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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..b4a4785 --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #63033 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/63033) diff --git a/old/63033-0.txt b/old/63033-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 3d98732..0000000 --- a/old/63033-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,2499 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Emanuel Swedenborg's Investigations in -Natural Science and the Basis for his , by Martin Ramström - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll -have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using -this ebook. - - - -Title: Emanuel Swedenborg's Investigations in Natural Science and the Basis for his Statements Concerning the Functions of the Brain - -Author: Martin Ramström - -Release Date: August 24, 2020 [EBook #63033] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK EMANUEL SWEDENBORG'S *** - - - - -Produced by WebRover, Charlene Taylor and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - - - - - -EMANUEL SWEDENBORG’S INVESTIGATIONS IN NATURAL SCIENCE AND THE BASIS FOR -HIS STATEMENTS CONCERNING THE FUNCTIONS OF THE BRAIN - -Reprinted from the festival publication of the University of Uppsala -on the occasion of the bicentenary of the Royal Society of Sciences of -Uppsala and of the unveiling of the sarcophagus of Emanuel Swedenborg in -the cathedral of Uppsala. - -November 19th, 1910. - -[Illustration] - - - - - EMANUEL SWEDENBORG’S - INVESTIGATIONS IN NATURAL SCIENCE - AND THE BASIS FOR HIS STATEMENTS - CONCERNING THE - FUNCTIONS OF - THE BRAIN - - [Illustration] - - BY - MARTIN RAMSTRÖM - - [Illustration] - - UNIVERSITY OF UPPSALA - 1910 - - [Illustration] - - UPPSALA - ALMQVIST & WIKSELL, PRINTING CO., LTD. - 1910 - - - - -CONTENTS - - - Pag. - - FRONTISPIECE, reproduced from a copper engraving in - Swedenborg’s ›Opera Philosophica et Mineralia›, Vol. I., - printed in Dresden and Leipzig, in 1734. - - TITLE PAGE 5 - _The vignette_ on the title page is reproduced from the medal - struck in honour of Emanuel Swedenborg, in 1852, by the Royal - Swedish Academy of Sciences. - - Introduction 9 - - Swedenborg’s investigations in natural science. - - Swedenborg’s mathematical, mechanical and astronomical - investigations 11 - - Swedenborg’s geological, mineralogical, chemical, physical, - and cosmological investigations 14 - - Swedenborg’s anatomical and physiological investigations 16 - - The basis for Swedenborg’s statements concerning the functions - of the brain. - - On the centres of the vegetative functions 27 - - On the centres of the psychical functions, especially the - sensory centres 28 - - On the centres of the motor functions 32 - - The doctrine of localizations 35 - - The ›cerebellular theory› 43 - - Concluding summary 47 - - Notes 50 - - - - -EMANUEL SWEDENBORG’S INVESTIGATIONS IN NATURAL SCIENCE AND THE BASIS FOR -HIS STATEMENTS CONCERNING THE FUNCTIONS OF THE BRAIN - - -In recent times Emanuel Swedenborg has, on many sides, been the object of -a continually increasing interest, and year after year has attention been -called to the manysided works of his life. In former times he was known -almost exclusively through his religious writings. But it has gradually -come to light that he was also an investigating genius of the first rank, -who opened new paths in several branches of the natural sciences and made -wonderful discoveries. - -Thus, by way of illustration, Professor ANDERS RETZIUS has drawn forth -from oblivion his _anatomical_ and _physiological_ works and shown -that there is to be found in them (especially in ›Regnum Animale›) -›ideas belonging to the most recent times, and a scope, induction and -tendency which can only be compared to that of Aristotle.›[1] And since -then several authors have expressed themselves in a similar manner, -as Professor CHRISTIAN LOVÉN,[2] Professor MAX NEUBURGER (Vienna),[3] -Professor C. G. SANTESSON,[4] and above all Professor GUSTAF RETZIUS[5] -on repeated occasions. - -The case is also similar with respect to SWEDENBORG’s _geological_ -researches. Here J. J. BERZELIUS[6] has sought to direct the attention of -the learned to his penetrating observations and ingenious conclusions; -and the opinions of such men as Professor A. E. NORDENSKIÖLD,[7] -Professor A. G. NATHORST,[8] and others, have also tended in the same -direction in regard to SWEDENBORG. - -Within the realms of _astronomy_ and _cosmology_ Professor M. NYRÉN[9] -and later Professor S. ARRHENIUS[10] have pointed out the grand -hypotheses of the creation of the worlds, etc. etc., which SWEDENBORG had -erected in advance of all other authors in cosmology. - -A number of societies and associations have also been formed whose -purpose it is to spread a knowledge of SWEDENBORG’s works concerning -natural science. The oldest of these is the Swedenborg Society of -London, which absorbed the purely scientific Swedenborg Association -half a century ago, and which this year celebrated the centenary of its -foundation. In 1898 there was founded in the United States of America -the Swedenborg Scientific Association. In Sweden the Royal Academy of -Sciences appointed in 1902 a committee to investigate the contents of -SWEDENBORG’s manuscripts and to publish selected works. - -A number of individuals besides those already mentioned have devoted much -labour and care to the translating and editing of SWEDENBORG’s scientific -works, among whom we may mention the Englishmen J. J. GARTH WILKINSON, M. -D., and the Rev. A. CLISSOLD, the German Prof. Dr. IMMANUEL TAFEL, the -German-American Dr. RUDOLF TAFEL, and the American Mr. ALFRED H. STROH, -M. A.[11] - -The strongest expression of this interest in SWEDENBORG’s scientific work -in the most recent times, was that manifested during the International -Swedenborg Congress, held this summer in London. On that occasion were -gathered there representatives for numerous branches of the natural -sciences, medicine, philosophy and theology, each one of whom contributed -his account of the discoveries, inventions, and far-sighted utterances -which SWEDENBORG had made within these several departments of knowledge. -And imposing indeed was the homage which was as a consequence paid to the -ingenious investigator as well as to the Country and the University which -had produced him. - - - - -SWEDENBORG’S INVESTIGATIONS IN NATURAL SCIENCE. - - -Before a life-work such as that of EMANUEL SWEDENBORG one cannot but -be filled with admiration. Perhaps not so much on account of the -_manysidedness_ of it; for that was not so very unusual at the time -in which SWEDENBORG lived—in the 18th century;[12] but because his -researches were at the same time so _comprehensive_ and _penetrating_, -because he made such great and important conquests within the most -different departments of knowledge; indeed, in many places discovered by -his sharpsighted genius the _lines of development_ along which science -was to proceed for the gaining of its end. - - -SWEDENBORG’S MATHEMATICAL, MECHANICAL AND ASTRONOMICAL INVESTIGATIONS. - -_Mathematics_, especially geometry, algebra and mechanics, and -_astronomy_ in particular, were the predominating interests with -SWEDENBORG, when, after having completed his university studies, he -entered upon his first foreign journey (1710). He had at that time the -good fortune to come into personal contact with (ISAAC NEWTON?),[13] JOHN -FLAMSTEED[14] and EDMUND HALLEY[15] in England, and with the renowned -mathematicians PHILIPPE DE LA HIRE and PIERRE VARRIGNON[16] in France, -and to enter into an interchange of scientific ideas with them. And -the impulses derived from teachers of such great insight and skill did -not take long in manifesting themselves. In 1714 SWEDENBORG was able -to send home accounts of a great many _mechanical inventions_ which -he had made and the ›correctness of which he proved by mathematical -and algebraical calculations.›[17] As examples of these discoveries -may be mentioned his flying machine,[18] submarine boat, steam engine, -mitrailleuse, sluice constructions, etc.[17] After his return to Sweden -he found opportunities of putting into practice some of these projects, -when (in 1716) he was appointed assessor extraordinary in the College of -Mines and ordered to assist CHR. POLHEM ›with the construction of his -buildings and inventions›. But he was rich in ideas and quick-witted -enough to be able, together with these official duties, to plan and set -on foot the publication of a periodical devoted to natural science, -›_Daedalus Hyperboreus_›, the first scientific periodical in Sweden, -and to furnish it abundantly (during the years 1716-1718) with valuable -articles concerning new inventions, _projects and problems for scientific -investigations and experiments_.[19] In the year 1718 he has completed -a new method of reckoning with the number 8 as the base; and the -following year he publishes a still better ›Proposal to divide our money -and measures, so that the calculation would be easy and all fractions -be abolished›, and this system is nothing less than the _Decimal -system_![20] He also published during these years an ingenious method of -determining the longitude by means of the moon, a problem upon which the -learned had at that time been engaged for several years.[21] - -SWEDENBORG thus succeeded in penetrating very deeply into the -mathematical and mechanical sciences, and therefore at first it must -arouse astonishment that he did not accept the professor’s chair in -mathematics at Uppsala University when this was offered him. He wished -for freedom to study in other departments also. And, as we shall see, he -soon turned his interest in another direction, namely to geology. - -However, it was also a characteristic in SWEDENBORG, worthy of -admiration, that in spite of his deep penetration into the sciences and -the bold ideas of his creative genius, he nevertheless strove, at the -same time, to retain contact with practical life and there cause the -results of his investigations to bear fruit. It was also this purpose -which to a great extent influenced him not to accept the offered -professorship in mathematics, which he feared would force him into a -direction too theoretical. In this respect there were, as some of his -biographers have shown, several points of similarity between SWEDENBORG -and his patron, King Charles XII., namely, ›the unusual combination of -the boldest imagination and a pronounced practical tendency›.[22] And -as both were animated by the same ›burning inclination for all that is -great in thought and deed›, and by the same love of the fatherland, -therefore, when these two men found one another, there was an interesting -cooperation. Professor HOLMQUIST has given a very good description of -this in his essay alluded to above, from which I shall here reproduce -some extracts: - -— — — ›But SWEDENBORG had also in the course of his conversation with -Charles XII. advanced several new proposals which won, in part, the -King’s approval. SWEDENBORG suggested the establishment of a company to -promote the exportation of Swedish iron and tar (a suggestion later put -into practice by the Iron Office), set forth his plan for an observatory -in Uppsala and brought up for discussion the establishment of salt works -in Sweden in order to help his country against the terrible dearth of -salt during the war: all these ideas he also committed to writing in -pamphlets: ’_Om sättet för handelns och manufacturernas uphjelpande_’, -’_Memorial om Salt Siuderiers inrettning i Swerje_’ and ’_Om nyttan och -nödvändigheten af ett Observatorii inrättande i Sverige_’ (preserved -in manuscript in the Diocesan Library of Linköping).[23] Of the ideas -just mentioned, it was in the first place the one on salt boileries -which claimed the King’s attention and which he commissioned SWEDENBORG -to put into practice. It still remains, however, to mention the most -remarkable of SWEDENBORG’s projects. Through ERIC BENZELIUS he had -come into possession of an old letter of Bishop HANS BRASK, in which -the idea of a water way from the western coast straight across Sweden -is expressed. SWEDENBORG, inspired by this, laid before the King the -_suggestion for a canal from Göteborg through Lakes Vänern and Vättern -to the Baltic_, which aroused the King’s enthusiasm. SWEDENBORG was -commissioned to investigate the possibilities for the realization of this -gigantic undertaking. — — — Shortly after this we find him in Uddevalla -investigating the possibility of establishing salt-works, in connection -with which SWEDENBORG at once set out to construct salt-pans and other -apparatus better than those in use in the defective old salt-works at -Strömstad. — — — We afterwards find him again at Trollhättan, Vänern, -Gullspång and Hjälmaren examining the situation for the canal and locks -and finding ’all to be possible and not of such great expense as had been -supposed’. SWEDENBORG had passed over to the modern idea of an inland -canal through Hjälmaren and Mälaren directly to Stockholm.› With justice -it may be said that here he gives the impression of a very sharpsighted -and energetic engineer, who possessed the power of turning his thorough -theoretical education to practical use. - -It may thus be clearly perceived, from everything I have referred -to above, how comprehensive and penetrating were the researches of -SWEDENBORG in the mathematical (and especially the mechanical) branches -of science, and what fruitful discoveries had been made by his searching -eye. - - -SWEDENBORG’S GEOLOGICAL, MINERALOGICAL, CHEMICAL, PHYSICAL AND -COSMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. - -SWEDENBORG’s comprehensive interest now turned itself to new fields of -work: to _geology_, _mineralogy_, _chemistry_, _physics_ and finally to -_cosmology_, without giving up his first subject, _mathematics_. - -And he also now exhibited the same thoroughness as before, beginning -with examinations, experiments and observations, partly original, but -also collected from predecessors. For he says: ›It seems to me that an -infinite mass of completed experiments is a good ground to build upon, to -make the trouble and expense of others serve one’s end; that is to work -with the head over that which others have worked over with the hands.› -(See HOLMQUIST, Op. cit. and the letter from SWEDENBORG to ERIC BENZELIUS -of May 2nd, 1720, in the edition of the Acad. of Sciences, I., p. 304). - -The result of this period of labour SWEDENBORG embodied in a number of -works, among which may especially be mentioned: ›_On the Height of Water -and the Strong Tides in the Primeval World. Proofs from Sweden._›[24] -SWEDENBORG here furnishes proofs that our North, in olden times, lay -for the most part under deep water. And he based his deductions on a -great many researches and sharpsighted observations, and wherever it -was possible he tested the correctness of his conclusions by means of -experiments. This is the work which J. J. BERZELIUS, A. E. NORDENSKIÖLD -and A. G. NATHORST have praised so highly, and in some places it has -been considered to be ›one of the most ingenious contributions to the -history of geology›. SWEDENBORG also worked out during this period the -great work: ›_Miscellanea observata circa res naturales et praesertim -circa mineralia, ignem et montium strata_›, (printed in Leipzig 1722 and -lately reprinted in the edition of SWEDENBORG’s scientific writings of -the Royal Academy of Sciences, Vol. I., 1907, pp. 59-191), and finally -the gigantic work: ›_Opera philosophica et mineralia_›, (published in -Dresden and Leipzig, 1734, in three large folio volumes). The last work -contains among other things SWEDENBORG’s cosmology, and it is here that -he developes his famous _nebular theory_, which so closely reminds one -of the theory worked out in later years by Kant and Laplace, that one -strongly suspects that SWEDENBORG’s utterances, in one way or another, -lie at the bottom of it. Concerning this work much has been written -during recent years, and therefore it may be sufficient here only to -refer to the statements made in regard to it by Professor S. ARRHENIUS in -his introduction to the above-mentioned edition of Swedenborg’s writings, -Vol. II., where he says: ›If we briefly summarize the ideas, which were -first given expression to by SWEDENBORG, and afterwards, although usually -in a much modified form,—consciously or unconsciously—taken up by other -authors in cosmology, we find them to be the following: - - The planets of our solar system originate from the solar - matter—taken up by BUFFON, KANT, LAPLACE, and others. - - The earth—and the other planets—have gradually removed - themselves from the sun and received a gradually lengthened - time of revolution—a view again expressed by G. H. DARWIN. - - The earth’s time of rotation, that is to say, the day’s length, - has been gradually increased—a view again expressed by G. H. - DARWIN. - - The suns are arranged around the milky way—taken up by WRIGHT, - KANT and LAMBERT. - - There are still greater systems, in which the milky ways are - arranged—taken up by LAMBERT.› - -During this period of his investigations SWEDENBORG enters into very -deep speculations. He desires to grasp the innermost constitution of -things, their causes and origin, and seeks to attain this end through -a long process of analyses and by applying a geometrical explanation -to the phenomena in the world of the senses. This method he employs -in explaining the inner constitution of chemical bodies, and likewise -the varieties of physical phenomena, etc. He thus comes at last to -the—geometrical points: through the combination of these, in different -ways, have all things of the universe originated in a mathematically -definable manner; and the motion of these points is the all connecting, -life-giving power.[25] - - -SWEDENBORG’S ANATOMICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. - -After SWEDENBORG had so thoroughly searched through and speculated upon -inorganic nature, he turns himself to the _organic_. He breaks away from -all other work, travels abroad, and throws himself with intense zeal into -_anatomical_ and _physiological_ studies. These researches were, for -the most part, carried on in the Netherlands, France, and especially in -Italy, where he remained for nearly a year. - -After five years he was ready with his first work in this field, -the large, famous ›_Œconomia Regni Animalis_,› which was printed in -Amsterdam, 1740-1741. It was then published in two large volumes; but -that it was designed to be still larger, is evident, among other things, -from SWEDENBORG’s own statement;[26] and furthermore, the Englishman J. -J. G. WILKINSON published, in 1847, as a third volume, some annotations -which he regarded as belonging to SWEDENBORG’s manuscript of the same -work.[27] - -The ›Œconomia Regni Animalis› is chiefly directed to a detailed -analysis of the _blood_, the _brain_, and finally the _soul_. In -this investigation SWEDENBORG directed his attention not only to the -morphological and physiological aspects of the subject, but also to the -_embryology_ of the organs; and he penetrated so deeply into the very -essence of development, that, as Professor J. A. HAMMAR (Uppsala) has -pointed out, he succeeded in arriving at a conception on this point, -which was considerably better than that of his times. As is well known, -during the first part of the eighteenth century the idea was generally -prevalent that, when the organism developed from the egg or sperm, it -grew forth out of it, much like a flower developes out of the bud, or, in -other words, that the different organs existed pre-formed in the egg or -sperm and that development consisted only in an extension of its size. -SWEDENBORG expressed himself very decidedly against this ›pre-formation -theory›: The development consisted by no means merely in a growth or -expansion of the germ, (›seminis extensio›), or of a prototype of the -future creature existent in the germ, (›non ... aliqua realis effigies -maximi in minimo, seu in aliquo primo typus futuri corporis, qui -simpliciter expanditur.› See Œc. R. A. I., No. 249); but there was in -the germ a certain formative substance or power, by means of which the -various parts of the embryo were developed one after the other, organ -after organ. ( ... singula membra successive, seu unum post alterum -producuntur ... Œc. R. A. I., No. 247). - -It will be seen that SWEDENBORG has here put forth essentially the same -theory as was later presented by CASPAR FRIEDRICH WOLFF in his well known -›Doctorsdissertation› of the year 1759, _i. e._, the so called _theory of -›epigenesis›_. - -I shall here also discuss some of the results and conclusions, which -SWEDENBORG arrived at in the ›Œconomia Regni Animalis›, concerning the -_brain_ and _its function_. - -As is well known the general principles of the macroscopical anatomy -of the brain were known long before SWEDENBORG’s days; and even its -microscopical structure had, half a century before his time, begun to be -studied by such men as LEEUWENHOEK (1632-1723), MALPHIGI (1628-1694), -and others. For example, it was not only known that the substance of -the brain, upon incision, exhibits an outer, greyish layer, the cortex, -and an inner, more pure white mass, the medullary substance; but the -above-mentioned investigators had also shown that _the cortex of the -brain_ consists of a numberless mass of small globular bodies, which -are closely surrounded by blood-vessels and are continued in small -thread-like extensions, which run into the medullary substance.[28] Now -SWEDENBORG succeeded, as regards _these globular bodies_, in arriving -at the conception that they are _the most important components of the -cortex_ and that it is in these bodies that the nerves originate.[29] He -called them ›_Sphaerulae_› or ›_Cerebellula_›. - -Again, as regards the _medullary substance_, it was already known through -the works of WILLIS (1622-1675), VIEUSSENS (1641-1716), BOERHAAVE -(1668-1738), that it consists, for the most part, of a great mass of -finer and coarser nerve-fibres, and that these, through the medulla -oblongata,[30] continue down into the spinal cord, and that through the -nerves they are in communication with the various parts of the body. The -nerves were supposed to contain a lumen, thus being tubular. On the basis -of certain _clinical experiences_ concerning the changes which occur -in the functions of the soul, when the cortex of the brain is injured, -SWEDENBORG succeeded in drawing the conclusion that the _same_ medullary -fibres which are derived from the ›Cerebellula› of the cortex of the -brain, continue into the spinal cord and are in connection with the -nerves, and that thus an easily transmitted and continuous communication -is established between the substance of the cerebral cortex and all the -parts of the body, where the nerves are distributed.[31] - -Concerning the _function_ of the brain, the old view of HIPPOCRATES that -the brain was a gland was still entertained in SWEDENBORG’s time. The -cortical substance served for secreting the ›spiritus animalis›, that is, -what the ancients called the ›spirits of life›, and these were collected -in the cortex of the brain that they might, when necessary, stream out -through the nerves. The medullary substance was, according to the latest -conceptions of that day, the origin and source of the soul’s activity, -and the ›spiritus animalis› served as the connecting link between the -soul and the sense-organs and muscles of the body. - -SWEDENBORG also supposed that such a very easily flowing nervous fluid, -›fluidum spirituosum›, communicated the impressions of the senses and -the impulses of motion: but this fluid determined the connection between -sense-organs and muscles on the one hand, and the _cortex_ of the brain -on the other. It was thus _the cerebral cortex! to which the impressions -of the senses were carried, and from this the voluntary impulses were -sent out_ to the muscles. The cortex was thus the seat of both the -sensory and motor activities of the soul in the body. Œc. R. A. III., No. -133: ›Substantia enim corticalis est ipsum cerebrum, seu sensorium et -motorium commune.›[32] - -But SWEDENBORG was not contented with this general idea of the cortex as -the seat of the sensations and the will. He also drew conclusions from -his previous experience and results regarding the continuous connection -between the elements of the cortex and the ends of the nerves distributed -in the various parts of the body. - -On the basis of this connection he ascribed to the ›_Cerebellula_› a -very important rôle in the activity of the brain. In the first place -they received, through the external sense-organs and nerves, impressions -from the outer world and worked them over: they were a kind of _inner -sense-organs_.[33] And since the sensory impressions were so richly -various as well in kind as in degree, the ›Cerebellula› must also possess -various individual qualifications corresponding to these various sensory -impressions. They were, at the same time, connected with one another, and -so arranged into superior and inferior groups that they could receive and -work over the various kinds of sensory impressions.[34] - -There were also other groups of grey substance in the interiors of -the brain, through which the sensory nerves passed; but all sensory -impressions must ultimately be gathered together in the cortex of the -brain so as to become conscious perceptions. - -(Thus, for example, SWEDENBORG describes the optic thalami as such -a secondary centre in the course of the path of sight;[35] and the -corpora striata in the path of the sense of smell;[36] and the origin of -conscious tactile sensations he describes thus: — — — ›rudior quicunque -_tactus a superficie_ totius per medios nervos _in Medullam Spinalem -aut Oblongatam_ et abinde _in activissimum cinerem_, et _in circumfusum -corticem Cerebri_ emicet: Adeo ut _extremi receptus modorum sint in -cortice Cerebri, qui conscius redditur_ mutationum in seriebus et -substantiis compositis usquam contingentium.› Œc. R. A. II., 192). - -Thus: although SWEDENBORG did not suppose the ›Cerebellula› to be -arranged into sensory centres in the same manner as we do, still he -seems to have supposed an arrangement something resembling this, with -_Cerebellula-groups_ as _subdivisions of the great sensible centre-organ, -which is formed by the ›Cerebellula› of the brain cortex, taken -together_, and which Swedenborg called ›Sensorium commune.› - -In regard to the relation of the cortex to _motility_, SWEDENBORG -expresses himself much more definitely. This activity of the brain -SWEDENBORG also regarded as derived from the small cortical elements, -the ›_Sphaerulae_› or ›_Cerebellula_›.[37] He ascribes to them, on the -one hand, a high degree of _self-determination_, so that they could -perform their functions independently of each other, this on the basis -of certain anatomical conditions, such as their position in respect to -each other in separate cavities, and their connection each with its own -special nerve-fibre, and, besides, also on the basis of certain clinical -and pathological observations;[38] but on account of other anatomical -conditions, such as the aggregation of the ›Cerebellula› into larger -and smaller groups, as into gyres, and groups of gyres, etc., as well -as on certain other grounds, he ascribed to them also the ability to -_cooperate with each other_ when necessary.[39] In consequence of this -the brain possesses, as he says, the power and choice of influencing -whatever nerves and muscles it will, and of stimulating them to activity. -(›Proinde Cerebri secundum ordinatam ejus substantiae dispositionem -in potentia et arbitrio est, quascunque velit fibras, aut fibrarum -fasciculos, et consequenter nervos et musculos inspirare et ad agendum -excitare.› Œc. R. A. II., 153). It was impossible for him to express -himself as to what parts of the cerebrum or which convolutions, _gyri, -correspond to the respective muscles_, but _he refers to experimental -investigations of animals_, by which this might be discovered.[40] - -But although the brain would then be able to govern every muscular -action, it was not employed every time such an action was to be -performed. No, in the medulla oblongata and in the grey substance of -the spinal cord there were _subordinate, secondary motor centres_, and -these governed the automatic and habitual movements, so that, for the -performance of these, the brain need not be disturbed in its higher -functions. Only for the purely voluntary motions were impulses from the -cerebrum necessary.[41] - -SWEDENBORG has thus clearly located _the ›causa principalis› of the -voluntary movements_ in the _cortex of the cerebrum_, or more definitely, -in _the cortical elements and in groups of such elements_, although in -this work ›Œconomia Regni Animalis› he did not succeed in more closely -defining the position of the various motor centres. - -From all that I have here brought forward concerning the functions which -SWEDENBORG ascribes to the cortical substance of the brain, it is evident -that he succeeded in coming to the full conviction that it is _through -the activity of the ›Cerebellula›_ (or as we express it, through the -cerebral nerve-cells) that _the perception of sense-impressions and the -impulses to voluntary motions arise_. - -But SWEDENBORG does not stop even here. The elements of the cerebral -cortex, he continues, are still not the ultimate determinants. They -are only, so to speak, the inner sense-organs[42] and sub-determining -media.[43] They are themselves subordinated under the understanding and -the will, and their principle, the soul.[44] The soul, the principle of -life, it is the soul, which, through those cortical elements, perceives -the external world: it is the soul which feels, sees, hears, smells, -tastes, it is the soul which recollects, thinks, performs, and wills; it -is the soul which speaks and acts.[45] - -What then is the soul, and where does she reside? - -The seat of the soul must surely lie in the cerebral cortex; at least -its activity comes into play there, and still more definitely, in the -›Cerebellula› of the cortex. (See above and also ›The Brain›, No. 7). -But what is she? What is the soul? - -Here SWEDENBORG makes one attempt after the other to draw away the -obscuring veil. Sometimes he thinks of the soul as only dwelling and -working in the ›Cerebellula› and their ›fluidum spirituosum›; but in -this way he does not come to a solution of the principal question, which -is only removed farther away.[46] Sometimes he thinks the soul to be -identical with the ›fluidum spirituosum›; but how can this, however -subtile fluid, be immortal? Here he is again repulsed.[47] He discusses -the supposition that, although the ›fluidum spirituosum› in itself is not -immortal, it yet becomes so upon the death of the body, and so forth.[48] -And at last he bursts out with: ›it amounts to the same thing if we see -in this fluid the soul itself, or only its faculty of imagination and -judgment, for the one cannot be thought of without the other.›[49] - -SWEDENBORG himself, however, was not satisfied with the result, but -acknowledges that he had been too hasty, when, after having in reality -thoroughly considered only the blood and brain, he entered immediately -upon the search for the soul. He therefore says in the preface to the -next work: ›I am now determined to allow myself no respite, until I have -run through the whole field to the very goal—until I have traversed the -universal animal kingdom to the soul (usque ad animam). Thus I hope, that -by bending my course inward continually, I shall open all the doors that -lead to her, and at length contemplate the soul herself: by the divine -permission.› - -It is grand to see the indomitable energy and zeal for investigation in -this man of 53 years! - -He was now obliged to extend considerably the field of his -investigations—thereby to come to still more thorough insight into the -conditions of the soul’s life, and afterwards, as he says, ›in his -analytical way to be able to work himself up from the lower to the -higher›, to find the way from phenomena and facts to causes and the final -principles of the organism’s intricate mechanism. - -Three years later he has ready the first two volumes of his new work, -and the following year, 1745, a third volume. This work is the ›_Regnum -Animale_›, (The Soul’s Kingdom). It is constructed upon a very grand -plan, comprising not less than 17 parts. Of these, however, only the -three mentioned above issued from the press, and they treat of the -organs of the chest, abdomen, and skin, and of the senses of touch and -taste.[50] Professor IMMANUEL TAFEL (Tübingen) in the middle of the -19th century afterwards published two more volumes of the manuscript. -The first of these, Pars quarta, treats chiefly of the senses of smell, -hearing and sight and the higher degrees of the soul’s activity; and the -other, Pars septima, treats of the soul.[50 b] - -But simultaneously with the work in question SWEDENBORG wrote still -another, namely, the great work on the brain, ›De Cerebro›.—In these -works SWEDENBORG reached _the summit of his scientific career_, and they -afterwards served as the foundation of the religious edifice to which he -devoted the remainder of his life. - -The ›_De Cerebro_› of SWEDENBORG, just referred to, is a rather large -work which treats of the brain from the anatomical, physiological, and -philosophical standpoints. This work left by SWEDENBORG in Ms., has -appeared in print only in part, namely, in the English translation by -Dr. RUDOLF TAFEL, published in London in two volumes, 1882 and 1887, and -entitled ›The Brain›. Although this edition comprises, as was said, only -a portion of the whole work, it treats of both the cerebrum, cerebellum -and medulla oblongata, as well as of the cranium and the membranes of the -brain, but chiefly only in so far as their structure and function regard -the activity of the soul. Without doubt SWEDENBORG’s main interest here -centred on this subject, and therefore I shall give some intimations -concerning how deeply SWEDENBORG has succeeded in seeing into the -function of the cerebrum as the organ of the soul’s life. - -SWEDENBORG divided each hemisphere of the brain into an anterior and a -posterior region, separated from one another by the fissure of Sylvius. -Now, in _the anterior region_ he located _the essential activity of -the soul_, while as regards the posterior region, he supposed that it -was chiefly active in animating the blood (›The Brain›, No. 71). In -the anterior region he furthermore distinguished _three lobes_, or, as -he called them, ›curiae›, in which the soul resided and exercised its -functions (›The Brain›, No. 88). He does not define the boundaries of -the lobes, but distinguishes them by saying that the soul’s activity in -the highest lobe attains to the highest degree of clarity and perfection, -while in the inferior lobes, the middle and the lowest, the soul’s -activity successively decreases in sharpness and intensity! (›The Brain›, -Nos. 66, 88). In these lobes or curiae the essential psychic life also -has its rise; here observations, thoughts, judgments, conclusions come -into being, yea, even determinations and the utterances of the will -proceed thence. Here consequently is the source of both the sensory and -the motor functions of the soul (›The Brain›, Nos. 88, 100). - -As we have seen, SWEDENBORG had already shown, in ›Œconomia Regni -Animalis›, not only that it is in the cortex, but just in _the cortical -elements_, the ›_Cerebellula_›, that the brain’s psychic function is -performed. Swedenborg emphasizes the same idea in ›De Cerebro›, and -declares that these ›Cerebellula› are the units of which the brain is -constructed, and from which its essential nature is derived (›The Brain›, -No. 34). - -As in the ›Œconomia Regni Animalis›, so in ›De Cerebro›, he also refers -to the arrangement into _different groups_, which is so important for -the function of the cortical elements or ›Cerebellula›, and with respect -to this he now makes a new statement, which is of such a nature as -necessarily to excite amazement: he sets forth the most essential part -of _the modern theory of localizations_. Word for word this statement -reads as follows: ›_The muscles and actions which are in the ultimates of -the body, or the soles of the feet, seem to depend more immediately upon -the highest parts (of the anterior region of the brain)[51], the muscles -which belong to the abdomen and thorax upon the middle lobe, those which -belong to the face and head upon the third lobe_; for they (the muscles -of the body and the lobes of the brain)[51] seem to correspond to one -another in inverse order›. (See ›The Brain›, No. 68).—Thus, the essential -features of the modern doctrine concerning the relative positions of the -motor centres in the cortex of the brain, that doctrine into which we -have obtained an insight first after much comprehensive and complicated -labour during the last century! - -I shall no longer at this point continue the discussion of this work. -What I have brought forward may suffice to indicate the character of -SWEDENBORG’s investigation and the statements and discoveries based -thereon. By his works on the brain SWEDENBORG reached the _summit_ of -his Scientific activity, but also its _conclusion_. He now passes over -to the transcendental field. With the limits which we have set for our -examination, we must, however, refrain from following the energetic -investigator in his continued search for truth. - - - - -THE BASIS FOR SWEDENBORG’S STATEMENTS CONCERNING THE FUNCTIONS OF THE -BRAIN. - - -If we take a general view of SWEDENBORG’s investigations, the outlines -of which have been sketched above, a number of questions are suggested: -Whence did SWEDENBORG secure the material for all these far-sighted -statements, whence the evidence for all these discoveries? Did SWEDENBORG -himself carry out the special investigations which must have formed the -basis of his beautiful results?[52] Or was the evidence ready at hand in -the literature of those days? - -The answering of these questions is naturally of a certain importance in -the valuation of the opinions expressed. And as several of SWEDENBORG’s -statements concern questions which are still among the ›unsolved›, I -have taken up some of these questions for examination. In this I have -restricted my investigation to a confined province, and chosen one which -in our own times is of great actual interest, namely, the function of the -brain, and especially that of the cerebral cortex. As we have already -seen, SWEDENBORG connected in the closest manner the soul’s activity -with the cortex of the cerebrum, indeed, he localizes in detail special -departments of that activity to determinate regions of the cortex; and -the object of my investigation is, therefore, to endeavour to find out -upon what foundations SWEDENBORG erected this doctrine of the centres of -the psychic functions in the cortex of the cerebrum. - - -ON THE CENTRES OF THE VEGETATIVE FUNCTIONS. - -With regard to the function of the brain, SWEDENBORG, in the first place, -made the distinction that the cerebrum regulates the psychic, and the -cerebellum the vegetative functions. - -Many different opinions prevailed in SWEDENBORG’s time concerning this -question. Some investigators considered that the vegetative as well as -the psychical functions stood under the direct control of the cerebrum; -others that _the centres of vegetative life were separated from those of -psychic life and had not_, like these, _their place in the cerebrum_. -And SWEDENBORG adopted the latter opinion, primarily for the following -reasons: - -1) _Experiments on animals_ had brought to light the fact that -respiration and the action of the heart continued for a time even after -the hemispheres of the cerebrum (in dogs) had been separated from their -connection with the cerebellum and medulla oblongata, indeed, even if the -hemispheres of the cerebrum (in dogs) had been extirpated.[53] He was -also led to the same conclusion by - -2) _Certain teratological and pathological anatomical experiences_, which -he had gathered from his studies of books. He advances cases described by -WEPFER, TYSON and RIDLEY, MANGET, KERKRING, MORGAGNI, and others, which -showed that although the cerebrum had occasionally been entirely or in -part missing in foetuses, yet these deformed foetuses could nevertheless -live a shorter or longer time after birth. And in agreement with TULPIUS -he calls attention to the great deformation of the cerebrum in the case -of hydrocephals. In close connection with this he gives accounts (from -VALLISNIERI and others) of extreme cases of petrifications in the brain, -regarding which one must suppose that when the cerebrum gradually lost -its functions and the vegetative vital functions nevertheless continued -for a time, these must then have been regulated by the remaining parts of -the central nervous system, that is, by the cerebellum, medulla oblongata -and the spinal cord. (See Œc. R. A. I., Nos. 573, 574 _et seqq._). - -From these experiments and discoveries it was thus evident to SWEDENBORG -that the centres for vegetative life are not to be sought for in the -cerebrum. - -As was said, he located them instead in the cerebellum, and the -reason for this seems in brief to have been the following: MANGET and -VIEUSSENS had described a number of experiments on animals which were -said to have proved that after lesions of the cerebellum respiration -and the action of the heart at once ceased.[54] The injuries in these -experiments had evidently extended more deeply than the descriptions -recount, by which the false conclusion in regard to the cerebellum is -explained. It was probably because of such misleading experiments as -these that SWEDENBORG’s highly esteemed contemporary, HERMANN BOERHAAVE, -(1668-1737), held the same opinion that the vegetative vital functions -are regulated by the cerebellum.[55] However, the Englishman THOMAS -WILLIS, (1622-1675), had come nearer the truth, when, in a very guarded -statement, he connected these functions with both the cerebellum and -the medulla oblongata.[56] And when SWEDENBORG chose his position on -the question he seems to have been influenced by both of these authors, -and received the opinion that the cerebellum was the main centre of -vegetative life, making, however, the important addition, that the -medulla oblongata, as for that matter also the spinal cord, are secondary -centres, subordinated to the cerebrum and cerebellum.[57] This addition -was based upon a conclusion which SWEDENBORG had drawn, among other -things, from the teratological and pathologic-anatomical observations and -from comparative anatomy, but there is no occasion for entering into this -more closely in this connection. - -After SWEDENBORG had, however, upon the grounds alluded to, separated -the centres for the vegetative life-functions from the cerebrum, there -lay before him the localization of the psychical functions; and, as to -them, SWEDENBORG located the centres of the sensory portion of the soul’s -activity in the cortex of the cerebrum.[58] - - -ON THE CENTRES OF THE PSYCHICAL FUNCTIONS, ESPECIALLY THE SENSORY CENTRES. - -That the sensory activity of the soul has its centres in the cerebrum was -in SWEDENBORG’s time considered quite certain, but it was not so certain -as to just what part of the brain it was in which the soul’s activity -arose. - -It is well known that the philosopher DESCARTES († 1650) had supposed -that the _glandula pinealis_ (pineal gland) was the seat of the soul, and -that the conscious perceptions came into being in this gland and in the -central ventricle of the brain, the ›_third ventricle_›, from which the -nerves, according to his opinion, took their origin.[59] - -Gradually, however, there seems to have been more and more an inclination -to attribute this phase of the operation of the soul to _the white -medullary substance_ around the ventricles of the brain. And in -SWEDENBORG’s time this opinion seems to have been the usual one. At least -the matter is so presented by HERMANN BOERHAAVE, who, as is known, in a -high degree had the ear of his contemporaries.[60] - -And even HALLER, some twenty years after SWEDENBORG had written his -works on the brain, was still of a similar opinion, as is evident from a -quotation which I shall here bring forward, in which he emphasizes that -neither perceptions nor the impulses to motion arise in the cortex of the -cerebrum, but in the medullary substance: ›Non ergo in cerebri cortice -sensus sedes erit, aut plena causae muscularis motus origo: eritque -utraque in medulla cerebri, & cerebelli.› (ALB. V. HALLER: ›Elementa -physiologiae›, Lausannae, 1762, Tom. IV., p. 392). But when even HALLER -would not attribute the soul’s activity to the cortex, what then can have -led SWEDENBORG to such a thought? - -In order to clear up this question let us first examine the _anatomical -literature_ before SWEDENBORG’s time. And then we find that the -BARTHOLINS had already in a kind of way associated this branch of the -soul’s activity with the cerebral cortex, because they supposed that -the ›_spiritus animalis_›, (the ›spirits of life›), _was contained in -the cortex for the sensory functions_, just as it was conserved in the -medullary substance for the motor functions.[61] - -And THOMAS WILLIS considered that the _›spiritus animalis› was generated -in the cerebral cortex_, but afterwards underwent proper elaboration and -distribution in the medulla of the cerebrum; and that the memory had its -seat in the cerebral cortex.[62] - -And MALPIGHI (1628-1694) had expressed the surmise, that the minute -_cortical elements_, so particularly described by him, which correspond -to what we now call the nerve-cells of the cortex, were small glands, -›glandulæ›, whose function was to _prepare a substance which_, conveyed -through the nerves, _calls forth perceptions_.[63] - -It had also been shown by the researches of MALPIGHI that these -›glandulæ› put forth a vessel-like fibre, which continued into the -cerebral medulla; and that this medulla for the greater part consisted of -such fibres or vessels.[64] - -In how far these structures were ›fibres› or ›vessels›, and whether -they proceeded from (›oriuntur›) or terminated in (›desinunt›) the -small cortical elements, MALPIGHI leaves undecided. And when BOERHAAVE -afterwards in his lectures on the brain describes these structures, he -still depicts them as the finest tiny canals, which take up the ›spiritus -animalis›, pressed into them from the cortex, and transport it down to -the medulla oblongata, whence it is afterwards, by means of the nerves, -distributed to the different parts of the body. This ›spiritus› BOERHAAVE -describes as elaborated in the cortex, ›fabrica mirifica corticis -praeparatus›.[65] - -These observations and surmises have evidently exercised a great -influence upon SWEDENBORG’s conception of the function of the cerebral -cortex; but they alone could impossibly have aided him in reaching the -enlightened standpoint at which he arrived. No, the most determining -and decisive factor for him in this question evidently was a great mass -of _clinical and pathological observations_ which he had collected and -synthesized, namely, symptoms of disturbances of consciousness and -sensibility, which had been exhibited by such patients, who, as was shown -by post mortem examination, had been injured in the cerebral cortex. -And I shall later refer to some of these cases in connection with the -consideration of the brain’s motor functions, because these patients -nearly always also exhibited motor disturbances. - -But even here I may quote some of SWEDENBORG’s own words, which will show -what importance he attached to these testimonies: ›It is the cerebrum or -the cortical substance in which the soul disposes and unfolds its purest -and most simple organic forms of activity, and what the cerebrum is, -appears from a change of the faculties in some diseases, as in apoplexy, -epilepsy, paralysis, etc., likewise in many morbid states of the animal -mind in a cerebrum wounded by various accidents;› (›The Brain›, No. 86). - -And in another place he says: ›If the cerebrum is either inflamed or -obstructed, or flaccid, or injured otherwise, the intellectual faculty is -unsettled; as in paralysis, melancholy, in cases of delirium, in atrophy, -apoplexy, in fevers, and other diseases; nay, the determination of the -will also is similarly affected. For each single cortical substance -contributes its share to this intellectory, that is, to this organ of the -understanding, etc.› (›The Brain›, No. 104, r). - -All these observations concerning the consequences of injury to the -cerebral cortex—and the above-mentioned discoveries regarding the -structure of the cerebral substance and the hypotheses concerning the -relation of the cerebral cortex and cortical elements to the ›spiritus -animalis› and the perceptions,—these _clinical_ and _anatomical -experiences taken together_ seem to have led SWEDENBORG to the conviction -that the activity of the soul and not least that just now in question, -the sensory, had its seat in the cortex of the cerebrum. - -He now enters into a detailed analysis of the course of the sensory -nerves as far as they are able to be demonstrated (›in ipsius oculi -luce›), and he thus follows the optic nerves to the optic thalami, and -thence their radiation towards the cerebral cortex, the olfactory nerves -to the corpora striata or the medulla of the centrum ovale and from -there out towards its cortical surroundings, the auditory nerves to -the medulla oblongata and thence up toward the cortex of the cerebrum, -(›versus supremum corticem›), and in the same manner he follows the -nerves of taste and touch. (See Œc. R. A. II., No. 192; and III., No. -66). He cannot now follow further the particular fibres through the -medulla all the way to the cortex, of whose importance for consciousness -and sensibility he became convinced through the clinical experiences, -but here he must _suppose_ a connection, and he says: ›these effects -(conscious perceptions) could never be produced ... unless in every -quarter there were _a mutual connection and perpetual communication of -the cortical substance with the medullary_, as regards the fibrils ...›, -(as well as a special arrangement of the cortical elements and special -qualifications in them, of which more will be said later).[66] - -From all this it is clear, that it was probably through _a combination of -clinical and anatomical experiences_ that SWEDENBORG secured the premises -for his conclusions that the centre of the soul’s sensory activity is in -the cortex of the cerebrum. - - -ON THE CENTRES OF THE MOTOR FUNCTIONS. - -SWEDENBORG also placed the centres of the soul’s motor activity in the -cerebral cortex (See Œc. R. A., No. 127, etc.). - -I have not been able to find anything of this kind even hinted at in the -antecedent literature. We are reminded of how preceding authors, who -made an attempt at some kind of localization of the origin of motion, -in most cases placed this in the medulla of the brain, as for example -the BARTHOLINS;[67] and also BOERHAAVE.[68] And as we have just heard, -HALLER still held the same view.[69] Nevertheless SWEDENBORG expresses -his conception without the slightest hesitation, and this he did because -he regarded it as resting on a sure foundation. His strongest grounds -and proofs were here also derived from the _clinical and pathological -observations_ in certain cerebral diseases which had caused changes in -the cortex, and in patients, who had been injured in the cerebral cortex. -It was these clinical cases at which I hinted just now. And now some of -these may be brought forward, for the most part as SWEDENBORG himself has -related them—with some few abbreviations: - -A female seventy years of age, who after exhibiting the premonitory -symptoms of apoplexy for some months suddenly _lost the power of speech_, -and on being conveyed to bed, lost all sensation and motion. On a post -mortem examination a large cavity was found in the cortical substance of -her brain (›in ejus Cerebri substantia corticali ampla cavitas reperta -fuerit›, see Œc. R. A. II., No. 154). The case was taken from J. J. -WEPFER’s ›_Historiae Apoplecticorum_› (Amsterdam, 1681, pp. 5-11). - -Another case taken from WEPFER was the following: A man 50 years of age -had for some weeks before his death suffered from excruciating headache, -the pain of which sometimes drove him mad, so that he was not seldom -unconscious of what he said and did. On examining his head after death, -the whole surface of the cerebrum and cerebellum, including both the -convolutions and the furrows between them, seemed to be clogged all -over with a gelatinous substance, from which, when it was pricked with -a lancet, genuine serum oozed out. And also the very substance of the -cerebrum and cerebellum had imbibed a large quantity of serum. (Œc. R. -A., loco cit. and J. J. WEPFER: Op. cit., p. 15-19). - -A case from A. PACCHIONI was as follows: A young man had died under -symptoms of fever, severe headache and _spasms_, or _cramp_. On opening -his cranium, it appeared that the firm fibrous membrane of the brain, the -dura mater, was loosened from the bone on the top of the head; and here, -according to the description, it had exercised a strong pressure upon the -underlying portion of the brain and was tightly adherent to it. (Œc. R. -A., loc. cit.)——Consequently, in the last two cases: inflammation of the -membranes of the brain, or meningitis with accompanying influence upon -the superficial layer of the brain, the cerebral cortex. - -And still another case from PACCHIONI, which was still more convincing: A -youth was brought into the hospital in an almost unconscious condition, -spoke incoherently, cast himself about in all directions, etc.; and -furthermore——his _lips were somewhat drawn over to the left side_ -(›_labris ad sinistrum paululum detractis_›), thus a right-sided _facial -paralysis_! On examination after death no injuries could be found upon -the integuments of the head, nor upon the outer or inner sides of the -cranium, but on the left side of the brain _a depression of the cortex_ -was discovered, occasioned by the formation of a tumor or ›bladder› on -that part of the surrounding dura mater lying just over the place of -depression: ›_ibi depressus et durioris consistentiae cortex cerebri -cavernam ostendebat vesicae congruentem_.›[70] - -SWEDENBORG brought forward still more cases, so incomplete, however, -that it is not worth while to repeat them here. But he had at hand a -very large number of cases, as he says: ›phalanges observationum idem -testificantium› (Œc. R. A. No. 154), or, as he says in another place, so -many that a bare enumeration of them would fill two whole pages (Œc. R. -A. II., 154). - -SWEDENBORG had made a specially careful study of a great many _cases of -apoplexy_ and _hemiplegy_, which naturally, in so far as they affected -the cortex, gave him direct guidance in judging of its function. And he -also understood very well how to judge at the same time with regard to -the importance of bleedings in the soft membrane of the brain, the pia -mater, on and between the convolutions of the brain, the ›gyri›, and -the pressure that these exercise upon the cortex, and the results of -prevented circulation in cases of apoplexy. For in all these cases, he -says, the transmission of blood to the cortex is checked, and by this the -cortex was disturbed in its function, and this was the cause of the loss -of sensation and of the paralysis. (Œc. R. A., III., No. 411 and III., -No. 413; see also ›The Brain›, No. 89). - -But SWEDENBORG had also directed his attention to that method of -investigation which, to the brain physiologists of the present day, is -the best aid for the examination of the motor functions of the cerebral -cortex, namely, _experiments on animals_. He quotes such experiments, in -which _incisions_ had been made into the cortex ›just to the marrow›, -as it is expressed, (›usque ad substantiam medullarem› [RIDLEY], Œc. R. -A., I., No. 505); or when the brain (in dogs) had been _pierced_, (Œc. -R. A., II., No. 154), and how these injuries had occasioned spasms or -contractions of the trunk or extremities (RIDLEY). He also describes -such cases in which fine needles had been pierced through the dura mater -and corrosive liquors introduced through the holes, with the result -that severe disturbances occurred in both motility and sensibility, and -also how through such injuries muscular contractions had been provoked, -by which it was sometimes observed that with certain stimuli the -contractions first occurred in certain groups of muscles (for example, in -the head or neck) and afterwards spread to the other parts of the body. -(BAGLIVI ›The Brain›, No. 20). - -As will be seen, these experiments were no ›precision-investigations›; -and the same may be said of the clinical and pathological ones. And -this may be the more easily understood, when we consider that in those -times so much interest was not attached to such special observations of -pathological changes in the cerebral cortex; for this was then regarded -only as a gland, a secreting organ or reservoir for the ›spiritus -animalis›. These observations were therefore made more as it were in -passing. The same is also true of the experimental investigations on -animals, quoted above. These were in reality made not in order to -investigate any function of the cortex, but for other purposes, namely, -in order to search out the causes of the pulsations of the brain, or the -qualities and functions of the dura mater, etc. - -Yet, as we shall see later on, some of the cases, in the original -descriptions, really contain statements somewhat more exact and of -greater interest even for the theory of cortical localizations, than -those which SWEDENBORG quoted; but he seems to have here adduced no more -than what had reference to the _cortex regarded as a whole_, and which -showed what great changes in both the power of sensation and motion -injuries in the cortex could produce. If we take this into consideration, -and if we synthesize all these experiences, and add to this the increased -knowledge concerning the minute structure of the brain, which had been -produced especially by MALPIGHI’s discoveries, we must admit that -SWEDENBORG had good reasons for his view that the soul’s activity had its -seat in the cortex of the cerebrum. - - -THE DOCTRINE OF LOCALIZATIONS. - -But SWEDENBORG, as is well known, did not stop here. The cerebral cortex -certainly constituted a whole which transformed the sensations into -thoughts and determinations, but all the regions of the cortex were not -of the same degree: some ruled the higher, others the lower functions, -thus also containing subdivisions, in some of which the sense-impressions -were received, in others from which the motor impulses proceeded. (See -›The Brain›, Nos. 66, 68, 71, 88, 98, 100, 102, etc.). - -This conception of the brain appears at first glance as very modern. -But upon searching the literature before SWEDENBORG’s time one finds -that the thought was not so entirely original. New was the thought of -attributing the psychical functions to the cortex, new also was the -attempt to accurately determine upon the place where the different -functions originate; but the _idea of localization_ itself is found again -in the literature which SWEDENBORG already had at his disposal. - -BOERHAAVE, for instance, says, in his ›Institutiones medicæ›, when -speaking of the sensations, that they give rise to _different -perceptions_, partly owing to the differing species and nature of the -outer objects, and partly to the different natures of the sense-organ -and the affected nerve, but partly also _to the different regions in the -cerebral medulla from which the nerve proceeds_. Thus we have here a -kind of localization to a special region of the brain, although in its -_medulla_.[71] And still more clearly does BOERHAAVE express the same -idea in his ›Prælectiones academicae,› where he says: ›In the ’Sensorium -commune’ there are _regions locally distinguished for the different -senses, just as every sense has its own special sense-organ_.›[72] - -And before BOERHAAVE the philosopher DESCARTES had expressed an idea -concerning a certain form of localization of the various elements of -psychic activity. For he supposed that the images of sensation and the -images of the memory, etc., which the soul perceives, arise on those -places on the walls of the brain’s central ventricle, where, according -to his opinion, the various nerves originate. In a similar way he also -imagined the origin of motility localized. (R. DESCARTES: ›De homine›, -publ. by F. SCHUYL, Ludg. Bat., 1662). - -We here reproduce some illustrations from the work of DESCARTES just -mentioned, which are designed to show how he thought that the images of -sensation arise. — — See the figures 1, 2, 3. - -We thus see that the idea of localization itself was not altogether new. -But how did SWEDENBORG ultimate and develope it? - -With regard to function SWEDENBORG divided the hemispheres of the -cerebrum into two parts: one anterior region and one posterior, -conceiving the fissure of Sylvius as the dividing boundary between them. -(›The Brain›, Nos. 16, 88, 91). - -[Illustration: Fig. 1. Fig. 2. Fig. 3. Fig. 4. - -Figures 1-3. Reproduced from Descartes: ›Tractatus de homine›. - -Fig. 1. A part of the wall of the central ventricle of the brain. The -points of the dotted area represent the openings of the nerves, which, -according to the opinion of Descartes, take their origin in the wall -of the ventricle. The figures O (star) and B (lily) are formed by -combinations of such nerve openings. - -Fig. 2. View of the left hemisphere from the medial side. The dotted -area B represents the place, where, according to Descartes, the nerves -originate. The vesicle H is the pineal gland, wherein the soul was -thought to have its seat. - -Fig. 3. Illustrates the act of seeing. The object ABCD forms an image, -1357, on the retina of the eye. This image provokes a similar image, -2468, on the wall of the brain’s ventricle, by exciting a stream of -›spiritus animalis› from the central ventricle through certain of the -fine nerve tubules of the optic nerve, the openings of the nerve tubules -in the wall of the ventricle being widened and thus forming images (of -sight), which the soul is able to perceive from its seat in the pineal -gland. - -Fig. 4. Reproduced from Vieussens: ›Neurographia universalis›, Tabula -XVI. Illustrates the passage of the coarse fibres of the _middle region -of the brain’s medullary substance_ through the capsula interna, pons -and the pyramids on the front of the medulla oblongata downwards to _the -anterior part of the spinal cord_.] - -To the anterior region he attributed the actual operation of the soul, -while he supposed that the posterior region was chiefly engaged in the -animation of the blood. He adds, however, ›it cannot be denied that -sensations reach even the posterior region of the brain, yet our mind -does not become conscious of them to the same degree as it does in the -anterior region› (›The Brain›, No. 71). - -In this _anterior region of the cerebrum_ he distinguished _three -lobes_, or so called ›curiae›, the first one highest up, ›in the crown›, -a middle one below it, and a third one lowest down, _i. e._, nearest -to the fissure of Sylvius.[73] In these three lobes the actual psychic -life is developed, and that so much the more clearly and perfectly, the -higher up in the region these intricate processes occur. It is here that -perceptions, thoughts, judgments, conclusions, come into being; it is -from here that ultimately will and determination issue. (See ›The Brain›, -Nos. 12, 66, 71, 88, 98, 100, 102). - -As regards the sensory part of the psychic activity, SWEDENBORG does not -make any attempt at a detailed localization; but as regards the motor -functions he arranges their centres within the above-mentioned regions as -follows: ›_The muscles and actions_ which are _in the ultimates of the -body_ or in the soles of the feet seem to depend more immediately _upon -the highest parts_ (_of the brain_), upon _the middle lobe_ the muscles -which belong to _the abdomen and thorax_, and upon the _third lobe_ those -which belong to _the face and head_;› and he adds, ›for they seem to -correspond to one another in an inverse ratio› (›The Brain›, No. 68). - -Whence did SWEDENBORG get all this? Whence the whole of this doctrine -of localizations? In his first great anatomical work, ›Œconomia Regni -Animalis›, nothing is said about it; first in his last anatomical work, -›De Cerebro›, is it advanced, and then — — — quite finished! One is at -first glance tempted to think that he had succeeded in finding some new -clinical experiences, upon which he could found this doctrine. For he had -not even finished the account of the function of the brain’s anterior -region, before interjecting: ›Therefore, if this portion (the anterior -region) of the cerebrum is wounded, then the internal senses—imagination, -memory, thought—suffer; the very will is weakened, and the power of its -determination blunted. This is not the case if the injury is in the back -part of the cerebrum› (›The Brain›, No. 88). But afterwards he does not -bring forward (in ›De Cerebro›) any observations which could serve as -proof with regard to this. And if one examines the cases he has referred -to in his preceding works, one cannot possibly arrive at the localization -of the psychic functions which he has here (in ›De Cerebro›) sketched; -for the evidence concerning the _position_ of the injuries in the cortex -are entirely too scanty and incomplete. But if we consult the _original -descriptions_, we find there many other and more particular data than -those quoted by SWEDENBORG when he was only concerned in explaining the -function of the cortex as a whole. WEPFER, for instance, reports in his -›Historiæ apoplecticorum› concerning the woman seventy years of age, who -suddenly _lost the power of speech_, that the cavity, filled with blood, -which was found in the cortex at the autopsy, was located in the right -hemisphere, _just behind the forehead_ (›ad frontem fere antrorsum›), and -that it extended rather far both backwards and upwards; even measurements -were given (length 8, breadth 4, depth about 2 uncias). It was also -stated that the blood-vessels whose bursting caused bleeding belonged -to the antero-lateral branches of the carotid artery in the brain. It -is also mentioned that no changes were found in the left hemisphere of -the brain; and from the clinical account it appears that even after the -stroke the woman was able to move the extremities of the right side.[74] -— — — All this indicates quite evidently that the lesion of the cortex -was situated in the anterior region of the brain! - -And PACCHIONI reports concerning the youth, who was afflicted with the -right-sided _facial paralysis_, that even the extremities of the right -side were somewhat paralysed, and that the cyst, which at the post -mortem examination was found on the left hemisphere, extended _from the -crown to the region of the temple_ (›a capitis vertice in temporalem -regionem›).[75] Thus this case also furnishes an unmistakable indication -that the cortical lesion was situated in the anterior region of the brain. - -It seems strange that SWEDENBORG did not here supply an account of -these interesting and convincing cases, which he nevertheless, as we -have seen, was well acquainted with. For his habit is to furnish the -chapters of his works with an introduction in which he reports, often in -very detailed form, the statements of the authors upon which he bases -his conclusions. Since in the present case such an account is lacking, -this may depend: either upon the fact that this last anatomical work of -SWEDENBORG, ›De Cerebro›, was not quite completed and finally edited for -the press, or thereon that Dr. RUDOLF TAFEL, who edited the translation -which is now accessible in print, excluded it. For Dr. TAFEL says in a -note that the introduction to the chapter in question would be introduced -into Part II., chapters 1 and 2, but—Part II. was never printed! Since, -however, the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences will publish ›De Cerebro› -in its edition of SWEDENBORG’s Scientific works, this question will no -doubt be cleared up. But this much is quite clear from what has already -been adduced, that the cases of paralysis which SWEDENBORG previously -quoted in a brief form are in the original descriptions reported so -completely and in such detail that one can without the least doubt -localize the cortical lesions reported in those cases in the anterior -(superior) region of the cerebrum. - -We now pass to an examination of the _anatomical_ literature to which -SWEDENBORG had access. And, as we shall find, we can here see whence -SWEDENBORG derived _material for his detailed doctrine_ concerning -the function of the brain’s anterior region. This becomes evident on -comparing SWEDENBORG’s mode of thinking of the brain’s psychical activity -with the descriptions of preceding authors in anatomy. - -The group of nuclei, ›_corpus striatum_›, in the cerebrum had been an -object of special interest for preceding authors. - -The Englishman, THOMAS WILLIS, had for example in his ›Cerebri anatome› -(published in 1667) portrayed them as a kind of junction, ›internodes›, -by which the cerebrum coheres with the medulla oblongata; and he pays -special attention to it on account of its peculiar structure (›The -Brain›, No. 476); and he is said even to have attributed to them the -›Sens commun›.[76] - -And the professor in Montpellier, RAIMOND VIEUSSENS, had given in his -›Neurographia universalis› (published in 1685) a very exact description -of the ›corpus striatum›, (not only of its ›superior nuclei›: ›Corp. -striat. sup. ant.› = Nucleus caudatus and ›Corp. striat. sup. post.› = -›Thalamus opticus›, but also of its lower lateral nucleus = ›Nucleus -lentiformis›) as also of the mighty medullary tract of nerve fibres, -i. e., ›capsula interna›, which passes through the same, and which on -the one hand is distributed to the brain, especially to its anterior -(superior) region, and on the other hand by means of the nerves radiates -into the various parts of the body. - -(In order to facilitate orientation we may refer to C. TOLDT: -›Anatomischer Atlas›, 1899, 8 Lieferung, Fig. 92: ›Querschnitt des -verlängerten Markes und der Gehirnstiele. Verlauf der Pyramidenbahn von -der Pyramidenkreuzung an durch die Pyramide, die Brücke und die Basis -des Grosshirnstiels in die innere Kapsel, woselbst sie in den Stiel des -Stabkranzes, Pedunculus coronæ radiatæ, eingeht.›) - -SWEDENBORG, who had studied and often quoted both WILLIS and VIEUSSENS, -likewise attributed a very great significance to the corpus striatum. -All the sensory impressions pass through it to the brain, and all the -voluntary impulses to motion pass out by the same path. (›The Brain›, No. -67). ›It is›, says he in his figurative way, ›in a certain sense, the -Mercury of the Olympus; it announces to the soul what is happening to the -body, and it bears the mandates of the soul to the body› (›The Brain›, -No. 67). - -And as the corpus striatum lay most immediately under the anterior -(superior) region of the brain, and was in close connection with it, so -the sensory impressions would for the most part pass to this region, and -the voluntary impulses to motion would likewise proceed from it (›The -Brain›, Nos. 66, 67). - -The same VIEUSSENS had furnished a very detailed description of the -passage of the nerve tracts in question, which pass through the corpus -striatum and capsula interna, and had followed them both upwards towards -the hemispheres of the brain and downwards towards the spinal cord. When -he followed them upwards, he found that they formed _three regions_ -in the ›centrum ovale›: the _regio superna_, highest up nearest the -crown, the _regio media_, in the middle, and the _regio infima_, lowest -down, and consequently nearest the fissure of Sylvius. (R. VIEUSSENS: -›Neurographia univ.›, pp. 115 and 117). - -In these regions of the cerebral medulla, especially in the highest, -VIEUSSENS considered that the soul’s activity had its seat: with the help -of ›spiritus animalis› the soul here had an opportunity of receiving the -sensory impressions, and in the fine and finest nerve fibres there were -here formed sensory images, conceptions, (Op. cit. p. 129), here the -memory images were preserved, (Op. cit. p. 135), and here the faculty of -judgment had its seat, (Op. cit. p. 137), etc. - -In these regions, especially in the highest, the will also had its seat -and origin, and at its command the ›spiritus animalis› streamed out -through the nerves, thus conveying the impulses to motion to the various -muscles of the body. (Op. cit. pp. 122, 123, 188, _et seqq._). - -For SWEDENBORG, who had arrived at certainty with regard to the seat -of the soul’s activity in the cerebral cortex, and not in the cerebral -medulla!, and who through MALPIGHI and others had been led to see that -_the fibres of the cerebral medulla_ were _continuations of the processes -of the cortical elements_,—for SWEDENBORG it naturally lay very near at -hand to _follow the fibres of the three regions of_ VIEUSSENS _out to the -cortical substance_ on the surface of the brain; and so SWEDENBORG has -his _three cortical lobes_! And to them, especially to the highest, he -could now attribute the source of the soul’s life. - -When VIEUSSENS followed the nerve tracts of the corpora striata and -capsula interna downwards, he found: - -that the _fibres of the uppermost region_ led down to the _posterior -region of the spinal cord_; (›ad posticam spinalis medullæ regionem›);[77] - -that the _fibres of the middle region_, which were especially coarse and -traversed the capsula interna and pons, forming thick tracts, could be -clearly followed down into the _anterior portion of the spinal cord, (›in -anticam spinalis medullæ partem›)_, where they came into connection with -the anterior origins of the spinal nerves, (›ad antica nervorum spinalium -principia›), also paying, on their passing through the medulla oblongata, -›necessary tribute›, (›necessarium vectigal›), as it is expressed, to -certain of its nerves;[78]——See the figure 4!—— - -that the _fibres of the lowest region_ were distributed to certain -_nerves, which proceed from the medulla oblongata_, and to _some of the -anterior origins of the spinal nerves_ (›quædam illius pars ad quosdam e -Medulla oblongata prodeuntes, altera vero ad antica nervorum spinalium -principia›).[79] - -In SWEDENBORG’s time it was, however, known that the muscles which -produce the movements of the head and face receive their nerves just -from the medulla oblongata and the uppermost part of the spinal cord; -and it therefore lay near at hand for SWEDENBORG, when he saw that -paralyses arose when certain cortical regions were destroyed, to draw the -conclusion, that the muscles and movements which belong to the _face and -head_, depend more immediately upon the _lowest_ region of the third lobe -of the cerebral cortex. - -And as it was also known that the muscles of the thorax and abdomen -receive their nerves from the superior portion of the spinal cord, -whither just the tracts of coarse fibres from the middle region of the -brain could be followed, (see figure 4), so SWEDENBORG could likewise -draw the conclusion from this that the muscles and movements which belong -to the _thorax and abdomen_ depend more immediately upon the _middle_ -region or lobe. - -It might now appear tempting to continue the conclusion by connecting the -remaining highest lobe and the lower extremity. But probably SWEDENBORG -did not consider that he had sufficient ground for this. The description -by VIEUSSENS did not here furnish any suitable guidance, for it was -possible that the coarse fibres of the middle region continued so far -down into the spinal cord that they could innervate not only the muscles -of the abdomen but also those of the lower extremity. For this reason -SWEDENBORG refrains from localizing exactly the centre of motion of -the lower extremity and contents himself with stating in general terms -only that this centre might lie above that of the abdomen. He therefore -says: ›the order seems to be so disposed that——the muscles and actions, -which are in the _ultimates_ of the body, or in the soles of the feet, -depend more immediately upon _the highest parts (of the brain)_›, whereas -concerning the thorax and abdomen he says that they depend upon the -middle _lobe_, and of the head that it depends upon the third _lobe_. -(›The Brain›, No. 68). I believe that this is the reason why SWEDENBORG’s -doctrine of localizations as concerns the motor centre of the lower -extremity is expressed in such vague terms. - -From a comparison of these descriptions by SWEDENBORG and VIEUSSENS we -have found that there are such considerable similarities between them -that they in many respects agree point for point. And it therefore seems -to me rather probable that SWEDENBORG derived his conception of the more -detailed localization of the soul’s activity from the descriptions of -VIEUSSENS. - - -THE ›CEREBELLULAR THEORY›. - -But SWEDENBORG was not satisfied with knowing only that the psychical -functions arise within certain regions of the cortex of the large -anterior region of the cerebrum: but he continued his search for their -inmost origin, and thus he came to the conviction that the _psychical -processes in reality result from the joint work which is performed by -the minute cortical elements_, which SWEDENBORG called ›_Sphaerulae_› or -›_Cerebellula_›, that is, the same bodies which we now call the _cortical -nerve-cells_. These were the units of which the brain was in reality -composed and out of which its actual esse was derived. (See ›The Brain›, -No. 34). It was to these ›Cerebellula› that the sensory impressions went, -and in these they were perceived and brought to consciousness; it was -in these that conceptions, thoughts, judgments, conclusions, came into -being. (Œc. R. A. II., No. 191, and ›The Brain›, No. 98). And this was -possible because there were as many kinds of ›Cerebellula› as there were -kinds of sensory impressions, and that these ›Cerebellula› were connected -together into groups with different subdivisions. (Œc. R. A. II., No. -193; VII., chap. XX.). It was also from the ›Cerebellula› of the cortex -that the determinations and impulses to the various movements of the -body emanated. (›The Brain›, No. 99). And this was possible because the -›Cerebellula› cohered each with its own nerve-fibril, which in their turn -innervated the muscle fibre, and that the ›Cerebellula› were _arranged -into groups, these into greater groups, these into convolutions (gyri)_, -etc., corresponding to muscle fibres, muscles, groups of muscles, etc. -(Œc. R. A. II., Nos. 146, 156, and ›The Brain›, No. 99). And it is in -this connection that SWEDENBORG _refers to experiments on animals by -which it might be shown which gyre or part of convolution it is, which -answers to this or that muscle in the body_.[80] - -How SWEDENBORG was able to come to this modern conception ought not to be -so exceedingly difficult to understand if we summarize what was already -known at that time about these cortical elements and add thereto the -conclusions as to the functions of the cortex to which SWEDENBORG had -already come. - -In SWEDENBORG’s time the conception of HIPPOCRATES of the brain as a -gland was still generally received. In this one had, however, as MALPIGHI -says, ›since the time of PICCOLOMINEUS› learned to distinguish between an -outer, greyish layer, ›cerebral cortex›, and an inner, more pure white -mass, the ›cerebral medulla›.[81] - -Through the microscopic investigations of LEEUWENHOEK (1632-1723) it had -further been discovered that the substance of the brain (especially of -the cortex) contained, besides a great mass of blood-vessels and very -fine fibres, _a numberless mass of_ peculiar _small bodies_ of varying -size, by him called ›globuli›, connected with the vessels and fibres. -(See Œc. R. A. II., Nos. 71-75, 112, etc.). - -MALPIGHI, (1628-1694), had closely examined these ›globuli› and described -them as small oval or polygonal ›glands›, which were closely surrounded -by blood-vessels, and in _their inner central ends sent forth processes -forming vessel-like fibres which continued into the cerebral medulla_.[82] - -As these fibres or vessels formed small clusters, the little glands -hanging on their extreme ends, like ›dates on their stems›, as MALPIGHI -expresses it, thus formed _small groups_. - -Within these groups the cortical elements were, however, _well isolated -from each other_ by clefts, which indeed sometimes were very small, but -could nevertheless be plainly demonstrated with the aid of colouring -matter.[83] - -The cortical elements taken together formed the winding groups which on -the surface of the brain gave rise to the so called gyres.[84] - -The profusion of blood-vessels, as was said, LEEUWENHOEK and MALPIGHI -had already described as being very great, but RUYSCH (1638-1731) had -afterwards by his famous vascular injections found it to be so great -that he would not call the cortex a glandular but actually a ›vascular› -tissue. (Œc. R. A., II., No. 86). Because of the enormous wealth -of blood-vessels there was thus carried to the cortical substance, -especially to the little follicles, a plenteous quantity of blood, -and from this, according to the opinion of that day, the most subtile -components of the blood could pass to the cortical elements and thereby -be transformed into ›spiritus animalis›. And finally, the Italians -BELLINI, (1643-1704), and ZAMBECCARI had shown by their analyses that the -juice of the brain possessed a highly subtile composition, above all a -great volatility and lightness, and was exceedingly mobile. (See Œc. R. -A. II., Nos. 88, 96, 119). All this SWEDENBORG has himself quoted in his -works. - -On the basis of these and some other anatomical and physiological data, -in conjunction with a number of clinical and experimental observations, -SWEDENBORG, as we have before seen, came to the conclusion that it is in -the _cortex_ that the soul’s activity comes into being; but at the same -time he concluded that, strictly speaking, the cortical elements were -the real work-shops. For he reasoned in the following manner: When the -sensory impressions enter the brain, they certainly proceed no further -than to the _›Sphaerulae› of the cortex, since these constitute the -beginnings of the nerve and medullary fibres_: were they to go further, -for instance to the small arteries which surround the cortical elements, -or to the membranes of the brain, then they would overstep the boundary, -as he says, and leave the actual centre and go out to the more peripheral -parts.[85] - -SWEDENBORG consequently here followed the same line of thought as his -predecessors. DESCARTES supposed that the nerves originated from the wall -of the central ventricle of the brain and therefore located the images of -sensory impressions, etc., there. VIEUSSENS and others thought that the -nerves originate from the centrum ovale, and thus he placed the psychic -activity there. And SWEDENBORG now proceeded in a similar manner when he -attributed the psycho-sensory operations to the ›Cerebellula›. And what -other parts of the cortex were better fitted to perform the demanding -and ever-shifting psychical labour than the ›Cerebellula›, to which the -life-giving powers of the blood were so plentifully admitted, and in -which, according to the testimony of many, the highly subtile nervous -fluid was created, whose office it was to communicate the rapid and -shifting utterances of the soul’s life! - -SWEDENBORG’s predecessors had thought that the distinctions between -the sensory impressions depended partly upon what kind of nerve was -affected, and VIEUSSENS had located the images of perception and memory -in the nerve-tubes in the centrum ovale, which had the finest caliber. -What, then, was more natural than that SWEDENBORG should now locate -these images in the ›Cerebellula› of the cortex? For what substance -of the cortex was better fitted, a more suitable medium to comprehend -and distinguish the innumerable shades of the impressions than these -myriads of ›Cerebellula›—of different sizes, forms and consistency, -etc., which were connected each with its own special nerve-fibril and so -well distinguished from their neighbors! And at the same time they were -connected with the other ›Cerebellula› into groups of different kinds, by -which the psychical elaboration of the impressions was made possible. - -On similar grounds SWEDENBORG supposed that the psycho-motor labour was -performed by the ›Cerebellula›, from which the nerves derived their -origin. And here we may recall that VIEUSSENS had already _connected -certain groups of nerves with certain bundles of medullary fibres_, and -that MALPIGHI had shown how _bundles of fibres of the cerebral medulla -corresponded to smaller and larger groups of cortical elements_, each -one of which, hanging by its fibre, formed the different _gyres of -the brain_. If we consider this, then we can easily understand how -SWEDENBORG, with his view of the cortex, could divine the correspondence -between the components of the convolutions and the muscles. - -It is interesting to here follow him in his line of thought and to -see how well he understood how to combine his anatomical and clinical -experiences: With the magnifying glass one can see how the nerve-fibres -spring forth from the cortical substance like a brook from its source; -if now the cortical substance be injured (as in the case of certain -brain diseases, and which one may clearly see upon autopsy), then the -injury is spread through the nerves connected with the cortex and at -last all the way down to the muscles, and that, he thought, explained -the motor disturbances.[86] And further ... when one or several of the -›Cerebellula› of the cortex are destroyed, then the damage is spread more -immediately only to their proper nerves and muscles.[87] - -In this manner did SWEDENBORG synthesize his anatomical, -pathological-anatomical and clinical experiences and extracted from -them his conclusions, and by them he arrived at essentially the same -conception, as our times, of the principles of the nervous system, its -cellular structure. He did not indeed employ the same nomenclature for -the nerve-cells and their long processes, as we do; but the matter -itself: the nature of the nerve-cells as elementary organs of the nervous -system, the intimate connection between the nerve and its cell-body, -indeed even its dependence upon it in regard to nourishment, etc., he was -able to clearly grasp in this way,—and this more than a century before -our modern theory of these relationships, the ›neurone-theory› saw the -light. - - -CONCLUDING SUMMARY. - -I hereby conclude my presentation of the grounds upon which SWEDENBORG -appears to have founded his doctrine of the cerebral cortex as the seat -of the soul’s activity. - -I. It has here been my endeavour to show, that his _first_ general -statement that the centres of the psychical functions are to be found -in the cortex was a conclusion, which he derived from three premises, -secured in different ways: - -The _1st_ premise was a conclusion drawn from the clinical observations, -post mortem discoveries and results obtained from experiments on animals, -which he had collected from literature; - -The _2nd_ premise was a summing up of the comparatively recent -discoveries in microscopic cerebral anatomy, and - -The _3rd_ was an hypothesis, concerning the continuous connection between -the cortical elements and the fibres of the cerebral medulla, by which -an easy communication was established between those elements and the -distributions of the nerves in the various parts of the body. In his -conclusions from these premises SWEDENBORG had some guidance in preceding -authors, who placed at least the sensory function in a certain connection -with the cortical substance. - -II. His second statements, his essential _doctrine of localization_, -showed in many points a great agreement with that presented by VIEUSSENS, -but also contained important differences, which partly rested upon the -conclusion to which SWEDENBORG had previously come, concerning the -importance of the cortex for the psychic life, partly depended upon the -new point of view concerning the correspondence of the cerebral regions -to those of the body, to which he had arrived in his work supported by -clinical results. The _detailed_ doctrine of localizations seems to have -been constructed with the assistance of VIEUSSENS’ detailed statements -concerning the connection of the nerves with the various regions of the -cerebral medulla. - -III. His third statement, his—so to speak, ›_Cerebellular theory_›, -that the ›Cerebellula› were the units of which the brain was in reality -composed, and that the function of the cortex was essentially the summing -up of the activity of the ›Cerebellula›, and that the ›Cerebellula› were -connected with one another into various kinds of groups, corresponding to -the various kinds of perceptions and to the different movements of the -body, etc., this was grounded in part upon the discoveries of Malpighi -and others and their detailed descriptions of the structure and situation -of the cortical elements and their connection with each other, in part -upon SWEDENBORG’s clinical experiences and his own previously drawn -conclusions, which be further followed up. - -The first two statements have in our time been embraced with the -liveliest interest and essentially corroborated. And as concerns the -third, the same applies in part; but how great the validity of this -statement is, it is for the future to decide. - -Consequently SWEDENBORG arrived at almost the same result as that to -which our own day has attained, although in a partly different manner. -Our times have had the assistance of exact methods of investigation -and of a most highly developed technique. In SWEDENBORG’s time the -research method of microscopical anatomy and experimental physiology -were yet in their cradle; and the two branches of science, medicine and -pathology, which afterwards with the greatest interest have taken part -in the investigation of the function of the cortex, had then hardly as -yet turned their attention thither. As to how SWEDENBORG nevertheless -succeeded in winning such rich and beautiful results in this field, -and how well he employed the widely spread literature in question, I -have attempted to show in this my presentation by tracing his path -through the folios of the old authors and indicating the places where -he gathered the material for his doctrinal structure and the premises -for his conclusions. Finally, however, it should be emphasized that, -when SWEDENBORG collected his facts from the many separated fields of -literature, he found them not at all presented in the large works as -important ›chief subjects›, or even as lying plainly at hand. No, he -was often, so to say, obliged to dig out his material from a chaos of -erroneous observations, false interpretations and curious conceptions; -and afterwards he had to still further sift and elaborate it, before he -could draw his conclusions out of it. - -In view of all this one must say that it was in truth a _work of genius_ -to search out of such a chaos the guiding threads which were concealed -within it, and that, in spite of their imperfection in many points, -nevertheless to be able to find so much of the truth! - - - - -NOTES. - - -[1] See the treatise of ANDERS RETZIUS on: ›The Origin and Development -of Anatomy in the Scandinavian North›, which he delivered as an address -on the occasion of his leaving the presidency of the Royal Swedish -Academy of Sciences on April 9th, 1845. See also GUSTAF RETZIUS: Preface -to ›EMANUEL SWEDENBORG’s Scientific Works›, edit. by the Royal Swedish -Academy of Sciences, Vol. I., 1907, p. V., _et seqq._, and ALFRED H. -STROH, M. A.: ›Some testimonies concerning SWEDENBORG, the Scientist›, -Stockholm 1909, p. 10. - -[2] In an address before the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences at -Stockholm in connection with a reference to SWEDENBORG’s work: ›De -Cerebro›, which had just appeared in the English translation by DR. -RUDOLF TAFEL; See GUSTAF RETZIUS: Op. cit. p. VI. and ALFRED H. STROH: -Op. cit. p. 11. - -[3] See an address of MAX NEUBURGER concerning ›Swedenborg’s Beziehungen -zur Gehirnphysiologie›, delivered before the ›Versammlung deutscher -Naturforscher und Ärzte›, Hamburg, 1901. - -[4] See the article by C. G. SANTESSON concerning SWEDENBORG in ›Nordisk -Tidskrift›, 1904, No. 5. - -[5] See an address of GUSTAF RETZIUS as president of the ›Versammlung der -Anatomischen Gesellschaft›, Heidelberg, 1903; and also his preface to the -edition of EMANUEL SWEDENBORG’s Scientific Works, which the Royal Academy -of Sciences began to publish in 1907; and the references by the same -author to SWEDENBORG’s statements concerning the anatomy and physiology -of the brain in the Croonian lecture delivered by him in London, in the -year 1908. - -[6] See the address of J. J. BERZELIUS at the meeting of Scandinavian -Natural Scientists in 1842 concerning: ›The rise of the Scandinavian -shore above the level of the surrounding ocean› etc., quoted from ALFRED -H. STROH: Op. cit. p. 6. - -[7] See the address of A. E. NORDENSKIÖLD before the Royal Academy of -Sciences on March 26th, 1888, quoted from A. H. STROH: Op. cit. p. 6. - -[8] See A. G. NATHORST’s introduction to the edition of SWEDENBORG’s -Scientific Works of the Royal Academy of Sciences, Vol. I., 1907. - -[9] See ›Vierteljahrschrift der Astronomischen Gesellschaft›, Part 14, -1879, quoted from A. H. STROH: Op. cit. p. 8. - -[10] See S. ARRHENIUS’ introduction to the edition of SWEDENBORG’s -Scientific Works of the R. Acad. of Sciences, Vol. II., 1908. - -[11] See GUSTAF RETZIUS: Preface to ›E. SWEDENBORG’s Scientific Works›, -edit. by the R. Acad. of Sciences, Vol. I., 1907, p. V. _et seqq._ - -[12] EMANUEL SWEDENBORG was born at Stockholm, January 29th, 1688; -matriculated at the University of Uppsala and ›Västmanlands-Dala-nation›, -1699; Diss. cum consensu Fac. Philos. publico examini submissa, Upsaliæ, -1. Junii, 1709; appointed assessor extraordinary in the Royal College of -Mines, 1716; ordinary assessor in the same College, 1724; retired from -the assessorship, 1747; died in London, March 29th, 1772. His name was -SWEDBERG until the year 1719, when he was ennobled and his name changed -to SWEDENBORG. - -[13] Epistola Eman: Swedbergii ad Ericum Benzelium, Londini, Oct., 1710. -See EMANUEL SWEDENBORG: Opera quædam aut inedita aut obsoleta de rebus -naturalibus, nunc edita sub auspiciis Regiæ Academiæ Scientiarum Suecicæ, -I. Geologica et Epistolæ, Edit. ALFRED H. STROH, Holmiæ, 1907, p. 206 _et -seqq._ - -[14] Epist. Em. Sw. ad E. Benz., London, April, 1711, see Op. cit. p. 208 -_et seqq._ - -[15] Epist. Em. Sw. ad E. Benz., London, Augusti, 1712, see Op. cit. p. -218 _et seqq._ - -[16] Epist. Em. Sw. ad E. Benz., Paris, Augusti, 1713, see Op. cit. p. -222 _et seqq._ - -[17] Epist. Em. Sw. ad E. Benz., Rostock, September, 1714, see. Op. cit. -p. 224 _et seqq._ - -[18] Suggestions for a Flying Machine by EMANUEL SWEDENBORG, translated -from the original Swedish by HUGO LJ. ODHNER and CARL TH. ODHNER, -published by the Swedenborg Scientific Association, Philadelphia, Pa., -1910. - -[19] Dædalus Hyperboreus, Eller Några Nya Mathematiska och Physicaliska -Försök och Anmerckningar: Som Wälborne Herr Assessor Polhammar och -Andre Sinrike i Swerige Hafwa giordt Och Nu tijd efter annan til almen -nytta lemna. Printed in Uppsala (and Skara), 1716-1718. Preface by EM. -SVEDBERG, Stockholm, Dec. 23rd, 1715. - -[20] ›Förslag til wart Mynts och Måls Indelning, så at Rekningen kan -lettas och alt Bråk afskaffas›. Stockholm, Kongl. Boktryckeriet, 1719, 8 -pp. 4:o. See ALFRED H. STROH and GRETA EKELÖF: Chronological list of the -works of Emanuel Swedenborg, dedicated to the Swedenborg Society by the -Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, Uppsala and Stockholm, 1910, pp. 17 -and 19. - -[21] Eman. Swedbergs Assess. i Kongl. Bergz Coll. Försök At finna Östra -och Westra Lengden igen igenom Månan, Som Til the Lärdas ompröfwande -framstelles. Upsala, 1718. See ALFR. H. STROH and G. EKELÖF: Op. cit. p. -17. See also the letters of Eman. Swedberg ad Ericum Benzelium in the -Swedenborg edition of the Acad. of Sciences, Vol. I. - -[22] See E. LILJEDAHL: ›Swedenborg›, Stockholm, 1908; and HJ. HOLMQUIST: -›Från Swedenborgs ungdom och första stora verksamhetsperiod›, -Bibelforskaren, 1909, No. 3. - -[23] See also ALFR. H. STROH and G. EKELÖF: Chronological list of the -works of E. Swedenborg, pp. 15 and 16. The titles of the three pamphlets -are in English: ›On the way to improve commerce and manufactures›, -›Memorial on the institution of saltboileries in Sweden›, ›On the utility -and necessity of instituting an observatory in Sweden›. - -[24] ›Om Watnens Högd och Förra Werldens starcka Ebb och Flod, Bewjs utur -Swergie›. (Stockholm, 1719; see also Acta Literaria Sueciæ Upsaliæ publ. -1720, pp. 5-11). Reprinted in the edition of Swedenborg’s Scientific -works, publ. by the R. S. Acad. of Sciences, Vol. I., pp. 1-27. - -[25] See concerning this the above-named work by HJ. HOLMQUIST, in which -he says p. 223 concerning SWEDENBORG’s method of research: ›SWEDENBORG -himself indicates the scientific method which he followed: first, the -collecting of as many experiments and investigations as possible, -afterwards the working over of these according to the laws of geometry, -and lastly, speculation, hypotheses: ’as long as proofs are lacking, -principles may not be accepted and hypotheses defended, as they then -deserve better the name of fantasies than of principles’. ’Experientia, -geometria et facultas ratiocinandi’, experience, geometry and reason, -were the foundations of SWEDENBORG’s work both within the world of nature -and that of spirit.› - -[26] See ›Œconomia Regni Animalis›, Vol. I., No. 360, where Swedenborg -mentions Parts IV., V., VI. of the Œc. R. A. - -[27] Œc. R. A. Vol. III., ›De Fibra›, translated into English by Rev. -Prof. ALFRED ACTON in ›New Philosophy›. - -[28] See Œc. R. A. Vol. II., Nos. 71-75, 76-82, 112; III. No. 59, etc. - -[29] See Œc. R. A. Vol. II., Nos. 100, 101, 191; ›Quod sensationes -externae non ad ulteriores metas quam ad sphaerulas corticales -pertingant, id satis in confirmato est, quando hae fibrarum nervearum et -medullarium sunt principia›; and 113, 130, 140, 141, etc. See also ›The -Brain› No. 98. - -[30] As observed in Quain’s ›Elements of Anatomy›, Tenth edition, edit. -by E. A. SCHÄFER and G. D. THANE, Vol. III., Part. I, p. 39: ›The term -medulla oblongata, as employed by WILLIS and VIEUSSENS, and by those who -directly followed them, included the crura cerebri and pons Varolii, -as well as that part to which by HALLER first, and by most subsequent -writers, this term has been restricted.› - -[31] See Œc. R. A. Vol. II., Nos. 83-85, 91, 93, 95, 114, 140: ›Proinde -cum totidem origines motus sunt, quot sphaerulae istius substantiae;› and -144, 146: ›Sic distinctissime quaevis (sphaerula) suam fibrulam animat -& usque ad ejus finem in fibram corporis motricem influit;› 157 and -191-194-95, 202 etc. See also ›The Brain›, No. 399. - -[32] So, for example, in Œc. R. A. Vol. II., No. 100: ... ›quod Cortex -sit principalis totius Cerebri substantia; in ipso termino primo Fibrarum -et ultimo Arteriarum sita; See also Œc. R. A. Vol. II., 111-116, 133, -134, 138, 152, 197, 290, etc., or, for example, Œc. R. A. III., No. -127, fin., and No. 404, where we read as follows: ›Ex anatome Cerebri -id constat, quod Cerebrum, seu substantia ejus corticalis, quae proprie -cerebrum audit, sit _Sensorium commune_, nam quinque organa suos sensus -externos ad corticem ut ad suum sensorium commune et unicum internum -referunt. Cerebrum corticale etiam est _Motorium commune voluntarium_, -quicquid enim agendum est mediantibus nervis et musculis, id praevia -voluntate a cerebro determinandum est.› - -[33] Œc. R. A. II., 107: ›Partes hujus substantiae — — — merentur _Organa -Sensuum interiorum_ et Cerebellula nuncupari, nam media substantia -medullari et sanguine ab Organis externis alluentes modos et tactus -recipiunt, et ad judicem animam referunt.› See also Œc. R. A. 191, 192, -Œc. R. A. II., 195: — — ›Substantiae Corticales totidem sunt Cerebellula, -— —; singula enim sensorium est in particulari, quale est Cerebrum in -communi.› - -[34] Œc. R. A. II., 193: ›Haec minime effectum consequerentur, — — — -nisi _partes substantiae Corticalis inter se, atque in gradus et series -sint divisae, in quales sunt modificationum causae: seu nisi series -substantiarum corticalium sint uti series sensationum_; nisi sphaerularum -Corticis perfectissima sit varietas harmonica, ita ut nulla earum, -praeter qua essentialia et attributa, alteri sit simillima.› For the -same see also ›Regnum Animale›, VII., chap. XX; Œc. R. A. II., No. 307: -›Ex lustratione ipsius Cerebri apparet, quod _substantiae corticales ita -Sapienter sunt ordinatae, ut cuilibet sensationi externae ad amussim -correspondeant_; nam _dictae substantiae_, ut unitates glomatim in -quendam numerum coalescunt, et _hi glomuli_ tanquam novae unitates _in -congeries_ adhuc majores, et hae in maximam, quae est ipsum Cerebrum: -_singulae partitiones_ discriminatae sunt per rimas, sulcos et anfractus, -et consertae per vasa et productiones meningeas, sic ut quasi sint numeri -unitatum in analogiae formam redacti, prorsus ut decet sensorium commune, -quod _recepturum sit omnem speciem sensationis externae, distinctim suum -visum, distinctim auditum, gustum et olfactum_. Œc. R. A. II., chap. XX. - -[35] Œc. R. A. II., No. 192, ›Ex anatome Cerebri in ipsius oculi luce -est, quod _radii visuales_ medio nervo optico _influant in thalamos -nervorum opticorum_, et abinde per collectas e toto Cerebro, perque -Fornicis basin transmissas, et thalamis superinstratas fibras, -quaquaversum in _corticem_ diffundantur.› - -[36] Œc. R. A. II., No. 192. — — ›quod _subtiles tactus membranae -Olfactoriae_ cavitates labyrintheas narium investientis, et inde oriundae -subtiles contremiscentiae aut modificationes per laminam cribrosam et -processus mammillares _in Corpora striata_, aut in medullam totius centri -ovalis enitentes non desinant nisi in peripheriam fibrarum, seu _in -ambitum corticalem_;› See also II., 38-42, where the processus mamillaris -is supposed to mediate a reflex action from the sense of smell upon the -muscles of breathing. - -[37] Œc. R. A. II., No. 101: — — ›totidem origines motus sunt, quot -sphaerulae illius substantiae (corticis)›; II., 140, 153, etc. - -[38] Œc. R. A. II., No. 146, ›Sic distinctissime quaevis (Sphaerula) -suam fibrulam animat, et usque ad ejus finem in fibram corporis motricem -influit›; see also II., 135, 147, 150, 156: ›Ex his ... fluit consequens -de singulis Cerebellulis ..., quod vitiato uno aut pluribus ... contagium -se non latius quam in appensas fibras et subjectos musculos immediate -extendat.› And III., 59, 127, at the end, and 197. - -[39] Œc. R. A. II., No. 147: ›Sphaerulae illum sortitae sunt in Cerebro -ordinem et situm, ut _singulae aut plures simul, aut omnes in communi_ -queant systolen suam et diastolen perficere›. Œc. R. A. II., No. 156: -›Quare ita compaginatum est Cerebrum, ut totum queat alterna vertigine -auferri, utque solum ejus medietas aut semiglobi Haemisphaerium; aut -solum plures aut una circumgyratio; aut utmodo hujus glomus, minor -congeries, aut pars.› The same in ›The Brain›, No. 104 c. - -[40] Œc. R. A. I., No. 505: ›Ergo inquirendum venit, _qui tori corticei -his aut illis musculis in Corpore correspondent_; quod fieri non potest -nisi _per experientiam in vivis Animalibus; per punctiones, sectiones -et compressiones_ plurium, perque inde in Corporis musculis redundantes -effectus.› - -[41] Œc. R. A. II. Nos. 151, 157: › — — — licet _ipsa fibra Cerebri non -agat motricem in musculis, agit tamen in utraque illa Medulla, quarum -fibras ad sic non aliter agendum disponit_, uti ab Anatomia Cerebri tam -humani, quam animalium brutorum, imo insectorum, clare colligitur: idque -ob rationem, ut _Cerebri Voluntarium abeat in spontaneum et naturale -mediis Medullis_, ne toties in particulares profundas motiones auferatur, -_quoties actio semel incepta ex consueto continuanda sit_; id ejus -sublimiorum officiorum administrationem toties alias interturbaret, et in -Homine analyses rationales, quae quietiorem Cerebri statum poscunt: quare -_ut primum actio voluntaria poscit seriem agendorum continuam, Cerebrum -annuet et consentiet, tum et actionis actualitatem producet_: Sic _ejus_ -est _causa principalis, Medullis autem incineratis injuncta secundaria_.› -See also I., No. 574:—›_origo secundaria_ vel causa intermedia _actionum -Voluntariarum in Spontaneas abeuntium_ sit _in Medulla Spinali et -oblongata_.› - -[42] Œc. R. A. II., No. 107: ›Partes hujus substantiae ex eadem ratione -merentur _Organa Sensuum interiorum_, et Cerebellula nuncupari›. See also -II., No. 191, etc. - -[43] Œc. R. A. II., No. 159: ›Id jam extra omnem dubitationis aleam -ponimus, quod _substantia corticalis_ sit _determinans, licet non omnium -primum_, actionum Corporis, quia determinans est fibrarum, et fibrae -musculorum, a quibus actio›. — — — II., No. 160: ›Sed hae _substantiae -corticales_ licet sunt determinantes actionum sui Corporis, respective -tamen sunt _modo subdeterminantes et mediantes_, quibus respondent -subdeterminantes in Corpore, quae sunt fibrae motrices.› See also II., -No. 204. - -[44] Œc. R. A. II., No. 277: ›— — — dicere quod _Anima sit supra mentem -intellectualem_, — — —› See also II., No. 280. II., No. 160: ›_Per illas -(substantias corticales) etenim determinatur in actum voluntas_, cujus -principium altius est rimandum. — — — _requiritur vis_ altior, sublimior, -principalior, et universalior, _in qua sit principium voluntatis, qua his -mediis determinatur in actum_. Proinde est fluidum spirituosum, in quo -est _vita, et proinde anima_.› - -[45] Œc. R. A. II., 285: ›Ex his jam sequitur, quod _Anima sit, quae -intelligit, cogitat, judicat, vult, desiderat, imaginatur, cupit, -reminiscitur, videt, audit, gustat, odorat, sentit, loquitur, agit_, — — -—.› See also II., 287. - -[46] Œc. R. A. II., No. 160, 161: ›Et haec denique concludit, quod sit -_anima, quae huic fluido (spirituoso) inest_, cujus est determinare in -actum.› II., 165. II., 303: ›Ipsum Fluidum Spirituosum est substantia -eminenter organica suae Animae; uti Oculus est organum visus, Auris -auditus, Lingua gustus, Cerebrum perceptionis omnium›; etc. See also ›The -Brain›, No. 7. - -[47] See for example Œc. R. A. II., No. 246: — — — ›sic etiam quod hoc -Fluidum sit Spiritus et Anima sui Corporis›. — — — Œc. R. A. III., No. -317: ›_Anima est purissima essentia animalis, caelestis et spiritualis_, -quae fibram simplicem excitat et simul sanguinem tam candidum quam rubrum -ingreditur.› - -[48] See also Œc. R. A. II., No. 348: ›Ex his jam praemissis usque ad -fidem intellectus demonstrari potest, quod _Fluidum Spirituosum humanum_ -immunissimum sit ab omni injuria contingentium in regione sublunari; -nec exstinguibile, sed _immortale_, tametsi non per se, _post casum sui -Corporis_. Quod exsolutum a vinculis et laqueis terrestrium in omnem -sui Corporis formam coaliturum sit et victurum vitam omni imaginatione -puriorem. Tum quod nulla sit actiuncula ex consulto, et nulla vocula -ex consensu, in vita ejus corporea, edita, quae non affulgente luce -sapientiae, inhaerenter designatae, tunc ante ejus conscientiae judicium, -distincte compariturae sint›. - -[49] Œc. R. A. II., No. 303: ›_usque eodem recidit, sive memoratum -fluidum dicimus Spiritum aut Animam, sive ejus facultatem_ sibi -repraesentandi universum et intuendi fines, nam unum non concipi potest, -quia non datur sine altero.› - -[50] J. J. GARTH WILKINSON has published Part I. in an English -translation in 1843, and Parts II. and III. in 1844, London. - -[50 b] ›Regnum Animale›, Pars quarta: ›De Sensibus›, publ. by IM. TAFEL, -London, 1848; transl. into English by ENOCH S. PRICE in ›New Philosophy›; -›R. A.›, Pars septima: ›De Anima›, publ. by IM. TAFEL, Tübingen and -London, 1849; transl. into English by FRANK SEWALL, New York, 1887 and -1900. - -[51] The words enclosed in parentheses have been added by the author of -this paper to make the meaning more clear, and are unmistakeably inferred -from the connection. - -[52] As Professor G. RETZIUS also says in his ›Croonian lecture›, -delivered in London, 1908: ›The theses cited [especially those concerning -the localization of the motor centres in the cerebral cortex] are drawn -up with such precision by SWEDENBORG that they cannot possibly be based -on divination only, but must rest upon a real grasp of natural phenomena -as well as on actual experiments and dissecting work›. - -[53] See ›Œconomia Regni Animalis›, I., Nos. 559 _et seqq._; also 571 and -572, and R. VIEUSSENS: ›Neurographia universalis›, Lugduni, 1685, pp. -123, 124, etc. - -[54] See ›Œconomia Regni Animalis›, I., Nos. 559 _et seqq._, as also R. -VIEUSSENS: ›Neurographia universalis›, Lugduni, 1685, pp. 123, 124, _et -seqq._ - -[55] See BOERHAAVE: ›Institutiones medicae›, Lugduni Batavor. 1720, No. -415: ›Ergo musculi voluntarii nervos habent ultimo oriundos a cerebro. -Illi vero, qui spontaneis, vitalibusque motibus serviunt, a cerebello -nervos accipiunt.› - -[56] See TH. WILLIS: ›Cerebri Anatome›, Amsterdam, 1667, pp. 73-74: -›Cerebrum motuum et conceptuum omnium origo et fons. Sensus et motus, -item passiones et instinctus mere naturales, licet a Cerebro quadantenus -dependent, tamen proprie in Medulla oblongata et Cerebello aut -perficiunter aut ab iis procedunt. - -[57] See Œc. R. A. III., No. 404, etc.: ›Medulla oblongata — — — -sensorium et motorium commune tam Cerebri quam Cerebelli, sed secundarium -et instrumentale superius. Medulla spinalis similiter — — — sensorium et -motorium commune, sed secundarium et instrumentale inferius.› - -[58] Œc. R. A., III., No. 133: ›Substantia — — — corticalis est ipsum -Cerebrum seu Sensorium — — — commune›; No. 404, etc. - -[59] See R. DESCARTES: ›Tractatus de homine›, Lugd. Bat. 1662, pp. 77, -81, 82; 32, 67 etc.: 72, 79 etc. - -[60] See H. BOERHAAVE: ›Institutiones medicae›, Lugd. Bat. 1720, p. -253: ›Sensorium commune est pars cerebri, — — —, adeoque, ut apparet, -medulla cerebri in capite;› and BOERHAAVE: ›Praelectiones academicae, -(published by HALLER), Göttingen, 1743, p. 451: ›Haec ergo sedes animae -non est in pineali glandula, uti CARTESIUS voluit,—neque est in medulla -spinali, neque est in cerebello, verum _in fornicata medulla circumstante -cavitatem ventriculorum cerebri_.› - -[61] See CASP. et THOM. BARTHOLIN: ›Instit. anatom.›, 1641, p. 265: -›Putamus enim in Cerebro proprie dicto, vel cortice servari spiritum -animalem pro sensu, in medulla vero tota tam quoad caput quam quoad -caudam, reservari spiritum pro motu.› - -[62] See THOMAS WILLIS: ›Cerebri Anatome., 1667, pp. 76, 77: ›Etenim -existimare fas est, spiritus animales — — in corticali cerebri substantia -procreari› — — — ›hæ partes medullares spirituum animalium exercitio et -dispensationi — — — inserviunt;› and J.J. WINSLOW: ›Exposition anatomique -— — —›, 1732, IV., p. 210: ›WILLIS nous donne un système tout-à-fait -particulier. Il loge le sens commun dans le corpus striatum ou corps -rougé, l’imagination dans le corps callosum, et la mémoire dans l’écorce -ou dans la substance grisâtre qui envelloppe la blanche.› - -[63] See M. MALPIGHI: ›Opera Omnia›, 1686-87, Tom. II., p. 85: -›Suspicari possumus minimis hisce glandulis ex delato sanguine separari, -recolligique particulas illas a natura ad promendum instrumentaliter -sensuum destinatas, quibus per nervorum tubulis delatis continuatae -partes inbibantur et turgeant.› - -[64] See MALPIGHI: ›Opera Omnia›, 1686-87, Tom. II., De Cerebri cortice, -pp. 78 _et seqq._ ›In — — cerebro corticem affusum minimarum glandularum -proventum et congeriem esse deprehendi: hæ in cerebri gyris et protractis -veluti intestinales, ad quæ desinunt albæ nervorum radices, vel inde, si -mavis, oriuntur — — —›; and SWEDENBORG: Œc. R. A. II., Nos. 76-82, 112, -114 etc. - -[65] See BOERHAAVE: ›Institutiones medicae›, 1720, No. 266: ›folliculi -illi minimi glandulosi emittunt tenues fibras, albas, compactas quibus -adenutis fit callosum, medullosumque corpus› — — —; No. 274: ›fibras -has canaliculos tenuissimos pervios esse, qui in se excipiant humorem -corporis humani omnium quidem subtilissimum, qui fabrica mirifica -corticis praeparatus, secretus atque vi in has fistulas impulsus est, ex -omni quidem parte hujus in medullam oblongatam collectus; see also No. -263; No. 284: ›fibrillas nerveas humorem medullae — — ad omne punctum -totius corporis distinctissimis viis deferre.› — — - -[66] ›Nisi mutua sit connexio et perpetua communicatio substantiae -medullaris qua fibrillas et manipulos intra thecam vertebralem et -cranium, undecunque ducitur ad corticem cerebri. — — —› (Œc. R. A. II., -No. 193; See also No. 115). - -[67] See above CASP. and THOM. BARTHOLIN: ›Inst. Anat.›, 1645, p. 265. - -[68] See H. BOERHAAVE: ›Inst. Med.›, 1720, N. 574. or 274. - -[69] See above A. V. HALLER: ›Elem. Physiol.›, 1762, IV., p. 392. - -[70] Œc. R. A. loco cit. and II., 88. See also A. PACCHIONI: ›Opera›, Ed. -quarta, Romæ, 1741, p. 112. - -[71] See BOERHAAVE: ›Instit. med.›, 1720, No. 570, 574. The edition used -by SWEDENBORG was printed 1727. - -[72] ›Nempe in sensorio communi distinctas loco provincias esse pro -diversis sensibus, uti cuilibet sensui suum externum proprium organum -datum est.› BOERHAAVE: ›Prael. acad.›, published by HALLER 1743, Vol. -IV., p. 435. See also BOERHAAVE: ›Inst. med.›, 1720, No. 568. - -[73] These lobes are, as he says, ›marked out and encompassed by the -carotid artery, a statement by which he probably means the same as -RIDLEY, when the latter says of the whole anterior region that it is -marked out, as it were, by two branches of the carotid artery, one at the -front and one at the side, i. e., _Arteria cerebri anterior_ and _Arteria -cerebri media_. - -[74] J. J. WEPFER: ›Observationes anatomicæ ex cadaveribus eorum, quos -sustulit Apoplexia›. Amstelædami, 1681, pp. 5-11, Case II. - -[75] See A. PACCHIONI: ›Opera›, Ed. quarta, Romæ, 1741, p. 112. - -[76] See J. B. WINSLOW: ›Exposition anatomique de la Structure du corps -humain.› Paris, 1732, IV., p. 210. With WILLIS one also finds the same -subdivision of the hemispheres of the brain into an anterior and a -posterior ›province›, as that employed by SWEDENBORG. - -[77] VIEUSSENS: ›Neur. univ.›, pp. 115, 117, and Tab. X. - -[78] Op. cit., pp. 115, 117, and Tab. XVI. - -[79] Op. cit., pp. 115, 117 and Tab. XV. - -[80] Œc. R. A. II., No. 153: ›Experientiae est et temporis, ut -evestigetur, qui gyrus et qui serpens tumulus in cerebro hunc aut illum -musculum ut correspondentem suum in corpore respiciat. ’Cuniculos cerebri -serpere, per autopsiam deprehenditur’ ait Clar. PACCHIONUS, BELLINUS et -alii plures.› - -[81] See MALPIGHI: ›Op. omnia›, II., De Cerebro, p. 2, and SWEDENBORG: -Œc. R. A., II., Nos. 82, 58, etc. - -[82] MALPIGHI: ›Opera omnia›, 1686-87, II., De Cerebri cortice, p. 78, -and SWEDENBORG: Œc. R. A., II., Nos. 76-82, 112, 114, etc. - -[83] MALPIGHI: Op. cit. p. 78: ›Harum glandularum distinctionem affuso -atramento (ink) et leviter gossypio deterso, videbis, intercepta enim -spatia ita denigrantur, ut circumscriptas glandulas facilius exhibeant.› -See also Œc. R. A. No. 76. - -[84] MALPIGHI: Op. cit., p. 79: ›Corticales hae glandulae tortuose -locatae exteriores cerebri gyros componunt, et exorientibus inde -medullaribus fibris seu vasculis appenduntur›. See also Œc. R. A., II., -No. 76. - -[85] See Œc. R. A., II., No. 191: ›Quod sensationes externæ non ad -ulteriores metas quam ad sphaerulas corticales pertingant, id satis -in confirmato est, quando hae fibrarum nervearum et medullarium sunt -principia, ultra quae si progrederentur, ut si in arteriolas aut -meninges, tunc praescriptos terminos superscanderent et a centris in -remotiores peripherias se conjicerent.› - -[86] See Œc. R. A., III., No. 127: ›Si enim vivum corticem in apertis -cerebris lente microscopica, sive delineatum ex vivo contemplamur, -evidenter conspicitur, quomodo fibra ex illo procedat, et tanquam -rivulus ex fonticulo scaturiat; id etiam in hydrocephalis, apoplecticis, -catalepticis, paralyticis, maniacis, motibus convulsivis et spasmis -cynicis vexatis confirmatur, nam ipsa labes substantiæ eorum corticalis -post mortem deprehensa in continuas fibras, et tandem in musculares, -unde prodeunt actiones et inconcinni motus, derivatur. — — — Ergo, quia -substantia corticalis est parens fibrarum, sequitur, quod cerebrum non -nisi quam in hac sua substantia incipiat cerebrum esse, quatenus ibi -est receptaculum sensationum seu sensorium commune, et simul principium -actionum, seu motorium commune.› - -[87] See Œc. R. A., II., No. 156: ›Vitiato uno cerebellulo aut pluribus -in toto, contagium se non latius quam in appensas fibras et subjectos -musculos immediate extendat.› - -[Illustration] - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Emanuel Swedenborg's Investigations in -Natural Science and the Basis for his , by Martin Ramström - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK EMANUEL SWEDENBORG'S *** - -***** This file should be named 63033-0.txt or 63033-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/6/3/0/3/63033/ - -Produced by WebRover, Charlene Taylor and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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If you are not located in the United States, you'll -have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using -this ebook. - - - -Title: Emanuel Swedenborg's Investigations in Natural Science and the Basis for his Statements Concerning the Functions of the Brain - -Author: Martin Ramström - -Release Date: August 24, 2020 [EBook #63033] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK EMANUEL SWEDENBORG'S *** - - - - -Produced by WebRover, Charlene Taylor and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - -</pre> - - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_1"></a>[1]</span></p> - -<h1><span class="red">EMANUEL SWEDENBORG’S</span><br /> -<span class="smaller">INVESTIGATIONS IN NATURAL SCIENCE<br /> -AND THE BASIS FOR HIS STATEMENTS<br /> -CONCERNING THE FUNCTIONS OF THE BRAIN</span></h1> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_2"></a>[2]</span></p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_3"></a>[3]</span></p> - -<p class="titlepage smaller">Reprinted from the festival publication of the University of Uppsala<br /> -on the occasion of the bicentenary of the Royal Society of Sciences of Uppsala<br /> -and of the unveiling of the sarcophagus of Emanuel<br /> -Swedenborg in the cathedral of Uppsala.</p> - -<p class="center smaller">November 19th, 1910.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_4"></a>[4]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;" id="frontispiece"> -<img src="images/frontispiece.jpg" width="450" height="700" alt="" /> -</div> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_5"></a>[5]</span></p> - -<p class="titlepage larger"><span class="red">EMANUEL SWEDENBORG’S</span><br /> -<span class="smaller">INVESTIGATIONS IN NATURAL SCIENCE<br /> -AND THE BASIS FOR HIS STATEMENTS<br /> -CONCERNING THE<br /> -FUNCTIONS OF<br /> -THE BRAIN</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 50px;"> -<img src="images/tp1.jpg" width="50" height="50" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="titlepage"><span class="smaller">BY</span><br /> -MARTIN RAMSTRÖM</p> - -<div class="figcenter titlepage" style="width: 250px;"> -<img src="images/tp2.jpg" width="250" height="250" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="titlepage">UNIVERSITY OF UPPSALA<br /> -<span class="smaller">1910</span></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_6"></a>[6]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter titlepage" style="width: 65px;"> -<img src="images/tp3.jpg" width="65" height="100" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="center smaller">UPPSALA<br /> -ALMQVIST & WIKSELL, PRINTING CO., LTD.<br /> -1910</p> - -<hr /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_7"></a>[7]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak">CONTENTS</h2> - -</div> - -<table summary="Contents"> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdpg smaller">Pag.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#frontispiece"><span class="smcap">Frontispiece</span></a>, - reproduced from a copper engraving in Swedenborg’s ›Opera Philosophica - et Mineralia›, Vol. I., printed in Dresden and Leipzig, in 1734.</td> - <td class="tdpg"></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">Title Page</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_5">5</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="in"><i>The vignette</i> on the title page is reproduced from the medal - struck in honour of Emanuel Swedenborg, in 1852, by the Royal Swedish - Academy of Sciences.</td> - <td class="tdpg"></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Introduction</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#INTRODUCTION">9</a></td> - </tr> - <tr class="sec"> - <td><b>Swedenborg’s investigations in natural science.</b></td> - <td class="tdpg"></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Swedenborg’s mathematical, mechanical and astronomical investigations</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#heading1">11</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Swedenborg’s geological, mineralogical, chemical, physical, and - cosmological investigations</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#heading2">14</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Swedenborg’s anatomical and physiological investigations</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#heading3">16</a></td> - </tr> - <tr class="sec"> - <td><b>The basis for Swedenborg’s statements concerning the - functions of the brain.</b></td> - <td class="tdpg"></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>On the centres of the vegetative functions</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#heading4">27</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>On the centres of the psychical functions, especially the - sensory centres</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#heading5">28</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>On the centres of the motor functions</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#heading6">32</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>The doctrine of localizations</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#heading7">35</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>The ›cerebellular theory›</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#heading8">43</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Concluding summary</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#heading9">47</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><b>Notes</b></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#NOTES">50</a></td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_8"></a>[8]</span></p> - -<hr /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_9"></a>[9]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="INTRODUCTION">EMANUEL SWEDENBORG’S INVESTIGATIONS<br /> -IN NATURAL SCIENCE AND THE BASIS<br /> -FOR HIS STATEMENTS CONCERNING<br /> -THE FUNCTIONS OF THE BRAIN</h2> - -</div> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-i.jpg" width="150" height="150" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">In recent times Emanuel Swedenborg -has, on many sides, been the object of a continually increasing -interest, and year after year has attention been -called to the manysided works of his life. In former -times he was known almost exclusively through his religious -writings. But it has gradually come to light that he was also an -investigating genius of the first rank, who opened new paths in several -branches of the natural sciences and made wonderful discoveries.</p> - -<p>Thus, by way of illustration, Professor <span class="smcap">Anders Retzius</span> has drawn -forth from oblivion his <i>anatomical</i> and <i>physiological</i> works and shown -that there is to be found in them (especially in ›Regnum Animale›) -›ideas belonging to the most recent times, and a scope, induction and -tendency which can only be compared to that of Aristotle.›<a id="FNanchor_1" href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> And since -then several authors have expressed themselves in a similar manner, as -Professor <span class="smcap">Christian Lovén</span>,<a id="FNanchor_2" href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> Professor <span class="smcap">Max Neuburger</span> (Vienna),<a id="FNanchor_3" href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> Professor -<span class="smcap">C. G. Santesson</span>,<a id="FNanchor_4" href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> and above all Professor <span class="smcap">Gustaf Retzius</span><a id="FNanchor_5" href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> on -repeated occasions.</p> - -<p>The case is also similar with respect to <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span>’s <i>geological</i> -researches. Here <span class="smcap">J. J. Berzelius</span><a id="FNanchor_6" href="#Footnote_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> has sought to direct the attention of the -learned to his penetrating observations and ingenious conclusions; and -the opinions of such men as Professor <span class="smcap">A. E. Nordenskiöld</span>,<a id="FNanchor_7" href="#Footnote_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> Professor<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_10"></a>[10]</span> -<span class="smcap">A. G. Nathorst</span>,<a id="FNanchor_8" href="#Footnote_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> and others, have also tended in the same direction in -regard to <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span>.</p> - -<p>Within the realms of <i>astronomy</i> and <i>cosmology</i> Professor <span class="smcap">M. Nyrén</span><a id="FNanchor_9" href="#Footnote_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> -and later Professor <span class="smcap">S. Arrhenius</span><a id="FNanchor_10" href="#Footnote_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> have pointed out the grand hypotheses -of the creation of the worlds, etc. etc., which <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span> had erected -in advance of all other authors in cosmology.</p> - -<p>A number of societies and associations have also been formed -whose purpose it is to spread a knowledge of <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span>’s works concerning -natural science. The oldest of these is the Swedenborg Society -of London, which absorbed the purely scientific Swedenborg Association -half a century ago, and which this year celebrated the centenary of its foundation. -In 1898 there was founded in the United States of America the -Swedenborg Scientific Association. In Sweden the Royal Academy of -Sciences appointed in 1902 a committee to investigate the contents of -<span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span>’s manuscripts and to publish selected works.</p> - -<p>A number of individuals besides those already mentioned have -devoted much labour and care to the translating and editing of <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span>’s -scientific works, among whom we may mention the Englishmen -<span class="smcap">J. J. Garth Wilkinson</span>, M. D., and the Rev. <span class="smcap">A. Clissold</span>, the German -Prof. Dr. <span class="smcap">Immanuel Tafel</span>, the German-American Dr. <span class="smcap">Rudolf Tafel</span>, -and the American Mr. <span class="smcap">Alfred H. Stroh</span>, M. A.<a id="FNanchor_11" href="#Footnote_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a></p> - -<p>The strongest expression of this interest in <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span>’s scientific -work in the most recent times, was that manifested during the -International Swedenborg Congress, held this summer in London. On -that occasion were gathered there representatives for numerous branches -of the natural sciences, medicine, philosophy and theology, each -one of whom contributed his account of the discoveries, inventions, and -far-sighted utterances which <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span> had made within these several -departments of knowledge. And imposing indeed was the homage -which was as a consequence paid to the ingenious investigator as well -as to the Country and the University which had produced him.</p> - -<hr /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_11"></a>[11]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="NATURAL_SCIENCE">SWEDENBORG’S INVESTIGATIONS IN NATURAL SCIENCE.</h2> - -</div> - -<p>Before a life-work such as that of <span class="smcap">Emanuel Swedenborg</span> one -cannot but be filled with admiration. Perhaps not so much on -account of the <i>manysidedness</i> of it; for that was not so very unusual -at the time in which <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span> lived—in the 18th century;<a id="FNanchor_12" href="#Footnote_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> but because -his researches were at the same time so <i>comprehensive</i> and <i>penetrating</i>, -because he made such great and important conquests within the -most different departments of knowledge; indeed, in many places discovered -by his sharpsighted genius the <i>lines of development</i> along which -science was to proceed for the gaining of its end.</p> - -<h3 id="heading1">SWEDENBORG’S MATHEMATICAL, MECHANICAL AND ASTRONOMICAL INVESTIGATIONS.</h3> - -<p><i>Mathematics</i>, especially geometry, algebra and mechanics, and -<i>astronomy</i> in particular, were the predominating interests with <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span>, -when, after having completed his university studies, he entered -upon his first foreign journey (1710). He had at that time the good -fortune to come into personal contact with (<span class="smcap">Isaac Newton?</span>),<a id="FNanchor_13" href="#Footnote_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> <span class="smcap">John Flamsteed</span><a id="FNanchor_14" href="#Footnote_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> -and <span class="smcap">Edmund Halley</span><a id="FNanchor_15" href="#Footnote_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a> in England, and with the renowned mathematicians -<span class="smcap">Philippe de la Hire</span> and <span class="smcap">Pierre Varrignon</span><a id="FNanchor_16" href="#Footnote_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a> in France, -and to enter into an interchange of scientific ideas with them. And the -impulses derived from teachers of such great insight and skill did not -take long in manifesting themselves. In 1714 <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span> was able to<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_12"></a>[12]</span> -send home accounts of a great many <i>mechanical inventions</i> which he had -made and the ›correctness of which he proved by mathematical and -algebraical calculations.›<a id="FNanchor_17a" href="#Footnote_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> As examples of these discoveries may be -mentioned his flying machine,<a id="FNanchor_18" href="#Footnote_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a> submarine boat, steam engine, mitrailleuse, -sluice constructions, etc.<a id="FNanchor_17b" href="#Footnote_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> After his return to Sweden he found -opportunities of putting into practice some of these projects, when (in -1716) he was appointed assessor extraordinary in the College of Mines -and ordered to assist <span class="smcap">Chr. Polhem</span> ›with the construction of his buildings -and inventions›. But he was rich in ideas and quick-witted enough to be -able, together with these official duties, to plan and set on foot the publication -of a periodical devoted to natural science, ›<i>Daedalus Hyperboreus</i>›, -the first scientific periodical in Sweden, and to furnish it abundantly -(during the years 1716-1718) with valuable articles concerning -new inventions, <i>projects and problems for scientific investigations and -experiments</i>.<a id="FNanchor_19" href="#Footnote_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a> In the year 1718 he has completed a new method of -reckoning with the number 8 as the base; and the following year he -publishes a still better ›Proposal to divide our money and measures, so -that the calculation would be easy and all fractions be abolished›, and -this system is nothing less than the <i>Decimal system</i>!<a id="FNanchor_20" href="#Footnote_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> He also published -during these years an ingenious method of determining the longitude -by means of the moon, a problem upon which the learned had at that -time been engaged for several years.<a id="FNanchor_21" href="#Footnote_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span> thus succeeded in penetrating very deeply into the -mathematical and mechanical sciences, and therefore at first it must arouse -astonishment that he did not accept the professor’s chair in mathematics -at Uppsala University when this was offered him. He wished for freedom -to study in other departments also. And, as we shall see, he soon turned -his interest in another direction, namely to geology.</p> - -<p>However, it was also a characteristic in <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span>, worthy of -admiration, that in spite of his deep penetration into the sciences and -the bold ideas of his creative genius, he nevertheless strove, at the same -time, to retain contact with practical life and there cause the results -of his investigations to bear fruit. It was also this purpose which to a -great extent influenced him not to accept the offered professorship in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_13"></a>[13]</span> -mathematics, which he feared would force him into a direction too theoretical. -In this respect there were, as some of his biographers have shown, -several points of similarity between <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span> and his patron, King -Charles XII., namely, ›the unusual combination of the boldest imagination -and a pronounced practical tendency›.<a id="FNanchor_22" href="#Footnote_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a> And as both were animated by -the same ›burning inclination for all that is great in thought and deed›, -and by the same love of the fatherland, therefore, when these two men -found one another, there was an interesting cooperation. Professor -<span class="smcap">Holmquist</span> has given a very good description of this in his essay alluded -to above, from which I shall here reproduce some extracts:</p> - -<p>— — — ›But <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span> had also in the course of his conversation -with Charles XII. advanced several new proposals which won, in -part, the King’s approval. <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span> suggested the establishment of -a company to promote the exportation of Swedish iron and tar (a suggestion -later put into practice by the Iron Office), set forth his plan for -an observatory in Uppsala and brought up for discussion the establishment -of salt works in Sweden in order to help his country against the -terrible dearth of salt during the war: all these ideas he also committed -to writing in pamphlets: ’<i>Om sättet för handelns och manufacturernas -uphjelpande</i>’, ’<i>Memorial om Salt Siuderiers inrettning i Swerje</i>’ and -’<i>Om nyttan och nödvändigheten af ett Observatorii inrättande i Sverige</i>’ -(preserved in manuscript in the Diocesan Library of Linköping).<a id="FNanchor_23" href="#Footnote_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a> Of the -ideas just mentioned, it was in the first place the one on salt boileries -which claimed the King’s attention and which he commissioned <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span> -to put into practice. It still remains, however, to mention the most -remarkable of <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span>’s projects. Through <span class="smcap">Eric Benzelius</span> he had -come into possession of an old letter of Bishop <span class="smcap">Hans Brask</span>, in which -the idea of a water way from the western coast straight across Sweden -is expressed. <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span>, inspired by this, laid before the King the -<i>suggestion for a canal from Göteborg through Lakes Vänern and Vättern -to the Baltic</i>, which aroused the King’s enthusiasm. <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span> was -commissioned to investigate the possibilities for the realization of this -gigantic undertaking. — — — Shortly after this we find him in Uddevalla -investigating the possibility of establishing salt-works, in connection<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_14"></a>[14]</span> -with which <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span> at once set out to construct salt-pans and other -apparatus better than those in use in the defective old salt-works at -Strömstad. — — — We afterwards find him again at Trollhättan, Vänern, -Gullspång and Hjälmaren examining the situation for the canal and -locks and finding ’all to be possible and not of such great expense as -had been supposed’. <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span> had passed over to the modern idea -of an inland canal through Hjälmaren and Mälaren directly to Stockholm.› -With justice it may be said that here he gives the impression -of a very sharpsighted and energetic engineer, who possessed the power -of turning his thorough theoretical education to practical use.</p> - -<p>It may thus be clearly perceived, from everything I have referred to -above, how comprehensive and penetrating were the researches of <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span> -in the mathematical (and especially the mechanical) branches of -science, and what fruitful discoveries had been made by his searching eye.</p> - -<h3 id="heading2">SWEDENBORG’S GEOLOGICAL, MINERALOGICAL, CHEMICAL, PHYSICAL AND COSMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS.</h3> - -<p><span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span>’s comprehensive interest now turned itself to new fields -of work: to <i>geology</i>, <i>mineralogy</i>, <i>chemistry</i>, <i>physics</i> and finally to <i>cosmology</i>, -without giving up his first subject, <i>mathematics</i>.</p> - -<p>And he also now exhibited the same thoroughness as before, beginning -with examinations, experiments and observations, partly original, -but also collected from predecessors. For he says: ›It seems to me -that an infinite mass of completed experiments is a good ground to build -upon, to make the trouble and expense of others serve one’s end; that -is to work with the head over that which others have worked over with -the hands.› (See <span class="smcap">Holmquist</span>, Op. cit. and the letter from <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span> -to <span class="smcap">Eric Benzelius</span> of May 2nd, 1720, in the edition of the Acad. of Sciences, -I., p. 304).</p> - -<p>The result of this period of labour <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span> embodied in a -number of works, among which may especially be mentioned: ›<i>On the -Height of Water and the Strong Tides in the Primeval World. Proofs<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_15"></a>[15]</span> -from Sweden.</i>›<a id="FNanchor_24" href="#Footnote_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a> <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span> here furnishes proofs that our North, in -olden times, lay for the most part under deep water. And he based his -deductions on a great many researches and sharpsighted observations, -and wherever it was possible he tested the correctness of his conclusions -by means of experiments. This is the work which <span class="smcap">J. J. Berzelius</span>, <span class="smcap">A. E. -Nordenskiöld</span> and <span class="smcap">A. G. Nathorst</span> have praised so highly, and in some -places it has been considered to be ›one of the most ingenious contributions -to the history of geology›. <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span> also worked out during -this period the great work: ›<i>Miscellanea observata circa res naturales -et praesertim circa mineralia, ignem et montium strata</i>›, (printed in -Leipzig 1722 and lately reprinted in the edition of <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span>’s scientific -writings of the Royal Academy of Sciences, Vol. I., 1907, pp. 59-191), -and finally the gigantic work: ›<i>Opera philosophica et mineralia</i>›, -(published in Dresden and Leipzig, 1734, in three large folio volumes). -The last work contains among other things <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span>’s cosmology, -and it is here that he developes his famous <i>nebular theory</i>, which so -closely reminds one of the theory worked out in later years by Kant -and Laplace, that one strongly suspects that <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span>’s utterances, -in one way or another, lie at the bottom of it. Concerning this work -much has been written during recent years, and therefore it may be sufficient -here only to refer to the statements made in regard to it by Professor -<span class="smcap">S. Arrhenius</span> in his introduction to the above-mentioned edition -of Swedenborg’s writings, Vol. II., where he says: ›If we briefly summarize -the ideas, which were first given expression to by <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span>, -and afterwards, although usually in a much modified form,—consciously -or unconsciously—taken up by other authors in cosmology, we -find them to be the following:</p> - -<div class="blockquote"> - -<p>The planets of our solar system originate from the -solar matter—taken up by <span class="smcap">Buffon</span>, <span class="smcap">Kant</span>, <span class="smcap">Laplace</span>, and -others.</p> - -<p>The earth—and the other planets—have gradually -removed themselves from the sun and received a -gradually lengthened time of revolution—a view again -expressed by <span class="smcap">G. H. Darwin</span>.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_16"></a>[16]</span></p> - -<p>The earth’s time of rotation, that is to say, the day’s -length, has been gradually increased—a view again expressed -by <span class="smcap">G. H. Darwin</span>.</p> - -<p>The suns are arranged around the milky way—taken -up by <span class="smcap">Wright</span>, <span class="smcap">Kant</span> and <span class="smcap">Lambert</span>.</p> - -<p>There are still greater systems, in which the milky -ways are arranged—taken up by <span class="smcap">Lambert</span>.›</p> - -</div> - -<p>During this period of his investigations <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span> enters into -very deep speculations. He desires to grasp the innermost constitution -of things, their causes and origin, and seeks to attain this end through -a long process of analyses and by applying a geometrical explanation -to the phenomena in the world of the senses. This method he employs -in explaining the inner constitution of chemical bodies, and likewise the -varieties of physical phenomena, etc. He thus comes at last to the—geometrical -points: through the combination of these, in different ways, have -all things of the universe originated in a mathematically definable manner; -and the motion of these points is the all connecting, life-giving power.<a id="FNanchor_25" href="#Footnote_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a></p> - -<h3 id="heading3">SWEDENBORG’S ANATOMICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS.</h3> - -<p>After <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span> had so thoroughly searched through and speculated -upon inorganic nature, he turns himself to the <i>organic</i>. He breaks -away from all other work, travels abroad, and throws himself with intense -zeal into <i>anatomical</i> and <i>physiological</i> studies. These researches -were, for the most part, carried on in the Netherlands, France, and -especially in Italy, where he remained for nearly a year.</p> - -<p>After five years he was ready with his first work in this field, -the large, famous ›<i>Œconomia Regni Animalis</i>,› which was printed in -Amsterdam, 1740-1741. It was then published in two large volumes; -but that it was designed to be still larger, is evident, among other -things, from <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span>’s own statement;<a id="FNanchor_26" href="#Footnote_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a> and furthermore, the Englishman -<span class="smcap">J. J. G. Wilkinson</span> published, in 1847, as a third volume, some<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_17"></a>[17]</span> -annotations which he regarded as belonging to <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span>’s manuscript -of the same work.<a id="FNanchor_27" href="#Footnote_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a></p> - -<p>The ›Œconomia Regni Animalis› is chiefly directed to a detailed -analysis of the <i>blood</i>, the <i>brain</i>, and finally the <i>soul</i>. In this investigation -<span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span> directed his attention not only to the morphological and -physiological aspects of the subject, but also to the <i>embryology</i> of the -organs; and he penetrated so deeply into the very essence of development, -that, as Professor <span class="smcap">J. A. Hammar</span> (Uppsala) has pointed out, he -succeeded in arriving at a conception on this point, which was considerably -better than that of his times. As is well known, during the first part -of the eighteenth century the idea was generally prevalent that, when -the organism developed from the egg or sperm, it grew forth out of it, -much like a flower developes out of the bud, or, in other words, that -the different organs existed pre-formed in the egg or sperm and that -development consisted only in an extension of its size. <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span> -expressed himself very decidedly against this ›pre-formation theory›: -The development consisted by no means merely in a growth or expansion -of the germ, (›seminis extensio›), or of a prototype of the future -creature existent in the germ, (›non ... aliqua realis effigies maximi in -minimo, seu in aliquo primo typus futuri corporis, qui simpliciter expanditur.› -See Œc. R. A. I., No. 249); but there was in the germ a certain -formative substance or power, by means of which the various parts -of the embryo were developed one after the other, organ after organ. -( ... singula membra successive, seu unum post alterum producuntur -... Œc. R. A. I., No. 247).</p> - -<p>It will be seen that <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span> has here put forth essentially the -same theory as was later presented by <span class="smcap">Caspar Friedrich Wolff</span> in his -well known ›Doctorsdissertation› of the year 1759, <i>i. e.</i>, the so called -<i>theory of ›epigenesis›</i>.</p> - -<p>I shall here also discuss some of the results and conclusions, which -<span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span> arrived at in the ›Œconomia Regni Animalis›, concerning -the <i>brain</i> and <i>its function</i>.</p> - -<p>As is well known the general principles of the macroscopical anatomy -of the brain were known long before <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span>’s days; and even<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_18"></a>[18]</span> -its microscopical structure had, half a century before his time, begun to -be studied by such men as <span class="smcap">Leeuwenhoek</span> (1632-1723), <span class="smcap">Malphigi</span> (1628-1694), -and others. For example, it was not only known that the substance -of the brain, upon incision, exhibits an outer, greyish layer, the -cortex, and an inner, more pure white mass, the medullary substance; -but the above-mentioned investigators had also shown that <i>the cortex of -the brain</i> consists of a numberless mass of small globular bodies, which -are closely surrounded by blood-vessels and are continued in small -thread-like extensions, which run into the medullary substance.<a id="FNanchor_28" href="#Footnote_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a> Now -<span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span> succeeded, as regards <i>these globular bodies</i>, in arriving at -the conception that they are <i>the most important components of the cortex</i> -and that it is in these bodies that the nerves originate.<a id="FNanchor_29" href="#Footnote_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a> He called them -›<i>Sphaerulae</i>› or ›<i>Cerebellula</i>›.</p> - -<p>Again, as regards the <i>medullary substance</i>, it was already known -through the works of <span class="smcap">Willis</span> (1622-1675), <span class="smcap">Vieussens</span> (1641-1716), -<span class="smcap">Boerhaave</span> (1668-1738), that it consists, for the most part, of a great -mass of finer and coarser nerve-fibres, and that these, through the medulla -oblongata,<a id="FNanchor_30" href="#Footnote_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a> continue down into the spinal cord, and that through -the nerves they are in communication with the various parts of the body. -The nerves were supposed to contain a lumen, thus being tubular. On -the basis of certain <i>clinical experiences</i> concerning the changes which -occur in the functions of the soul, when the cortex of the brain is injured, -<span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span> succeeded in drawing the conclusion that the <i>same</i> medullary -fibres which are derived from the ›Cerebellula› of the cortex of the -brain, continue into the spinal cord and are in connection with the nerves, -and that thus an easily transmitted and continuous communication is -established between the substance of the cerebral cortex and all the -parts of the body, where the nerves are distributed.<a id="FNanchor_31" href="#Footnote_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a></p> - -<p>Concerning the <i>function</i> of the brain, the old view of <span class="smcap">Hippocrates</span> -that the brain was a gland was still entertained in <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span>’s time. -The cortical substance served for secreting the ›spiritus animalis›, that -is, what the ancients called the ›spirits of life›, and these were collected -in the cortex of the brain that they might, when necessary, stream out -through the nerves. The medullary substance was, according to the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_19"></a>[19]</span> -latest conceptions of that day, the origin and source of the soul’s activity, -and the ›spiritus animalis› served as the connecting link between the -soul and the sense-organs and muscles of the body.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span> also supposed that such a very easily flowing nervous -fluid, ›fluidum spirituosum›, communicated the impressions of the senses -and the impulses of motion: but this fluid determined the connection -between sense-organs and muscles on the one hand, and the <i>cortex</i> of -the brain on the other. It was thus <i>the cerebral cortex! to which the impressions -of the senses were carried, and from this the voluntary impulses -were sent out</i> to the muscles. The cortex was thus the seat of -both the sensory and motor activities of the soul in the body. Œc. R. A. -III., No. 133: ›Substantia enim corticalis est ipsum cerebrum, seu sensorium -et motorium commune.›<a id="FNanchor_32" href="#Footnote_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a></p> - -<p>But <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span> was not contented with this general idea of the -cortex as the seat of the sensations and the will. He also drew conclusions -from his previous experience and results regarding the continuous -connection between the elements of the cortex and the ends of the nerves -distributed in the various parts of the body.</p> - -<p>On the basis of this connection he ascribed to the ›<i>Cerebellula</i>› a -very important rôle in the activity of the brain. In the first place they -received, through the external sense-organs and nerves, impressions from -the outer world and worked them over: they were a kind of <i>inner sense-organs</i>.<a id="FNanchor_33" href="#Footnote_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a> -And since the sensory impressions were so richly various -as well in kind as in degree, the ›Cerebellula› must also possess various -individual qualifications corresponding to these various sensory impressions. -They were, at the same time, connected with one another, and -so arranged into superior and inferior groups that they could receive -and work over the various kinds of sensory impressions.<a id="FNanchor_34" href="#Footnote_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a></p> - -<p>There were also other groups of grey substance in the interiors of -the brain, through which the sensory nerves passed; but all sensory impressions -must ultimately be gathered together in the cortex of the brain -so as to become conscious perceptions.</p> - -<p>(Thus, for example, <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span> describes the optic thalami as -such a secondary centre in the course of the path of sight;<a id="FNanchor_35" href="#Footnote_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a> and the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_20"></a>[20]</span> -corpora striata in the path of the sense of smell;<a id="FNanchor_36" href="#Footnote_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a> and the origin of conscious -tactile sensations he describes thus: — — — ›rudior quicunque -<i>tactus a superficie</i> totius per medios nervos <i>in Medullam Spinalem aut -Oblongatam</i> et abinde <i>in activissimum cinerem</i>, et <i>in circumfusum corticem -Cerebri</i> emicet: Adeo ut <i>extremi receptus modorum sint in cortice -Cerebri, qui conscius redditur</i> mutationum in seriebus et substantiis -compositis usquam contingentium.› Œc. R. A. II., 192).</p> - -<p>Thus: although <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span> did not suppose the ›Cerebellula› to -be arranged into sensory centres in the same manner as we do, still he -seems to have supposed an arrangement something resembling this, with -<i>Cerebellula-groups</i> as <i>subdivisions of the great sensible centre-organ, -which is formed by the ›Cerebellula› of the brain cortex, taken together</i>, -and which Swedenborg called ›Sensorium commune.›</p> - -<p>In regard to the relation of the cortex to <i>motility</i>, <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span> expresses -himself much more definitely. This activity of the brain <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span> -also regarded as derived from the small cortical elements, the -›<i>Sphaerulae</i>› or ›<i>Cerebellula</i>›.<a id="FNanchor_37" href="#Footnote_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a> He ascribes to them, on the one hand, a -high degree of <i>self-determination</i>, so that they could perform their functions -independently of each other, this on the basis of certain anatomical -conditions, such as their position in respect to each other in separate cavities, -and their connection each with its own special nerve-fibre, and, besides, -also on the basis of certain clinical and pathological observations;<a id="FNanchor_38" href="#Footnote_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a> -but on account of other anatomical conditions, such as the aggregation -of the ›Cerebellula› into larger and smaller groups, as into gyres, and -groups of gyres, etc., as well as on certain other grounds, he ascribed to -them also the ability to <i>cooperate with each other</i> when necessary.<a id="FNanchor_39" href="#Footnote_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a> In -consequence of this the brain possesses, as he says, the power and choice -of influencing whatever nerves and muscles it will, and of stimulating them -to activity. (›Proinde Cerebri secundum ordinatam ejus substantiae dispositionem -in potentia et arbitrio est, quascunque velit fibras, aut fibrarum -fasciculos, et consequenter nervos et musculos inspirare et ad agendum -excitare.› Œc. R. A. II., 153). It was impossible for him to express -himself as to what parts of the cerebrum or which convolutions,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_21"></a>[21]</span> -<i>gyri, correspond to the respective muscles</i>, but <i>he refers to experimental -investigations of animals</i>, by which this might be discovered.<a id="FNanchor_40" href="#Footnote_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a></p> - -<p>But although the brain would then be able to govern every muscular -action, it was not employed every time such an action was to be -performed. No, in the medulla oblongata and in the grey substance of -the spinal cord there were <i>subordinate, secondary motor centres</i>, and -these governed the automatic and habitual movements, so that, for the -performance of these, the brain need not be disturbed in its higher functions. -Only for the purely voluntary motions were impulses from the -cerebrum necessary.<a id="FNanchor_41" href="#Footnote_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span> has thus clearly located <i>the ›causa principalis› of the -voluntary movements</i> in the <i>cortex of the cerebrum</i>, or more definitely, -in <i>the cortical elements and in groups of such elements</i>, although in this -work ›Œconomia Regni Animalis› he did not succeed in more closely -defining the position of the various motor centres.</p> - -<p>From all that I have here brought forward concerning the functions -which <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span> ascribes to the cortical substance of the brain, it is -evident that he succeeded in coming to the full conviction that it is -<i>through the activity of the ›Cerebellula›</i> (or as we express it, through -the cerebral nerve-cells) that <i>the perception of sense-impressions and the -impulses to voluntary motions arise</i>.</p> - -<p>But <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span> does not stop even here. The elements of the -cerebral cortex, he continues, are still not the ultimate determinants. -They are only, so to speak, the inner sense-organs<a id="FNanchor_42" href="#Footnote_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a> and sub-determining -media.<a id="FNanchor_43" href="#Footnote_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a> They are themselves subordinated under the understanding -and the will, and their principle, the soul.<a id="FNanchor_44" href="#Footnote_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a> The soul, the principle of -life, it is the soul, which, through those cortical elements, perceives the -external world: it is the soul which feels, sees, hears, smells, tastes, it -is the soul which recollects, thinks, performs, and wills; it is the soul -which speaks and acts.<a id="FNanchor_45" href="#Footnote_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a></p> - -<p>What then is the soul, and where does she reside?</p> - -<p>The seat of the soul must surely lie in the cerebral cortex; at least -its activity comes into play there, and still more definitely, in the ›Cerebellula›<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_22"></a>[22]</span> -of the cortex. (See above and also ›The Brain›, No. 7). But -what is she? What is the soul?</p> - -<p>Here <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span> makes one attempt after the other to draw away -the obscuring veil. Sometimes he thinks of the soul as only dwelling and -working in the ›Cerebellula› and their ›fluidum spirituosum›; but in this -way he does not come to a solution of the principal question, which is -only removed farther away.<a id="FNanchor_46" href="#Footnote_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a> Sometimes he thinks the soul to be identical -with the ›fluidum spirituosum›; but how can this, however subtile -fluid, be immortal? Here he is again repulsed.<a id="FNanchor_47" href="#Footnote_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a> He discusses the supposition -that, although the ›fluidum spirituosum› in itself is not immortal, -it yet becomes so upon the death of the body, and so forth.<a id="FNanchor_48" href="#Footnote_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a> And at -last he bursts out with: ›it amounts to the same thing if we see in this -fluid the soul itself, or only its faculty of imagination and judgment, for -the one cannot be thought of without the other.›<a id="FNanchor_49" href="#Footnote_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span> himself, however, was not satisfied with the result, but -acknowledges that he had been too hasty, when, after having in reality -thoroughly considered only the blood and brain, he entered immediately -upon the search for the soul. He therefore says in the preface to the -next work: ›I am now determined to allow myself no respite, until I have -run through the whole field to the very goal—until I have traversed -the universal animal kingdom to the soul (usque ad animam). Thus I hope, -that by bending my course inward continually, I shall open all the doors -that lead to her, and at length contemplate the soul herself: by the divine -permission.›</p> - -<p>It is grand to see the indomitable energy and zeal for investigation -in this man of 53 years!</p> - -<p>He was now obliged to extend considerably the field of his investigations—thereby -to come to still more thorough insight into the -conditions of the soul’s life, and afterwards, as he says, ›in his analytical -way to be able to work himself up from the lower to the higher›, to -find the way from phenomena and facts to causes and the final principles -of the organism’s intricate mechanism.</p> - -<p>Three years later he has ready the first two volumes of his new -work, and the following year, 1745, a third volume. This work is the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_23"></a>[23]</span> -›<i>Regnum Animale</i>›, (The Soul’s Kingdom). It is constructed upon a -very grand plan, comprising not less than 17 parts. Of these, however, -only the three mentioned above issued from the press, and they treat -of the organs of the chest, abdomen, and skin, and of the senses of touch -and taste.<a id="FNanchor_50" href="#Footnote_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a> Professor <span class="smcap">Immanuel Tafel</span> (Tübingen) in the middle of the -19th century afterwards published two more volumes of the manuscript. -The first of these, Pars quarta, treats chiefly of the senses of smell, -hearing and sight and the higher degrees of the soul’s activity; and the -other, Pars septima, treats of the soul.<a id="FNanchor_50b" href="#Footnote_50b" class="fnanchor">[50 b]</a></p> - -<p>But simultaneously with the work in question <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span> wrote -still another, namely, the great work on the brain, ›De Cerebro›.—In -these works <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span> reached <i>the summit of his scientific career</i>, and -they afterwards served as the foundation of the religious edifice to which -he devoted the remainder of his life.</p> - -<p>The ›<i>De Cerebro</i>› of <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span>, just referred to, is a rather -large work which treats of the brain from the anatomical, physiological, -and philosophical standpoints. This work left by <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span> in Ms., -has appeared in print only in part, namely, in the English translation by -Dr. <span class="smcap">Rudolf Tafel</span>, published in London in two volumes, 1882 and -1887, and entitled ›The Brain›. Although this edition comprises, as was -said, only a portion of the whole work, it treats of both the cerebrum, -cerebellum and medulla oblongata, as well as of the cranium and the -membranes of the brain, but chiefly only in so far as their structure and -function regard the activity of the soul. Without doubt <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span>’s -main interest here centred on this subject, and therefore I shall give some -intimations concerning how deeply <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span> has succeeded in seeing -into the function of the cerebrum as the organ of the soul’s life.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span> divided each hemisphere of the brain into an anterior -and a posterior region, separated from one another by the fissure of Sylvius. -Now, in <i>the anterior region</i> he located <i>the essential activity of the -soul</i>, while as regards the posterior region, he supposed that it was chiefly -active in animating the blood (›The Brain›, No. 71). In the anterior -region he furthermore distinguished <i>three lobes</i>, or, as he called them, -›curiae›, in which the soul resided and exercised its functions (›The<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_24"></a>[24]</span> -Brain›, No. 88). He does not define the boundaries of the lobes, but -distinguishes them by saying that the soul’s activity in the highest lobe -attains to the highest degree of clarity and perfection, while in the inferior -lobes, the middle and the lowest, the soul’s activity successively -decreases in sharpness and intensity! (›The Brain›, Nos. 66, 88). In -these lobes or curiae the essential psychic life also has its rise; here observations, -thoughts, judgments, conclusions come into being, yea, even -determinations and the utterances of the will proceed thence. Here consequently -is the source of both the sensory and the motor functions of -the soul (›The Brain›, Nos. 88, 100).</p> - -<p>As we have seen, <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span> had already shown, in ›Œconomia -Regni Animalis›, not only that it is in the cortex, but just in <i>the cortical -elements</i>, the ›<i>Cerebellula</i>›, that the brain’s psychic function is performed. -Swedenborg emphasizes the same idea in ›De Cerebro›, and declares -that these ›Cerebellula› are the units of which the brain is constructed, -and from which its essential nature is derived (›The Brain›, No. 34).</p> - -<p>As in the ›Œconomia Regni Animalis›, so in ›De Cerebro›, he -also refers to the arrangement into <i>different groups</i>, which is so important -for the function of the cortical elements or ›Cerebellula›, and with -respect to this he now makes a new statement, which is of such a nature -as necessarily to excite amazement: he sets forth the most essential -part of <i>the modern theory of localizations</i>. Word for word this statement -reads as follows: ›<i>The muscles and actions which are in the ultimates of -the body, or the soles of the feet, seem to depend more immediately upon the -highest parts (of the anterior region of the brain)<a id="FNanchor_51a" href="#Footnote_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a>, the muscles which -belong to the abdomen and thorax upon the middle lobe, those which belong -to the face and head upon the third lobe</i>; for they (the muscles of -the body and the lobes of the brain)<a id="FNanchor_51b" href="#Footnote_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a> seem to correspond to one another -in inverse order›. (See ›The Brain›, No. 68).—Thus, the essential features -of the modern doctrine concerning the relative positions of the -motor centres in the cortex of the brain, that doctrine into which we -have obtained an insight first after much comprehensive and complicated -labour during the last century!</p> - -<p>I shall no longer at this point continue the discussion of this work.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_25"></a>[25]</span> -What I have brought forward may suffice to indicate the character of -<span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span>’s investigation and the statements and discoveries based -thereon. By his works on the brain <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span> reached the <i>summit</i> of -his Scientific activity, but also its <i>conclusion</i>. He now passes over to the -transcendental field. With the limits which we have set for our examination, -we must, however, refrain from following the energetic investigator -in his continued search for truth.</p> - -<hr /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_26"></a>[26]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="BRAIN">THE BASIS FOR SWEDENBORG’S STATEMENTS CONCERNING THE FUNCTIONS OF THE BRAIN.</h2> - -</div> - -<p>If we take a general view of <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span>’s investigations, the outlines of -which have been sketched above, a number of questions are suggested: -Whence did <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span> secure the material for all these far-sighted -statements, whence the evidence for all these discoveries? Did <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span> -himself carry out the special investigations which must have formed -the basis of his beautiful results?<a id="FNanchor_52" href="#Footnote_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a> Or was the evidence ready at hand -in the literature of those days?</p> - -<p>The answering of these questions is naturally of a certain importance -in the valuation of the opinions expressed. And as several of <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span>’s -statements concern questions which are still among the ›unsolved›, -I have taken up some of these questions for examination. In -this I have restricted my investigation to a confined province, and chosen -one which in our own times is of great actual interest, namely, the function -of the brain, and especially that of the cerebral cortex. As we have -already seen, <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span> connected in the closest manner the soul’s -activity with the cortex of the cerebrum, indeed, he localizes in detail -special departments of that activity to determinate regions of the cortex; -and the object of my investigation is, therefore, to endeavour to -find out upon what foundations <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span> erected this doctrine of the -centres of the psychic functions in the cortex of the cerebrum.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_27"></a>[27]</span></p> - -<h3 id="heading4">ON THE CENTRES OF THE VEGETATIVE FUNCTIONS.</h3> - -<p>With regard to the function of the brain, <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span>, in the first -place, made the distinction that the cerebrum regulates the psychic, and -the cerebellum the vegetative functions.</p> - -<p>Many different opinions prevailed in <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span>’s time concerning -this question. Some investigators considered that the vegetative as well -as the psychical functions stood under the direct control of the cerebrum; -others that <i>the centres of vegetative life were separated from those of -psychic life and had not</i>, like these, <i>their place in the cerebrum</i>. And <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span> -adopted the latter opinion, primarily for the following reasons:</p> - -<p>1) <i>Experiments on animals</i> had brought to light the fact that respiration -and the action of the heart continued for a time even after the hemispheres -of the cerebrum (in dogs) had been separated from their connection -with the cerebellum and medulla oblongata, indeed, even if the -hemispheres of the cerebrum (in dogs) had been extirpated.<a id="FNanchor_53" href="#Footnote_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a> He was -also led to the same conclusion by</p> - -<p>2) <i>Certain teratological and pathological anatomical experiences</i>, -which he had gathered from his studies of books. He advances cases -described by <span class="smcap">Wepfer</span>, <span class="smcap">Tyson</span> and <span class="smcap">Ridley</span>, <span class="smcap">Manget</span>, <span class="smcap">Kerkring</span>, <span class="smcap">Morgagni</span>, -and others, which showed that although the cerebrum had occasionally been -entirely or in part missing in foetuses, yet these deformed foetuses could -nevertheless live a shorter or longer time after birth. And in agreement -with <span class="smcap">Tulpius</span> he calls attention to the great deformation of the cerebrum -in the case of hydrocephals. In close connection with this he gives accounts -(from <span class="smcap">Vallisnieri</span> and others) of extreme cases of petrifications in the -brain, regarding which one must suppose that when the cerebrum -gradually lost its functions and the vegetative vital functions nevertheless -continued for a time, these must then have been regulated by the remaining -parts of the central nervous system, that is, by the cerebellum, medulla -oblongata and the spinal cord. (See Œc. R. A. I., Nos. 573, 574 <i>et seqq.</i>).</p> - -<p>From these experiments and discoveries it was thus evident to <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span> -that the centres for vegetative life are not to be sought for in -the cerebrum.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_28"></a>[28]</span></p> - -<p>As was said, he located them instead in the cerebellum, and the -reason for this seems in brief to have been the following: <span class="smcap">Manget</span> and -<span class="smcap">Vieussens</span> had described a number of experiments on animals which -were said to have proved that after lesions of the cerebellum respiration -and the action of the heart at once ceased.<a id="FNanchor_54" href="#Footnote_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a> The injuries in these experiments -had evidently extended more deeply than the descriptions recount, -by which the false conclusion in regard to the cerebellum is explained. -It was probably because of such misleading experiments as these that -<span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span>’s highly esteemed contemporary, <span class="smcap">Hermann Boerhaave</span>, -(1668-1737), held the same opinion that the vegetative vital functions -are regulated by the cerebellum.<a id="FNanchor_55" href="#Footnote_55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a> However, the Englishman -<span class="smcap">Thomas Willis</span>, (1622-1675), had come nearer the truth, when, in a -very guarded statement, he connected these functions with both the -cerebellum and the medulla oblongata.<a id="FNanchor_56" href="#Footnote_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a> And when <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span> chose -his position on the question he seems to have been influenced by both -of these authors, and received the opinion that the cerebellum was the -main centre of vegetative life, making, however, the important addition, -that the medulla oblongata, as for that matter also the spinal cord, are -secondary centres, subordinated to the cerebrum and cerebellum.<a id="FNanchor_57" href="#Footnote_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a> -This addition was based upon a conclusion which <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span> had drawn, -among other things, from the teratological and pathologic-anatomical -observations and from comparative anatomy, but there is no occasion -for entering into this more closely in this connection.</p> - -<p>After <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span> had, however, upon the grounds alluded to, -separated the centres for the vegetative life-functions from the cerebrum, -there lay before him the localization of the psychical functions; and, as -to them, <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span> located the centres of the sensory portion of the -soul’s activity in the cortex of the cerebrum.<a id="FNanchor_58" href="#Footnote_58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a></p> - -<h3 id="heading5">ON THE CENTRES OF THE PSYCHICAL FUNCTIONS, ESPECIALLY THE SENSORY CENTRES.</h3> - -<p>That the sensory activity of the soul has its centres in the cerebrum -was in <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span>’s time considered quite certain, but it was not so<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_29"></a>[29]</span> -certain as to just what part of the brain it was in which the soul’s activity -arose.</p> - -<p>It is well known that the philosopher <span class="smcap">Descartes</span> († 1650) had supposed -that the <i>glandula pinealis</i> (pineal gland) was the seat of the soul, -and that the conscious perceptions came into being in this gland and in -the central ventricle of the brain, the ›<i>third ventricle</i>›, from which the -nerves, according to his opinion, took their origin.<a id="FNanchor_59" href="#Footnote_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a></p> - -<p>Gradually, however, there seems to have been more and more an -inclination to attribute this phase of the operation of the soul to <i>the -white medullary substance</i> around the ventricles of the brain. And in -<span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span>’s time this opinion seems to have been the usual one. At -least the matter is so presented by <span class="smcap">Hermann Boerhaave</span>, who, as is -known, in a high degree had the ear of his contemporaries.<a id="FNanchor_60" href="#Footnote_60" class="fnanchor">[60]</a></p> - -<p>And even <span class="smcap">Haller</span>, some twenty years after <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span> had written -his works on the brain, was still of a similar opinion, as is evident from -a quotation which I shall here bring forward, in which he emphasizes that -neither perceptions nor the impulses to motion arise in the cortex of the -cerebrum, but in the medullary substance: ›Non ergo in cerebri cortice -sensus sedes erit, aut plena causae muscularis motus origo: eritque utraque -in medulla cerebri, & cerebelli.› (<span class="smcap">Alb. v. Haller</span>: ›Elementa physiologiae›, -Lausannae, 1762, Tom. IV., p. 392). But when even <span class="smcap">Haller</span> -would not attribute the soul’s activity to the cortex, what then can have -led <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span> to such a thought?</p> - -<p>In order to clear up this question let us first examine the <i>anatomical -literature</i> before <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span>’s time. And then we find that the <span class="smcap">Bartholins</span> -had already in a kind of way associated this branch of the soul’s -activity with the cerebral cortex, because they supposed that the ›<i>spiritus -animalis</i>›, (the ›spirits of life›), <i>was contained in the cortex for the sensory -functions</i>, just as it was conserved in the medullary substance for the -motor functions.<a id="FNanchor_61" href="#Footnote_61" class="fnanchor">[61]</a></p> - -<p>And <span class="smcap">Thomas Willis</span> considered that the <i>›spiritus animalis› was -generated in the cerebral cortex</i>, but afterwards underwent proper elaboration -and distribution in the medulla of the cerebrum; and that the -memory had its seat in the cerebral cortex.<a id="FNanchor_62" href="#Footnote_62" class="fnanchor">[62]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_30"></a>[30]</span></p> - -<p>And <span class="smcap">Malpighi</span> (1628-1694) had expressed the surmise, that the -minute <i>cortical elements</i>, so particularly described by him, which correspond -to what we now call the nerve-cells of the cortex, were small glands, -›glandulæ›, whose function was to <i>prepare a substance which</i>, conveyed -through the nerves, <i>calls forth perceptions</i>.<a id="FNanchor_63" href="#Footnote_63" class="fnanchor">[63]</a></p> - -<p>It had also been shown by the researches of <span class="smcap">Malpighi</span> that these -›glandulæ› put forth a vessel-like fibre, which continued into the cerebral -medulla; and that this medulla for the greater part consisted of such -fibres or vessels.<a id="FNanchor_64" href="#Footnote_64" class="fnanchor">[64]</a></p> - -<p>In how far these structures were ›fibres› or ›vessels›, and whether -they proceeded from (›oriuntur›) or terminated in (›desinunt›) the small -cortical elements, <span class="smcap">Malpighi</span> leaves undecided. And when <span class="smcap">Boerhaave</span> afterwards -in his lectures on the brain describes these structures, he still -depicts them as the finest tiny canals, which take up the ›spiritus animalis›, -pressed into them from the cortex, and transport it down to the -medulla oblongata, whence it is afterwards, by means of the nerves, distributed -to the different parts of the body. This ›spiritus› <span class="smcap">Boerhaave</span> -describes as elaborated in the cortex, ›fabrica mirifica corticis praeparatus›.<a id="FNanchor_65" href="#Footnote_65" class="fnanchor">[65]</a></p> - -<p>These observations and surmises have evidently exercised a great -influence upon <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span>’s conception of the function of the cerebral -cortex; but they alone could impossibly have aided him in reaching the -enlightened standpoint at which he arrived. No, the most determining -and decisive factor for him in this question evidently was a great mass -of <i>clinical and pathological observations</i> which he had collected and synthesized, -namely, symptoms of disturbances of consciousness and sensibility, -which had been exhibited by such patients, who, as was shown -by post mortem examination, had been injured in the cerebral cortex. And -I shall later refer to some of these cases in connection with the consideration -of the brain’s motor functions, because these patients nearly always -also exhibited motor disturbances.</p> - -<p>But even here I may quote some of <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span>’s own words, which -will show what importance he attached to these testimonies: ›It is the -cerebrum or the cortical substance in which the soul disposes and unfolds<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_31"></a>[31]</span> -its purest and most simple organic forms of activity, and what the cerebrum -is, appears from a change of the faculties in some diseases, as in -apoplexy, epilepsy, paralysis, etc., likewise in many morbid states of the -animal mind in a cerebrum wounded by various accidents;› (›The Brain›, -No. 86).</p> - -<p>And in another place he says: ›If the cerebrum is either inflamed -or obstructed, or flaccid, or injured otherwise, the intellectual faculty is -unsettled; as in paralysis, melancholy, in cases of delirium, in atrophy, -apoplexy, in fevers, and other diseases; nay, the determination of the -will also is similarly affected. For each single cortical substance contributes -its share to this intellectory, that is, to this organ of the understanding, -etc.› (›The Brain›, No. 104, r).</p> - -<p>All these observations concerning the consequences of injury to the -cerebral cortex—and the above-mentioned discoveries regarding the -structure of the cerebral substance and the hypotheses concerning the -relation of the cerebral cortex and cortical elements to the ›spiritus -animalis› and the perceptions,—these <i>clinical</i> and <i>anatomical experiences -taken together</i> seem to have led <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span> to the conviction that -the activity of the soul and not least that just now in question, the sensory, -had its seat in the cortex of the cerebrum.</p> - -<p>He now enters into a detailed analysis of the course of the sensory -nerves as far as they are able to be demonstrated (›in ipsius oculi luce›), -and he thus follows the optic nerves to the optic thalami, and thence -their radiation towards the cerebral cortex, the olfactory nerves to the -corpora striata or the medulla of the centrum ovale and from there out -towards its cortical surroundings, the auditory nerves to the medulla -oblongata and thence up toward the cortex of the cerebrum, (›versus -supremum corticem›), and in the same manner he follows the nerves of -taste and touch. (See Œc. R. A. II., No. 192; and III., No. 66). He -cannot now follow further the particular fibres through the medulla all -the way to the cortex, of whose importance for consciousness and sensibility -he became convinced through the clinical experiences, but here -he must <i>suppose</i> a connection, and he says: ›these effects (conscious -perceptions) could never be produced ... unless in every quarter there<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_32"></a>[32]</span> -were <i>a mutual connection and perpetual communication of the cortical -substance with the medullary</i>, as regards the fibrils ...›, (as well as a -special arrangement of the cortical elements and special qualifications -in them, of which more will be said later).<a id="FNanchor_66" href="#Footnote_66" class="fnanchor">[66]</a></p> - -<p>From all this it is clear, that it was probably through <i>a combination -of clinical and anatomical experiences</i> that <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span> secured the -premises for his conclusions that the centre of the soul’s sensory activity -is in the cortex of the cerebrum.</p> - -<h3 id="heading6">ON THE CENTRES OF THE MOTOR FUNCTIONS.</h3> - -<p><span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span> also placed the centres of the soul’s motor activity in -the cerebral cortex (See Œc. R. A., No. 127, etc.).</p> - -<p>I have not been able to find anything of this kind even hinted at in -the antecedent literature. We are reminded of how preceding authors, -who made an attempt at some kind of localization of the origin of motion, -in most cases placed this in the medulla of the brain, as for example the -<span class="smcap">Bartholins</span>;<a id="FNanchor_67" href="#Footnote_67" class="fnanchor">[67]</a> and also <span class="smcap">Boerhaave</span>.<a id="FNanchor_68" href="#Footnote_68" class="fnanchor">[68]</a> And as we have just heard, <span class="smcap">Haller</span> -still held the same view.<a id="FNanchor_69" href="#Footnote_69" class="fnanchor">[69]</a> Nevertheless <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span> expresses his conception -without the slightest hesitation, and this he did because he regarded -it as resting on a sure foundation. His strongest grounds and -proofs were here also derived from the <i>clinical and pathological observations</i> -in certain cerebral diseases which had caused changes in the cortex, -and in patients, who had been injured in the cerebral cortex. It was -these clinical cases at which I hinted just now. And now some of these -may be brought forward, for the most part as <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span> himself has -related them—with some few abbreviations:</p> - -<p>A female seventy years of age, who after exhibiting the premonitory -symptoms of apoplexy for some months suddenly <i>lost the power -of speech</i>, and on being conveyed to bed, lost all sensation and motion. -On a post mortem examination a large cavity was found in the cortical substance -of her brain (›in ejus Cerebri substantia corticali ampla cavitas reperta -fuerit›, see Œc. R. A. II., No. 154). The case was taken from <span class="smcap">J. J. -Wepfer</span>’s ›<i>Historiae Apoplecticorum</i>› (Amsterdam, 1681, pp. 5-11).</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_33"></a>[33]</span></p> - -<p>Another case taken from <span class="smcap">Wepfer</span> was the following: A man 50 years -of age had for some weeks before his death suffered from excruciating -headache, the pain of which sometimes drove him mad, so that he was -not seldom unconscious of what he said and did. On examining his head -after death, the whole surface of the cerebrum and cerebellum, including -both the convolutions and the furrows between them, seemed to be clogged -all over with a gelatinous substance, from which, when it was pricked -with a lancet, genuine serum oozed out. And also the very substance of -the cerebrum and cerebellum had imbibed a large quantity of serum. -(Œc. R. A., loco cit. and <span class="smcap">J. J. Wepfer</span>: Op. cit., p. 15-19).</p> - -<p>A case from <span class="smcap">A. Pacchioni</span> was as follows: A young man had died -under symptoms of fever, severe headache and <i>spasms</i>, or <i>cramp</i>. On -opening his cranium, it appeared that the firm fibrous membrane of the -brain, the dura mater, was loosened from the bone on the top of the head; -and here, according to the description, it had exercised a strong pressure -upon the underlying portion of the brain and was tightly adherent to -it. (Œc. R. A., loc. cit.)——Consequently, in the last two cases: inflammation -of the membranes of the brain, or meningitis with accompanying -influence upon the superficial layer of the brain, the cerebral cortex.</p> - -<p>And still another case from <span class="smcap">Pacchioni</span>, which was still more convincing: -A youth was brought into the hospital in an almost unconscious condition, -spoke incoherently, cast himself about in all directions, etc.; and furthermore——his -<i>lips were somewhat drawn over to the left side</i> (›<i>labris ad sinistrum -paululum detractis</i>›), thus a right-sided <i>facial paralysis</i>! On -examination after death no injuries could be found upon the integuments -of the head, nor upon the outer or inner sides of the cranium, but on the -left side of the brain <i>a depression of the cortex</i> was discovered, occasioned -by the formation of a tumor or ›bladder› on that part of the surrounding -dura mater lying just over the place of depression: ›<i>ibi depressus -et durioris consistentiae cortex cerebri cavernam ostendebat -vesicae congruentem</i>.›<a id="FNanchor_70" href="#Footnote_70" class="fnanchor">[70]</a></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span> brought forward still more cases, so incomplete, however, -that it is not worth while to repeat them here. But he had at hand -a very large number of cases, as he says: ›phalanges observationum<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_34"></a>[34]</span> -idem testificantium› (Œc. R. A. No. 154), or, as he says in another place, -so many that a bare enumeration of them would fill two whole pages -(Œc. R. A. II., 154).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span> had made a specially careful study of a great many -<i>cases of apoplexy</i> and <i>hemiplegy</i>, which naturally, in so far as they affected -the cortex, gave him direct guidance in judging of its function. And -he also understood very well how to judge at the same time with regard -to the importance of bleedings in the soft membrane of the brain, the -pia mater, on and between the convolutions of the brain, the ›gyri›, -and the pressure that these exercise upon the cortex, and the results of -prevented circulation in cases of apoplexy. For in all these cases, he says, -the transmission of blood to the cortex is checked, and by this the cortex -was disturbed in its function, and this was the cause of the loss of sensation -and of the paralysis. (Œc. R. A., III., No. 411 and III., No. 413; -see also ›The Brain›, No. 89).</p> - -<p>But <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span> had also directed his attention to that method of -investigation which, to the brain physiologists of the present day, is the -best aid for the examination of the motor functions of the cerebral cortex, -namely, <i>experiments on animals</i>. He quotes such experiments, in -which <i>incisions</i> had been made into the cortex ›just to the marrow›, as -it is expressed, (›usque ad substantiam medullarem› [<span class="smcap">Ridley</span>], Œc. -R. A., I., No. 505); or when the brain (in dogs) had been <i>pierced</i>, (Œc. -R. A., II., No. 154), and how these injuries had occasioned spasms or -contractions of the trunk or extremities (<span class="smcap">Ridley</span>). He also describes such -cases in which fine needles had been pierced through the dura mater -and corrosive liquors introduced through the holes, with the result that -severe disturbances occurred in both motility and sensibility, and also -how through such injuries muscular contractions had been provoked, by -which it was sometimes observed that with certain stimuli the contractions -first occurred in certain groups of muscles (for example, in the head -or neck) and afterwards spread to the other parts of the body. (<span class="smcap">Baglivi</span> -›The Brain›, No. 20).</p> - -<p>As will be seen, these experiments were no ›precision-investigations›; -and the same may be said of the clinical and pathological ones.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_35"></a>[35]</span> -And this may be the more easily understood, when we consider that in -those times so much interest was not attached to such special observations -of pathological changes in the cerebral cortex; for this was then -regarded only as a gland, a secreting organ or reservoir for the ›spiritus -animalis›. These observations were therefore made more as it were in -passing. The same is also true of the experimental investigations on -animals, quoted above. These were in reality made not in order to investigate -any function of the cortex, but for other purposes, namely, in -order to search out the causes of the pulsations of the brain, or the -qualities and functions of the dura mater, etc.</p> - -<p>Yet, as we shall see later on, some of the cases, in the original descriptions, -really contain statements somewhat more exact and of greater -interest even for the theory of cortical localizations, than those which -<span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span> quoted; but he seems to have here adduced no more than -what had reference to the <i>cortex regarded as a whole</i>, and which showed -what great changes in both the power of sensation and motion injuries -in the cortex could produce. If we take this into consideration, and if -we synthesize all these experiences, and add to this the increased knowledge -concerning the minute structure of the brain, which had been produced -especially by <span class="smcap">Malpighi</span>’s discoveries, we must admit that <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span> -had good reasons for his view that the soul’s activity had its seat -in the cortex of the cerebrum.</p> - -<h3 id="heading7">THE DOCTRINE OF LOCALIZATIONS.</h3> - -<p>But <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span>, as is well known, did not stop here. The cerebral -cortex certainly constituted a whole which transformed the sensations -into thoughts and determinations, but all the regions of the cortex were -not of the same degree: some ruled the higher, others the lower functions, -thus also containing subdivisions, in some of which the sense-impressions -were received, in others from which the motor impulses proceeded. -(See ›The Brain›, Nos. 66, 68, 71, 88, 98, 100, 102, etc.).</p> - -<p>This conception of the brain appears at first glance as very modern. -But upon searching the literature before <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span>’s time one finds<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_36"></a>[36]</span> -that the thought was not so entirely original. New was the thought of -attributing the psychical functions to the cortex, new also was the -attempt to accurately determine upon the place where the different functions -originate; but the <i>idea of localization</i> itself is found again in the -literature which <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span> already had at his disposal.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Boerhaave</span>, for instance, says, in his ›Institutiones medicæ›, when -speaking of the sensations, that they give rise to <i>different perceptions</i>, -partly owing to the differing species and nature of the outer objects, -and partly to the different natures of the sense-organ and the affected -nerve, but partly also <i>to the different regions in the cerebral medulla -from which the nerve proceeds</i>. Thus we have here a kind of localization -to a special region of the brain, although in its <i>medulla</i>.<a id="FNanchor_71" href="#Footnote_71" class="fnanchor">[71]</a> And still more -clearly does <span class="smcap">Boerhaave</span> express the same idea in his ›Prælectiones -academicae,› where he says: ›In the ’Sensorium commune’ there are -<i>regions locally distinguished for the different senses, just as every sense -has its own special sense-organ</i>.›<a id="FNanchor_72" href="#Footnote_72" class="fnanchor">[72]</a></p> - -<p>And before <span class="smcap">Boerhaave</span> the philosopher <span class="smcap">Descartes</span> had expressed -an idea concerning a certain form of localization of the various elements -of psychic activity. For he supposed that the images of sensation and -the images of the memory, etc., which the soul perceives, arise on those -places on the walls of the brain’s central ventricle, where, according to -his opinion, the various nerves originate. In a similar way he also imagined -the origin of motility localized. (<span class="smcap">R. Descartes</span>: ›De homine›, -publ. by <span class="smcap">F. Schuyl</span>, Ludg. Bat., 1662).</p> - -<p>We here reproduce some illustrations from the work of <span class="smcap">Descartes</span> -just mentioned, which are designed to show how he thought that the -images of sensation arise. — — See the figures 1, 2, 3.</p> - -<p>We thus see that the idea of localization itself was not altogether -new. But how did <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span> ultimate and develope it?</p> - -<p>With regard to function <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span> divided the hemispheres of -the cerebrum into two parts: one anterior region and one posterior, -conceiving the fissure of Sylvius as the dividing boundary between them. -(›The Brain›, Nos. 16, 88, 91).</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> - -<p class="transnote">Transcriber’s Note: Click for larger version.</p> - -<a href="images/figures-full.jpg"><img src="images/figures.jpg" width="500" height="375" alt="" /></a> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 1. Fig. 2. Fig. 3. Fig. 4.</p> - -<p class="caption">Figures 1-3. Reproduced from Descartes: ›Tractatus de homine›.</p> - -<p class="hanging">Fig. 1. A part of the wall of the central ventricle of the brain. The points of the dotted -area represent the openings of the nerves, which, according to the opinion -of Descartes, take their origin in the wall of the ventricle. The figures O (star) -and B (lily) are formed by combinations of such nerve openings.</p> - -<p class="hanging">Fig. 2. View of the left hemisphere from the medial side. The dotted area B represents -the place, where, according to Descartes, the nerves originate. The vesicle -H is the pineal gland, wherein the soul was thought to have its seat.</p> - -<p class="hanging">Fig. 3. Illustrates the act of seeing. The object ABCD forms an image, 1357, on the -retina of the eye. This image provokes a similar image, 2468, on the wall of -the brain’s ventricle, by exciting a stream of ›spiritus animalis› from the central -ventricle through certain of the fine nerve tubules of the optic nerve, the -openings of the nerve tubules in the wall of the ventricle being widened and -thus forming images (of sight), which the soul is able to perceive from its seat -in the pineal gland.</p> - -<p class="hanging">Fig. 4. Reproduced from Vieussens: ›Neurographia universalis›, Tabula XVI. Illustrates -the passage of the coarse fibres of the <i>middle region of the brain’s medullary -substance</i> through the capsula interna, pons and the pyramids on the front -of the medulla oblongata downwards to <i>the anterior part of the spinal cord</i>.</p> - -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_37"></a>[37]</span></p> - -<p>To the anterior region he attributed the actual operation of the soul, -while he supposed that the posterior region was chiefly engaged in the -animation of the blood. He adds, however, ›it cannot be denied that -sensations reach even the posterior region of the brain, yet our mind -does not become conscious of them to the same degree as it does in the -anterior region› (›The Brain›, No. 71).</p> - -<p>In this <i>anterior region of the cerebrum</i> he distinguished <i>three lobes</i>, -or so called ›curiae›, the first one highest up, ›in the crown›, a middle one -below it, and a third one lowest down, <i>i. e.</i>, nearest to the fissure of -Sylvius.<a id="FNanchor_73" href="#Footnote_73" class="fnanchor">[73]</a> In these three lobes the actual psychic life is developed, and -that so much the more clearly and perfectly, the higher up in the region -these intricate processes occur. It is here that perceptions, thoughts, -judgments, conclusions, come into being; it is from here that ultimately -will and determination issue. (See ›The Brain›, Nos. 12, 66, 71, 88, -98, 100, 102).</p> - -<p>As regards the sensory part of the psychic activity, <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span> -does not make any attempt at a detailed localization; but as regards the -motor functions he arranges their centres within the above-mentioned -regions as follows: ›<i>The muscles and actions</i> which are <i>in the ultimates -of the body</i> or in the soles of the feet seem to depend more immediately -<i>upon the highest parts</i> (<i>of the brain</i>), upon <i>the middle lobe</i> the muscles -which belong to <i>the abdomen and thorax</i>, and upon the <i>third lobe</i> those -which belong to <i>the face and head</i>;› and he adds, ›for they seem to -correspond to one another in an inverse ratio› (›The Brain›, No. 68).</p> - -<p>Whence did <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span> get all this? Whence the whole of this -doctrine of localizations? In his first great anatomical work, ›Œconomia -Regni Animalis›, nothing is said about it; first in his last anatomical work, -›De Cerebro›, is it advanced, and then — — — quite finished! One is -at first glance tempted to think that he had succeeded in finding some -new clinical experiences, upon which he could found this doctrine. For -he had not even finished the account of the function of the brain’s anterior -region, before interjecting: ›Therefore, if this portion (the anterior region) -of the cerebrum is wounded, then the internal senses—imagination, -memory, thought—suffer; the very will is weakened, and the power<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_38"></a>[38]</span> -of its determination blunted. This is not the case if the injury is in the -back part of the cerebrum› (›The Brain›, No. 88). But afterwards he -does not bring forward (in ›De Cerebro›) any observations which could -serve as proof with regard to this. And if one examines the cases he -has referred to in his preceding works, one cannot possibly arrive at -the localization of the psychic functions which he has here (in ›De Cerebro›) -sketched; for the evidence concerning the <i>position</i> of the injuries -in the cortex are entirely too scanty and incomplete. But if we consult -the <i>original descriptions</i>, we find there many other and more particular -data than those quoted by <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span> when he was only concerned in -explaining the function of the cortex as a whole. <span class="smcap">Wepfer</span>, for instance, -reports in his ›Historiæ apoplecticorum› concerning the woman seventy -years of age, who suddenly <i>lost the power of speech</i>, that the cavity, -filled with blood, which was found in the cortex at the autopsy, was located -in the right hemisphere, <i>just behind the forehead</i> (›ad frontem fere -antrorsum›), and that it extended rather far both backwards and upwards; -even measurements were given (length 8, breadth 4, depth about 2 uncias). -It was also stated that the blood-vessels whose bursting caused bleeding -belonged to the antero-lateral branches of the carotid artery in the brain. -It is also mentioned that no changes were found in the left hemisphere -of the brain; and from the clinical account it appears that even after the -stroke the woman was able to move the extremities of the right side.<a id="FNanchor_74" href="#Footnote_74" class="fnanchor">[74]</a> — — — All -this indicates quite evidently that the lesion of the cortex -was situated in the anterior region of the brain!</p> - -<p>And <span class="smcap">Pacchioni</span> reports concerning the youth, who was afflicted with -the right-sided <i>facial paralysis</i>, that even the extremities of the right -side were somewhat paralysed, and that the cyst, which at the post -mortem examination was found on the left hemisphere, extended <i>from -the crown to the region of the temple</i> (›a capitis vertice in temporalem -regionem›).<a id="FNanchor_75" href="#Footnote_75" class="fnanchor">[75]</a> Thus this case also furnishes an unmistakable indication -that the cortical lesion was situated in the anterior region of the brain.</p> - -<p>It seems strange that <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span> did not here supply an account of -these interesting and convincing cases, which he nevertheless, as we -have seen, was well acquainted with. For his habit is to furnish the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_39"></a>[39]</span> -chapters of his works with an introduction in which he reports, often in -very detailed form, the statements of the authors upon which he bases -his conclusions. Since in the present case such an account is lacking, this -may depend: either upon the fact that this last anatomical work of <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span>, -›De Cerebro›, was not quite completed and finally edited -for the press, or thereon that Dr. <span class="smcap">Rudolf Tafel</span>, who edited the -translation which is now accessible in print, excluded it. For Dr. <span class="smcap">Tafel</span> -says in a note that the introduction to the chapter in question would be -introduced into Part II., chapters 1 and 2, but—Part II. was never printed! -Since, however, the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences will publish -›De Cerebro› in its edition of <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span>’s Scientific works, this -question will no doubt be cleared up. But this much is quite clear from -what has already been adduced, that the cases of paralysis which <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span> -previously quoted in a brief form are in the original descriptions -reported so completely and in such detail that one can without the -least doubt localize the cortical lesions reported in those cases in the -anterior (superior) region of the cerebrum.</p> - -<p>We now pass to an examination of the <i>anatomical</i> literature to -which <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span> had access. And, as we shall find, we can here see -whence <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span> derived <i>material for his detailed doctrine</i> concerning -the function of the brain’s anterior region. This becomes evident -on comparing <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span>’s mode of thinking of the brain’s psychical -activity with the descriptions of preceding authors in anatomy.</p> - -<p>The group of nuclei, ›<i>corpus striatum</i>›, in the cerebrum had been -an object of special interest for preceding authors.</p> - -<p>The Englishman, <span class="smcap">Thomas Willis</span>, had for example in his ›Cerebri -anatome› (published in 1667) portrayed them as a kind of junction, -›internodes›, by which the cerebrum coheres with the medulla oblongata; -and he pays special attention to it on account of its peculiar structure -(›The Brain›, No. 476); and he is said even to have attributed to them -the ›Sens commun›.<a id="FNanchor_76" href="#Footnote_76" class="fnanchor">[76]</a></p> - -<p>And the professor in Montpellier, <span class="smcap">Raimond Vieussens</span>, had given -in his ›Neurographia universalis› (published in 1685) a very exact description -of the ›corpus striatum›, (not only of its ›superior nuclei›:<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_40"></a>[40]</span> -›Corp. striat. sup. ant.› = Nucleus caudatus and ›Corp. striat. sup. -post.› = ›Thalamus opticus›, but also of its lower lateral nucleus = -›Nucleus lentiformis›) as also of the mighty medullary tract of nerve fibres, -i. e., ›capsula interna›, which passes through the same, and which on -the one hand is distributed to the brain, especially to its anterior (superior) -region, and on the other hand by means of the nerves radiates into -the various parts of the body.</p> - -<p>(In order to facilitate orientation we may refer to <span class="smcap">C. Toldt</span>: ›Anatomischer -Atlas›, 1899, 8 Lieferung, Fig. 92: ›Querschnitt des verlängerten -Markes und der Gehirnstiele. Verlauf der Pyramidenbahn von der -Pyramidenkreuzung an durch die Pyramide, die Brücke und die Basis -des Grosshirnstiels in die innere Kapsel, woselbst sie in den Stiel des -Stabkranzes, Pedunculus coronæ radiatæ, eingeht.›)</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span>, who had studied and often quoted both <span class="smcap">Willis</span> and -<span class="smcap">Vieussens</span>, likewise attributed a very great significance to the corpus -striatum. All the sensory impressions pass through it to the brain, and -all the voluntary impulses to motion pass out by the same path. (›The -Brain›, No. 67). ›It is›, says he in his figurative way, ›in a certain -sense, the Mercury of the Olympus; it announces to the soul what is -happening to the body, and it bears the mandates of the soul to the -body› (›The Brain›, No. 67).</p> - -<p>And as the corpus striatum lay most immediately under the anterior -(superior) region of the brain, and was in close connection with it, so the -sensory impressions would for the most part pass to this region, and the -voluntary impulses to motion would likewise proceed from it (›The Brain›, -Nos. 66, 67).</p> - -<p>The same <span class="smcap">Vieussens</span> had furnished a very detailed description of the -passage of the nerve tracts in question, which pass through the corpus -striatum and capsula interna, and had followed them both upwards -towards the hemispheres of the brain and downwards towards the spinal -cord. When he followed them upwards, he found that they formed <i>three -regions</i> in the ›centrum ovale›: the <i>regio superna</i>, highest up nearest -the crown, the <i>regio media</i>, in the middle, and the <i>regio infima</i>, lowest<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_41"></a>[41]</span> -down, and consequently nearest the fissure of Sylvius. (<span class="smcap">R. Vieussens</span>: -›Neurographia univ.›, pp. 115 and 117).</p> - -<p>In these regions of the cerebral medulla, especially in the highest, -<span class="smcap">Vieussens</span> considered that the soul’s activity had its seat: with the help -of ›spiritus animalis› the soul here had an opportunity of receiving the -sensory impressions, and in the fine and finest nerve fibres there were -here formed sensory images, conceptions, (Op. cit. p. 129), here the -memory images were preserved, (Op. cit. p. 135), and here the faculty of -judgment had its seat, (Op. cit. p. 137), etc.</p> - -<p>In these regions, especially in the highest, the will also had its seat -and origin, and at its command the ›spiritus animalis› streamed out -through the nerves, thus conveying the impulses to motion to the various -muscles of the body. (Op. cit. pp. 122, 123, 188, <i>et seqq.</i>).</p> - -<p>For <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span>, who had arrived at certainty with regard to the -seat of the soul’s activity in the cerebral cortex, and not in the cerebral -medulla!, and who through <span class="smcap">Malpighi</span> and others had been led to see -that <i>the fibres of the cerebral medulla</i> were <i>continuations of the processes -of the cortical elements</i>,—for <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span> it naturally lay very near -at hand to <i>follow the fibres of the three regions of</i> <span class="smcap">Vieussens</span> <i>out to the -cortical substance</i> on the surface of the brain; and so <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span> has -his <i>three cortical lobes</i>! And to them, especially to the highest, he could -now attribute the source of the soul’s life.</p> - -<p>When <span class="smcap">Vieussens</span> followed the nerve tracts of the corpora striata and -capsula interna downwards, he found:</p> - -<p>that the <i>fibres of the uppermost region</i> led down to the <i>posterior -region of the spinal cord</i>; (›ad posticam spinalis medullæ regionem›);<a id="FNanchor_77" href="#Footnote_77" class="fnanchor">[77]</a></p> - -<p>that the <i>fibres of the middle region</i>, which were especially coarse -and traversed the capsula interna and pons, forming thick tracts, could -be clearly followed down into the <i>anterior portion of the spinal cord, -(›in anticam spinalis medullæ partem›)</i>, where they came into connection -with the anterior origins of the spinal nerves, (›ad antica nervorum -spinalium principia›), also paying, on their passing through the medulla -oblongata, ›necessary tribute›, (›necessarium vectigal›), as it is expressed, -to certain of its nerves;<a id="FNanchor_78" href="#Footnote_78" class="fnanchor">[78]</a>——See the figure 4!——</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_42"></a>[42]</span></p> - -<p>that the <i>fibres of the lowest region</i> were distributed to certain <i>nerves, -which proceed from the medulla oblongata</i>, and to <i>some of the anterior -origins of the spinal nerves</i> (›quædam illius pars ad quosdam e Medulla -oblongata prodeuntes, altera vero ad antica nervorum spinalium principia›).<a id="FNanchor_79" href="#Footnote_79" class="fnanchor">[79]</a></p> - -<p>In <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span>’s time it was, however, known that the muscles -which produce the movements of the head and face receive their nerves -just from the medulla oblongata and the uppermost part of the spinal -cord; and it therefore lay near at hand for <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span>, when he saw -that paralyses arose when certain cortical regions were destroyed, to draw -the conclusion, that the muscles and movements which belong to the -<i>face and head</i>, depend more immediately upon the <i>lowest</i> region of the -third lobe of the cerebral cortex.</p> - -<p>And as it was also known that the muscles of the thorax and abdomen -receive their nerves from the superior portion of the spinal cord, -whither just the tracts of coarse fibres from the middle region of the -brain could be followed, (see figure 4), so <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span> could likewise -draw the conclusion from this that the muscles and movements which -belong to the <i>thorax and abdomen</i> depend more immediately upon the -<i>middle</i> region or lobe.</p> - -<p>It might now appear tempting to continue the conclusion by connecting -the remaining highest lobe and the lower extremity. But probably -<span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span> did not consider that he had sufficient ground for this. The -description by <span class="smcap">Vieussens</span> did not here furnish any suitable guidance, -for it was possible that the coarse fibres of the middle region continued -so far down into the spinal cord that they could innervate not only the -muscles of the abdomen but also those of the lower extremity. For this -reason <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span> refrains from localizing exactly the centre of motion -of the lower extremity and contents himself with stating in general terms -only that this centre might lie above that of the abdomen. He therefore -says: ›the order seems to be so disposed that——the muscles and -actions, which are in the <i>ultimates</i> of the body, or in the soles of the feet, -depend more immediately upon <i>the highest parts (of the brain)</i>›, whereas -concerning the thorax and abdomen he says that they depend upon<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_43"></a>[43]</span> -the middle <i>lobe</i>, and of the head that it depends upon the third <i>lobe</i>. -(›The Brain›, No. 68). I believe that this is the reason why <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span>’s -doctrine of localizations as concerns the motor centre of the lower -extremity is expressed in such vague terms.</p> - -<p>From a comparison of these descriptions by <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span> and -<span class="smcap">Vieussens</span> we have found that there are such considerable similarities -between them that they in many respects agree point for point. And it -therefore seems to me rather probable that <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span> derived his -conception of the more detailed localization of the soul’s activity from -the descriptions of <span class="smcap">Vieussens</span>.</p> - -<h3 id="heading8">THE ›CEREBELLULAR THEORY›.</h3> - -<p>But <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span> was not satisfied with knowing only that the -psychical functions arise within certain regions of the cortex of the large -anterior region of the cerebrum: but he continued his search for their -inmost origin, and thus he came to the conviction that the <i>psychical processes -in reality result from the joint work which is performed by the -minute cortical elements</i>, which <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span> called ›<i>Sphaerulae</i>› or -›<i>Cerebellula</i>›, that is, the same bodies which we now call the <i>cortical -nerve-cells</i>. These were the units of which the brain was in reality composed -and out of which its actual esse was derived. (See ›The Brain›, -No. 34). It was to these ›Cerebellula› that the sensory impressions went, -and in these they were perceived and brought to consciousness; it was -in these that conceptions, thoughts, judgments, conclusions, came into -being. (Œc. R. A. II., No. 191, and ›The Brain›, No. 98). And this was -possible because there were as many kinds of ›Cerebellula› as there -were kinds of sensory impressions, and that these ›Cerebellula› were connected -together into groups with different subdivisions. (Œc. R. A. II., -No. 193; VII., chap. XX.). It was also from the ›Cerebellula› of the cortex -that the determinations and impulses to the various movements of the -body emanated. (›The Brain›, No. 99). And this was possible because -the ›Cerebellula› cohered each with its own nerve-fibril, which in their -turn innervated the muscle fibre, and that the ›Cerebellula› were <i>arranged<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_44"></a>[44]</span> -into groups, these into greater groups, these into convolutions (gyri)</i>, etc., -corresponding to muscle fibres, muscles, groups of muscles, etc. (Œc. -R. A. II., Nos. 146, 156, and ›The Brain›, No. 99). And it is in this -connection that <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span> <i>refers to experiments on animals by which -it might be shown which gyre or part of convolution it is, which answers -to this or that muscle in the body</i>.<a id="FNanchor_80" href="#Footnote_80" class="fnanchor">[80]</a></p> - -<p>How <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span> was able to come to this modern conception -ought not to be so exceedingly difficult to understand if we summarize -what was already known at that time about these cortical elements and -add thereto the conclusions as to the functions of the cortex to which -<span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span> had already come.</p> - -<p>In <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span>’s time the conception of <span class="smcap">Hippocrates</span> of the brain -as a gland was still generally received. In this one had, however, as -<span class="smcap">Malpighi</span> says, ›since the time of <span class="smcap">Piccolomineus</span>› learned to distinguish -between an outer, greyish layer, ›cerebral cortex›, and an inner, more -pure white mass, the ›cerebral medulla›.<a id="FNanchor_81" href="#Footnote_81" class="fnanchor">[81]</a></p> - -<p>Through the microscopic investigations of <span class="smcap">Leeuwenhoek</span> (1632-1723) -it had further been discovered that the substance of the brain (especially -of the cortex) contained, besides a great mass of blood-vessels and -very fine fibres, <i>a numberless mass of</i> peculiar <i>small bodies</i> of varying -size, by him called ›globuli›, connected with the vessels and fibres. (See -Œc. R. A. II., Nos. 71-75, 112, etc.).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Malpighi</span>, (1628-1694), had closely examined these ›globuli› and -described them as small oval or polygonal ›glands›, which were closely -surrounded by blood-vessels, and in <i>their inner central ends sent forth -processes forming vessel-like fibres which continued into the cerebral -medulla</i>.<a id="FNanchor_82" href="#Footnote_82" class="fnanchor">[82]</a></p> - -<p>As these fibres or vessels formed small clusters, the little glands -hanging on their extreme ends, like ›dates on their stems›, as <span class="smcap">Malpighi</span> -expresses it, thus formed <i>small groups</i>.</p> - -<p>Within these groups the cortical elements were, however, <i>well isolated -from each other</i> by clefts, which indeed sometimes were very small, -but could nevertheless be plainly demonstrated with the aid of colouring -matter.<a id="FNanchor_83" href="#Footnote_83" class="fnanchor">[83]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_45"></a>[45]</span></p> - -<p>The cortical elements taken together formed the winding groups -which on the surface of the brain gave rise to the so called gyres.<a id="FNanchor_84" href="#Footnote_84" class="fnanchor">[84]</a></p> - -<p>The profusion of blood-vessels, as was said, <span class="smcap">Leeuwenhoek</span> and <span class="smcap">Malpighi</span> -had already described as being very great, but <span class="smcap">Ruysch</span> (1638-1731) -had afterwards by his famous vascular injections found it to be so -great that he would not call the cortex a glandular but actually a ›vascular› -tissue. (Œc. R. A., II., No. 86). Because of the enormous wealth -of blood-vessels there was thus carried to the cortical substance, especially -to the little follicles, a plenteous quantity of blood, and from this, -according to the opinion of that day, the most subtile components of -the blood could pass to the cortical elements and thereby be transformed -into ›spiritus animalis›. And finally, the Italians <span class="smcap">Bellini</span>, (1643-1704), -and <span class="smcap">Zambeccari</span> had shown by their analyses that the juice of the brain -possessed a highly subtile composition, above all a great volatility and -lightness, and was exceedingly mobile. (See Œc. R. A. II., Nos. 88, 96, -119). All this <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span> has himself quoted in his works.</p> - -<p>On the basis of these and some other anatomical and physiological -data, in conjunction with a number of clinical and experimental observations, -<span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span>, as we have before seen, came to the conclusion that -it is in the <i>cortex</i> that the soul’s activity comes into being; but at the -same time he concluded that, strictly speaking, the cortical elements -were the real work-shops. For he reasoned in the following manner: -When the sensory impressions enter the brain, they certainly proceed -no further than to the <i>›Sphaerulae› of the cortex, since these constitute -the beginnings of the nerve and medullary fibres</i>: were they to go further, -for instance to the small arteries which surround the cortical elements, -or to the membranes of the brain, then they would overstep the boundary, -as he says, and leave the actual centre and go out to the more peripheral -parts.<a id="FNanchor_85" href="#Footnote_85" class="fnanchor">[85]</a></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span> consequently here followed the same line of thought -as his predecessors. <span class="smcap">Descartes</span> supposed that the nerves originated -from the wall of the central ventricle of the brain and therefore located -the images of sensory impressions, etc., there. <span class="smcap">Vieussens</span> and others -thought that the nerves originate from the centrum ovale, and thus he<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_46"></a>[46]</span> -placed the psychic activity there. And <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span> now proceeded in -a similar manner when he attributed the psycho-sensory operations to -the ›Cerebellula›. And what other parts of the cortex were better fitted -to perform the demanding and ever-shifting psychical labour than the -›Cerebellula›, to which the life-giving powers of the blood were so plentifully -admitted, and in which, according to the testimony of many, the -highly subtile nervous fluid was created, whose office it was to communicate -the rapid and shifting utterances of the soul’s life!</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span>’s predecessors had thought that the distinctions between -the sensory impressions depended partly upon what kind of nerve -was affected, and <span class="smcap">Vieussens</span> had located the images of perception and memory -in the nerve-tubes in the centrum ovale, which had the finest caliber. -What, then, was more natural than that <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span> should now locate -these images in the ›Cerebellula› of the cortex? For what substance of -the cortex was better fitted, a more suitable medium to comprehend -and distinguish the innumerable shades of the impressions than these -myriads of ›Cerebellula›—of different sizes, forms and consistency, etc., -which were connected each with its own special nerve-fibril and so well -distinguished from their neighbors! And at the same time they were -connected with the other ›Cerebellula› into groups of different kinds, by -which the psychical elaboration of the impressions was made possible.</p> - -<p>On similar grounds <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span> supposed that the psycho-motor -labour was performed by the ›Cerebellula›, from which the nerves derived -their origin. And here we may recall that <span class="smcap">Vieussens</span> had already <i>connected -certain groups of nerves with certain bundles of medullary fibres</i>, -and that <span class="smcap">Malpighi</span> had shown how <i>bundles of fibres of the cerebral -medulla corresponded to smaller and larger groups of cortical elements</i>, -each one of which, hanging by its fibre, formed the different <i>gyres of -the brain</i>. If we consider this, then we can easily understand how <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span>, -with his view of the cortex, could divine the correspondence -between the components of the convolutions and the muscles.</p> - -<p>It is interesting to here follow him in his line of thought and to -see how well he understood how to combine his anatomical and clinical -experiences: With the magnifying glass one can see how the nerve-fibres<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_47"></a>[47]</span> -spring forth from the cortical substance like a brook from its source; -if now the cortical substance be injured (as in the case of certain brain -diseases, and which one may clearly see upon autopsy), then the injury -is spread through the nerves connected with the cortex and at last all -the way down to the muscles, and that, he thought, explained the motor -disturbances.<a id="FNanchor_86" href="#Footnote_86" class="fnanchor">[86]</a> And further ... when one or several of the ›Cerebellula› -of the cortex are destroyed, then the damage is spread more immediately -only to their proper nerves and muscles.<a id="FNanchor_87" href="#Footnote_87" class="fnanchor">[87]</a></p> - -<p>In this manner did <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span> synthesize his anatomical, pathological-anatomical -and clinical experiences and extracted from them his -conclusions, and by them he arrived at essentially the same conception, -as our times, of the principles of the nervous system, its cellular structure. -He did not indeed employ the same nomenclature for the nerve-cells -and their long processes, as we do; but the matter itself: the nature -of the nerve-cells as elementary organs of the nervous system, the intimate -connection between the nerve and its cell-body, indeed even its dependence -upon it in regard to nourishment, etc., he was able to clearly -grasp in this way,—and this more than a century before our modern -theory of these relationships, the ›neurone-theory› saw the light.</p> - -<h3 id="heading9">CONCLUDING SUMMARY.</h3> - -<p>I hereby conclude my presentation of the grounds upon which <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span> -appears to have founded his doctrine of the cerebral cortex as -the seat of the soul’s activity.</p> - -<p>I. It has here been my endeavour to show, that his <i>first</i> general -statement that the centres of the psychical functions are to be found in -the cortex was a conclusion, which he derived from three premises, secured -in different ways:</p> - -<p>The <i>1st</i> premise was a conclusion drawn from the clinical observations, -post mortem discoveries and results obtained from experiments -on animals, which he had collected from literature;</p> - -<p>The <i>2nd</i> premise was a summing up of the comparatively recent -discoveries in microscopic cerebral anatomy, and</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_48"></a>[48]</span></p> - -<p>The <i>3rd</i> was an hypothesis, concerning the continuous connection -between the cortical elements and the fibres of the cerebral medulla, by -which an easy communication was established between those elements -and the distributions of the nerves in the various parts of the body. -In his conclusions from these premises <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span> had some guidance -in preceding authors, who placed at least the sensory function in a certain -connection with the cortical substance.</p> - -<p>II. His second statements, his essential <i>doctrine of localization</i>, -showed in many points a great agreement with that presented by -<span class="smcap">Vieussens</span>, but also contained important differences, which partly rested -upon the conclusion to which <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span> had previously come, concerning -the importance of the cortex for the psychic life, partly depended -upon the new point of view concerning the correspondence of the cerebral -regions to those of the body, to which he had arrived in his work supported -by clinical results. The <i>detailed</i> doctrine of localizations seems -to have been constructed with the assistance of <span class="smcap">Vieussens</span>’ detailed statements -concerning the connection of the nerves with the various regions -of the cerebral medulla.</p> - -<p>III. His third statement, his—so to speak, ›<i>Cerebellular theory</i>›, -that the ›Cerebellula› were the units of which the brain was in reality -composed, and that the function of the cortex was essentially the summing -up of the activity of the ›Cerebellula›, and that the ›Cerebellula› were -connected with one another into various kinds of groups, corresponding -to the various kinds of perceptions and to the different movements of -the body, etc., this was grounded in part upon the discoveries of Malpighi -and others and their detailed descriptions of the structure and situation -of the cortical elements and their connection with each other, in -part upon <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span>’s clinical experiences and his own previously -drawn conclusions, which be further followed up.</p> - -<p>The first two statements have in our time been embraced with the -liveliest interest and essentially corroborated. And as concerns the third, -the same applies in part; but how great the validity of this statement -is, it is for the future to decide.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_49"></a>[49]</span></p> - -<p>Consequently <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span> arrived at almost the same result as -that to which our own day has attained, although in a partly different -manner. Our times have had the assistance of exact methods of investigation -and of a most highly developed technique. In <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span>’s time -the research method of microscopical anatomy and experimental physiology -were yet in their cradle; and the two branches of science, medicine -and pathology, which afterwards with the greatest interest have taken -part in the investigation of the function of the cortex, had then hardly -as yet turned their attention thither. As to how <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span> nevertheless -succeeded in winning such rich and beautiful results in this field, and -how well he employed the widely spread literature in question, I have -attempted to show in this my presentation by tracing his path through -the folios of the old authors and indicating the places where he gathered -the material for his doctrinal structure and the premises for his conclusions. -Finally, however, it should be emphasized that, when <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span> -collected his facts from the many separated fields of literature, he -found them not at all presented in the large works as important ›chief -subjects›, or even as lying plainly at hand. No, he was often, so to -say, obliged to dig out his material from a chaos of erroneous observations, -false interpretations and curious conceptions; and afterwards he -had to still further sift and elaborate it, before he could draw his conclusions -out of it.</p> - -<p>In view of all this one must say that it was in truth a <i>work of genius</i> -to search out of such a chaos the guiding threads which were concealed -within it, and that, in spite of their imperfection in many points, nevertheless -to be able to find so much of the truth!</p> - -<hr /> - -<div class="footnotes"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_50"></a>[50]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="NOTES">NOTES.</h2> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1" href="#FNanchor_1" class="label">[1]</a> See the treatise of <span class="smcap">Anders Retzius</span> on: ›The Origin and Development -of Anatomy in the Scandinavian North›, which he delivered as an address on -the occasion of his leaving the presidency of the Royal Swedish Academy of -Sciences on April 9th, 1845. See also <span class="smcap">Gustaf Retzius</span>: Preface to ›<span class="smcap">Emanuel -Swedenborg</span>’s Scientific Works›, edit. by the Royal Swedish Academy of -Sciences, Vol. I., 1907, p. V., <i>et seqq.</i>, and <span class="smcap">Alfred H. Stroh</span>, M. A.: ›Some -testimonies concerning <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span>, the Scientist›, Stockholm 1909, p. 10.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_2" href="#FNanchor_2" class="label">[2]</a> In an address before the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences at Stockholm -in connection with a reference to <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span>’s work: ›De Cerebro›, -which had just appeared in the English translation by <span class="smcap">Dr. Rudolf Tafel</span>; -See <span class="smcap">Gustaf Retzius</span>: Op. cit. p. VI. and <span class="smcap">Alfred H. Stroh</span>: Op. cit. p. 11.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_3" href="#FNanchor_3" class="label">[3]</a> See an address of <span class="smcap">Max Neuburger</span> concerning ›Swedenborg’s Beziehungen -zur Gehirnphysiologie›, delivered before the ›Versammlung deutscher -Naturforscher und Ärzte›, Hamburg, 1901.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_4" href="#FNanchor_4" class="label">[4]</a> See the article by <span class="smcap">C. G. Santesson</span> concerning <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span> in ›Nordisk -Tidskrift›, 1904, No. 5.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_5" href="#FNanchor_5" class="label">[5]</a> See an address of <span class="smcap">Gustaf Retzius</span> as president of the ›Versammlung -der Anatomischen Gesellschaft›, Heidelberg, 1903; and also his preface to the -edition of <span class="smcap">Emanuel Swedenborg</span>’s Scientific Works, which the Royal Academy -of Sciences began to publish in 1907; and the references by the same author -to <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span>’s statements concerning the anatomy and physiology of the -brain in the Croonian lecture delivered by him in London, in the year 1908.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_6" href="#FNanchor_6" class="label">[6]</a> See the address of <span class="smcap">J. J. Berzelius</span> at the meeting of Scandinavian -Natural Scientists in 1842 concerning: ›The rise of the Scandinavian shore -above the level of the surrounding ocean› etc., quoted from <span class="smcap">Alfred H. Stroh</span>: -Op. cit. p. 6.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_7" href="#FNanchor_7" class="label">[7]</a> See the address of <span class="smcap">A. E. Nordenskiöld</span> before the Royal Academy of -Sciences on March 26th, 1888, quoted from <span class="smcap">A. H. Stroh</span>: Op. cit. p. 6.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_51"></a>[51]</span></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_8" href="#FNanchor_8" class="label">[8]</a> See <span class="smcap">A. G. Nathorst</span>’s introduction to the edition of <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span>’s -Scientific Works of the Royal Academy of Sciences, Vol. I., 1907.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_9" href="#FNanchor_9" class="label">[9]</a> See ›Vierteljahrschrift der Astronomischen Gesellschaft›, Part 14, 1879, -quoted from <span class="smcap">A. H. Stroh</span>: Op. cit. p. 8.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_10" href="#FNanchor_10" class="label">[10]</a> See <span class="smcap">S. Arrhenius</span>’ introduction to the edition of <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span>’s Scientific -Works of the R. Acad. of Sciences, Vol. II., 1908.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_11" href="#FNanchor_11" class="label">[11]</a> See <span class="smcap">Gustaf Retzius</span>: Preface to ›<span class="smcap">E. Swedenborg</span>’s Scientific Works›, -edit. by the R. Acad. of Sciences, Vol. I., 1907, p. V. <i>et seqq.</i></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_12" href="#FNanchor_12" class="label">[12]</a> <span class="smcap">Emanuel Swedenborg</span> was born at Stockholm, January 29th, 1688; -matriculated at the University of Uppsala and ›Västmanlands-Dala-nation›, -1699; Diss. cum consensu Fac. Philos. publico examini submissa, Upsaliæ, 1. -Junii, 1709; appointed assessor extraordinary in the Royal College of Mines, -1716; ordinary assessor in the same College, 1724; retired from the assessorship, -1747; died in London, March 29th, 1772. His name was <span class="smcap">Swedberg</span> until the -year 1719, when he was ennobled and his name changed to <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span>.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_13" href="#FNanchor_13" class="label">[13]</a> Epistola Eman: Swedbergii ad Ericum Benzelium, Londini, Oct., 1710. -See <span class="smcap">Emanuel Swedenborg</span>: Opera quædam aut inedita aut obsoleta de rebus -naturalibus, nunc edita sub auspiciis Regiæ Academiæ Scientiarum Suecicæ, -I. Geologica et Epistolæ, Edit. <span class="smcap">Alfred H. Stroh</span>, Holmiæ, 1907, p. 206 <i>et seqq.</i></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_14" href="#FNanchor_14" class="label">[14]</a> Epist. Em. Sw. ad E. Benz., London, April, 1711, see Op. cit. p. 208 <i>et seqq.</i></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_15" href="#FNanchor_15" class="label">[15]</a> Epist. Em. Sw. ad E. Benz., London, Augusti, 1712, see Op. cit. p. -218 <i>et seqq.</i></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_16" href="#FNanchor_16" class="label">[16]</a> Epist. Em. Sw. ad E. Benz., Paris, Augusti, 1713, see Op. cit. p. -222 <i>et seqq.</i></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_17" href="#FNanchor_17a" class="label">[17]</a> Epist. Em. Sw. ad E. Benz., Rostock, September, 1714, see. Op. cit. -p. 224 <i>et seqq.</i></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_18" href="#FNanchor_18" class="label">[18]</a> Suggestions for a Flying Machine by <span class="smcap">Emanuel Swedenborg</span>, translated -from the original Swedish by <span class="smcap">Hugo Lj. Odhner</span> and <span class="smcap">Carl Th. Odhner</span>, -published by the Swedenborg Scientific Association, Philadelphia, Pa., 1910.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_19" href="#FNanchor_19" class="label">[19]</a> Dædalus Hyperboreus, Eller Några Nya Mathematiska och Physicaliska -Försök och Anmerckningar: Som Wälborne Herr Assessor Polhammar -och Andre Sinrike i Swerige Hafwa giordt Och Nu tijd efter annan til almen -nytta lemna. Printed in Uppsala (and Skara), 1716-1718. Preface by <span class="smcap">Em. -Svedberg</span>, Stockholm, Dec. 23rd, 1715.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_20" href="#FNanchor_20" class="label">[20]</a> ›Förslag til wart Mynts och Måls Indelning, så at Rekningen kan lettas -och alt Bråk afskaffas›. Stockholm, Kongl. Boktryckeriet, 1719, 8 pp. 4:o. -See <span class="smcap">Alfred H. Stroh</span> and <span class="smcap">Greta Ekelöf</span>: Chronological list of the works -of Emanuel Swedenborg, dedicated to the Swedenborg Society by the Royal -Swedish Academy of Sciences, Uppsala and Stockholm, 1910, pp. 17 and 19.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_52"></a>[52]</span></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_21" href="#FNanchor_21" class="label">[21]</a> Eman. Swedbergs Assess. i Kongl. Bergz Coll. Försök At finna Östra -och Westra Lengden igen igenom Månan, Som Til the Lärdas ompröfwande -framstelles. Upsala, 1718. See <span class="smcap">Alfr. H. Stroh</span> and <span class="smcap">G. Ekelöf</span>: Op. cit. p. 17. -See also the letters of Eman. Swedberg ad Ericum Benzelium in the Swedenborg -edition of the Acad. of Sciences, Vol. I.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_22" href="#FNanchor_22" class="label">[22]</a> See <span class="smcap">E. Liljedahl</span>: ›Swedenborg›, Stockholm, 1908; and <span class="smcap">Hj. Holmquist</span>: -›Från Swedenborgs ungdom och första stora verksamhetsperiod›, Bibelforskaren, -1909, No. 3.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_23" href="#FNanchor_23" class="label">[23]</a> See also <span class="smcap">Alfr. H. Stroh</span> and <span class="smcap">G. Ekelöf</span>: Chronological list of the -works of E. Swedenborg, pp. 15 and 16. The titles of the three pamphlets are -in English: ›On the way to improve commerce and manufactures›, ›Memorial -on the institution of saltboileries in Sweden›, ›On the utility and necessity of -instituting an observatory in Sweden›.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_24" href="#FNanchor_24" class="label">[24]</a> ›Om Watnens Högd och Förra Werldens starcka Ebb och Flod, Bewjs -utur Swergie›. (Stockholm, 1719; see also Acta Literaria Sueciæ Upsaliæ -publ. 1720, pp. 5-11). Reprinted in the edition of Swedenborg’s Scientific -works, publ. by the R. S. Acad. of Sciences, Vol. I., pp. 1-27.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_25" href="#FNanchor_25" class="label">[25]</a> See concerning this the above-named work by <span class="smcap">Hj. Holmquist</span>, in -which he says p. 223 concerning <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span>’s method of research: ›<span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span> -himself indicates the scientific method which he followed: first, the collecting -of as many experiments and investigations as possible, afterwards the working -over of these according to the laws of geometry, and lastly, speculation, hypotheses: -’as long as proofs are lacking, principles may not be accepted and -hypotheses defended, as they then deserve better the name of fantasies than -of principles’. ’Experientia, geometria et facultas ratiocinandi’, experience, -geometry and reason, were the foundations of <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span>’s work both within -the world of nature and that of spirit.›</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_26" href="#FNanchor_26" class="label">[26]</a> See ›Œconomia Regni Animalis›, Vol. I., No. 360, where Swedenborg -mentions Parts IV., V., VI. of the Œc. R. A.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_27" href="#FNanchor_27" class="label">[27]</a> Œc. R. A. Vol. III., ›De Fibra›, translated into English by Rev. Prof. -<span class="smcap">Alfred Acton</span> in ›New Philosophy›.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_28" href="#FNanchor_28" class="label">[28]</a> See Œc. R. A. Vol. II., Nos. 71-75, 76-82, 112; III. No. 59, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_29" href="#FNanchor_29" class="label">[29]</a> See Œc. R. A. Vol. II., Nos. 100, 101, 191; ›Quod sensationes externae -non ad ulteriores metas quam ad sphaerulas corticales pertingant, id satis in -confirmato est, quando hae fibrarum nervearum et medullarium sunt principia›; -and 113, 130, 140, 141, etc. See also ›The Brain› No. 98.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_30" href="#FNanchor_30" class="label">[30]</a> As observed in Quain’s ›Elements of Anatomy›, Tenth edition, edit. by -<span class="smcap">E. A. Schäfer</span> and <span class="smcap">G. D. Thane</span>, Vol. III., Part. I, p. 39: ›The term medulla -oblongata, as employed by <span class="smcap">Willis</span> and <span class="smcap">Vieussens</span>, and by those who directly -followed them, included the crura cerebri and pons Varolii, as well as that -part to which by <span class="smcap">Haller</span> first, and by most subsequent writers, this term has -been restricted.›</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_53"></a>[53]</span></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_31" href="#FNanchor_31" class="label">[31]</a> See Œc. R. A. Vol. II., Nos. 83-85, 91, 93, 95, 114, 140: ›Proinde -cum totidem origines motus sunt, quot sphaerulae istius substantiae;› and 144, -146: ›Sic distinctissime quaevis (sphaerula) suam fibrulam animat & usque -ad ejus finem in fibram corporis motricem influit;› 157 and 191-194-95, 202 -etc. See also ›The Brain›, No. 399.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_32" href="#FNanchor_32" class="label">[32]</a> So, for example, in Œc. R. A. Vol. II., No. 100: ... ›quod Cortex -sit principalis totius Cerebri substantia; in ipso termino primo Fibrarum et -ultimo Arteriarum sita; See also Œc. R. A. Vol. II., 111-116, 133, 134, 138, -152, 197, 290, etc., or, for example, Œc. R. A. III., No. 127, fin., and No. 404, -where we read as follows: ›Ex anatome Cerebri id constat, quod Cerebrum, -seu substantia ejus corticalis, quae proprie cerebrum audit, sit <i>Sensorium commune</i>, -nam quinque organa suos sensus externos ad corticem ut ad suum sensorium -commune et unicum internum referunt. Cerebrum corticale etiam est -<i>Motorium commune voluntarium</i>, quicquid enim agendum est mediantibus nervis -et musculis, id praevia voluntate a cerebro determinandum est.›</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_33" href="#FNanchor_33" class="label">[33]</a> Œc. R. A. II., 107: ›Partes hujus substantiae — — — merentur <i>Organa -Sensuum interiorum</i> et Cerebellula nuncupari, nam media substantia medullari et -sanguine ab Organis externis alluentes modos et tactus recipiunt, et ad judicem -animam referunt.› See also Œc. R. A. 191, 192, Œc. R. A. II., 195: — — ›Substantiae -Corticales totidem sunt Cerebellula, — —; singula enim sensorium est -in particulari, quale est Cerebrum in communi.›</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_34" href="#FNanchor_34" class="label">[34]</a> Œc. R. A. II., 193: ›Haec minime effectum consequerentur, — — — nisi -<i>partes substantiae Corticalis inter se, atque in gradus et series sint divisae, -in quales sunt modificationum causae: seu nisi series substantiarum corticalium -sint uti series sensationum</i>; nisi sphaerularum Corticis perfectissima sit varietas -harmonica, ita ut nulla earum, praeter qua essentialia et attributa, alteri sit -simillima.› For the same see also ›Regnum Animale›, VII., chap. XX; Œc. -R. A. II., No. 307: ›Ex lustratione ipsius Cerebri apparet, quod <i>substantiae corticales -ita Sapienter sunt ordinatae, ut cuilibet sensationi externae ad amussim -correspondeant</i>; nam <i>dictae substantiae</i>, ut unitates glomatim in quendam numerum -coalescunt, et <i>hi glomuli</i> tanquam novae unitates <i>in congeries</i> adhuc majores, -et hae in maximam, quae est ipsum Cerebrum: <i>singulae partitiones</i> -discriminatae sunt per rimas, sulcos et anfractus, et consertae per vasa et -productiones meningeas, sic ut quasi sint numeri unitatum in analogiae formam -redacti, prorsus ut decet sensorium commune, quod <i>recepturum sit omnem speciem -sensationis externae, distinctim suum visum, distinctim auditum, gustum et -olfactum</i>. Œc. R. A. II., chap. XX.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_54"></a>[54]</span></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_35" href="#FNanchor_35" class="label">[35]</a> Œc. R. A. II., No. 192, ›Ex anatome Cerebri in ipsius oculi luce est, -quod <i>radii visuales</i> medio nervo optico <i>influant in thalamos nervorum opticorum</i>, -et abinde per collectas e toto Cerebro, perque Fornicis basin transmissas, -et thalamis superinstratas fibras, quaquaversum in <i>corticem</i> diffundantur.›</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_36" href="#FNanchor_36" class="label">[36]</a> Œc. R. A. II., No. 192. — — ›quod <i>subtiles tactus membranae Olfactoriae</i> -cavitates labyrintheas narium investientis, et inde oriundae subtiles contremiscentiae -aut modificationes per laminam cribrosam et processus mammillares -<i>in Corpora striata</i>, aut in medullam totius centri ovalis enitentes non desinant -nisi in peripheriam fibrarum, seu <i>in ambitum corticalem</i>;› See also II., -38-42, where the processus mamillaris is supposed to mediate a reflex action -from the sense of smell upon the muscles of breathing.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_37" href="#FNanchor_37" class="label">[37]</a> Œc. R. A. II., No. 101: — — ›totidem origines motus sunt, quot sphaerulae -illius substantiae (corticis)›; II., 140, 153, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_38" href="#FNanchor_38" class="label">[38]</a> Œc. R. A. II., No. 146, ›Sic distinctissime quaevis (Sphaerula) suam -fibrulam animat, et usque ad ejus finem in fibram corporis motricem influit›; -see also II., 135, 147, 150, 156: ›Ex his ... fluit consequens de singulis Cerebellulis -..., quod vitiato uno aut pluribus ... contagium se non latius quam -in appensas fibras et subjectos musculos immediate extendat.› And III., 59, -127, at the end, and 197.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_39" href="#FNanchor_39" class="label">[39]</a> Œc. R. A. II., No. 147: ›Sphaerulae illum sortitae sunt in Cerebro -ordinem et situm, ut <i>singulae aut plures simul, aut omnes in communi</i> queant -systolen suam et diastolen perficere›. Œc. R. A. II., No. 156: ›Quare ita compaginatum -est Cerebrum, ut totum queat alterna vertigine auferri, utque solum -ejus medietas aut semiglobi Haemisphaerium; aut solum plures aut una circumgyratio; -aut utmodo hujus glomus, minor congeries, aut pars.› The same in -›The Brain›, No. 104 c.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_40" href="#FNanchor_40" class="label">[40]</a> Œc. R. A. I., No. 505: ›Ergo inquirendum venit, <i>qui tori corticei his -aut illis musculis in Corpore correspondent</i>; quod fieri non potest nisi <i>per experientiam -in vivis Animalibus; per punctiones, sectiones et compressiones</i> plurium, -perque inde in Corporis musculis redundantes effectus.›</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_41" href="#FNanchor_41" class="label">[41]</a> Œc. R. A. II. Nos. 151, 157: › — — — licet <i>ipsa fibra Cerebri non agat -motricem in musculis, agit tamen in utraque illa Medulla, quarum fibras ad sic -non aliter agendum disponit</i>, uti ab Anatomia Cerebri tam humani, quam animalium -brutorum, imo insectorum, clare colligitur: idque ob rationem, ut <i>Cerebri -Voluntarium abeat in spontaneum et naturale mediis Medullis</i>, ne toties -in particulares profundas motiones auferatur, <i>quoties actio semel incepta ex consueto -continuanda sit</i>; id ejus sublimiorum officiorum administrationem toties -alias interturbaret, et in Homine analyses rationales, quae quietiorem Cerebri -statum poscunt: quare <i>ut primum actio voluntaria poscit seriem agendorum continuam, -Cerebrum annuet et consentiet, tum et actionis actualitatem producet</i>: Sic -<i>ejus</i> est <i>causa principalis, Medullis autem incineratis injuncta secundaria</i>.› See -also I., No. 574:—›<i>origo secundaria</i> vel causa intermedia <i>actionum Voluntariarum -in Spontaneas abeuntium</i> sit <i>in Medulla Spinali et oblongata</i>.›</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_55"></a>[55]</span></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_42" href="#FNanchor_42" class="label">[42]</a> Œc. R. A. II., No. 107: ›Partes hujus substantiae ex eadem ratione -merentur <i>Organa Sensuum interiorum</i>, et Cerebellula nuncupari›. See also II., -No. 191, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_43" href="#FNanchor_43" class="label">[43]</a> Œc. R. A. II., No. 159: ›Id jam extra omnem dubitationis aleam ponimus, -quod <i>substantia corticalis</i> sit <i>determinans, licet non omnium primum</i>, -actionum Corporis, quia determinans est fibrarum, et fibrae musculorum, a quibus -actio›. — — — II., No. 160: ›Sed hae <i>substantiae corticales</i> licet sunt determinantes -actionum sui Corporis, respective tamen sunt <i>modo subdeterminantes et -mediantes</i>, quibus respondent subdeterminantes in Corpore, quae sunt fibrae -motrices.› See also II., No. 204.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_44" href="#FNanchor_44" class="label">[44]</a> Œc. R. A. II., No. 277: ›— — — dicere quod <i>Anima sit supra mentem -intellectualem</i>, — — —› See also II., No. 280. II., No. 160: ›<i>Per illas (substantias -corticales) etenim determinatur in actum voluntas</i>, cujus principium altius est -rimandum. — — — <i>requiritur vis</i> altior, sublimior, principalior, et universalior, -<i>in qua sit principium voluntatis, qua his mediis determinatur in actum</i>. Proinde -est fluidum spirituosum, in quo est <i>vita, et proinde anima</i>.›</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_45" href="#FNanchor_45" class="label">[45]</a> Œc. R. A. II., 285: ›Ex his jam sequitur, quod <i>Anima sit, quae intelligit, -cogitat, judicat, vult, desiderat, imaginatur, cupit, reminiscitur, videt, audit, gustat, -odorat, sentit, loquitur, agit</i>, — — —.› See also II., 287.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_46" href="#FNanchor_46" class="label">[46]</a> Œc. R. A. II., No. 160, 161: ›Et haec denique concludit, quod sit <i>anima, -quae huic fluido (spirituoso) inest</i>, cujus est determinare in actum.› II., 165. II., -303: ›Ipsum Fluidum Spirituosum est substantia eminenter organica suae Animae; -uti Oculus est organum visus, Auris auditus, Lingua gustus, Cerebrum -perceptionis omnium›; etc. See also ›The Brain›, No. 7.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_47" href="#FNanchor_47" class="label">[47]</a> See for example Œc. R. A. II., No. 246: — — — ›sic etiam quod hoc -Fluidum sit Spiritus et Anima sui Corporis›. — — — Œc. R. A. III., No. 317: -›<i>Anima est purissima essentia animalis, caelestis et spiritualis</i>, quae fibram -simplicem excitat et simul sanguinem tam candidum quam rubrum ingreditur.›</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_48" href="#FNanchor_48" class="label">[48]</a> See also Œc. R. A. II., No. 348: ›Ex his jam praemissis usque ad fidem -intellectus demonstrari potest, quod <i>Fluidum Spirituosum humanum</i> immunissimum -sit ab omni injuria contingentium in regione sublunari; nec exstinguibile, -sed <i>immortale</i>, tametsi non per se, <i>post casum sui Corporis</i>. Quod exsolutum -a vinculis et laqueis terrestrium in omnem sui Corporis formam coaliturum sit -et victurum vitam omni imaginatione puriorem. Tum quod nulla sit actiuncula -ex consulto, et nulla vocula ex consensu, in vita ejus corporea, edita, quae non -affulgente luce sapientiae, inhaerenter designatae, tunc ante ejus conscientiae -judicium, distincte compariturae sint›.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_56"></a>[56]</span></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_49" href="#FNanchor_49" class="label">[49]</a> Œc. R. A. II., No. 303: ›<i>usque eodem recidit, sive memoratum fluidum -dicimus Spiritum aut Animam, sive ejus facultatem</i> sibi repraesentandi universum -et intuendi fines, nam unum non concipi potest, quia non datur sine altero.›</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_50" href="#FNanchor_50" class="label">[50]</a> <span class="smcap">J. J. Garth Wilkinson</span> has published Part I. in an English translation -in 1843, and Parts II. and III. in 1844, London.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_50b" href="#FNanchor_50b" class="label">[50 b]</a> ›Regnum Animale›, Pars quarta: ›De Sensibus›, publ. by IM. TAFEL, -London, 1848; transl. into English by <span class="smcap">Enoch S. Price</span> in ›New Philosophy›; -›R. A.›, Pars septima: ›De Anima›, publ. by IM. TAFEL, Tübingen and -London, 1849; transl. into English by <span class="smcap">Frank Sewall</span>, New York, 1887 and -1900.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_51" href="#FNanchor_51a" class="label">[51]</a> The words enclosed in parentheses have been added by the author -of this paper to make the meaning more clear, and are unmistakeably inferred -from the connection.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_52" href="#FNanchor_52" class="label">[52]</a> As Professor <span class="smcap">G. Retzius</span> also says in his ›Croonian lecture›, delivered -in London, 1908: ›The theses cited [especially those concerning the localization -of the motor centres in the cerebral cortex] are drawn up with such precision -by <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span> that they cannot possibly be based on divination only, but -must rest upon a real grasp of natural phenomena as well as on actual experiments -and dissecting work›.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_53" href="#FNanchor_53" class="label">[53]</a> See ›Œconomia Regni Animalis›, I., Nos. 559 <i>et seqq.</i>; also 571 and 572, -and <span class="smcap">R. Vieussens</span>: ›Neurographia universalis›, Lugduni, 1685, pp. 123, 124, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_54" href="#FNanchor_54" class="label">[54]</a> See ›Œconomia Regni Animalis›, I., Nos. 559 <i>et seqq.</i>, as also <span class="smcap">R. Vieussens</span>: -›Neurographia universalis›, Lugduni, 1685, pp. 123, 124, <i>et seqq.</i></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_55" href="#FNanchor_55" class="label">[55]</a> See <span class="smcap">Boerhaave</span>: ›Institutiones medicae›, Lugduni Batavor. 1720, No. -415: ›Ergo musculi voluntarii nervos habent ultimo oriundos a cerebro. Illi vero, -qui spontaneis, vitalibusque motibus serviunt, a cerebello nervos accipiunt.›</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_56" href="#FNanchor_56" class="label">[56]</a> See <span class="smcap">Th. Willis</span>: ›Cerebri Anatome›, Amsterdam, 1667, pp. 73-74: -›Cerebrum motuum et conceptuum omnium origo et fons. Sensus et motus, -item passiones et instinctus mere naturales, licet a Cerebro quadantenus dependent, -tamen proprie in Medulla oblongata et Cerebello aut perficiunter aut ab -iis procedunt.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_57" href="#FNanchor_57" class="label">[57]</a> See Œc. R. A. III., No. 404, etc.: ›Medulla oblongata — — — sensorium -et motorium commune tam Cerebri quam Cerebelli, sed secundarium et -instrumentale superius. Medulla spinalis similiter — — — sensorium et motorium -commune, sed secundarium et instrumentale inferius.›</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_57"></a>[57]</span></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_58" href="#FNanchor_58" class="label">[58]</a> Œc. R. A., III., No. 133: ›Substantia — — — corticalis est ipsum -Cerebrum seu Sensorium — — — commune›; No. 404, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_59" href="#FNanchor_59" class="label">[59]</a> See <span class="smcap">R. Descartes</span>: ›Tractatus de homine›, Lugd. Bat. 1662, pp. 77, -81, 82; 32, 67 etc.: 72, 79 etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_60" href="#FNanchor_60" class="label">[60]</a> See <span class="smcap">H. Boerhaave</span>: ›Institutiones medicae›, Lugd. Bat. 1720, p. 253: -›Sensorium commune est pars cerebri, — — —, adeoque, ut apparet, medulla -cerebri in capite;› and <span class="smcap">Boerhaave</span>: ›Praelectiones academicae, (published by -<span class="smcap">Haller</span>), Göttingen, 1743, p. 451: ›Haec ergo sedes animae non est in pineali -glandula, uti <span class="smcap">Cartesius</span> voluit,—neque est in medulla spinali, neque est in cerebello, -verum <i>in fornicata medulla circumstante cavitatem ventriculorum cerebri</i>.›</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_61" href="#FNanchor_61" class="label">[61]</a> See <span class="smcap">Casp.</span> et <span class="smcap">Thom. Bartholin</span>: ›Instit. anatom.›, 1641, p. 265: ›Putamus -enim in Cerebro proprie dicto, vel cortice servari spiritum animalem pro -sensu, in medulla vero tota tam quoad caput quam quoad caudam, reservari -spiritum pro motu.›</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_62" href="#FNanchor_62" class="label">[62]</a> See <span class="smcap">Thomas Willis</span>: ›Cerebri Anatome., 1667, pp. 76, 77: ›Etenim -existimare fas est, spiritus animales — — in corticali cerebri substantia procreari› — — — ›hæ -partes medullares spirituum animalium exercitio et dispensationi — — — inserviunt;› -and <span class="smcap">J.J. Winslow</span>: ›Exposition anatomique — — —›, -1732, IV., p. 210: ›<span class="smcap">Willis</span> nous donne un système tout-à-fait particulier. Il loge -le sens commun dans le corpus striatum ou corps rougé, l’imagination dans le -corps callosum, et la mémoire dans l’écorce ou dans la substance grisâtre qui -envelloppe la blanche.›</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_63" href="#FNanchor_63" class="label">[63]</a> See <span class="smcap">M. Malpighi</span>: ›Opera Omnia›, 1686-87, Tom. II., p. 85: ›Suspicari -possumus minimis hisce glandulis ex delato sanguine separari, recolligique -particulas illas a natura ad promendum instrumentaliter sensuum destinatas, -quibus per nervorum tubulis delatis continuatae partes inbibantur et turgeant.›</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_64" href="#FNanchor_64" class="label">[64]</a> See <span class="smcap">Malpighi</span>: ›Opera Omnia›, 1686-87, Tom. II., De Cerebri cortice, -pp. 78 <i>et seqq.</i> ›In — — cerebro corticem affusum minimarum glandularum -proventum et congeriem esse deprehendi: hæ in cerebri gyris et protractis veluti -intestinales, ad quæ desinunt albæ nervorum radices, vel inde, si mavis, -oriuntur — — —›; and <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span>: Œc. R. A. II., Nos. 76-82, 112, 114 etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_65" href="#FNanchor_65" class="label">[65]</a> See <span class="smcap">Boerhaave</span>: ›Institutiones medicae›, 1720, No. 266: ›folliculi illi -minimi glandulosi emittunt tenues fibras, albas, compactas quibus adenutis fit -callosum, medullosumque corpus› — — —; No. 274: ›fibras has canaliculos -tenuissimos pervios esse, qui in se excipiant humorem corporis humani omnium -quidem subtilissimum, qui fabrica mirifica corticis praeparatus, secretus atque vi -in has fistulas impulsus est, ex omni quidem parte hujus in medullam oblongatam -collectus; see also No. 263; No. 284: ›fibrillas nerveas humorem medullae — — ad -omne punctum totius corporis distinctissimis viis deferre.› — —</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_58"></a>[58]</span></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_66" href="#FNanchor_66" class="label">[66]</a> ›Nisi mutua sit connexio et perpetua communicatio substantiae medullaris -qua fibrillas et manipulos intra thecam vertebralem et cranium, undecunque -ducitur ad corticem cerebri. — — —› (Œc. R. A. II., No. 193; See also No. 115).</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_67" href="#FNanchor_67" class="label">[67]</a> See above <span class="smcap">Casp.</span> and <span class="smcap">Thom. Bartholin</span>: ›Inst. Anat.›, 1645, p. 265.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_68" href="#FNanchor_68" class="label">[68]</a> See <span class="smcap">H. Boerhaave</span>: ›Inst. Med.›, 1720, N. 574. or 274.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_69" href="#FNanchor_69" class="label">[69]</a> See above <span class="smcap">A. v. Haller</span>: ›Elem. Physiol.›, 1762, IV., p. 392.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_70" href="#FNanchor_70" class="label">[70]</a> Œc. R. A. loco cit. and II., 88. See also <span class="smcap">A. Pacchioni</span>: ›Opera›, Ed. -quarta, Romæ, 1741, p. 112.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_71" href="#FNanchor_71" class="label">[71]</a> See <span class="smcap">Boerhaave</span>: ›Instit. med.›, 1720, No. 570, 574. The edition used -by <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span> was printed 1727.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_72" href="#FNanchor_72" class="label">[72]</a> ›Nempe in sensorio communi distinctas loco provincias esse pro diversis -sensibus, uti cuilibet sensui suum externum proprium organum datum est.› -<span class="smcap">Boerhaave</span>: ›Prael. acad.›, published by <span class="smcap">Haller</span> 1743, Vol. IV., p. 435. See -also <span class="smcap">Boerhaave</span>: ›Inst. med.›, 1720, No. 568.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_73" href="#FNanchor_73" class="label">[73]</a> These lobes are, as he says, ›marked out and encompassed by the -carotid artery, a statement by which he probably means the same as <span class="smcap">Ridley</span>, -when the latter says of the whole anterior region that it is marked out, as it -were, by two branches of the carotid artery, one at the front and one at the -side, i. e., <i>Arteria cerebri anterior</i> and <i>Arteria cerebri media</i>.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_74" href="#FNanchor_74" class="label">[74]</a> <span class="smcap">J. J. Wepfer</span>: ›Observationes anatomicæ ex cadaveribus eorum, quos -sustulit Apoplexia›. Amstelædami, 1681, pp. 5-11, Case II.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_75" href="#FNanchor_75" class="label">[75]</a> See <span class="smcap">A. Pacchioni</span>: ›Opera›, Ed. quarta, Romæ, 1741, p. 112.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_76" href="#FNanchor_76" class="label">[76]</a> See <span class="smcap">J. B. Winslow</span>: ›Exposition anatomique de la Structure du corps -humain.› Paris, 1732, IV., p. 210. With <span class="smcap">Willis</span> one also finds the same subdivision -of the hemispheres of the brain into an anterior and a posterior -›province›, as that employed by <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span>.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_77" href="#FNanchor_77" class="label">[77]</a> <span class="smcap">Vieussens</span>: ›Neur. univ.›, pp. 115, 117, and Tab. X.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_78" href="#FNanchor_78" class="label">[78]</a> Op. cit., pp. 115, 117, and Tab. XVI.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_79" href="#FNanchor_79" class="label">[79]</a> Op. cit., pp. 115, 117 and Tab. XV.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_80" href="#FNanchor_80" class="label">[80]</a> Œc. R. A. II., No. 153: ›Experientiae est et temporis, ut evestigetur, -qui gyrus et qui serpens tumulus in cerebro hunc aut illum musculum ut correspondentem -suum in corpore respiciat. ’Cuniculos cerebri serpere, per autopsiam -deprehenditur’ ait Clar. <span class="smcap">Pacchionus</span>, <span class="smcap">Bellinus</span> et alii plures.›</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_81" href="#FNanchor_81" class="label">[81]</a> See <span class="smcap">Malpighi</span>: ›Op. omnia›, II., De Cerebro, p. 2, and <span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span>: -Œc. R. A., II., Nos. 82, 58, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_82" href="#FNanchor_82" class="label">[82]</a> <span class="smcap">Malpighi</span>: ›Opera omnia›, 1686-87, II., De Cerebri cortice, p. 78, and -<span class="smcap">Swedenborg</span>: Œc. R. A., II., Nos. 76-82, 112, 114, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_83" href="#FNanchor_83" class="label">[83]</a> <span class="smcap">Malpighi</span>: Op. cit. p. 78: ›Harum glandularum distinctionem affuso -atramento (ink) et leviter gossypio deterso, videbis, intercepta enim spatia ita -denigrantur, ut circumscriptas glandulas facilius exhibeant.› See also Œc. R. -A. No. 76.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_59"></a>[59]</span></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_84" href="#FNanchor_84" class="label">[84]</a> <span class="smcap">Malpighi</span>: Op. cit., p. 79: ›Corticales hae glandulae tortuose locatae -exteriores cerebri gyros componunt, et exorientibus inde medullaribus fibris -seu vasculis appenduntur›. See also Œc. R. A., II., No. 76.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_85" href="#FNanchor_85" class="label">[85]</a> See Œc. R. A., II., No. 191: ›Quod sensationes externæ non ad ulteriores -metas quam ad sphaerulas corticales pertingant, id satis in confirmato -est, quando hae fibrarum nervearum et medullarium sunt principia, ultra quae -si progrederentur, ut si in arteriolas aut meninges, tunc praescriptos terminos -superscanderent et a centris in remotiores peripherias se conjicerent.›</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_86" href="#FNanchor_86" class="label">[86]</a> See Œc. R. A., III., No. 127: ›Si enim vivum corticem in apertis -cerebris lente microscopica, sive delineatum ex vivo contemplamur, evidenter -conspicitur, quomodo fibra ex illo procedat, et tanquam rivulus ex fonticulo -scaturiat; id etiam in hydrocephalis, apoplecticis, catalepticis, paralyticis, maniacis, -motibus convulsivis et spasmis cynicis vexatis confirmatur, nam ipsa labes -substantiæ eorum corticalis post mortem deprehensa in continuas fibras, et tandem -in musculares, unde prodeunt actiones et inconcinni motus, derivatur. — — — Ergo, -quia substantia corticalis est parens fibrarum, sequitur, quod cerebrum -non nisi quam in hac sua substantia incipiat cerebrum esse, quatenus ibi est -receptaculum sensationum seu sensorium commune, et simul principium actionum, -seu motorium commune.›</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_87" href="#FNanchor_87" class="label">[87]</a> See Œc. R. A., II., No. 156: ›Vitiato uno cerebellulo aut pluribus in -toto, contagium se non latius quam in appensas fibras et subjectos musculos -immediate extendat.›</p> - -</div> - -</div> - -<div class="figcenter titlepage" style="width: 150px;"> -<img src="images/fin.jpg" width="150" height="150" alt="" /> -</div> - - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Emanuel Swedenborg's Investigations in -Natural Science and the Basis for his , by Martin Ramström - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK EMANUEL SWEDENBORG'S *** - -***** This file should be named 63033-h.htm or 63033-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/6/3/0/3/63033/ - -Produced by WebRover, Charlene Taylor and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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