also as a step toward a photograph (Fig. 34). The making of paper -impressions or squeezes has already been noted. Casting with plaster -of Paris is the principal mode of reproduction, and is such a detailed -business in itself that only a few notes can be given here, such as -might possibly be wanted in field work. The fine work for museum -purposes is outside of our aim here. The main point in handling wet -plaster is rapidity; and for that everything must be ready, and the -exact plan of work and amount of plaster settled beforehand. A basin -should be used with water equal to about two-thirds of the volume of -plaster required. Into this shake or sift dry plaster rapidly, until -the water is just filled up with it, and no free water left on the -top; it is then well proportioned, and should be violently stirred with -a large flat spoon or slip of wood and poured out in an even stream, -beginning with the middle if a flat mould, and flattening it out to -the edges. It is best to have rather too little than too much; as a -fresh lot can be mixed, with the hardened pieces of the first lot, to -serve for a backing; the first lot being, of course, spread over the -whole face to begin with. Strings, or strips of butter-muslin, should -be put through the mass, if it is large, so as to prevent it falling to -pieces if broken later on. Excellent casts are made with a thin skin of -plaster on a backing of muslin put on a frame; but this requires more -skill than plain work. About 10 minutes after casting the back should -be scraped down level, or planed with a wide-mouthed hand plane, which -is a very useful tool in finishing casts. No cast of any large size -should be left without even support for some hours after casting, as it -will settle out of shape if strained. Small quantities of plaster are -best mixed with a pocket knife in the palm of the hand. - -Moulds for casting are usually of clay for a large scale, but that -is not likely to be used in the field-work. The division of the clay -is best done by bedding threads along the face of the object at the -lines required, and then pulling them up to cut the clay. The face of -the object requires French chalk (steatite powder) on it to prevent -cohesion; oiling or greasing spoils the face of the original. For -field-work paper moulds are best, and the preparation of these as -wet squeezes has been already described. To fit the squeeze for use -as a mould, it should be heated and brushed with melted beeswax on -the face, without necessarily soaking it through. Any places that -are shiny when cold should be warmed and rubbed with cotton wool, so -that the face is the true paper cast. Then slightly oil between each -plaster casting, or else the warmth of the setting plaster will make -the wax stick to it. Several casts can be taken from one paper, if it -is carefully handled in peeling it from the plaster each time. Paper -impressions of cylinders are best made with blotting-paper, unrolled -wet, and left to dry. To remove the cockling of drying, spread a thin -coat of stiff paste on card, and press the paper squeeze lightly on it. - -Guttapercha moulds are best if many copies are required. To get a -sharp impression in this tough material a preliminary mould should -be made, of the right shape, but not sharp on the face. This should -be thoroughly cooled in water for an hour or more, and then a small -quantity of guttapercha from boiling water should be laid in the hard -mould and the object pressed in very rapidly and with maximum pressure. -Thus the hot material is forced firmly against every part and takes -a brilliant impression. Such moulds are used for electrotyping as -well as for plaster work. To produce a smooth face to a lump of hot -guttapercha, it should be pulled outwards from the middle to all sides -by thumbs and fingers, so as to produce a fresh torn face over the -whole upper surface. - -Sealing-wax is one of the handiest materials, and is used -professionally for all the coin reproductions that are published. -Only the best wax is of any use for impressions. It should never -be allowed to burn or blaze, nor even to boil, but should be gently -heated until a large mass will fall quite readily. The object should be -wetted moderately just before impressing. So soon as the wax is tough -the object should be lifted slightly to make certain that it has not -stuck, and then pressed down again till cold. If it has stuck it must -be pulled away at once, and the wax picked off while tough. Sealing-wax -casts must be oiled before plaster is put to them; and oil does not -soften or deteriorate sealing-wax if left on for years. Beeswax, or, -better, the mixture called “dentist’s wax,” makes good impressions, and -may be used for moulds. - -Tin-foil is most useful for rapid impressions, especially from a -fragile or delicate object. The thinnest should be used, such as is -wrapped round chocolate. To preserve the form of tin-foil it may be -squeezed into place with a back of beeswax, and so form a facing to a -wax mould for casting a plaster positive. Or it may be pressed alone -(forcing it on with soft indiarubber or cotton wool), and then floated, -back up, on water, while blazing sealing-wax is dropped into it to -form a backing. This mode is very handy for coin impressions, which -will travel safely in this form and look well. For round objects, -such as cylinders, a tin-foil impression should be made, beating the -foil in with a soft tooth-brush; then the foil is to be uncoiled by -rolling it upon wax so that the curve is removed without flattening the -impression; it is then ready for a plaster casting, giving a flat cast -of the round cylinder. In all cases thin gold-foil would be far better -than tin-foil; and such an impression might even be preferred to the -original object by some Oriental officials. - -[Sidenote: Drawing.] - -Drawing is still the main resource for illustration, although -photographic processes occupy so important a place. Hand-work is -essential for plans, it is the more useful method for inscriptions, -and it is the more convenient method for most small objects. There is -generally some interpretation needed, to show details which could not -possibly all be visible in one uniform lighting, as in a photograph; -and this can only be done by drawing all that can be seen in varying -lights and aspects. Another superiority of outline drawings is that -they are far more easily looked over and referred to than a much less -distinct photograph. And lastly, they cost a third or a quarter of the -amount for publication. The proper scope of photographs is stated in -the next section. - -As drawing is almost always to be reproduced by photolithography, or by -zinc block, it is essential to have it entirely in full black and white -without any grey or half tones. Hence the contrast should be kept as -strong as possible; and only China ink of full blackness should be used -for fine lines. In wide, coarse work, as full-sized inscriptions from -walls, a common writing-ink evaporated to denser quality may be used. -Ebony stain, which some use, has the disadvantage of spreading badly if -it chances to be wetted. A smooth, glazy-faced paper is good for fine -lines, and does not rag up under the pen. Cardboard is pleasant to use, -but is awkward to send by post; whereas paper drawings roll up safely -in a tube. - -A cardinal rule in drawing is that the finest line should come out -to 1/300 inch when the subject is reduced to the plate size. Thus a -drawing to be reduced to ⅓ by photolithography should have its finest -lines 1/100 inch thick. This line of 1/300 inch is the finest which is -safe not to break up in reproducing; and of course it spreads a little -in the printing. For very slight shade lines rather thinner lines may -be used, as it is no disadvantage if they should break. - -It is very desirable to have similar objects all reduced to the same -scale. For pottery ⅙ is a convenient reduction; for stone vases ⅓; for -metal tools and small objects ½. The drawings of pottery and stone -vases are easiest to do on scales ¼ and ½, as the measured diameters -have to be laid off as radii from the axis, needing halving throughout. -The further reduction is done when photographing for the lithographs; -and it is always best to have such a reduction to ⅔, if not to ½, of -the size of the drawing, in order to make it come out more delicate -than the hand-work. A very useful system for recording groups of small -objects, especially such as are found together, is to lay them out on -a sheet (say double the plate size), as arranged for the plate, and -then run a pencil round the outlines, and add as much detail as may -be needful to explain the objects; thus a pictorial inventory is made -quickly, and is far more useful and easier for reference than any -written inventory (Fig. 35). The pencil should have the wood split off -one side of the lead, and be sharpened by cutting to a chisel-edge -on the opposite side. Thus the point is vertically under the guiding -side; and when held carefully upright, outlines can well be run from -surfaces half an inch or even an inch above the paper. The size of the -sheet will, of course, depend on the amount of reduction intended. For -numbering the figures printed numbers can be gummed on to the drawing. - -[Illustration: FIG. 35.--Part of an inventory sheet, recording pieces -of ivory carving, 1:3.] - -For vases, block tints are more satisfactory than outlines. So the -drawing can be filled up with a wash of ink. Or if section lines are -wanted it is best to draw the section line, and block out the ground -outside of the vase, leaving the vase white on a black ground; then -have this reversed, black for white, in the photolithographing. The -vases may be printed in any colour which is suitable. - -[Illustration: Fig. 36. Frame for drawing fragments of vases.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 37. Weathered grave-stone; unsanded, and sanded.] - -[Sidenote: Restored forms.] - -The method for drawing a completed form of a vase from fragments is -to place the brim and the base (the curves of which can be accurately -measured against a series of concentric circles) into their true -positions, to a vertical axis; and then, if there is no complete -connection, to adjust their height on their axis so that their -curvatures (including other pieces which join them) fall into one line. -It is easier to do this with the mouth downwards. A frame is made (Fig. -36), with a vertical rod sliding up and down over the middle; a card -with concentric circles on it is placed on the floor of the frame, and -centred under the rod. Taking a piece of a brim, it is rocked to and -fro until it touches the card all along the edge, and a leg of wax is -stuck on so as to keep it at that angle. It is then slid about till -the curve fits between the concentric circles. A piece of base has -its curvature measured, by fitting a sheet of celluloid ruled with -concentric circles to the curve of it. It is then fixed on the lower -end of the vertical rod with some wax, so that the rod is in its axis. -Then the rod is slid down in its grooves until the curves of the piece -of base and of the piece of brim fall into one line. For drawing the -form the radius of the brim and of the base are already measured; the -height is taken as it stands in the frame, also the greatest radius at -the shoulder, the angle of the side with the base, and sometimes the -height from the brim to the curve at several different radii, read off -by sliding a graduated square on the concentric circles to touch the -curve. After plotting all these dimensions the curve is drawn in by -freehand, looking carefully at the fragments in position. - -[Sidenote: Copying inscriptions.] - -For hand copying inscriptions of a small size, a good method is to fold -over the paper at each line that is done, and draw the signs one by -one on to the fresh edge of paper held side by side on the stone; thus -there is no strain or loss of time by looking to and fro and finding -the place, no chance of omissions, and the facsimile is as accurate as -possible. This is especially for copying ink writing and graffiti. When -making a reduced copy by hand it is best to have a sheet of card under -the paper ruled in squares (of ¼ or up to 2 inches), with thick lines. -These show through the paper, and a frame of strings or threads is put -over the stone, of a larger size, agreeing to the scale of reduction -intended; _e.g._ for reducing a wall to ⅕, have card ruled in 1 inch -squares, and a frame of strings 5 inches apart over the wall. For lines -or columns of inscription it does to rule the column lines and only -have a long scale on a strip of wood put alongside of the column which -is being copied, so as to tally with the lines seen through the paper. - - - - -CHAPTER VII - -PHOTOGRAPHING - - -[Sidenote: Camera.] - -Photographs are essential for all objects of artistic interest, and for -expressing rounded forms for which elaborate shading would otherwise -be needed. Views of the excavations and buildings are also wanted. And -it is desirable to publish photographs as well as drawings of very -important carvings, in order to guarantee the accuracy of the drawing, -which is the more useful edition for most purposes. - -Though the ordinary knowledge of photography must be taken for granted -here, there are many details and preferences which are special to this -kind of work. The bane of practical photography is the rich amateur, -who insists on useless luxury of apparatus, and has set a fashion -in fittings which is absurdly complex. It is undesirable to have a -specially compact camera, as steadiness and convenience in use are -sacrificed for lightness and slightness, which are no object in a fixed -camp. An old-fashioned bulky camera is better for stationary work. I -have long used a tin-plate camera with plain draw-body in two pieces; -the benefit when enlarged photographs are needed is found by taking -it apart, and inserting a card tube, made up when wanted to any length -required for the enlargement. Some very simple, adaptable camera is -best, with a large plate-magazine attached to it, so that some dozens -can be carried at once. For ordinary views and small-scale objects -a simple hand camera is best. A pattern should be adopted which may -be the least liable to get out of order in a very dusty and gritty -climate; of the simplest mechanism, with a plain thrown-down pattern, -to carry a dozen flat films. As to the size of camera, the ¼ plate is -by far the most useful, being right for lantern slides and large enough -for most objects. Enlargements can be made to double size (or whole -plate) quite as good as collotype or net will reproduce them. The time -and work of using a whole-plate size are scarcely ever repaid by the -results for practical archaeology. - -The fashion of wide-angle lenses is useless for everything excepting -architecture at close quarters. And for most objects it is very -detrimental to have so short a focus, as it distorts and spoils the -perspective. It is best to use too long a focus in order to get truer -views of objects, at least 6 inches focus for a ¼ plate. There does -not seem to be any appreciable gain in the newer patterns of lenses -over the older “rapid rectilinear” or “symmetrical”; and the positive -disadvantages of some recent lenses are seen in the smaller aperture -and lack of light for focussing, and the distortion at extreme edges. -The iris diaphragm is a disadvantage, as it brings in another variable, -while the time of exposure can be varied to any extent needed. It is -best to stick to one small stop, say _f_/100, and learn exposures -entirely on that basis; then in case of poor light a larger stop, as -_f_/25 or _f_/8, can be used proportionately to shorten the time. -Small stops can be made out of a strip of tin plate or blackened card; -and the hand camera can be stopped down with a pinhole stop stuck in -front of the lens so as to work at almost any nearness and scale with -exposures of ½ or 1 minute in full sunshine. - -[Illustration: Fig. 38. Throwing sand; drop-shutter view.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 39. Girls at rest; diagonal mirror view.] - -The instantaneous shutter is a useless article for all fixed objects. -It is far better to work with a small stop which gives plenty of depth -of focus, and expose for 2 to 20 seconds, which is long enough for -_f_/100 on slow plates in Egypt. For direct enlargement of objects a -stop of _f_/200 is excellent, and only needs 30 seconds exposure. If -a shutter is wanted a simple drop can easily be extemporised (Fig. -38) fitting on to the front of the lens, and such will give fine -results. A diagonal mirror front can be made out of any decent scrap of -looking-glass, without showing any double image (Fig. 39). - -Rapid films are another fashion better avoided, as for fixed objects -there is no great hurry. The slowest films made have never caused any -practical inconvenience in my work, and they are far safer to keep and -to develop. The skew-back is never needed except for architecture; and -in the few cases where it is necessary, the effect can always be as -well obtained by taking the plate square, and then copying it skewed -in a skew-back camera. The sliding and rising front is about the only -complication that is useful in serious work; and if a long focus lens -is used a large amount of slide can be obtained; but a camera with a -free-swinging lens turning to any angle would be the best form. - -[Illustration: Fig. 40. Ivory tablet of Zer; light half with black, -dark half with white.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 41. Bronze hypocephalus, XXX Dyn.; filled in with -white.] - -[Illustration: DRESSING TOMBS FOR PHOTOGRAPHING. - -Fig. 42. Wooden floor of Azab.] - -[Illustration: DRESSING TOMBS FOR PHOTOGRAPHING. - -Fig. 43. Naqada, prehistoric.] - -[Sidenote: Preparing objects.] - -The preparation of the object is a very important point. Any sunk -carving or inscription of small size should generally be filled in -with whiting (Fig. 41) or charcoal dust, according as the material -is dark or light, so as to give a strong contrast (Fig. 40). In case -of worn inscriptions on impervious stone, such as rock crystal, the -lines may be marked with China ink, dried on, and then gently wiped -with damp fingers until only the faint hollows retain the ink. What is -hardly visible to the eye can thus be brought up clearly. If hollows -are slight and smooth, so that they will not hold a powder, brush over -with stiff paste, wipe the face clean on a damp handkerchief, and -then press in the powder. Only rather coarse powders should be used, -in order to avoid staining the object. In field-work objects should -also be carefully dressed. Reliefs upon weathered stones (Fig. 37) -should be dusted over with sand, and then lightly wiped until just -the wrought relief is cleared, and the ground is left smoothed with -sand. Stones in building should be brushed or scraped clean, so as -to contrast with the earth. Joints in walls should be picked out or -brushed so as to show clearly. Sometimes, as in a flooring of wood -(Fig. 42), the whole should be entirely brushed clean, and then the -joints packed with the lightest-coloured sand so as to contrast well. A -grave needs hand-picking, and then every bone brushing clean, and the -ground between packing with dark earth to give contrast. All pottery -and objects should be entirely cleaned around, and lifted slightly -so as to show a clear outline. The proper dressing of a grave (Fig. -43) will easily occupy two hours of work. Nothing which adds to the -contrast and clearness of an object should be neglected. Sometimes -for dark objects it is well to dust them with very fine white powder, -as with a puff-ball, so as to give some light on the darker sides. -And for objects of mottled colour, such as carved porphyry, a coat of -flake-white water-colour is best, so as to show the relief only and -not the colour. For coins and gems there is no method to compare with -photographing from plaster casts, which are always used in serious work. - -[Sidenote: Lighting.] - -The lighting is the most important element in photographing. No other -requirement is so essential, for with bad lighting nothing can be -done. The rule of the light coming from the top left hand should -always be followed where no special direction is needed. Generally a -diagonal light is best for inscriptions, as most lines are vertical -or horizontal. An object should first be held with a moderately -oblique light on the face of it, then quickly revolved in the plane -of its face, so as to see the changing effect of light from different -directions, observing what lines disappear in various positions, and -selecting the most effective direction. On setting it up, with the sun -(or other light) in the best direction, the obliquity of the light -should then be tried, tilting the object more or less, until the -details are sufficiently shown without too heavy shadows. In case of a -human face the light should be nearly vertical, and the obliquity of -it sufficient to bring out the cheek curves to the best. Of course, -the position of the object must be regulated entirely by the direction -of the light, and a figure may need to be tilted in any position. A -conical or cylindrical object must be placed with its axis pointing a -little behind or below the light, so as to lighten the whole side. For -fixed objects, such as buildings, a timetable of the best hours for -each part should be drawn up and followed. - -Beside direct lighting, subsidiary lighting is very useful. Any dark -shadows should be lighted with reflectors of white paper or card, or -actual mirror. Or during an exposure of several seconds, or more, a -transient mirror reflection can be played about the shadow, so as not -to show an edge to the light. When looking at the image on the ground -glass each part should be searched to see if any detail is lost by -shadow, or if an outline is lost against an equally dark background; -if so, some difference of lighting must be made. Various slips of card -may be fixed around the object, so as to cast shadows which will make -some part of a brightness differing from its background, and other -slips to cast lights on any dead part. For photographing an ebony -statuette (Fig. 44) I searched in the camera for each dead uniform -surface, and then fixed a slip of card so as to break the deadness with -a reflection; half a dozen such slips, at a foot or two distance, left -the figure without a single curve not brought out and intelligible. - -[Illustration: LIGHTING BY REFLECTION. - -Fig. 44. Ebony negress. XVIII Dyn.] - -[Illustration: LIGHTING BY REFLECTION. - -Fig. 45. Tomb of Sem-nefer. Gizeh.] - -Reflectors are also very useful for lighting dark subjects. Three or -four sheets of tin plate should have the edges turned up to stiffen -them, and be of slightly different sizes so as to nest together for -carrying. One planted in the sunshine outside a tomb will send a beam -in, which may be reflected again by another. With three successive -reflections, round two right angles, I have lighted an entirely dark -chamber (Fig. 45) enough to photograph with five minutes exposure and -full aperture. The successive reflections so neutralise each other’s -variations that a very uniform lighting results. - -If a flat surface with different colour is the object, then a light -exactly from behind the camera is best, so as to avoid any shadows. A -faint ink-writing on rough pottery will appear with a back light when -it seems quite hopeless in a side light. For papyri two equal electric -arc lights are placed, one on each side of the camera, so that there -can be no shadows and no reflections. - -[Sidenote: Arrangement of objects.] - -Backgrounds should be considered. For most objects there is nothing so -good as black velvet, as a long exposure can be taken so as to bring -out the shadows on the object, without any glare from the background. -The ground should extend far beyond the object, as any bright surface -near the object may make internal reflections in the camera. In short, -no bright surface should be visible within 60° of the axis of the -lens. For dark objects of which the outline alone is important a light -ground might be used; though even here probably a black ground and long -exposure would be better. A glass background with light or dark surface -some distance behind it is used sometimes, so as to avoid all shadows -from objects. But in many cases a shadow is positively useful, and adds -to the intelligibility of the view. - -The direction of the camera is too often horizontal. For portable -objects a vertical position is generally better, and for groups it is -essential (Fig. 46). The background on which the objects are laid can -be tilted so as to get oblique light from sun or window, and the camera -tilted equally from the vertical by shifting the legs. Scraps of wax -can be stuck on below objects, so as to keep them in any exact position -required for lighting or viewing, or scraps of charcoal used as wedges -which do not show on the black backing. There is no need to trouble -about depth of focus, as the insertion of a small stop, as _f_/100, is -enough to bring up every part sharp. I have taken a bracelet (Fig. 47) -with the sides at 7 and 9 inches from the lens both in perfectly sharp -focus. In fact, a subject may be contracted into the plate by putting -it out of focus, and then focussed by the stop. For all cases of -large-scale photographs or enlargements it is best to focus by shifting -the distance from object to lens, and not from lens to plate. - -[Illustration: - -Fig. 46. Foundation deposit, laid out horizontally.] - -[Illustration: - -Fig. 47. Bracelet of King Zer, 7 and 9 ins. from lens.] - -In setting up the camera everything should be done as far as possible -before looking into it,--the distance measured for the scale required, -the camera set square with the plane of the object in both directions, -and set so as to have the object upright on the plate. All of this can -be far better dealt with from outside. The actual focussing and slight -adjustments can then be done when viewing the ground glass. For skew -positions it is best to hold the camera in the hand where it ought -to be, keeping the legs turned up from the ground; and then drop the -legs one after another, so as to touch the ground or some object; -thus the camera will be left standing in the required position. The -stand should not have the legs packed by folding sideways; but they -should be capable of being shortened to the single length while fixed -to the camera, as it is often needful to support it only a foot from -the ground. A stand should be so made as to give the greatest range -of height. A common fault of beginners is not covering the plate, but -letting the image be smaller than necessary. Unless working to some -uniform scale, an object should be shown as large as the plate allows; -always remembering that a lantern slide will seldom take more than 3 -inches diameter, and hardly a full 3 inches square. It is convenient -to fill a ¼ plate with a group, of which the least important objects -are at the sides, and so can be omitted in a lantern-slide print. A -most troublesome matter is taking a series of wall scenes so that they -will fit exactly together at the edges. Probably it pays best to do -them approximately in the field, and then enlarge in a copying camera -on to a ruled ground, and so remove all irregularities of scale and -of skewness. For working to a uniform scale it is best to fix it by -keeping the focal length unchanged and measuring the distance of the -camera from the object, and not to refer to the size on the glass. - -[Sidenote: Stereographs.] - -Stereographic views are most useful for confused masses of objects, -such as a field of ruins. And if there are no moving parts there is -no need to take them simultaneously. By shifting the camera to one -side, and taking a second plate, a perfect stereograph is obtained; -and whereever the chance is not to be repeated, and two plates are -taken to ensure success, a shift should be made so that both may be -used together. The amount of shift varies with the distance; for near -objects the distance between the eyes, 2½ or 3 inches, may suffice; for -a general view a foot or 2 feet is better, so as to give more solidity -than is naturally seen. Small objects must not be shifted by rotating -the object if there are sharp shadows, as such are falsified by the -turning; otherwise a slight twist of the object does for the second -view. - -[Sidenote: Developing.] - -It is undesirable to leave developing till long afterwards. In general -all negatives should be developed the evening after they are exposed; -thus the future exposures can be regulated, any defective plates can -be repeated, and deterioration and risks due to keeping are avoided. -In the variety of developers the old pyrogallic acid remains still -one of the most reliable. The fanciful instructions about proportions -are exploded at once by a glance at the table compiled by Captain -Abney. By adopting the mean proportions of all the makers, which is 1 -soda carbonate, 1 soda sulphite, and 20 water, as a stock solution, -and adding about 3 grains per ¼ plate of pyrogallic when using, very -uniformly good results are obtained with short exposures. Of course -long exposures require bromide; but that is very seldom needful. Extra -local developing by tilting the dish, or painting with a brush, is -useful in case of shadows. Tabloid developers are best avoided, as -they cause delay in dissolving; and made-up solutions are cumbrous -and expensive. The quantities needed can always be put out by guess, -taking ¼ of an 8-ounce bottle at a time of soda salts, and weighing -pyrogallic for once to know the look of it. For hyposulphite of soda -fill the bottle ⅓ full of crystals, and fill up with water. If a less -strong and more graded picture is needed then glycin seems preferable -to pyrogallic acid. - -No dark room is needed; developing can always be done in the evening. -A red paper envelope split at the bottom and put round the chimney of -an ordinary lamp, will best screen the light. The diffused light of -a room will not hurt slow plates in developing, and a sheet of brown -paper over each tray makes all safe. A first soak in weak pyrogallic -solution, to flatten the films, is best before developing. For washing -where water may be scarce it suffices to have a row of six soup plates -of water, and to pass each film through each plate for five minutes, -so completing the washing of each in half an hour. A zinc box with 6 -or 8 divisions, shifting the negatives forward through each division, -will also work well. For drying it is best to have a row of pins along -the edge of a shelf, and then to punch out a small hole in a corner -of the film and hang it up, with the gelatine face under the shelf to -keep dust from it. A dusty evening in Egypt will leave each film like -a piece of sandpaper; and in case of this the films can be afterwards -rapidly washed under a stream of water, wiping with a lump of -cotton-wool. This will be enough without resoaking the film. Owing to -the dryness of the air in Egypt films generally curl up in drying, and -if forcibly flattened they are liable to strip. They are best packed -in lots of about 50, coiled up together as a cylinder, and wrapped in -a turn of paper. When in England they can be flattened out by being -left near an open window in damp weather, or dipped in water and left -to dry. For quick drying, films may with care be stood inside a fender -before a fire, and finished over a lamp chimney. I have thus dried them -in about twenty minutes. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII - -PRESERVATION OF OBJECTS - - -The preservation of the objects that are found is a necessary duty -of the finder. To disclose things only to destroy them, when a more -skilful or patient worker might have added them to the world’s -treasures, is a hideous fault. And the excavator must be ready for all -emergencies, for all classes of objects in all stages of decay, and -deal with each without delays, and often with scanty and unsuitable -means at hand for their treatment. Some familiarity with chemistry and -physics and properties of materials, is one of the first requisites for -an excavator. All this applies in a lesser degree to the difficulties -of transport, which is also part of the preservation of the antiquities. - -As conditions so infinitely vary it is useless to lay down any fixed -rules for treatment. Such rules would hinder the use of common sense, -which is essential to success. But examples of how different materials -are affected, and how difficulties have been met, will lead to the -excavator thinking out a fit treatment for each case as it arises. In -all this we are stating field practice only, and not dealing with -museum methods, which differ by having far more command of resources, -and by not having to deal with any of the troublesome cases which do -not survive to reach a museum. - -[Sidenote: Stone.] - -The great enemy of stonework is salt. In Egypt this permeates the -soil so that nothing is free from it; and any object near the surface -has much salt accumulated in it by evaporation. The effect of salt is -to disintegrate the stone, and make it flake or fall away in powder. -If there is the faintest taste of salt on a stone slab it should be -laid to dry, face down, on the ground; for I have seen a fine block -of sculpture entirely destroyed by being left for a single day face -upward. When the stone is once dry it is safe in Egypt, but in a -damp country it may begin a course of slow destruction by continual -recrystallization of salt. Sculptures have been entirely wrecked by -being cemented into the wall of a museum; the wet of the cement brought -all the salt to the face and ruined it. The only treatment for salt in -stone or any other material is long soaking in water. If a canal is at -hand, stones may be sunk in it for some weeks, face down. Or barrels -or zinc trays may be used, and the water changed every two or three -days, for five or six times. After such soaking the stone must be left -to dry face down, so that all the remaining salt will come out on the -back. Where there is not much salt it would be best to lay the stone -back upwards to dry, brush off any salt which comes out, and then wet -the ground below, so that more water may be drawn up to evaporate on -the back. If this was continued until no salt appeared the stone would -be cleaned, and the face could not be injured. Sometimes a face is -already flaking, and then the stone must be kept quite flat in soaking -and drying, so that each flake will be left in place, and can be stuck -down afterwards. Granite is often entirely disintegrated into separate -crystals, if it has lain near the surface. It is then even impossible -to turn the block over to copy it, as there is no cohesion left in the -mass. The only salvation possible for such a block would be to make a -thick plaster or cement coat to the exposed parts, under cut, and turn -the whole over with a board beneath it, and then saturate it hot with -paraffin wax. - -The face of limestone is often in tender condition, and will not bear -wet brushing to clean it. Dry picking and brushing is then the only -resource. If long exposed to damp, limestone dissolves throughout -the body of it, so that it becomes spongy, and like putty with the -contained water. A large sarcophagus lid in this state at Denderah was -brought up to the house, then covered with 3 or 4 inches of sand, and -left to dry slowly for some weeks; otherwise it would have cracked to -chips by contraction on the face. When quite dry it was very porous, -but in safe state for copying and transport. I have seen a slab of -limestone in perfect condition, reduced to a shapeless paste by a few -minutes of sharp rain. - -The original stucco facing often remains on limestone, and also the -colour. If the carving has been fine it is best to remove the stucco, -which is generally much less detailed. But if the stucco is an -improvement on the carving, and especially if there is colour, it must -be preserved. This is best done by fixing it with thin tapioca water, -just so thick that it will soak into the stone without leaving any -glair when dry. This treatment also does for limestone with a rotten -face. - -The same tapioca water may be used for fixing colours on stucco, as I -did on the Tell el Amarna pavement (Fig. 48); and the thickness must be -graduated to the porosity, so that it will just soak entirely into the -material. Any film left on the face will peel away. - -[Illustration: FRESCOES, TELL EL AMARNA. - -Fig. 48. Plants and animals.] - -[Illustration: FRESCOES, TELL EL AMARNA. - -Fig. 49. The two princesses.] - -[Sidenote: Pottery.] - -Pottery has not much to fear except salt, and that should be soaked -out as from stone. Glazed pottery with salt in it is more difficult -to clear, as it takes so long to get any change in and out of it. But -a persistent soaking will clear it in the course of some weeks; and, -if necessary, partly drying it in intervals, will bring the salt out -of the cracks, whence it can be dusted off. The commonest failing of -glazes is decomposition. The green turn brown, by the decomposition -of the iron from green silicate to brown oxide; and this may take -place from the porous interior without breaking the external face. The -blue glazes go white; and this can be partly remedied by warming and -soaking with paraffin wax, which fills the fine cracks and displays the -remaining colour again. Sometimes the outer coat of clear glaze over -faience inlay is decomposed, without spoiling the faience below. In -this case it is like a picture of which the varnish is gone brown,--it -only needs cleaning. The decomposed glaze can be scraped off, or rubbed -with fine emery paper, until the faience is clean, and then a coat -of paraffin wax clears the colour and preserves it from decomposition. -When glazed ware, especially of the earliest times, is first found, it -is very tender and soft. It then needs the most careful handling, and -must not be brushed or cleaned until it is quite dry and hardened. - -[Sidenote: Textiles.] - -Textiles are also often saturated with salt, especially the Coptic -garments which are in graves near the surface. They may be safely -soaked to remove the salt and the organic matter, and then dried by -pressing in a towel and laying between sheets of paper. The most tender -examples might perhaps be best treated by placing with half a dozen -sheets of blotting-paper over and under, and keeping wet below while -evaporating on the top; this would carry the salt out to the top of the -blotting paper. In any long soaking of organic stuffs a little carbolic -acid is desirable, to prevent souring and putrefaction of the material. -In every case the threads of textiles are liable to crumble, and any -great amount of washing will tend to reduce a good deal to powder. -Ironing is always desirable to consolidate the stuff. - -[Sidenote: Wood.] - -Wood does not suffer so much from salt as from rot and white ants. Any -salt may be soaked out; or, if the wood is tender and will not bear -that, a very stiff jelly should be made, so that it will just melt at -boiling: the wood dropped in when the jelly liquefies, and left in the -jelly cold for a week or two. Then the salt will dialyse out into the -jelly, without any free water softening the wood. On remelting the -jelly the wood can be removed, and the salt will be left in the jelly. -The gelatine will strengthen and improve the wood. This process can be -used excellently for ivories or bones, which would be ruined by soaking -in water. Whole skeletons can be set in stiff size, and taken out weeks -after, freed from salt, as was done to those from Medum, now in the -College of Surgeons. - -Rotted wood is very tender to handle; and from its continued -contraction when exposed to the air it will fall to pieces. If nearly -dry, but rotted, the best safeguard is to coat it with beeswax or -paraffin wax; if it can be lifted threads can be slipped round it, -and the whole dipped in hot wax until soaked. Or it may have a rapid -coat of wax chilled upon it, which protects it and binds it together -for travelling, and which can be soaked into it by piecemeal heating -afterwards. If the wood will not bear lifting, it may be coated by -dashing on superheated paraffin wax almost at boiling-point. This -will soak deep into the wood like hot water, and consolidate it so -that it can be moved quite safely. The same processes apply also to -stuccoed wood, which needs such safeguards, as otherwise the stucco all -falls off by the continued shrinkage of the wood. The great stuccoed -sarcophagus at Hawara was preserved by heating the surface with a wire -dish of charcoal burning about six inches above it, and flooding the -surface with melted wax so soon as it was enough heated to absorb it. -Perhaps superheated paraffin wax would have carried enough heat with it -to soak in without the charcoal fire. For all heating of wax it is best -to use a cast-iron saucepan, as soldered tins may give way before the -wax boils. Another treatment, especially suited for large objects, is -painting with several coats of wax dissolved in benzol. - -Wood which is very wet is more difficult to manage. It may be kept for -long under water, like the wood from the Glastonbury lake village. And -it may be consolidated with silicate solution, as has been well done -in examples from Silchester. Or it may be removed from water and laid -in glycerine with the top exposed; thus the water will evaporate and -diffuse, and glycerine take its place. - -[Sidenote: Ivory.] - -Ivory is mainly liable to flaking, especially if in wet soil. When any -ivory is seen not in a firm condition, the earth should be carefully -worked round so as to find the limits of the ivory, be it a single -piece or a collection together. Then the mass should be under-cut down -to a firm stratum, and lifted out in a whole block of earth. This -should be left to dry slowly; and after a week or two the earth should -be gently brushed away with a camel-hair brush, aided by picking with -a stout pin. As each piece of ivory is seen it should be carefully -followed, and if quite dry it may probably be removed entire. If still -liable to flake, it can then be soaked in melted paraffin wax. If the -ivory is too rotted to be detached from the earth, then the whole -mass would have to be baked to rather over blood heat, and saturated -with paraffin wax. After that it could be safely dissected by careful -picking. In case of finding large groups of ivories in the ground, -too extensive to take out in a block to dry, probably it would do to -isolate them, then lay a few inches of sand on the top, and light a -fire over them: after slow burning for a few days the ground would be -baked dry below, and could be saturated with wax before lifting the -mass. - -It sometimes happens that ivories in wet soil get concreted crystalline -carbonate of lime upon them, which is much harder than the ivory. -This being crystalline is not saturated with wax when the ivory is so -treated. Hence after waxing the ivory the surface should be cleaned -with benzol or ether on cotton-wool, and then painted with nitric acid -to dissolve the crystalline lime. Even strong nitric acid will only -dull the surface of waxed ivory, and not remove any perceptible amount, -while it dissolves the concretion rapidly. Probably the darkening of -the ivory caused by soaking in wax can be mainly removed by heating -fuller’s earth to over boiling-point, and then rapidly packing the -ivory in the earth and pressing it: the heat would melt the wax on the -surface, it will be absorbed by the earth, and the face of the ivory -will be left dry of wax. The ivories from Nineveh were solidified with -gelatine; but that would probably break up very tender ivories by the -amount of water. In case however of much salt in ivory the best way to -treat it is to drop it in stiff hot gelatine, cool it, and let it lie -in the consolidated mass for a week or two, for the salt to dialyse -out. Another way, if the mass is not much cut into hollows, is to lash -the ivory closely with thread or fine twine, and then soak it in water -to remove the salt; the twine prevents it falling to pieces, and it can -be dipped in wax when dry, and the twine removed. - -[Sidenote: Papyri.] - -Papyri require most careful treatment at every stage. They are often -found in a very fragile state, and if the roll has to be carried -without special packing in wool it is best to wrap it in a damp -handkerchief at once. For unrolling rolls, or flattening out crushed -papyri, damping is needful. There is no need to steam them, as has -been done in museums. By dipping a towel or handkerchief in water, and -wringing it as dry as possible, there is enough moisture to penetrate -to a papyrus closely wrapped in it. If there were many turns then -carbolised water would be best, so as to avoid any decomposing during -a long penetration of the damp. Usually a single night is enough for -damping through half a dozen folds or turns, enough to render the -papyrus quite pliable. It can then be unrolled, or uncreased with the -fingers; and as each inch of it is laid flat it should be secured by -turning down newspaper or blotting-paper over it and sliding a board or -book over the flattened part. After leaving it between a dozen leaves -of paper to absorb the moisture for some days under pressure it is dry -and firm. Small pieces can well be carried in books, and larger sheets -in piles of paper between boards. When the papyrus is too rotted to be -damped, as the crossed layers of it would part, then it can only be cut -to pieces with a sharp penknife at every fold and turn; and each piece -fastened down on a sheet at once in place. This was the only possible -way to open the great Ptolemaic revenue papyrus over 40 feet long; even -a single turn of the roll needed to be cut into dozens of pieces. - -For fastening down papyrus it is fatal to gum or paste it on to a sheet -of card, as the gradual contraction of the gum will break up the layers -of the papyrus. The safest way of all for very rotted papyri is to rub -a sheet of glass with beeswax, lay the papyrus on it, and press with -a warm hand until it sticks to the wax; then cover with another sheet -of glass. For ordinary firm papyri minute spots of paste, as small -as possible, should be put at every inch or two round the edges, and -farther apart in the middle; then a sheet of thin soft paper should -be pressed on it, to serve as a backing. Thus there is no wide space -pasted which can contract in future; and even if the papyrus has to -be remounted the paper can be torn to pieces behind it. The sheet of -mounting paper should be fixed under glass. But it is a mistake to -attach card to glass round the edges, as it bags away by damp and -warping, and leaves a large air space, which is very detrimental. -It is best to place the mounting paper between two sheets of glass; -or, for the sake of lightness and safety, the back may be of thin -picture-back-board, well baked dry, and free from cracks and knots. For -fastening the edges thin leather or linen may be glued around. - -Dealing with carbonised papyri is an art in itself. So far as field -work goes the main work is to remove the earth entirely from the top -of the papyrus, so as to leave no weight upon it: then under-cut, and -take out the whole lump, with a block of earth under it. The papyri -must then, in the house, be carefully separated, one document from -another, by splitting apart and lifting with an ivory paper knife or -blunt table knife, the lighter the better, so as to feel the way with -it. Each separate roll should then be wrapped in soft paper (never -cotton-wool) and packed a few together, in small tin boxes. Thus they -will travel safely and without loss. The museum work is outside of our -scope; but broadly the Neapolitan plan of holding the pieces in place -with adhesive paper on the back is not so good as separate treatment of -each piece, laying it down in position on a sheet of glass with small -touches of paste, or perhaps pressing it on to waxed glass like the -rotted papyri. Burnt papyri are read by the difference of reflection of -the surface, and hence must be viewed with light from behind the eye, -or light reflected by a mirror placed almost between the eye and the -papyrus. - -[Sidenote: Bead-work.] - -Bead-work is often found in a state in which it cannot be moved owing -to rotting of the threads. Elaborate decoration with the winged scarab, -four genii, inscriptions, etc., is found on mummies of about the XXVth -Dynasty. But, if the threads are decayed, the beads are merely lying in -position, and will fall away if the mummy be tilted or shaken. In such -a case I have opened the wooden coffin very gently, cutting out the -pegs by which it was fastened. Having melted a pot of wax on a stove in -the tomb, I then dashed spoonfuls of it over the beads; it needs to be -thrown sharply, so as to splash out, or it runs off all in one line. -The wax must be only just barely liquid, or it will penetrate to below -the beads. When a sheet of wax is thus put over all the beads, the -sheet may be lifted up, and the pattern is seen in a clean condition, -reversed on the under side. The sheet can then be fixed with more wax -into a tray of wood, so as to keep it safely. If any of the beads are -not firm they can be heated and pressed farther into the wax. Strings -of beads are seldom found with the thread strong enough to hold -together. The earth should be loosened with a penknife, and blown away, -so as to disclose as long a line as possible, then the order of the -beads should be noted for restringing them, in the original pattern. -The tracing out and noting of a string of beads in a grave may often -occupy an hour or two hours, keeping the face close to the ground so as -to blew the dust away exactly, without disturbing the beads. - -[Sidenote: Stucco.] - -Stucco on wood we have already noticed, under the preservation of wood. -However firm the stucco may seem at first, the gradual contraction of -the wood will make it fall away; but when once saturated with paraffin -wax, this movement is stopped, and the stucco is held on to the basis. - -Stucco on mud bricks is a difficult material to preserve. Three -instances may be given of dealing with it. Where the coat was a mere -whitewash on mud plastering, as at Tell el Amarna (Fig. 49), I removed -the bricks behind it by cutting them gently to pieces with a chisel; -thus the coat of mud plaster was left standing up a foot or more in -air, although it was entirely friable owing to white ants having eaten -out the straw from it. Then placing a box lid covered with sheets of -paper against the face, it was firmly grasped behind, and turned over -with the lid to support it, face down. Lying on the box lid it was -taken to the house; a frame of parallel bars of wood was made, each -an inch wide and an inch apart; each bar was coated with mud-and-sand -mortar, and then the frame was pressed gently on the back of the -fresco, and puddled in with mortar between the bars. On then reversing -the frame and box lid, the fresco was left resting on the frame, -with a bedding which was perfectly true, and incapable of warping or -contraction. To pack this a sheet of cotton wool was placed on the -face, a thin board cut to size placed over this, and string lashed -tightly round the face board and notches in the ends of the frame -bars. In this state it travelled quite safely, although the material -was so tender that a finger would push through it anywhere; this was -illustrated by a museum attendant at Cairo, when ordered to carry one -of the frames of fresco. - -Where the stucco is thicker, about 1/16 inch, but wholly shattered -into minute chips, none over ¼ inch across, a different treatment was -necessary, as at Medum. The mass of plaster and stucco was laid face -down, the mud cut away behind it till about a square inch of shattered -plaster was bared at the back; this was covered with a thin coat of -fresh plaster (mixed in the palm of the hand); then another square -inch was bared and coated, and so on, until the whole of the mud was -removed and the old stucco all lay smeared with a thin coat of fresh -plaster on the back. A large slate was then cut to size; a pudding of -liquid plaster was poured on to the stucco and pressed out as thin as -could be with the slate. When it was set, the old painted stucco was -thus securely cemented on to the slate; light, tough, and portable, it -travelled to America in perfect state. - -The third method is where the surfaces are curved. By cutting away the -back as thin as is safe, and setting in a firm backing of cement, even -this difficult subject may be dealt with, and removed safely. - -[Sidenote: Gold.] - -_Metals_ do not require much treatment in the field; but it is needful -to understand the condition of them in order to know how they can -be safely treated. Gold should be cleaned as little as possible, as -the old red surface is the best appearance of it; a little brushing -with camel-hair brush and plain water to remove the dust is generally -enough. Where there is much silver in it, as in electrum, the surface -is dark with chloride of silver; this may be removed with strong -ammonia or cyanide of potassium. Gold-foil often requires straightening -out into its former shape, but it must not be burnished in so doing, as -that expands the form. - -[Sidenote: Silver.] - -Silver is one of the most troublesome metals, as it is so very readily -attacked by chlorine and sulphur; and, moreover, it undergoes a -colloidal rearrangement by which it breaks readily into irregular -curved grains, and it is in this state as rotten as rotten brass. If -deeply corroded nothing can well be done to it; the lumpy crust shows -more of the original form than the metal would show if bared. When the -corrosion is but slight it may be removed, either by solution in strong -ammonia or cyanide of potassium, or by reduction. To bring the chloride -into the state of porous metal, it is only needful to place it with -zinc or iron in a solution of salt or weak vinegar or lemon juice, and -in a few hours the whole of the chlorine has gone over to the fresh -metal. The powdery silver left can be mainly brushed away in water, and -a little picking with a bone point will loosen it entirely. Of course, -the whole of the silver removed has come out of the body of the metal, -which is left porous and tender, although the face may be unbroken. It -will not bear, therefore, the same cleaning as new and strong metal. In -the case of silver coins in fine condition, each coin should be reduced -separately, and the whole of the old silver weighed with it before -cleaning it away, so as to recover the original weight. Silver must -never be put bare in a tin box, as the chlorine forms chloride of tin, -which deliquesces, and then attacks the iron and stains the silver with -brown rust. Often there is both chloride and lime on the surface, and -alternations of ammonia and weak acid are required for cleaning. - -[Sidenote: Copper.] - -Copper objects are distinguished from bronze by retaining usually their -pliability. This renders them much easier to clean, as they are seldom -deeply corroded, and the red oxide upon them will generally flake off -clean by blows, and leave the original face in perfect condition. A -very light hammer should be used, and sharp scaling blows be given, so -as to flake off even half-an-inch breadth of scale at once, without -ever touching the old face. In hollows which cannot so easily be -struck, an iron nail may be used as a punch, and struck so as to crush -the red oxide little by little. A copper object which scales freely is -a treat to clean, as the old face can be entirely bared, and appears of -a beautiful red-brown colour with all the detail quite perfect. Very -thin copper may, however, have entirely passed into green carbonate, -if buried in a damp soil; and in this case nothing can be done except -washing off the earth and dirt. - -[Sidenote: Bronze.] - -Bronze and brass need much more care than copper, as they contain a -mixture of alloys of very different oxidability; hence much of the -material all through the mass will have moved up to the surface and -been corroded there, while the form and size of the original may at -present contain only half the metal in a very porous and brittle -condition. In some cases bronzes may be scaled by blows like copper, -and they then appear in their best condition. But more often they are -too brittle, or the corrosion adheres too tightly, for it to be thus -removed. For cleaning off small quantities of green carbonate, vinegar -left to stand for some days does well. But the proper solvent of both -carbonate and oxide is dilute hydrochloric acid, about 1 to 10 or 20 -of water, as this will not attack the metal, but only the corroded -parts. The objection to this solvent is that it leaves a thick mud of -white oxy-chloride of copper, which is difficult to brush off, and -which stains the skin green in handling. The treatment is to brush -off as much as can be easily removed, and then pickle in hyposulphite -of soda, which dissolves the white coat; if used hot and strong this -will clean the metal to a bright metallic condition. After all these -solutions, a long washing in many waters for two or three days is -needed to remove all trace of salts which might afterwards make further -corrosion. Minute traces of chlorides are specially dangerous, as -they decompose with carbonic acid in the air, forming carbonate, and -liberating the chlorine to attack more metal; thus a trace of chloride -will eat through any amount of copper. The extent to which bronzes -should be cleaned, should be ruled by the fullest display of original -workmanship: so long as more detail can be shown more crust should be -removed. But, if possible, some of the coat of red oxide should be left -on plain parts as a guarantee of the age of the work. To bare bronzes -entirely, and then oil and smoke them, is barbarous treatment, to be -seen in some museums. If something is desired over the bare metal, the -bronze may be left in a shallow pan of water, soaking for some weeks, -by which it will gain a tinge of red oxide over it which is suitable -and pleasing. Another mode of scaling is to heat the bronze over a fire -or in melted lead, and then plunge in cold water, which loosens the -scale from it. It often happens that a bronze has the original face -broken up by corrosion, and then no cleaning is of any use, the mass -of green carbonate shows more than any other surface would do. This -last and worst state is indicated by cracks in the outer coat, due to -further expansion of the inner body. A cracked bronze is best left -alone. - -A frequent disease of bronzes is the formation of small granules of -translucent bright green rust. This is attributed to an organic growth, -which is infectious, and may spread through a collection. One of the -worst instances I dipped in carbolic acid, and this absolutely stopped -the attack, proving that it is not due to action of chlorine. But we -must not take this as a certain proof of the organic nature of the -mischief, in view of the inhibitory effect of anæsthetics, etc., in -stopping electric and chemical action. - -[Sidenote: Lead.] - -Lead is usually coated with white carbonate, the outer face of which -shows more than the metallic surface beneath. It should therefore be -let alone; but if it shows signs of further changes, due to salts in it -acting with damp, then soaking in several waters will probably make it -safe. If carbonate continued to be formed, I should try saturating with -paraffin wax. - -[Sidenote: Iron.] - -Iron can seldom be cleaned; but if it has only a little superficial -rust, this may be removed by placing it in the strongest nitric acid, -which dissolves the oxide but renders the iron passive. For ordinarily -rusted iron all that can be done is to arrest further changes. A -long soaking in water to remove all salts, and then baking dry and -saturating with wax, is a safe treatment and always available. - -[Sidenote: Sorting.] - -Sorting and joining fragments is sometimes very essential. In the -royal tombs of the Ist Dynasty we collected thousands of pieces of -stone bowls and vases. Only a very small number out of such cartloads -of fragments were of value as they lay; but so far as they could be -reconstructed they gave an important series of forms. To extract any -result it was needful to place together all the pieces that belonged to -each separate vase; and the same work frequently had to be done on a -lesser scale in dealing with groups of broken stone and pottery. Taking -the whole of the fragments which can be supposed by their position to -belong together, they are first sorted over for quality, making as many -divisions as are quite safe to be distinguished one from the other, so -that there shall be no chance of parts of one bowl being classed in -two different divisions. All the pieces of one division, sometimes as -many as 500 of one quality, are then to be laid out on tables,--the -pieces of brim placed at the top of the tables, and classed according -to form and curvature; the pieces of middle of the vase along the -middle of the table, all carefully laid with the axis vertical; the -pieces of base at the nearer edge of the table, classed according to -diameter. Taking then the first piece of brim, it is held at each end -of each other piece to which it can possibly belong; every possible -fit is thus found. Each piece of brim is to be thus tried with all -that follow it, those before it having been already tried with it. -When all the possible junctions of brim have been made, then a row -of joined brim pieces are to be laid on a board, and the angle which -each broken edge makes with the vertical is to be looked for among all -the broken sides of the middle pieces, looking for such slope at both -upper and lower sides if the tops are not distinguishable from the -bottoms of the pieces. Thus, say the first broken edge of brim slopes -at [Illustration] 20°, every piece broken at 20° [Illustration] or -[Illustration] must be compared to see if it will fit. At least twenty -different directions of fracture can be mentally distinguished, and -the slight curve and irregularities increase this to at least fifty -varieties, so that each piece of brim only needs actual touching with -about 2 per cent of the pieces of middle. When every possible fit -of brim to middle pieces is made, then the bases can be similarly -compared, having first fitted them by sorting the curvatures. A -load of 500 pieces will take several hours of this sorting, at the -end of which every possible fit will have been made. Not more than -half-an-hour or one hour at a time can be usefully given to such -sorting, as the eye and attention become too much fatigued to observe -the fits. When finished, all the fragments belonging to one bowl are -to be wrapped together, and a number given to the parcel; and the -odd pieces can be thrown away unless worth having singly. The method -for drawing the completed forms has been described in the chapter on -drawing. - - - - -CHAPTER IX - -PACKING - - -[Sidenote: Blocks.] - -Before packing carved blocks it is generally best to saw off the backs, -so as to lighten the quantity. A face should always be sawn from each -end up to the middle, leaving it about twice as thick in the middle -as at the ends, so as to bear the strain of travelling. If a block is -so wide on the face that it is liable to be broken in transit, the -best course is to saw it in pieces, cutting from the back through to -½ or 1 inch from the face, and then snapping it, so that the face -can be rejoined perfectly. Limestone is sawn with a large rip saw or -stonemason’s saw, using a hammer and chisel if any flinty portions are -met with, and also using some hammer dressing. Soft Silsileh sandstone -may be cut with pieces of tin plate, such as petroleum tins or biscuit -tins; or else with a thin strip of wood set with wire nails to serve as -teeth of a saw. The harder stones must be moved as found, for the cost -of reducing the weight would be more than that of carrying it. - -[Illustration: FIG. 50.--Box for flat slab of stone, lid of diagonal -bars.] - -[Sidenote: Long objects.] - -In all questions of packing long objects, it must be remembered that -the best points of support for equality of strains are at 21 per -cent (say ⅕) from each end. Any long stone must therefore be held in -its case by cross bars or thicker pads or hay at ⅕ from each end. It -is impossible to reckon on a case being so rigid, and so perfectly -fitting, that it will give uniform support all along, with a much -smaller elasticity than that of the stone. The utmost any case can -do for stone is to deaden blows and shocks, and to hold the stone so -that it is equally likely to break in the middle or at the supports; -and this is gained by the grip at ⅕ from each end. A good packing for -small slabs that are not liable to break, is a shallow box (Fig. 50), -with the stone face down on dried fodder or straw, and two cross bars -parallel and diagonal on the top, to hold the stone in. Such a box is -easily lifted by the bars, saves all Customs examination, and will not -tempt thieves. In all instances remember that it is useless to put -general softening round stones in a box. The best points to take the -pressure should be considered, and then thick pads nailed on the box -to catch those best points of contact. - -[Illustration: FIG. 51.--Tray for carrying heavy blocks of stone, -lashed on by ropes through the holes.] - -[Sidenote: Heavy stones.] - -The largest stones cannot usefully have any case; as a case which would -not be cracked up by the weight in moving, would be so thick and heavy -that it would make the stone far less moveable. If the stone is strong -it only needs three or four thicknesses of old clothes and sacking -tightly roped on, in order to travel safely. If it has a tender face, -a skin of board may be put over that with some cotton-wool padding -under the sacking cover. It is best for blocks of 1 to 4 cwt. to make -a tray (Fig. 51) with poles projecting a foot at each corner to serve -as handles, and then lash the block firmly on the tray. This encourages -porters to lift it rather than throw it over. Such things as granite -columns or colossi need no cover, but only softening of wood or pads, -put under bearing points during moving. On shipboard they travel best -laid at the bottom of a cargo of beans in bulk or bales of cotton, -which wedge them tight. - -[Sidenote: Pottery.] - -Pottery is the most troublesome stuff to pack. The difficulty lies -in keeping the packing material at the right places, and preventing -it lumping together and so letting the contacts become bare. All -the larger hollows must be filled with small pottery, or very light -boxes, or empty tins, so that the packing cannot shift together. For -large jars it is best to roll up straw in cloth to form cushions 1 to -2 inches thick, and nail these on the box at the points of contact; -always observing if the jar can get loose by skewing into the diagonal. -It is often needful to tie cotton stuff over the mouths of jars to -prevent the packing working loose into the jar. For flat open forms, -such as dishes and wide bowls, a stack should be made with the flattest -below, so that each dish rests solely on its centre, and all the edges -are free. A very little softening between them, and a firm block (such -as a round tin pot) in the top one to take the pressure, will make them -all travel with a solid contact right through the centres, so that each -brim only carries its own weight. Even thin glass dishes can be packed -safely in stacks in this way. - -Glazed pottery is sometimes very fragile and full of cracks. To save it -from falling apart it should be wound with string crossing diagonally -in every direction, as tightly as it can be pulled. This firmly binds -the jar so that it cannot fall apart. A couple of inches of tightly -rammed softening all round it, will make it then travel quite safely. - -[Sidenote: Softening.] - -The material for packing, or _softening_, varies with the country and -the season. In England there is nothing so good as the fine shavings -known as “wood-wool.” In Egypt the best stuff is _helbeh_, a dried -green crop which is very clinging, and holds in any position in which -it is thrust. _Tibn_, or chopped straw, is also useful for ramming -tight in small spaces. Firm cushions on fixed bearing points are -made by rolling up straw in old cloth, and nailing the edges on the -box, so that the pressure can never reach the nails. Rough country -cotton can be had, but it is dear; and two or three pounds of prepared -cotton wool in sheets should be taken for packing delicate things. -Plenty of whitey-brown kitchen paper should be taken for wrapping; -and some cartridge paper or brown paper for parcels. Stocks of nested -parcel-post boxes are very useful; but sliding lids fall out loose by -contraction, and glued joints crack to pieces. The domestic stock of -biscuit boxes and food tins of course all come in for varied use. - -[Sidenote: Cases.] - -The making of cases is little understood, and least by professional -case-makers. Cases are often supplied in London with the grain entirely -running round them, and nothing to prevent their splitting around and -dropping in two parts. The most perfect construction is that with the -grain running in all three directions (Fig. 52), but such boxes have -the disadvantage that the lid cannot be entirely removed. The most -practical form is with internal corner-posts, and the sides nailed -to these with all the grain running around. First the end boards are -nailed on to the corner strips, and then the side boards nailed on. All -the nails should be driven diagonally (Fig. 53), alternately one way -and the other, so that no board can be drawn off without splitting the -wood. And the end nails should always be close to the edge, and rake -deep down into the comer strip, to avoid splitting the end; thus the -edge of the board cannot part off with all the lid or bottom nailed to -it. For as the whole weight comes on the last inch of the sides on to -which the bottom is nailed, unless that is well held on it often parts -from the rest of the side. The lid is of course nailed on with upright -nails so as to draw off; and a large number of short nails, projecting -only ¾ inch, is the best for this, as if large nails are used the lid -splits during opening and leaves the nail in the side. - -[Illustration: FIG. 52.--Box without cross bars, the grain running in -all three dimensions.] - -If a case is long, it is best to have some other upright strips down -the sides. Partitions bearing against these strips are good to keep -weight from riding down when the box is dropped on one end. If objects -vary much in density it is convenient to pack a heavy compartment in -the middle and a light one at each end of a case. Any bars or boards -used to hold down heavy pieces from shifting should not be nailed -through the sides, as damage is often done by the violence needed to -loosen them in unpacking. Such bars should be held in place by side -strips, or other solid articles in the packing. Tin pots are very -convenient to protect small and delicate things, and to hold heavy -objects from shifting about. - -[Illustration: FIG. 53.--End of a box in course of making, to show the -diagonal driving of the nails.] - -[Sidenote: Unpacking.] - -The packer must always remember that the unpacker will not know the -contents of a case, nor any precautions that are needful. The best -arrangements, which may seem infallible, may be entirely upset by the -unpacker opening the case at the bottom; hence no papers of directions -in a case should be relied upon. Also the unpacking is generally left -in museums to be done by rough labourers, who may entirely overlook -needful precautions or even throw away most valuable things in the -boxes. It is dangerous, therefore, to pack small objects in straw; -nothing under 100 cubic inches should be put separately in the packing, -anything less being put together in paper parcels. It must always be -remembered that a careless unpacker may unwrap everything, and throw -away the papers; hence no labelling or directions should be solely put -on the wrappers. Even labels with objects are not safe; as in several -museums the labels have been thrown away, or else stacked in a pile -together. Labels should have printed on the back in big red letters, -“To be kept with the object.” Marking upon each object is necessary, -whenever possible. The best way to learn the difficulties and fallacies -of packing is to carefully study the causes of any disasters found in -the unpacking. - -[Illustration: TRANSPORT IN EGYPT. - -Fig. 54. Two Nile boats; laden with straw.] - -[Illustration: TRANSPORT IN EGYPT. - -Fig. 55. Camels starting at dawn. The return at noonday.] - - -APPENDIX - -LIST OF TOOLS, ETC., TO BE PROVIDED FOR WORK - -_For Excavating._--Crowbars, ropes,[2] large hammers, cold-chisels, -stone-saw, saw-files, sieves (fine wire), native sieves.[2] - -_For Cleaning Objects, etc._--Dusting-brush, nail-brush, tooth-brushes, -paraffin wax. - -_For Packing._--Paper bags, jewellers’ tag labels, reams of kitchen -paper, nests of boxes, brush to mark boxes, hammers, saws, chisels, -brace and bits, pincers, stout pliers, files, awls, spokeshave, -screw-drivers, screws, wire nails,[2] square, hone-stone. - -_For House._--Locks, hinges, bell. - -_For Copying and Planning._--Cartridge paper, thin journal paper,[2] -rag paper for squeezes, spoke brush, paint brushes for outlines, -colours for colour copying, drawing boards (several cheap ones, various -sizes), tapes, 2-metre rods for gauging work and planning, prismatic -compass, box sextant, vertical mirror level. - - [2] These can be obtained in any Egyptian town. - - - - -CHAPTER X - -PUBLICATION - - -[Sidenote: Arrangement.] - -The final shape of the publication of the record has to be borne in -mind in all the progress of it. The arrangement of the plates must -precede the writing of the details of the work. In past generations the -ideal was to define in words the conclusions and speculations of an -author, and, where unavoidably necessary, to illustrate them by some -costly engravings. How inefficient such publication may be, is seen at -once in Greenwell’s _British Barrows_, a work full of important detail, -which has to be painfully understood from hundreds of pages of text, -where plans--and little else--are needed. Indeed the only means of -using the information is to reconstruct plans from the intricate text. -As form can now be almost as cheaply expressed as words, the ideal is -widely changed. The reader is to be put first of all in possession of -all the facts and materials, and the author’s conclusions are only a -co-ordination, presented to enable the reader to grasp the material, -and to feel clearly the effect of it on his sum of ideas, or organised -sense of the nature of things. Hence nowadays the main structure of a -book on any descriptive science is its plates, and the text is to show -the meaning and relation of the facts already expressed by form. The -plates, therefore, are the first thing to prepare; and when they are -complete it is time to put in words the conclusions which have been -reached. - -[Sidenote: Plates.] - -The orderly arrangement of the material in plates is the first duty. -The drawings are each to be made with the final scale in view, so that -the lines may be of proper thickness, neither faint nor coarse. The -material must be classified according to its nature,--views, plans, -inscriptions, sculpture, small objects, pottery, etc. In each class, -the historical order must be followed, objects that are to be compared -placed together, and the material arranged in an orderly shape, so -that it gives a clear impression, and can be easily found again from -memory. The details of the squareness and alignment of the various -drawings on a plate are much more serious than might be supposed; -needless irregularity confuses and disappoints the eye and starves -the memory, distinctly detracting from the use and value of the work. -Obviously every object on a plate must have a number for reference; -and in a long series it is best for the numbers to run through several -plates; so that “sealing 157” or “mark 642” is a complete reference -and definition. A uniform scale should be used throughout a plate, or -a series of the same class, and it should be stated in the heading of -the plate. Every plate should have stated in its heading the source, -nature, age, and scale of the objects; for these render reference far -easier, and also give a value to loose plates apart from the volume. -The use of double-page plates is often desirable, in order to show the -whole of a large class at one view; the only drawback to them is that -objects are more difficult to find in turning over the leaves. At every -point it must be remembered that nearly all foreign students, and most -English ones, will know the plates but not the text; that the plates -will be the material practically used for comparison, and building up -a view of the subject; and therefore that they should be as far as -possible self-contained and self-explanatory, with full lettering upon -them, and should comprise the main results of the work in diagram. -To help reference to the text, the list of plates should have the -page references to each plate stated, to show where it is described -and dealt with in the text. The facility of using, remembering, and -referring to the plates should be the first consideration. It is even -well to remember to make the right-hand edge, or outer edge, of each -plate the strongest part, with the most striking objects and best -arrangement, and let the other edge be a residual, as this ensures the -best eye-grasp in turning over the leaves. - -The amount of plates must depend upon the subject; but it is none too -much if the area of plates is double that of the text, or twice as -many plates as there are pages. Folding-out plates should be avoided -where possible; a double page on a deep guard, so as to lie flat when -the book is opened, is the largest that should be ordinarily used. The -most absurdly inconvenient shape is to have wide margins to a plate, -and a fold at side and another at base, to make it fit the book. It -is best to remedy such folly by taking the plates out, cutting them -to book size if margins allow, and resetting without folds. The wild -freaks of recent books in Egyptology are incomprehensible. We see -some with plates which might be bound with text, yet printed with -gigantic margins and issued in an entirely different size, so that -they cannot be bound, or even stand on the same shelf with the text; -some plates put on guards of tissue paper, so that they tear out of -the book in turning over; one serial in parts with the plates starting -fresh numbers with every separate paper, thus one part has half a -dozen “Plate 1” in it, making printed references to the work quite -impossible; other publications with the plates all renumbered and -rearranged after printing, and double references throughout; others -with scattered numbers of the plates issued, and intermediate numbers -to appear later, after many years or never; some with plates without -any numbers to the objects, and stray references in the text showing -that they are usually counted by the author from the base upward, and -from right to left. Every absurdity which want of design, forethought, -and common sense could perpetrate, seems to be found in these -monumental works. - -[Sidenote: Processes.] - -The processes used for plates vary greatly in cost and quality. The -cheapest is photolithography from line drawings; but only black and -white can be given thus, without any half-tones, and the illustrations -must be all together on a plate, and cannot be placed in the text. Yet -as it can be done at less than 2d. a square inch for 250, or 6d. for -2000, it enables a much larger quantity of illustration to be given -than would be possible otherwise. Relief process from line drawings -costs 4d. a square inch for the blocks alone, without printing on -paper; but as it can be placed with the text and printed together, it -has a great advantage, especially for small subjects. - -Collotype is next in cost, being 6d. a square inch for 250, or 2s. for -2000, but less than this cost in Germany. It has the same disadvantage -in being restricted to whole plates, and not mixable with text, but -it gives the half-tones well from photographs, and in fine examples -is almost as good as a silver print. The finest I have seen were from -Berlin. It is best to supply glass positives to the collotyper, and -leave him to make such negatives as may suit him. If negatives are sent -they are often destroyed. Net process gives half-tones, though with too -coarse a grain for very delicate details. The cost is about double that -of relief blocks, but as it reproduces photographs which can be mixed -with the text it has an enormous use now, from cheap newspapers up to -art publications. A disadvantage is that it requires a highly glazed -paper to print upon, such as is unpleasant to read, heavy to hold, and -liable to decay. Its duration therefore is distinctly ephemeral. - -For special subjects the more costly processes are requisite. -Chromo-lithography may be expected to cost about half as much again -as photolithography for each colour used. As seldom less than four -colours are efficient it costs at least six times as much as the line -plates; thus the cheapest colour plate begins at the cost of the best -net process; and it may easily come to three or four times that -amount. But probably the three-colour photography will soon abolish -chromo-lithography, and work much cheaper, perhaps at three or four -times the price of collotype. - -The autotype, platinotype, heliogravure, Swan electric engraving, and -other processes all have their place for special subjects, but seldom -come into the general run of archaeological illustration. - -[Sidenote: Editions.] - -A very successful policy for costly works of research is to issue a -magnificent edition for libraries, book-collectors, and rich amateurs; -and then to have a much larger edition, deficient in a few of the most -costly and least necessary plates, sold at a cheap rate for students -and the general public. Thus one great work of coloured folio plates -costs £20 or 3s. a plate for the complete edition; whereas with a -few plates deficient it is only £6 or 1s. a plate. Thus the cost of -production is borne by those who demand magnificence, and the results -are yet within reach of students. - -Another useful arrangement is to issue a public edition for general -reading, and an appendix of extra plates for students, which would -overweight a general edition. Thus a 2000 edition of the popular half -of the plates may cost £400, and a 250 edition of the students’ half -of the plates may cost £100, so saving £300, which would be uselessly -spent on 1750 copies that are not wanted, and which would only be a -dead-weight to the main work. - -[Sidenote: Text.] - -In arrangement of the text the main necessity is ready reference, and -a form which can be remembered. The way to this is by classifying the -material, dividing into chapters and paragraphs, each with a title, -and above all making a good index, which ought to be about a tenth of -the length of the work. A list of plates should have page references -for each plate. Remember that all smaller type, footnotes, and tables -are far more expensive than straightforward printing. - -The general nature of the record of results has been already dealt with -under the recording; and the need of giving an organic handling of the -whole has been pointed out. - -[Sidenote: Publishing.] - -As to publication, if any publisher will undertake to issue a work of -research at his own risk, well and good. If the author gets a gradually -increasing royalty after the first 100 copies, that is as much as can -be expected from this class of literature. But in no case have any -profit-sharing agreement. Usually such a work will have to be issued -at the author’s risk, and a few of the pitfalls of such arrangements -may be noted. Let the manuscript really be in final condition, down -to every stop, before it goes to the printer; consider the details of -headlines, paragraphing, insertion of illustrations, arrangements of -any tables or lists, (counting the letters), and in short leave nothing -undefined. Have an agreement with the printer for terms, including an -average of, say, two author’s alterations in every page, none to alter -the length of any page: this allows for inevitable small improvements, -without leaving an entire uncertainty in the charges. Correct the -proofs in red for the author’s alterations, in black for the printer’s -errors. If alterations exceed the allowance, reckon on paying for -the resetting of the worst pages, so as to bring the average to the -allowance on the rest. Beside the contract for printing and binding, -have a contract with the lithographer, another with the collotyper, and -another with the bookseller, for his terms of commission on sales. Thus -the author knows exactly where he is, and no unpleasantness can arise -from unexpected charges. - -After publication, the binder and plate-printer should be asked for -any blocks used; and to send up any “overs” or spoilt plates; as such -are often valuable afterwards to cut up for special uses, and may save -spoiling copies of the book. All photographs and drawings supplied to -the plate- or block-maker should also be asked for if not returned at -once. - - - - -CHAPTER XI - -SYSTEMATIC ARCHAEOLOGY - - -[Sidenote: Systems of Work.] - -A science can hardly be said to exist until it has a developed system -of work, and its possibilities of value for teaching purposes depend -entirely on the organization of its methods. Geology was a chaos -before the generalisation of the successive order of the strata, and -the method of the determination of a stratum by its fossils, gave the -subject a working system. Astronomy was a maze until the Newtonian -laws produced methods of analysis. Chemistry could not be said to have -any methods until the use of the balance and the theory of atomic -combination made possible the last century of development. So far, -archaeology cannot be said to have systematised any working methods -except those of artistic comparison and of epigraphy, and these can -only cover a small part of the space and time which need to be studied. - -Two general modes of work, however, have been begun, beside that of -artistic comparison; and it only needs that they should be fully -carried out in order to produce a thoroughly systematic archaeology. -These methods are (1) the complete definition of facts by means of a -_corpus_ of all known varieties of objects, in terms of which every -object can be defined; and (2) the arrangement of material in its order -of development by statistical methods and comparison, which bring out -the original sequence of construction. These two methods of work may -prove to be, for archaeology, what the balance and atomic theory have -been for chemistry,--the necessary foundation for systematic knowledge -and exact theory. - -[Sidenote: Need of a _corpus_.] - -The collection of known objects in a _corpus_ was well done by the -early systematisers, especially Montfaucon; and though his work is -nearly two centuries old, it has not yet been superseded by better -productions in every department. Since that appeared, the mass of new -material which has been collected, especially in the last fifty years, -cannot be mastered by one man, if he is ever to find time for original -work; and the whole subject is near coming to a standstill owing -to the dead weight of preparations which are required before going -further. Until a generation of systematisers shall arise, archaeology -can scarcely progress without continual waste of material and loss by -duplication of work. Moreover, there is no general reference work, and -no notation efficient for recording new discoveries. - -What is now urgently needed is for some scholars to each take one -branch of work, to collect all that is known, especially of dated -material; and then to publish all type examples, showing how the -subject varied from century to century, and to attach a system of -letters and numbers to every variety, so that any specimen can be -denoted merely by its _corpus_ number. This should be done at least for -all implements of stone and of metal, all pottery, all stone and metal -vases, all beads and personal ornaments, jewellery, clothing, domestic -utensils, and all motives of design and ornamentation. - -With such a definite notation once laid down, it would be possible -to record discoveries, and especially groups of objects, rapidly and -in a small compass. It would also be possible to compile results of -excavations and the contents of museums in simple indices. In order to -work systematically in archaeology we ought to be able to look in an -index and find at once where, and of what epoch, is every instance of -a particular object: say, of a key, type M 27, or of a vase, type D -64. Such indices should be continued by supplements issued every ten -or twenty years. At present, if one would ascertain the parallels to a -particular form, it is necessary to search through hundreds of volumes -and to visit all the museums--a matter of months of work. Progress in -archaeology, as an exact science, is practically impossible; it should -be easy and rapid, were all the known material always to be found at -once in a _corpus_ and indices. - -[Sidenote: Example of _corpus_.] - -Only one _corpus_ has yet been formed, and that is restricted to only -one country, one period, and one material--the prehistoric pottery of -Egypt (see _Nagada_ and _Diospolis Parva_). An outline of the system -there followed will serve to show the actual working of a _corpus_, -though for each different subject the details will need separate -consideration. The whole of this pottery comprises about a thousand -varieties. Each class of pottery is denoted by its initial letter; -P for polished, B for black-topped, etc. Each form in a class is -numbered, from 1 to 99, and each sub-variety is lettered. Thus R 63 -_c_ means rough pottery, type 63, variety _c_; and this completely -defines the example. The numbers are not always continuous, but gaps -in the series are left where there is much difference between the -forms. In this manner it is possible to add new forms without upsetting -the system, and new sub-varieties can be brought in by using small -letters. The forms are best classified by beginning with the most open -and flat dishes, and proceeding to the most closed forms, with narrow -necks ending. The point of reaching verticality in the sides is a -well-defined middle point. - -[Sidenote: Utility.] - -The practical utility of such a _corpus_ is found at once when -excavating. Formerly it was needful to keep dozens of broken specimens, -which were of no value except for the fact of being found along with -other vases. Now the excavator merely needs to look over the _corpus_ -of plates, and writes down on the plan of the tomb, say, B 23, P 35 -_b_, C 15, F 72, thus the whole record is made, and not a single piece -need be kept unless it is a good specimen. How essential such a record -is for future progress we shall see below. - -The most obvious step now would be to corporate all the pottery of -Italy. A _corpus_ from Pompeii would be the best starting-point, -as being all of one period and well dated; then a _corpus_ of -Constantinian forms, a _corpus_ of Republican forms, and a _corpus_ of -each of the prehistoric periods. The early history of the Forum at -Rome hangs now upon the safety of little groups of potsherds lying in -a shed, yet unclassed and unstudied, and certain to be swept away some -day by some one who does not value them. Instead of this we ought to -have a _corpus_ for reference, and then the contents of each of the -archaic wells could be at once denoted and published by the numbers of -the types; the historic material would be safe, and could be studied -at any future time irrespective of the conservation of the heaps of -sherds. Carry this out in Greece, and, instead of piles of pottery -lying in the fields or on the terraces of a classical site from the -prehistoric town levels, each piece could be noted by its number, and -all could be published to make the history of the site accessible. -Without a _corpus_ such discoveries are but a pathetic destruction -of material; with _corpus_ notation they would form the basis of a -thorough history of the site and of all its changes. - -All that is needed to produce a _corpus_ from a collection is a month -or two of work by a draughtsman, who has an accurate eye for form, -working to a uniform scale, and systematising the material conveniently -for future reference. Some subjects would require collecting from many -sources, but generally all the pottery of one period can be found -together in one museum. - -[Sidenote: Successive ages.] - -We now turn to the second method for archaeological research. This is -the synthetical arrangement of the material in the original order. The -most obvious arrangement is that by contemporary dating, as by years -named in a chronicle or on coins, or by successive reigns of kings. -But outside of this method there yet lies the greater part of human -history, which can only be reconstructed by some internal evidence of -successive periods. - -A couple of generations ago there were laid down the main divisions of -successive ages of stone, bronze, and iron; and then the division of -the stone age into palaeolithic and neolithic. After that followed the -separation of palaeolithic into four main periods in France, more or -less applicable to other lands. Further definition was yet found to be -necessary, and the neolithic and bronze ages were marked off into many -classes, which had to be distinguished by the names of places where -they were first found; and thus we reach a multitude of names, such as -Mycenaean, Hallstattian, the period of La Tène, etc. Such a piecemeal -plan is well enough for a beginning; but it is not capable of exact -definition, it is cumbersome, and it does not express the relation of -one period to another. - -[Sidenote: Sequences.] - -Before we can think of subdividing a period into a continuous notation, -the first requisite is to be able to place the material into its -original order or sequence. Let us suppose some old country mansion, -where it has been the habit to close permanently any room in which an -owner had died, and leave everything in it undisturbed. If we went -through such a series of rooms we could not doubt their order of date -if we looked at their contents. The William IV room could not be put -to the middle of George III’s reign; the George II room could not be -supposed to go between those of James II and Anne. Each room full of -furniture would have some links of style with that of the generation -before, and of the generation after it, and no real doubt could exist -as to the sequence of the whole series. What is true of a room full of -furniture is equally true of a grave full of pottery. If we compare -together a series of groups of pottery which are not separated by any -long time, there will always be found some relationship between the -forms in different groups: one group will be seen to fall between two -others if it contains forms to be found in each of the other groups, -though these others may have nothing in common together. A fragment of -the alphabet, K L M N O P, must fall between H I J K L and O P Q R, and -proves their connection. - -Thus if each form lasted in use for a uniform length of time the -problem would be fairly simple. But it is complicated by the plainer -forms lasting far longer in use than the complex or highly decorated -forms; some may go on being made for a thousand years, others may not -have been made for even ten years. Hence it is needful to resort to -various statistical modes of sorting, which differ in each case. A -complete instance of the process is given in _Diospolis Parva_, pp. 4–8. - -On the other hand, the sorting of material is greatly helped by any -clear series of forms derived one from the other; especially a series -of degradation, and reduction of useful elements to mere ornament. It -is well, however, to have a check on one end of a series, by connecting -it to known times, so as to prove which way it proceeds. - -[Sidenote: Sequence dates.] - -What notation should be used to express a series of sequences must -vary with conditions. Where we can deal with a larger number--many -hundreds--of good graves, each containing plenty of material, then a -scale of equal numbers of graves is perhaps the fairest that can be -taken. Thus for a scale of sequence dates, for the pottery named above, -I adopted 50 numbers, each representing 20 graves. - -The final result is to express the time-range of each type of pottery -and of other objects in the graves in terms of the scale of sequence -of the tombs. Thus the date of certain forms may be stated as 33–42 -sequence date; 37–70 sequence date; 45–48 sequence date, etc. And when -this is once established it is easy to date all further graves by -arranging the dates of each object found in a grave, for instance in -actual cases:-- - - Sequence dates. Sequence dates. - 30–36 35–68 - 32–68 60–69 - 30–42 68–78 - 31–34 68–78 - ----- ----- - Limits 32–34 68 - -The larger the group the more closely it is dated, by reason of the -various forms having a very small common ground of dating. - -This system enables us to deal with material which is entirely undated -otherwise; and the larger the quantity of it the more accurate are the -results. There is no reason now why prehistoric ages, from which there -are groups of remains, should not be dealt with as surely and clearly -as the historic ages with recorded dates. - -[Sidenote: Conservation.] - -Yet another all-important matter for the systematic archaeology of the -future must be here mentioned, especially as it greatly affects the -future schemes of field-work. The first requirement for systematic work -of study is material sufficient to work on. And to provide this there -must be both discovery and conservation. During the last century there -has been a gradual growth of archaeological perception; and in place of -only caring for beautiful and striking objects there has arisen some -interest in whatever can throw light on the past civilisations. But -unhappily the ideas of conservation have not kept pace with the work -of discovery. The present system of museums is the most serious bar to -the progress of archaeology. The building, which is the mere modern -shell, of no interest, and often of no beauty, is the master of the -collection, which is restrained and crippled by such conditions that -its use is impaired and its growth is stopped. The past is vanishing -before our modern changes yearly and daily. There is ever less and less -to preserve. And everything possible must be garnered before it has -entirely vanished. The present has its most serious duty to history in -saving the past for the benefit of the future. - -[Sidenote: Buildings.] - -In a museum the collection is the essential; the building is the -mere accident of the surroundings of the collection, and it should -completely conform to all the requirements. Yet can it be believed -that, even in the last year or two, enormous national museums--as at -Cairo and Brussels--have been built without the smallest regard to the -collection, or the opinions of the curators? The result at Cairo is the -most deplorable sacrifice of the art and history of a great country to -the follies and childish vanity of an incompetent and unsympathetic -architect. We will not stay to detail the entire unsuitability of that -building in style, form, size, and lighting; the constructive questions -of what is needed for a proper museum are our subject. - -[Sidenote: Lighting.] - -After the common purpose of all buildings--security from man and -nature--the first requirements in a museum are lighting and grouping. -Whatever interferes with these is a detriment which should be avoided -or removed. Lighting must be (1) direct, not from reflection by walls; -(2) full, but not dazzling; (3) in exactly the right direction. Of -all the precious statues of antiquity there is not one that has had -a tenth of its value spent on the best lighting possible. Most are -in hopelessly bad positions, as the Aphrodite of Melos in a weak, -diffused, sidelight; and none have the simplest blinds to change the -direction of the light, so as to study the surface in varying lighting. -To know what a figure requires, only take a fine statuette in the -hand, and try what can be made of it by the variation of direction, -obliquity, and amount of lighting. Then see how hopeless it is to know -a statue in one fixed lighting, even if that be suitable. The only -person competent to arrange the lighting of objects, and especially -statuary, is a successful photographer who has well practised the -lighting of portable figures. An almost vertical light is essential -for all human figures in the round or flat; but it needs most delicate -adjustment to bring out the more important modelling, and many -different directions of light to shew all that there is in the work. -What is true of statuary is true in a lesser degree of every other -object. No other qualities can possibly atone for defects of lighting -in a museum. No building with a bad light can be called properly a -museum; it may be an architect’s triumph, a civic ornament, a costly -patchwork, a marvel of folly, but a museum it is not, if it is unfit -for the first requirements of a collection. - -[Sidenote: Grouping.] - -The second great requirement, that of grouping, includes the -intelligent display of objects so as to shew their relation to -each other in development, their connection as found together, the -preservation of the whole of the material that should be preserved, and -its comparison by means of casts. - -The relation of objects in development requires free space in a museum, -and the absence of any pinching consideration of how to utilise every -square foot. Their connection as found together in tombs and groups -also requires free space, more than is yet to be had in any English -museum. The preservation of the whole of the needful material is still -more utterly beyond the limits of any of the present museums. Every -year a great deal of entirely irreplaceable material is thrown away, or -neglected on the spot, because there is no hope whatever of preserving -it. In the British Museum space costs several pounds a square foot, -and only objects of great value can be reasonably preserved there. We -are driven, then, to the conclusion that the progress of archaeology -and the preservation of the past, as it comes into our hands year by -year, is essentially a question of free space. And that is practically -entirely a question of cheap space. To refuse to preserve anything that -is not worth some pounds per square foot, is the death of archaeology; -and yet such are the necessary conditions in our present museums, -however much we may expand them in their costly conditions. If we once -think of what the condition of affairs will be fifty years hence, when -many periods and places will be exhausted, and yet nothing but showy -objects are preserved, we see that the future knowledge of archaeology -is helplessly bound up in the question of our immediate expansion of -conservation. - -[Sidenote: National Repository.] - -We see then how absolutely necessary for archaeology and ethnology it -is to have a National Repository, where the cost of space shall never -be detrimental to the collection. I need not enter on the details of -how such a repository could be carried out, as I have fully discussed -them at the British Association, and the Society of Arts (see _Jour. -S. A._ No. 2, 478, price 6d.); but an outline of the conditions and -cost will shew the practicability of the proposal. All objects of -value to a thief should be kept in the strong custody of city museums; -but the great majority of specimens that should be preserved are too -bulky or too unsaleable to be stolen, beside casts which no one would -steal, and such do not, therefore, need more than general supervision. -A square mile of land, within an hour’s journey from London, should -be secured; and built over with uniform plain brickwork and cement -galleries, at the rate of 20,000 square feet a year, so providing 8 -miles of galleries 50 feet wide in a century, with room yet for several -centuries of expansion at the same rate. A staff of about 30 persons -would suffice to arrange the new material at this rate; and having -abundant space, no time would be wasted by frequent shifting of old -material. Everything should be photographically registered as it came -in. Glass should be placed over all objects which can deteriorate; but -the amount of dirt would be a minimum in the country, and with the -air-supply filtered from dust. - -The total cost of land, building, materials, and staff would be covered -by a budget of £10,000 a year. And this is the normal _increase_ of the -British Museum budget every four years. Hence if the British Museum -were to find room by clearing out objects which are not liable to be -stolen, for a few years, and placing them in the Repository, the cost -of the Repository would be paid for to all time. A mere retardation -of growth of the British Museum for five or ten years would entirely -make up for the cost of the Repository twenty times its size. That -this provision is perfectly practicable is not denied; that it would -be far cheaper than continued expansion in highly expensive conditions -is certain; and that it is essential for the growth of archaeology and -ethnology is sadly obvious. Let us hope that if we are too hide-bound -in England to grasp the new conditions of research, that at least -in America some one will provide such a storehouse for all time; -where some day the history of the world may be studied, when we have -hopelessly lost the chance of preserving what might at present be had -for the asking. If we are to make up our minds to ignore and lose what -is now being lost and destroyed every year owing to our ignorance and -blindness, we must look to the New World to rescue from our misuse the -material we now throw away, and so preserve the history of mankind. - - - - -CHAPTER XII - -ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE - - -[Sidenote: Nature of proof.] - -The nature of proof is more complex than it seems to be at first sight. -True enough, all proof is merely a matter of common sense; it does -not appeal to any different faculty. And though a proof may follow as -simply as possible from the facts, yet it cannot be understood by one -who is not familiar with the facts to begin with. Trigonometry is the -most obvious common sense to any one familiar with the formulae; and -the formulae themselves are only common sense to any one who takes the -trouble to argue them through. Yet, for all that, trigonometry is not -obvious to the ignorant. In the same way the evidences about the past -of man are simple and clear when the facts and methods from which they -are deduced are already known. Yet it requires a good familiarity with -the material before the conclusions can be felt to be self-evident -results. - -[Sidenote: Legal evidence.] - -To follow clearly what evidence and proof means, it is best to refer -to a class of evidence which is most familiar to the reader. What is -commonly called _legal evidence_ is the best-known example, as it is -met every day in law cases and police reports. Evidence is based on -the same principles, in whatever subject it may be; there is not one -logic for the present, and a different logic for the past. But the -kind of evidence, the exactitude, the certainty, which is considered -enough to determine a property or a life, is rightly looked on as -conclusive for all reasonable purposes. The laws of such evidence have -been threshed over for generations past; and it is well known what kind -of proofs may be relied upon, and what are dubious. If we then compare -this class of evidence with that which we accept in studying the past -history of man, we shall see more clearly what kinds of proof are -admissible, and how far it is reasonable to depend upon our results. - -In examining legal evidence we see that it all falls under one of -four heads--(1) witnesses, (2) material objects, (3) exhaustion, and -(4) probabilities. These four kinds of evidence are of very different -values; any one of them may be stronger than the others in a given -case, and each kind has its own special weakness. - -1. _Witnesses_ provide the most clear and connected proof, and the -least liable to misunderstanding; but yet a proof which is entirely -dependent on veracity, on intelligence, on absence of prejudice, and -on clear memory, and is hence the least dependable kind of evidence in -some cases. - -2. _Material facts_, which may be very conclusive; such as A’s -footprint in B’s garden, or A’s chisel left in B’s house, at a -burglary. If the fact is certain, the conclusion is proved; but the -danger lies in misunderstanding the fact. - -3. _Exhaustion_, which may prove A guilty because no one else could -have done the deed; as when A and B are seen in a railway carriage at -one station, and at the next stoppage B is found murdered and A leaves -the carriage. There may be not a trace of other evidence, but this is -enough. - -4. _Probability_, as when A is last seen with B, and B proceeds to deal -with the property of murdered A. This kind of evidence is enough to -hang a man, solely from presumption. - -Now let us look at these kinds of evidence about the past of man. - -[Sidenote: Witnesses.] - -1. _Witnesses_, the documents, which give a clear and connected -statement. They may be either primary, as a stone inscription or an -autograph letter; or secondary, as compiled histories or subsequent -copies. No other kind of evidence is so easy to follow; yet this is -a proof in which we are entirely at the mercy of the prejudices, the -ill-will, the frauds, and the blunders of others, and it is hence -the least dependable kind of evidence in some cases. The speeches of -Thucydides, the bias of Suetonius, the wonders of Livy, the romances of -William of Malmesbury, and the forgery called Richard of Cirencester, -each plunge us deeper and deeper into the doubtfulness of written -documents; to say nothing of the casket letters or Ossian. - -[Sidenote: Material facts.] - -2. _Material facts_, when rightly understood, are the most conclusive -evidence. They may be in a single object, as a palaeolithic flint -rechipped over and over in later ages; or a foreign ornament used on an -object of dated style, as a Maori tatued head in a daguerreotype would -prove the tatuing to be known between 1840 and 1860; or a restruck -coin with one type over another, as Barchocheb over Hadrian; or an -added inscription, so familiar on Egyptian statues. Or the evidence -may consist in a collocation of objects, such as a group of things -found together in a tomb; or the superposition of strata of ruins in -a town. In the case of a single object there are few possibilities -of misunderstanding the evidence; but in strata or tomb-groups there -is a chance of older things being reused. Such chances of error -are, however, extinguished by the recurrence of instances; and the -finding of certain things together in several cases under different -circumstances is one of the strongest kinds of evidence, such, for -instance, as the name of Amenhotep III often found with the Mykenaean -pottery, both in Greece and in Egypt. - -[Sidenote: Exhaustion.] - -3. _Exhaustion_ may prove a point; as, for instance, the Iconoclasts in -Greece or Reformers and Puritans in England were the only destroyers of -images and pictures, or Akhenaten was the only man who erased the name -of Amen. Such destructions therefore are evidence of the age and the -man. - -[Sidenote: Probabilities.] - -4. _Probabilities_, as, for instance, the fact that the Saxons erased -the Romano-Britons, makes it probable that Silchester, Uriconium, and -other late Roman towns which were burnt, were destroyed by the Saxons. - -We see thus that each kind of proof which is accepted legally is also -used archaeologically, and is subject to much the same failings. Legal -evidence may fail by mistaking the nature of the facts, such as that -some rabbit’s blood on a knife is human blood; so may archaeology -mistake by ignorance, as when the Mykenaean treasure was called -Byzantine. - -Or legal evidence may fail by wrong inferences from facts, such as that -some human blood on a knife is due to a murder, while it has come from -the owner’s finger. So archaeology erred from a wrong inference in -calling the treasure of Troy “the treasure of Priam.” - -Or legal evidence may fail owing to mere prejudice, thus ignoring the -truth. So archaeology has suffered from the prejudice that nothing in -Greece can be older than the VIIIth century B.C. - -[Sidenote: Legal proof.] - -It is supposed sometimes, by those unfamiliar with the subject, that -archaeological evidence is so doubtful or so slight that it cannot -be relied upon, and is not to be compared with the certainties of -legal proof. Let us see then what legal proof is in important cases. -In one case a will was lost, and the mere memory of its contents, -stated by a survivor who had assisted in writing it, was accepted -as sufficient proof of what had been in it, and the property was -distributed accordingly. In another case property was left by A to B, -or failing B to C; B also made a will leaving it to D. A and B were -killed together in an accident, and the slightest observation of which -moved last, determined whether C or D had the property. Again, there -are innumerable cases of setting a will aside because of the testator -not being of a sound mind for disposing of property; and various -assertions of irrelevant facts by various interested parties are held -to reveal the true mental capacity of a person to a judge and jury. In -a murder trial the question of whether one or both of the assailants -were guilty was held proved by the deceased having been tied by two -different forms of knots. In another trial the mere presumption due to -concealing a body and dealing with the property of a murdered person -was enough to hang a man. Such are some of the evidences which are held -good in law to settle questions of life and property. - -Happily archaeology is relieved from the terrible dilemma of being -bound to come to a conclusion at once, as the law has to do. Questions -can be left pending, and it is not peremptorily needful to act one -way or another. An open mind can be kept on difficult and obscure -points; and a matter can be discussed in fresh lights, without keeping -a prisoner standing in the dock the whole time. Legal conclusions are -often wrong; though, as the law can do no wrong, a free pardon is all -the sufferer gets when his innocence is proved. But if legal proofs, -arguments, and conclusions were kept freely open to revision for years; -if they were printed in every textbook for beginners; if all students -were encouraged to find fresh evidence, and to upset what was laid -down, and if the high-road to position lay in reversing the decisions -of past authorities, it seems only too likely that there would be a -greater wreckage of bad cases and bad law than there now is of bad -archaeology. - -[Sidenote: Egypt and Europe.] - -For an example of the nature of archaeological evidence it will be -best to study the connections of Egypt with early Europe. This subject -is not only a fascinating one historically, but it includes a great -variety of different kinds of evidence,--from paintings, from groups -found in tombs, from remains of palaces, from objects exactly dated by -royal names, from objects dated by their nature and style; and evidence -which is of various degrees of certainty. Moreover this evidence has -been more actively and continually attacked than any other class of -discoveries of late years, and hence the most that can be argued -against it is well known. - -[Sidenote: In XXVIth Dynasty.] - -Until 1883 nothing was known of the Greeks in Egypt before the -Ptolemaic age; the accounts of Herodotus about the Greek mercenaries, -and their connection with the XXVIth Dynasty, stood solely as a -literary statement, without a scrap of tangible evidence. At the close -of that year I bought an archaic Greek statuette in Cairo (Fig. 56); -and on enquiring about the source of it, I heard of Nebireh, and hunted -out the site in the Western Delta. There I found the ground covered -with archaic Greek pottery dating throughout the XXVIth Dynasty, and -it was evident that a great Greek city had existed there. Next year, -at the close of 1884, I began exploring it, and found on the first day -there, a decree of the people of Naukratis. Here then the evidence of -Greek occupation depended upon the presence of thousands of pieces -of Greek pottery and sculpture; and to imagine that these had all -been imported by Egyptians was beyond any possible supposition. A -town containing almost entirely Greek remains, and with only clumsy -imitations of Egyptian subjects, was certainly occupied by Greeks. And -as there is no instance or probability of Greeks having imported great -quantities of vases made in earlier times, this place contained good -evidence for Greeks having lived there from the VIIth century B.C. As -such it was generally accepted; but the dedication by the Naukratites -was withheld from the public for six months by over-cautious -authorities, for fear that something else might contradict it. This is -a case where what was undoubtedly good evidence should rather have been -stated at once, with a reservation that it was very improbable that -the stone had been brought from another site, or dedicated anywhere -except in Naukratis. The evidence of the pottery shewed that Naukratis -dated from the middle of the VIIth century; and this agrees with the -statement by Athenaeus that a statue was dedicated there in the 23rd -Olympiad, 688 B.C. - -In the next season, the spring of 1886, I went down to Defeneh, and -there found a great mass of Greek pottery of the same period as that -of Naukratis. Here again, then, the Greeks had inhabited the site; and -the evidence was clear that this was a great camp of Greek mercenaries. -The modern name Defeneh so closely agrees to the ancient Daphnae that -no one hesitated to accept their equivalence. Here the identification -rests, then, not on a contemporary inscription, but on a modern Arabic -name. - -Important evidence about the manufactures of these places is given by -the pottery. Although the two sites were occupied at the same period -by Ionian Greeks, yet the bulk of the pottery on one site differs from -that on the other. The conclusion is that probably it was made locally -by Greek potters, and not brought by traders from Greek towns, as -trade would probably have imported from the same sources to both sites. -The evidence here is from the difference of classes. - -Another conclusion is drawn from the few varieties of painted pottery -which are found in common at both sites. From the levels at which they -were found at Naukratis these varieties were dated at various years -between 610 and 550 B.C.; and such varieties were found together in a -chamber at Defeneh with jar sealings bearing royal names of Psamtek -II and Aahmes, and therefore dated between 595 and 565 B.C., as the -Greeks were removed from the camp in the latter year. The evidence -here is from the collocation of objects; those dated by the levels at -which other things were found at Naukratis agreeing with those dated by -mixture with Egyptian sealings at Defeneh. - -[Illustration: THE GREEKS IN EGYPT. - -Fig. 56. Warrior, in alabaster. Naukratis, XXVI Dyn.] - -[Illustration: THE GREEKS IN EGYPT. - -Fig. 57. Graeco-Egyptian vases. Abydos, XVIII Dyn.] - -[Sidenote: XVIIIth Dynasty paintings.] - -We now turn to the great group of dating of the XVIIIth–XXth Dynasties; -and as the nature of the evidence is our present consideration we shall -classify it according to the kind of source of the evidence. The most -certain dating is that of offerings painted on the walls of tombs, as -it is always agreed that such represent objects which were in current -use when the tomb was decorated; they therefore are not older than the -tomb, nor can the paintings have been added later. Of this class are -the paintings of vases in the tomb of Rekhmara, under Tahutmes III in -the XVIIIth Dynasty; these vases are shewn as being brought in by the -Kefti foreigners, and strongly resemble the vases found in Cyprus, -Mykenae, and other Greek sites. Here the connection of Egypt in -the XVIIIth Dynasty with people who made such vases is certain; but -the vases might be older than the scene, or such vases might continue -to be made to a later time, hence the connection with any given epoch -on Greek soil is only a strong probability but not absolute. Another -dated painting is that of stirrup vases (to use a more convenient word -than “pseud-amphorae,” “false-necked vases,” or “_bügel kanne_”) among -the offerings in the paintings on the tomb of Ramessu III of the XXth -Dynasty. That such forms were familiar at that date is absolute; but -they might be older vases preserved in the Royal Treasury, or might be -imitations by Egyptians of older foreign forms, like English repetition -of Chinese patterns. - -[Sidenote: Burnt groups.] - -The next class of evidence is that of objects which have been placed -in such conditions that they cannot have been disturbed after a given -date. This evidence is given by several deposits of groups of vases, -clothing, etc., which were burnt in pits sunk in the floors of houses, -and then earthed over. Such groups cannot possibly have been disturbed -later on to insert objects, as the charcoal and ashes are undisturbed, -and the foreign objects are likewise burnt. Hence the evidence of the -Egyptian objects if clearly dated must carry the foreign objects to the -same date. Several such groups have been found at Gurob. In one were -many Egyptian objects all agreeing well to the date of Amenhotep III, -as fixed by a glazed pottery kohl tube; in another a group agreeing -with the date of Tutankhamen, which was shewn by some fragile pendants -which could not have long survived in use; another group agrees to -the age of Ramessu II, who is named on a pendant of glazed ware; and -a fourth group agrees to the rougher style of Sety II, which is dated -by a dish with his name. The character of the Egyptian objects thus -points to each of these dated objects being contemporary with the rest -of their group, and therefore truly dating the group. Now in these -groups were first, five well-made globular stirrup vases (see Fig. 59); -second, pieces of several stirrup vases of a later form; third, the -neck of a later and coarser stirrup vase; and fourth, two much later -coarse and unpainted stirrup vases. Here the changes in the character -of the vases agree with the relative dates given by the Egyptian -objects. The stirrup vases might be all older than the Egyptian -dates, but that is very improbable by the regular degradation of them -according with the dates; and the groups cannot be later than the dated -objects as they agree well with the date of such Egyptian things fixed -in other cases. It is then extremely improbable that the stirrup vases -should not belong to the periods of the Egyptian kings whose names are -found with them. Variation in either direction is prohibited by these -limitations. - -We may add that there are two other burnt groups without kings’ names, -and the connection of stirrup vases with Egyptian objects in these -agrees well with the connection shewn by the other groups. Another -such grouping was in a burial in open ground at Abydos; there several -examples of Graeco-Egyptian ware (Fig. 57), two figures and a ring vase -with pomegranates and lotus flowers, were found with Egyptian pottery -and beads of the XVIIIth Dynasty. - -[Sidenote: Rubbish mounds.] - -A somewhat similar grouping is afforded by the rubbish mounds of the -palace of Akhenaten at Tell el Amarna. There the palace was entirely -deserted after the reign of his successor, about 1360 B.C., and the -town ruined finally by Horemheb, 1330 B.C. It seems then impossible to -suppose anything later being mixed up with the rubbish heaps, which -contained nearly a hundred dated objects, none later than 1360 B.C. -The supposition has even been suggested that some unknown people, -who left no other traces, have at some later time come laden with -hundreds of potsherds, and dug over the rubbish mounds to mix them -together. Such are the wild fancies which must be resorted to if the -evidence is to be upset. The rubbish mounds consist of some thousands -of tons of potsherds and dust; and among these, entirely mixed with -them, were found nearly a hundred rings and objects of Akhenaten and -his successor, and over 1300 pieces of Aegean pottery, representing -probably 800 vases. The palace, which was deserted after 1360 B.C., -also contained several pieces of the same pottery. Here the great -quantity of the material of all kinds precludes all the suppositions -that might be made about isolated specimens. The mounds are too large -for later material to be mixed with them; the dated objects are too -many to be accidental, or to have been older than the mounds; and the -Aegean vases are too many to have been preserved from earlier times. -The whole conditions prove that all the objects were in common use -contemporaneously. - -[Sidenote: Houses.] - -A somewhat less certain dating is given by remains found in houses. -At the palace of Akhenaten the definite date of its ruin fairly shews -the Aegean pottery in it to be contemporary with his generation. In a -house at Gurob, Aegean pottery was found with wood-carving of the XIXth -Dynasty and a ring of the late XVIIIth Dynasty, and also under the -walls of a house which was built at the close of the XVIIIth Dynasty. -These are not precise datings, and are open to claims that the houses -were later than the evidence shews; but such connections give a strong -presumption. - -Similar, but converse, evidence is given from the Greek side. At -Mykenae was found a figure of a monkey in violet glaze (No. 4573 -Athens); this is of Egyptian work and bears the name of Amenhotep II. -A piece of glaze found in a building by the lion gate has the name of -Amenhotep III. A scarab of Thyi, his queen, was found in the palace of -Mykenae. And three large jars of drab-coloured Egyptian pottery (4569 -Athens), such as is quite unknown from Greek sources, were also found -at Mykenae. Now these examples prove the import of Egyptian things of -the XVIIIth and XIXth Dynasties before the fall of Mykenae; they do -not give an exact dating as their time-connection on the Greek side is -unstated, and they might belong to any part of the history of the town. -But their agreement in age gives a strong presumption that the latter -half of the XVIIIth Dynasty was contemporary with some part of the -flourishing period of foreign trade at Mykenae. - -[Sidenote: Scarabs.] - -At this point we should notice an assertion often made, that Egyptian -objects, especially scarabs, often bore the names of kings who were -earlier than the date of the manufacture. This is sometimes the -case, and on this ground it has been attempted to discredit all -evidence about scarabs. Now an exactly similar case occurs in Roman -coinage, where at eight different periods restorations of coins of -earlier emperors took place, no less than twenty emperors being thus -commemorated. Yet no one has impugned the evidence of Roman coins -in dating an excavation, on the ground that as some were restored -therefore none are of certain value. Similarly seven kings restored -the scarabs of earlier times, twelve different kings being thus -commemorated; but that is no reason for discrediting the age of the -remaining ninety-nine scarabs out of every hundred. The restorations, -say of the XIIth Dynasty kings by Tahutmes III, are as obvious as the -restorations of earlier emperors by Gallienus. No doubt to a person -ignorant of coins the subject would seem uncertain and confused; but -then scientific evidence is not expected to appeal to those who are -ignorant of the subject, whether it be coins or scarabs. We must then -credit the evidence of scarabs for dating, although there are some -restored in a different style, and although some case might be found -where a scarab had been reused at a much later date than that of its -manufacture. Such exceptions are certainly not one per cent of the -whole, and cannot therefore be invoked to explain away the whole of -the instances. - -[Sidenote: Tombs in Egypt.] - -The largest class of evidence is that from collocation in tombs. -The weak points of this are (1) reuse of tombs so that primary -and secondary interments may be mixed; this should be obvious in -any properly conducted excavation, and cannot be brought in as an -hypothesis unless some mixture of date can be otherwise proved: (2) -the tomb contents being older than the dated object, and so brought -to too low a date, which is very unlikely, as a whole group of things -would not be preserved for long together: (3) the dated object being -older than the tomb, which is practically the only danger. A few rare -examples have been seen of older objects being reburied, but so rarely -that only a very small proportion of cases could be thus explained. The -great majority of things in hand at any one time belong to within a -generation or two. In our own time, although we treasure older things -more than did the people of any past age, yet not one per cent of what -we have is over a hundred years old. In late Roman coinage the waste -was such that in a hundred years only an eighth survived in use, and -in half a century more only a twenty-fifth remained. It is very rarely -that beads or pendants of very different ages are mixed in ancient -necklaces, or that scarabs of reigns far apart are buried together. I -do not remember a mixture of more than two contiguous reigns in any -group of scarabs that I have found. Hence this possibility of an older -object being reused may occur rarely, but cannot be called upon in the -whole of the cases, or even for any perceptible proportion of them. -In certainly nine cases out of ten we must expect that a dated object -was buried within less than two or three generations from its original -period. - -The tomb groups containing Aegean pottery are, it so happens, not so -well dated as the burnt groups; and are therefore inferior to the burnt -groups, both on this account, as well as by the greater possibility -of mixture. The Maket tomb at Kahun is the principal example. The -dated objects in that are of Tahutmes II and III; and though at first -I supposed it to be of later age on the strength of some beads not -then known before the XIXth or XXth Dynasty, yet as such beads were -afterwards found in a deposit of Tahutmes III at Koptos, there is -no reason for questioning that the whole is of his age. Also the -experience of the past dozen years has shewn that such a date agrees -well to all the other objects in the tomb. The absence of blue painted -pottery does not imply a date after the disuse of it in the XXth -Dynasty, but before that style came into use in the middle of the -XVIIIth Dynasty. In this tomb was a fine Aegean vase (Fig. 58) with -ivy-spray pattern, which is thus dated to about 1500 B.C. The burials -were quite undisturbed and therefore the vase cannot belong to a later -date, but might possibly be earlier. - -Other examples have not this precise dating. At Kahun a burial in the -open ground, and undisturbed, had scarabs and objects of the style of -the middle or end of the XVIIIth Dynasty, with a stirrup vase from -the Aegean (_Kahun_, p. 32). The undisturbed tomb at Gurob containing -the beautiful wooden statuette of Res, certainly of the XVIIIth -Dynasty, had in an opposite chamber a stirrup vase, which must have -been buried at the same period. Another burial at Gurob had a piece -of a stirrup vase with beads exactly like those of Ramessu II. And at -Naqada a tomb which by the style of the painting, must have belonged to -the beginning or middle of the XVIIIth Dynasty, had been so entirely -plundered that the only object left was a fine globular stirrup vase. -In these cases there is no exact dating, but a consensus of style in -each case of the XVIIIth or early XIXth Dynasty; and the connection -of the Aegean pottery with it is in some cases absolute and in others -only presumptive. The argument for date of the pottery rests then in -these cases on the uniformity of the period connected with it, and the -absence of any discrepant dating. - -[Illustration: FIG. 58.--Aegean vase of Tahutmes III. Maket tomb. 1:3.] - -[Sidenote: Tombs in Greece.] - -Now this argument is greatly reinforced if we can shew that the same -connection of period exists on the other side. At Ialysos in Rhodes -a tomb with Aegean pottery contained a scarab of Amenhotep III. At -Mykenae, grave No. 49 contained also glazed ware of Amenhotep III. At -Enkomi in Cyprus in grave 93 a scarab of Queen Thyi was found with -Aegean pottery. And from the same cemetery comes a metal ring of her -son Amenhotep IV. These cases therefore connect one period of the -Aegean remains with the Egyptian reigns from 1414 to 1365 B.C. If on -one hand it might be supposed that the single Greek objects in Egyptian -tombs were older than the time of their burial, here on the other hand -the possibility is reversed, and the single Egyptian objects in Greece -could only be older and not later than the group with which they were -buried. As on both sides the dating is the same--the latter part of the -XVIIIth Dynasty--it shows that in both countries the groups contained -objects of contemporary date. If we were to further refine on the -question, and enquire whether the differences of date of the reigns -in Egypt correspond to equal differences in Greece, we are met by the -lack of all relative dating yet assignable to the Greek tombs; on that -side we have only a vague statement of “Mykenaean period,” or some such -generality; and it is therefore only that period in general that we can -assign to the XVIIIth–XIXth Dynasty in Egypt. - -[Sidenote: Variation with date.] - -We may, however, see a little further into detail on the Egyptian side -by observing how the stirrup vases vary in form and work. At Naqada, -probably under Tahutmes III, was a globular form, with simple broad -bands, and dull face. At Gurob under Amenhotep III the vases have more -broad bands and a polished face (Fig. 59). Under Tutankhamen there -were fine lines appearing between the bands. Under Ramessu II the form -is coarser. And under Sety II is only a coarse unpainted imitation. -Lastly, under Ramessu VI at Tell el Yehudiyeh were some rude debased -copies. Here the relative style of the vases agrees with the varying -date of the objects found with each; and hence we are justified in not -only placing one general period in Greece as contemporary with another -period in Egypt, but also in connecting the varied forms with the -reigns which are named with them. The evidence which we gain from the -mere general admixture, without any proof of the objects originating in -the generation by which they were buried, is here further carried on -into evidence for the exact age of each type by the sequence of style -agreeing to the sequence of the dated objects. - -[Illustration: FIG. 59.--False-necked vases from Egypt. - -XVIIIth Dyn. Amenhotep III. Tutankhamen. - -XIXth Dyn. Ramessu II. Sety II. - -XXth Dyn. Ramessu III. Ramessu VI.] - -[Sidenote: Style.] - -We now turn to a question of style alone. In grave 93 at Enkomi was -found a gold collar of Egyptian work with nine different patterns in -it; of these, eight are well known as designs of the time of Amenhotep -IV, and the ninth is a variant of such. As these designs are not known -in such forms at a century later or earlier, this collar cannot have -been made far from 1400 B.C.; and as it is of slight and tender fabric -it cannot have long been in use. Hence the date of its burial and of -the tomb must be in the fourteenth century B.C. Of other examples of -style, which may be quoted as important, is a great group of blue -glazed ware of the same form, colour, and designs, as the vases of -Ramessu II, but found in grave 66 at Enkomi; a gold pin, with a hole -in the middle, of the XVIIIth–XIXth Dynasty found at Gurob, like one -from grave 66 at Enkomi; a group of bronze vases with lotus handles -found in the Idaean cave in Crete, exactly of the fabric of those of -the XVIIIth–XIXth Dynasty; a figure of a swimming girl holding a dish, -carved in bone, from the Idaean cave, a favourite design in the XVIIIth -Dynasty; and some other instances of similar style, ornament, and -processes, which need hardly reinforce the general argument. - -[Sidenote: Recapitulation.] - -To recapitulate the evidences of the XVIIIth–XXth Dynasty:-- - - _Evidence of paintings._ Tombs of Rekhmara and Ramessu III. - - Result. Aegean objects possibly older than the paintings. - - _Evidence of burnt groups._ Four, from Amenhotep III to Sety II. - - Result. Aegean pottery possibly older than the groups. - - _Evidence of rubbish heaps._ Tell el Amarna. - - Result. Aegean pottery certainly contemporary with Amenhotep IV. - - _Evidence of houses._ Tell el Amarna, Gurob, Mykenae. - - Result. Aegean pottery probably of XVIIIth Dynasty. Greek houses - probably of XVIIIth Dynasty. - - _Evidence of tombs._ Maket tomb; tombs at Gurob, Mykenae, and Enkomi. - - Result. Aegean pottery possibly older than Tahutmes III; probably - of XVIIIth–XIXth Dynasty or possibly older; Greek tombs of - XVIIIth Dynasty, or possibly later. - - _Evidence of style._ Gold collar. Idaean vases and carving. - - Result. Importations to Greece of XVIIIth Dynasty, and perhaps - XIXth; copy of XVIIIth Dynasty design, possibly later. - -The possible deviations from the probable results are thus seen to -balance one another, some leaving the limit only open to earlier times -and some only to later times, so that change cannot be accepted in -either direction. - -[Sidenote: XIIth Dynasty, Kahun.] - -We now go back to an earlier stage in the history, that of the XIIth -Dynasty. Some ten years ago the stage which we have already discussed -was the “fighting frontier” of the subject; five years ago the XIIth -Dynasty was the fighting frontier; now this is almost pacified, and the -struggle against prepossessions is carried back to the still earlier -periods. - -The view back to the XIIth Dynasty was first opened out in excavating -the rubbish mounds of the town of Kahun. This town was entirely built -at one time for the workmen employed on the pyramid of Usertesen II, -this then is the starting date. While the houses were fully occupied -a large rubbish mound was accumulated outside of the walls. When the -official work of building ceased at the finishing of the pyramid, we -may conclude that the town began to dwindle, as I found many of the -houses and streets had been used as rubbish holes for waste of the -XIIth Dynasty. Therefore the less convenient and accessible rubbish -heap outside of the walls is probably entirely of the reign of -Usertesen II. As it does not contain any Egyptian material that could -be dated later than that, the evidence of the shrinkage of the town -should be accepted as giving a probable limit to the age of the outer -heaps. - -In these heaps the great bulk was of regular Egyptian pottery of -the XIIth Dynasty, filling up a depth of 6 or 8 feet in parts, and -therefore very unlikely to become mixed with later objects dropped by -accident. Now with this pottery thus certified as to its age, were -found pieces of several kinds hitherto entirely unknown. Black ware -decorated with white spiral lines, and with yellow and red lines and -circles of dots, red pottery with white returning spirals, and with -painting in red, white, and green. The style was obviously of the -Aegean family, so much so that even the best authorities asserted that -these were pieces of Naukratite pottery of the XXVIth Dynasty and shut -their eyes to the great difference of fabric and material. For some -years I protested that the evidence of finding was absolute for the -XIIth Dynasty date, and that no such pottery was known at a later date -to which this could be compared. But some general resemblance to the -style of the XXVIth Dynasty was allowed to calm the archaeological -conscience of my friends into ignoring all the positive evidence. No -such pottery was known on Greek soil at an early date; therefore none -existed; therefore this could not be of that date. This argument is -still in full favour for other and earlier periods. But a shock of -surprise came when delicate black pottery with white painting and red -was found at Kamares in Crete, and published by Mr. Myres in 1895; -and later the same style of pottery was so largely found that Messrs. -Hogarth and Welch write in 1901 that “so far from that ware being a -rarity, it is to be looked for in Crete wherever any strata of remains -underlie the Mykenaean. It occurred in our digging at Knossos at all -points at which the early town was probed to the rock” (_J.H.S._ xxi. -78). The pre-Mykenaean period is now before us and is found to agree -entirely with the dating already reached on unimpeachable grounds at -Kahun. That we may recognise connections between Greece and Egypt in -the XIIth Dynasty is now orthodox, and we may proceed to see what -further evidence appears for this dating. - -[Sidenote: XIIth Dynasty, Crete.] - -At Knossos was found a portion of an Egyptian seated figure in diorite -bearing an inscription of Ab-nub-mes-uazet-user, which from the style -is probably of the XIIth Dynasty. - -At Praesos were found several globular beads of carnelian and of -amethyst such as are well known in the XIIth Dynasty, and the latter -material is not found dated to a later period in Egypt. - -At Knossos was found a globular alabaster vase of the regular type of -the XIIth Dynasty; and also the alabaster vase lid of King Khyan, -whose date is unfortunately not fixed on the Egyptian side, but who is -probably of the XVIth Dynasty, though perhaps of the XIth. - -The long period now known in Greece before the civilization which is -dated to the XVIIIth Dynasty compels such a presumption of connection -with far earlier periods, and the connection is so well shewn by the -Kamares ware, that the evidence for the XIIth Dynasty relationship -scarcely needs further support. It depends on identity of style of -highly decorated pottery, and of beads; and the transport of two pieces -of Egyptian work. - -[Sidenote: Pan graves.] - -Another connection of this age is shewn by the “pan-grave” pottery -found in Egypt. This class of shallow circular graves is dated to -the close of the XIIth Dynasty by several discoveries of worn and -damaged objects of the XIIth Dynasty in the graves, without anything -that could be fixed to a later date. In these graves is a large class -of non-Egyptian pottery; some of it black and red, highly polished; -others, rude thick pottery with incised patterns. The similarity of -the black and red to the style of the prehistoric pottery of Egypt is -obvious; it is a later branch of the same fabric. And when we consider -from what other land that may have come into Egypt, we naturally look -to the similar forms found in the Celtic pottery of Southern Spain by -Bonsor (Fig. 60), as indicating that it belongs to the western Libyan -culture. Again, the rough incised pottery is of the same Celtic family -found in Spain, showing a western source. The suggestion lately put -forward that these may have come into Egypt from the East is wholly -baseless. It is in Spain and the allied Celtic pottery of Europe that -we find the types which were brought into Egypt by the rude invaders -at the close of the XIIth Dynasty. So that a connection of the western -barbaric culture of the bronze age with the close of the XIIth Dynasty -must be concluded, from the evidence of similar pottery intruded into -Egypt, and associated in graves with the objects of that age. - -[Illustration: FIG. 60.--Celtic and pan-grave pottery and ornament. - -Central Europe. Yorkshire. (_J. Anth. Inst._ xxxii., pl. xxvii.) - -South Spain. (_Rev. Arch._ xxxv. 121–2.) - -Diospolis, Egypt. (_Diospolis_, xxxviii., xl.)] - -It is probably then to the same invaders that we should look for the -source of the black incised ware (Fig. 61) with patterns filled with -white, and of characteristically western--Italic or Greek--forms, which -is found in Kahun in the XIIth Dynasty, and in burials at Khataaneh -of the XIIIth Dynasty. It is the latest stage of a class of imported -pottery which recurs at intervals from the early prehistoric age -onwards. A piece of this pottery was found in one of the “pan graves,” -thus linking it with the other foreign pottery brought in at that -period. It has been found at Hissarlik in the lowest levels, in Bosnia -at Butmir, and of prehistoric to XIIIth Dynasty age in Egypt. - -[Illustration: FIG. 61.--Black incised pottery, with white filling.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 62.--Buttons of ivory, carnelian, glazed steatite, -etc. VIIth Dyn. - -The upper row with misapplied Egyptian designs. - -The lower row with entirely un-Egyptian designs. 2:3.] - -[Sidenote: VIth to IIIrd Dynasties.] - -On going back another stage to the Old Kingdom, of the IVth to VIth -Dynasties, we still find links between Egypt and the West. In the -VIth dynasty is found a class of non-Egyptian buttons (Fig. 62) with -devices, which in some cases may have been used as seals; more than a -hundred of these are now known, and in no case are they of Egyptian -fabric, as when an Egyptian subject was copied it was always in a -mistaken manner. Now a close parallel to many of the designs is found -on Cretan engraved stones, and it is therefore to that civilisation -that we must look for the source of a considerable foreign importation, -which probably accompanied a movement of population at the overthrow -of the civilisation of the Old Kingdom. The actual incomers may have -passed by sea from the islands, or by land along Africa. - -On turning to Crete we see in the noble lamp with lotus capital found -at Knossos, a type which cannot have been derived from anything that -we know of the XIIth Dynasty in Egypt. The free buds around the band -had long since become lost at that time; and even in the Vth Dynasty on -the Abusir capital they are less distinct. A form belonging to the Vth -Dynasty is the only one that is at all likely to have been the origin -of this fine Cretan capital. Again a vase with two handles from Knossos -is certainly an exact copy in local stone, of the regular Egyptian type -of the Old Kingdom, which was quite unknown later. And two pieces of -the brims of bowls, one of Egyptian diorite, the other of liparite, -are of exactly the type made in the close of the IIIrd Dynasty at -Medum, and in the early IVth Dynasty at Gizeh; this might perhaps last -until the Vth Dynasty, but we could not suppose it to come later, as -it would have been quite out of the run of later forms. The copying of -motives and forms which passed entirely out of use, is a strong form -of evidence; a single object might survive to later times, but for a -form to be copied it must be the familiar and usual form at the time -when the copy is made. Hence we cannot place the familiarity with these -Egyptian types in Crete later than the Vth or perhaps IVth Dynasty. - -Still earlier, the Western influence on Egypt is seen by the black -incised bowls, of which one piece was found inside a mastaba of the -time of Sneferu (end of IIIrd Dynasty), and another piece between two -mastabas of about the same age at Dendereh, where it must have been -buried in sand at the period of the building. Another piece of such -black incised pottery was found in the tomb of King Zer of the Ist -Dynasty; see Fig. 61. - -[Sidenote: Ist Dynasty, Aegean.] - -This brings us back to a surprising series of pieces of painted -pottery from the Royal Tombs of the Ist Dynasty (Fig. 63). The forms -are Aegean; the material, the facing, the colouring, the varieties -of pattern, all belong distinctively to the Aegean. The opinion of -Professors Furtwängler and Wolters is that these belong to the earliest -type of Island pottery. Certainly there is nothing like them found -in Egypt, except the confessedly Aegean pottery of later times. One -prehistoric Egyptian vase has been compared with them, but it has -no resemblance in form, material, facing, or colouring, and only an -approximation to one of the patterns. They stand unquestionably in line -with other Aegean ware. These pieces are found scattered in several of -the Royal Tombs; and those from the earlier tombs are of an earlier -style. Thus there is no absolute proof, but only a strong presumption, -that these belong to the age of the tombs of the Ist Dynasty. - -Further evidence is, however, given by a portion of the original tomb -offerings of King Zer, which were left untouched by all the plunderers -and destroyers. In one corner-chamber of his tomb were an alabaster -vase of regular Ist Dynasty type, four pottery jars of the same age, -and nine jars of foreign ware, different in forms, in material, and in -facing, from any Egyptian pottery of that age, but agreeing in all -these characteristics with Aegean pottery, and including a vase of the -same nature as the painted pottery, but without decoration. The whole -group was cemented together by the burning of the unguents which had -been buried in the jars. - -[Illustration: FIG. 63.--Pottery of earliest Aegean style. From Royal -Tombs of the Ist Dynasty, Egypt.] - -Here is then a case like that of the Kamares pottery at Kahun. The -evidence is clear, there is no visible loophole for avoiding the -archaeological conclusion. And the only argument against it is that no -such pottery has been found in Greece, but only more advanced styles -of such fabric under later conditions. Now that the Knossos finds have -led all those who see their value to grant a connection in the IIIrd -or IVth Dynasty, we may soon see the fighting frontier pushed over to -include this great and distinctive group of the early Ist Dynasty. - -[Sidenote: Ist Dynasty, Cretan.] - -Nor does this stand alone. This year another class of foreign pottery -has been found in the ruins of the temple of Abydos, of the Ist -Dynasty, and perhaps somewhat before it (Fig. 64). The material is -unlike any in Egypt, a dense black pottery; the facing of it is usually -highly burnished, unlike Egyptian of that age; the forms are wholly -un-Egyptian, the long pointed amphora with curved neck, and the hollow -feet to vases, being unmistakably of the Greek family. Exactly similar -pottery in material and finish, is found in fragments of the later -Neolithic period at Knossos; a piece from Egypt and one from Knossos -when seen side by side seem as if they had been broken from the same -jar. The forms of the Cretan examples are not yet re-established, but -some at least are the same as the Egyptian examples. As most of the -cups of this type at Abydos had contained a brilliant red haematite -paint, it is very likely that the pottery came over as vehicles for -trade products. - -Yet again in the Ist Dynasty deposit of ivory and glazed objects in the -temple of Abydos, was a cast copper figure of foreign style which is of -the same family as the copper figures found in the Diktaean cave. - -[Illustration: FIG. 64.--Polished black pottery of Cretan origin. -Temple of Abydos. Dyn. I.] - -[Sidenote: Prehistoric.] - -And all this leads us back to the Egyptian prehistoric age. There -we see commonly painted on the pottery, and on walls of a tomb, the -large ships then in use. Some had as many as 60 oars, yet we see the -greatest of the Venetian fighting galleys had only 24 on a side. A -rowing ship is useless on the Nile, except for sometimes getting down -stream, as no rowing would suffice to take a large vessel continuously -up against the current. But the rowing galley has been the vessel of -the Mediterranean, from the French navy back to the Phoenician, and -no one knows how long before. These great vessels, which bore various -ensigns showing the ports from which they started, must have been -concerned in important business; probably trading the oil and skins -and wood one way, and the dates and corn of Egypt in return. Among -their imports were probably the foreign bowls of black incised ware, -filled in with white, which are found even as far back as near the -beginning of the prehistoric civilisation. They clearly belong to that -foreign class which is found as far apart as Spain, Bosnia, and Troy; -and the original home of this pottery has yet to be found, in that -Mediterranean region about which we are just beginning to discover our -own ignorance. - -If at present our evidence of connection between Egypt and the West, -before the XIIth Dynasty, rests upon the identity of styles and -fabrics, we must remember how that same class of evidence in later -periods has been amply reinforced by dated objects with inscriptions, -found in most unequivocal positions. And we may then at last reach the -conception that after all, civilisation started at much the same time -all round the Mediterranean, but advanced rather sooner in Egypt than -on the northern shores. - -In this study of the facts which link together the early history of -Europe with that of Egypt, we have now seen the varied sources and -values of the different kinds of archaeological evidence; and the modes -by which the accumulation of different evidences may reinforce the -conclusions, and render them more exact. - - - - -CHAPTER XIII - -THE ETHICS OF ARCHAEOLOGY - - -[Sidenote: Individual rights.] - -At first sight, ethics might not seem to have more to do with -archaeology than with chemistry or astronomy. Yet even in those -subjects an entire monopoly of some useful material, or the destruction -of the only records of irreplaceable observations, would bring in -serious questions of individual right. It is notorious what a large -element of conduct is involved in biology, where species are being -destroyed every year, where the rabbit and the thistle have been -wantonly made the curse of a continent, and where a mixture is taking -place which will efface the results of ages of segregation. In -archaeology there is perhaps a greater range of ethical questions, -of the individual _versus_ the community, than in any other science. -And the results of action are the more serious as the material is -very limited, and perhaps no other chance of observation may ever -occur. In most sciences the opportunity of experiment and observation -is unlimited. If an alloy is spoiled it can be remade at once, if a -star is not examined to-night it may be next night, if a plant is not -grown this year it may be next year. But Theodoric’s gold armour -once melted, we shall never know what it was like; the heads of the -Parthenon statues once burnt to lime, are gone for ever; or the Turin -papyrus once broken up, we can hardly hope ever to recover all the -history it contained. - -[Sidenote: Destruction.] - -The destruction that has gone on, and is now going on continuously, -seems as if it could leave scarcely anything for the information of -future ages. Every year sees wiped out the remains which have lasted -for thousands of years past. Now, in our own day, the antiquities of -South Africa and of Central and South America have been destroyed as -rapidly as they can be found. Elsewhere, engineers of every nation -use up buildings as quarries or wreck them for the sake of temporary -profit, or for more legitimate purposes as in the submersion of -Philae and Nubia. Speculators, native and European, tear to pieces -every tomb they can find in the East, and sell the few showy proceeds -that have thus lost their meaning and their history. Governments set -commissioners to look after things, who leave the antiquities to -be plundered while they are living in useless ease. And the casual -discoveries that are made perish in a ghastly manner. The Saxon -regalia of Harold, the treasures of Thomas à Becket’s shrine, the -burial of Alfred, the burial of Theodoric, and the summer palace -of Pekin, have within modern memory all gone the same way as the -wonders that perished in the French sack of Rome or the Greek sack -of Persia. However we may deplore this, our present consideration is -destruction by archaeologists, and what their responsibilities are in -difficult situations. In all ages there has been destruction for gold -and valuables, and in the Renascence a ruthless seizure of marbles -and stone work. To that succeeded destruction for the sake of art, -excavations in which everything was wrecked for the chance of finding -a beautiful statue. Then in the last generation or two, inscriptions -became valued, and temple sites in Greece and in Egypt, and palaces in -Babylonia, have been turned over, and nothing saved except a stone or a -tablet which was inscribed. At last a few people are beginning to see -that history is far wider than any one of these former aims, and that, -if ever we are to understand the past, every fragment from it must be -studied and made to tell all it can. - -But still there continues the plundering of sites in the interest -of show museums, where display is thought of before knowledge, as -is unhappily the case in many national collections. To secure an -attractive specimen, a tomb will be wrecked, a wall destroyed, a temple -dragged to pieces and its history lost, a cemetery cleared out with no -record of its burials. And when carefully authenticated and recorded -specimens reach museums, their fate is not yet a safe one, especially -in local museums. Stones will be built into walls, and ruined by the -damp bringing salt out; objects are left to drop to pieces from lack of -chemical knowledge, or from the official dread of the responsibility -of doing right instead of allowing wrong. Information is deliberately -destroyed; labels are thrown away or heaped together out of the way -in a glass case where the objects are artistically displayed, with no -more history than if they had come from a dealer. Groups of things, -whose whole value consists in their collocation as they were found, are -scattered up and down a museum as if they had no meaning. Or priceless -antiquities will be left out for years of exposure to weather, as -certain sculptures were in London, until at last they received worthy -safeguarding in defiance of the Treasury. Unhappily far too many of -those who are responsible for keeping the things which have at last -reached a haven, need educating in the elements of their profession. - -[Sidenote: Restoration.] - -This leads to another difficult question, that of restoration. The -horrible destruction which has gone on under that term is now somewhat -recognised, after much, or most, of the original buildings of our -ancestors have disappeared beneath scraping and recutting, so that -we only possess a copy of what has been. And in museums till within -the last few years, statues were so elaborately built up out of what -was--or was not--to be had, that it is often a difficult preliminary -study to set aside the shams. In the Louvre there is the honesty of -stating how much has been added to the original; and the list is -sometimes so long that it is hard to make out what gave the first -idea to the restorer for building up his work. Yet in many cases some -mere supports are needful, and the best museums now make such helps -as distinct as possible from the original. The only full solution of -the matter is the great extension of the use of casts; and the ideal -museum of sculpture would have the originals untouched on one side of a -gallery, and the full restoration of casts of the same things on the -other side. - -[Sidenote: Sacrifices.] - -When we stand face to face with a problem like that, of the Forum at -Rome there rise a multitude of questions which have intricate and -far-reaching solutions. The removal of the latest of the pavements of -the Forum has been bitterly resented. The Sacred Way is gone, and what -is there for sentiment to dwell on! Yet who would reasonably prefer the -Lower Empire to the Twelve Caesars? And then is not the Republic still -more interesting and less known? And then the Kings hold a prerogative -of glamour to every schoolboy; and what was Rome before the Kings? -We see the inevitable result of such a crowd of interests, in the -honeycomb of pits and planks and tunnels and iron girders which now -bewilder the visitor, where formerly he walked down the Sacred Way and -blessed his soul in romantic peace. - -Now this elaborate treatment is most desirable, but is scarcely -attainable unless there is a strong public interest, and a government -willing to carry out proper conservation. Let us turn to a different -set of conditions, as at the temple of Osiris at Abydos. There were -more than a dozen different levels of building; all the lower ones -only of mud brick; the whole of the lower levels under the high Nile, -and certain to be a mud swamp so soon as the Nile rose next summer. To -treat such a place like the Forum would have involved enormous iron -substructure layer under layer, and a wide drying area for hundreds -of yards around, at a cost of certainly five figures. No one would be -likely to give a hundredth of the cost to attain that end. If any -part were left without clearing to the bottom, the next high Nile -would make entire pudding of it. And so the permanent preservation of -such a site was impossible. All that could be done whenever it was -begun, was to dig it in as dry a season as possible, when the water -was at its lowest; to clear it entirely to water level; and to make -plans, levelling, and records, of every wall and every detail, removing -everything that stood in the way of going lower. Henceforward that -temple site, instead of existing in unseen layers of solid earth, -exists only on paper. - -[Sidenote: Responsibility.] - -Now here is a great responsibility. Whatever is not done in such an -excavation can never be done. The site is gone for ever; and who knows -what further interests and new points of research may be thought of -in future, which ought to have received attention. Are we justified -morally in thus destroying a temple site, a cemetery, a town, while we -may feel certain that others would see more in it in future? If a site -would continue untouched, and always equally open to research, it would -be wrong to exhaust such places. But what are the conditions? In Egypt -sites are continually passing under cultivation, and once cultivated -no one would ever know more about them. They are being continually dug -away for earth to spread on the fields, and all that lies in them is -scattered and lost. The stonework is continually the prey of engineers -and lime-burners. The Nile is always rising, so that every few -centuries makes ground inaccessible that was previously out of water. -And the probable movement of invention and appliances will most likely -bring under cultivation in future most of the cemetery sites which are -now bare desert. In the last few years most of the cemetery and temple -sites of Nubia have been blotted out by the new lake for irrigation. -Further, on any site of cemetery, temple, or town which is known to -contain anything, the native will dig by night if he cannot do so by -day, and will leave nothing but a wreck behind. It is sadly unlikely -that there will be anything left to excavate in Egypt a century -hence; all the known sites will be exhausted in twenty years more at -the present rate. A thousand years hence--a trifle in the history of -Egypt--people will look back on these present generations as the golden -days when discoveries came thickly year by year, and when there was -always something to be found. And therefore the best thing that can be -done under all these conditions is to work with the fullest care and -detail in recording, to publish everything fully, and to then trust the -history of Egypt to a few hundred copies of books instead of to solid -walls and hidden cemeteries. The destruction which is needful to attain -knowledge is justified if the fullest knowledge is obtained by it, and -if that is so safely recorded that it will not again be lost. The only -test of right is the procuring the greatest amount of knowledge now and -in future. - -[Sidenote: Rights of the future.] - -Here we are landed in a question on which very different positions -are taken. What are the rights of the future? Why should we limit our -action, or our immediate benefit or interest, for the sake of the -future? If ever this question comes into practical dealings, it does -so in historical work. Any one who is above the immediate consideration -of food and starvation, does consider the future. Our public buildings -are preserved for the use of coming generations; our libraries and -museums are largely for the benefit of those yet unborn. Was not the -future of England the great charge, the inspiring aim of Alfred, of -Edward I, of William III? Do we not even now spend ungrudgingly for the -great future of our colonies? In every direction we unquestioningly -assume that the future has its rights; that distant generations of our -own flesh and blood are far more to us than present millions of other -races; that the knowledge, the possessions, the aims, that we have -inherited are but a trust to be passed on to the nation yet to be. - -And to those who live not only in the present but also in past ages by -insight and association, the transitory stewardship of things becomes -the only view possible. In this generation I possess a gem, a scarab, -a carving: it is almost indestructible, it may be lost for a time but -will reappear again a thousand, five thousand, twenty thousand years -hence in some one else’s hands, and be again a delight and a revelation -of past thought, as it is to-day. We have no right to destroy or -suppress what happens just for the present to be in our power. To do so -is to take the position of a Vandal in the sack of Rome. - -[Sidenote: Rights of the past.] - -The past also has its rights, though statues may be misappropriated -and churches be “restored.” A work that has cost days, weeks, or -years of toil has a right to existence. To murder a man a week before -his time we call a crime; what are we to call the murder of years -of his labour? Or, without touching life, what difference is there -between putting a man in prison for a year so that he cannot work, and -destroying a year’s work when it is done? If anything, the balance is -in favour of preventing rather than destroying his work. Every monument -we see has been lovingly intended, carefully carved, piously erected, -in hopes that it would last. And who are we to defeat all that thought -and labour? Every tablet, every little scarab, is a portion of life -solidified;--so much will, so much labour, so much living reality. When -we look closely into the work we seem almost to watch the hand that did -it; this stone is a day, a week, of the life of some living man. I know -his mind, his feeling, by what he has thought and done on this stone. -I live with him in looking into his work, and admiring, and valuing -it. Shall I then turn on him like a wild beast and kill so much of his -life? Surely if we would draw back from wiping out a few years of the -life of some man with whom we have no sympathies, far more should we -shrink from even hurting the beautiful and cherished result of the life -of a man whose mind we admire and honour in his work. I give my life -to do so much work in it, and if I were to know that every night the -work of the day would be annihilated, I had rather be relieved of the -trouble of living. In all worth, in all realness, the life of past men -preserved to us has rights as veritably as the life of present men. - -The work of the archaeologist is to save lives; to go to some senseless -mound of earth, some hidden cemetery, and thence bring into the -comradeship of man some portions of the lives of this sculptor, of -that artist, of the other scribe; to make their labour familiar to us -as a friend; to resuscitate them again, and make them to live in the -thoughts, the imaginations, the longing, of living men and women; to -place so much of their living personality current side by side with our -own labours and our own thoughts. And has not the past its rights, as -well as the present and the future? - -What care then, what conscience, must be put into the work of -preserving as much as possible of the past lives which those about -us are wishing to know and to share in. The mummy of Rameses or of -Thothmes, the portrait of the builder of the great pyramid (Fig. -65), or of the Pharaoh of the Exodus (Fig. 66) is a permanent mental -possession of all cultivated mankind, as long as our literature shall -last. The knowledge of the growth of the great civilisation of Egypt, -from the days of men clad in goat-skins to the height of its power, has -all been reconstructed in the past ten years, and will be part of the -common stock of our knowledge of man, so long as civilisation continues. - -[Illustration: Fig. 65. The Builder of the Great Pyramid.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 66. The Pharaoh of the Exodus.] - -[Sidenote: Duties.] - -With the responsibilities before us of saving and caring for this past -life of mankind, what must be our ethical view of the rights and duties -of an archaeologist? Conservation must be his first duty, and where -needful even destruction of the less important in order to conserve -the more important. To uncover a monument, and leave it to perish -by exposure or by plundering, to destroy thus what has lasted for -thousands of years and might last for thousands to come, is a crime. -Yet it is the incessant failing of the thoughtless amateur, who -knows nothing of the business; and far too often also the inexcusable -malpractice of those who know better. To wantonly destroy a monument -by cutting pieces out, whether to put them in a museum or to hide -them in a pile of curiosities, is unjustifiable if the whole can be -preserved entire. In the case of only fragments remaining, a selection -often must be chosen; yet even then copies of the whole of the material -should be made and published all together. To unearth whole tombs or -chambers full of objects, whether in an Egyptian cemetery or a Roman -camp, and neglect to record and publish the facts of the position or -groups of the objects, should debar the inefficient explorer from ever -touching such places again. To remove things without ascertaining all -that is possible about their age, meaning, and connections, is as -inexcusable as it is easy. To undertake excavating, and so take the -responsibilities for preserving a multitude of delicate and valuable -things, unless one is prepared to deal with them efficiently, both -mechanically and chemically, is like undertaking a surgical operation -in ignorance of anatomy. To turn over a site without making any plans, -or recording the positions and relations of things, may be plundering, -but it is not archaeology. To remove and preserve only the pretty and -interesting pieces, and leave the rest behind unnoticed, and separated -from what gave them a value and a meaning, proves the spirit of a -dealer and not that of a scholar. To leave a site merely plundered, -without any attempt to work out its history, to see the meaning of the -remains found, or to publish what may serve future students of the -place or the subject, is to throw away the opportunities which have -been snatched from those who might hate used them property. - -To suppose that excavating--one of the affairs which needs the widest -knowledge--can be taken up by persons who are ignorant of most or all -of the technical requirements, is a fatuity which has led, and still -leads, to the most miserable catastrophes. Far better let things lie -a few centuries longer under the ground, if they can be let alone, -than repeat the vandalisms of past ages without the excuse of being a -barbarian. - -[Sidenote: Future of Museums.] - -We must always have regard to what may be the condition of sites and -of knowledge five hundred or five thousand years hence. For if you -will deal with thousands of years you must take thousands of years -into account. If a site is certain to be destroyed by natural causes, -or the cupidity of man, then an imperfect examination and a defective -record of it is better than none. But to ensure the fullest knowledge, -and the most complete preservation of things, in the long run, should -be the real aim. To raid the whole of past ages, and put all that we -think effective into museums, is only to ensure that such things will -perish in course of time. A museum is only a temporary place. There is -not one storehouse in the world that has lasted a couple of thousand -years. Only two or three bronze statues have come down to us from -classical times preserved by each generation. A few pieces of gold work -have been treasured for a little over a thousand years, but only in -North Italy. And the whole of our present active clearance of things, -that have hitherto lasted safe underground for six thousand years or -more, practically ensures that they shall not last one thousand longer. -The gold work will be the first thing to disappear, as it is even now -disappearing every few years from museums into the melting-pot. And it -is a serious question whether we are morally justified in thus ensuring -its destruction by exposure. As a counsel of perfection I should like -to see twenty electrotypes made of every bit of ancient gold and -silver work, and these dispersed over all countries. It might then be -considered whether it would not be a noble act to bury the whole of the -gold where it would cost a national undertaking to recover it, say in a -hundred fathoms of water, and so preserve it for future ages, when only -a few wrecks of the electrotypes would have survived. The future of the -rest of museum treasures cannot so certainly be anticipated. Bronze is -sure to disappear in warfare sooner or later, especially as metals grow -scarcer owing to exhaustion of mines. Ivories will probably vanish, -like most fragile things, by mechanical damage. Pottery and vases will -go the same way as the museum of Kertch, which was bashed to pieces -by a disappointed European soldiery. Stone carving has a promise of -longer life, especially if it is reused in buildings, and so saved from -exposure and wear; for instance, whenever the Baptistry of Pisa may -fall to pieces, a mine of Latin inscriptions will come to light. But, -broadly speaking, there is no likelihood that the majority of things -now in museums will yet be preserved anything like as long as they -have already lasted. The hordes of anarchy and of Asia have never left -Europe alone for more than a few centuries. - -[Sidenote: Publications.] - -It is then to the written record, and the published illustrations, -that the future will have mainly to look. Our books will probably not -last more than a few hundred years; and it will be reprints of the -most valued, and summaries of the others that will be the sources of -knowledge in the future thousands. The wide spread of publications in -different countries, which are never likely to all undergo eclipses -simultaneously, is the best guarantee for the permanence of knowledge. -But by the time the First Dynasty has doubled its age, we cannot -expect, that the greater part of our record of it will still be -known. Certainly the inefficient and inconclusive books will vanish -first; and the more compact and generally used a work is, the longer -are its chances of life. We must always remember therefore that in -archaeological work we are removing what would be as solid proof -to future ages as it is now to us; and we are trusting all future -knowledge of the facts to inflammable paper, and the goodwill of -successive generations, many of whom may have very different interests. -Had any past age of civilisation dug up and removed every trace of the -earlier times, and committed all the results to their literature, we -should not be able to learn anything but some brief summary, nor glean -but a few trifling fragments, which would have lost their meaning and -connection. - -[Sidenote: State Claims.] - -And here we come against another large ethical question of the rights -of the individual against the community, in the claim made by the state -to interfere with property in antiquities, in ways in which it does -not interfere with any other property. From past ages the English law -has claimed for the Crown all treasure accidentally discovered. Such a -law is the best way to ensure that no such discoveries are made known, -and to drive the finder to put all such treasures in the melting pot. -The actual gain to the Crown is ignorably trivial, certainly not an -average of a thousand pounds a year; yet, in order to grab this trifle, -the law drove all such treasures to destruction. At last an improvement -was made by the Crown only demanding specimens needed for the national -collection, and paying intrinsic value for them. Even some old -candlesticks, the proceeds of an XVIIIth century burglary, were claimed -when accidentally found. - -And when the state does not claim, the landlord or tenant makes a -claim, which is just as bad, as such claims lead workmen always to -conceal and sell surreptitiously the antiquities which are continually -found in all working in old towns. The only law which could act for -the full preservation of antiquities would be the grant of the entire -rights to the finder if he proclaims his find, but no rights in what -he does not proclaim. The actual average gains of an average landlord -_per annum_ by discoveries of antiquities are at present incalculably -small, probably not a farthing in the pound on the rental or anything -near that. Hence there would be no perceptible loss by granting finds -to the finder; and everything would be saved and preserved as it was -found. At least a beginning could be made by landlords and public -bodies offering full intrinsic value for any gold and silver found on -their premises; they could not lose by that, and they might gain large -profits in the archaeological value of things. To suppose that (without -great precautions) they can get the whole value of finds by simply -claiming them, is fatuous. - -This same fatuous idea pervades many governments. It is thought that -by simply making a law, digging can be prevented, or antiquities can -be kept in a country. Such laws merely enforce an extensive illicit -system, through which valuable and important things can readily be -removed in defiance of law, whenever they are found. There is not a -country from which any antiquity could not be removed by sufficient -care in smuggling. Every national museum has its underground feeders, -knows how to defeat the laws of other countries, and incessantly grows -in spite of laws. To seize property without paying its real value -is seldom a profitable proceeding in the long run, and that is what -every government tries to do with antiquities. The Italian government -has confiscated a large part of the values of private collections, by -forbidding the exportation of any important picture or statue. And yet -such things can and do leave Italy. The Greek government, as well as -the Turkish, forbid the exportation of any and every kind of antiquity; -yet fine things from both lands continually come over to the West. - -[Sidenote: State Rights.] - -These confiscatory laws, these claims on private property on behalf -of the state, are more or less illogical nibblings on a wide claim -which no state has ventured yet to formulate,--namely, that all -objects of past generations are public property. This means, if -fully carried out, that no person can own any object of antiquity as -private property. No private collections would be possible in such a -condition, all would belong to the state. Of course there is a huge -amount of material which is duplicate, and not needed in a national -collection; but the state claims would be maintained if all collections -must be placed in a public building, (such as a local museum) where -they could be seen. The energy of collectors, the transfer of specimens -from one to another, would not be stopped, only the objects would be -compulsorily visible in a public place. And everything wanted for a -national collection would be transferred. This condition of things is -slowly being reached by the state buying important objects continually, -when they are sold on changing hands. But the logical outcome of the -present laws and present tendency would be this nationalisation of all -antiquities. Whether such a result would be satisfactory at all points -may be doubted; but it is clearly a position to which all changes at -present tend. If fully and honourably carried out by the state paying -the finder full value for all it took, and giving up confiscation of -all sorts, the result would probably be the best that could happen for -archaeology. - -One great result of defining the position thus, would be to prevent any -ancient buildings being destroyed or altered without state consent. If -every structure, say, over five hundred years old, needed three months’ -notice to an inspector before it could be pulled down or dealt with, -there would be a great check on the present changes. Every cathedral -and church, every castle and manor-house, would need special licence -for changes in all parts older than the prescribed limit. A notice of -one week might be required for the destruction of structures as yet not -known, which were unearthed in course of digging. Such a protection of -monuments would not affect vested interests or property values nearly -as much as an ordinary railway bill that passes through Parliament -without a protest; and it seems not too much to hope that such a -protection of all monuments of historic interest might be carried out. -The legal position might take the form of pronouncing all ancient -buildings, stone circles, and earthworks the ultimate property of the -Crown, with the existing owners having full powers as trustees for the -Crown to preserve, use, and enjoy such property, and to sell or devise -such trusteeship in every way as if the property was not beyond the age -limit of private property. Only the right of destruction and alteration -would be reserved. - -A state register of works of art is desired by Professor Ernest -Gardner, who proposes that (1) the ownership of works of ancient art -and sculptures and pictures by great masters should be entered on a -register in charge of a public registrar; (2) the registrar should have -a right to see to the safety of such objects; (3) any fairly qualified -scholar may apply to be entered on a register of students kept by the -registrar; (4) owners of registered works must fix times for exhibition -to students or to the public, or else a registered student must be -allowed to see any work within a reasonable period; (5) the owner, if -absent, must appoint some one to preserve and exhibit such works; (6) -in case of sale of a work to a foreign country, the government shall -have the option of retaining it at the price fixed for the sale. - -[Sidenote: Excavating Laws.] - -The attitude of foreign governments regarding scientific excavating has -not been happy. Too often the prohibitions have been used not in the -interests of archaeology, but for promoting plundering. Because it is -easy to drop on an open excavation, all regular excavations have been -fenced with severe difficulties and costs; while in Greece and Turkey -none of the proceeds have been allowed to the finder. On the other -hand, it is difficult to always drop on a surreptitious native, and the -sympathy of the courts--in Egypt at least--is openly on the side of -the plundering native, who is seldom punished for anything. Hence the -curious situation is that the whole values of the property have been -solely created by the labours and study of the archaeologist; yet he is -almost debarred from using the material which an ignorant peasant may -dig and destroy as he pleases. - -The form of law which is wanted is (1) the punishment of all -destruction or removal of antiquities, by a special court, independent -of local sympathies or favouring of the plunderer; (2) the rigid -requirement of technical knowledge and ability in those who excavate, -with the condition that everything is published promptly, and that -nothing found can be sold or pass except into a public museum; (3) -the right of the government of each country to such objects as are -necessary to the national collection, on reimbursing whatever may have -been given as bakhshish to the finder, and some proportion of the costs -according to the case. - - - - -CHAPTER XIV - -THE FASCINATION OF HISTORY - - -The love of past times, the craving for that which is gone, is one of -the more obscure instincts which appears to be brought forward by the -wider growth of interests of the mind. It takes many forms; it appeals -to the intellect, to the curiosity, to the affections; yet it is really -a single instinct, and one which, from its strength, must spring from a -primal cause. - -The sense of loss touches us at every sunset, and in anticipation -tinges all the afternoon with the sense of lengthening shadows. Even -the things that seem most common, least worthy, when in use, all gain -some being as time passes. Each little thing, that carelessly we value -not at first, grows rich with store of years. As Antony says-- - - You all do know this mantle: I remember - The first time ever Caesar put it on; - ’Twas on a summer’s evening in his tent, - That day he overcame the Nervii. - -Still more do places gain their hold upon us, unheeded at the time. -A store of memories of days spent amid strong associations, that -stirred and built the mind, are the truest riches in all after-life. -We dwell upon those portions of the past, those days at Athens, or -Florence, or in the Forum, as on a treasure; they are a portion of our -life crystallised into the structure of our thoughts--a haven of the -imagination. - -And how much deeper still is the sense of the past when we turn to -friends,--or even closer yet. One whom perhaps we hardly heeded in our -daily life, is dignified at once by the irrevocable. But all this is -merely our personal regret: the direct, selfish, individual interest. - - But the tender grace of a day that is dead - Will never come back to me. - -Let us step from this out into the past beyond our personal touch. See -now a churchyard, tall in grass, with the dial on its stand, which each -generation has passed by--how full of memories of gone years it is, -how the eye clings to its weathered disc and minds that so it was on -the day of Trafalgar or the Boyne; while by its side is the old carved -sarcophagus tomb of some Turkey merchant, silently showing his virtues -to each changing time, and calming the mind with quiet age. We love -such for the sake of the past, which draws us to its bosom to make one -more link in the long chain. - -And pass inside the church, where Tudor and Edwardian, and Norman and -Saxon, have each poured out their souls; in which every stone seems -saturated with their longings; where pleadings and rejoicings seem to -mutely fill the dead air; where the walls have echoed every bride and -every infant and every mourner through all the changing generations; -where _Fæder ure_ has yielded to _pater noster_ before even our -familiar supplications were ever heard. This indeed holds us as if it -were a place where we can actually live with the past selves that have -made us, and be at one with those who would have craved to see us in -the ages beyond them. - -And if past loves and hopes seem thus to give their life to the -lasting walls, how fearful is the breath of terror that clings round -every stone of the Colosseum. One single mangled death there made ten -thousand fiends of men who sat on those benches; and every year had -its thousands of such agonies, through all the centuries. The mass of -horror beyond all thought that dwells in that arena, is only exceeded -by the thousandfold fire of cruelty that has burnt on those seats -around. The place is hell petrified. - -And, within a stone’s throw of that, how the whole past, from which our -present ages have sprung, lives before us in the Forum. The triumphs -where the beauty of Greek art served but to make the clumsy westerner -gape; where the noblest blood of other lands,--Perseus, Caractacus, -Zenobia,--has stood abased; where the barbaric Goth has fiercely joyed -in splendid pillage of its wondrous wealth; where Theodoric and Karl -had each hoped to restore the shattered decay, with the rough material -of their own kin, which needed yet a thousand years of hewing; a space -of greater hopes and dreads, greater successes and failures, than any -other acre that we know. - -And yet, before all this, there passed age after age of men, who built -up civilisations which we just begin to perceive. The golden splendour -of Mykenae, the earlier magnificence of Minoan Knossos, the delicate -wares of still older Crete, all live with the same life as ourselves, -all are precious to us as if we had made them, all make us fellow minds -with those who thought and fashioned and treasured such things in like -manner to ourselves. - -Turn now to our own land, and on a wide western moor stand within a -ring of grey stones, which our own flesh and blood there placed in -faith and trust, for something greater than the cares of daily life; -so far from us in generations, so far from us in thoughts, that we can -hardly grasp the pulse of the same life with them, and feel what they -felt. Yet it draws us like those sounds which were the first music to -man, the sough of the wind in the wood, and the lap of the wave on the -shore, ever the sweetest yet to ourselves. And the grey stones still -touch us and bind our thoughts and our love of all our forefathers to -themselves in elemental memories. - -What underlies all this fascination of the past? What is it that thus -moves men - - In thinking of the days that are no more? - -It is the same great attraction, whether it be a personal memory, or -the being of our forefathers, or a page strong with past life in some -history, or the handling of the drinking bowls of the oldest kings of -the earth as they come from the dust of Egypt. It is but one sense in -varied forms. It is the love of life. - -In primal seas first sprang that love of life,--of preservation, of -continuity of life. Even long before man it led to the moral growth -of self-sacrifice, of affection, of social union. In man it led the -Stoic on to the brotherhood of all men, and the responsibility of -man for man. It has led the modern forward to the brotherhood of all -existing life, the responsibility for the animal as well as the man. -It now leads us on to clinging to the life of our ancestors, their -being, and their natures; and beyond that to the fascination of all -history, as being the continuity of life, the ever-shifting changes of -the one great chain which we see around us at its present stage, and -of which we form part. The man who knows and dwells in history adds a -new dimension to his existence; he no longer lives in the one plane -of present ways and thoughts, he lives in the whole space of life, -past, present, and dimly future. He sees the present narrow line of -existence, momentarily fluctuating, as one stage, like innumerable -other stages that have each been the all-important present to the -short-sighted people of their own day. He values the present as the -most complete age of history for study, as explaining the past. He -values the past as the long continuity that has brought about the -result of the present, in which he happens to breathe. He lives in all -time; the ages are his, all live alike to him; the present is not more -real than the past, any more than the room in which he sits is more -real than the rest of the world. Cleaving to that one stream of life -which branch by branch has flowed through so many channels in all the -ages, and still runs on into the future, he can give account of the -Fascination of History. - - - - -INDEX - - - Ab-nub-mes-uazet-user statuette, 158 - - Abusir lotus capital, 163 - - Abydos, Osireion, chain clearing, _frontispiece_ - - „ temple, black pottery, 166 - - „ „ copper figure, 166 - - „ „ excavation of, 173 - - Account keeping, 35–37 - - Accumulations of town, rate of, 9, 11 - - Accuracy in levelling, 59 - - „ „ observing, 50 - - „ „ recording, 49–50 - - Accusations against workmen, 40 - - Adjustment of stuff in moving, 42 - - „ „ vase-fragments, 70–71 - - Advances of money, 35 - - Adzes, dating of, 14 - - Aegean pottery, 145–170 - - Age of objects in plate-heading, 115 - - „ „ towns, 11 - - Akhenaten (Amenhotep IV), 147, 148, 152, 154, 155 - - Alignment of drawings, 115 - - Amateur digging, 1, 3, 48, 179, 180 - - Amenhotep II, 148 - - „ III, 139, 145, 148, 152, 153–155 - - „ IV (Akhenaten), 147, 148, 152, 154, 155 - - America, possible saving of history by, 134 - - Amphora, Cretan, 166 - - Ancient civilisations, 191–192 - - Angles, calculation of, 57, 58 - - „ of vases measured, 71, 103 - - Antiquities, exportation of, 184 - - „ exposure of, 172 - - „ nationalisation of, 185 - - „ preservation of, 85–104 - - „ sale of, 187 - - „ securing of, 33 - - „ smuggling of, 184 - - „ thrown away, 132 - - Approaches to site of work, 28 - - Arabic, necessity for, 6 - - Archaeological duties, 177–178 - - „ evidence, 136–168 - - „ experience, 3, 4, 14 - - „ responsibilities, 170, 178 - - Archaeology, classical, 2 - - „ conditions of progress, 130 - - „ hindered by present museums, 130 - - „ mistakes in, 139–140 - - „ narrow definition of, 2 - - „ progress depends on space, 133 - - „ systematic, 122–135 - - Architecture, photographing of, 74, 75, 78 - - Arrangement of objects, 79 - - „ „ plates, 114–117 - - „ „ text, 119–120 - - „ „ work, 41–47 - - „ with publishers, 120 - - Athenaeus confirmed, 143 - - Author’s alterations, 120–121 - - Autotypes, 119 - - Awls, 113 - - Azab, wooden floor of, 77 - - - Backgrounds for photography, 79 - - Backing of frescoes, 96–98 - - _Bakhshish_, 33–35, 188 - - „ accounts, 35 - - Banking accounts of men, 35 - - Barrels for soaking stones, 86 - - Bases of vases drawn, 70–71 - - „ „ „ sorted, 103 - - Basket-boys, and picks, 31–32 - - Baskets, 33, 44–45 - - Beads, 14, 15 - - „ pattern of, 52, 95, 96 - - „ position of, 52, 95 - - „ seldom of mixed ages, 150 - - Bead-work, 95 - - Beeswax, 66, 67, 71, 80, 90, 95, 102 - - Bell, 113 - - Benzol, 92 - - „ wax in, 91 - - Black incised ware, 160–162, 163–164, 167 - - „ velvet for backgrounds, 79 - - Blank sheets in spacing drawings, 63 - - Block-tints for vases, 70 - - Blocks returned after use, 121 - - „ zinc, 68 - - Blotting-paper, 89 - - Boats, prehistoric, 167 - - Bone point, 98 - - Bones, cleaning of, 76 - - „ marking, 51 - - „ preserving, 90 - - Bonsor, discoveries in Spain, 159–160 - - Book-post for drawings, 64 - - „ seller, 121 - - Bosnia, black incised ware, 161, 162, 167 - - Boxes, grain of wood in, 110 - - „ making of, 109–111 - - „ nailing of, 110 - - „ nests of, 109, 113 - - „ with bars, 106 - - Box-sextant, 55–56, 113 - - Boys, ages of, 20–21 - - „ chain of, 44, _front._ - - „ collecting, 44 - - „ in work, 24 - - „ throwing, 44 - - „ use of, 32 - - Brace and bits, 113 - - Bracelet of Zer, 80 - - Brass, treatment of, 100 - - Brick, burnt, 10 - - „ mounds, 10 - - „ walls, tracing of, 46–47 - - „ -work, 9 - - Bricks, age of, 47 - - „ colour of, 46 - - „ size of, 47, 52 - - Brims of vases drawn, 70–71 - - „ „ „ sorted, 103 - - British Museum, growth of, 134 - - Bronze, destruction of, 181 - - „ hypocephalus, 76 - - „ statues, preservation of, 180 - - „ treatment of, 100–101 - - „ vases, Idaean cave, 155 - - Brunswick black, marking with, 52 - - Brushes, 91, 98, 112, 113 - - Brushing, 86, 87, 89, 98, 100 - - Bügelkanne, _see False-necked vases_ - - Builder of Great Pyramid, 178 - - Buildings, destruction of, 185–186 - - „ photographing, 75, 78 - - „ planning, 52–55 - - „ restoration of, 172, 185 - - Burials, primary and secondary, 52 - - „ undisturbed, 12 - - Burnt groups, 145–146 - - „ papyri, 95 - - Buttons of VI–VII Dyn., 162 - - Buttresses left in digging, 30 - - - Cairo museum a failure, 131 - - „ rubbish-mounds, 11 - - Calculation of angles, 57 - - Camel-hair brush, 91, 98 - - „ transport, 112 - - Camera, 73–75 - - „ copying-, 81 - - „ direction of, 80 - - „ hand-, 74, 75 - - „ -legs, 81 - - „ pattern of, 73–74 - - „ setting up of, 80 - - „ size of, 74 - - „ -stand, 81 - - Camp requirements, 6 - - Carbolic acid, 89, 101 - - Carbonised papyri, 94 - - Card blackened for small stops, 75 - - „ -board for drawing, 68 - - „ slips, 78 - - „ tube, 74 - - „ with concentric circles, 71 - - Carefulness, means of securing, 34 - - Carrier-boys, 30, 41, 43 - - Carrying, 30, 32 - - Cartonnage, 52 - - Cartridge-paper, 109, 113 - - Cases, grain of wood in, 110 - - „ making of, 109–111 - - „ nailing of, 110 - - „ with bars, 106 - - Casting, 64–66 - - „ backs of frescoes, 97–98 - - Casts of statues, 172–173 - - „ plaster, 64–66 - - „ „ photographing from, 77 - - Celluloid, 71 - - Celtic pottery like pan-grave, 159–160 - - Cementing disintegrated granite, 87 - - „ sculptures in walls, 86, 171 - - Cemetery site, nature of, 11, 12 - - Chain of boys, _frontispiece_, 44 - - Chambers, contents of, 52 - - „ emptying of, 44 - - Charcoal, 47, 80, 90 - - „ dust, 76 - - Chemical knowledge, need of, 85, 171 - - Chromo-lithography, 118 - - China ink, drawing with, 68 - - „ „ marking with, 52, 76 - - Choice of facts in recording, 49 - - „ „ workmen, 21 - - Claims of landlord, 183 - - „ „ State, 183–184 - - Classification of material, 115, 119–120 - - Clay moulds, 65 - - Cleaning of bones, 76 - - „ „ bronzes, 100–101 - - „ „ gold, 98 - - „ „ iron, 102 - - „ „ pottery, 76 - - „ „ silver, 98, 99 - - Clearance at edge, 43 - - „ from bottom, 42 - - „ of sites, 41–43, 174, 181 - - Clues in digging, 5 - - Coffin, 52 - - Coinage, wastage of, 150 - - Coin impressions, 66, 67, 77 - - „ restorations, 149 - - Coins, casting, 77 - - „ cleaning, 99 - - Cold chisel, 112, 113 - - Collectors, 48, 185 - - Collotype, 74, 118 - - Colossi, transport of, 107 - - Colour on slabs, 87 - - „ preservation of, 87–88 - - „ -printing for vases, 70 - - Columns, packing of, 107 - - Commerce, prehistoric, 167 - - Commission on sales, 121 - - Commissioners, utility of, 170 - - Compass, prismatic, 55, 113 - - Compasses, 57 - - Complex forms fade soon, 128 - - Conservation, 5, 130–135 - - Contracts, 121 - - Copper figures, 166 - - „ treatment of, 99 - - Copying graffiti, 72 - - „ inscriptions, 61–63, 72 - - „ walls, 61–63, 72 - - Corner-posts to boxes, 109 - - _Corpus_ of pottery, 124 - - „ system, 123–126 - - Cost of publication of drawings, 68, 117 - - „ „ „ „ photographs, 118 - - „ „ „ „ text, 120 - - Cotton, 109 - - „ wool, 66, 97, 107, 109 - - „ „ not with papyri, 94 - - Cretan connections, XVIII Dyn., 155 - - „ „ XII „ , 158 - - „ „ VI „ , 162 - - „ „ IV „ , 163 - - „ „ I „ , 166 - - Cross-bars in packing, 106 - - „ partitions in packing, 111 - - Crowbars, 33, 112 - - Crown property, 183, 186 - - Crystal, inscriptions on, 76 - - Cultivation of sites, 174 - - Curators of museums, 49, 172 - - Cutting down from edge of work, 42 - - Cutting-out knives, dating of, 15 - - Cylinders, impressions of, 66, 67 - - - Damping of papyri, 93 - - Daphnae, 10, 13, 143–144 - - Dark room, 83 - - Dated objects, 4, 14–15, 52 - - Dating of adzes, 14 - - „ „ beads, 14 - - „ „ cutting-out knives, 15 - - „ „ mounds, 17 - - „ „ objects in general, 4, 14–17 - - Day and piece work combined, 30, 32 - - „ -pay, 24, 27–31 - - Dealers in antiquities, 3, 25, 38–39, 48 - - Decomposition of glazes, 88 - - Decoration in bead-work, 95 - - Defeneh, 10, 13, 143–144 - - Den, tomb of, 44 - - Dentist’s wax, 67 - - Deposits, foundation, 80 - - Desert views, 1 - - Destruction by wet-squeezing, 61 - - „ of antiquities, 170–171, 172 - - „ „ buildings, 10, 185–186 - - „ „ evidence, 48 - - „ „ information, 171 - - „ „ monuments, 179 - - „ „ sculptures, 86, 172 - - „ „ site, 174 - - Detail, verification of, 50 - - Developers, 82–83 - - „ proportions in, 82 - - Developing, 82–84 - - Development of tools, 14 - - Diagonal bars for box-lids, 106 - - „ driving of nails, 110, 111 - - „ lighting, 77 - - „ mirror in photographing, 75 - - Digging by amateurs, 1, 3, 48, 179, 180 - - „ purpose of, 1 - - „ regularity of, 28 - - Diktaean copper figures, 166 - - Dilettante work, 1, 3, 48 - - Diorite bowl, Crete, 163 - - „ statue, Crete, 158 - - Diospolis Parva, pottery from, 160 - - Direction of lighting, 77 - - Discoveries, age of, 175 - - „ casual, 170 - - Discrimination of sites, 9 - - „ „ style, 14, 17–18 - - „ „ walls, 46–47 - - Disintegration of granite, 87 - - „ „ stone by salt, 86 - - Disobedience to orders, 35 - - Distance from lens, 80 - - Distinguishing brick-walls, 46–47 - - Distortion in photography, 74 - - Divided rod, 54–55, 113 - - Doctoring of natives, 38 - - „ „ workmen, 37–38 - - Door-sills, 52 - - „ ways, 52 - - Double-plates, 116 - - Drab pottery at Mykenae, 148 - - Draughtsman wanted for _corpus_, 126 - - Drawing boards, 113 - - „ by lamplight, 62 - - „ facsimile, 5, 68 - - „ from squeezes, 62–63 - - „ interpretation in, 68 - - „ plan, 5, 68 - - „ thickness of lines in, 69, 115 - - „ vases from fragments, 70–71 - - Drawings, cutting up, 63 - - „ packing of, 63–64 - - „ posting of, 64 - - „ reduction of, 69 - - „ reproduction of, 68, 115 - - „ returned after use, 121 - - „ scales of, 69 - - Dressing of graves, 76–77 - - „ „ objects, 76 - - Driving of nails, 110, 111 - - Drop-shutter view, 75 - - Dry squeezes, 61–63 - - - Ebony stain, 68 - - „ statuette, 78 - - Editions, varieties of, 119 - - Egypt and Europe, 141–168 - _see Europe_ - - Electro-types, 181 - - Electrum, 98 - - El Hibeh, 9 - - Engineers, wrecking by, 170, 174 - - Engraving, Swan electric, 119 - - Enkomi, tombs at, 152, 154, 155, 156 - - Enlarged photographs, 74, 75, 80, 81 - - Ether, 92 - - Ethics of archaeology, 169–188 - - Europe and Egypt, - XXVI Dyn., 142–144 - XVIII „ , 144–156 - XII „ , 156–161 - VI „ , 162, 167 - IV „ , 163, 165, 167 - I „ , 164–166, 167 - - prehistoric, 167–168 - - Evidence, by collocation, 139, 150 - - „ by scarabs and coins, 149 - - „ failures of, 139–140 - - „ from burnt groups, 145–146 - - „ „ copied forms, 163 - - „ „ houses, 148 - - „ „ paintings, 144–145 - - „ „ rubbish mounds, 147, 156–157 - - „ „ tombs, 150–153 - - „ in a single object, 138 - - „ nature of, 136–140 - - Excavation, hindrance to, 187 - - „ purpose of, 1 - - „ recording results of, 124 - - Excavator, qualifications of, 1–7, 19, 36, 85 - - „ responsibilities of, 1, 8, 174 - - Exhaustion, evidence by, 137, 139 - - „ of metals, 181 - - „ „ sites, 174–175 - - Exodus, Pharaoh of, 178 - - Experience, archaeological, 3–4 - - Exposure in photography, 75, 78, 79, 82 - - „ of sites, 178 - - Extortion by overseers, 25 - - Extra plates for students, 119 - - - Faces, flaking of, 87 - - „ of limestone, 87, 88 - - Facts, stating of, 50 - - False-necked vases, 145, 146, 153–154 - - „ „ „ variation with age, 153–154 - - Families of workmen, 39 - - Fascination of history, 189–193 - - Files, 113 - - Filling, 13, 47, 52 - - „ and carrying, 32 - - Films, curling of, 83 - - „ packing of, 83–84 - - „ rapidity of, 75 - - Finest lines in drawing, 69 - - Finger-work in excavating, 6–7 - - Flake-white, use of, 77 - - Flaking of faces, 87 - - Flint knife obtained whole, 34–35 - - Flooring, wooden, 76, 77 - - Focus, 74–75, 80, 81 - - Foil, gold, 67–68 - - „ tin, 67 - - Foot-notes, 120 - - Foreigners’ use of plates, 116 - - Forms of pottery, 16–17 - - „ „ „ duration of, 128–129 - - Fort-mounds, Defeneh, 10 - - Forum, excavation of, 173 - - „ interest of, 191 - - „ pottery at, 126 - - Foundation deposit, 80 - - Fragments, means of securing, 34 - - „ method of drawing, 70–71 - - „ sorting and joining, 102–104 - - Frame for drawing vase-fragments, 70–71 - - „ „ supporting fresco, 96–97 - - „ of strings for scale-drawing, 72 - - „ with backing of muslin, 65 - - Free-swinging lens, 80 - - French chalk, 65 - - Frescoes, 52, 88, 96–97 - - Fuller’s earth, 92 - - Furniture, successive ages of, 127 - - Future ages, rights of, 175–176 - - „ condition of museums, 133 - - „ destruction of museums, 180–182 - - - Gang, proportions of, 44 - - Gangs of workmen, 26, 27, 32 - - Gauging of stuff to be removed, 42 - - Gelatine for extracting salt, 89–90, 92 - - Gems, photographing, 77 - - Girls as workers, 23, 24, 75 - - Gizeh, tomb of Sem-nefer, 78 - - Glass background, 79 - - „ waxed for papyri, 94, 95 - - Glaze, decomposition of, 88 - - Glycerine, 91 - - Glycin, 83 - - Gold collar from Enkomi, 154 - - „ foil, 67–68, 98 - - „ pin, Cypriote, 155 - - „ preservation of, 180–181 - - „ treatment of, 98 - - „ value offered for, 184 - - Governments, attitude of, 183, 187 - - Graeco-Egyptian vases, 144 - - Graffiti, copying, 72 - - Grave, age of, by sequence-dates, 129 - - „ dressing of, 76–77 - - Greece, _see Europe_ - - „ conditions of work in, 26, 32, 33 - - Greek pottery, 17 - - „ workmen, 26–27 - - Greeks in Egypt, 142–144, 146 - - Grouping in museums, 132 - - „ of objects as evidence, 139 - - Groups in museums, 172 - - „ numbering of, 51 - - „ of ivories, 91 - - „ of objects, 48–49, 51, 69, 115, 172, 179 - - „ photographing of, 80, 81 - - Guards to plates, 116, 117 - - Gum, contraction of, 93 - - Gurob, 145, 148, 151, 152, 153, 156 - - Guttapercha moulds, 66 - - - Haematite paint, 166 - - Hammer dressing, 105 - - „ light, 99 - - „ sledge, 112 - - Headings of plates, 115 - - Head-lines of text, 120 - - Head-shawls, seizure of, 39 - - _Helbeh_, 109 - - Heliogravure, 119 - - Hinges, 113 - - History, fascination of, 189–193 - - „ importance of, 4–5, 171, 193 - - „ knowledge of, 4–5 - - Hibeh, El, 9 - - Hissarlik, black incised ware, 161, 167 - - Holes, excavated, 43 - - „ in bricks, 47 - - Hollow feet to vases, 166 - - Hollows in ground, 11, 12, 13, 44 - - Hollows in inscriptions, 76 - - „ „ packing, 108 - - Hone-stone, 113 - - Honesty in workmen, 22, 34, 37 - - Horemheb, 147 - - Horizontal position, photographing, 80 - - Huts, mud, of excavators, 6 - - Hypocephalus, bronze, 76 - - - Ialysos, tomb at, 152 - - Idaean cave, bronze vases, 155 - - „ „ carved dish, 155 - - Idleness, remedies for, 21, 28 - - Illness among workmen, 31, 37–38 - - Impressions of cylinders, 66 - - Indestructibility of small antiquities, 176 - - Index to books, 120 - - India-rubber for dry-squeezing, 63 - - Indications after rain, 13 - - „ of nature of site, 12, 13 - - Indices of types required, 124 - - Infectious illness, 38 - - Inking in of drawings, 61, 63, 68 - - „ „ „ squeezes, 61 - - Inks for drawing, 52, 68 - - Ink-writing copied, 72 - - „ „ photographed, 79 - - Inscriptions, columns and lines, 72 - - „ copying, 60–63, 72 - - „ „ before removal, 53 - - „ made legible, 76 - - „ on stone, 76 - - „ sanded, 76 - - Insight in excavating, 4–6 - - Inspectorship of antiquities, 185 - - Instantaneous shutter, 75 - - Instruments, use of, 54–55 - - Inventory-sheets for small objects, 69–70 - - Iron, treatment of, 102 - - Ironing textiles, 89 - - Irregularities in plates, 115 - - Israel stele, 62 - - Ivory, destruction of, 181 - - „ preservation of, 90–92 - - „ tablet of Zer, 76 - - - Jaw, removal for measurement, 53 - - Jelly for extracting salt, 89–90 - - Jewellers’ tag-labels, 52, 113 - - Joining fragments, 102–104 - - „ sheets of drawings, 63 - - Jointing of brickwork, 46, 76 - - „ „ flooring, 76 - - - Kahun, black incised pottery, 160 - - „ burials at, 151 - - „ rubbish mound at, 156–158 - - „ town site turned over, 41 - - Kamares pottery, 158–159 - - Kefti bring vases, 144 - - Key-plans, 53 - - Khataaneh, black incised ware, 160 - - Khufu, portrait of, 178 - - Khyan vase lid, 159 - - Kitchen-paper, 109, 113 - - Knife, cutting-out, development of, 15 - - „ dinner-, uses of, 46–47, 94 - - „ pen, 65, 93 - - Knossos, carving, 163 - - „ Egyptian figure from, 158 - - „ pottery, 158, 166 - - „ vase lid of Khyan, 159 - - „ vases from, 158, 163 - - Knowledge in recording, 49 - - „ requisite for excavating, 187 - - „ systematic, 123 - - Koptos, 151 - - - Labelling objects, 52, 112 - - Labels in museums, 112, 171 - - „ „ packing, 112 - - Labourers, control of, 5, 7, 22–23 - - „ qualities of, 21 - - „ selection of, 20 - - „ training of, 5, 21–22 - - Lachish, pottery at, 17 - - Lamp, Cretan, 163 - - Languages, knowledge of, required, 5–6 - - Lantern-slides, 74, 81 - - Laws, present, concerning archaeology, 182–184 - - „ requisite, concerning archaeology, 185–188 - - Laying out for photographing, 80 - - Lead, treatment of, 102 - - Legal evidences, 136–138 - - „ proof accepted, 140–141 - - Legal uncertainties, 140–141 - - Length of bricks, 47 - - „ „ ropes, 46 - - Lens, distance from, 80 - - „ free-swinging, 76 - - „ wide-angle, 74 - - Lettering of plates, 116 - - Letters used for distinguishing sites, 51 - - Levelling-mirror, 58–59, 113 - - Levels of buildings, 173 - - „ „ pottery for dating, 144 - - „ „ walls, 52 - - Libyan influence, 159 - - Lids of boxes, 110 - - Lifting in removing, 42, 44, 45 - - Lighting by reflection, 78 - - „ in photography, 77–79 - - „ of museums, 131–132 - - Lime-burners, destruction by, 10, 174 - - Linen, glued, 94 - - Lines, thickness of, in drawing, 69 - - Liparite bowl, Crete, 163 - - List of plates, 116, 120 - - Lithography, chromo-, 118 - - „ photo-, 55, 68–70, 117 - - Locals according to villages, 31 - - „ for carrying, 30–38 - - Locks, 113 - - Logarithms, 57 - - Lotus capital, 163 - - - Magnifier, use in work, 47 - - Maket tomb, 151–152, 156 - - Manuscript, readiness for printing, 120 - - Margins to plates, 116, 117 - - Market money, 35–36 - - Marking of bones, 51 - - „ „ objects, 51–52, 112 - - Material facts, evidence of, 137, 138 - - Materials, presentment of, 50–51 - - „ properties of, 85 - - Measurement, accuracy of, 55 - - „ in planning, 53–55 - - „ in photography, 80 - - „ of vase-fragments, 71 - - „ „ walls, 54 - - „ „ work, 28, 30 - - Mechanical contrivances, 33, 43, 71, 72 - - Medicines, 38 - - Mediterranean civilisation, 141–168 - - Medum tombs, 62–63 - - Memory, in excavating, 18–19 - - Mer-en-ptah, portrait of, 178 - - Metals, treatment of, 98–102 - - Method of plotting 3-point survey, 56 - - Metre rod, 54–55, 113 - - Mill-stones, Roman, 10 - - Mirror, 78, 95 - - „ diagonal, 75 - - „ levelling, 58–59, 113 - - Mistakes in naming objects, 3–4 - - „ „ publication, 117 - - Misuse of ropes, 45–46 - - Mixture of objects of various ages, 150 - - Monkey, violet glazed, 148 - - Montfaucon, 123 - - Moulds for casting, 60, 65–68 - - Mounds of fort, Defeneh, 10 - - „ „ town, 10, 11 - - „ position of, 42 - - „ throwing on, 41 - - Mounting papyri, 94 - - Moving of earth, 30, 43 - - Mud-brick mounds, 10 - - „ „ sun-dried, 9 - - „ „ walls, tracing of, 46 - - Museums, buildings unsuitable, 130–131 - - „ curators of, 49, 172 - - „ future of, 180–182 - - „ grouping in, 132–133 - - „ groups of objects in, 172 - - „ growth of, 184 - - „ lighting of, 131 - - „ methods in, 86, 95, 101 - - „ plundering for, 171 - - „ present, hinder archaeology, 130 - - „ preservation in, 180–182 - - „ requirements of, 131–135 - - „ sculptures in, 86, 172–173 - - „ space needed in, 132–135 - - „ unpacking in, 112 - - „ use of, 176 - - Muslin, 65 - - Mykenae, objects from, 140, 148, 152, 156 - - Mykenaean period, 127, 153 - - - Nails, 113 - - „ diagonal driving of, 110, 111 - - „ use of, 99 - - Naqada, dressing of tomb, 77 - - National Repository needed, 133–135 - - Nationalisation of antiquities, 185 - - Native digging, 175, 187 - - Naukratis, 142–144 - - Nebireh, 142 - - Negatives, 82–84, 118 - - Negress, ebony, 78 - - Nekheb, goddess, 64 - - Neolithic vase at Knossos, 166 - - Net process, 118 - - Nile boats, 112 - - „ rise of, 174 - - Nitric acid, 92 - - Notation of successive ages, 127 - - „ „ time in work, 29 - - Note-taking in excavations, 52 - - Nubian shore, submersion of, 170, 175 - - Numbering of groups, 51 - - „ „ objects on plates, 115 - - „ „ plates, 117 - - „ „ sheets of drawings, 63–64 - - Numbers, printed, 70 - - „ scratched on, 52 - - - Obelisks at Tanis, 9 - - Objects, groups of, 48–49, 51, 69, 115, 172, 179 - - „ inventory of, 69 - - „ numbering of, 51 - - „ outlining of, 69–70 - - „ position of, 50, 52, 179 - - „ preparing, 76 - - „ scale of drawing, 69 - - Oblique lighting, 77 - - Observation, 9 - - Oiling of moulds, 61, 66 - - Organization of work, 5 - - „ „ workmen, 5, 24, 31 - - Order, historical, in plates, 115 - - Outlining of small objects, 69–70 - - Overseer or _reis_, 24–26 - - Overlapping images, 56 - - Overs, 121 - - - Packer, 111 - - Packing frescoes, 97 - - „ glass, 108 - - „ materials, 109 - - „ pottery, 108–109 - - „ stones, 105–108 - - Pads in packing, 106, 107 - - Page-references to plates, 116, 120 - - Paint-brushes, 113 - - „ red, in cups, 166 - - Paintings on tombs as evidence, 144–145 - - Palestinian pottery, 17 - - Pan-graves, 159–160 - - Paper bags, 113 - - „ for drawing, 68, 113 - - „ „ packing, 109, 113 - - „ „ printing, 118 - - „ „ squeezing, 60, 113 - - „ moulds, 60–61 - - „ squeezes, 60–61, 64 - - Papyri, photographing of, 79 - - „ treatment of, 93–95 - - Paraffin wax, 87, 89, 90, 91, 96, 102, 112 - - Parcel-post boxes, 109, 113 - - „ „ for drawings, 64 - - Partitions in boxes, 111 - - Passages, underground, 55 - - Past quickly vanishing, 130 - - „ love of, 189–193 - - „ rights of, 176–178 - - Pasting of papyri, 93, 94 - - Patterns of gold collar, 154–155 - - Payment by results, 33 - - „ deductions for locals, 31 - - „ proportions in, 31–32 - - „ rate of, 29 - - „ weekly, 35 - - Pencil-cutting for outlining, 69–70 - - Pendulum-mirror, 58 - - Periods, of bronze and stone, 127 - - „ successive, 127–130 - - Pharaoh of Exodus, 178 - - Philae, submersion of, 170 - - Philistine, 64 - - Photographic apparatus, 73 - - „ developers, 82–83 - - „ developing, 82–84 - - „ drying, 83 - - „ enlarging, 74, 80, 81 - - „ films, 75 - - „ reflectors, 78 - - „ register of objects, 134 - - „ washing, 83 - - Photographing and drawing, 73 - - „ of buildings, 73 - - „ „ excavations, 73 - - „ „ papyri, 79 - - „ „ views, 74, 81 - - „ „ wall-scenes, 81 - - Photography, 73–84 - - „ backgrounds in, 79 - - „ dark room for, 83 - - „ diagonal mirror in, 75 - - „ drop-shutter in, 75 - - „ lighting in, 77 - - „ scale in, 80–81 - - „ shadows in, 79 - - „ skew-back, 75 - - „ stereographic, 81–82 - - Photo-lithography, 117 - - „ „ colours reversed in, 70 - - „ „ for drawings, 68 - - „ „ „ plans, 55 - - „ „ reduction for, 69 - - Physics, 85 - - Pickling of bronzes, 100 - - Picks and baskets, 31–33 - - Piece and day work combined, 30, 32 - - Piece pay, 27 - - „ work, 24, 29–31 - - Pillars left in digging, 30 - - Pincers, 113 - - Pins, 83, 91 - - Pit, excavation of, 42, 45, 52 - - Placing of stuff removed, 42 - - Plan, 33 - - „ accuracy of, 55 - - „ drawing, 5, 53 - - „ measurement of, 53–55 - - „ of chambers, 44, 52, 53 - - „ „ towns, 52, 53 - - Plane, 65 - - „ -table, 55 - - Platinotypes, 119 - - Plaster, casts, 61, 64–66 - - „ coats of, 87, 97 - - „ handling of, 64 - - Plates, book, 114–119 - - „ „ double, 116 - - „ „ loose, 115–116 - - „ „ spoilt, 121 - - „ magazine for, 74 - - „ photographing from, 77 - - „ rapidity of, 75 - - „ size of image, 81 - - Pliers, 113 - - Plotting, 55–59 - - „ vase dimensions, 71 - - Plunderers, 12, 48 - - Plundering of sites, 11, 171, 178–179 - - Points of support in packing, 105–106 - - Pompeii, _corpus_ of pottery needed, 125 - - Position of objects, 50, 52, 53 - - „ in photographing, 78 - - Positives, 118 - - Postage of drawings, 64 - - Potsherds, 10, 12 - - Pottery, Aegean, 145–170 - - „ black incised, 160–162, 163–164, 167 - - „ chips, 47 - - „ _corpus_, 124–126 - - „ destruction of, 181 - - „ duration of forms, 128 - - „ Greek, 142, 147, 148 - - „ of prehistoric age, 17, 167 - - „ „ I Dyn., 164 - - „ „ XII „ , 157, 159 - - „ „ XVIII „ , 148, 153–154 - - „ packing of, 108–109 - - „ painted, from Kahun, 157–158 - - „ preservation of, 88–89 - - „ salt in, 88–89 - - „ scale for drawing, 69 - - „ typical forms, 16 - - „ value for dating, 15–17, 128–129 - - Praesos beads of XII Dyn., 158 - - Prehistoric ages, 167–168 - - „ camp site, 13 - - „ cemetery site, 11 - - „ sequences, 129 - - „ shipping, 167 - - „ tomb dressed, 77 - - Preparing objects for photographing, 76 - - Presentment of material, 50–51 - - Preservation in museums, 180–181 - - „ of antiquities, 85–104, 176–188 - - „ „ bones, 90 - - „ „ colour, 87–88 - - „ „ gold-work, 181 - - „ „ information, 5, 48 - - „ „ ivories, 90–92 - - „ „ papyri, 92–95 - - „ „ pottery, 88–89 - - „ „ sarcophagi, 87, 90 - - „ „ stone, 86–87, 181 - - „ „ stucco, 87–88, 90 - - „ „ wood, 89–91 - - Princesses in fresco, 88 - - Printed numbers for plates, 70 - - Printer’s agreement, 120–121 - - „ errors, 120 - - Printing, colour-, for vases, 70 - - Prismatic compass, 55, 113 - - Probability, evidence from, 138, 139 - - Processes for plates, 117–119 - - Prohibition of wet squeezing, 62 - - Proof, nature of, 136 - - Properties of materials, 85 - - Proportions in mixing developers, 82 - - Protractor, 57 - - Pseud-amphorae, _see False-necked vases_ - - Publication, 114–121 - - „ detailed, 175 - - „ mistakes in, 117 - - „ necessity of, 182 - - „ past methods of, 114 - - „ permanence of, 182 - - Publishers, agreements with, 120 - - Pyramid, great, Builder of, 178 - - - Railway, light, 43 - - Ramessu II, 146, 152, 153, 154, 155 - - „ III, 145, 154, 155 - - „ VI, 153, 154 - - Rate of payment, 29–30 - - Recommendations of workmen, 40 - - Reconstruction of stone vases, 102–104 - - Record by _corpus_ system, 125 - - „ importance of, 48, 175 - - „ in piecework, 29 - - „ publication of, 114 - - Recrystallisation of salt, 86 - - Red paint, 166 - - Reference-numbers on plates, 115 - - „ to plates, 115–116 - - „ to text, 119–120 - - Reflections in lighting, 78 - - Reflectors, 78 - - Register of sheets, 63–64 - - „ „ works of art, 186–187 - - _Reis_ or overseer, 24–26 - - Rekhmara, tomb of, 144, 155 - - Relief-process, 118 - - Reliefs, copying of, 60 - - Repository needed, 133–135 - - Res, statuette of, 152 - - Responsibilities, in excavating, 1, 8, 174–175 - - „ of archaeologists, 170, 182 - - Restorations, 172, 176 - - „ of scarabs, 149 - - „ of stone vases, 70–71, 102–104 - - Results, presentment of, 50–51 - - Rethreading of beads, 96 - - Re-use of tombs, 150 - - Rights of the future, 175 - - „ „ „ past, 176–178 - - Rise of Nile, 174 - - Rolls of drawings by post, 64, 68 - - „ „ papyri, 92–94 - - Ropes, 33, 45, 112 - - „ length of, 46 - - „ preservation of, 45–46 - - Rotted bead-work, 95 - - „ ivory, 91–92 - - „ papyrus, 93 - - „ silver, 98 - - „ wood, 90–91 - - Royalties on books, 120 - - Rubbish-mounds, 11 - - Rust in bronze, 101 - - „ „ iron, 102 - - - Sacking for packing, 107 - - Salt in metals, 100, 102 - - „ „ pottery, 88–89 - - „ „ stones, 86 - - „ „ textiles, 89 - - „ „ wood, 89 - - Sand, throwing, 75 - - Sanding of tender stones, 87 - - „ „ weathered stones, 71, 76 - - Sarcophagi at Abydos, 43 - - „ „ Zuweleyn, 10 - - „ preservation of, 87, 90 - - Sauce-pan, cast-iron, 90 - - Saw-files, 112 - - Sawing, 105 - - Saws, 105, 112, 113 - - Scale-drawing, frame for, 72 - - „ mentioned on plate-heading, 115 - - „ of drawing for plates, 69, 115 - - „ „ „ „ tools, 69 - - „ „ „ „ vases, 69 - - „ „ payment, 29 - - „ „ plotting, 55 - - Scaling of bronze, 101 - - „ „ copper, 99 - - Scarabs, few posthumous, 149 - - „ restorations of, 149 - - „ seldom long in use, 150 - - Screw-driver, 113 - - Screws, 113 - - Sculpture, casts of, 172 - - „ cemented in walls, 86 - - „ lighting of, 131–132 - - „ museum of, 172 - - Sealing-wax moulds, 66–67 - - Search for fragments, 34–35, 102–104 - - Section-lines for stone vases, 70 - - Selection of facts in recording, 49 - - Separation of objects in museums, 49 - - Sequence dates, 129 - - Sequences in a mansion, 127 - - Serials published, 117 - - Series of forms of stone vases, 102 - - Sety II, 146, 153, 155 - - Sextant, box-, 55–56, 113 - - Shade-lines in drawing, 69 - - Sheet of card ruled, 72 - - Sheets of inventories, 69–70 - - Shifting of stuff, 42 - - Shutter, drop-, 75 - - Sieve, native, 112 - - „ wire, 112 - - Sifting earth, 35 - - Sighting-lines, 54 - - Signals for work, 28 - - „ survey, 56–57 - - Silicate solution, 91 - - Silver coins, 99 - - „ treatment of, 98–99 - - Site of cemetery, 11–12 - - „ „ temple, 9–10 - - „ „ town, 10–11 - - Size of bricks, 47, 52 - - „ „ sheets for reduction, 70 - - Skeletons, marking of, 51 - - „ preservation of, 53, 90 - - Skew-back camera, 75 - - Skull, removal for measurement, 52 - - Slate backing to frescoes, 97 - - Sliding of earth, 42 - - Slopes of rubbish-mounds, 11 - - Smuggling of antiquities, 184 - - Sneferu, black incised ware, 163 - - Soaking of bronzes, 101 - - „ „ iron, 102 - - „ „ lead, 102 - - „ „ pottery, 88 - - „ „ stones, 86 - - „ „ textiles, 89 - - Softening in packing, 106, 108–109 - - Sorting fragments, 102–104 - - Spain, pottery from, 159–160, 167 - - Speculators, destruction by, 170 - - Spies, 38–39 - - Spoke-brush, use of, 60–61, 113 - - „ shave, 113 - - Square, 113 - - Squareness on plates, 115 - - Squares of plans, 53 - - Squeezes, dry, 61–63 - - „ wet, 60–61 - - Stain, ebony, 68 - - State claims, 182–184 - - „ register of works of art, 186–187 - - „ rights, 184–187 - - Stations, surveying, 57–58 - - Statistical sorting of pottery, 128 - - Statuary, casts of, 172 - - „ lighting of, 131–132 - - „ preservation of, 180 - - „ restoration of, 172 - - Statuette, ebony, 78 - - Stirrup vases, 145, 146, 154 - - „ „ variation with age, 153–154 - - Stone chips, 9, 13 - - „ of buildings, 76 - - „ vases, block-tints for, 70 - - „ „ drawing from fragments, 71 - - „ „ sorting fragments, 102–104 - - - Stones, large, 30 - - „ moving of, 27 - - „ salt in, 86 - - „ scale of drawing, 69 - - Stops in manuscripts, 120 - - „ „ photographing, 74–75 - - Storing of antiquities, 6 - - „ „ ropes, 46 - - Straw for packing, 108, 109, 112 - - Strings of beads, 95–96 - - Stucco, coloured, 88 - - „ facing, 87 - - „ on bricks, 96 - - „ on walls, 47 - - „ on wood, 96 - - Students’ plates, 119 - - Style, discrimination of, 14, 17–18 - - Successive ages, classed, 126 - - Super-heated wax for preserving, 90 - - Superimposed buildings, 41–42 - - Support, points of, in packing, 105–106 - - Survey, three-point, 56 - - Surveying, 5, 53–59 - - „ of walls, 52 - - Survival of museums, 180–181 - - „ „ things in use, 128, 150 - - Systematic archaeology, 122–135 - - „ work in excavating, 2 - - Systematizers needed, 123 - - - Tables, printing of, 120 - - Tablet, ivory, 76 - - Tahutmes II, 151 - - „ III, 151, 152, 153 - - Tally for accounts, 37–38 - - Tanis, with obelisks, 9 - - „ workers at, 20 - - Tape-measure, 55, 113 - - „ steel-, 55 - - Tapioca-water, 88 - - Telescope used in work, 28 - - Tell el Amarna, frescoes at, 88 - - „ „ „ vases at, 147, 148, 155, 156 - - „ „ Yehudiyeh, cemetery mounds, 43 - - Temple, causes of ruin, 10 - - „ evidence of, 47 - - „ site, clearance of, 41–47 - - „ „ nature of, 9–10 - - Tenting in desert, 6 - - Textiles, 89 - - Theodolite, 55 - - Thickness of lines in drawing, 69 - - Threads, 65, 90, 92, 95 - - Three-colour photography, 119 - - Three-point survey, 56 - - Throwing, 30, 41 - - „ sand, 75 - - Thyi, Queen, 148, 152 - - _Tibn_, 109 - - Tilting in photography, 80 - - Tin-foil moulds, 67 - - „ plate for reflectors, 78–79 - - „ „ „ sawing, 105 - - „ „ „ small stops, 75 - - „ pots, 108, 111 - - „ saucepans, 90 - - Tints, block, for vases, 70 - - Tomb groups, 48–49, 51 - - „ „ scattered, 49 - - „ of Sem-nefer, 78 - - „ -robbers, 45 - - Tombs, evidence from, 150–153 - - „ mixture of contents, 150 - - „ numbering of, 51 - - „ position of, 52 - - „ proportion of important, 12 - - „ reuse of, 150 - - „ unplundered, 12 - - „ wrecking of, 171 - - Tools necessary to work, 33, 112–113 - - „ provision of, 33 - - Tooth-brush, uses for, 67, 112 - - Topography, 33 - - Town, planning of, 52 - - „ site, clearance of, 41, 44 - - „ „ nature of, 10 - - „ „ rate of accumulation, 10–11 - - „ „ turned over, 41 - - Tracing out walls, 13, 41, 46–47 - - Transport of antiquities, 85, 97, 107–108, 112 - - Tray with poles, 107 - - „ wooden, 95 - - Treasure trove, 183 - - Trenching ground, 41, 43 - - Trial-pits, 41 - - Troy, black incised ware, 161, 167 - - Trucks, 43 - - Turning back, 41 - - „ over, 41, 43 - - Tutankhamen, 145, 153, 154 - - - Uncertainties, legal, 140–141 - - Underground passages, 55 - - Undisturbed tombs, 12 - - Uniformity of scale, 115 - - Unpacker, 111–112 - - Unpacking of boxes, 111–112 - - Unplundered tombs, 12 - - Unpunctuality, remedies for, 31 - - Unrolling of papyri, 93–94 - - Unsanded stones, 71, 76 - - Usertesen II, 44, 157 - - - Valuables, finding of, 27 - - Variation of vases with age, 153–154 - - Vases, block tints for, 70 - - „ drawn from fragments, 70–71 - - „ measurement of angles, 71 - - „ scale of drawing, 69 - - Vertical lighting, 77 - - „ mirror level, 58–59, 113 - - „ position of camera, 80 - - - Wages in Egypt, 29 - - „ „ England, 27 - - „ „ Greece, 27 - - Wall-scenes, photographing of, 81 - - Walls, copying, 61–63, 72 - - „ face of, 47 - - „ surveying of, 52 - - „ thickness of, 52 - - „ tracing of, 13, 41, 46–47 - - „ visible after rain, 13 - - Warrior in alabaster, 144 - - Washing of negatives, 83 - - „ out salt, 86, 88, 89, 100 - - Wastage of coinage, 150 - - Water-colours, 77, 113 - - Wax, bees-, 66, 67, 71, 80, 90, 95, 102 - - „ dentist’s, 67 - - „ paraffin, 87, 89, 90, 91, 96, 102, 112 - - Waxed glass for papyri, 94 - - Weathered stones, sanding of, 71, 76 - - Weeding-out of workmen, 40 - - Weights carried by boy, 43 - - Western, _see Europe_ - - Wet squeezes, 60–61 - - White ants, 89, 96 - - „ filling of black ware, 161 - - „ flake-, use of, 77 - - „ -wash on walls, 96 - - Whiting for inscriptions, 76 - - Wide-angle lens, 74 - - Wills, contradictory, 140 - - Witnesses, evidence of, 137, 138 - - „ veracity of, 138 - - Wood flooring, 76, 77 - - „ rotted, 90–91 - - „ salt in, 89 - - „ tray, 95 - - „ wet, 91 - - „ white ants in, 89 - - „ -wool, 109 - - Work, irregular, 27 - - Workmen at Tanis, 20 - - „ chains of, 44 - - „ control of, 5, 7, 22–23 - - „ distribution of, 26 - - „ English, 27, 32 - - „ Greek, 26–27, 32 - - „ management of, 36 - - „ organization of, 24, 26, 29, 31 - - „ qualities of, 21 - - „ selection of, 20–21 - - „ substitution of, 23, 31 - - „ training of, 5, 26, 34 - - Wrapping-paper, 109 - - Wrappings, 52 - - Wrecking by engineers, 170, 174 - - „ „ lime-burners, 174 - - „ „ natives, 175 - - „ of tombs, 171 - - - Yorkshire, pottery from, 160 - - - Zer, Aegean pottery of, 164–165 - - „ black incised ware, 164 - - „ bracelet of, 80 - - „ ivory tablet of, 76 - - Zinc, box for washing, 83 - - „ blocks, 68, 118 - - „ tally for accounts, 37–38 - - „ trays for soaking stones, 86 - - Zuweleyn, sarcophagi at, 10 - - -THE END - - -_Printed by_ R. & R. CLARK, LIMITED, _Edinburgh_. - - - - -WORKS BY W. M. FLINDERS PETRIE - - - =THE PYRAMIDS & TEMPLES OF GIZEH.= (Out of print). - - =TANIS I.= 19 plates, 25s. _Quaritch._ - - =TANIS II.= =Nebesheh and Defenneh.= 64 plates, 25s. _Kegan Paul - and Co._ - - =NAUKRATIS I.= 45 plates, 25s. _Quaritch._ - - =HIEROGLYPHIC PAPYRUS FROM TANIS.= (Out of print). - - =A SEASON IN EGYPT, 1887.= 32 plates, 12s. (Out of print). - - =RACIAL PORTRAITS.= 190 Photographs from Egyptian Monuments, 45s. - _Murray, 37 Dartmouth Park Hill, N.W._ - - =HISTORICAL SCARABS.= (Out of print). - - =HAWARA, BIAHMU, AND ARSINOE.= (Out of print). - - =KAHUN, GUROB, AND HAWARA.= (Out of print). - - =ILLAHUN, KAHUN, AND GUROB.= 33 plates, 16s. (Out of print). - - =TELL EL HESY= (=Lachish=). 10 plates, 10s. 6d. _Alexander Watt._ - - =MEDUM.= 36 plates, 24s. (Out of print). - - =TEN YEARS DIGGING IN EGYPT, 1881–1891.= 6s. _R.T.S._ - - =TELL EL AMARNA.= (Out of print). - - =KOPTOS.= 28 plates, 10s. _Quaritch._ - - =A STUDENT’S HISTORY OF EGYPT, Part I, down to the XVIth Dynasty.= - 5th ed. 1903. =Part II, XVIIth and XVIIIth Dynasties.= 6s each. - _Methuen._ - - =TRANSLATIONS OF EGYPTIAN TALES=, with illustrations by Tristram - Ellis. 2 vols., 3s. 6d. _Methuen._ - - =DECORATIVE ART IN EGYPT.= 3s. 6d. _Methuen._ - - =NAQADA AND BALLAS.= 86 plates, 25s. _Quaritch._ - - =SIX TEMPLES AT THEBES.= 26 plates, 10s. _Quaritch._ - - =DESHASHEH.= 37 plates, 25s. _Quaritch._ - - =RELIGION AND CONSCIENCE IN EGYPT.= 2s. 6d. _Methuen._ - - =SYRIA AND EGYPT.= 2s. 6d. _Methuen._ - - =DENDEREH.= 38 plates, 25s.; 40 additional plates, 10s. _Quaritch._ - - =ROYAL TOMBS OF FIRST DYNASTY.= 68 plates, 25s. _Quaritch._ - - =DIOSPOLIS PARVA.= 48 plates, 25s. _Quaritch._ - - =ROYAL TOMBS OF EARLIEST DYNASTIES.= 63 plates, 25s.; 35 additional - plates, 10s. _Quaritch._ - - =ABYDOS, Part I.= 81 plates, 25s. _Quaritch._ - - =ABYDOS, Part II.= 64 plates, 25s. _Quaritch._ - - -Of works _out of print_, a few copies can be had on application to the -Author, University College. - - -HANDBOOKS OF - -Archæology and Antiquities - -_Edited by Professor PERCY GARDNER, Litt.D. of the University of -Oxford, and Professor F. 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