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diff --git a/old/63033-0.txt b/old/63033-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 3d98732..0000000 --- a/old/63033-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,2499 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Emanuel Swedenborg's Investigations in -Natural Science and the Basis for his , by Martin Ramström - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll -have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using -this ebook. - - - -Title: Emanuel Swedenborg's Investigations in Natural Science and the Basis for his Statements Concerning the Functions of the Brain - -Author: Martin Ramström - -Release Date: August 24, 2020 [EBook #63033] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK EMANUEL SWEDENBORG'S *** - - - - -Produced by WebRover, Charlene Taylor and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - - - - - -EMANUEL SWEDENBORG’S INVESTIGATIONS IN NATURAL SCIENCE AND THE BASIS FOR -HIS STATEMENTS CONCERNING THE FUNCTIONS OF THE BRAIN - -Reprinted from the festival publication of the University of Uppsala -on the occasion of the bicentenary of the Royal Society of Sciences of -Uppsala and of the unveiling of the sarcophagus of Emanuel Swedenborg in -the cathedral of Uppsala. - -November 19th, 1910. - -[Illustration] - - - - - EMANUEL SWEDENBORG’S - INVESTIGATIONS IN NATURAL SCIENCE - AND THE BASIS FOR HIS STATEMENTS - CONCERNING THE - FUNCTIONS OF - THE BRAIN - - [Illustration] - - BY - MARTIN RAMSTRÖM - - [Illustration] - - UNIVERSITY OF UPPSALA - 1910 - - [Illustration] - - UPPSALA - ALMQVIST & WIKSELL, PRINTING CO., LTD. - 1910 - - - - -CONTENTS - - - Pag. - - FRONTISPIECE, reproduced from a copper engraving in - Swedenborg’s ›Opera Philosophica et Mineralia›, Vol. I., - printed in Dresden and Leipzig, in 1734. - - TITLE PAGE 5 - _The vignette_ on the title page is reproduced from the medal - struck in honour of Emanuel Swedenborg, in 1852, by the Royal - Swedish Academy of Sciences. - - Introduction 9 - - Swedenborg’s investigations in natural science. - - Swedenborg’s mathematical, mechanical and astronomical - investigations 11 - - Swedenborg’s geological, mineralogical, chemical, physical, - and cosmological investigations 14 - - Swedenborg’s anatomical and physiological investigations 16 - - The basis for Swedenborg’s statements concerning the functions - of the brain. - - On the centres of the vegetative functions 27 - - On the centres of the psychical functions, especially the - sensory centres 28 - - On the centres of the motor functions 32 - - The doctrine of localizations 35 - - The ›cerebellular theory› 43 - - Concluding summary 47 - - Notes 50 - - - - -EMANUEL SWEDENBORG’S INVESTIGATIONS IN NATURAL SCIENCE AND THE BASIS FOR -HIS STATEMENTS CONCERNING THE FUNCTIONS OF THE BRAIN - - -In recent times Emanuel Swedenborg has, on many sides, been the object of -a continually increasing interest, and year after year has attention been -called to the manysided works of his life. In former times he was known -almost exclusively through his religious writings. But it has gradually -come to light that he was also an investigating genius of the first rank, -who opened new paths in several branches of the natural sciences and made -wonderful discoveries. - -Thus, by way of illustration, Professor ANDERS RETZIUS has drawn forth -from oblivion his _anatomical_ and _physiological_ works and shown -that there is to be found in them (especially in ›Regnum Animale›) -›ideas belonging to the most recent times, and a scope, induction and -tendency which can only be compared to that of Aristotle.›[1] And since -then several authors have expressed themselves in a similar manner, -as Professor CHRISTIAN LOVÉN,[2] Professor MAX NEUBURGER (Vienna),[3] -Professor C. G. SANTESSON,[4] and above all Professor GUSTAF RETZIUS[5] -on repeated occasions. - -The case is also similar with respect to SWEDENBORG’s _geological_ -researches. Here J. J. BERZELIUS[6] has sought to direct the attention of -the learned to his penetrating observations and ingenious conclusions; -and the opinions of such men as Professor A. E. NORDENSKIÖLD,[7] -Professor A. G. NATHORST,[8] and others, have also tended in the same -direction in regard to SWEDENBORG. - -Within the realms of _astronomy_ and _cosmology_ Professor M. NYRÉN[9] -and later Professor S. ARRHENIUS[10] have pointed out the grand -hypotheses of the creation of the worlds, etc. etc., which SWEDENBORG had -erected in advance of all other authors in cosmology. - -A number of societies and associations have also been formed whose -purpose it is to spread a knowledge of SWEDENBORG’s works concerning -natural science. The oldest of these is the Swedenborg Society of -London, which absorbed the purely scientific Swedenborg Association -half a century ago, and which this year celebrated the centenary of its -foundation. In 1898 there was founded in the United States of America -the Swedenborg Scientific Association. In Sweden the Royal Academy of -Sciences appointed in 1902 a committee to investigate the contents of -SWEDENBORG’s manuscripts and to publish selected works. - -A number of individuals besides those already mentioned have devoted much -labour and care to the translating and editing of SWEDENBORG’s scientific -works, among whom we may mention the Englishmen J. J. GARTH WILKINSON, M. -D., and the Rev. A. CLISSOLD, the German Prof. Dr. IMMANUEL TAFEL, the -German-American Dr. RUDOLF TAFEL, and the American Mr. ALFRED H. STROH, -M. A.[11] - -The strongest expression of this interest in SWEDENBORG’s scientific work -in the most recent times, was that manifested during the International -Swedenborg Congress, held this summer in London. On that occasion were -gathered there representatives for numerous branches of the natural -sciences, medicine, philosophy and theology, each one of whom contributed -his account of the discoveries, inventions, and far-sighted utterances -which SWEDENBORG had made within these several departments of knowledge. -And imposing indeed was the homage which was as a consequence paid to the -ingenious investigator as well as to the Country and the University which -had produced him. - - - - -SWEDENBORG’S INVESTIGATIONS IN NATURAL SCIENCE. - - -Before a life-work such as that of EMANUEL SWEDENBORG one cannot but -be filled with admiration. Perhaps not so much on account of the -_manysidedness_ of it; for that was not so very unusual at the time -in which SWEDENBORG lived—in the 18th century;[12] but because his -researches were at the same time so _comprehensive_ and _penetrating_, -because he made such great and important conquests within the most -different departments of knowledge; indeed, in many places discovered by -his sharpsighted genius the _lines of development_ along which science -was to proceed for the gaining of its end. - - -SWEDENBORG’S MATHEMATICAL, MECHANICAL AND ASTRONOMICAL INVESTIGATIONS. - -_Mathematics_, especially geometry, algebra and mechanics, and -_astronomy_ in particular, were the predominating interests with -SWEDENBORG, when, after having completed his university studies, he -entered upon his first foreign journey (1710). He had at that time the -good fortune to come into personal contact with (ISAAC NEWTON?),[13] JOHN -FLAMSTEED[14] and EDMUND HALLEY[15] in England, and with the renowned -mathematicians PHILIPPE DE LA HIRE and PIERRE VARRIGNON[16] in France, -and to enter into an interchange of scientific ideas with them. And -the impulses derived from teachers of such great insight and skill did -not take long in manifesting themselves. In 1714 SWEDENBORG was able -to send home accounts of a great many _mechanical inventions_ which -he had made and the ›correctness of which he proved by mathematical -and algebraical calculations.›[17] As examples of these discoveries -may be mentioned his flying machine,[18] submarine boat, steam engine, -mitrailleuse, sluice constructions, etc.[17] After his return to Sweden -he found opportunities of putting into practice some of these projects, -when (in 1716) he was appointed assessor extraordinary in the College of -Mines and ordered to assist CHR. POLHEM ›with the construction of his -buildings and inventions›. But he was rich in ideas and quick-witted -enough to be able, together with these official duties, to plan and set -on foot the publication of a periodical devoted to natural science, -›_Daedalus Hyperboreus_›, the first scientific periodical in Sweden, -and to furnish it abundantly (during the years 1716-1718) with valuable -articles concerning new inventions, _projects and problems for scientific -investigations and experiments_.[19] In the year 1718 he has completed -a new method of reckoning with the number 8 as the base; and the -following year he publishes a still better ›Proposal to divide our money -and measures, so that the calculation would be easy and all fractions -be abolished›, and this system is nothing less than the _Decimal -system_![20] He also published during these years an ingenious method of -determining the longitude by means of the moon, a problem upon which the -learned had at that time been engaged for several years.[21] - -SWEDENBORG thus succeeded in penetrating very deeply into the -mathematical and mechanical sciences, and therefore at first it must -arouse astonishment that he did not accept the professor’s chair in -mathematics at Uppsala University when this was offered him. He wished -for freedom to study in other departments also. And, as we shall see, he -soon turned his interest in another direction, namely to geology. - -However, it was also a characteristic in SWEDENBORG, worthy of -admiration, that in spite of his deep penetration into the sciences and -the bold ideas of his creative genius, he nevertheless strove, at the -same time, to retain contact with practical life and there cause the -results of his investigations to bear fruit. It was also this purpose -which to a great extent influenced him not to accept the offered -professorship in mathematics, which he feared would force him into a -direction too theoretical. In this respect there were, as some of his -biographers have shown, several points of similarity between SWEDENBORG -and his patron, King Charles XII., namely, ›the unusual combination of -the boldest imagination and a pronounced practical tendency›.[22] And -as both were animated by the same ›burning inclination for all that is -great in thought and deed›, and by the same love of the fatherland, -therefore, when these two men found one another, there was an interesting -cooperation. Professor HOLMQUIST has given a very good description of -this in his essay alluded to above, from which I shall here reproduce -some extracts: - -— — — ›But SWEDENBORG had also in the course of his conversation with -Charles XII. advanced several new proposals which won, in part, the -King’s approval. SWEDENBORG suggested the establishment of a company to -promote the exportation of Swedish iron and tar (a suggestion later put -into practice by the Iron Office), set forth his plan for an observatory -in Uppsala and brought up for discussion the establishment of salt works -in Sweden in order to help his country against the terrible dearth of -salt during the war: all these ideas he also committed to writing in -pamphlets: ’_Om sättet för handelns och manufacturernas uphjelpande_’, -’_Memorial om Salt Siuderiers inrettning i Swerje_’ and ’_Om nyttan och -nödvändigheten af ett Observatorii inrättande i Sverige_’ (preserved -in manuscript in the Diocesan Library of Linköping).[23] Of the ideas -just mentioned, it was in the first place the one on salt boileries -which claimed the King’s attention and which he commissioned SWEDENBORG -to put into practice. It still remains, however, to mention the most -remarkable of SWEDENBORG’s projects. Through ERIC BENZELIUS he had -come into possession of an old letter of Bishop HANS BRASK, in which -the idea of a water way from the western coast straight across Sweden -is expressed. SWEDENBORG, inspired by this, laid before the King the -_suggestion for a canal from Göteborg through Lakes Vänern and Vättern -to the Baltic_, which aroused the King’s enthusiasm. SWEDENBORG was -commissioned to investigate the possibilities for the realization of this -gigantic undertaking. — — — Shortly after this we find him in Uddevalla -investigating the possibility of establishing salt-works, in connection -with which SWEDENBORG at once set out to construct salt-pans and other -apparatus better than those in use in the defective old salt-works at -Strömstad. — — — We afterwards find him again at Trollhättan, Vänern, -Gullspång and Hjälmaren examining the situation for the canal and locks -and finding ’all to be possible and not of such great expense as had been -supposed’. SWEDENBORG had passed over to the modern idea of an inland -canal through Hjälmaren and Mälaren directly to Stockholm.› With justice -it may be said that here he gives the impression of a very sharpsighted -and energetic engineer, who possessed the power of turning his thorough -theoretical education to practical use. - -It may thus be clearly perceived, from everything I have referred -to above, how comprehensive and penetrating were the researches of -SWEDENBORG in the mathematical (and especially the mechanical) branches -of science, and what fruitful discoveries had been made by his searching -eye. - - -SWEDENBORG’S GEOLOGICAL, MINERALOGICAL, CHEMICAL, PHYSICAL AND -COSMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. - -SWEDENBORG’s comprehensive interest now turned itself to new fields of -work: to _geology_, _mineralogy_, _chemistry_, _physics_ and finally to -_cosmology_, without giving up his first subject, _mathematics_. - -And he also now exhibited the same thoroughness as before, beginning -with examinations, experiments and observations, partly original, but -also collected from predecessors. For he says: ›It seems to me that an -infinite mass of completed experiments is a good ground to build upon, to -make the trouble and expense of others serve one’s end; that is to work -with the head over that which others have worked over with the hands.› -(See HOLMQUIST, Op. cit. and the letter from SWEDENBORG to ERIC BENZELIUS -of May 2nd, 1720, in the edition of the Acad. of Sciences, I., p. 304). - -The result of this period of labour SWEDENBORG embodied in a number of -works, among which may especially be mentioned: ›_On the Height of Water -and the Strong Tides in the Primeval World. Proofs from Sweden._›[24] -SWEDENBORG here furnishes proofs that our North, in olden times, lay -for the most part under deep water. And he based his deductions on a -great many researches and sharpsighted observations, and wherever it -was possible he tested the correctness of his conclusions by means of -experiments. This is the work which J. J. BERZELIUS, A. E. NORDENSKIÖLD -and A. G. NATHORST have praised so highly, and in some places it has -been considered to be ›one of the most ingenious contributions to the -history of geology›. SWEDENBORG also worked out during this period the -great work: ›_Miscellanea observata circa res naturales et praesertim -circa mineralia, ignem et montium strata_›, (printed in Leipzig 1722 and -lately reprinted in the edition of SWEDENBORG’s scientific writings of -the Royal Academy of Sciences, Vol. I., 1907, pp. 59-191), and finally -the gigantic work: ›_Opera philosophica et mineralia_›, (published in -Dresden and Leipzig, 1734, in three large folio volumes). The last work -contains among other things SWEDENBORG’s cosmology, and it is here that -he developes his famous _nebular theory_, which so closely reminds one -of the theory worked out in later years by Kant and Laplace, that one -strongly suspects that SWEDENBORG’s utterances, in one way or another, -lie at the bottom of it. Concerning this work much has been written -during recent years, and therefore it may be sufficient here only to -refer to the statements made in regard to it by Professor S. ARRHENIUS in -his introduction to the above-mentioned edition of Swedenborg’s writings, -Vol. II., where he says: ›If we briefly summarize the ideas, which were -first given expression to by SWEDENBORG, and afterwards, although usually -in a much modified form,—consciously or unconsciously—taken up by other -authors in cosmology, we find them to be the following: - - The planets of our solar system originate from the solar - matter—taken up by BUFFON, KANT, LAPLACE, and others. - - The earth—and the other planets—have gradually removed - themselves from the sun and received a gradually lengthened - time of revolution—a view again expressed by G. H. DARWIN. - - The earth’s time of rotation, that is to say, the day’s length, - has been gradually increased—a view again expressed by G. H. - DARWIN. - - The suns are arranged around the milky way—taken up by WRIGHT, - KANT and LAMBERT. - - There are still greater systems, in which the milky ways are - arranged—taken up by LAMBERT.› - -During this period of his investigations SWEDENBORG enters into very -deep speculations. He desires to grasp the innermost constitution of -things, their causes and origin, and seeks to attain this end through -a long process of analyses and by applying a geometrical explanation -to the phenomena in the world of the senses. This method he employs -in explaining the inner constitution of chemical bodies, and likewise -the varieties of physical phenomena, etc. He thus comes at last to -the—geometrical points: through the combination of these, in different -ways, have all things of the universe originated in a mathematically -definable manner; and the motion of these points is the all connecting, -life-giving power.[25] - - -SWEDENBORG’S ANATOMICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. - -After SWEDENBORG had so thoroughly searched through and speculated upon -inorganic nature, he turns himself to the _organic_. He breaks away from -all other work, travels abroad, and throws himself with intense zeal into -_anatomical_ and _physiological_ studies. These researches were, for -the most part, carried on in the Netherlands, France, and especially in -Italy, where he remained for nearly a year. - -After five years he was ready with his first work in this field, -the large, famous ›_Œconomia Regni Animalis_,› which was printed in -Amsterdam, 1740-1741. It was then published in two large volumes; but -that it was designed to be still larger, is evident, among other things, -from SWEDENBORG’s own statement;[26] and furthermore, the Englishman J. -J. G. WILKINSON published, in 1847, as a third volume, some annotations -which he regarded as belonging to SWEDENBORG’s manuscript of the same -work.[27] - -The ›Œconomia Regni Animalis› is chiefly directed to a detailed -analysis of the _blood_, the _brain_, and finally the _soul_. In -this investigation SWEDENBORG directed his attention not only to the -morphological and physiological aspects of the subject, but also to the -_embryology_ of the organs; and he penetrated so deeply into the very -essence of development, that, as Professor J. A. HAMMAR (Uppsala) has -pointed out, he succeeded in arriving at a conception on this point, -which was considerably better than that of his times. As is well known, -during the first part of the eighteenth century the idea was generally -prevalent that, when the organism developed from the egg or sperm, it -grew forth out of it, much like a flower developes out of the bud, or, in -other words, that the different organs existed pre-formed in the egg or -sperm and that development consisted only in an extension of its size. -SWEDENBORG expressed himself very decidedly against this ›pre-formation -theory›: The development consisted by no means merely in a growth or -expansion of the germ, (›seminis extensio›), or of a prototype of the -future creature existent in the germ, (›non ... aliqua realis effigies -maximi in minimo, seu in aliquo primo typus futuri corporis, qui -simpliciter expanditur.› See Œc. R. A. I., No. 249); but there was in -the germ a certain formative substance or power, by means of which the -various parts of the embryo were developed one after the other, organ -after organ. ( ... singula membra successive, seu unum post alterum -producuntur ... Œc. R. A. I., No. 247). - -It will be seen that SWEDENBORG has here put forth essentially the same -theory as was later presented by CASPAR FRIEDRICH WOLFF in his well known -›Doctorsdissertation› of the year 1759, _i. e._, the so called _theory of -›epigenesis›_. - -I shall here also discuss some of the results and conclusions, which -SWEDENBORG arrived at in the ›Œconomia Regni Animalis›, concerning the -_brain_ and _its function_. - -As is well known the general principles of the macroscopical anatomy -of the brain were known long before SWEDENBORG’s days; and even its -microscopical structure had, half a century before his time, begun to be -studied by such men as LEEUWENHOEK (1632-1723), MALPHIGI (1628-1694), -and others. For example, it was not only known that the substance of -the brain, upon incision, exhibits an outer, greyish layer, the cortex, -and an inner, more pure white mass, the medullary substance; but the -above-mentioned investigators had also shown that _the cortex of the -brain_ consists of a numberless mass of small globular bodies, which -are closely surrounded by blood-vessels and are continued in small -thread-like extensions, which run into the medullary substance.[28] Now -SWEDENBORG succeeded, as regards _these globular bodies_, in arriving -at the conception that they are _the most important components of the -cortex_ and that it is in these bodies that the nerves originate.[29] He -called them ›_Sphaerulae_› or ›_Cerebellula_›. - -Again, as regards the _medullary substance_, it was already known through -the works of WILLIS (1622-1675), VIEUSSENS (1641-1716), BOERHAAVE -(1668-1738), that it consists, for the most part, of a great mass of -finer and coarser nerve-fibres, and that these, through the medulla -oblongata,[30] continue down into the spinal cord, and that through the -nerves they are in communication with the various parts of the body. The -nerves were supposed to contain a lumen, thus being tubular. On the basis -of certain _clinical experiences_ concerning the changes which occur -in the functions of the soul, when the cortex of the brain is injured, -SWEDENBORG succeeded in drawing the conclusion that the _same_ medullary -fibres which are derived from the ›Cerebellula› of the cortex of the -brain, continue into the spinal cord and are in connection with the -nerves, and that thus an easily transmitted and continuous communication -is established between the substance of the cerebral cortex and all the -parts of the body, where the nerves are distributed.[31] - -Concerning the _function_ of the brain, the old view of HIPPOCRATES that -the brain was a gland was still entertained in SWEDENBORG’s time. The -cortical substance served for secreting the ›spiritus animalis›, that is, -what the ancients called the ›spirits of life›, and these were collected -in the cortex of the brain that they might, when necessary, stream out -through the nerves. The medullary substance was, according to the latest -conceptions of that day, the origin and source of the soul’s activity, -and the ›spiritus animalis› served as the connecting link between the -soul and the sense-organs and muscles of the body. - -SWEDENBORG also supposed that such a very easily flowing nervous fluid, -›fluidum spirituosum›, communicated the impressions of the senses and -the impulses of motion: but this fluid determined the connection between -sense-organs and muscles on the one hand, and the _cortex_ of the brain -on the other. It was thus _the cerebral cortex! to which the impressions -of the senses were carried, and from this the voluntary impulses were -sent out_ to the muscles. The cortex was thus the seat of both the -sensory and motor activities of the soul in the body. Œc. R. A. III., No. -133: ›Substantia enim corticalis est ipsum cerebrum, seu sensorium et -motorium commune.›[32] - -But SWEDENBORG was not contented with this general idea of the cortex as -the seat of the sensations and the will. He also drew conclusions from -his previous experience and results regarding the continuous connection -between the elements of the cortex and the ends of the nerves distributed -in the various parts of the body. - -On the basis of this connection he ascribed to the ›_Cerebellula_› a -very important rôle in the activity of the brain. In the first place -they received, through the external sense-organs and nerves, impressions -from the outer world and worked them over: they were a kind of _inner -sense-organs_.[33] And since the sensory impressions were so richly -various as well in kind as in degree, the ›Cerebellula› must also possess -various individual qualifications corresponding to these various sensory -impressions. They were, at the same time, connected with one another, and -so arranged into superior and inferior groups that they could receive and -work over the various kinds of sensory impressions.[34] - -There were also other groups of grey substance in the interiors of -the brain, through which the sensory nerves passed; but all sensory -impressions must ultimately be gathered together in the cortex of the -brain so as to become conscious perceptions. - -(Thus, for example, SWEDENBORG describes the optic thalami as such -a secondary centre in the course of the path of sight;[35] and the -corpora striata in the path of the sense of smell;[36] and the origin of -conscious tactile sensations he describes thus: — — — ›rudior quicunque -_tactus a superficie_ totius per medios nervos _in Medullam Spinalem -aut Oblongatam_ et abinde _in activissimum cinerem_, et _in circumfusum -corticem Cerebri_ emicet: Adeo ut _extremi receptus modorum sint in -cortice Cerebri, qui conscius redditur_ mutationum in seriebus et -substantiis compositis usquam contingentium.› Œc. R. A. II., 192). - -Thus: although SWEDENBORG did not suppose the ›Cerebellula› to be -arranged into sensory centres in the same manner as we do, still he -seems to have supposed an arrangement something resembling this, with -_Cerebellula-groups_ as _subdivisions of the great sensible centre-organ, -which is formed by the ›Cerebellula› of the brain cortex, taken -together_, and which Swedenborg called ›Sensorium commune.› - -In regard to the relation of the cortex to _motility_, SWEDENBORG -expresses himself much more definitely. This activity of the brain -SWEDENBORG also regarded as derived from the small cortical elements, -the ›_Sphaerulae_› or ›_Cerebellula_›.[37] He ascribes to them, on the -one hand, a high degree of _self-determination_, so that they could -perform their functions independently of each other, this on the basis -of certain anatomical conditions, such as their position in respect to -each other in separate cavities, and their connection each with its own -special nerve-fibre, and, besides, also on the basis of certain clinical -and pathological observations;[38] but on account of other anatomical -conditions, such as the aggregation of the ›Cerebellula› into larger -and smaller groups, as into gyres, and groups of gyres, etc., as well -as on certain other grounds, he ascribed to them also the ability to -_cooperate with each other_ when necessary.[39] In consequence of this -the brain possesses, as he says, the power and choice of influencing -whatever nerves and muscles it will, and of stimulating them to activity. -(›Proinde Cerebri secundum ordinatam ejus substantiae dispositionem -in potentia et arbitrio est, quascunque velit fibras, aut fibrarum -fasciculos, et consequenter nervos et musculos inspirare et ad agendum -excitare.› Œc. R. A. II., 153). It was impossible for him to express -himself as to what parts of the cerebrum or which convolutions, _gyri, -correspond to the respective muscles_, but _he refers to experimental -investigations of animals_, by which this might be discovered.[40] - -But although the brain would then be able to govern every muscular -action, it was not employed every time such an action was to be -performed. No, in the medulla oblongata and in the grey substance of -the spinal cord there were _subordinate, secondary motor centres_, and -these governed the automatic and habitual movements, so that, for the -performance of these, the brain need not be disturbed in its higher -functions. Only for the purely voluntary motions were impulses from the -cerebrum necessary.[41] - -SWEDENBORG has thus clearly located _the ›causa principalis› of the -voluntary movements_ in the _cortex of the cerebrum_, or more definitely, -in _the cortical elements and in groups of such elements_, although in -this work ›Œconomia Regni Animalis› he did not succeed in more closely -defining the position of the various motor centres. - -From all that I have here brought forward concerning the functions which -SWEDENBORG ascribes to the cortical substance of the brain, it is evident -that he succeeded in coming to the full conviction that it is _through -the activity of the ›Cerebellula›_ (or as we express it, through the -cerebral nerve-cells) that _the perception of sense-impressions and the -impulses to voluntary motions arise_. - -But SWEDENBORG does not stop even here. The elements of the cerebral -cortex, he continues, are still not the ultimate determinants. They -are only, so to speak, the inner sense-organs[42] and sub-determining -media.[43] They are themselves subordinated under the understanding and -the will, and their principle, the soul.[44] The soul, the principle of -life, it is the soul, which, through those cortical elements, perceives -the external world: it is the soul which feels, sees, hears, smells, -tastes, it is the soul which recollects, thinks, performs, and wills; it -is the soul which speaks and acts.[45] - -What then is the soul, and where does she reside? - -The seat of the soul must surely lie in the cerebral cortex; at least -its activity comes into play there, and still more definitely, in the -›Cerebellula› of the cortex. (See above and also ›The Brain›, No. 7). -But what is she? What is the soul? - -Here SWEDENBORG makes one attempt after the other to draw away the -obscuring veil. Sometimes he thinks of the soul as only dwelling and -working in the ›Cerebellula› and their ›fluidum spirituosum›; but in -this way he does not come to a solution of the principal question, which -is only removed farther away.[46] Sometimes he thinks the soul to be -identical with the ›fluidum spirituosum›; but how can this, however -subtile fluid, be immortal? Here he is again repulsed.[47] He discusses -the supposition that, although the ›fluidum spirituosum› in itself is not -immortal, it yet becomes so upon the death of the body, and so forth.[48] -And at last he bursts out with: ›it amounts to the same thing if we see -in this fluid the soul itself, or only its faculty of imagination and -judgment, for the one cannot be thought of without the other.›[49] - -SWEDENBORG himself, however, was not satisfied with the result, but -acknowledges that he had been too hasty, when, after having in reality -thoroughly considered only the blood and brain, he entered immediately -upon the search for the soul. He therefore says in the preface to the -next work: ›I am now determined to allow myself no respite, until I have -run through the whole field to the very goal—until I have traversed the -universal animal kingdom to the soul (usque ad animam). Thus I hope, that -by bending my course inward continually, I shall open all the doors that -lead to her, and at length contemplate the soul herself: by the divine -permission.› - -It is grand to see the indomitable energy and zeal for investigation in -this man of 53 years! - -He was now obliged to extend considerably the field of his -investigations—thereby to come to still more thorough insight into the -conditions of the soul’s life, and afterwards, as he says, ›in his -analytical way to be able to work himself up from the lower to the -higher›, to find the way from phenomena and facts to causes and the final -principles of the organism’s intricate mechanism. - -Three years later he has ready the first two volumes of his new work, -and the following year, 1745, a third volume. This work is the ›_Regnum -Animale_›, (The Soul’s Kingdom). It is constructed upon a very grand -plan, comprising not less than 17 parts. Of these, however, only the -three mentioned above issued from the press, and they treat of the -organs of the chest, abdomen, and skin, and of the senses of touch and -taste.[50] Professor IMMANUEL TAFEL (Tübingen) in the middle of the -19th century afterwards published two more volumes of the manuscript. -The first of these, Pars quarta, treats chiefly of the senses of smell, -hearing and sight and the higher degrees of the soul’s activity; and the -other, Pars septima, treats of the soul.[50 b] - -But simultaneously with the work in question SWEDENBORG wrote still -another, namely, the great work on the brain, ›De Cerebro›.—In these -works SWEDENBORG reached _the summit of his scientific career_, and they -afterwards served as the foundation of the religious edifice to which he -devoted the remainder of his life. - -The ›_De Cerebro_› of SWEDENBORG, just referred to, is a rather large -work which treats of the brain from the anatomical, physiological, and -philosophical standpoints. This work left by SWEDENBORG in Ms., has -appeared in print only in part, namely, in the English translation by -Dr. RUDOLF TAFEL, published in London in two volumes, 1882 and 1887, and -entitled ›The Brain›. Although this edition comprises, as was said, only -a portion of the whole work, it treats of both the cerebrum, cerebellum -and medulla oblongata, as well as of the cranium and the membranes of the -brain, but chiefly only in so far as their structure and function regard -the activity of the soul. Without doubt SWEDENBORG’s main interest here -centred on this subject, and therefore I shall give some intimations -concerning how deeply SWEDENBORG has succeeded in seeing into the -function of the cerebrum as the organ of the soul’s life. - -SWEDENBORG divided each hemisphere of the brain into an anterior and a -posterior region, separated from one another by the fissure of Sylvius. -Now, in _the anterior region_ he located _the essential activity of -the soul_, while as regards the posterior region, he supposed that it -was chiefly active in animating the blood (›The Brain›, No. 71). In -the anterior region he furthermore distinguished _three lobes_, or, as -he called them, ›curiae›, in which the soul resided and exercised its -functions (›The Brain›, No. 88). He does not define the boundaries of -the lobes, but distinguishes them by saying that the soul’s activity in -the highest lobe attains to the highest degree of clarity and perfection, -while in the inferior lobes, the middle and the lowest, the soul’s -activity successively decreases in sharpness and intensity! (›The Brain›, -Nos. 66, 88). In these lobes or curiae the essential psychic life also -has its rise; here observations, thoughts, judgments, conclusions come -into being, yea, even determinations and the utterances of the will -proceed thence. Here consequently is the source of both the sensory and -the motor functions of the soul (›The Brain›, Nos. 88, 100). - -As we have seen, SWEDENBORG had already shown, in ›Œconomia Regni -Animalis›, not only that it is in the cortex, but just in _the cortical -elements_, the ›_Cerebellula_›, that the brain’s psychic function is -performed. Swedenborg emphasizes the same idea in ›De Cerebro›, and -declares that these ›Cerebellula› are the units of which the brain is -constructed, and from which its essential nature is derived (›The Brain›, -No. 34). - -As in the ›Œconomia Regni Animalis›, so in ›De Cerebro›, he also refers -to the arrangement into _different groups_, which is so important for -the function of the cortical elements or ›Cerebellula›, and with respect -to this he now makes a new statement, which is of such a nature as -necessarily to excite amazement: he sets forth the most essential part -of _the modern theory of localizations_. Word for word this statement -reads as follows: ›_The muscles and actions which are in the ultimates of -the body, or the soles of the feet, seem to depend more immediately upon -the highest parts (of the anterior region of the brain)[51], the muscles -which belong to the abdomen and thorax upon the middle lobe, those which -belong to the face and head upon the third lobe_; for they (the muscles -of the body and the lobes of the brain)[51] seem to correspond to one -another in inverse order›. (See ›The Brain›, No. 68).—Thus, the essential -features of the modern doctrine concerning the relative positions of the -motor centres in the cortex of the brain, that doctrine into which we -have obtained an insight first after much comprehensive and complicated -labour during the last century! - -I shall no longer at this point continue the discussion of this work. -What I have brought forward may suffice to indicate the character of -SWEDENBORG’s investigation and the statements and discoveries based -thereon. By his works on the brain SWEDENBORG reached the _summit_ of -his Scientific activity, but also its _conclusion_. He now passes over -to the transcendental field. With the limits which we have set for our -examination, we must, however, refrain from following the energetic -investigator in his continued search for truth. - - - - -THE BASIS FOR SWEDENBORG’S STATEMENTS CONCERNING THE FUNCTIONS OF THE -BRAIN. - - -If we take a general view of SWEDENBORG’s investigations, the outlines -of which have been sketched above, a number of questions are suggested: -Whence did SWEDENBORG secure the material for all these far-sighted -statements, whence the evidence for all these discoveries? Did SWEDENBORG -himself carry out the special investigations which must have formed the -basis of his beautiful results?[52] Or was the evidence ready at hand in -the literature of those days? - -The answering of these questions is naturally of a certain importance in -the valuation of the opinions expressed. And as several of SWEDENBORG’s -statements concern questions which are still among the ›unsolved›, I -have taken up some of these questions for examination. In this I have -restricted my investigation to a confined province, and chosen one which -in our own times is of great actual interest, namely, the function of the -brain, and especially that of the cerebral cortex. As we have already -seen, SWEDENBORG connected in the closest manner the soul’s activity -with the cortex of the cerebrum, indeed, he localizes in detail special -departments of that activity to determinate regions of the cortex; and -the object of my investigation is, therefore, to endeavour to find out -upon what foundations SWEDENBORG erected this doctrine of the centres of -the psychic functions in the cortex of the cerebrum. - - -ON THE CENTRES OF THE VEGETATIVE FUNCTIONS. - -With regard to the function of the brain, SWEDENBORG, in the first place, -made the distinction that the cerebrum regulates the psychic, and the -cerebellum the vegetative functions. - -Many different opinions prevailed in SWEDENBORG’s time concerning this -question. Some investigators considered that the vegetative as well as -the psychical functions stood under the direct control of the cerebrum; -others that _the centres of vegetative life were separated from those of -psychic life and had not_, like these, _their place in the cerebrum_. -And SWEDENBORG adopted the latter opinion, primarily for the following -reasons: - -1) _Experiments on animals_ had brought to light the fact that -respiration and the action of the heart continued for a time even after -the hemispheres of the cerebrum (in dogs) had been separated from their -connection with the cerebellum and medulla oblongata, indeed, even if the -hemispheres of the cerebrum (in dogs) had been extirpated.[53] He was -also led to the same conclusion by - -2) _Certain teratological and pathological anatomical experiences_, which -he had gathered from his studies of books. He advances cases described by -WEPFER, TYSON and RIDLEY, MANGET, KERKRING, MORGAGNI, and others, which -showed that although the cerebrum had occasionally been entirely or in -part missing in foetuses, yet these deformed foetuses could nevertheless -live a shorter or longer time after birth. And in agreement with TULPIUS -he calls attention to the great deformation of the cerebrum in the case -of hydrocephals. In close connection with this he gives accounts (from -VALLISNIERI and others) of extreme cases of petrifications in the brain, -regarding which one must suppose that when the cerebrum gradually lost -its functions and the vegetative vital functions nevertheless continued -for a time, these must then have been regulated by the remaining parts of -the central nervous system, that is, by the cerebellum, medulla oblongata -and the spinal cord. (See Œc. R. A. I., Nos. 573, 574 _et seqq._). - -From these experiments and discoveries it was thus evident to SWEDENBORG -that the centres for vegetative life are not to be sought for in the -cerebrum. - -As was said, he located them instead in the cerebellum, and the -reason for this seems in brief to have been the following: MANGET and -VIEUSSENS had described a number of experiments on animals which were -said to have proved that after lesions of the cerebellum respiration -and the action of the heart at once ceased.[54] The injuries in these -experiments had evidently extended more deeply than the descriptions -recount, by which the false conclusion in regard to the cerebellum is -explained. It was probably because of such misleading experiments as -these that SWEDENBORG’s highly esteemed contemporary, HERMANN BOERHAAVE, -(1668-1737), held the same opinion that the vegetative vital functions -are regulated by the cerebellum.[55] However, the Englishman THOMAS -WILLIS, (1622-1675), had come nearer the truth, when, in a very guarded -statement, he connected these functions with both the cerebellum and -the medulla oblongata.[56] And when SWEDENBORG chose his position on -the question he seems to have been influenced by both of these authors, -and received the opinion that the cerebellum was the main centre of -vegetative life, making, however, the important addition, that the -medulla oblongata, as for that matter also the spinal cord, are secondary -centres, subordinated to the cerebrum and cerebellum.[57] This addition -was based upon a conclusion which SWEDENBORG had drawn, among other -things, from the teratological and pathologic-anatomical observations and -from comparative anatomy, but there is no occasion for entering into this -more closely in this connection. - -After SWEDENBORG had, however, upon the grounds alluded to, separated -the centres for the vegetative life-functions from the cerebrum, there -lay before him the localization of the psychical functions; and, as to -them, SWEDENBORG located the centres of the sensory portion of the soul’s -activity in the cortex of the cerebrum.[58] - - -ON THE CENTRES OF THE PSYCHICAL FUNCTIONS, ESPECIALLY THE SENSORY CENTRES. - -That the sensory activity of the soul has its centres in the cerebrum was -in SWEDENBORG’s time considered quite certain, but it was not so certain -as to just what part of the brain it was in which the soul’s activity -arose. - -It is well known that the philosopher DESCARTES († 1650) had supposed -that the _glandula pinealis_ (pineal gland) was the seat of the soul, and -that the conscious perceptions came into being in this gland and in the -central ventricle of the brain, the ›_third ventricle_›, from which the -nerves, according to his opinion, took their origin.[59] - -Gradually, however, there seems to have been more and more an inclination -to attribute this phase of the operation of the soul to _the white -medullary substance_ around the ventricles of the brain. And in -SWEDENBORG’s time this opinion seems to have been the usual one. At least -the matter is so presented by HERMANN BOERHAAVE, who, as is known, in a -high degree had the ear of his contemporaries.[60] - -And even HALLER, some twenty years after SWEDENBORG had written his -works on the brain, was still of a similar opinion, as is evident from a -quotation which I shall here bring forward, in which he emphasizes that -neither perceptions nor the impulses to motion arise in the cortex of the -cerebrum, but in the medullary substance: ›Non ergo in cerebri cortice -sensus sedes erit, aut plena causae muscularis motus origo: eritque -utraque in medulla cerebri, & cerebelli.› (ALB. V. HALLER: ›Elementa -physiologiae›, Lausannae, 1762, Tom. IV., p. 392). But when even HALLER -would not attribute the soul’s activity to the cortex, what then can have -led SWEDENBORG to such a thought? - -In order to clear up this question let us first examine the _anatomical -literature_ before SWEDENBORG’s time. And then we find that the -BARTHOLINS had already in a kind of way associated this branch of the -soul’s activity with the cerebral cortex, because they supposed that -the ›_spiritus animalis_›, (the ›spirits of life›), _was contained in -the cortex for the sensory functions_, just as it was conserved in the -medullary substance for the motor functions.[61] - -And THOMAS WILLIS considered that the _›spiritus animalis› was generated -in the cerebral cortex_, but afterwards underwent proper elaboration and -distribution in the medulla of the cerebrum; and that the memory had its -seat in the cerebral cortex.[62] - -And MALPIGHI (1628-1694) had expressed the surmise, that the minute -_cortical elements_, so particularly described by him, which correspond -to what we now call the nerve-cells of the cortex, were small glands, -›glandulæ›, whose function was to _prepare a substance which_, conveyed -through the nerves, _calls forth perceptions_.[63] - -It had also been shown by the researches of MALPIGHI that these -›glandulæ› put forth a vessel-like fibre, which continued into the -cerebral medulla; and that this medulla for the greater part consisted of -such fibres or vessels.[64] - -In how far these structures were ›fibres› or ›vessels›, and whether -they proceeded from (›oriuntur›) or terminated in (›desinunt›) the -small cortical elements, MALPIGHI leaves undecided. And when BOERHAAVE -afterwards in his lectures on the brain describes these structures, he -still depicts them as the finest tiny canals, which take up the ›spiritus -animalis›, pressed into them from the cortex, and transport it down to -the medulla oblongata, whence it is afterwards, by means of the nerves, -distributed to the different parts of the body. This ›spiritus› BOERHAAVE -describes as elaborated in the cortex, ›fabrica mirifica corticis -praeparatus›.[65] - -These observations and surmises have evidently exercised a great -influence upon SWEDENBORG’s conception of the function of the cerebral -cortex; but they alone could impossibly have aided him in reaching the -enlightened standpoint at which he arrived. No, the most determining -and decisive factor for him in this question evidently was a great mass -of _clinical and pathological observations_ which he had collected and -synthesized, namely, symptoms of disturbances of consciousness and -sensibility, which had been exhibited by such patients, who, as was shown -by post mortem examination, had been injured in the cerebral cortex. -And I shall later refer to some of these cases in connection with the -consideration of the brain’s motor functions, because these patients -nearly always also exhibited motor disturbances. - -But even here I may quote some of SWEDENBORG’s own words, which will show -what importance he attached to these testimonies: ›It is the cerebrum or -the cortical substance in which the soul disposes and unfolds its purest -and most simple organic forms of activity, and what the cerebrum is, -appears from a change of the faculties in some diseases, as in apoplexy, -epilepsy, paralysis, etc., likewise in many morbid states of the animal -mind in a cerebrum wounded by various accidents;› (›The Brain›, No. 86). - -And in another place he says: ›If the cerebrum is either inflamed or -obstructed, or flaccid, or injured otherwise, the intellectual faculty is -unsettled; as in paralysis, melancholy, in cases of delirium, in atrophy, -apoplexy, in fevers, and other diseases; nay, the determination of the -will also is similarly affected. For each single cortical substance -contributes its share to this intellectory, that is, to this organ of the -understanding, etc.› (›The Brain›, No. 104, r). - -All these observations concerning the consequences of injury to the -cerebral cortex—and the above-mentioned discoveries regarding the -structure of the cerebral substance and the hypotheses concerning the -relation of the cerebral cortex and cortical elements to the ›spiritus -animalis› and the perceptions,—these _clinical_ and _anatomical -experiences taken together_ seem to have led SWEDENBORG to the conviction -that the activity of the soul and not least that just now in question, -the sensory, had its seat in the cortex of the cerebrum. - -He now enters into a detailed analysis of the course of the sensory -nerves as far as they are able to be demonstrated (›in ipsius oculi -luce›), and he thus follows the optic nerves to the optic thalami, and -thence their radiation towards the cerebral cortex, the olfactory nerves -to the corpora striata or the medulla of the centrum ovale and from -there out towards its cortical surroundings, the auditory nerves to -the medulla oblongata and thence up toward the cortex of the cerebrum, -(›versus supremum corticem›), and in the same manner he follows the -nerves of taste and touch. (See Œc. R. A. II., No. 192; and III., No. -66). He cannot now follow further the particular fibres through the -medulla all the way to the cortex, of whose importance for consciousness -and sensibility he became convinced through the clinical experiences, -but here he must _suppose_ a connection, and he says: ›these effects -(conscious perceptions) could never be produced ... unless in every -quarter there were _a mutual connection and perpetual communication of -the cortical substance with the medullary_, as regards the fibrils ...›, -(as well as a special arrangement of the cortical elements and special -qualifications in them, of which more will be said later).[66] - -From all this it is clear, that it was probably through _a combination of -clinical and anatomical experiences_ that SWEDENBORG secured the premises -for his conclusions that the centre of the soul’s sensory activity is in -the cortex of the cerebrum. - - -ON THE CENTRES OF THE MOTOR FUNCTIONS. - -SWEDENBORG also placed the centres of the soul’s motor activity in the -cerebral cortex (See Œc. R. A., No. 127, etc.). - -I have not been able to find anything of this kind even hinted at in the -antecedent literature. We are reminded of how preceding authors, who -made an attempt at some kind of localization of the origin of motion, -in most cases placed this in the medulla of the brain, as for example -the BARTHOLINS;[67] and also BOERHAAVE.[68] And as we have just heard, -HALLER still held the same view.[69] Nevertheless SWEDENBORG expresses -his conception without the slightest hesitation, and this he did because -he regarded it as resting on a sure foundation. His strongest grounds -and proofs were here also derived from the _clinical and pathological -observations_ in certain cerebral diseases which had caused changes in -the cortex, and in patients, who had been injured in the cerebral cortex. -It was these clinical cases at which I hinted just now. And now some of -these may be brought forward, for the most part as SWEDENBORG himself has -related them—with some few abbreviations: - -A female seventy years of age, who after exhibiting the premonitory -symptoms of apoplexy for some months suddenly _lost the power of speech_, -and on being conveyed to bed, lost all sensation and motion. On a post -mortem examination a large cavity was found in the cortical substance of -her brain (›in ejus Cerebri substantia corticali ampla cavitas reperta -fuerit›, see Œc. R. A. II., No. 154). The case was taken from J. J. -WEPFER’s ›_Historiae Apoplecticorum_› (Amsterdam, 1681, pp. 5-11). - -Another case taken from WEPFER was the following: A man 50 years of age -had for some weeks before his death suffered from excruciating headache, -the pain of which sometimes drove him mad, so that he was not seldom -unconscious of what he said and did. On examining his head after death, -the whole surface of the cerebrum and cerebellum, including both the -convolutions and the furrows between them, seemed to be clogged all -over with a gelatinous substance, from which, when it was pricked with -a lancet, genuine serum oozed out. And also the very substance of the -cerebrum and cerebellum had imbibed a large quantity of serum. (Œc. R. -A., loco cit. and J. J. WEPFER: Op. cit., p. 15-19). - -A case from A. PACCHIONI was as follows: A young man had died under -symptoms of fever, severe headache and _spasms_, or _cramp_. On opening -his cranium, it appeared that the firm fibrous membrane of the brain, the -dura mater, was loosened from the bone on the top of the head; and here, -according to the description, it had exercised a strong pressure upon the -underlying portion of the brain and was tightly adherent to it. (Œc. R. -A., loc. cit.)——Consequently, in the last two cases: inflammation of the -membranes of the brain, or meningitis with accompanying influence upon -the superficial layer of the brain, the cerebral cortex. - -And still another case from PACCHIONI, which was still more convincing: A -youth was brought into the hospital in an almost unconscious condition, -spoke incoherently, cast himself about in all directions, etc.; and -furthermore——his _lips were somewhat drawn over to the left side_ -(›_labris ad sinistrum paululum detractis_›), thus a right-sided _facial -paralysis_! On examination after death no injuries could be found upon -the integuments of the head, nor upon the outer or inner sides of the -cranium, but on the left side of the brain _a depression of the cortex_ -was discovered, occasioned by the formation of a tumor or ›bladder› on -that part of the surrounding dura mater lying just over the place of -depression: ›_ibi depressus et durioris consistentiae cortex cerebri -cavernam ostendebat vesicae congruentem_.›[70] - -SWEDENBORG brought forward still more cases, so incomplete, however, -that it is not worth while to repeat them here. But he had at hand a -very large number of cases, as he says: ›phalanges observationum idem -testificantium› (Œc. R. A. No. 154), or, as he says in another place, so -many that a bare enumeration of them would fill two whole pages (Œc. R. -A. II., 154). - -SWEDENBORG had made a specially careful study of a great many _cases of -apoplexy_ and _hemiplegy_, which naturally, in so far as they affected -the cortex, gave him direct guidance in judging of its function. And he -also understood very well how to judge at the same time with regard to -the importance of bleedings in the soft membrane of the brain, the pia -mater, on and between the convolutions of the brain, the ›gyri›, and -the pressure that these exercise upon the cortex, and the results of -prevented circulation in cases of apoplexy. For in all these cases, he -says, the transmission of blood to the cortex is checked, and by this the -cortex was disturbed in its function, and this was the cause of the loss -of sensation and of the paralysis. (Œc. R. A., III., No. 411 and III., -No. 413; see also ›The Brain›, No. 89). - -But SWEDENBORG had also directed his attention to that method of -investigation which, to the brain physiologists of the present day, is -the best aid for the examination of the motor functions of the cerebral -cortex, namely, _experiments on animals_. He quotes such experiments, in -which _incisions_ had been made into the cortex ›just to the marrow›, -as it is expressed, (›usque ad substantiam medullarem› [RIDLEY], Œc. R. -A., I., No. 505); or when the brain (in dogs) had been _pierced_, (Œc. -R. A., II., No. 154), and how these injuries had occasioned spasms or -contractions of the trunk or extremities (RIDLEY). He also describes -such cases in which fine needles had been pierced through the dura mater -and corrosive liquors introduced through the holes, with the result -that severe disturbances occurred in both motility and sensibility, and -also how through such injuries muscular contractions had been provoked, -by which it was sometimes observed that with certain stimuli the -contractions first occurred in certain groups of muscles (for example, in -the head or neck) and afterwards spread to the other parts of the body. -(BAGLIVI ›The Brain›, No. 20). - -As will be seen, these experiments were no ›precision-investigations›; -and the same may be said of the clinical and pathological ones. And -this may be the more easily understood, when we consider that in those -times so much interest was not attached to such special observations of -pathological changes in the cerebral cortex; for this was then regarded -only as a gland, a secreting organ or reservoir for the ›spiritus -animalis›. These observations were therefore made more as it were in -passing. The same is also true of the experimental investigations on -animals, quoted above. These were in reality made not in order to -investigate any function of the cortex, but for other purposes, namely, -in order to search out the causes of the pulsations of the brain, or the -qualities and functions of the dura mater, etc. - -Yet, as we shall see later on, some of the cases, in the original -descriptions, really contain statements somewhat more exact and of -greater interest even for the theory of cortical localizations, than -those which SWEDENBORG quoted; but he seems to have here adduced no more -than what had reference to the _cortex regarded as a whole_, and which -showed what great changes in both the power of sensation and motion -injuries in the cortex could produce. If we take this into consideration, -and if we synthesize all these experiences, and add to this the increased -knowledge concerning the minute structure of the brain, which had been -produced especially by MALPIGHI’s discoveries, we must admit that -SWEDENBORG had good reasons for his view that the soul’s activity had its -seat in the cortex of the cerebrum. - - -THE DOCTRINE OF LOCALIZATIONS. - -But SWEDENBORG, as is well known, did not stop here. The cerebral cortex -certainly constituted a whole which transformed the sensations into -thoughts and determinations, but all the regions of the cortex were not -of the same degree: some ruled the higher, others the lower functions, -thus also containing subdivisions, in some of which the sense-impressions -were received, in others from which the motor impulses proceeded. (See -›The Brain›, Nos. 66, 68, 71, 88, 98, 100, 102, etc.). - -This conception of the brain appears at first glance as very modern. -But upon searching the literature before SWEDENBORG’s time one finds -that the thought was not so entirely original. New was the thought of -attributing the psychical functions to the cortex, new also was the -attempt to accurately determine upon the place where the different -functions originate; but the _idea of localization_ itself is found again -in the literature which SWEDENBORG already had at his disposal. - -BOERHAAVE, for instance, says, in his ›Institutiones medicæ›, when -speaking of the sensations, that they give rise to _different -perceptions_, partly owing to the differing species and nature of the -outer objects, and partly to the different natures of the sense-organ -and the affected nerve, but partly also _to the different regions in the -cerebral medulla from which the nerve proceeds_. Thus we have here a -kind of localization to a special region of the brain, although in its -_medulla_.[71] And still more clearly does BOERHAAVE express the same -idea in his ›Prælectiones academicae,› where he says: ›In the ’Sensorium -commune’ there are _regions locally distinguished for the different -senses, just as every sense has its own special sense-organ_.›[72] - -And before BOERHAAVE the philosopher DESCARTES had expressed an idea -concerning a certain form of localization of the various elements of -psychic activity. For he supposed that the images of sensation and the -images of the memory, etc., which the soul perceives, arise on those -places on the walls of the brain’s central ventricle, where, according -to his opinion, the various nerves originate. In a similar way he also -imagined the origin of motility localized. (R. DESCARTES: ›De homine›, -publ. by F. SCHUYL, Ludg. Bat., 1662). - -We here reproduce some illustrations from the work of DESCARTES just -mentioned, which are designed to show how he thought that the images of -sensation arise. — — See the figures 1, 2, 3. - -We thus see that the idea of localization itself was not altogether new. -But how did SWEDENBORG ultimate and develope it? - -With regard to function SWEDENBORG divided the hemispheres of the -cerebrum into two parts: one anterior region and one posterior, -conceiving the fissure of Sylvius as the dividing boundary between them. -(›The Brain›, Nos. 16, 88, 91). - -[Illustration: Fig. 1. Fig. 2. Fig. 3. Fig. 4. - -Figures 1-3. Reproduced from Descartes: ›Tractatus de homine›. - -Fig. 1. A part of the wall of the central ventricle of the brain. The -points of the dotted area represent the openings of the nerves, which, -according to the opinion of Descartes, take their origin in the wall -of the ventricle. The figures O (star) and B (lily) are formed by -combinations of such nerve openings. - -Fig. 2. View of the left hemisphere from the medial side. The dotted -area B represents the place, where, according to Descartes, the nerves -originate. The vesicle H is the pineal gland, wherein the soul was -thought to have its seat. - -Fig. 3. Illustrates the act of seeing. The object ABCD forms an image, -1357, on the retina of the eye. This image provokes a similar image, -2468, on the wall of the brain’s ventricle, by exciting a stream of -›spiritus animalis› from the central ventricle through certain of the -fine nerve tubules of the optic nerve, the openings of the nerve tubules -in the wall of the ventricle being widened and thus forming images (of -sight), which the soul is able to perceive from its seat in the pineal -gland. - -Fig. 4. Reproduced from Vieussens: ›Neurographia universalis›, Tabula -XVI. Illustrates the passage of the coarse fibres of the _middle region -of the brain’s medullary substance_ through the capsula interna, pons -and the pyramids on the front of the medulla oblongata downwards to _the -anterior part of the spinal cord_.] - -To the anterior region he attributed the actual operation of the soul, -while he supposed that the posterior region was chiefly engaged in the -animation of the blood. He adds, however, ›it cannot be denied that -sensations reach even the posterior region of the brain, yet our mind -does not become conscious of them to the same degree as it does in the -anterior region› (›The Brain›, No. 71). - -In this _anterior region of the cerebrum_ he distinguished _three -lobes_, or so called ›curiae›, the first one highest up, ›in the crown›, -a middle one below it, and a third one lowest down, _i. e._, nearest -to the fissure of Sylvius.[73] In these three lobes the actual psychic -life is developed, and that so much the more clearly and perfectly, the -higher up in the region these intricate processes occur. It is here that -perceptions, thoughts, judgments, conclusions, come into being; it is -from here that ultimately will and determination issue. (See ›The Brain›, -Nos. 12, 66, 71, 88, 98, 100, 102). - -As regards the sensory part of the psychic activity, SWEDENBORG does not -make any attempt at a detailed localization; but as regards the motor -functions he arranges their centres within the above-mentioned regions as -follows: ›_The muscles and actions_ which are _in the ultimates of the -body_ or in the soles of the feet seem to depend more immediately _upon -the highest parts_ (_of the brain_), upon _the middle lobe_ the muscles -which belong to _the abdomen and thorax_, and upon the _third lobe_ those -which belong to _the face and head_;› and he adds, ›for they seem to -correspond to one another in an inverse ratio› (›The Brain›, No. 68). - -Whence did SWEDENBORG get all this? Whence the whole of this doctrine -of localizations? In his first great anatomical work, ›Œconomia Regni -Animalis›, nothing is said about it; first in his last anatomical work, -›De Cerebro›, is it advanced, and then — — — quite finished! One is at -first glance tempted to think that he had succeeded in finding some new -clinical experiences, upon which he could found this doctrine. For he had -not even finished the account of the function of the brain’s anterior -region, before interjecting: ›Therefore, if this portion (the anterior -region) of the cerebrum is wounded, then the internal senses—imagination, -memory, thought—suffer; the very will is weakened, and the power of its -determination blunted. This is not the case if the injury is in the back -part of the cerebrum› (›The Brain›, No. 88). But afterwards he does not -bring forward (in ›De Cerebro›) any observations which could serve as -proof with regard to this. And if one examines the cases he has referred -to in his preceding works, one cannot possibly arrive at the localization -of the psychic functions which he has here (in ›De Cerebro›) sketched; -for the evidence concerning the _position_ of the injuries in the cortex -are entirely too scanty and incomplete. But if we consult the _original -descriptions_, we find there many other and more particular data than -those quoted by SWEDENBORG when he was only concerned in explaining the -function of the cortex as a whole. WEPFER, for instance, reports in his -›Historiæ apoplecticorum› concerning the woman seventy years of age, who -suddenly _lost the power of speech_, that the cavity, filled with blood, -which was found in the cortex at the autopsy, was located in the right -hemisphere, _just behind the forehead_ (›ad frontem fere antrorsum›), and -that it extended rather far both backwards and upwards; even measurements -were given (length 8, breadth 4, depth about 2 uncias). It was also -stated that the blood-vessels whose bursting caused bleeding belonged -to the antero-lateral branches of the carotid artery in the brain. It -is also mentioned that no changes were found in the left hemisphere of -the brain; and from the clinical account it appears that even after the -stroke the woman was able to move the extremities of the right side.[74] -— — — All this indicates quite evidently that the lesion of the cortex -was situated in the anterior region of the brain! - -And PACCHIONI reports concerning the youth, who was afflicted with the -right-sided _facial paralysis_, that even the extremities of the right -side were somewhat paralysed, and that the cyst, which at the post -mortem examination was found on the left hemisphere, extended _from the -crown to the region of the temple_ (›a capitis vertice in temporalem -regionem›).[75] Thus this case also furnishes an unmistakable indication -that the cortical lesion was situated in the anterior region of the brain. - -It seems strange that SWEDENBORG did not here supply an account of -these interesting and convincing cases, which he nevertheless, as we -have seen, was well acquainted with. For his habit is to furnish the -chapters of his works with an introduction in which he reports, often in -very detailed form, the statements of the authors upon which he bases -his conclusions. Since in the present case such an account is lacking, -this may depend: either upon the fact that this last anatomical work of -SWEDENBORG, ›De Cerebro›, was not quite completed and finally edited for -the press, or thereon that Dr. RUDOLF TAFEL, who edited the translation -which is now accessible in print, excluded it. For Dr. TAFEL says in a -note that the introduction to the chapter in question would be introduced -into Part II., chapters 1 and 2, but—Part II. was never printed! Since, -however, the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences will publish ›De Cerebro› -in its edition of SWEDENBORG’s Scientific works, this question will no -doubt be cleared up. But this much is quite clear from what has already -been adduced, that the cases of paralysis which SWEDENBORG previously -quoted in a brief form are in the original descriptions reported so -completely and in such detail that one can without the least doubt -localize the cortical lesions reported in those cases in the anterior -(superior) region of the cerebrum. - -We now pass to an examination of the _anatomical_ literature to which -SWEDENBORG had access. And, as we shall find, we can here see whence -SWEDENBORG derived _material for his detailed doctrine_ concerning -the function of the brain’s anterior region. This becomes evident on -comparing SWEDENBORG’s mode of thinking of the brain’s psychical activity -with the descriptions of preceding authors in anatomy. - -The group of nuclei, ›_corpus striatum_›, in the cerebrum had been an -object of special interest for preceding authors. - -The Englishman, THOMAS WILLIS, had for example in his ›Cerebri anatome› -(published in 1667) portrayed them as a kind of junction, ›internodes›, -by which the cerebrum coheres with the medulla oblongata; and he pays -special attention to it on account of its peculiar structure (›The -Brain›, No. 476); and he is said even to have attributed to them the -›Sens commun›.[76] - -And the professor in Montpellier, RAIMOND VIEUSSENS, had given in his -›Neurographia universalis› (published in 1685) a very exact description -of the ›corpus striatum›, (not only of its ›superior nuclei›: ›Corp. -striat. sup. ant.› = Nucleus caudatus and ›Corp. striat. sup. post.› = -›Thalamus opticus›, but also of its lower lateral nucleus = ›Nucleus -lentiformis›) as also of the mighty medullary tract of nerve fibres, -i. e., ›capsula interna›, which passes through the same, and which on -the one hand is distributed to the brain, especially to its anterior -(superior) region, and on the other hand by means of the nerves radiates -into the various parts of the body. - -(In order to facilitate orientation we may refer to C. TOLDT: -›Anatomischer Atlas›, 1899, 8 Lieferung, Fig. 92: ›Querschnitt des -verlängerten Markes und der Gehirnstiele. Verlauf der Pyramidenbahn von -der Pyramidenkreuzung an durch die Pyramide, die Brücke und die Basis -des Grosshirnstiels in die innere Kapsel, woselbst sie in den Stiel des -Stabkranzes, Pedunculus coronæ radiatæ, eingeht.›) - -SWEDENBORG, who had studied and often quoted both WILLIS and VIEUSSENS, -likewise attributed a very great significance to the corpus striatum. -All the sensory impressions pass through it to the brain, and all the -voluntary impulses to motion pass out by the same path. (›The Brain›, No. -67). ›It is›, says he in his figurative way, ›in a certain sense, the -Mercury of the Olympus; it announces to the soul what is happening to the -body, and it bears the mandates of the soul to the body› (›The Brain›, -No. 67). - -And as the corpus striatum lay most immediately under the anterior -(superior) region of the brain, and was in close connection with it, so -the sensory impressions would for the most part pass to this region, and -the voluntary impulses to motion would likewise proceed from it (›The -Brain›, Nos. 66, 67). - -The same VIEUSSENS had furnished a very detailed description of the -passage of the nerve tracts in question, which pass through the corpus -striatum and capsula interna, and had followed them both upwards towards -the hemispheres of the brain and downwards towards the spinal cord. When -he followed them upwards, he found that they formed _three regions_ -in the ›centrum ovale›: the _regio superna_, highest up nearest the -crown, the _regio media_, in the middle, and the _regio infima_, lowest -down, and consequently nearest the fissure of Sylvius. (R. VIEUSSENS: -›Neurographia univ.›, pp. 115 and 117). - -In these regions of the cerebral medulla, especially in the highest, -VIEUSSENS considered that the soul’s activity had its seat: with the help -of ›spiritus animalis› the soul here had an opportunity of receiving the -sensory impressions, and in the fine and finest nerve fibres there were -here formed sensory images, conceptions, (Op. cit. p. 129), here the -memory images were preserved, (Op. cit. p. 135), and here the faculty of -judgment had its seat, (Op. cit. p. 137), etc. - -In these regions, especially in the highest, the will also had its seat -and origin, and at its command the ›spiritus animalis› streamed out -through the nerves, thus conveying the impulses to motion to the various -muscles of the body. (Op. cit. pp. 122, 123, 188, _et seqq._). - -For SWEDENBORG, who had arrived at certainty with regard to the seat -of the soul’s activity in the cerebral cortex, and not in the cerebral -medulla!, and who through MALPIGHI and others had been led to see that -_the fibres of the cerebral medulla_ were _continuations of the processes -of the cortical elements_,—for SWEDENBORG it naturally lay very near at -hand to _follow the fibres of the three regions of_ VIEUSSENS _out to the -cortical substance_ on the surface of the brain; and so SWEDENBORG has -his _three cortical lobes_! And to them, especially to the highest, he -could now attribute the source of the soul’s life. - -When VIEUSSENS followed the nerve tracts of the corpora striata and -capsula interna downwards, he found: - -that the _fibres of the uppermost region_ led down to the _posterior -region of the spinal cord_; (›ad posticam spinalis medullæ regionem›);[77] - -that the _fibres of the middle region_, which were especially coarse and -traversed the capsula interna and pons, forming thick tracts, could be -clearly followed down into the _anterior portion of the spinal cord, (›in -anticam spinalis medullæ partem›)_, where they came into connection with -the anterior origins of the spinal nerves, (›ad antica nervorum spinalium -principia›), also paying, on their passing through the medulla oblongata, -›necessary tribute›, (›necessarium vectigal›), as it is expressed, to -certain of its nerves;[78]——See the figure 4!—— - -that the _fibres of the lowest region_ were distributed to certain -_nerves, which proceed from the medulla oblongata_, and to _some of the -anterior origins of the spinal nerves_ (›quædam illius pars ad quosdam e -Medulla oblongata prodeuntes, altera vero ad antica nervorum spinalium -principia›).[79] - -In SWEDENBORG’s time it was, however, known that the muscles which -produce the movements of the head and face receive their nerves just -from the medulla oblongata and the uppermost part of the spinal cord; -and it therefore lay near at hand for SWEDENBORG, when he saw that -paralyses arose when certain cortical regions were destroyed, to draw the -conclusion, that the muscles and movements which belong to the _face and -head_, depend more immediately upon the _lowest_ region of the third lobe -of the cerebral cortex. - -And as it was also known that the muscles of the thorax and abdomen -receive their nerves from the superior portion of the spinal cord, -whither just the tracts of coarse fibres from the middle region of the -brain could be followed, (see figure 4), so SWEDENBORG could likewise -draw the conclusion from this that the muscles and movements which belong -to the _thorax and abdomen_ depend more immediately upon the _middle_ -region or lobe. - -It might now appear tempting to continue the conclusion by connecting the -remaining highest lobe and the lower extremity. But probably SWEDENBORG -did not consider that he had sufficient ground for this. The description -by VIEUSSENS did not here furnish any suitable guidance, for it was -possible that the coarse fibres of the middle region continued so far -down into the spinal cord that they could innervate not only the muscles -of the abdomen but also those of the lower extremity. For this reason -SWEDENBORG refrains from localizing exactly the centre of motion of -the lower extremity and contents himself with stating in general terms -only that this centre might lie above that of the abdomen. He therefore -says: ›the order seems to be so disposed that——the muscles and actions, -which are in the _ultimates_ of the body, or in the soles of the feet, -depend more immediately upon _the highest parts (of the brain)_›, whereas -concerning the thorax and abdomen he says that they depend upon the -middle _lobe_, and of the head that it depends upon the third _lobe_. -(›The Brain›, No. 68). I believe that this is the reason why SWEDENBORG’s -doctrine of localizations as concerns the motor centre of the lower -extremity is expressed in such vague terms. - -From a comparison of these descriptions by SWEDENBORG and VIEUSSENS we -have found that there are such considerable similarities between them -that they in many respects agree point for point. And it therefore seems -to me rather probable that SWEDENBORG derived his conception of the more -detailed localization of the soul’s activity from the descriptions of -VIEUSSENS. - - -THE ›CEREBELLULAR THEORY›. - -But SWEDENBORG was not satisfied with knowing only that the psychical -functions arise within certain regions of the cortex of the large -anterior region of the cerebrum: but he continued his search for their -inmost origin, and thus he came to the conviction that the _psychical -processes in reality result from the joint work which is performed by -the minute cortical elements_, which SWEDENBORG called ›_Sphaerulae_› or -›_Cerebellula_›, that is, the same bodies which we now call the _cortical -nerve-cells_. These were the units of which the brain was in reality -composed and out of which its actual esse was derived. (See ›The Brain›, -No. 34). It was to these ›Cerebellula› that the sensory impressions went, -and in these they were perceived and brought to consciousness; it was -in these that conceptions, thoughts, judgments, conclusions, came into -being. (Œc. R. A. II., No. 191, and ›The Brain›, No. 98). And this was -possible because there were as many kinds of ›Cerebellula› as there were -kinds of sensory impressions, and that these ›Cerebellula› were connected -together into groups with different subdivisions. (Œc. R. A. II., No. -193; VII., chap. XX.). It was also from the ›Cerebellula› of the cortex -that the determinations and impulses to the various movements of the -body emanated. (›The Brain›, No. 99). And this was possible because the -›Cerebellula› cohered each with its own nerve-fibril, which in their turn -innervated the muscle fibre, and that the ›Cerebellula› were _arranged -into groups, these into greater groups, these into convolutions (gyri)_, -etc., corresponding to muscle fibres, muscles, groups of muscles, etc. -(Œc. R. A. II., Nos. 146, 156, and ›The Brain›, No. 99). And it is in -this connection that SWEDENBORG _refers to experiments on animals by -which it might be shown which gyre or part of convolution it is, which -answers to this or that muscle in the body_.[80] - -How SWEDENBORG was able to come to this modern conception ought not to be -so exceedingly difficult to understand if we summarize what was already -known at that time about these cortical elements and add thereto the -conclusions as to the functions of the cortex to which SWEDENBORG had -already come. - -In SWEDENBORG’s time the conception of HIPPOCRATES of the brain as a -gland was still generally received. In this one had, however, as MALPIGHI -says, ›since the time of PICCOLOMINEUS› learned to distinguish between an -outer, greyish layer, ›cerebral cortex›, and an inner, more pure white -mass, the ›cerebral medulla›.[81] - -Through the microscopic investigations of LEEUWENHOEK (1632-1723) it had -further been discovered that the substance of the brain (especially of -the cortex) contained, besides a great mass of blood-vessels and very -fine fibres, _a numberless mass of_ peculiar _small bodies_ of varying -size, by him called ›globuli›, connected with the vessels and fibres. -(See Œc. R. A. II., Nos. 71-75, 112, etc.). - -MALPIGHI, (1628-1694), had closely examined these ›globuli› and described -them as small oval or polygonal ›glands›, which were closely surrounded -by blood-vessels, and in _their inner central ends sent forth processes -forming vessel-like fibres which continued into the cerebral medulla_.[82] - -As these fibres or vessels formed small clusters, the little glands -hanging on their extreme ends, like ›dates on their stems›, as MALPIGHI -expresses it, thus formed _small groups_. - -Within these groups the cortical elements were, however, _well isolated -from each other_ by clefts, which indeed sometimes were very small, but -could nevertheless be plainly demonstrated with the aid of colouring -matter.[83] - -The cortical elements taken together formed the winding groups which on -the surface of the brain gave rise to the so called gyres.[84] - -The profusion of blood-vessels, as was said, LEEUWENHOEK and MALPIGHI -had already described as being very great, but RUYSCH (1638-1731) had -afterwards by his famous vascular injections found it to be so great -that he would not call the cortex a glandular but actually a ›vascular› -tissue. (Œc. R. A., II., No. 86). Because of the enormous wealth -of blood-vessels there was thus carried to the cortical substance, -especially to the little follicles, a plenteous quantity of blood, -and from this, according to the opinion of that day, the most subtile -components of the blood could pass to the cortical elements and thereby -be transformed into ›spiritus animalis›. And finally, the Italians -BELLINI, (1643-1704), and ZAMBECCARI had shown by their analyses that the -juice of the brain possessed a highly subtile composition, above all a -great volatility and lightness, and was exceedingly mobile. (See Œc. R. -A. II., Nos. 88, 96, 119). All this SWEDENBORG has himself quoted in his -works. - -On the basis of these and some other anatomical and physiological data, -in conjunction with a number of clinical and experimental observations, -SWEDENBORG, as we have before seen, came to the conclusion that it is in -the _cortex_ that the soul’s activity comes into being; but at the same -time he concluded that, strictly speaking, the cortical elements were -the real work-shops. For he reasoned in the following manner: When the -sensory impressions enter the brain, they certainly proceed no further -than to the _›Sphaerulae› of the cortex, since these constitute the -beginnings of the nerve and medullary fibres_: were they to go further, -for instance to the small arteries which surround the cortical elements, -or to the membranes of the brain, then they would overstep the boundary, -as he says, and leave the actual centre and go out to the more peripheral -parts.[85] - -SWEDENBORG consequently here followed the same line of thought as his -predecessors. DESCARTES supposed that the nerves originated from the wall -of the central ventricle of the brain and therefore located the images of -sensory impressions, etc., there. VIEUSSENS and others thought that the -nerves originate from the centrum ovale, and thus he placed the psychic -activity there. And SWEDENBORG now proceeded in a similar manner when he -attributed the psycho-sensory operations to the ›Cerebellula›. And what -other parts of the cortex were better fitted to perform the demanding -and ever-shifting psychical labour than the ›Cerebellula›, to which the -life-giving powers of the blood were so plentifully admitted, and in -which, according to the testimony of many, the highly subtile nervous -fluid was created, whose office it was to communicate the rapid and -shifting utterances of the soul’s life! - -SWEDENBORG’s predecessors had thought that the distinctions between -the sensory impressions depended partly upon what kind of nerve was -affected, and VIEUSSENS had located the images of perception and memory -in the nerve-tubes in the centrum ovale, which had the finest caliber. -What, then, was more natural than that SWEDENBORG should now locate -these images in the ›Cerebellula› of the cortex? For what substance -of the cortex was better fitted, a more suitable medium to comprehend -and distinguish the innumerable shades of the impressions than these -myriads of ›Cerebellula›—of different sizes, forms and consistency, -etc., which were connected each with its own special nerve-fibril and so -well distinguished from their neighbors! And at the same time they were -connected with the other ›Cerebellula› into groups of different kinds, by -which the psychical elaboration of the impressions was made possible. - -On similar grounds SWEDENBORG supposed that the psycho-motor labour was -performed by the ›Cerebellula›, from which the nerves derived their -origin. And here we may recall that VIEUSSENS had already _connected -certain groups of nerves with certain bundles of medullary fibres_, and -that MALPIGHI had shown how _bundles of fibres of the cerebral medulla -corresponded to smaller and larger groups of cortical elements_, each -one of which, hanging by its fibre, formed the different _gyres of -the brain_. If we consider this, then we can easily understand how -SWEDENBORG, with his view of the cortex, could divine the correspondence -between the components of the convolutions and the muscles. - -It is interesting to here follow him in his line of thought and to -see how well he understood how to combine his anatomical and clinical -experiences: With the magnifying glass one can see how the nerve-fibres -spring forth from the cortical substance like a brook from its source; -if now the cortical substance be injured (as in the case of certain -brain diseases, and which one may clearly see upon autopsy), then the -injury is spread through the nerves connected with the cortex and at -last all the way down to the muscles, and that, he thought, explained -the motor disturbances.[86] And further ... when one or several of the -›Cerebellula› of the cortex are destroyed, then the damage is spread more -immediately only to their proper nerves and muscles.[87] - -In this manner did SWEDENBORG synthesize his anatomical, -pathological-anatomical and clinical experiences and extracted from -them his conclusions, and by them he arrived at essentially the same -conception, as our times, of the principles of the nervous system, its -cellular structure. He did not indeed employ the same nomenclature for -the nerve-cells and their long processes, as we do; but the matter -itself: the nature of the nerve-cells as elementary organs of the nervous -system, the intimate connection between the nerve and its cell-body, -indeed even its dependence upon it in regard to nourishment, etc., he was -able to clearly grasp in this way,—and this more than a century before -our modern theory of these relationships, the ›neurone-theory› saw the -light. - - -CONCLUDING SUMMARY. - -I hereby conclude my presentation of the grounds upon which SWEDENBORG -appears to have founded his doctrine of the cerebral cortex as the seat -of the soul’s activity. - -I. It has here been my endeavour to show, that his _first_ general -statement that the centres of the psychical functions are to be found -in the cortex was a conclusion, which he derived from three premises, -secured in different ways: - -The _1st_ premise was a conclusion drawn from the clinical observations, -post mortem discoveries and results obtained from experiments on animals, -which he had collected from literature; - -The _2nd_ premise was a summing up of the comparatively recent -discoveries in microscopic cerebral anatomy, and - -The _3rd_ was an hypothesis, concerning the continuous connection between -the cortical elements and the fibres of the cerebral medulla, by which -an easy communication was established between those elements and the -distributions of the nerves in the various parts of the body. In his -conclusions from these premises SWEDENBORG had some guidance in preceding -authors, who placed at least the sensory function in a certain connection -with the cortical substance. - -II. His second statements, his essential _doctrine of localization_, -showed in many points a great agreement with that presented by VIEUSSENS, -but also contained important differences, which partly rested upon the -conclusion to which SWEDENBORG had previously come, concerning the -importance of the cortex for the psychic life, partly depended upon the -new point of view concerning the correspondence of the cerebral regions -to those of the body, to which he had arrived in his work supported by -clinical results. The _detailed_ doctrine of localizations seems to have -been constructed with the assistance of VIEUSSENS’ detailed statements -concerning the connection of the nerves with the various regions of the -cerebral medulla. - -III. His third statement, his—so to speak, ›_Cerebellular theory_›, -that the ›Cerebellula› were the units of which the brain was in reality -composed, and that the function of the cortex was essentially the summing -up of the activity of the ›Cerebellula›, and that the ›Cerebellula› were -connected with one another into various kinds of groups, corresponding to -the various kinds of perceptions and to the different movements of the -body, etc., this was grounded in part upon the discoveries of Malpighi -and others and their detailed descriptions of the structure and situation -of the cortical elements and their connection with each other, in part -upon SWEDENBORG’s clinical experiences and his own previously drawn -conclusions, which be further followed up. - -The first two statements have in our time been embraced with the -liveliest interest and essentially corroborated. And as concerns the -third, the same applies in part; but how great the validity of this -statement is, it is for the future to decide. - -Consequently SWEDENBORG arrived at almost the same result as that to -which our own day has attained, although in a partly different manner. -Our times have had the assistance of exact methods of investigation -and of a most highly developed technique. In SWEDENBORG’s time the -research method of microscopical anatomy and experimental physiology -were yet in their cradle; and the two branches of science, medicine and -pathology, which afterwards with the greatest interest have taken part -in the investigation of the function of the cortex, had then hardly as -yet turned their attention thither. As to how SWEDENBORG nevertheless -succeeded in winning such rich and beautiful results in this field, -and how well he employed the widely spread literature in question, I -have attempted to show in this my presentation by tracing his path -through the folios of the old authors and indicating the places where -he gathered the material for his doctrinal structure and the premises -for his conclusions. Finally, however, it should be emphasized that, -when SWEDENBORG collected his facts from the many separated fields of -literature, he found them not at all presented in the large works as -important ›chief subjects›, or even as lying plainly at hand. No, he -was often, so to say, obliged to dig out his material from a chaos of -erroneous observations, false interpretations and curious conceptions; -and afterwards he had to still further sift and elaborate it, before he -could draw his conclusions out of it. - -In view of all this one must say that it was in truth a _work of genius_ -to search out of such a chaos the guiding threads which were concealed -within it, and that, in spite of their imperfection in many points, -nevertheless to be able to find so much of the truth! - - - - -NOTES. - - -[1] See the treatise of ANDERS RETZIUS on: ›The Origin and Development -of Anatomy in the Scandinavian North›, which he delivered as an address -on the occasion of his leaving the presidency of the Royal Swedish -Academy of Sciences on April 9th, 1845. See also GUSTAF RETZIUS: Preface -to ›EMANUEL SWEDENBORG’s Scientific Works›, edit. by the Royal Swedish -Academy of Sciences, Vol. I., 1907, p. V., _et seqq._, and ALFRED H. -STROH, M. A.: ›Some testimonies concerning SWEDENBORG, the Scientist›, -Stockholm 1909, p. 10. - -[2] In an address before the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences at -Stockholm in connection with a reference to SWEDENBORG’s work: ›De -Cerebro›, which had just appeared in the English translation by DR. -RUDOLF TAFEL; See GUSTAF RETZIUS: Op. cit. p. VI. and ALFRED H. STROH: -Op. cit. p. 11. - -[3] See an address of MAX NEUBURGER concerning ›Swedenborg’s Beziehungen -zur Gehirnphysiologie›, delivered before the ›Versammlung deutscher -Naturforscher und Ärzte›, Hamburg, 1901. - -[4] See the article by C. G. SANTESSON concerning SWEDENBORG in ›Nordisk -Tidskrift›, 1904, No. 5. - -[5] See an address of GUSTAF RETZIUS as president of the ›Versammlung der -Anatomischen Gesellschaft›, Heidelberg, 1903; and also his preface to the -edition of EMANUEL SWEDENBORG’s Scientific Works, which the Royal Academy -of Sciences began to publish in 1907; and the references by the same -author to SWEDENBORG’s statements concerning the anatomy and physiology -of the brain in the Croonian lecture delivered by him in London, in the -year 1908. - -[6] See the address of J. J. BERZELIUS at the meeting of Scandinavian -Natural Scientists in 1842 concerning: ›The rise of the Scandinavian -shore above the level of the surrounding ocean› etc., quoted from ALFRED -H. STROH: Op. cit. p. 6. - -[7] See the address of A. E. NORDENSKIÖLD before the Royal Academy of -Sciences on March 26th, 1888, quoted from A. H. STROH: Op. cit. p. 6. - -[8] See A. G. NATHORST’s introduction to the edition of SWEDENBORG’s -Scientific Works of the Royal Academy of Sciences, Vol. I., 1907. - -[9] See ›Vierteljahrschrift der Astronomischen Gesellschaft›, Part 14, -1879, quoted from A. H. STROH: Op. cit. p. 8. - -[10] See S. ARRHENIUS’ introduction to the edition of SWEDENBORG’s -Scientific Works of the R. Acad. of Sciences, Vol. II., 1908. - -[11] See GUSTAF RETZIUS: Preface to ›E. SWEDENBORG’s Scientific Works›, -edit. by the R. Acad. of Sciences, Vol. I., 1907, p. V. _et seqq._ - -[12] EMANUEL SWEDENBORG was born at Stockholm, January 29th, 1688; -matriculated at the University of Uppsala and ›Västmanlands-Dala-nation›, -1699; Diss. cum consensu Fac. Philos. publico examini submissa, Upsaliæ, -1. Junii, 1709; appointed assessor extraordinary in the Royal College of -Mines, 1716; ordinary assessor in the same College, 1724; retired from -the assessorship, 1747; died in London, March 29th, 1772. His name was -SWEDBERG until the year 1719, when he was ennobled and his name changed -to SWEDENBORG. - -[13] Epistola Eman: Swedbergii ad Ericum Benzelium, Londini, Oct., 1710. -See EMANUEL SWEDENBORG: Opera quædam aut inedita aut obsoleta de rebus -naturalibus, nunc edita sub auspiciis Regiæ Academiæ Scientiarum Suecicæ, -I. Geologica et Epistolæ, Edit. ALFRED H. STROH, Holmiæ, 1907, p. 206 _et -seqq._ - -[14] Epist. Em. Sw. ad E. Benz., London, April, 1711, see Op. cit. p. 208 -_et seqq._ - -[15] Epist. Em. Sw. ad E. Benz., London, Augusti, 1712, see Op. cit. p. -218 _et seqq._ - -[16] Epist. Em. Sw. ad E. Benz., Paris, Augusti, 1713, see Op. cit. p. -222 _et seqq._ - -[17] Epist. Em. Sw. ad E. Benz., Rostock, September, 1714, see. Op. cit. -p. 224 _et seqq._ - -[18] Suggestions for a Flying Machine by EMANUEL SWEDENBORG, translated -from the original Swedish by HUGO LJ. ODHNER and CARL TH. ODHNER, -published by the Swedenborg Scientific Association, Philadelphia, Pa., -1910. - -[19] Dædalus Hyperboreus, Eller Några Nya Mathematiska och Physicaliska -Försök och Anmerckningar: Som Wälborne Herr Assessor Polhammar och -Andre Sinrike i Swerige Hafwa giordt Och Nu tijd efter annan til almen -nytta lemna. Printed in Uppsala (and Skara), 1716-1718. Preface by EM. -SVEDBERG, Stockholm, Dec. 23rd, 1715. - -[20] ›Förslag til wart Mynts och Måls Indelning, så at Rekningen kan -lettas och alt Bråk afskaffas›. Stockholm, Kongl. Boktryckeriet, 1719, 8 -pp. 4:o. See ALFRED H. STROH and GRETA EKELÖF: Chronological list of the -works of Emanuel Swedenborg, dedicated to the Swedenborg Society by the -Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, Uppsala and Stockholm, 1910, pp. 17 -and 19. - -[21] Eman. Swedbergs Assess. i Kongl. Bergz Coll. Försök At finna Östra -och Westra Lengden igen igenom Månan, Som Til the Lärdas ompröfwande -framstelles. Upsala, 1718. See ALFR. H. STROH and G. EKELÖF: Op. cit. p. -17. See also the letters of Eman. Swedberg ad Ericum Benzelium in the -Swedenborg edition of the Acad. of Sciences, Vol. I. - -[22] See E. LILJEDAHL: ›Swedenborg›, Stockholm, 1908; and HJ. HOLMQUIST: -›Från Swedenborgs ungdom och första stora verksamhetsperiod›, -Bibelforskaren, 1909, No. 3. - -[23] See also ALFR. H. STROH and G. EKELÖF: Chronological list of the -works of E. Swedenborg, pp. 15 and 16. The titles of the three pamphlets -are in English: ›On the way to improve commerce and manufactures›, -›Memorial on the institution of saltboileries in Sweden›, ›On the utility -and necessity of instituting an observatory in Sweden›. - -[24] ›Om Watnens Högd och Förra Werldens starcka Ebb och Flod, Bewjs utur -Swergie›. (Stockholm, 1719; see also Acta Literaria Sueciæ Upsaliæ publ. -1720, pp. 5-11). Reprinted in the edition of Swedenborg’s Scientific -works, publ. by the R. S. Acad. of Sciences, Vol. I., pp. 1-27. - -[25] See concerning this the above-named work by HJ. HOLMQUIST, in which -he says p. 223 concerning SWEDENBORG’s method of research: ›SWEDENBORG -himself indicates the scientific method which he followed: first, the -collecting of as many experiments and investigations as possible, -afterwards the working over of these according to the laws of geometry, -and lastly, speculation, hypotheses: ’as long as proofs are lacking, -principles may not be accepted and hypotheses defended, as they then -deserve better the name of fantasies than of principles’. ’Experientia, -geometria et facultas ratiocinandi’, experience, geometry and reason, -were the foundations of SWEDENBORG’s work both within the world of nature -and that of spirit.› - -[26] See ›Œconomia Regni Animalis›, Vol. I., No. 360, where Swedenborg -mentions Parts IV., V., VI. of the Œc. R. A. - -[27] Œc. R. A. Vol. III., ›De Fibra›, translated into English by Rev. -Prof. ALFRED ACTON in ›New Philosophy›. - -[28] See Œc. R. A. Vol. II., Nos. 71-75, 76-82, 112; III. No. 59, etc. - -[29] See Œc. R. A. Vol. II., Nos. 100, 101, 191; ›Quod sensationes -externae non ad ulteriores metas quam ad sphaerulas corticales -pertingant, id satis in confirmato est, quando hae fibrarum nervearum et -medullarium sunt principia›; and 113, 130, 140, 141, etc. See also ›The -Brain› No. 98. - -[30] As observed in Quain’s ›Elements of Anatomy›, Tenth edition, edit. -by E. A. SCHÄFER and G. D. THANE, Vol. III., Part. I, p. 39: ›The term -medulla oblongata, as employed by WILLIS and VIEUSSENS, and by those who -directly followed them, included the crura cerebri and pons Varolii, -as well as that part to which by HALLER first, and by most subsequent -writers, this term has been restricted.› - -[31] See Œc. R. A. Vol. II., Nos. 83-85, 91, 93, 95, 114, 140: ›Proinde -cum totidem origines motus sunt, quot sphaerulae istius substantiae;› and -144, 146: ›Sic distinctissime quaevis (sphaerula) suam fibrulam animat -& usque ad ejus finem in fibram corporis motricem influit;› 157 and -191-194-95, 202 etc. See also ›The Brain›, No. 399. - -[32] So, for example, in Œc. R. A. Vol. II., No. 100: ... ›quod Cortex -sit principalis totius Cerebri substantia; in ipso termino primo Fibrarum -et ultimo Arteriarum sita; See also Œc. R. A. Vol. II., 111-116, 133, -134, 138, 152, 197, 290, etc., or, for example, Œc. R. A. III., No. -127, fin., and No. 404, where we read as follows: ›Ex anatome Cerebri -id constat, quod Cerebrum, seu substantia ejus corticalis, quae proprie -cerebrum audit, sit _Sensorium commune_, nam quinque organa suos sensus -externos ad corticem ut ad suum sensorium commune et unicum internum -referunt. Cerebrum corticale etiam est _Motorium commune voluntarium_, -quicquid enim agendum est mediantibus nervis et musculis, id praevia -voluntate a cerebro determinandum est.› - -[33] Œc. R. A. II., 107: ›Partes hujus substantiae — — — merentur _Organa -Sensuum interiorum_ et Cerebellula nuncupari, nam media substantia -medullari et sanguine ab Organis externis alluentes modos et tactus -recipiunt, et ad judicem animam referunt.› See also Œc. R. A. 191, 192, -Œc. R. A. II., 195: — — ›Substantiae Corticales totidem sunt Cerebellula, -— —; singula enim sensorium est in particulari, quale est Cerebrum in -communi.› - -[34] Œc. R. A. II., 193: ›Haec minime effectum consequerentur, — — — -nisi _partes substantiae Corticalis inter se, atque in gradus et series -sint divisae, in quales sunt modificationum causae: seu nisi series -substantiarum corticalium sint uti series sensationum_; nisi sphaerularum -Corticis perfectissima sit varietas harmonica, ita ut nulla earum, -praeter qua essentialia et attributa, alteri sit simillima.› For the -same see also ›Regnum Animale›, VII., chap. XX; Œc. R. A. II., No. 307: -›Ex lustratione ipsius Cerebri apparet, quod _substantiae corticales ita -Sapienter sunt ordinatae, ut cuilibet sensationi externae ad amussim -correspondeant_; nam _dictae substantiae_, ut unitates glomatim in -quendam numerum coalescunt, et _hi glomuli_ tanquam novae unitates _in -congeries_ adhuc majores, et hae in maximam, quae est ipsum Cerebrum: -_singulae partitiones_ discriminatae sunt per rimas, sulcos et anfractus, -et consertae per vasa et productiones meningeas, sic ut quasi sint numeri -unitatum in analogiae formam redacti, prorsus ut decet sensorium commune, -quod _recepturum sit omnem speciem sensationis externae, distinctim suum -visum, distinctim auditum, gustum et olfactum_. Œc. R. A. II., chap. XX. - -[35] Œc. R. A. II., No. 192, ›Ex anatome Cerebri in ipsius oculi luce -est, quod _radii visuales_ medio nervo optico _influant in thalamos -nervorum opticorum_, et abinde per collectas e toto Cerebro, perque -Fornicis basin transmissas, et thalamis superinstratas fibras, -quaquaversum in _corticem_ diffundantur.› - -[36] Œc. R. A. II., No. 192. — — ›quod _subtiles tactus membranae -Olfactoriae_ cavitates labyrintheas narium investientis, et inde oriundae -subtiles contremiscentiae aut modificationes per laminam cribrosam et -processus mammillares _in Corpora striata_, aut in medullam totius centri -ovalis enitentes non desinant nisi in peripheriam fibrarum, seu _in -ambitum corticalem_;› See also II., 38-42, where the processus mamillaris -is supposed to mediate a reflex action from the sense of smell upon the -muscles of breathing. - -[37] Œc. R. A. II., No. 101: — — ›totidem origines motus sunt, quot -sphaerulae illius substantiae (corticis)›; II., 140, 153, etc. - -[38] Œc. R. A. II., No. 146, ›Sic distinctissime quaevis (Sphaerula) -suam fibrulam animat, et usque ad ejus finem in fibram corporis motricem -influit›; see also II., 135, 147, 150, 156: ›Ex his ... fluit consequens -de singulis Cerebellulis ..., quod vitiato uno aut pluribus ... contagium -se non latius quam in appensas fibras et subjectos musculos immediate -extendat.› And III., 59, 127, at the end, and 197. - -[39] Œc. R. A. II., No. 147: ›Sphaerulae illum sortitae sunt in Cerebro -ordinem et situm, ut _singulae aut plures simul, aut omnes in communi_ -queant systolen suam et diastolen perficere›. Œc. R. A. II., No. 156: -›Quare ita compaginatum est Cerebrum, ut totum queat alterna vertigine -auferri, utque solum ejus medietas aut semiglobi Haemisphaerium; aut -solum plures aut una circumgyratio; aut utmodo hujus glomus, minor -congeries, aut pars.› The same in ›The Brain›, No. 104 c. - -[40] Œc. R. A. I., No. 505: ›Ergo inquirendum venit, _qui tori corticei -his aut illis musculis in Corpore correspondent_; quod fieri non potest -nisi _per experientiam in vivis Animalibus; per punctiones, sectiones -et compressiones_ plurium, perque inde in Corporis musculis redundantes -effectus.› - -[41] Œc. R. A. II. Nos. 151, 157: › — — — licet _ipsa fibra Cerebri non -agat motricem in musculis, agit tamen in utraque illa Medulla, quarum -fibras ad sic non aliter agendum disponit_, uti ab Anatomia Cerebri tam -humani, quam animalium brutorum, imo insectorum, clare colligitur: idque -ob rationem, ut _Cerebri Voluntarium abeat in spontaneum et naturale -mediis Medullis_, ne toties in particulares profundas motiones auferatur, -_quoties actio semel incepta ex consueto continuanda sit_; id ejus -sublimiorum officiorum administrationem toties alias interturbaret, et in -Homine analyses rationales, quae quietiorem Cerebri statum poscunt: quare -_ut primum actio voluntaria poscit seriem agendorum continuam, Cerebrum -annuet et consentiet, tum et actionis actualitatem producet_: Sic _ejus_ -est _causa principalis, Medullis autem incineratis injuncta secundaria_.› -See also I., No. 574:—›_origo secundaria_ vel causa intermedia _actionum -Voluntariarum in Spontaneas abeuntium_ sit _in Medulla Spinali et -oblongata_.› - -[42] Œc. R. A. II., No. 107: ›Partes hujus substantiae ex eadem ratione -merentur _Organa Sensuum interiorum_, et Cerebellula nuncupari›. See also -II., No. 191, etc. - -[43] Œc. R. A. II., No. 159: ›Id jam extra omnem dubitationis aleam -ponimus, quod _substantia corticalis_ sit _determinans, licet non omnium -primum_, actionum Corporis, quia determinans est fibrarum, et fibrae -musculorum, a quibus actio›. — — — II., No. 160: ›Sed hae _substantiae -corticales_ licet sunt determinantes actionum sui Corporis, respective -tamen sunt _modo subdeterminantes et mediantes_, quibus respondent -subdeterminantes in Corpore, quae sunt fibrae motrices.› See also II., -No. 204. - -[44] Œc. R. A. II., No. 277: ›— — — dicere quod _Anima sit supra mentem -intellectualem_, — — —› See also II., No. 280. II., No. 160: ›_Per illas -(substantias corticales) etenim determinatur in actum voluntas_, cujus -principium altius est rimandum. — — — _requiritur vis_ altior, sublimior, -principalior, et universalior, _in qua sit principium voluntatis, qua his -mediis determinatur in actum_. Proinde est fluidum spirituosum, in quo -est _vita, et proinde anima_.› - -[45] Œc. R. A. II., 285: ›Ex his jam sequitur, quod _Anima sit, quae -intelligit, cogitat, judicat, vult, desiderat, imaginatur, cupit, -reminiscitur, videt, audit, gustat, odorat, sentit, loquitur, agit_, — — -—.› See also II., 287. - -[46] Œc. R. A. II., No. 160, 161: ›Et haec denique concludit, quod sit -_anima, quae huic fluido (spirituoso) inest_, cujus est determinare in -actum.› II., 165. II., 303: ›Ipsum Fluidum Spirituosum est substantia -eminenter organica suae Animae; uti Oculus est organum visus, Auris -auditus, Lingua gustus, Cerebrum perceptionis omnium›; etc. See also ›The -Brain›, No. 7. - -[47] See for example Œc. R. A. II., No. 246: — — — ›sic etiam quod hoc -Fluidum sit Spiritus et Anima sui Corporis›. — — — Œc. R. A. III., No. -317: ›_Anima est purissima essentia animalis, caelestis et spiritualis_, -quae fibram simplicem excitat et simul sanguinem tam candidum quam rubrum -ingreditur.› - -[48] See also Œc. R. A. II., No. 348: ›Ex his jam praemissis usque ad -fidem intellectus demonstrari potest, quod _Fluidum Spirituosum humanum_ -immunissimum sit ab omni injuria contingentium in regione sublunari; -nec exstinguibile, sed _immortale_, tametsi non per se, _post casum sui -Corporis_. Quod exsolutum a vinculis et laqueis terrestrium in omnem -sui Corporis formam coaliturum sit et victurum vitam omni imaginatione -puriorem. Tum quod nulla sit actiuncula ex consulto, et nulla vocula -ex consensu, in vita ejus corporea, edita, quae non affulgente luce -sapientiae, inhaerenter designatae, tunc ante ejus conscientiae judicium, -distincte compariturae sint›. - -[49] Œc. R. A. II., No. 303: ›_usque eodem recidit, sive memoratum -fluidum dicimus Spiritum aut Animam, sive ejus facultatem_ sibi -repraesentandi universum et intuendi fines, nam unum non concipi potest, -quia non datur sine altero.› - -[50] J. J. GARTH WILKINSON has published Part I. in an English -translation in 1843, and Parts II. and III. in 1844, London. - -[50 b] ›Regnum Animale›, Pars quarta: ›De Sensibus›, publ. by IM. TAFEL, -London, 1848; transl. into English by ENOCH S. PRICE in ›New Philosophy›; -›R. A.›, Pars septima: ›De Anima›, publ. by IM. TAFEL, Tübingen and -London, 1849; transl. into English by FRANK SEWALL, New York, 1887 and -1900. - -[51] The words enclosed in parentheses have been added by the author of -this paper to make the meaning more clear, and are unmistakeably inferred -from the connection. - -[52] As Professor G. RETZIUS also says in his ›Croonian lecture›, -delivered in London, 1908: ›The theses cited [especially those concerning -the localization of the motor centres in the cerebral cortex] are drawn -up with such precision by SWEDENBORG that they cannot possibly be based -on divination only, but must rest upon a real grasp of natural phenomena -as well as on actual experiments and dissecting work›. - -[53] See ›Œconomia Regni Animalis›, I., Nos. 559 _et seqq._; also 571 and -572, and R. VIEUSSENS: ›Neurographia universalis›, Lugduni, 1685, pp. -123, 124, etc. - -[54] See ›Œconomia Regni Animalis›, I., Nos. 559 _et seqq._, as also R. -VIEUSSENS: ›Neurographia universalis›, Lugduni, 1685, pp. 123, 124, _et -seqq._ - -[55] See BOERHAAVE: ›Institutiones medicae›, Lugduni Batavor. 1720, No. -415: ›Ergo musculi voluntarii nervos habent ultimo oriundos a cerebro. -Illi vero, qui spontaneis, vitalibusque motibus serviunt, a cerebello -nervos accipiunt.› - -[56] See TH. WILLIS: ›Cerebri Anatome›, Amsterdam, 1667, pp. 73-74: -›Cerebrum motuum et conceptuum omnium origo et fons. Sensus et motus, -item passiones et instinctus mere naturales, licet a Cerebro quadantenus -dependent, tamen proprie in Medulla oblongata et Cerebello aut -perficiunter aut ab iis procedunt. - -[57] See Œc. R. A. III., No. 404, etc.: ›Medulla oblongata — — — -sensorium et motorium commune tam Cerebri quam Cerebelli, sed secundarium -et instrumentale superius. Medulla spinalis similiter — — — sensorium et -motorium commune, sed secundarium et instrumentale inferius.› - -[58] Œc. R. A., III., No. 133: ›Substantia — — — corticalis est ipsum -Cerebrum seu Sensorium — — — commune›; No. 404, etc. - -[59] See R. DESCARTES: ›Tractatus de homine›, Lugd. Bat. 1662, pp. 77, -81, 82; 32, 67 etc.: 72, 79 etc. - -[60] See H. BOERHAAVE: ›Institutiones medicae›, Lugd. Bat. 1720, p. -253: ›Sensorium commune est pars cerebri, — — —, adeoque, ut apparet, -medulla cerebri in capite;› and BOERHAAVE: ›Praelectiones academicae, -(published by HALLER), Göttingen, 1743, p. 451: ›Haec ergo sedes animae -non est in pineali glandula, uti CARTESIUS voluit,—neque est in medulla -spinali, neque est in cerebello, verum _in fornicata medulla circumstante -cavitatem ventriculorum cerebri_.› - -[61] See CASP. et THOM. BARTHOLIN: ›Instit. anatom.›, 1641, p. 265: -›Putamus enim in Cerebro proprie dicto, vel cortice servari spiritum -animalem pro sensu, in medulla vero tota tam quoad caput quam quoad -caudam, reservari spiritum pro motu.› - -[62] See THOMAS WILLIS: ›Cerebri Anatome., 1667, pp. 76, 77: ›Etenim -existimare fas est, spiritus animales — — in corticali cerebri substantia -procreari› — — — ›hæ partes medullares spirituum animalium exercitio et -dispensationi — — — inserviunt;› and J.J. WINSLOW: ›Exposition anatomique -— — —›, 1732, IV., p. 210: ›WILLIS nous donne un système tout-à-fait -particulier. Il loge le sens commun dans le corpus striatum ou corps -rougé, l’imagination dans le corps callosum, et la mémoire dans l’écorce -ou dans la substance grisâtre qui envelloppe la blanche.› - -[63] See M. MALPIGHI: ›Opera Omnia›, 1686-87, Tom. II., p. 85: -›Suspicari possumus minimis hisce glandulis ex delato sanguine separari, -recolligique particulas illas a natura ad promendum instrumentaliter -sensuum destinatas, quibus per nervorum tubulis delatis continuatae -partes inbibantur et turgeant.› - -[64] See MALPIGHI: ›Opera Omnia›, 1686-87, Tom. II., De Cerebri cortice, -pp. 78 _et seqq._ ›In — — cerebro corticem affusum minimarum glandularum -proventum et congeriem esse deprehendi: hæ in cerebri gyris et protractis -veluti intestinales, ad quæ desinunt albæ nervorum radices, vel inde, si -mavis, oriuntur — — —›; and SWEDENBORG: Œc. R. A. II., Nos. 76-82, 112, -114 etc. - -[65] See BOERHAAVE: ›Institutiones medicae›, 1720, No. 266: ›folliculi -illi minimi glandulosi emittunt tenues fibras, albas, compactas quibus -adenutis fit callosum, medullosumque corpus› — — —; No. 274: ›fibras -has canaliculos tenuissimos pervios esse, qui in se excipiant humorem -corporis humani omnium quidem subtilissimum, qui fabrica mirifica -corticis praeparatus, secretus atque vi in has fistulas impulsus est, ex -omni quidem parte hujus in medullam oblongatam collectus; see also No. -263; No. 284: ›fibrillas nerveas humorem medullae — — ad omne punctum -totius corporis distinctissimis viis deferre.› — — - -[66] ›Nisi mutua sit connexio et perpetua communicatio substantiae -medullaris qua fibrillas et manipulos intra thecam vertebralem et -cranium, undecunque ducitur ad corticem cerebri. — — —› (Œc. R. A. II., -No. 193; See also No. 115). - -[67] See above CASP. and THOM. BARTHOLIN: ›Inst. Anat.›, 1645, p. 265. - -[68] See H. BOERHAAVE: ›Inst. Med.›, 1720, N. 574. or 274. - -[69] See above A. V. HALLER: ›Elem. Physiol.›, 1762, IV., p. 392. - -[70] Œc. R. A. loco cit. and II., 88. See also A. PACCHIONI: ›Opera›, Ed. -quarta, Romæ, 1741, p. 112. - -[71] See BOERHAAVE: ›Instit. med.›, 1720, No. 570, 574. The edition used -by SWEDENBORG was printed 1727. - -[72] ›Nempe in sensorio communi distinctas loco provincias esse pro -diversis sensibus, uti cuilibet sensui suum externum proprium organum -datum est.› BOERHAAVE: ›Prael. acad.›, published by HALLER 1743, Vol. -IV., p. 435. See also BOERHAAVE: ›Inst. med.›, 1720, No. 568. - -[73] These lobes are, as he says, ›marked out and encompassed by the -carotid artery, a statement by which he probably means the same as -RIDLEY, when the latter says of the whole anterior region that it is -marked out, as it were, by two branches of the carotid artery, one at the -front and one at the side, i. e., _Arteria cerebri anterior_ and _Arteria -cerebri media_. - -[74] J. J. WEPFER: ›Observationes anatomicæ ex cadaveribus eorum, quos -sustulit Apoplexia›. Amstelædami, 1681, pp. 5-11, Case II. - -[75] See A. PACCHIONI: ›Opera›, Ed. quarta, Romæ, 1741, p. 112. - -[76] See J. B. WINSLOW: ›Exposition anatomique de la Structure du corps -humain.› Paris, 1732, IV., p. 210. With WILLIS one also finds the same -subdivision of the hemispheres of the brain into an anterior and a -posterior ›province›, as that employed by SWEDENBORG. - -[77] VIEUSSENS: ›Neur. univ.›, pp. 115, 117, and Tab. X. - -[78] Op. cit., pp. 115, 117, and Tab. XVI. - -[79] Op. cit., pp. 115, 117 and Tab. XV. - -[80] Œc. R. A. II., No. 153: ›Experientiae est et temporis, ut -evestigetur, qui gyrus et qui serpens tumulus in cerebro hunc aut illum -musculum ut correspondentem suum in corpore respiciat. ’Cuniculos cerebri -serpere, per autopsiam deprehenditur’ ait Clar. PACCHIONUS, BELLINUS et -alii plures.› - -[81] See MALPIGHI: ›Op. omnia›, II., De Cerebro, p. 2, and SWEDENBORG: -Œc. R. A., II., Nos. 82, 58, etc. - -[82] MALPIGHI: ›Opera omnia›, 1686-87, II., De Cerebri cortice, p. 78, -and SWEDENBORG: Œc. R. A., II., Nos. 76-82, 112, 114, etc. - -[83] MALPIGHI: Op. cit. p. 78: ›Harum glandularum distinctionem affuso -atramento (ink) et leviter gossypio deterso, videbis, intercepta enim -spatia ita denigrantur, ut circumscriptas glandulas facilius exhibeant.› -See also Œc. R. A. No. 76. - -[84] MALPIGHI: Op. cit., p. 79: ›Corticales hae glandulae tortuose -locatae exteriores cerebri gyros componunt, et exorientibus inde -medullaribus fibris seu vasculis appenduntur›. See also Œc. R. A., II., -No. 76. - -[85] See Œc. R. A., II., No. 191: ›Quod sensationes externæ non ad -ulteriores metas quam ad sphaerulas corticales pertingant, id satis -in confirmato est, quando hae fibrarum nervearum et medullarium sunt -principia, ultra quae si progrederentur, ut si in arteriolas aut -meninges, tunc praescriptos terminos superscanderent et a centris in -remotiores peripherias se conjicerent.› - -[86] See Œc. R. A., III., No. 127: ›Si enim vivum corticem in apertis -cerebris lente microscopica, sive delineatum ex vivo contemplamur, -evidenter conspicitur, quomodo fibra ex illo procedat, et tanquam -rivulus ex fonticulo scaturiat; id etiam in hydrocephalis, apoplecticis, -catalepticis, paralyticis, maniacis, motibus convulsivis et spasmis -cynicis vexatis confirmatur, nam ipsa labes substantiæ eorum corticalis -post mortem deprehensa in continuas fibras, et tandem in musculares, -unde prodeunt actiones et inconcinni motus, derivatur. — — — Ergo, quia -substantia corticalis est parens fibrarum, sequitur, quod cerebrum non -nisi quam in hac sua substantia incipiat cerebrum esse, quatenus ibi -est receptaculum sensationum seu sensorium commune, et simul principium -actionum, seu motorium commune.› - -[87] See Œc. R. A., II., No. 156: ›Vitiato uno cerebellulo aut pluribus -in toto, contagium se non latius quam in appensas fibras et subjectos -musculos immediate extendat.› - -[Illustration] - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Emanuel Swedenborg's Investigations in -Natural Science and the Basis for his , by Martin Ramström - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK EMANUEL SWEDENBORG'S *** - -***** This file should be named 63033-0.txt or 63033-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/6/3/0/3/63033/ - -Produced by WebRover, Charlene Taylor and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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