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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..b7c7823 --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #61786 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/61786) diff --git a/old/61786-0.txt b/old/61786-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index bf0a3c4..0000000 --- a/old/61786-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,8955 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of A manual of Mending and Repairing with -diagrams, by Charles Godfrey Leland - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: A manual of Mending and Repairing with diagrams - -Author: Charles Godfrey Leland - -Release Date: April 8, 2020 [EBook #61786] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MENDING, REPAIRING, WITH DIAGRAMS *** - - - - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Wayne Hammond and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - - - - - A MANUAL OF - - MENDING AND REPAIRING - - WITH DIAGRAMS - - BY - - CHARLES GODFREY LELAND - - NEW YORK - - DODD, MEAD AND COMPANY - 1896 - -COPYRIGHT, 1896, - -BY DODD, MEAD AND COMPANY. - -BURR PRINTING HOUSE, FRANKFORT AND JACOB STS., N. Y. - - - - -CONTENTS - - - PAGES - - INTRODUCTION vii-xxiii - - MATERIALS USED IN MENDING 1-11 - - MENDING BROKEN CHINA, PORCELAIN, CROCKERY, MAJOLICA, - TERRA-COTTA, BRICK AND TILE WORK 12-32 - - MENDING GLASS, TOGETHER WITH SEVERAL ALLIED PROCESSES: - APPROVED CEMENTS--SILICATE OF SODA 33-49 - - WOOD-SHAVINGS IN MENDING AND MAKING MANY OBJECTS--ORNAMENTAL - WORK OF SHAVINGS--MARQUETRY--REPAIRING - PANEL PICTURES WITH SHAVINGS 50-57 - - REPAIRING WOODWORK 58-85 - - ON REPAIRING AND RESTORING BOOKS, MANUSCRIPTS, AND - PAPERS, WITH DIRECTIONS FOR EASY BINDING AND - PAPER-MENDING--BOOK-WORMS--THE RAVAGES OF - BOOK-WORMS 86-120 - - PAPIER-MÂCHÉ: REPAIRING TOYS--MAKING GROUNDS FOR - PICTURES AND WALLS--CARTON-CUIR AND CARTON-PIERRE 121-133 - - MENDING STONE-WORK: MOSAICS--CERESA-WORK--PORCELAIN - OR CROCKERY MOSAIC 134-142 - - REPAIRING IVORY 143-155 - - REPAIRING AMBER: HOW TO PERFECTLY RE-JOIN BROKEN - AMBER, AND TO IMITATE IT--HOW TO MELT AMBER IN - FRAGMENTS TO A SINGLE BODY 156-158 - - INDIARUBBER AND GUTTA-PERCHA: MENDING INDIARUBBER - SHOES AND MAKING GARMENTS WATERPROOF, WITH - OTHER APPLICATIONS 159-168 - - MENDING METAL-WORK OR REPAIRING BY MEANS OF IT: - FIREPROOF CEMENTS, WITH IRON BINDERS 169-182 - - REPAIRING LEATHER-WORK: TRUNKS, SHOES, OR IN ANY - OTHER FORMS--JOINING STRAPS--MAKING CHEAP - SHOES 183-198 - - TO MEND HATS, BLANKETS, AND SIMILAR FABRICS BY - FELTING 199-201 - - INVISIBLE MENDING OF GARMENTS, LACES, OR EMBROIDERIES 202-205 - - MENDING MOTHER-OF-PEARL AND CORAL 206-209 - - RESTORING AND REPAIRING PICTURES 210-230 - - GENERAL RECIPES 231-253 - - - INDEX 255-264 - - - - -INTRODUCTION - - -The author of this work modestly trusts that all who read it with -care will admit that in it he has distinctly shown that mending or -repairing, which has hitherto been regarded as a mere adjunct to other -arts, is really an art by itself, if not a science, since it is based -on chemical and other principles, which admit of extensive application -and general combination. It has its _laws_--a fact which has never been -hinted at by any writer, since all recipes for restoration in existence -are each singly inventions made to suit certain cases. This work has -been conceived on a different principle. - -A thorough knowledge of this art of repairing, mending, or restoring -various objects is of very great value, since there is no household -in which it is not often called into requisition. In the kitchen or -drawing-room, in the library and nursery, there are daily breakages, -of which a large and needless proportion are losses, simply because -such a man as a general mender, who is accomplished in _all_ branches -of the art, does not exist. And, what is more, it is equally true that -no one has ever realised to what a vast extent mending and saving may -be carried, with a little expenditure of time, practice, and money, -by any intelligent person who will devote serious attention to it. -Within a comparatively few years discoveries in science or in nature -have enlarged the ability of the mender to an extraordinary extent--I -need only mention the applications now made with silicate of soda, -celluloid, gutta percha, and glycerine to confirm what I say--so -largely, indeed, that only the accomplished technologist and chemist -is really aware of what can be done in general repairing compared to -what was possible only a few years ago. I believe that there are few -thoroughly practical persons (and, I may add, few who take an interest -in art in any form, or even in books) who will read this work without -deep interest, and without acquiring information of such value that in -comparison to it the cost of the book will seem a trifle. - -Though mending or restoring is a subject which in some form comes -home to and concerns everybody, and which it is assuredly everybody’s -interest to understand, this is, I believe, the first book in which -its application to a _great_ variety of wants has been made, and that -in such a clearly co-ordinated manner, and according to such a simple -principle, that whoever reads it can have no difficulty in mending any -object, even though it be not described here. In all works of the kind -which I have seen the recipes for repairing have been given simply -according to their _subjects_, without any view to general principles -of application, and a great proportion of these were in turn simply -copied from old books of miscellaneous “receipts,” or newspapers in -which every so-called new discovery is announced as infallible, or -as if it had been tried and tested to perfection. That I have not -recklessly accumulated in this fashion all kinds of _recipes_ to fill -my pages will appear very plainly to every chemist or technologist, -who will perceive that, proceeding from a comprehensive table of -generally recognised and long-tested bases of cements, I have given -deductions and combinations scientifically agreeing with their laws and -with experiment. The true object of giving a great number of recipes -has not been solely or simply to supply the house-keeper or mechanic -with instructions for certain repairs, but also to suggest to the -technologist and inventor new ideas and applications. Thus, when we -know that given proportions of zinc in powder, silicate of soda, and -chalk form a strong cement, resembling zinc, it is as well to suggest -that this may be varied by employing other metals and substances, such -as bronze-powders and mineral oxides, to be always preceded by a little -experiment. I venture to say that any intelligent person who masters -this work can, on this hint, make for himself innumerable inventions; -and I am sure that there is not the editor of a single technological -journal who will not testify to the fact that every year a great many -patents are taken out and fortunes made from recipes which are neither -so scientifically combined nor practically useful as those which I here -give. That there are fortunes still to be made is abundantly proved by -the fact that there are very few people, comparatively speaking, who -know where to get or how to make waterproof glue, or how to mend with -it, neatly and durably, shoes, umbrellas, and many rents in garments; -how to unite a broken strap; mend, by felting, torn hats; rehabilitate -perfectly worm-eaten and torn-away paper; restore decayed broken wood; -or mend, in fact, anything except with common glue or mucilage--both -of which soon give way and crack or melt. So long as such general -ignorance prevails, just so long there will be an opportunity for -the inventor to make and sell cements, and for the repairer to find -employment. - -I call special attention to the fact that this book contains no merely -traditional, untested recipes which have been simply transferred from -one Housekeeper’s Manual to another for generations. Where I have not -been guided by my own personal experience--which is, I venture to say, -not very limited--I have either followed truly scientific works, such -as the three hundred volumes of the Chemical-Technical Library of A. -HARTLEBEN; or, when citing from older authors, have invariably given -recipes which agree with the principles advanced by modern analysts and -inventors. And though not a professor of chemistry, yet, as I studied -it and natural philosophy in my youth under LEOPOLD GMELIN, L. PASSELT, -and Professor JOSEPH HENRY, I trust that I have been sufficiently -qualified to avoid errors in what I have written. In short, that I -have _not_ recklessly accumulated every recipe which I could find, and -that what I give are really trustworthy, will appear plainly to the -chemist or technologist, who will perceive that, proceeding from a -given table of generally recognised and long-tested bases of cements, -&c., I have then given deductions and combinations scientifically -agreeing with their laws and with experiment. My book is not a _pièce -de manufacture_, or of hack-work, but one which is the result of -many years of practical experience in the minor arts and industries, -on which subject alone I have published twenty-two works, without -including pamphlets, lectures, and at least one hundred letters or -articles in leading magazines and newspapers. There is, in short, very -little mending or making described in this book which I have not at one -time or other personally effected, having had all my life a passion for -mending and restoring all kinds of objects, and that scientifically and -thoroughly. - -As I have observed, there is in every household continual breakage -of many kinds--“or of the rending which cries for mending”--it is -a matter of some importance that some one in the family should pay -special attention to such matters. How often have I seen very valuable -objects stuck together--anyhow and clumsily--with putty, wafers, -sealing-wax, glue, flour-paste, or anything which will “hold” for a -time, when a perfect cure might have just as well been effected had the -proper recipe been taken to the first chemist. This is equally true as -regards taking ink or stains out of garments, or repairing the latter -perfectly, or mending shoes or indiarubber cloth, or felting worn hats -and many other articles, all of which are treated of in this work. - -It is true that everybody is not naturally ingenious, or clever, or -gifted, but all may become _skilful menders_ if they will duly consider -the subject (which requires no hard study) and experiment on it a -little. And here I would seriously address a few words to all who are -interested in education. There is a certain faculty which may be called -constructiveness, which is nearly allied to invention, and which is -a marvellous developer in all children of quickness of perception, -thought, or intellect. It is the art of using the fingers to make or -manipulate, in any way; it exists in every human being, and it may -be brought out to an extraordinary degree in the young, as has been -fully tested and proved. Now, if we take two children of the same age, -sex, and capacity, both going to the same school and pursuing the same -studies, and if one of the two devotes from two to four hours a week -to an industrial art class (_i.e._, studying simple original _design_, -easy wood-carving, repoussé, embroidery, &c.), it will be found--as it -has been by very extensive experiment--that the latter child will at -the end of the year excel the former in _all_ branches of learning; -that is to say, in arithmetic or geography, so greatly does ingenuity -proceed from the fingers to the brain. Now, mending is so nearly allied -to all the minor or mechanical arts, it enters into them so closely, -that it in a manner belongs to and is an introduction to them all. -Like them, it stimulates invention or ingenuity, and is perhaps of far -greater practical utility or direct use. Boys and girls learn very -willingly how to mend, and, from a long experience in teaching them, -I should say that a class with experiments and practical instruction -in what is given in this book should take precedence of all carpentry, -metal-work, joining, leather-work, or any other branches whatever. For -it is _easier_ than any of them, and it is of far more general utility, -as the following pages clearly show. Such teaching would cost next to -nothing for outfit, and would be the best introduction to technical -education of all kinds. - -There is an immense amount of breakage in this world, yet, as a French -writer on the subject observes, there are more great artists than good -_menders_; the latter being so extremely rare that proofs of it are -seen in bungling restorations in every museum in Europe, and in the -almost impossibility of finding (out of Italy) men who can perfectly -mend first-class ceramic ware. We see this ignorance in reproductions -of delicate ivory ware coarsely cast in gypsum, and in a vast rejection -and destruction of antiquities in wood, stone, or ceramic ware, simply -because they are most ignorantly supposed to be beyond repair when they -might, with _proper knowledge_, be very easily and cheaply restored, -to great profit. And if the reader will visit the “dead rooms” of -any museum in Europe and then study this book, he will find ample -confirmation of what I say. - -And here I would mention that every collector or owner of any kind of -works of art, of _bric-à-brac_, or curiosities, who will master the art -of mending, can find an illimitable field for picking up bargains in -almost every shop of antiquities in Europe, especially in the smaller -or humbler kind. For it is very far from being true that these dealers -know “how to mend everything;” on the contrary, I have often found -them very ignorant indeed of mending, and have frequently instructed -them in it. Thus I now have before me a “Holy Family” of the early -sixteenth century, bas-relief in stamped leather, twelve inches by -eight, for which I paid two francs, but which I might have had for -one, it being utterly dilapidated, and apparently of no value. In two -or three hours I restored it perfectly, and it would now sell for -perhaps a hundred francs. By it hangs a “Madonna and Child,” painted -on a panel, gold ground, fourteenth century, which, including a very -broad and remarkable old frame, I purchased both for twelve francs. -The panel was warped like a sabre, [Illustration], the colour and -_gesso_ ground badly scaled away in many places. It was split in two -pieces; in short, it appeared to be nearly worthless. Now it is in very -good condition, and would be an ornament to any gallery. As regards -repairing ceramic ware or china, glass, and porcelain, art has of late -years made remarkable advances, this kind of mending being the most in -requisition. As for old carved wood, no matter how badly broken it may -be, eaten away by worms, or rotten, or even wanting large pieces, so -long as its original form is evident, it can be _very easily_ repaired -or restored to all its original beauty and integrity, as I shall -fully explain. In this alone there is a vast field for investment or -money-making, because there are annually destroyed almost everywhere -quantities of old wood-carvings; for, being badly worm-eaten, they are -ignorantly supposed to be irreparable. The same may be said of ancient -carved ivories, which are ready to drop at a touch into dust, as were -those from Nineveh in the British Museum, yet which are now firm and -clear. It is also true of the bindings of old books, many of marvellous -beauty, whether of stamped leather, parchment, or carved. Even more -interesting and curious is the repairing or restoring worm-eaten -manuscripts or papers of any kind, or parchment, the easy process of -filling the holes not being known to many bibliophiles. This art is -becoming known in Germany, where it is not unusual to buy an old book -for a mark, rebind it in hard old parchment, repair it generally for -two or three, and then sell it, according to the subject, for several -hundred or thousand per cent. profit. - -It is greatly to be regretted that it is so little known, especially -in England, that to repair a few holes or restore a little broken, -crumbling carving it is not absolutely necessary to tear down an entire -Gothic church and build a new one, as is so very generally the case. -There is no stone-work, however dilapidated it may be, which cannot be -mended very perfectly, and that in almost all cases with a material -which sets even harder than the original, as was perfectly shown at the -Paris Exhibition of 1889. Dilapidated stone carved work, of all ages -and kinds, which could be perfectly restored to a degree which even -very few artists suspect, abounds in Italy, where it can be purchased -for a song. The song, it is true, is generally sung to a small silver -accompaniment, but the purchaser may make it golden for himself. For -very few know how to restore a knocked-off nose so that the line of -juncture be not visible; yet even this is possible, as I shall show. -And I may here remark that in all the first galleries and museums of -Europe, without one exception, there is abundant evidence to prove -that, of all the arts, the one of repairing and restoring is the one -least understood and most strangely neglected. - -There is hardly a village so small that one man or woman could not make -in it or eke out a living by repairing different objects. In towns and -cities the demand for such work is much greater, for there ladies break -expensive fans and jewellery, and children their dolls and toys, for -mending of which the “rehabilitators” require “much moneys,” especially -in the United States, where prices for anything out of the way are -appalling. - -I would therefore beg all people who are gifted with some small -allowance of “ingenuity,” tact, art, or common-sense to consider that -Mending or Restoring is a calling very easily learned by a little -practice, and one by which a living can be made, even in its humblest -branches, as is shown by the umbrella-menders and chair-caners in the -streets. But common-sense teaches that any one who shall have mastered -all that is explicitly set forth in this book ought certainly to be -able to gain money, even largely; for, as I said, the opportunities -of purchasing dilapidated works of art, mending and selling them, -are innumerable, and Restoration is as yet everywhere in its mere -rudiments and very little practised. That which might be a very great -general industry of vast utility, employing many thousands now idle, -only exists in a hap-hazard, casual way, as dependent on other kinds -of work. But to me it appears as a great art by itself, dependent on -certain principles of general application. And when we consider what -is generally wasted for want of proper knowledge of this great art, it -seems to me to be but rational that if we had in London a school for -teaching mending and restoring in all its branches as a trade, with a -museum to show the public, probably to its great astonishment, what -marvels can be wrought by renewing what is old, it would be of great -service to the country at large. A very little reflection will convince -the least visionary or most practical reader that what is wasted or -annually destroyed of valuable old works, which cannot be replaced, -because they are no longer manufactured, if restored, would form the -basis of a great national industry. It has not as yet, however, entered -into the head of any one to conceive this, simply because no one has -ever been educated as a general restorer, but only in a secondary, -supplementary, small way as a specialist, generally as a botcher. And -I maintain, from no inconsiderable knowledge of the subject, that -the best menders and restorers by far are those who understand the -most branches of their calling. The reason for this is plain; it is -because a repairer, when he comes to some unforeseen difficulty--for -example, in mending china--and finds the cements used are not exactly -applicable, he will, if sensible, think of some other adhesive used in -other kinds of work, or other combinations or appliances. - -I go so far as to say that an exhibition of specimens showing all that -can be done in mending and restoration in ceramic art, leather, carved -stone, books, carved and wrought wood, castings, metal, furniture, -fans, and toys, would probably serve as sufficient beginning to -establish classes and a school. The objects should, when possible, be -accompanied by a duplicate or photograph showing the condition they -were in before restoration, on the principle of the picture-cleaners, -who amaze the public with such startling contrasts of dirt and -splendour. - -How this can all be done will be found in this book, which I venture -to suggest will often be found useful in every family, or wherever -“things” are broken and worn. For the collector of curiosities who -would willingly pick up bargains, I seriously and earnestly commend it -as a _vade mecum_ by means of which he may literally make money in any -shop. For, as I have already said, strange as it may seem, the small -dealers in _bric-à-brac_ are generally very ignorant of all the curious -secrets of restoration, or else they have no time or means to attend to -such work. Again, if the collector has learned what I here teach, he -will often detect restoration allied to forgery in expensive antiques, -guaranteed to be perfect. It has been well observed by M. RIS-PAQUOT, -in his valuable work, _L’Art de restaurer soi-même les Faïences et -Porcelaines_, that it often happens, most unfortunately, that precious -relics whose value is immense, such as the Italian _faïences_ and those -of Palissy or Henri II., come to collections in such a condition, so -pitifully injured, that _de visu_ we cannot buy them because we know -of nobody who can actually restore them, and because this delicate -work requires so much special knowledge. Add to this, that their -great value and rarity disincline us to trust to the first-comer, or -general workman, treasures which he might utterly ruin by clumsiness or -ignorance. - -I may add that I seldom walk out in Florence without seeing old worn -_faïences_ for sale for a mere trifle which with a little retouching, -gilding, and firing could be made quite valuable. In such instances -there need be no complaint of destroying the venerable effect and value -of antiquity. In them antique material may be legitimately employed as -a basis for newer work, especially when it is broken away, worn down -to the core, or full of holes. Now, with what this book teaches in his -mind, the artist or tourist will very soon realise, if he be at all -ingenious, or can avail himself of the aid of some friend who has even -a very slight knowledge of art, that he can at a slight outlay purchase -objects which will become very valuable when afterwards restored at -home. - -As I can imagine no head of a family, and no dealer in miscellaneous -works of art or any small wares, no provider of furniture or furnisher, -to whom this work will not be a most acceptable gift, so I am very -confident that every traveller who has trunks to mend or broken straps -to join, and every emigrant roughing it in the forests or the bush -of Australia or Canada, may learn from it many useful devices, and -the fact that with nothing more than a small tin of liquid glue and -another of indiarubber he can effect more than could be imagined by -any one who has not studied the subject. On this I speak not without -experience, having found that, both as a soldier and a traveller in the -Wild West of America, my knowledge of mending was of great use to my -friends as well as myself. A perusal of the Index of what is here given -will satisfy the reader that this manual is in fact a _vade mecum_ for -almost all sorts and conditions of men and women, and that there are -none who would not be thankful for it. - -A friend adds to these remarks the suggestion that this work may -properly be included among the presents to a bride as an aid to -housekeeping; and it will probably be admitted that it would prove -quite as useful as many of the gifts which are usually bestowed on such -occasions. - -I have truly said that, while breaking and decay are universal, there -are literally nowhere any generally accomplished repairers--that is to -say, experts who know and can practise even what is set forth in this -book. Certain menders of broken china there are, of whom the great -authority on fictile restoration, RIS-PASQUOT, declares that none -can be trusted with anything valuable. There are so few needle-women -who can sew up a rent perfectly that a lady “to the manor born” paid -in Rome _two pounds_, or _fifty lire_, for being taught the stitch, -described in this book, by which it can be done. That it was a great -secret to an expert and accomplished needle-woman proves that it -cannot be generally known. A house-furnisher in London doing a large -business once explained to me with manifest pride how he had, by dint -of persuasion and treating, obtained from another what is really one -of the simplest recipes for restoring a brown stain. All of this being -true, it is apparent enough that any accomplished mender and restorer, -lady or gentleman, can hardly fail to make a living by the art; and I -sincerely believe that it is the simple truth that it is set forth in -the following pages so fully and clearly that any one who will make the -experiment can learn from it how to make a living. This is effectively, -in all its fulness, a new art and a new calling, and it is time that it -were established. - -It is a great mistake to suppose that manufacturers are necessarily -good menders of what they make. I have found, as have my readers, -that it is not the great watchmaker who oversees the production of -thousands of watches to whom a watch can be most safely trusted for -rehabilitation. For, in nine cases out of ten, it is some extremely -humble brother of the craft, who does nothing but mend in a small -shop, who restores your chronometer most admirably. The same is true -as regards trunks anywhere out of England, since in Germany and France -anything of the kind is invariably botched with incredible want of -skill. This runs through most trades; for which reason I believe that -a really well-accomplished general _mender_, earnestly devoted to the -calling in every detail and resolved to be perfect in it, could ere -long repair better than most manufacturers, since the latter, in these -days, all work by machinery or by vast subdivision of labour, and not, -so to speak, by hand. But all repairing _must_ be by hand. We can make -every detail of a watch or of a gun by machinery, but the machine -cannot mend it when broken, much less a clock or a pistol! - -The value of this book will appear to any one who knows how little -really good repairing there is in Europe. Since writing the foregoing -pages I have gone through the galleries of the Vatican and many other -museums, and been amazed at the coarse, ignorant, and bungling manner -in which the _great majority_ of antique statues and other objects of -immense value have been mended up. There is in most cases no pretence -whatever to conceal the lines of repair, and when this has been -attempted it has failed through ignorance of recipes and instructions -which may be found in this work. - - - - -A MANUAL OF - -MENDING AND REPAIRING - - - - -MATERIALS USED IN MENDING - - “_There are full many admirable and practical recipes_ - (Hausmitteln), _which are often known only in certain - families_.”--Die Natürliche Magie. By JOHANN C. WIEGLEB, 1782. - - -The art of mending or of repairing may be broadly stated as being -effected, firstly, by mechanical processes, such as those employed by -carpenters in nailing and joining, in embroidery with the needle, and -in metal-work with clumps, or soldering; and, secondly, by chemical -means. The latter consist of _cements_ and _adhesives_, which are, -however, effectively the same thing. This glue, or gum, is an adhesive -or _sticker_; that is, a simple substance which causes two objects to -adhere. The same, when combined with powder of chalk or glass, would -be a CEMENT. This latter term is again applied somewhat generally and -loosely by many, not only to all adhesives, but also more correctly to -all soft substances which harden, such as Portland cement, mortar, and -putty, and which are often used by themselves to form objects, such -as “bricks” and castings; but these latter, having also the quality of -acting as adhesives or stickers, are naturally regarded as being the -same. - -As will be speedily observed in the great number of recipes for -mending which will be given in this book, there are many which occur -frequently in different combinations; therefore it will be advisable -and indispensable for those who wish to master mending as an art to -indicate these as a basis. - -As SIGMUND LEHNER has observed in his valuable work on _Die Kitte- und -Klebemittel_, there have been such vast numbers of recipes published -of late years for adhesives in various technological works, that the -combination of the usual materials depends almost on the judgment of -the experimenter, and every practical operator will soon learn to make -inventions of his own. These materials, according to STOHMANN, may be -classified as follows:-- - - I. Those in which OIL is the basis. - II. Resin or pitch. - III. Caoutchouc (indiarubber) or gutta-percha. - IV. Gum or starch. - V. Lime and chalk. - -LEHNER extends the list as follows into adhesives, or cements:-- - - I. For glass and porcelain in every form. - - II. For metals not exposed to changes of temperature. - - III. For stoves and furnaces, or objects exposed to - heat. - - IV. For chemical apparatus and objects exposed to - corrosive liquids. - - V. Luting or cements, to protect glass or porcelain - vessels from the action of fire. - - VI. Cements for microscopic preparations, for filling - teeth and similar work. - - VII. Those for special objects, such as are made of - tortoise-shell, meerschaum (ivory), &c. - -OILS are divided into those (such as olive) which never become hard, -and the linseed, which in time dries into a substance like gum. The -latter combined with a great variety of mineral substances, such as -plumbago, calcined lime, magnesia, chalk, red oxide of iron, soapstone, -or with varnishes, forms insoluble “soaps,” which, as cements, resist -water. They require a long time to _set_ or become hard. - -RESINS and GUMS include a great number of substances, such as resin or -hard pitch, which is distilled from pine-trees; shellac, mastic, elemi, -copal, kauri gum, amber, gum arabic, dextrine made from flour, the gum -of the peach and cherry, and of many other trees. To these may be added -frankincense and tragacanth, which is less an adhesive than a stiffener -and dresser. Gums are generally rather brittle; this is remedied by -combination with oily substances, volatile oils, or caoutchouc. With -these gums LEHNER includes asphaltum. The defect of such adhesives is, -as he also remarks, that they will not resist _high_ temperatures. -This, however, will apply to most objects. - -VARNISH.--This belongs properly to the gums, but is technically -regarded as a separate material. It is gum in solution in turpentine or -spirits. For details vide _Die Fabrikation der Copal- Terpentinöl und -Spiritus-Lacke_, by L. E. Andés; Leipzig, price 5 m. 40 pf. - -CAOUTCHOUC and GUTTA-PERCHA are gums which when hard are still elastic, -and resist the action of water. I have read that a perfect imitation or -substitute for them has been made of turpentine, but have not seen it, -though I have met with glue made with oil and turpentine, which very -much resembled them in elasticity or flexibility. Reduced to a liquid -form with ether, benzine, &c., these gums can be kept in a liquid state -for a long time, and then hardened in any form by exposure to the air. -They enter into a very great variety of cements, such as are meant to -be tough or waterproof. Indiarubber is, on the whole, the best, and -gutta-percha the cheapest, for cements. - -GLUE.--This is made, by boiling, from horns and bones; it is -essentially the same as gelatine. It is the most generally known of all -adhesives, and may be modified by certain admixtures to suit almost -any substance. It has the peculiarity that it must always be boiled in -a _balneum mariæ_, or in a kettle in hot water in another kettle. Its -strength is vastly increased by admixture with nitric acid or _strong_ -vinegar. On the subject of glue in all its relations, the reader may -consult _Die Leim- und Gelatine-Fabrikation_, or “The Manufacture of -Glue and Gelatine,” by F. Dawidowsky; Vienna, price 3s. - -FLOUR-PASTE AND STARCH-PASTE.--These mixtures, though generally -used for weak work, such as to make papers adhere, can be very much -strengthened by admixture with glue and gums. Combined with certain -substances, such as paper, mineral powders, and _alum_, they, when -submitted to pressure, become intensely hard, and resist not only water -but heat, when not excessive. Also combined with varnishes they are -decided resistants. LEHNER speaks of them as if they were perishable in -any condition. - -STURGEON’S BLADDER.--With this the bladders of several kinds of fish -are classed. Cut in small pieces and dissolved in spirits it makes a -very strong adhesive, which is mixed with many others. - -LIME is the most extensively used cement in the world. Combined -with water it forms mortar. It is united with many substances, such -as caseine or cheese, the white of eggs, and silicate of soda, to -make powerful minor cements. On the subject of lime the practical -technologist should consult _Kalk und Luftmortel_, by Dr. Herrmann -Zwick; Vienna, A. Hartleben, price 3s., in which all details of the -subject are given in full. - -EGGS.--The yolk, and more particularly the white, of eggs is sometimes -used as an adhesive, and it enters into many very excellent cements. -For details as to the chemistry and technology of this material consult -_Die Fabrikationen von Albumin- und Eierkonserven_ (A Full Account of -the Characteristics of all Egg Substances, the Fabrication of Egg, and -Blood Albumen, &c.), by Karl Ruprecht; Vienna, A. Hartleben, price 2s. -3d. - -NEUTRAL SUBSTANCES, OR BINDING MATERIALS.--Almost any substance not -easily soluble in water, and many which are, from common dust or earth, -or clay, sand, chalk, powdered egg-shells, sawdust, shell-powder, &c., -when combined with certain adhesives, form cements. This is sometimes -due to chemical combination, but more frequently to mechanical union. -In the latter case the adhesive clinging to every separate grain has -the more points of adhesion, just as a man by clinging with both hands -to two posts is harder to remove than if he held by one. - -CASEINE OR CHEESE.--This in several forms, but chiefly of curd in -combination with several substances, but mostly with lime or borax, -forms a very valuable cement. It is also combined with strong _lye_ and -silicate of soda. It must not, however, be too much depended on as a -resistant to water or heat. - -BLOOD, generally of oxen or cows, combined with lime, alum, and coal -ashes, forms a solid and durable cement. - -GLYCERINE forms the basis, with plumbago, &c., of several cements. -Like oil, it renders glue flexible and partly waterproof. For chemical -details on this subject, vide _Das Glycerin_, by J. W. Koppe, Leipzig. - -GYPSUM is combined with many substances to form cements, some of them -of great and peculiar value. - -IRON pulverised is the basis of a great number of very durable and -strongly resistant cements. - -ALUM may be included among the bases, as it is very important in -several compositions, forming a powerful chemical aid. It is excellent -as aiding resistance to both moisture and heat. For an exhaustive -work on alum consult _Die Fabrikation des Alauns_, &c., by Frederic -Junemann, which should be carefully studied by all who work in cements. - -There is a very great number of “indifferent” or minor aids to these, -such as sugar, milk, honey, spirits of wine, water, ochre, galbanum, -tannin, ammonia, feldspar, plumbago, sulphur, vinegar, salt, zinc -(white), umber, bismuth, tin, cadmium, clay, ashes, &c., which are -essential in certain combinations. - -DEXTRINE, the gum of flour or starch, or _Leiokom_, much resembles -gum-arabic, but is more brittle. Its adhesiveness depends somewhat on -the manner in which it is dissolved. “It is,” says LEHNER, “prepared -by heating starch which has been moistened with nitric acid; also by -warming paste with very much diluted sulphuric acid.” - -WAX, including that of bees as well as paraffine, is used in repairs, -and forms a part of several cements. On this subject consult _Das -Wachs_, or “Wax and its Technical Applications,” by Ludwig Sedna; -Leipzig, 2s. 6d. - -SILICATE OF SODA, OR LIQUID GLASS.--This is generally sold in the form -of a very dense liquid. It is prepared by mixing quartz or flint sand -with soda, or more rarely with potash. “It is,” says LEHNER, “a glass -which is distinguished from other glasses by being easily soluble -in water. It is believed to be a very modern invention; but I have -seen Venetian glasses of the fifteenth century which appeared to be -painted with it, or something very similar; and I have found decided -indications of a knowledge of it in two writers of the sixteenth -century, WOLFGANG HILDEBRAND and VAN HELMONT. According to Wagner, -there are three kinds of liquid glass. By itself liquid glass can only -be used for mending glass; but when combined with other substances, -such as cement, calcined lime, or clay, or glass, in powder, it forms -a body as hard as stone, or a double silicate, which is strongly -resistant to chemical influences.” It occupies the first position as -an adhesive for glass, nor is it surpassed as a cement in solid form. -On this subject vide _Wasserglas und Infusorienerde_, &c., by Hermann -Krätzer; Vienna, 3s. - -NATURAL CEMENT, OR HYDRAULIC LIME.--This is familiarly known to all -readers as Portland cement, but it is found of different qualities -in many countries, and is also made artificially. Certain mineral -substances have the quality when powdered and combined with water of -setting hard as stone; hence the name _hydraulic_. I have seen at -Budapest articles of Portland cement made in Hungary which equalled in -appearance fine black slate or marble, and, while much less brittle, -were indeed in every respect more durable and resistant to exposure. -These artificial cements can be largely incorporated with indifferent -substances, such as sand; they, however, require intense baking, and -may in consequence be regarded as a kind of fictile ware. - -Portland cement is very thoroughly treated in _Hydraulischer Kalk und -Portland Cement_ (in all their relations), by Dr. H. Zwick. - -TRAGACANTH, though called a gum, is properly nothing of the kind, not -being a true adhesive. It is the product of the _Astragalus verus_, a -tree found in Asia. It swells out in water, and softens, but without -dissolving. It is more of a glaze than a paste; hence it is used -extensively by confectioners, bookbinders, or to stiffen laces. It -enters, however, into the composition of several cements. - -BREAD may be classed as a material by itself, as it derives certain -peculiar virtues from the yeast which causes its fermentation. With -certain combinations it becomes wax-like, or hard, and may be used to -advantage in many repairs as well as for modelling. It has the great -advantage of being easily worked and always at hand. - -CELLULOID is treated of in this work under the head of Artificial -Ivory. It is made from gun-cotton and camphor. For full information on -this subject consult _Das Celluloid_, or “Celluloid, its Raw Materials, -Manufacture, Peculiarities, and Technical Applications, &c.,” by Dr. -Fr. Böckmann, Vienna and Leipzig. - -POTATOES, peeled and mashed, and kept for thirty-six hours in a mixture -of eight parts of sulphuric acid to a hundred of water, and then dried -and pressed, form a white, hard substance very much like ivory, or, -as one may say, like white boxwood. LEHNER expresses his doubt as to -whether artificial meerschaum pipes were ever made of this substance, -but I have seen them, and can testify that they looked like meerschaum, -and certainly were much harder than _bruyere_, or briar-wood. Whether -they will “colour” I cannot say. - -The principle by which potatoes, paper, and many other substances can -be hardened like parchment or horn is curious. Potatoes consist of -about seventy per cent. water and twenty-five per cent. of starch, the -remainder being salts and _cellulose_, which forms cells surrounded by -the grains of starch. “When such a substance is for some time brought -into contact with diluted sulphuric acid, that which results is simply -a contraction of the cells” (_i.e._, a hardening), “or a kind of -parchmenting.” Thus soft paper is converted into parchment. - -It is evident that chemistry is as yet in its infancy as regards the -conversion of cellulose by acid into hard substances. Since cotton, -paper, and potatoes all produce by this process different substances, -it is probable that hundreds of organic, or at least vegetable, -substances will all yield new forms. - -There is a marked difference between paste made of _starch_ or -_flour_, each having its peculiar merits. The former is principally -prepared from potatoes. To prepare the cement we mix it with a very -little water, stirring it very thoroughly till it assumes a bluish -appearance. A little more hot water is then added, and the mass left -till an opal-like tinge indicates that it has formed. To this then add -hot water _ad libitum_. As it is almost colourless in very thin coats, -it is largely used to glaze and give body or weight to, and often -to simply falsify, woven fabrics, which by its aid seem heavier. To -increase this weight white lead and other substances are used. - -To make the best flour-paste, flour should be kneaded in a bag under -water till all the starch is washed away. What remains is a substance -closely allied to caseine, or the white of egg. Combined with lime it -forms a hard cement. A very slight admixture of carbolic acid (also -oil of cloves) will keep paste from souring or decay. This acid has -the property of destroying the growth of the minute vegetation which -constitutes fermentation, just as other strong scents or perfumes are -supposed to disinfect rooms, &c. - -A very great number of other ingredients, such as the oxides of lead -or zinc, manganese, baryta, sulphur, sal ammoniac, flint-sand, clay, -salt, ochre, varnish, galbanum, or frankincense, enter into certain -recipes, but those already given may be regarded as constituting by far -the principal portion of all cements in ordinary use. - - - - -MENDING BROKEN CHINA, PORCELAIN, CROCKERY, MAJOLICA, TERRA-COTTA, BRICK -AND TILE WORK. - - -Fictile or Ceramic ware embraces, roughly speaking, all that is made of -clay, or mineral bases or materials, and which is subsequently baked -to give it hardness. The better the material and the more intense the -heat, or the greater the number of bakings to which most kinds are -subjected, the harder and more lasting will they be. The old china ware -which preceded porcelain, a great many specimens of old Roman vessels, -and, for a more modern example, old Italian majolica and Hungarian -wine-pitchers, made all within a century, are as hard as stone. They -chip a great deal before they break, just as agate might do. - -TERRA-COTTA is simply earth or clay “baked.” In most of the examples -known as terra-cotta, earth predominates. Pure fine clay well fired is -superior to what is generally called terra-cotta. Neither can we really -class with it articles made of superior Portland cement, of which, as I -have said, I have seen many made at Budapest which were like the finest -hard slate. - -Many writers confuse majolica with faïence; others regard the latter -as what we should call crockery, or such ware as ranges between glazed -terra-cotta and porcelain. - -MAJOLICA consists generally of terra-cotta covered with a glaze. -A glaze is a fusible substance, we may say a kind of glass, mixed -with colouring matter, which is at the same time a protection and an -ornament. Enamel is glass in fine powder melted, used generally on -metal or by itself. The base of the paint is a substance fusible by -heat which is mixed with colours also fusible. Therefore when the -painting is submitted to heat it melts, adheres, and is permanent. -Glazing, enamelling, and china painting are essentially the same. - -Terra-cotta is not difficult to mend. I can best illustrate this by an -example. A friend once gave me a terra-cotta vase from the Pyramid of -Cholula, in Mexico. These are supposed to be of very great antiquity. -This contained a fragment of pottery, probably a sacred relic of ruder -style, and I suppose of far earlier times. The vase, however, had -been broken to fragments, and the owner was about to throw it away as -worthless. I begged it of him. Firstly, I put the principal pieces -together, using, to make them adhere, glue with nitric acid. For finer -work I should have used Turkish cement or the best gum-mastic dissolved -in spirit or fish glue. Piece by piece with care I reconstructed the -whole. - -There was wanting, however, one piece about three inches square. I -pasted with great care a piece of paper inside the vase for a _back_, -and then poured on it plaster of Paris liquefied with water. To make -this _set_ hard, the plaster or _gesso_ should be made with burnt -alum-water and dissolved gum-arabic. This exactly supplied the missing -piece. - -When it was finished, I filled in all the broken edges and other -cavities with the plaster-paste, which set even harder than the -terra-cotta. The outer colour of the vase was of reddish rusty black. -I painted the whole over with a corresponding colour; that is to say, -I rubbed it in by thumb, which is very different from mere painting. -By cementing and rubbing I so restored the whole that the repair was -hardly perceptible. This process is carried to great perfection in -Italy with broken Etruscan ware. - -I may here remark as regards _rubbing in_ oil or water colours, that it -is little known or practised, but it is of great value in restoration -when we wish to produce certain curious antique-looking effects. I -once knew in Rome an artist who had bought for a trifle an old carved -_baule_ or chest. By rubbing in with care on it Naples yellow and brown -shades, and subsequent friction, he had made it look strangely like -old ivory. Mere painting, however skilfully performed, would not have -given it its antique ivory look. The same artist had purchased one or -two common, large, yellowish terra-cotta wine-jars. He drew on them -classical figures, cut out the outlines a little with chisel and file, -and smoothing the figures with sandpaper, also ivoried the whole by -_rubbing in_ colour. This was but a few hours’ work, yet the effect was -startling. What had cost but a few francs would have sold for hundreds. -I should add that with the aid of fine retouching flexible varnish this -process could be very much facilitated. Any one who can draw or paint -at all can try this experiment on any old piece of wood-carving, or -on a common yellow coarse earthenware. Smooth the latter first with -sandpaper, then rub in the colours. The same is applicable to old -carving in marble. - -All of these devices are of use to the restorer. As regards restoration -of terra-cotta, the field is wide and profitable. Not only in Italy, -but even in London, we may find for sale broken Etruscan vases or -similar objects for a trifle, which are extremely easy to restore. -These are generally of red or light yellow clay baked. If you have, let -us say, a vase fractured, obtain clay of the same colour--if you cannot -readily get it, take pipeclay--and colour it with a strong infusion of -red or yellow, though this is not necessary if the exterior is black. -Mix the clay well with glue or gum-arabic and alum-water, supply the -missing portions, and let them harden. With a little care and practice, -remarkable restorations may thus be made. I may here add that with -this composition, bottles, decanters, and cups can be coated, which, -when painted or rubbed in, exactly resemble Etruscan or other ancient -pottery. To prevent cracking, they should first be painted with thick, -coarse oil paint mixed with sand or umber, which forms a ground. Let it -dry--the longer the better--and then rub in, thinly, the gum and clay. -There is another composition of _blanc d’Espagne_, or whiting, and -silicate of soda, which sets even harder, but which is a little more -difficult at first to work, which may be used for such restoration. -This can be directly painted on glass for a ground. - -_Majolica_ or _Faïence_ can generally be sufficiently well mended with -acidulated glue, but as the latter often communicates a dark stain, -it is better to use for fine ware, or any which is to be used, the -so-called Turkish cement. The best quality of this is made of the -finest quality of gum-mastic dissolved in spirit. It is so tenacious -that in the East gems are frequently directly attached by means of it -to metal, and they will often break sooner than separate from it. Most -chemists have for sale, or will prepare for you, some form of it. The -silicate of potash and whiting can also be supplied by chemists; they -should be mixed with great care, so as to form a medium paste, and then -used rapidly and with skill, because this cement hardens very quickly. -It is, however, a very powerful binder, and sets as hard as glass. - -Having put together and cemented the broken pieces of a cup or vase, -they must be kept in place till the cement dries. This is effected by -means of many contrivances, regarding which the operator must employ -_some_ original inventiveness. Firstly, the pieces can often be simply -tied, or attached by pieces of tape, or parchment, or paper glued on. -In other cases india-rubber bands are useful. Again, bits of wood, or -sticks and wires, are the things useful. A bed of wax is generally a -sure guard. It is best to do this with great care, and not impatiently -rely on holding the pieces together with the fingers till they stick. -This is often the most difficult part of the whole operation; therefore -it should be done well and deliberately. And here it may be remarked -that, as in surgery, the most complicated cases of fracture may be -studied out and adjusted; for which reason I dare say that skilful -surgeons would be good menders of crockery, just as good astronomers -are always good riflemen. - -When the broken pieces are adjusted and all is dry, there remain -the chips, hollows, ragged edges, and “hairs,” as the French call -them, or lines of juncture, to be filled and smoothed. This is done -with the cement which you employ, according to the quality of the -material, either plaster and gum-arabic, silicate and whiting, or -powdered chalk. Some experts succeed with white of an egg and finely -powdered quicklime, which holds firmly, but which requires practice to -amalgamate. Fill the cavities carefully, pressing the cement well in, -as the Romans did, with a stick or point. When all is smooth, paint -over the blank spaces and varnish with Sohnée, No. 3, or with a slight -coating of silicate. Fine copal varnish is rather tougher or less -brittle. - -The most thorough process of all is to unite the fragments with a -vitreous or metallic _flux_, such as the silicate--there are several of -these--and then have the work baked or fired. It can then be painted -with porcelain colours under glaze, and fired again. As this is very -delicate, difficult, and expensive, few amateurs will care to try -it. It is, however, perfect, and by means of it the most complete -reparation can be effected. The Japanese do this simply with the -blow-pipe, by means of which they fix enamel powders even on wood. This -use of the pipe is also difficult, but the ancient Romans are said to -have employed the process with most minor work. As a thread of glass -will melt in a candle, and as fine-glass powder is equally fusible, it -can be understood that under the flame of a blow-pipe the latter can -often be melted so as to avail in restoration. - -CROCKERY, OR FAÏENCE, AND PORCELAIN.--“Crockery,” by which we commonly -understand such ware as that of the blue willow plates, is far -superior to terra-cotta, since its _core_ or basis is thin, and very -hard, and its gloss of a different description, and more incorporated -with the body; or it is of a single superior body. - -PORCELAIN differs entirely from the other two kinds of fictile ware, -being an elaborate mineralogical compound, its base being _kaolin_, -a friable, white, earthy substance, requiring great care in its -preparation, and _petunse_, or feldspar, which is united with the -_kaolin_. The result is a very delicate and beautiful diaphanous -ware, or one through which light passes to a limited degree. Both -crockery and porcelain are far more difficult to mend, owing to the -impossibility--particularly with the latter--of making fractures -disappear. - -The first and most simple process of mending both kinds of ware is -to make small holes with a drill along the edges of the fracture, -and then, adjusting the fragments, bind them together with wire. M. -RIS-PAQUOT claims that “the honour of this discovery belongs properly -to a humble and modest workman named DELILLE, of the little village of -Montjoye, in Normandy.” But the archæologist will say of this claim, -as the English judge did of a similar one, that the plaintiff might as -well apply for a patent for having discovered the art of mixing brandy -with water, since there was probably never yet a savage who had wire, -or even string, who did not know enough to mend broken calabashes, -jars, and pipes by this solid method of sewing. From the time when -large earthen punch-bowls were first used in Europe, we find them -mended with silver wire. It is needless to devote whole pages with -illustrations, as M. RIS-PAQUOT has done, to show how to effect such -mending. The holes are made with either a bore or hand drill, such as -can be bought in every tool shop. If the reader will obtain one and -experiment with it on any penny plate or broken fragment, he will soon -master all the mystery. The wire is made fast by a turn with a pair of -nippers or pincers. Before fastening, wash the edges of the ware with -white of egg in which a very little whiting, or finely powdered lime or -plaster of Paris, has been mixed. - -I may here observe that the wire for china-drilling should be half -round, or flat on one side. To prepare this, take brass wire, say a -length of about two feet, and, holding an old knife, draw the wire -firmly and steadily against it. - -There are endless cements for sale by chemists, all warranted perfect, -to mend glass and china, and most of them do indeed answer the purpose -very well, for nature has given us not a few materials wherewith to -repair accidents. Thus, even boiling in milk will often suffice to -reunite broken edges. But I believe that of all, the Turkish cement -already described, which is made of gum MASTIC (a term improperly -applied in France to putty, by Americans to lime-plaster on houses, and -by Levantines to spirit with resin in it), is the most adhesive and -resistant to heat, cold, or moisture. - -The art of mending does not consist so much of knowing what to use for -an ADHESIVE (since, as I have said, every chemist’s shop abounds in -these) as in skill and tact with which fragments are brought and kept -together, missing portions supplied, and in knowing the substance with -which to fill a blank. There are cases in which, when a hole has been -knocked in a china or glass plate, it can be drilled out round, and a -disc of the same substance or colour, or even of another, inserted. -This is almost an art by itself, and by means of it very singular and -puzzling effects may be introduced; as, for instance, when a number of -holes are drilled in a white china plate and then filled with discs -of coloured china, agate, coral, &c. In the East, turquoise and coral -beads are often thus set into porcelain, as well as wood. The mastic or -acidulated glue is used to make the objects inserted hold firmly. - -As the smoker, when he breaks his pipe across the stem, has it repaired -with a short silver slide or tube, so when a china jar is broken across -the neck, the reparation can be concealed by a silver collar, which is -sometimes a great improvement; as, for instance, when the head of a -china dog, or even of a china man, is taken off. But in a great many -cases, or in all where this kind of concealment is advisable, it may -be made, like Cæsar’s wife, beyond suspicion, by making the collar or -concealing ornament, or leaf or flower, of silicate and whiting so as -to resemble the ware itself, which can be done very nicely. - -SILICATE OF SODA is sometimes sold in the form of a dry solid, which is -placed in a little vinegar, and warmed. When dissolved it can be used -_ad libitum_. It is often used as a glaze for stone. - -There is a curious old story about mending broken crockery by means of -magic--or rather by deceit--which, though not of a practical nature, is -at least amusing. It is partially told in a book published about 1670, -entitled _Joco-Seriorum Naturæ et Artis Magiæ Naturales Centuriæ Tres_. -It happened once in Mergentheim that there was a great fair, when the -whole courtyard of the palace was full of earthenware vessels for sale -_ab assidentibus muliebibus_ (by attendant women). Seeing this, the -Prince of Mergentheim went about among these women, and so arranged it -that they divided all their stock into two parts, or exact duplicates, -half of which they hid away, while the other half was exposed for sale. -While at dinner the Prince spoke much of magic, and professed to be -able to produce such a delirium in people’s minds that they would act -like lunatics. “Thus, for instance,” he said, pointing casually out of -the window, “you see all those women. I can drive them mad at once.” -Whereupon one who was present wagered a handsome carriage and four -horses that the Prince could not do it. The latter smiled, waved his -hand, and uttered a spell, when lo! all at once the market-women began, -_bacchantium more_--like raging Bacchantæ--to attack their crockery -with sticks and stools, and hurl it about, and dash it to pieces. - -The one who had betted the chariot protested that it was a trick -arranged beforehand. The Prince replied, “Well, the pots are all -broken. If I can mend them again by a spell, wilt thou then believe?” -The other said, “Most certainly.” Then the Prince waved his wand and -said, “It is done. Let us go down into the courtyard and see.” And when -there, sure enough they found the pots all whole again--at least they -discovered others exactly like them in their places. - -The legend continued that the Prince, though he kept the carriage and -horses as a trophy, liberally paid for them. The author of the _Tres -Centuriæ_, who does not record the secret of the little arrangement, -declares that he does not know whether it was all done by a fraud -or by magic. If it was the latter, I regret that the incantation by -which broken crockery is mended is now lost. The most powerful spell -known to me is _Recipe Gummæ Mastichæ duæ unciæ cum Spirito Vini -fiat mixtio_--that is, mastic cement. It is generally combined with -sturgeon’s bladder glue. - -This cement answers very well for glass. One of the old recipes, -which was very good indeed, is thus given by JOHANNES WALLBURGER -(1760):--“Take finely cut and a little powdered sturgeon’s bladder” -(still sold by all chemists), “soften it all night in spirits, add to -this a little clean and powdered mastic, boil it a little in a brass -pan. Should it become too thick, add a little spirits.” This may be -also used for many other purposes. - -A strong but coarser adhesive, especially for crockery and stone, can -be made as follows:--Take old and hard goat’s milk cheese, and warm it -in hot water till it forms, by pounding, a mass like turpentine. Add to -this, while grinding, finely pulverised quicklime and the well-shaken -white of eggs. - -I do not hesitate to give a variety of such recipes, because in every -one the artist will find valuable suggestions for other purposes than -simply glueing broken articles together. This latter is a valuable -“filler” for many purposes. Glue was formerly made into a strong -cement by boiling it for a time in water, but before it had become -incorporated with the water, the latter was poured off and strong -spirits substituted and stirred well in. - -A very popular old cement for crockery, of which there were several -variations, was made by mixing glue, turpentine, ox-gall, the juice -of garlic, and sturgeon-bladder, tragacanth, and mastic. All of this -singularly smelling mixture was put into a pan and boiled in strong -spirits, such as whisky, then kneaded on a board under a roller, again -boiled with more spirits, yet again rolled, and this was repeated a -third time, and then cooled till it could be cut into cakes. When these -were to be used they were again steeped in spirits. But with this -cement, glass or metal could be most firmly attached to wood. I confess -that I have never tried it, but it was evidently a very strong cement. - -Another of these somewhat complicated recipes for crockery, glass, -and porcelain, which I find in the _Tausandkünstler_, 1782, is -as follows:--Half an ounce of finely cut sturgeon’s bladder, two -teaspoonfuls of alabaster powder or gypsum, quarter of an ounce of -tragacanth, one teaspoonful of silberglatt, two of powdered mastic, -two of frankincense, two of gum-arabic, one of Marienglas, one -tablespoonful of spirits of wine, one of beer-vinegar. Boil it and -stir, and apply. Any drops sticking to the mended article may be -removed with vinegar. When it is to be used again revive it by heating, -adding spirits of wine and beer-vinegar. The gum-frankincense is here -worth noting. - -A common cement for mending broken glass or china is prepared as -follows:--To two parts of gum-shellac add one of turpentine; boil them -over a slow fire, and form the mass into small cakes before it dries. -To use it, warm with a lamp. To mend ivory or wood, take a cake and let -it dissolve in spirits of wine. - -A very strong cement is made as follows:--Take one ounce of finely -powdered mastic dissolved in six of spirits of wine and two ounces of -shredded sturgeon’s bladder dissolved in two ounces common spirits; add -one half ounce of _gum-ammoniac_ as it hardens; warm it when it is to -be used. This is as strong a cement as can be made. - -Defects, cracks, and repairs in porcelain, &c., may often be concealed -as follows:--Paint the spot with silicate of soda, not too much -thinned, and dust it over before it dries with bronze powder. This will -set so hard that it may be polished with an agate burnisher. - -It is also possible that many of my readers have heard of _gesso -painting_, an art perfected by Mr. WALTER CRANE. This consists of -painting with plaster of Paris in solution, with the point of a brush, -depositing the soft paste in relief. The same principle is applicable -to painting in silicate and whiting on glass surfaces. By means of it -decoration can be given to any glass bottle or other object. - -LIME enters into the composition of many cements, the simplest being -the mortar formed by its admixture with water. But the quality of -this is very much determined by that of the lime. The _chunam_ of -India, which resembles white marble or a fine white stone, is made of -sea-shells burned to lime. A wonderfully hard, fine, white cement used -by the Romans for their best mosaic-work, and which set with great -rapidity, was made of shell-lime with the white of eggs. I have found -the same composition worthless when made with inferior stone-lime. - -A good cheap cement for porcelain and glass is combined as follows:-- - - Starch or wheat flour 8 - Glue 4 - Purified chalk 12 - Turpentine 4 - Spirits of wine 24 - Water 24 - -Pour a part of the spirits and water mixed on the flour and chalk, -add the glue, boil it down till the latter dissolves, and stir the -turpentine into the whole. This can be used to make artificial wood -with shavings or sawdust. - -A very good cement for porcelain, and one which is colourless, is made -by cutting the finest clear gelatine into bits, and dissolving it in -vinegar of 50°, stirring it in a porcelain vessel until well mixed. -When cold it will harden, but softens under the influence of heat, -when it may be applied to the broken edges of the porcelain, which are -to be pressed together. It will be perfectly hard within twenty-four -hours. It is to be observed that the art of keeping such joined pieces -together is the most difficult problem in mending. This cement is -widely applicable to many objects, and also admits of considerable -modification and additions, like all cements. As it is colourless, it -may be combined with ivory dust, or white powders of baryta, magnesia, -whiting, &c., to form artificial ivory with glycerine. With sturgeon’s -bladder it makes a still stronger cement. - -LEHNER observes that glue has the property, when combined with acid -chrome salt (_sauren chromsalzen_), of losing its solubility when -exposed to the light, so that it can be used as a cement for broken -porcelain and glass. If the juncture is to be invisible, take the -purest white gelatine; otherwise the cheaper gilder’s glue will answer. -To prepare the chrome glue, dissolve the gelatine or the glue in -boiling water, then add the solution of double chromic acid alkali, or -the red chrome alkali of commerce, stir it well up, and put it into tin -boxes. - -The formula is:-- - - Gelatine or gilders’ glue 5-10 - Water 90 - Red chrome alkali 1-2 - Dissolved in water 10 - -To use, warm the cement, apply it to the broken glass, which must then -be exposed for several hours to the sunshine. - -Cracked bottles are mended by a very ingenious process, described by -LEHNER. The bottle is corked, but not tightly, and then exposed to -heat about 100° centigrade. Then the cork is driven in tightly, which -causes an expansion of the cracks, which are at once filled by means -of a finely pointed brush with the silicate. Removed to a cooler place -the glass contracts on the as yet fluid silicate, and the fractures are -mended. - - * * * * * - -A VERY STRONG, CLEAN CEMENT FOR PORCELAIN OR GLASS is made as follows:-- - - Well-cleaned glass powder 10 - ” fluor spar powder 20 - Silicate of soda solution 60 - -This must be very quickly stirred and applied. This is one of the -_hardest_ and best cements, and it resists heat and other influences -so well that when very carefully amalgamated it may be applied to the -manufacture of many useful articles. The same may be made with the -substitution of white pipeclay for fluor spar, or with the addition of -the same in somewhat larger proportion. Pipeclay or any good clay can -also be combined with glycerine to prevent its drying. With gelatine -and a _little_ glycerine it will harden and not crack. - -This requires careful amalgamation and rapid work. - -To prepare very fine glass-powder for this cement, heat any glass till -red-hot, then drop it into cold water. It may then be reduced in a -mortar to an impalpable powder. - -Earthenware tubes or pipes which are to be exposed to intense heat may -be luted or joined with the following cement:-- - - Peroxide of manganese 80 - White oxide of zinc 100 - Silicate of soda 20 - -“This does _not melt_, save at a very high temperature; and when -melted it forms a glassy substance, which holds with extreme tenacity” -(LEHNER). - -To prepare _caseine_ cement for crockery or marble, it may be observed -that we should always take _fresh_ white cheese and macerate or knead -it thoroughly till only pure CASEINE remains. By adding to this -one-third of powdered quicklime and blending the two ingredients -very thoroughly we get a very strong glue. An admixture of 10 parts -silicate of soda also forms a powerful cement. - -The following for tile-work and common brick-crockery, or terra-cotta -or porcelain, is very highly commended by LEHNER, who says that -anything mended with it will sooner break in another place than where -it is cemented:-- - - Slacked lime 10 - Borax 10 - Litharge 5 - -The cement is mixed with water, and the tile or crockery, &c., heated -just before being mended. - -I cannot insist too strongly on this--that no one is to expect that by -simply taking recipes, as written, compounding and applying them, there -will be a successful result at the first trial. We must always have the -best material, often fresh, and generally attempt the application more -than once. _Perseverando vinces_--“By perseverance you will conquer.” -Not only must the _quality_ of the ingredients used be of the best, but -the composition be made exactly in the order in which they are given. -The same substances often give very different results, simply because -the order of combination in the two was different. - -TO REPAIR PAVEMENTS:-- - - Calcined lime 10 - Purified chalk 100 - Silicate of soda 25 - -This hardens slowly. It can, when mixed with small sharp-edged -fragments of broken stone, be used to form pavements, or as a bed for -mosaics. For the same purposes, or for cementing marble slabs, a cement -known as that of BÖTTGER may be used. It is made thus:-- - - Purified chalk 100 - Thick solution silicate of soda 25 - -This becomes (LEHNER) in a few hours so hard that it can be polished. -It is the principal, and almost the only, cement used by M. -RIS-PACQUOT, or commended in his work on mending crockery. It admits -of a great variety of modifications. It is very superior as a bed for -mosaics of all kinds. It forms, like the preceding, also a good bed for -scagliola and ceresa.[1] I would here say of the latter, that I could -wish to see it more generally used for mural or wall ornament, since -any one who can paint a face or decoration boldly and largely in oil -or water colours will find it very easy. It admits of rapid execution, -and is striking from its brilliancy. Everything in it depends on -having a good bed to which it can easily adhere. I may here observe -that beds like these which set hard and _fine_ are also adapted to -fresco-painting, in which the difficulty is to select colours which, -when absorbed and dried, do not fade. Most paints made from mineral -substances combine with silicate of soda. - -I may here remark that a curious and easy art, very little known, -consists of carving or cutting low reliefs on tiles or terra-cotta or -brick-like ware, which, when outlined or in relief, can be glazed in -colour with silicate of soda; also with many other cements. - -A common and good CEMENT FOR PORCELAIN OR GLASS is made as follows:-- - - Calcined gypsum or plaster of Paris 50 - Calcined lime 10 - White of egg 20 - -This must be quickly mingled and rapidly used, as it sets very rapidly -and becomes extremely hard. It makes an admirable bed for mosaics or -ceresa. - -When plaster of Paris is simply combined with burnt alum in water, the -objects mended with it require several weeks to set or adhere. Gypsum -combined with gum alone holds firmly, but does not resist water (vide -_General Recipes_). - -CEMENTS FOR LUTING or closing chemical apparatus:-- - - Dried clay 10 - Linseed-oil 1 - -This endures heat to boiling-point of quicksilver. - -A more resistant fireproof is as follows:-- - - Manganese 10 - Grey oxide of zinc 20 - Clay 40 - Linseed-oil varnish 7 - -Of the oil only so much is needed as to combine the mass to a paste. - -A LUTING for very high temperatures:-- - - Clay 100 - Glass powder 2 - -Another CEMENT:-- - - Clay 100 - Chalk 2 - Boracic acid 3 - -LEHNER has in his work on Cements many valuable suggestions as to -mending porcelain. _Firstly_, that in such mending, the adhesive be -applied with care, in as even and as thin a coat as possible; to -which I would add, that the unskilful amateur is apt to daub it on -irregularly and carelessly, with the impression that the more cement -there is the better it will stick, which is just so far wrong that -every superfluous grain is just so much of an impediment to good -drying or adhesion. Again, the inexpert daubs it on with a stick or -“anything,” when a fine-pointed brush or hair-pencil should be used. - -BROKEN CHINA WHICH IS TO BE MENDED should be carefully covered away -so as to protect it from dust, which is hard to clean off. Beware of -fitting the pieces together again and again, as is often done. - -If the broken china was used to contain milk or soup, &c., it should -be laid in lye to dissolve all the fatty substance, and then be washed -with clear water. Painted porcelain cannot, however, be laid in lye, -which would ruin all the colours; in this case wipe them clean with -dilute acid. - -The great difficulty in mending is to bring the pieces together and -keep them so till the adhesive dries. LEHNER recommends that when -objects are small and costly, a mould of gypsum be constructed round -them. In most cases putty or wax is far more manageable. As before -remarked, indiarubber bands are chiefly to be relied on; even if not -capable of holding permanently, they aid greatly in tying with cord. - -In the Manual of F. GOUPIL, rewritten by FREDERICK DILLAYE, the -following method of restoring broken vases, &c., is commended:-- - -“Form a solid mass of clay in the form of the original object. Then -place on it, one by one, the fragments in their place, keeping the clay -moist. When this is done, paste over the exterior strips of paper, in -sufficient quantity to hold the whole firmly together. Then remove -the moist clay, and paste strong slips of paper” (or thin parchment) -“over the interior so as to hold the whole. Then” (when dry) “carefully -moisten and remove the outer coating.” - -The author mentions that this is only applicable to vases the mouth of -which is wide enough to permit the hand to be introduced. I would here, -however, add, that even when it is too small for this purpose, the -restoration can be equally well effected as follows:--Make the core of -wet clay, or, better, of beeswax, then paste over it thin tough paper. -Cover this with gum-arabic solution, and set the pieces on it. When -dry, melt out the wax or clay. - -Fish-gum, _colle de poisson_--that is to say, what is generally called -_sturgeon’s bladder_, which includes the bladder of several kinds of -fishes dissolved--is best for glass, marble, porcelain, and all kinds -of mending where the cement should not show. This, when combined with -oil, is _said_, if mixed with cloth-dust and fibre of wool or silk or -cotton, to spin up into thread. - - - - -MENDING GLASS - -WITH SEVERAL ALLIED PROCESSES - -APPROVED CEMENTS--SILICATE OF SODA - - “_Glück und Glas - Wie bald bricht dass._” - - “_Good luck, like glass, - Soon breaks, alas! - Yet skill can bring it so to pass - As to mend a fortune or a glass._” - - --Old German Proverb. - - -Putty is naturally the first cement which suggests itself in connection -with the mending of glass, since this latter material is most familiar -to the world in the form of windows, although in many places--as, for -instance, Florence, where it is called _mastico_ and _pasta_--it is -little used or known. The word is from the French _potée_, which also -means a potful. It is very useful, not only for setting glass-panes, -but for filling holes in wood, and forms a part of certain mixtures as -a cement for moulding ornaments. It may be weak and brittle, or else -strong and very hard, according to the manner in which it is prepared. -It is commonly made by combining chalk in paste, with water, with -linseed-oil; other powders are also used. In America it is made with -pulverised soap-stone and oil. Its excellence depends on the quality -of the oil and the care with which it is kneaded. It should be kept in -a damp cellar, in wet cloth or under water. Should it dry and become -brittle, fresh oil must be added. - -“_To take hard old putty from glass window-panes_, cover it with a -mixture of one part of calcined lime, two of soda, and two of water” -(LEHNER). Oxide of lead combined with oil makes an excellent but yellow -putty. It sets very hard. - -The white or grey oxide of zinc combined with linseed-oil or -linseed-oil varnish makes a cement which is used for making glass -adhere to wood or metal. - -_Thick lacquers_, such as copal or amber, may be used instead of common -varnish with better effect, and the composition is better when calcined -lime or oxide of lead are added. The excellence of the cement depends -on the degree to which the ingredients are amalgamated or rubbed in -together; and this rule holds good for all similar mixtures. - -_Varnish_, or heavy or “flat” lacquer of copal or amber, forms of -itself a strong adhesive, with the only drawback that it takes a long -time to dry. - -A VERY GOOD CEMENT FOR GLASS (LEHNER) is as follows: - - Gutta-percha 100 - Black pitch (asphalt) 100 - Oil of turpentine 15 - -This is a glue of general application, and specially good for leather -and mending shoes. - -The reader who would thoroughly study the subject of glass may consult -_Die Glas-Fabrikation_, a very admirable work by Raimund Gerner, glass -manufacturer; A. Hartleben, Vienna and Leipzig, price 4s. 6d. - -Small triangles of sheet tin or iron are often used to fasten panes. - -The mending of broken glass is in most cases much the same as that -of broken crockery or porcelain. The cement made from mastic, or -mastic combined with sturgeon’s bladder, or generally of silicate with -whiting, is the proper adhesive. As silicate of soda is simply liquid -glass, it can be employed to fill spaces or to make glass; but, owing -to its sticky nature, it is hard to manage. This may be often effected -by first preparing a layer of soft paper, on which successive coats of -silicate are laid. When dry the paper can be washed away. - -SILICATE OF SODA has become of such importance that a French work on -mending fictile ware is almost entirely limited to its use as a binder, -when combined with whiting. _Water-glass_ was long supposed to be a -modern invention, till some one found it described in Van Helmont’s -works, A.D. 1610. But I have found it also in the _Joco-seriorum -Naturæ_, 1545; in the _Magia Naturalis_ of Wolfgang Hildebrand, -which is of the same time; and, finally, by _Paracelsus_ (_Liber de -Præparationibus_), where he describes it as _Destillatio Crystalli_. -And the author of the _Joco-seriorum_ speaks of soft glass as a thing -which had been treated by several writers. - -According to WAGNER there are three kinds of soluble glass--(i.) -the soluble potash glass, 45 silex, 3 charcoal, 34 carb. potass.; -(ii.) soluble soda glass, 100 pts. quartz, 60 cal. sulp. soda, 15 of -charcoal; (iii.) double soluble glass, 100 quartz, 22 cal. soda, -28 carb. potass., 6 wood-coal. Water-glass combines well with any -“indifferent” powder, such as powdered glass, to make a strong cement. -To powder glass, heat it red-hot, drop it into cold water and pulverise -it. It will become as fine as flour, and in this state combines with -gum-arabic, or glue, or gums to make a powerful glass-mender. Mixed -with powdered glass, oxide of zinc, or whiting, powdered marble, -calcined bone, plaster of Paris, wood-ashes, &c., it can be worked like -putty. Mixed with colours it is used for stereochrome painting, a kind -of fresco. - -Missing pieces of glass, such as leaves from a chandelier, can be -easily replaced with water-glass, and all cracks or defects glazed over -with it. - -This mending is allied, however, to certain processes in art which are -so interesting that I venture on a description of them. - -A great deal of mending and restoring in glass can be effected by -means of the blow-pipe and spirit-lamp or gas-flame. Difficult as -this may sound, it is not only an easy, but also a very curious and -entertaining, occupation. In any city an expert or workman may be found -who would give a few lessons. I have very often been impressed with -the fact that so little artistic invention or originality is found in -glass-work. Even the far-famed Venetian work is extremely limited, and -“mannered” or conventional, compared to what it might be. - -The following is an old recipe for repairing glass:--Take finest -powdered glass, best mastic, with equal parts of white resin and -distilled turpentine. Melt all well together. To use, gradually warm -it and then apply. - -Quicklime and white of egg, intimately rubbed into one another on a -flat surface, make a good cement for ordinary glass or pottery. - -The cement of _gum-arabic_ is much stronger when made as follows:--Take -gum-arabic and dissolve it in acetic acid (vinegar) instead of water. -It must be melted in a hottish place, as it will in that case be much -better. The finest quality of sheet-gelatine makes a transparent glue, -invaluable where colour is to be avoided. - -TO MEND A CRACKED GLASS BOTTLE OR DECANTER.--Heat the bottle, pressing -in the cork, till the hot air within expands the cracks, which must -be at once filled with the liquid glass. Then, as the water-glass is -driven in by the pressure of the outer air, as the bottle cools the -cracks are closed. - -You cannot well mend a broken looking-glass, but something can be -done with the large pieces. Varnish or paste a piece of paper and lay -it on the quicksilver. Then with an American glass-cutter, price one -shilling, or a diamond-cutter, divide them into squares for small -mirrors. Two of these of equal size can easily be converted into a -folding kaleidoscope (not described by BREWSTER in his work on the -Kaleidoscope). Lay the two pieces face to face, and paste over the -whole, on the quicksilvered side, a piece of thin leather or muslin. -When dry, with a penknife, cut a slit down between the two on three -sides. It will then open and shut like a portfolio. This may serve -as a travelling, looking or shaving glass, but it is very useful to -designers of patterns. Place the glass upright on a table at a right -angle, or more or less, and lay between the mirrors any object or a -pattern, and you will see it multiplied from three to twelve times, -according to the angle. Beautiful variations of designs can thus be -made, _ad infinitum_. They may be used as reflectors, when placed -behind a light. - -Take such a piece of looking-glass and lay a piece of paper on the -back, and then with an agate or ivory point write or draw on it, but -not as hard as to break the silvering. Then turn it to the sun or a -strong light, and let the reflection fall on a white surface. Though -nothing be perceptible on the face of the mirror, the writing will -appear in the reflection. - -Glass is engraved as metal is etched; with this exception, that, -instead of sulphuric or nitric acids, fluoric acid is used. Both glass -and _china_ can also be directly etched with a steel point, aided by -emery powder; which latter art I have never seen described, but which -I have successfully practised. It is fully set forth in my forthcoming -work on “One Hundred Arts.” - -Malleable glass, or at least that which does not break easily when let -fall, is prepared by dipping the objects made from it, while quite hot, -into oil. I conjecture that panes of window-glass thus prepared would -not be broken by hail, as I have observed that plate-glass is not. - -It sometimes happens that goblets of thin glass--especially those which -have had a peculiar kind of annealing or tempering--ring beautifully -when blown on so as to vibrate them. The effect is almost magical on -one who hears it for the first time. I mention it that the reader -may, when he finds old Venetian or any other thin glass goblets for -sale, see if there be not among them a finely ringing one. An organ -could be thus made to play by wind. With regard to music on glass, -take any ordinary bottle, and by rubbing on it a cork a little wetted -you can, with a little practice, produce a startling imitation of -the chirping, and even warbling, of birds. I knew one who could thus -imitate to perfection nightingales and call forth responsive songs. The -effect depends in a degree on the quality of the cork, and also that -of the glass. With a violin-bow very musical sounds may be drawn from -the edge of a pane of glass. It seems as if these methods might also -be developed into musical instruments. It is well known that tubes of -glass suspended when a candle is placed beneath them give forth musical -sounds, often of great richness and strength. There are also the -musical glasses, which may be played in two ways, either by rubbing the -edges with a wetted finger or by filling the glasses more or less with -water till an octave is formed, and then tapping them with a stick of -wood. All of which has, indeed, nothing to do with mending glass, yet -which may not be without interest to those who wish to learn all its -qualities. - -Among GLASS CEMENTS in common use which can be recommended are the -well-known Polytechnic, also the Imperial Liquid Glue (no heating -required), Hayden & Co., Warwick Square, London. There is also a very -good glass cement made and sold by Keye, filter-maker, Hill Street, -Birmingham. - -The Venetians made ordinary glass goblets very beautiful by painting -on them in relief with a substance which I suspect was in some cases -a form of silicate, or else with a kind of paint which was not enamel, -yet which seems to have been partly vitreous. It rather resembles oil -paint with glass powder, but I doubt if it was this. - -Working in glass implies the mending and restoration of stained-glass -windows; that is, of painting on glass and a study of designs. Of all -this there is almost a literature. Among other works I can commend _A -Book of Ornamental Glazing Quarries_, by A. W. Franks, £1, 1s.; _Divers -Works of Early Masters in Ecclesiastical Decoration_, by Owen Jones, -£3, 10s.; _Westlake’s History of Stained Glass_, vol. i., _Fourteenth -Century_, 13s. 6d.; vol. iii., _Fifteenth Century_, 18s., published by -Batsford, 52 High Holborn. At Rimmel’s, in Oxford Street, the reader -can generally obtain these, and all works on similar subjects at prices -much below the original cost. - -A MENDING CEMENT FOR GLASS is made as follows:-- - - Common cheese 100 - Water 50 - Slacked lime 20 - -This is found in many books of recipes. It must be observed that the -cheese is to be for sometime carefully pounded with the water till -quite soft, and the lime then very quickly stirred in. This is not only -useful to mend glass, but can be applied to many other purposes. The -cheese is best when fresh. - -CASEINE (or pure cheese) can be combined with ease with liquid silicate -of soda (LEHNER), and thus forms a very strong cement for porcelain or -glass, or any other material. Fill a flask with one-fourth of fresh -caseine to three-fourths of silicate, and shake it thoroughly and -frequently. - -Another formula is as follows:-- - - Caseine 10 - Silicate of soda 60 - -This must be used very promptly, and the article mended dried in the -air. - -A CEMENT which may be used in several combinations is made by -dissolving fresh acidulated caseine (made by adding vinegar to milk, -and carefully washing the deposit) in a very little caustic lye. It -must be kept corked in bottles. - -These _caseine_ or cheese or curd cements hold well, but do not well -resist water, except in powerful combination. - -The excellence of cements depends to a great degree on the quality of -the materials and the scrupulous observance of care in making. Thus for -the following, for glass:-- - - Glue 200 - Water 100 - Calcined lime 50 - -in which we have one of the commonest and oldest formulas, the value -depends on “the make-up” that is, the glue must be left in cold water -for two days, then boiled in a _balneum mariæ_, or a double kettle, in -lukewarm water; that is, it must not boil, or the glue will be weakened. - -The so-called DIAMOND or TURKISH CEMENT, for glass or any other fine -work, has been known since early times as incredibly strong. Its -formula, according to Lehner, is as follows:-- - - I. Sturgeon’s bladder 20 - Water 140 - Spirits of wine 60 - - II. Gum-mastic 10 - Alcohol 80 - - III. Gum-ammoniac 6 - -These are three separate portions, No. I. being prepared by warming -and filtering. The gum-ammoniac is reserved from the others, and added -_after_ they are mingled. - -A STRONG BASE FOR A CEMENT FOR GLASS, as well as wood or stone, is made -by gradually stirring finely sifted wood-ashes into silicate of soda, -or strong acid glue, till a syrup-like substance results. In America -the best ashes for this purpose are those of the hickory. Perhaps beech -wood yields them equally good. - -There is a DIAMOND CEMENT which is of special value to attach gems to -rings or metal, to make coral or pearl or ivory adhere together, and, -in short, for all fine work where a very strong adhesive is required. -It is as follows:-- - - Sturgeon’s bladder 8 - Gum-ammoniac 1 - Galbanum 1 - Spirits of wine 4 - -The sturgeon’s bladder is cut into small pieces and steeped in the -spirits, and the rest, in solution, then added. It must be warmed again -when used. - -As this cement will bear long exposure to moisture before being at -all injured by it, it can be used as a medium for painting on glass, -and thereby producing effects very little inferior, either as regards -beauty or durability, to glass itself. The experiment can be easily -tried, as any chemist can make up the recipe. When finished, the -painting can be coated with liquid silicate of soda, which will give it -all the property of glass. - -A LIME CEMENT FOR GLASS is made as follows:-- - - Calcined lime 30 - Litharge 30 - Linseed-oil varnish 5 - -JEWELLERS’ CEMENT. Extremely strong:-- - - Fish-glue solution 100 - Mastic varnish (pure) 50 - -The fish-glue must first be dissolved in spirits of wine. - -TO JOIN GLASS AND METAL, &c.--Stir slacked and powdered lime in hot -glue. This sets as a very hard substance. It can be extensively -modified and varied for many substances, and used for painting. - -CEMENT FOR GLASS:-- - - Gum-arabic 50 - Sugar 10 - Water 50 - Oil of turpentine 10 - -The gum, sugar, and water are first carefully combined, and then the -turpentine well stirred with the mixture. - -SALLE’S CEMENT FOR GLASS:-- - - Muriate of lime 2 - Gum-arabic 20 - Water 25 - -Not commended by LEHNER, as being too soluble. TO CLOSE BOTTLES:-- - - Powdered resin 6 - Caustic soda 2 - Water 10 - -To be thoroughly mixed and left for several hours. Before using, stir -well into it eight to nine parts of calcined plaster of Paris. This -will in half-an-hour take firm hold or “set,” and is waterproof. A good -filler for cracks. - -The reader who desires to be perfectly informed as to glass in all its -relations can obtain, by application to J. BAER, Rossmarkt, Frankfort -on the Main, Germany, a catalogue which is perhaps the most extensive -on the subject ever published. - -Coloured or stained glass windows may be repaired or made by the -following process, which has the advantage of being quite as durable -as any in which the colours are burned in:--Take two panes of glass, -and paint on one your pattern with fine varnish and transparent colour -mixed. When dry, go over the whole, with a broad, soft brush, with a -liquid mastic cement, which must be quite transparent and thin. Any -transparent strong cement will serve, but it is advisable to use the -mastic in all cases as a narrow border and at the edges. If you have an -engraving, especially one on very soft spongy paper, take a pane of -glass, cover it with a coat of varnish, and just before it dries press -the engraving face down, on it. When quite dry, with a sponge slightly -damped and the end of the finger, peel away all the soft paper, leaving -the lines of the engraving. These may now be coloured over, with even -very little skill and care. A very good effect may be produced, so -that a very indifferent artist can in this way produce very tolerable -pictures. Then, to better preserve this, double it with the other pane. - -By painting and shading also on this _second_ pane, as I have -discovered, very beautiful and striking effects of light and shade can -be developed, so that this forms, as it were, a new art by itself. This -will remind the reader of the porcelain lamp-shades, which so much -resemble pictures in Indian ink; but the effects of the double panes -are more singular and far more varied. There may be even a third pane -employed. As the materials for this art are far from expensive, and -as it is extremely easy, I have no doubt that it will be extensively -practised. Protecting one glass picture by another is not a new art; -but I am not aware that the obtaining a series of lights by thus -reduplicating the panes has been practised. - -A modification of it is as follows:--Cut out several panes, -corresponding to the size of the two glass covers, of quite transparent -paper or parchment, prepared by rubbing with oil or vaseline, lard, or -the like. Paint on these the required modifications of the picture. -The advantage of this is, that a great many shades can thus be given -in a thinner space, creating an astonishing effect. As this is not at -all a mere imitation of stained glass, and as it produces effects not -to be found in the latter, it may rank as an art by itself. The chief -of these effects is _relief_, especially shown in the human figure. -But the most extraordinary are the variations of chiaroscuro which -it affords, by availing himself of which the artist may create or -obtain striking suggestions for oil or _aquarelle_ pictures; for these -transparencies can be so infinitely and ingeniously varied that no one -can fail to derive from them many ideas. - -This may be tested by simply preparing any picture, say of a statue, -a castle on a rock, or a face. Cut out from sheets of the same size -in very transparent paper a series of shadows adapted to it, and -adjust them. They may be all in monochrome or one colour, or in many -hues. They may range, with proper care, from almost imperceptible -shadow to opaque black. By beginning with only two stencils or shaded -pictures--for as regards these the artist must be guided by his own -skill--and gradually increasing the number, the proper adjustment -will soon be found. I advise the beginner in copying to proceed -from monochrome to two colours before attempting many. Teachers in -_aquarelle_ will find that such copies are--after a certain degree of -proficiency shall have been obtained--much superior to those commonly -used, as they come nearer to nature. - -The most perfect form of this curious art is an improvement which, -I believe, is my own invention. This consists of introducing leaves -of painted _mica_ between the two glasses. In this way four grades -or tones of colour and light and shade can be made in a picture. -Mica-leaves can be made into one by using mastic cement. Rub the edges -with emery-paper to roughen them. - -As I have already intimated, the materials for this work are so cheap -and the process so easy, that all which I here assert may be at once -verified by the outlay of a few shillings, with a few hours of time. It -is, in another form, the same thing as arranging lights around a statue -in a dark room, but adapted to all kinds of pictures. - -As a Latin poet has declared, “It is an easy thing to add to arts,” -when a beginning has once been made (“_Inventis facile semper aliquid -addere_”), so I will add to this a curious discovery in glass made by -me in Venice a few years ago. I was being taken by Sir AUSTIN LAYARD -over his celebrated glass-factory. It was he who, with the aid of -Sir WILLIAM DRAKE, _first_ revived the almost forgotten manufacture -of glass in Murano. While standing with him by a furnace watching a -workman skilfully forming ornaments in glass, it suddenly occurred to -me that the Chinese were said to have possessed in remote times an -art, now lost, of making vases or bottles which appeared externally -to be quite plain, but on the surface of which, when red wine was -poured in, patterns or inscriptions appeared of the same colour. It at -once occurred to me that this could be perfectly effected by making a -bottle, on the interior of which the ground should be of considerable -thickness, say half-an-inch, while the inscription or pattern would be -no thicker than ordinary window-glass. Then if the whole exterior were -to be lightly ground on a wheel or sandpapered, the difference between -ground and pattern would not be perceptible until red wine or some -highly coloured fluid were poured in, when the pattern would at once -show itself. - -Sir AUSTIN LAYARD was so much struck by the suggestion that he sent at -once for his foreman, Signore Castellani, who said that he had heard -of such bottles, but always supposed it was a fable. He, however, at -once admitted that they could be made as I proposed, but added that -the expense would be so great as to render the invention practically -useless. - -It has, however, since occurred to me that such bottles could be made, -and cheaply, as follows:--Take a Florence flask, and divide it into two -parts with a diamond, using a saw for the bottom. Then on the sides -within place the ground. It could be made of silicate of soda and -powdered glass or flint, or even of white wax, hardened with powdered -glass. Close the bottle with silicate, and grind the whole. - -When any glass has been broken and mended, the fracture still -discernible may be thus concealed by grinding the surface, and in many -cases by surrounding it with a ring or tube of metal, also by one of -silicate, or with an ornament formed with it. - -A glass stopper when too large can be easily filed down to fit. Should -the neck of the bottle be too narrow, it can also be enlarged by the -same process. When the rim of a goblet is fractured, it can be ground -down on a grindstone. I have done it with a file. - -A pane of glass can be somewhat rudely cut into shape with a pair of -strong scissors, under water. In this, as in other things, practice -leads to perfection. - -An old method of effectually closing bottles of wine was as -follows:--The edge of the opening on the top was ground down on a -stone, and a small disc of glass was exactly fitted to it. Heat was -then applied till both were in partial fusion and the cover was welded -to the bottle. A little powdered glass would aid the fusion, or it -could be effected with silicate without heating. The process is the -same as using glass stoppers, rather sunk in, and sealing up with -silicate. - -A broken champagne bottle is not easily mended, but I have seen one -curiously utilised. The bottom only had been broken, and it was cut off -round and evenly with a file. Within it there hung from the cork by a -cord a very large nail or small bolt of iron. Thus prepared, it made a -capital and appropriate dinner-bell. Here in Italy I have often seen -bells made of crockery or terra-cotta; their tone is better than would -be supposed. - - - - -WOOD-SHAVINGS - -IN MENDING AND MAKING MANY OBJECTS - - - “_In human industry, there is on an average a loss of fifty per - cent. in labour or material._”--Observations on Art, by CHARLES G. - LELAND. - -There is no country in the world in which the art of mending is so -much required as in the United States of North America. The reason for -this is the extraordinary and sudden changes in temperature, causing -the expansion and contraction of cells and fibre, especially in wood, -which results in cracks. Thus seasoned furniture and carvings, which -have remained unchanged for centuries, it may be for a thousand years, -in any part of Europe, shrink and split very often within a month after -being placed in a drawing or dining room in Boston or Philadelphia, as -I know by sad experience. Thus I have known a very beautiful Italian -mandoline, three hundred years old, richly inlaid with ivory, to so -shrink and warp in America that a professional mender declared that -nothing could be done with it. The sounding-board had curled up like a -scroll and split, and the mosaic or inlaying had fallen out in bits. - -In such a case, carefully detach the warped piece or pieces, and dampen -the concave side carefully with a sponge till it resumes its flatness -or usual form. When this is attained, take very thin shavings of a -firm wood, as thin as they can be shaved, and glue them transversely, -or _grain across grain_, to the under or plain side of the board. This -will probably prevent all warping in future, especially if the best -mastic and fish-glue is employed. It may here be noted that where the -shavings cannot be obtained, thin parchment or even note-paper may be -used, and that good, strong varnish, or not too thin, may be used for a -binder. There are many cases in which parchment or paper are preferable -to wood in repairing, as being less liable to warp or crack. - -[Illustration: _Patterns cut from Wood-Shavings._] - -WOOD-SHAVINGS, which are as yet but little utilised in art, have, -however, before them “a great future.” Combined with glue, or other -binders, they can be made, even under the hand-roller, into boards, -which have the advantage that they can be moulded, curved, or turned -to suit many emergencies which would require a great deal of saw or -carving work. - -It is not unusual to employ veneers, or very thin sheets of wood, as -a guard across the grain where shrinking is to be apprehended, as in -tablets for painting on or panels, and it is a great pity that this -very cheap precaution is so little used. But there are very few cases -in which shavings are not as applicable, and they have the great -advantage of being obtainable wherever there is a plane and wood. - -Holes or defects in wood--for example, in American shingle roofs or the -clap-boarded sides of houses--can often be more cheaply and readily -repaired with shavings and glue (into which oil is infused) than by any -other means. And it may be observed that such a coating of shavings -and glue, laid on to a new roof, is the cheapest and most effective -protector against rain or sun or frost. - -In certain work wood-shavings can be advantageously combined with paper -to give a solid, smooth surface and firm body. Here the paper-paste, -with or without sawdust, is first forced into the cavities, and the -shavings superadded. - -Shavings and glue are excellent for the temporary repair of boats, -and if the mending be _properly executed_, it will be as durable as -the original wood. It would be an easy matter indeed to make a canoe -entirely of shavings and glue. If the hand-roller be well used and -thoroughly applied, the result will be a very firm fabric. - -[Illustration: _Pattern to be cut out of Shavings and applied with Glue -to a Panel._] - -It may be worth knowing in the wilderness, that where a backwoodsman -has a _plane_ (and he can always make one if he has a chisel, which, -again, can be made out of a knife-blade) he can make shavings, and -with these and some kind of _binder_--even clay--he can lay a dry, hard -floor, when perhaps boards are not to be obtained. The substratum may -be of beaten clay or stone. If of sufficient thickness and well rolled, -such a floor as this would be impervious to damp. - -Any surface can be very well _veneered_ with shavings and glue. -Smooth the surface by pressure or rolling, and when dry glass-paper -it. Veneers are often not to be had; shavings may be got in every -carpenter’s shop. - -Not only very strong and elastic canes, but even _bows_ of a superior -quality, can be made of shavings. The Indians in Pacific America make -the latter by pasting and pressing one shaving on another with great -care. It may be understood that where the grain, as in a piece of wood, -runs _altogether_ in one way, it will split with the grain. But where -it is not uniform or connected, and is very powerfully incorporated -by pressure with a good binder, we may easily have a very elastic and -tough fabric, not so likely to split as wood. Thus we can make from -hickory shavings a wood less liable to warp or split than the original -wood itself. - -Wood-shavings and glue are admirably adapted to repair broken boxes -or any other articles of wood, especially for smoothing over roughly -mended surfaces and covering knot-holes or other defects. In all cases -when possible use the roller, and when pasting one piece on the other -cross the grains. - -MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS, such as guitars, violins, and mandolins, are -very easily repaired with shavings and glue; and this is, indeed, in -many cases, the very best means of reparation, since, while a piece -of wood may or may not injure the tone, the shavings always give a -good vibration. And where it is quite beyond the power of any ordinary -amateur, say a lady, to set in a piece of wood or apply one, or to -get it of a proper thickness, anybody with care can paste on thin -shavings--the thinner the better--till the defect is repaired. In -many cases parchment or paper will answer just as well, and I have -myself thus perfectly mended violins which were apparently beyond -all bettering, and got to the stage of _lasciate ogni speranza_, or -hopelessness. - -There are, however, many cases of badly fractured objects in which the -owner gives up hope, because it seems _impossible to make a beginning_. -Now, “whatever can be made can be mended” is true of everything except -morals, and even in these there is more to be done than men wot of. And -in a great number of these cases parchment strips, thin linen tape, or -especially wood-shavings, can be used with success. Bring the broken -edges together if they warp apart, and attach them with the strip and -strongest cement; that is, with small pieces of the “fastener.” Do not -attempt to do everything at once. When the edges are united and the -_binder_ dried, fill in all crevices or holes with a suitable paste -or “filler”--not too much at once, in certain cases. Then, as will -generally be required, cover the surface with thin shavings and binder; -as it dries, file or glass-paper it smooth. The shavings will make, -with mastic and fish-glue, in many cases, a far better repair than -could be effected with a piece of wood or parchment, because they will -never _split_, like the former, if they are applied lying transversely -or crossways, nor stretch like the latter. - -It may depend, in many cases, on what _wood_ the shavings consist of. -As I have observed, even in the bush a plane can be made with a chisel -or a piece of a table-knife blade, set in a wooden block; but elsewhere -any carpenter will easily supply what is wanted, _ad libitum_. - -The paste or filler of wood-powder or paper-pulp will be found -described in other chapters. - - -ORNAMENTAL WORK OF SHAVINGS--MARQUETRY - -_A curious kind of ornament_ can be made by cutting out decorative -patterns, human figures, animals, flowers, &c., from shavings with -scissors or pen-knives, then glueing them on a smooth soft board. -Apply as much pressure as possible, so as to make them sink into the -wood, and when dry coat the whole with varnish, till an even surface -is established. Rub over the dried surface with finest glass or -emery-paper, and then smooth patiently with the palm of the hand. If -this be well executed the result will be a perfect imitation of inlaid -wood, although it is really an art by itself, which, I believe, is my -own invention. Thin veneers may also be used instead of shavings. Ebony -or walnut thus _appliqué_ on _larch_ or _holly_ make exquisite work. - -This kind of ornament has great advantage over inlaid wood or -marquetry, for the pieces of which it consist are far less liable to -be detached or peel off, while it looks quite as beautiful. And be it -observed that, laid with a transverse grain, it prevents warping and -strengthens the ground, while inlaying weakens it; for to make the bed -for inlaying or mosaic we must excavate the bed till it is extremely -thin and liable to warp, whereas in shaving-work we make a light but -very strengthening addition. - -A single experiment will suffice to convince the reader of the merits -of this very useful, elegant, and novel art. It is specially applicable -to ornamenting albums and book-covers, where it may be used even on -pasteboard. - - -REPAIRING PANEL PICTURES WITH SHAVINGS - -It is often a very difficult matter to obtain a thin panel or -strips and do all the work properly when we wish to put into shape -a warped panel, let us say of an old picture, which is on the point -of splitting. The inserting screws is very dangerous. I myself have -inadvertently thus made a fearful blemish in a Madonna’s face. But if -we use _shavings_ there is no such danger. Wet the back till the panel -is flat, and then _gradually_ glue on the shavings across the grain. -This is as well done with small bits as large. With a picture it would -be well to continue the coating to the thickness of one-third of an -inch or more, but a very thin coating will go far to prevent warping or -bending. The thinnest panels or veneers may be thus “backed up” into -solid boards. In all cases where practicable, use heavy pressure on the -roller. - - - - -REPAIRING WOODWORK - - - “_Among the thousand mad schemes which were proposed by projectors - was one for making sawdust into boards._”--History of the South Sea - Bubble. - -Very few people, even among workmen and artists, are aware of what -remarkable and curious restoration the most decayed pieces of wood are -capable. We will, however, begin with the simplest repairing, or that -of furniture. - -When articles of furniture have been strongly and properly made of oak -or other hard wood, and as properly used, they will last for centuries; -and should some unforeseen accident take away legs or arms, they can be -perfectly replaced, especially in the admirable old-fashioned German -objects of the kind, which were all put together with wooden pins or -by means of mortise and tenon, so that, when need required, they could -be packed as boards;--nor were they the less elegant for this. But if -furniture be simply sawed from soft, cheap deal or poplar, and merely -glued together (as most cheap furniture made in England is), it will -soon warp and break up, and all the mending in the world will not make -it better than it was when new. Glue is, therefore, the great material -for most woodwork, and, as I shall show, in two very different forms. - -Having a broken chair-leg, which can, however, be fitted together, -first prepare your glue in a proper kettle--that is, a _balneum mariæ_, -or one kettle in another. In the outer is only boiling water; in the -inner the glue, mixed with water. The reason for this is, that glue, -when softened with water, dries up very rapidly under the action of air -or fire, while the softer heat of water keeps it, so to speak, “alive.” - -But if, while the glue is soft, we pour, say, a teaspoonful of nitric -acid into half-a-pint of glue, it will remain soft a much longer -time--which is a valuable secret to many, especially where large, broad -surfaces of veneers are to be glued on, and where, the process being -slow, it is desirable for the adhesive to remain soft for many minutes. -And here I would mention that the acid-glue will remain in a liquid -state for one year if tightly corked up in a bottle. Its only defect is -a disagreeable, pungent smell. - -This glue can be improved by being made as follows:--Take of best glue -three parts, place them in eight parts of water, and allow the mixture -to soak some hours. Take half a part of hydrochloric or muriatic -acid and three-quarters of a part of sulphate of zinc; add to these -the glue, and keep the whole at a moderately high temperature till -fluid--that is to say, boil the glue as usual in a _balneum mariæ_ -or in hot water, after soaking it all night in water. Then stir in -the hydrochloric (or muriatic) acid and sulphate of zinc. This is a -first-class glue. Keep it in a bottle with an oiled cork; any other -stopper would adhere. But for all ordinary work the glue, with nitric -acid, will suffice, as it holds with great tenacity to anything. - -This glue, which keeps liquid for a long time, and which holds without -scaling off, as common glue often does, may also be made with _very -strong_ vinegar. The latter, in fact, amounts to the same thing in -most European countries, but especially in the United States, where, -according to the New York _Tribune_, there is literally no vinegar -sold or made, save from sulphuric acid and water. Perhaps when mankind -shall have reached a higher stage of civilisation, all dealers will -be compelled by law to place on every article of food sold the list -of ingredients of which it is composed. We should then know how much -oleomargarine passes for butter, and what proportion of “delicious -conserves” are manufactured from apples alone or turnips. - -Observe that in glueing ordinary wood together the two pieces to be -attached should be gradually but very well _heated_ first. This renders -them more inclined to “take” the glue. This is applicable to other -substances. - -Also note that when two surfaces have been made to adhere with ordinary -water-glue, should they come apart when cold, it is very difficult to -make them unite again. But this is not the case with acid-glue. And if -you have such surfaces which will not unite, wash them with nitric acid -or very strong vinegar, and the glue then applied will “take.” Also -observe that the acid-glue is far stronger than the common kind. - -Having the broken leg fitted, first with a narrow gimlet or brad-awl -make a hole crossing the fracture, then glue the pieces together, and -before the glue dries put a screw or two through the hole; _i.e._, -_screw_ the pieces together. This will hold perfectly, if you will sink -the head of the screw in the wood, smooth it with a file, then putty it -over and paint it. - -It seems strange that anything can be so mended as to be stronger -than before; yet this is literally true as regards the broken leg of -a chair, a cane, a beam, the mast or spar of a vessel, or any similar -long piece of wood. This is effected as follows:--Cut the two separated -pieces into two exactly fitting “steps” or mortises, as shown in this -illustration. - -[Illustration] - -Fasten these with glue and screws; or, better still, by adding to both -two sliding, tightly fitting ring-tubes, or one long one. This will -actually make the stick stronger than it was at first. The rings should -be covered with paper, glued, and then painted and varnished. - -The processes of glueing and screwing are applicable to most fractures -of furniture. Where a piece of wood is broken away, it, or a similar -piece, must be inserted. When wood is warped it may be straightened -by applying wet towels. Observe that if a flat panel is warped thus-- -[Illustration] you must wet the upper or concave side, put it under -heavy weight, and as soon as it becomes straight, screw it down with -transverse strips. Drawers which are made from badly seasoned wood -are a grief to the heart. They warp and stick. When you find that -such is the case you can save yourself much annoyance by examining -them, planing away the obstructions, and nailing transverse strips of -wood across; that is to say, pieces in which _the grain_ of the strip -crosses that of the wood. Very good and well-seasoned English furniture -often warps badly in India; therefore it should be thus protected. -This can in most cases be better done with strips of metal. In large -wardrobes, presses, or chests, where there are broad and often thin -panels, this precaution should always be taken. As I write I have just -seen two exquisitely painted and valuable pictures on panel, one of -which had curved and split in two, while the other was badly warped for -want of such a precaution, which would have cost only a penny’s worth -of strip and screws and half-an-hour’s work to save them. - -It will very often happen in mending furniture that neither nail, glue, -nor screw can be relied on. In such case bore with a suitable gimlet -and pass wire through the hole. Flexible wire twisted in two strands, -with the ends properly secured, say to the head of a screw, all being -sunk beneath the level, will hold almost anything. - -Frames for looking-glasses or pictures often “spring” at the joints. -In such cases a screw with acidulated glue will make them permanently -strong. - -Always put handles to drawers. The vile invention or device of using -the key for a handle is by far too common. Metallic handles of brass -are preferable to wooden knobs. Keys are often lost, or else break. -The bottom of a drawer should always be secured by screws. - -When the bottom of a drawer, as frequently happens, shrinks and becomes -too short, so that there is a long opening, the latter should be filled -with a strip of wood. The chief cause why modern furniture is apt to -become loose or separate is chiefly due to its being made either of -unseasoned or soft wood, such as weak deal or poplar, which absorbs -moisture from the air and then dries and shrinks, or because it is made -of too many pieces only glued together, and that with cheap, bad glue. - -RESTORING DECAYED WOOD.--The worst cases of decay or of worm-eaten -wood can be perfectly restored in this manner:--Take fine sawdust of -the same kind of wood as the original. Let it be as fine as possible, -either cut with a refined saw or powdered in a mortar. Sift it. Then -with acidulated glue, or else plain, clear, white Salisbury glue for -light wood, make a paste, well mixed. With this you can fill up holes -(using a spatula or flexible knife or ivory paper-knife). But, what -is more, you can thus make a very strong _artificial wood_ which can -be moulded into any form, and when dry polished by cutting over the -surface with a chisel or flat gouge, and using a file or glass-paper to -finish. In fact, you can mould or model figures with this wood-paste by -itself. Putty is generally used for such repairs, but the wood-paste is -like wood, and quite as durable. - -If you have a mould of plaster of Paris, boil it in oil, clean it, and -then oil it. With the wood-paste you can make ornaments which can be -applied to plain wood surfaces. - -Splints, fractures, cracks, holes, corners broken away, are all easily -restored with wood-paste. In moulding it the fingers should be oiled to -prevent its sticking. - -Any kind of dry sawdust can thus be converted into a paste, which, when -dry, becomes wood. It may be very much hardened under a hydraulic-press -or by a wooden hand-roller. Housekeepers should use this composition -for filling up rat-holes, or any kind of crevices in furniture, or -panels, or doors and walls, especially where such cracks harbour -insects. - -It would be perfectly possible to construct an entire house of such -wood-cement, and one which would be perfectly durable, or even more so -than wood, since beams and planks thus made never crack, split, nor -warp. With it the boldest vaulting and arch work can be more easily -made than in stone or with wood, as the latter is usually worked. -As builders in Turkey form domes by making circles of clay or mud, -and gradually add to the first a smaller one, so by using wood-paste -the largest space could be covered or domed over without building -a scaffolding. There are many places in the world where (as in the -prairies of America, Russia, and Hungary) large timber is wanting, -but where small wood for sawdust is more available, and yet where, as -cattle abound, glue would be very cheap. This material deserves more -serious attention than it has ever received. - -More than twenty years after I had invented, or at least projected and -put in practice, this method of making artificial wood, I found the -following in the _Manuel Général du Modelage_, par F. Goupil; Paris, Le -Bailly:-- - -“To make vases, take fine dry sawdust and pass it through a sieve. It -may be made into a paste with a compound of turpentine, resin, and wax. -Or mix the adhesive with five parts of best strong white glue (_colle -de Flandre_) to one part of fish-glue. Melt them separately, ... pour -them together, boil to a proper consistency, and mix with the sawdust. -By this process figures can be cast which, when finished by hand, -exactly resemble carved wood.” - -Another recipe is to take 750 grammes of strong glue to 1½ kilogramme -of gall nuts. To be mixed cold. Mix in hot water with sawdust. - -Since writing the foregoing I have found the following recipe in a MS. -of 1780, a family heirloom kindly lent me by Miss Roma Lister:-- - - * * * * * - -“_To cast Wood in Moulds as fine as Ivory, of a fragrant Smell, and -indifferent Colours._--Dry Lime Tree wood sawdust in a pan by a gentle -fire, and beat it to a fine powder in a stone mortar. Sift it through -Cambric, and keep it in a dry place free from dust. Then add to an -equal quantity of Gum Tragacanth and Gum Arabic 4 times the quantity -of Parchment Glue. Boil them in Pump Water, and filter through Linen. -Stir into it the Wood powder till it becomes of the substance of a -thick pastry; stir it all together, and set it in a glazed pan in hot -sand, for the moisture to evaporate till it be fit for casting. Mix -your colours with the Paste, and to give it a Scent put Oil of Cloves -or Roses or the like, which, if you please, you may mix with powdered -Amber. Anoint the mould with Oil of Almonds, and put your paste into -it. Let it dry for 4 or 5 days, then take off your mould, and the -Images will be as hard as Ivory. You may cut, turn, carve, and plane -this wood, and it will have a fine scent. The mould may be Plaster of -Paris, but it were better made of metal.” - -I would add to this, that where heavy pressure or hand-rolling can be -applied this becomes really hard. Also note that any light, dry wood -of fine texture can be dried and powdered for this purpose. The paste, -even with common fine glue, can be used for very fine repairing. By -sifting and pulverising, the dust may be made as fine as flour. A -little calcined and powdered glass adds to its strength. - -To make _panels_ for furniture, walls, or boxes, take firstly a thin -panel of seasoned wood, fasten two strips of sheet-tin across the back -to prevent warping, and make or apply the cast to this. Very beautiful -work can thus be produced very cheaply. - -It may be here observed that this principle of mixing a powdered -substance with glue or gum or an adhesive runs through all the arts of -mending. The powder of cocoa-nut shells, slate, of paper, plaster of -Paris, of leather, clay, lime, fine sand, and many other substances, -can all be combined with adhesives, acids, or chemical solvents in -such a manner as to form what may be called generically _cements_, or -substances, or _pastes_, which become hard. Any glue or gum, or liquid -which will make two surfaces adhere, can be mixed with most organic or -inorganic hard substances in powder so as to form a paste which, when -dry, forms a solid, hard substance, because the grains of the powder -are thereby cemented together. Most of these yield to the action of -water, but there are a few which resist both water and fire, all of -which will be described in this work. - -Broken ebony can be filled in cracks with a very neat and dainty -paste or cement made as follows:--Take dried rose-leaves, or any -others as soft, steep them in just enough water to soften them, add -of gum-tragacanth and gum-arabic just enough to make a paste, and -sufficient ivory black to give it an ebony colour. Macerate the whole -in a mortar. In the East a few drops of otto of roses or of geranium -are added. From this heads are made, also medallions, or any other -small objects. The composition sets very hard, and much resembles -ebony. I have made many small objects of it myself, and can testify -to its excellence. It is in this manner that the black rosaries from -Constantinople are made. - -A very good cement for filling cracks in furniture or other woodwork -is made as follows:--One part of finely powdered resin and two parts -of yellow wax are melted together, and to this is added two parts of -finely pulverised ochre, or other suitable colouring earthy substance. -This is an excellent cement in all respects, except that it yields -to great heat. For all such repairing sawdust and glue is much to be -preferred. - -In repairing furniture, remember the screws hold much more firmly if -they are just dipped in boiling beeswax or turpentine. If you are not -accustomed to screwing or nailing, just make a hole with a brad-awl, -else you will find the screw or nail going out of the side of the box, -or in some other undesired direction. - -Clamps, or pieces of wood connected by screws, ties, or elastic bands, -are indispensable in much glueing pieces together. They are, however, -easily made. A good clamp can be made by bending over the two ends of a -strong piece of wire. Hammer the ends into the wood. - -Glue is more elastic when mixed with a little glycerine. This should -be borne in mind when mixing glue with sawdust to form artificial -wood, and, in fact, in many manufactures and combinations where it is -specially desirous to have a certain degree of toughness or flexibility -in the object made. - -To utilise waste matter is allied to mending, which is only preventing -waste. For this purpose common wood-shavings may be used for a pretty -art. Take good shavings of any wood, and after moistening them with -glue or gum tragacanth and arabic, press them flat. Trim them with -scissors into leaves, or make them into flowers, and attach them -together. Then pour over them liquid plaster of Paris, in which there -is gum-arabic and alum dissolved. Take a bush, or plant without leaves, -and gum the leaves to it or to its twigs. Cover bare places with the -gypsum. When dry varnish the whole. A Professor HEIGELIN, in Stuttgart, -once had an exhibition of such work. Frames can be decorated in this -manner. Paint, gilding, and enamel, or bronze powders, can, of course, -be applied. Shavings combined with weak glue submitted to pressure form -artificial wood or boards, which can be improved by further combination -with waste-paper. Made with a solution of alum it is fireproof. Its -strength will be in proportion to the pressure applied. It can often -be employed in repairing when suitable wood is wanting, and has the -advantage that it can be turned to any shape. - -The reader can easily satisfy himself by experiment that these -artificial woods made from sawdust or shavings, combined with -adhesives, are very easy to manufacture, very cheap, and, when properly -made, extremely strong. When strong pressure or rolling can be -applied, the quantity of adhesive may be diminished. Linen or muslin -rags, cotton-wool, or any textile fabric can be added to the shavings, -as well as waste-paper of all kinds. Anything fibrous or stringy will -aid in the binding. - -This subject may be studied in detail in a work entitled _Die -Verwerthung der Holtzabfälle_--The rendering valuable of Refuse-Wood, -such as Shavings, Refuse Dye-Wood, &c., showing how they may be -converted to Artificial Wood, Fuel, Chemicals, Explosives, &c.--by -ERNST HUBBARD; Vienna, price 3 marks. - -Wood of all kinds is in America sawed into such thin veneers that they -are used to serve as wall-paper, being attached with paste. When damp -they bend like paper. Such veneer is very useful for repairing wooden -surfaces. - -Common putty is not always to be trusted in for repairing wood. It -sometimes shrinks, and is never very hard. The glue with glycerine and -sawdust or cocoa-nut dust is preferable. - -“Scratches and chance cuts may be remedied by merely melting or washing -and rubbing in with cold water. But for most small defects a _filler_ -is used. This is a kind of paint or liquid cement, the object of which -is to fill up the pores of certain coarse woods and make the surface -fine. Soft wax, flour, and varnish are used for this purpose.” - -Any dealer in paints and varnishes will supply a filler for any special -work. - -Staining or colouring wood is an important part of repairing. “Oiling -alone is a kind of colouring, for all oiled wood becomes much darker -in a short time.”[2] - -Soda dissolved in water gives to oak wood a much darker tone. Dark tea -and alum is also useful, and still better very strong coffee. Also -porter or beer mixed with umber. Also a decoction of walnut-leaves -boiled down. In using these or any other colours the following rules -must be strictly observed:--(1.) Use a sponge or brush, and do not -apply the dye freely or pour it on, as you will run great risk of -warping the wood or making it split. (2.) Exercise the greatest care in -drying it near a fire. (3.) Do not expect to colour all at once by a -profuse application. However light the colour may seem, always when it -is dry rub off the colour with a rag or chamois-skin, and then make a -second wash. This process will make the dye strike in deeper and last -longer. - -STEVENS’ Stains, also those of MANDER, are very good and strong. They -generally require dilution. - -Ammonia is much used to give wood a dark rich colour. Wood thus -treated, if afterwards exposed to the smoke of a wood fire, assumes -a very ancient appearance. Bichromate of potash with water is a good -dark dye, but it must be carefully handled, as it is very poisonous -and injurious to clothing. It is used to give a waterproof quality to -certain cements. - -Good writing-ink is a very good black dye. When it is quite dry, oil, -rub, and polish it, and the ink will resist a great deal of wetting. - -It should be remembered that with ink, as with dyes, there should -always be at least two applications, and that the first should be -very thoroughly dried, if possible, in a strong light, though not in -sunshine, before the second is laid on. Three coats of blackest ink -well dried in, then rubbed in well, and finally oiled, form an almost -waterproof cover. - -When panels of marquetry or of inlaid wood of different colours are -broken away or require to be replaced, it can be done in the following -manner:--Take a panel of very firm fine white wood--holly is the best; -next to it Swiss or German larch--draw on it your pattern, and then -with a penknife go over all the pattern, cutting into the panel about -a quarter of an inch, or rather less--in no case far enough to cut -through. Then carefully fill all these lines with a firm cement, and -let it dry well. Then with a dye--not with paint--color each piece -appropriately. The cement and lines will prevent the dye from spreading -from piece to piece. This is known as Venetian marquetry. When -finished, apply _Soehnée_ varnish, and rub down very carefully by hand. -It is a very beautiful and easy work, not to be distinguished when well -done from real inlaying. Very cheap and plain old furniture can be -easily made very elegant by having panels, &c., of this work applied. -The reader may begin with a small box or three-legged stool, working -directly on the wood, and will then probably be encouraged to proceed. -Dark brown patterns on light yellow wood look well. - -This work is very easy and elegant, very little made, and may be -therefore profitable. Any kind of light or white wood, such as deal or -pine, may be used for common decoration. Cheap violins and guitars are -sometimes made into handsome ornaments for rooms by this process. For -designs for this purpose consult the Manuals of Design, Wood-Carving, -and Leather-Work, by the Author (Whittaker & Co., No. 2 White Hart -Street, London, E.C.). - -Marquetry may also be mended by making and colouring wood-paste, in -which case prepare the ground with great care, by roughening, to hold -the glue; also by using coloured cements, such as bread, well worked -with powder and glycerine-glue. - -It does not seem to occur to many people--even to those living in the -country--that there is a great deal of strong, plain, useful furniture -which can be easily made at home at no very great expense, boards of -good quality being cheap enough. With a few lessons from an expert, or -even with the study of a good elementary manual of cabinetmaking, any -amateur can succeed. Whoever can make a good box can make an antique -chair, and this can, however plain, be carved, stained, or marquetried -into beauty; but let him beware of sawed curves. - -Where there are worms in furniture or other wood, they should always -be very promptly exterminated, else they will destroy it in time. -To remove them, dissolve 2 drachms of corrosive sublimate in 2 oz. -of methylated spirit and 2 oz. of water, to be applied freely with -a feather or brush. This is an unfailing remedy; but the mixture is -poisonous, and therefore should be kept labelled out of harm’s way -(_Work_, Sept. 1892). - -In restoring or repairing woodwork we must have some knowledge not only -of paints, varnishes, putties, and filling, but also of agents which -prevent organic change or are applicable to peculiar accidents. One -of the principal of these is known as _knotting_. Its properties and -general nature are freely explained in the following article from _The -Decorator_, Sept. 1892:-- - - * * * * * - -“‘Knotting,’ or, as it is usually written, _Patent Knotting_, is -a quick-drying, semi-transparent fluid. It is made from naphtha -and shellac; hence its quick-drying nature. The knots of woodwork, -especially pine, contain much resin, which gradually exudes from the -surface. This resin will speedily darken, and ultimately destroy, the -covering film of oil paint with which woodwork is usually coated. The -object of coating knots in woodwork with ‘patent knotting composition’ -is to seal up, so to term it, the resin. In the earlier history of -house-painting processes a mixture of red lead and strong glue-size, -applied warm, was often used. The chief point in view is to stop the -‘cause,’ but without objectionable ‘effect;’ therefore the thinnest -perceptible covering--so long as it is effectual--is the best. The -_patent knotting_ of commerce is the article now generally purchased -and used. The knots are given one or two _bare_ coatings--according to -the nature of the knot, and the conscience of the workman. The best -knotting is the colour of dark oak varnish; the worst is the blackest -and dirtiest-looking. It always pays to have the best knotting, since -‘black knotting’ requires an extra coat of paint to cover the dark -patches which ‘grin through’ any light tints. For the best work it is -usually advisable--especially when the woodwork has to be finished, and -perhaps hand-polished, in ‘ivory-white’ enamel--to have the knots cut -out with a chisel or gouge, then fill up with lead ‘filling-up’ in -distemper. I recently had to have the door of an elaborately decorated -drawing-room so treated, since, despite being fresh knotted, the resin -began to discolour the work, which had received some six coats of paint -and enamel, ere the room was furnished--a very annoying and costly -matter. Very occasionally knots are gilded over with best gold-leaf; -this is generally conceded to be an effectual plan to adopt, when -gouging is not resorted to, for finest work. Knotting woodwork is, -therefore, not an insignificant detail of house-painting, especially -when we are dealing with a door-side; that alone, when finished in -hand-polished enamel, may cost a ten-pound note to produce. ‘Tin-paint’ -will do for common priming; good linseed oil is the chief element -required. All new woodwork requires three coats of good lead and oil -paint before standing any time--viz., priming and two after-coats. This -is known as ‘builders’ finish.’ When permanently decorated it usually -requires ‘getting up’ to a proper surface, and two or three more coats.” - - * * * * * - -It is sometimes an advantage to “gouge”--_i.e._, to cut--out a bad knot -and fill the cavity with wood, wood-paste, or _carton-pierre_. - -A very beautiful stain can be given to wood by rubbing it with nitric -or sulphuric acid, and exposing it to the heat of a fire. In this way -American hickory can be made to look like rosewood. Pine becomes red, -which grows darker with increased heat. - -MENDING FURNITURE.--There is but one rule for repairing creaky chairs -and tables with loose legs. They must be _carefully_ taken apart, -which can be done with chisels, a knife, and hammer, and then glued -and screwed or put together again as they were originally made. The -old-fashioned rounds or rungs of chairs, now so seldom seen, were a -great aid to strength and durability. - -I have already remarked that when a drawer in a bureau table is -troublesome by continually sticking or catching, take it out, find -where it rubs, and plane away the obtrusive portion. If it is made of -badly seasoned, green, warping wood, nail across it strips of tin. To -which I add that doors of closets, cabinets, &c., which are shrunk must -have strips of wood glued to their edges. In some cases strips of paper -will do as a temporary substitute. - -It is no exaggeration whatever to declare that two or three centuries -ago the slight and trashily made article of furniture was a great -exception, while at the present day it is the well-made, durable -article which forms the rarity--to the great shame, be it said, -firstly, of all furniture-makers, and, secondly, to fashionable -“taste,” which prefers slightness to strength. - -This trashy and flimsy lightness is vastly to the profit of the -cabinetmaker, since he can thus utilise the cheapest and smallest -pieces of worthless wood by turning them into supports for light -_étagères_ or shelves, cross-backs and legs of spider-like little -chairs, and all parts of small curved sofas, which are to be duly -puttied, French polished, or completely hidden in velveteen or rep. -It is not unusual to see what is considered a handsomely furnished -room in which there is not one absolutely well-made or strong article -which would bear careful examination or turning up. It is a pitiful -sight indeed to see a load of such furniture on its way from the -cabinetmakers, or the mill where it is sawed out by steam, to the -place where it is to be veneered or painted, glazed, and clothed into -elegance. The pieces of refuse pine wood and American greenish-yellow -poplar stuck together with glue, and as few short nails as possible, -look so shammy and shabby! I have wondered, in beholding them, at -the marvellous boldness of their makers, who could deliberately -calculate the time that such stuff would endure before its _débacle_. -And as it is all destined to be broken and mended sometime or -other, it is the more necessary that the art of repairing should be -studied. Unfortunately, badly seasoned deal cannot be repaired into -well-seasoned oak. Yet he who will take the pains to ascertain the -price of the latter will be amazed to learn that so few people have it -made into good, solid, strong furniture. “It is not _there_ that the -expense comes in.” If the reader, having some sense or taste in art, -would make his own furniture, employing an assistant at six shillings -a day to do the rough sawing and planing, he would find that he could -have strong, substantial furniture; and if he would add to this so much -knowledge of panel-carving as he could acquire in a few lessons, he -might make it beautiful. - -A CEMENT FOR WOOD is made as follows:-- - - Caseine 10 - Borax 5 - -This is carefully worked into a thickish milk-like mass. It may be -used as a glue for wood or as a paste for paper. It admits of many -modifications. To make a very good waterproof cement for wood, as -well as other purposes, take this cement when it shall have hardened, -or after it has been applied, and wash it over frequently with a very -strong extract of gall-apples. This forms, according to LEHNER, an -insoluble union with caseine. - -A CEMENT MUCH EMPLOYED IN CHINA to combine and make woodwork, -basket-work, pasteboard, &c., waterproof is made as follows:-- - - Slacked lime 100 - Stirred ox-blood 75 - Alum 2 - -This is commended as being very strong and durable. It is probable that -a slight increase of the alum in solution, or an addition of strong -infusion of gall-apples, would improve it. - -A WATER-PROOF CEMENT FOR WOODEN CASKS is made as follows:-- - - Strong solution of glue 10 - Linseed-oil varnish 5 - Oxide of lead 1 - -Boil together for ten minutes. This cement must not be brought into -connection with lye (LEHNER). - -A good, strong, cheap cement for joining wood with metal or stone is -made with - - Carpenters’ glue 50 - Sifted wood-ashes 100 - -While the glue is soft stir into it the wood-ashes in greater or lesser -quantity, according to their quality and fineness, till a syrupy mass -is formed. Clay can also be combined with this mixture to make casts. - -Common _peat_ of fine quality (for there are different kinds or degrees -of it), carefully cleaned from sticks and fibres, combined with common -glue infused freely with nitric acid, submitted to strong pressure, is -said to form a valuable substitute for wood, which may be used not only -for repairing, filling chinks in trees, making up decayed timber, &c., -but also to form blocks and planks. - -I have elsewhere mentioned that shavings are utilised in Germany. -Combined with glue, infused with glycerine, and submitted to pressure, -they form boards which are even less brittle than many which are in -ordinary use. The peculiar advantage of this artificial timber is the -limitless length of the boards which can be thus made, which is often a -great desideratum in flooring, or indeed in any building where piecing -should be avoided. A canoe can thus be made on another as mould, in -which case the shaving-cement is to be hardened by rollers. There is a -book on this subject, elsewhere mentioned. - -It may be observed that, as long and broad timber becomes every year -more rare and valuable, artificial timber from smaller plants must -certainly take its place. - -WHITEWASH FOR WOOD is rendered more durable and glossy by the addition -of liquid glue, well stirred in. It is still further improved by the -addition of milk. This lasts so much longer than common wash that it -is in the end perhaps ten times as cheap. When well made it has been -known, when applied to the exterior of certain Government buildings in -Washington, U.S.A., to last for seven years. If colouring matter, such -as umber, be added, let the latter be mixed separately with the glue, -and very thoroughly, before it is joined to the lime. The addition of -a few eggs to the mixture will improve it. The lime prepared with the -following forms a still better and stronger wash, which is well worth -the extra expense:-- - - Glue 60 - Linseed-oil varnish 20 - -The varnish, while _hot_, is mixed with the boiling glue, and it is -to be used at once. This is (LEHNER) useful to coat and caulk casks, -especially those in which such fluids as highly rectified spirits of -wine are carried. Be it observed that the hotter the mixture is when -applied the more deeply does it penetrate, yet the less is in the end -required. - -A GOOD CEMENT FOR CARPENTERS:-- - - Slacked lime 50 - Flour 100 - Linseed-oil varnish 15 - -WOODWORK which is to be under water or much exposed to rain may be -cemented with the following:-- - - Calcined lime 10 - Flint sand 15 - Iron (powder filings) 5 - Ochre 20 - Brick-dust 20 - -The powder must be well mixed by shaking, and, just before use, to be -mixed with water. - -The following may be used for JOINTS IN TIMBERS, holes and cracks, or -for covering the surfaces, as it is an excellent protective against -wet. It may also be used for stone, &c.:-- - - Purified brick-dust 10 - Calcined lime 10 - Purified red iron ore 10 - -Work this to a paste with dissolved soda. Modifications of this -combination of soda with iron and brick-dust will readily occur to all -who have carefully studied this work. - -A CEMENT FOR WOOD:-- - - Slacked lime powder 1 - Rye-meal 2 - Linseed-oil varnish 1 - -To which burnt umber or similar powder may be added at discretion. This -cement dries slowly, but becomes very hard. It is good for filling -cracks, holes, &c. - -FRENCH GLUE FOR WOOD:-- - - Gum-arabic 1 - Water 2 - Potato starch 3-5 - -SAWDUST, as I have explained, from my own conjecture and experiment, -can be combined with cements so as to form an artificial wood, which -can be easily moulded or carved, and with which all kinds of worm-eaten -and decayed wood can be restored. I find that for this purpose LEHNER -gives the following:-- - -“Take the finest sawdust and combine it with linseed-oil varnish, -kneading the mass very carefully.” - -This, when properly combined and worked, would form a very good -artificial wood. It may be here observed, that because the experimenter -finds at a first trial that the wood is too brittle or too hard, he is -not to conclude that the _recipe_ is good for nothing. Thus, to prepare -it with, glue we should take-- - - Water 20 - Glue 1 - -First boil the glue very carefully, and stir into it the finest -wood-dust or cocoa-nut shell powder. The quality will be improved if -the latter has already been steeped for some time in a strong solution -of oak-bark or gall-apples in spirit, or, instead of the latter, water. -This disposes the dust to amalgamate with the glue. Stir the whole -thoroughly. A commoner or coarser preparation for simply repairing -is made by combining plaster of Paris, glue in watery solution, and -sawdust. Common bone-dust, plaster of Paris, and glue make a good -cement for light wood-dust. With a little glycerine it can be used for -moulding. Add a little pipeclay, and if the bone-dust be very fine the -surface will take a very high polish. Finish with oil and hand rubbing. -This composition combines well with perfectly softened and macerated -paper--not merely _soaked_--to form panels, which, however, to make -them hard, should be pressed or rolled. - -CEMENTS FOR DEALS OR BOARDS OF SOFT WOOD:-- - -I. - - Caseine 500 grams. - Water 4 qts. - Spirit sal-ammoniac 0.5 qt. - Calcined lime 250 grams. - -II. - - Glue 2 - Water 14 - Cement lime 7 - Sawdust 3-4 - -FOR SPLITS IN TREES, or fractures in the bark:-- - - Pitch or resin 50 - Tallow 10 - Oil of turpentine 5 - Spirits of wine 5 - -The resin is first melted, the turpentine then stirred in, then the -tallow, and finally the spirits. - -I have spoken of artificial wood as chiefly made of sawdust combined -with a binder such as glue. There are, however, strictly speaking, -other kinds. The first of these is made from _cellulose_, which is -disintegrated wood which still retains its fibre. It was discovered, -I believe, by accident, in New York about thirty years ago. A stick, -which fitted tightly, had been left in a cannon, when the latter was -fired off. The result was that the stick was converted into a pulpy, -fibrous mass, which was found to be admirable as a material for making -paper. This, combined with glue, makes good boards. - -Bark of different kinds is also combined in powder with glue to -make wood. In all of these mixtures, where it is desirable to avoid -brittleness or hardness, there must be an admixture of oil or -glycerine. There is generally about 20/100 of the latter to 80/100 -of sawdust, but the proportion varies according to the degree of -elasticity or hardness required. To make boards the mixture is passed -under heavy rollers, and when dry it is further treated with alum in -solution, or tanner’s infusion of oak-bark, to make it waterproof. This -is not necessary for ordinary work or repair. - -TO IMITATE CEDAR.--Take any white wood and boil it for several hours in -the following mixture:-- - - Catechu 200 - Caustic soda 100 - Water 10,000 - -This penetrates very deeply into any wood. It is a very good protective. - -TO PREPARE WOOD FOR PAINT.--When you have a board or box, &c., however -rough, and of any kind of inferior wood, first smooth the surface, if -possible by planing, or else with a rasp and glass-paper. Fill all -the holes and chinks with putty, or bread and gum, or gum and plaster -of Paris. Then, with a mixture of glue (not too stiff) and fine white -plaster of Paris, rub over all the surface to perfect smoothness, and -when quite dry remove any irregularities with finest glass-paper. Then -paint as desired. This is an approved method of repairing old panel -pictures, which were all made with such a ground of plaster and glue. - -TO REPAIR MARQUETRY OR INLAID WOODWORK.--This, as I have already said, -and will now describe more in detail, is made of different pieces of -coloured wood, glued on a panel. Take a piece of fine hard wood, such -as holly, and saw it out to exactly fit the place where pieces are -missing. Draw the pattern on it, and then outline it very neatly with -a fine pen-knife-point, so as to cut a little way into the wood, -but not _through_ it. Fill up this line thus cut with a composition -of varnish and any black powder. Then with _dyes_, not oil paint or -water-colour, but such as are made with spirit, colour the pattern, a -separate colour to every piece. The dye will sink in and grow pale; -then apply it again, and till it is of the hue desired. Polish the -whole. This is what is called Venetian marquetry. It is, very easy to -make, and produces beautiful results, quite equal to the sawed-out and -inlaid work. It is, moreover, much more durable and far less expensive. -MANDER’S dyes are used for such staining. - -Even a single inlaid figure of wood, set into a panel, as in the back -of a chair, gives a character, and apparently greater value, to the -whole. Such inlaying is easily made with a fret-saw. If we take two -thin plates of wood, one dark and one light, and saw the same pattern -out of both, we can then set one into the other, and so make two inlays -by one process. _Parquetry_ is large inlaying for floors. For this it -is well to study such forms as can be _set together_, as, for instance, -squares, diamonds, crosses, T’s and the like. - -Violins, guitars, and lutes can be beautifully adorned by the Venetian -process. As the colours do not wear away, and cannot scale off like -common inlaying, it will be seen that it is by far the best way to -decorate them. Furniture of all kinds can be ornamented in the same -way. It is peculiarly appropriate to picture-frames. It being very -little known, objects thus prepared meet with a ready sale. - -When a corner of a pane in a window, as often happens--as also to the -glass of a picture-frame or mirror--is broken away, we can easily -make or have made a small ornament which will fit into the corner and -conceal the defect, This can be made of wood, _papier-mâché_ (which is -best), or hard putty or cement. It may be gilded or painted. Windows -may be prettily ornamented in this manner, even if not broken. - -[Illustration: _Mirror with Ornaments of Papier-mâché or Wood-Paste._] - - - - -ON REPAIRING AND RESTORING BOOKS, MANUSCRIPTS, AND PAPERS - -WITH DIRECTIONS FOR EASY BINDING AND PAPER-MENDING--BOOK-WORMS - - -It happens often enough that some valuable old manuscript or early -printed work, if not destroyed as useless, is sold for a trifle because -it is torn and worm-eaten or otherwise injured. The loss to literature -from this cause has been terrible, and it is all the more so because in -most cases it was the result of sheer ignorance. - -Paper is a composition of linen, cotton, or other vegetable fibre -reduced to powder and then combined with _size_, which is a kind of -glue, paste, or binding medium. Therefore paper can be mended by using, -in the soft, macerated, or pasty form, _paper itself_--which very -simple fact appears to have been hitherto a secret from the greater -portion of mankind. That is to say, having a piece of paper with a -small round hole in it--looking as if some one had fired a shot through -it--take another piece of paper of the same quality and reduce some -of it to a very fine powder or mash it fine with a knife, combine it -with good flour-paste infused with a little clear white glue, and make -a soft paste with the powder; then, laying a porcelain tile or piece -of tin under the sheet, with a hole in it, to prevent sticking, spread -the paste, which is really soft paper, with a knife over the hole. When -dry it will be mended permanently. Observe that the pulp must be a fine -_paste_, not merely paper mixed with paste--_i.e._, lumpy and stringy, -but soft. Secondly, that a better “binder” or size than flour-paste -is one made from scraps of parchment boiled, till all the gelatine -is extracted. Take the latter and let it boil till thick. It makes a -finely glazed surface. - -Do not begin to do this with a book, but with a sheet out of which -holes have been punched. It is delicate work, and you must not expect -to succeed in it at once. But in time, with care, you will remake the -paper with great skill. There are workmen who can even reunite torn -edges in this manner so that the mending is almost imperceptible. -This is remaking paper with paper. In some cases it will suffice to -simply neatly paste a piece of paper over a torn-away space. This -may be done--as in most cases--very clumsily, or it may be performed -artistically and daintily. In the latter case, using a very sharp -and specially _thin_ bladed penknife, shave down or scrape away the -overlapping edge, and apply the paste sparingly with the point of a -camel’s-hair small brush. Before it is quite dry lay the leaf on a -smooth, hard surface, and with the penknife or a burnisher flatten -down the thinned edge to an uniform surface. This also requires a -little practice, but when learned the artist may effect miracles of -restoration. One may, and that not infrequently, buy for shillings -books which when mended sell for many pounds. - -It often happens that we find some curious little old book which has -been sadly cut or worn, almost down to the type. Take it, and with a -flat rule carefully cut out every page, leaving just a little rim of -margin. Then having obtained old paper corresponding to your text, -or good modern hand-made Dutch, using strong glue-paste or flour and -gum-arabic, or paper-paste, make borders, on which paste the old pages. -If you have old paper--there are dealers who can supply it--you may -do this so well that the juncture will be hardly perceptible. In any -case you will greatly enhance the value of the book. In this, as in -all such work, never attempt to restore anything of value till you -shall have succeeded by experimenting. This is very seldom done, and -yet books thus restored sell for a price which must make the work very -profitable. One reason, however, why we see so little of it is the -_extravagant_ price charged for all such work by the agent who supplies -it. - -The prices paid for books thus restored and mounted are extremely -high, simply because there are so few people who know how to do it -well; and yet, as any of my readers may find, the art is an easy one, -requiring only neatness and care. There are very few libraries where -such restorers might not be employed, to the very great profit of the -collection. All purchasers for libraries are continually rejecting -books because they are tattered and worn or “holey,” which could be -sent to the hospital and doctored into value. And it is, indeed, to -be regretted for the sake of the public that our great libraries have -not all shops attached where duplicates and damaged rarities restored -could be sold at fair, not fancy, prices. For it is firstly the -great librarian who sees and rejects the most books, and who could -do an immense amount of good, and greatly stimulate an interest in -collection and literature--and make money--if he would also facilitate -acquisition. The art of restoring and of mending is as yet so much in -its infancy, and is so little understood and practised, that there is -not one book in a thousand, even of _rariora_ and _curiosa_, preserved -as it might be. - -It may be worth while to lay some stress on the fact that many persons, -especially women, if they will take a little pains to experiment, can -easily make a living by thus restoring books and injured documents. -There are, indeed, many other means of earning money indicated in this -work. - -A CHEAP AND DURABLE VARNISH specially made for bookbinders is prepared -as follows:--Take coarsely powdered gum-copal, add to it oil of thyme -(_oleum thymi serpilli_) or pure oil of rosemary (_oleum rosmarini_), -sufficient to form a solution. Pour off the superfluous liquid, and mix -the remainder with sufficient alcohol to dissolve it well. In making -take only so much of the oil of thyme or rosemary as will cover the -copal, and of alcohol about eight or ten parts to the whole. Special -varnishes, and perhaps better, are known to many bookbinders, who will -sell them, or inform you where to obtain them. I know of none so good -as that of SOEHNÉE, which is, however, very expensive, costing about -ninepence per ounce. It is rather brittle, however, for pictures. - -When a book is dog’s-eared, or its leaves have been turned, if the -paper be of a thin, poor quality, its chances of restoration are better -than if it were good and stiff. In the former case damp the leaves one -by one with water in which a _little_ gum tragacanth has been infused. -This is not so much an adhesive as a mere stiffener, and is used as -such for laces. Then flatten them, putting a piece of smooth white -paper between every leaf. - -There is, I fear, nothing to be done where the reader is so utterly -devoid of all the instincts of a gentleman or a lady as to turn over -a stiff, thick, highly glazed paper to mark the place! I have just -found this done in a magnificently illustrated work from a circulating -library, and, to aggravate the offence, it was on pictured pages! I -would here remark that if every reader would keep by him a piece of -indiarubber or eraser, and obliterate, or at least render illegible, -all the scribblings made on margins, this detestably vulgar practice -would soon be at an end. - -It may be observed that to repair pages which have been torn across, -or engravings, the rent is usually _transverse_--that is, such as to -leave a small flap edge. If we take very strong gum in very minute -quantity on the point of a camel’s-hair brush, we may often succeed -with great care in perfectly reuniting the edges. Observe that in -this, as in everything, the mender should not draw his conclusions -from the first effort, which will probably be a failure, but from -frequent careful observation and experiment. There are marvellously few -people in the world who take the pains to become really good menders -of anything--excepting lace and the like--hence there are few things -mended at all except by botchers and amateurs. - -INK-STAINS can be removed from paper by laying underneath the blot a -pad of clean blotting-paper or fine muslin. Take a fine sponge, dip -it in lemon-juice, and press it gently on the stain, so as to moisten -it. Then with a clean, white, soft rag, folded into a pad, press on the -spot, and the pad, lifted off, will remove a little of the ink. Repeat -this process a few times, taking care to change the pad in your hand -every time _to a clean_ spot. Do not try to _rub_ the stain out (as -most people do), but to _draw_ the ink away or out by sucking up or by -absorption. If you simply rub or press the ink in again which has just -been drawn out, you will only make bad worse. And here I would observe -that by this process of pressing, absorbing, and changing the “sucker” -applied, you can draw appalling stains out of almost anything. You -cannot, of course, prevent chemical action or change of colour, but in -most cases this is the best process. - -It is better to begin with lemon-juice and a little salt and water -where the paper is thin. When it is strong, a mixture of muriatic acid -and water generally extracts ink. - -In a great many cases the staining fluid can be drawn out by absorption -before any chemical change in the colour of the stuff can have been -effected. Therefore it is all-important to know how to do this yourself -_at once_, and not wait till it can be sent to a dyer or scourer or -cleaner. In a few hours’ time that which could have been promptly -extracted will be past all cure. When you spill ink on paper, promptly -apply, first of all, blotting-paper, and then try absorption. If any -stain remains then, apply the acid. - -TO TAKE OUT A GREASE-SPOT.--Heat an iron (I generally effect it with a -burning cigar), and hold it as near as possible to the stain without -burning the paper. If this be well done the grease, wax, &c., will -rapidly disappear. If there are any traces left, place on it powdered -calcined magnesia for a time. This is also a good means to extract -grease, wax, or oil from cloth. Very often, where lemon-juice or acid -would ruin the colour of a cloth or other fabric, chloroform will take -out the spot and leave the colour unchanged. - -_Bone_, well calcined and powdered, is an excellent absorbent of -grease. It should be remembered that all such processes must be -renewed, for after the powder or cloth applied has received a certain -quantity of the grease or stain, it ceases to be taken in. A gentle -pressure or rubbing, after laying paper over the powder, facilitates -the absorption. - -The celebrated ATHANASIUS KIRCHER, who wrote in the sixteenth century, -has left an amusing account of how he one night, stopping at a convent -in Sicily, took a book from the library (it was STEPHANUS FAGUNDEZ’ _In -Præcep’a Ecclesiæ_)--“a new book and elegantly bound”--and spilt over -it and in it all the midnight oil from his lamp! In great alarm he sent -for quicklime, but there was none to be had. So he bade the monks bring -him some _bones_, which he quickly calcined and pulverised and applied. -And the next morning there was not a trace of a spot, only a little -smell of oil, which soon vanished. He adds, that plaster of Paris would -have done as well. - -Ascertain carefully the nature of the spot before trying to extract it. -For resinous substances use spirits, or eau de cologne, or turpentine. -Benzine extracts several substances. - -An old recipe for removing ink-stains was to take a spoonful of good -aquafortis, in which break a piece of chalk the size of a large barley -corn; add two spoonfuls of rose-water and one of vinegar. This should -be mixed in a clean glass and left to stand for several hours. It is to -be applied with a piece of new sponge, by pressure, and not too freely -nor too long. When the paper is nearly dry renew the process, and when -the ink shall have disappeared, promptly wash out the acid with pure -water and a clean linen rag. (But it is _too strong_ for many fabrics.) - -When the ink does not penetrate the paper it can be removed by erasure -with a sharp penknife, or a preparation of vulcanised indiarubber -and powdered pumice-stone sold by most stationers. When this latter -does not “bite,” its action can be aided by very slightly moistening -it. After erasure rub the spot scraped with very finely powdered -pumice-stone, and polish with a burnisher or any smooth substance. - -Even when an inkstand has been spilled over a printed or long-written -page, we can by prompt action extract the new ink and leave the old -plain as ever; but the reader who expects to work this miracle of -changing night into day must not wait till the accident happens to -first attempt to remedy it, or he will probably fail. Let him first of -all, not once but often, pour ink on some waste and worthless page, and -then experiment first with the blotting-paper, then with the dilute -acids and the padding. The time will not by any means be wasted. - -A fresh ink-spot can be easily removed from paper by rubbing it with a -finely pulverised mixture of saltpetre, sulphur, alum, and pumice. If -the spot is an old one, moisten it first a little with water. - -Ink-spots, &c., in old MSS. were sometimes ingeniously covered by -ornaments in gold or colour. - -When an entire page or many pages of a book are missing, it often -happens that, at much less expense than would be supposed, an ingenious -printer can restore the whole. There are many books for which it -would be worth while to have the type cast, for even with a page thus -restored the book may be worth ten times as much as if it were wanting. -Missing pages are often supplied by photographic fac-similes from -another copy. - -It was only yesterday, as I write, here in Florence, that I heard a -tourist declare that there was nothing worth buying to be found, and -that everything curious was snapped up at once. To which I could not -assent, never having seen so many objects as of late which I regarded -as great bargains. But they were all _dilapidated_, and the tourist -generally likes to see everything in splendid condition. To him who -can restore old books and ivories and leather-work and panel pictures, -there will be no lack of bargains for a long time anywhere. The men who -sell are not all such marvellous experts in mending up, repairing, and -forging as literary dealers in the wonderful would have us believe. If -they were so clever they would not let valuable panel pictures split -in two before their eyes from ignorance of knowing how to straighten -and tack them at a penny’s cost. There is abundance of clever forging, -of lying ivories and silver-work and sham antique leather, but of -restoration of smaller or of single objects there is very little; and -there is, as I have said, in this a vast field for every collector who -knows enough to make practical application of what is taught in this -book. It is so far from true that everything is now snapped up, that I -confidently assert that there is hardly a _bric-à-brac_ shop in Europe -in which a skilled repairer cannot find a bargain, and in most cases -several. - -It will often be of service to the mender of books to be able to -prepare parchment-paper for himself. If we take a mixture of one part -nitric acid to three of water--the proportions varying very much with -the quality of the acid and of the paper--and dip into it a piece of -soft unglazed paper, the latter will at once harden into a substance -like parchment. It should be at once washed in changes of pure water. I -may here observe that neither in making this nor anything else should -the operator be satisfied with a single experiment. - -Regarding paper, there are certain curious facts worth knowing by every -reader. Before the invention or general use of window-glass, a very -transparent kind of paper was, according to KIRCHER (_De Secretis_), -prepared as follows:-- - -Take paper from the mill, not as yet sized, and mix with it to six -parts of turpentine two of mastic. This really makes a very clear, -or at least diaphanous, medium, which may be used for temporarily -repairing broken glass windows. - -The same writer informs us that if we take fine parchment (_pergamenam -hædinum_), prepared without lime, or naturally dried, we should lay -it in water, which will just cover it, in which has been well infused -boiled honey and the white of eggs. This was used to repair coloured -glass windows. - -There is also given in the _Zauberbuch_ of JOHANN WALLBERGER, -Frankfort, 1760, a recipe for the same purpose:-- - -“Take parchment prepared without lime, and steep it in a mixture of -thick gum-arabic dissolved in water, the yolk of eggs well shaken, and -clarified honey.” - -It is worth observing, as regards these recipes from old works, that -while those founded on modern chemistry and experiment are generally -cheaper and apparently better, the former are often more _durable_ in -effect, and were, indeed, more thoroughly tested. There were a great -many parchment windows in those days, and there are none now. And in -these old works of PORTA, WECKERUS, TENZELIUS, KIRCHER, ALEXANDER OF -PIEDMONT, MIZALDUS, VALENTINE KRAUTEMANN, and many more of which I -have a large collection, there are many curious prescriptions, many of -which I have seen revived from time to time of late years as modern -scientific inventions--on which subject an interesting article could be -written. - -A weak solution of oxalic acid in water is often the best to remove ink -and other stains from strong white paper or linen. It should be applied -by gently pressing or _dabbing_ (not rubbing) with a cotton pad. As -soon as the stain is removed, dab it again with clean water. Take good -care, however, that there are no scratches or cuts on your fingers, for -if the acid gets into them it will cause great pain. - -I may here mention that the old bookbinders’ paste was made as -follows:-- - -Take a quarter of a pound of starch, steep it a quarter of an hour in -water, and stir it till it is milky. Add a pinch of alum, and boil it -once more. - -This was said to keep better than paste made from flour. (Add a few -drops of oil of cloves or carbolic acid, and it will keep very well.) -Flour can, however, be used instead of starch, and a good adhesive -be the result. A little glue very much improves it. There is a great -difference in the quality of cement made from bread, as the condition -of the latter has been changed by fermentation. - -BINDING.--Repairing books is nearly allied to _binding_, and the latter -is, in perfection, a somewhat difficult art. Yet it is not at all -difficult for a careful person to bind up many works in such a manner -that they will bear much reading, and with a little artistic skill look -very well. This may be effected as follows:-- - -When a book is stitched together, there are sewed into the back two or -more cross pieces of string or strips of muslin, which project a little -on either side, and which, by being pasted down inside the cover under -a leaf, hold the book and cover together. This is further strengthened -sometimes by another strip of muslin. When the back is firmly gummed -or pasted to the book, so as to bend with it, it is called a flexible -back, which also adds to the strength of the whole. - -[Illustration] - -If the reader will now take a simply sewn or stitched book, without -binding, and will place across its back two or more strips of -parchment, and glue them on with the strongest possible cement--mastic -being the best, but acidulated glue or flour-paste with glue, or even -dextrine-paste, will answer the purpose--and if he will again paste -up and down over these a strip just the width of the back, he will -have all that is necessary to make a strong binding, for this will -hold as well as the strings. Note that the parchment strips must first -be thoroughly wet through and macerated, or crumpled till quite soft. -Again, that when the paste is nearly dry the strip should be rubbed in. - -Next cut out two pieces of _strong_ pasteboard, each a very little -larger than the length and width of the book. These are the covers. - -[Illustration] - -Now paste the outside of the _straps_ exactly to the inside of the -covers, leaving just enough space for opening and closing. When dry, -the book should open and close easily. Then take the outer cover -of leather or cloth, which is cut in the shape indicated in the -accompanying outline, paste it well over the back, and then turn the -edges over and paste them down over the cover inside, so as to form a -narrow margin, as may be seen by examining any book. Also turn down, -before doing this, the edges at the ends of the book. The binding will -be much stronger if, after pasting the ends of the parchment strips to -the covers, we paste over them in turn good, strong pieces of paper, -close to the back, to prevent the strips from pulling up. - -If there be fly or blank leaves on the sides of the book, paste one of -each down over the inside of the cover. This will conceal the margin -and add greatly to the strength of the book. But if there be none, -you can supply them, firstly, by a method which will make your binding -even stronger than that of most books. Take a very strong piece, let us -say, of Whatman’s or any other good tough linen drawing-paper, just of -the size to cover the whole book--that is, back and sides. Cut in it -four slits, and pass the strips which are to bind the book to the cover -through, and gum them down, and then paste the fly-leaf thus added -down over the strips. But it will answer every purpose if you simply -gum fly-leaves on by a very narrow margin of “adhesive.” All of this -will become clear to any one who will carefully examine a book. And -anybody who has the dexterity to fold a letter neatly or do up a parcel -properly, can in a short time, after one or two experiments, succeed -in binding a book in this manner. I have observed that those who fail -as amateur bookbinders generally do so because they attempt too much -too soon, and aim at producing elegant masterpieces before they have -learned to manage with ease such common work as I have described. - -Though this manner of strip-binding is little known, it was, strange -to say, the very first ever practised; for, according to OLYMPIODORUS, -one PHILATIUS was the first who taught the use of _glue_ to fasten -written or blank leaves together, for which great discovery a statue -was erected to him. Binders were called among the Romans _ligatores_, -as they are still in Italy, _legatori_; and it was here, indeed, that I -myself learned the craft, as I now generally bind my own books. Those -who prepared and sold the covers for Roman booksellers were called -_scrutarii_. - -There is a very easy way to bind up pamphlets, MSS., or letters -when they have any margin for a back. If you cannot have them -stitched--which, though difficult to an inexpert, can be done for a -mere trifle--then sew them together across from side to side. Where the -pages are of great value, gum them together by a _very narrow_ doubled -or folded strip of adhesive. This done, bind as before, or else simply -paste on a cover of drawing-paper at the back, and the fly-leaves to -the sides. A great deal of loose literature, flying leaves, clippings -from newspapers, letters, &c., can in this way, at no great expenditure -of time or money, be converted into really valuable books. - -I may here observe that cloth for binding, thin leather, and even -common parchment or parchment-paper, are much cheaper than would be -supposed, and that the average cost, all expenses included, of binding -a duodecimo book in these would only be from threepence to a shilling. -Any waste parchment will serve for binding. - -Any person, however, who can emboss leather with tracer and stamp, even -though but a little, after a week’s practice, can decorate and ornament -books so as to greatly enhance their value. Nor do I exaggerate when -I say that here is a field in which any person who can draw or copy -decorative patterns moderately well might make a living. The reader -will find the fullest details as to how this is done in my _Manual -of Leather Work_. (Price 5s. London, Whittaker & Co., 2 White Hart -Street, E.C.) In the present work I can only state that it is executed -as follows:--Bind your book with cardboard in fairly thick, hard, and -firm brown leather; there is a kind made for the purpose in Germany. -Draw the pattern on it, or else draw it on paper with a crayon-pencil, -and rub it from the back on the leather. This done, go over it with -the fine point of a miniature brush in Indian ink. Dampen the leather -slightly as you work with a sponge, and mark the outline with a tracer -and stamp the ground with a matt. You may leave it brown, but if the -work be coarse, I advise painting the whole with ink or Indian ink, and -then coating it with SOEHNÉE’S varnish, No. 3. Rub this down well by -hand. - -If you can supply the design (which should always be bold and simple), -any wood-carver will, for a few shillings, execute it in _intaglio_ -on a block of wood, which should be at least one inch in thickness, -and also have a transverse piece screwed to its back to prevent its -warping. With this you can stamp off as many covers as you want. -Retouch them by hand with tracer and stamp. If blackened, and then -touched up with gilding and varnished, such books are very attractive, -and should sell well. Any person who can design, or even trace, a -pattern can have it cut on a block for a few shillings, and anybody -having such a block can print off any number of impressions in damp -leather, and retouch them with stamp and tracer, and glue them to -cardboard covers, for books or albums, and sell them at a good profit. -Yet, though this has been clearly set forth by me several times in -manuals, &c., I have never yet met with a single amateur who has -attempted it. There is as a rule far more suffering in this world from -_laziness_, inertness, and an indisposition to _try_ to do something -than from any other contaminating influences which lead to poverty. - -When a book is even woefully dilapidated, so that there is no margin -to stitch, do not despair. First separate every leaf, smooth it, and, -if necessary, dampen it with a slight infusion of tragacanth. Then, if -there is even the twentieth part of an inch of margin left, take strips -of good, tough, thin paper, and with care stitch the leaves to these -strips. For some severe cases you must use very thin transparent or -tracing paper to gum over the text, but which must be visible through -it. This, if neatly done, does not look so badly as it would seem. If -one strip be folded and used to connect two leaves, the stitching and -binding become easy. I have already described how to restore margins -and fill worm-holes. - -I think that if any person of literary habits will consider all -that is written in this chapter, and will begin to practise it with -deliberation and care, he will surely succeed, and find it a very -profitable and agreeable occupation. All of such men have pamphlets, -MSS., autographs, letters, newspaper clippings, and papers, which, -if classed and made up into book-form, would be more available for -use, and far more valuable. I say nothing of repairing old books; -it speaks for itself as an easy and lucrative employment. And it -may be observed that a young man who can thus bind and repair would -make a most valuable assistant-librarian, though the business can be -mastered very soon indeed; and it would often happen that in choosing -a secretary, where there are many papers to file or a library to look -after, or an assistant in an antiquarian book-shop--particularly the -latter--preference would be given to one who had mastered practically -what is taught in this chapter. And as on board ship the best sailor -is generally the best mender--every old tar being proverbially skilled -in repairing and having a quick eye for emergencies, even on shore--so -the one who can rehabilitate and “form” books will probably be a good -assistant in all things. - -It may often happen to a writer or copyist that he has occasion to -erase a word, and cannot write over the space lest the ink should -spread. In old times this was remedied as follows:--A very little -juniper gum, levigated to the finest powder, was rubbed over the spot -with a soft linen rag. - -In all kinds of repairing or technical work it is sometimes necessary -to draw circles when the artist has no compasses. Yet this can be done -to perfection, almost by free-hand, and very easily. Take several -sheets of paper or a blotter; lay on it the piece to be drawn on. -Take a pencil in the fingers, as is usual, rest the hand on the nail -of the little finger as a point--having previously pulled the sleeve -of his coat well up, so as to get a full view--and then with the left -hand draw or revolve the paper. In most cases a perfect circle will be -the result. This is admirable practice for learning to draw circles -entirely by free hand, as may be found by experiment. - -Paper can be made, if not absolutely fire-proof, at least deprived of -inflammability, by being steeped in alum-water, or in _oleum tartari -per deliquium_, or oil of tartar. Stationers might find a sale for such -paper. If the document which was thrown by a certain Duchess into the -fire had been thus prepared, it might have been rescued by a bystander -before it perished. - -The art of preservation, or prevention of injury, is allied to -restoration, for which reason it would be well if more people who send -books by mail would use protecting corners, which can readily be made -by anybody with a pair of strong scissors from thin sheet brass, tin, -or iron. Take a piece of metal of a rectangular shape, as follows:-- - -[Illustration] - -Then double it into a triangle over a piece of cardboard, or of wood, -exactly the thickness of the cover of the book:-- - -[Illustration] - -Very valuable books should be kept in boxes of thin metal, especially -in India. Such cases should not be made to open and shut with a hinged -lid, but with a covering, and like a cigar case. Such cases, or at -least metallic guards, should also be used when a book is wrapped -and tied in the usual manner and sent by mail. I am quite sure that -at least every other book which I have received by mail during the -past year has shown on its edges melancholy scars from its strings, -reminding one of the wounds which the heroic red Indian retained from -his bonds. A guard is simply a piece of sheet-metal, bent as follows, -once or twice:-- - -[Illustration] - -These guards are invaluable for packing books in trunks. Their price is -trifling, and in the end there would be great economy in using them. -Books should not be packed very tightly together on their shelves. It -bursts the binding, especially of modern works in boards and paper. -The old parchment flexible bindings were in every respect better, -and they could even now be made far more cheaply than is generally -supposed to be possible. I have before me a book nearly three hundred -years old, bound in skiver parchment (split, or very thin), which has -evidently been much used, yet which is still in good condition. But -parchment need not be prepared very carefully for ordinary binding, and -it could be sold for half the price charged by law stationers for what -is used to write on. In the United States one must pay much more for a -sheepskin than for a sheep, indeed in some cases three or four times -as much--that is to say, the skin as a parchment in New York costs as -much as three sheep in the Far West--and yet the expense of bringing -the skin to the East and of tanning it are in no proportion whatever to -the stationer’s profits. - -Any one who will examine an ordinary old parchment-bound book, such as -lies before me, will see at a glance why it must be more durable than -a modern binding. In the modern book the _stiff_ back rises full to -the edge, or generally _above_ the level of the sides, and is made of -muslin, paper, or at best of soft leather. Therefore in time it breaks -from pressure and friction, or wears away. The parchment or vellum had -in most cases this back-edge put back or kept down as much as possible, -and the tough covering was all in one piece. It is very true that it -is not possible to obtain plain, old-fashioned parchment now, and that -those who would have vellum, or even sheep, must pay an enormous price -for it. This would not, however, be the case long if there were as -great a popular demand for parchment binding as there now is for flimsy -muslin. Those who prefer the former will find no difficulty in having -it made for them, and in binding their books themselves according to -the directions which I have given. - -I shall in the chapter on _Papier-mâché_ show how covers for books may -be cheaply made at no great expense, which may be beautifully embossed -and are extremely durable. This is, briefly, by having a flat mould -or die, on which lay alternate coats of paper and firm paste (into -which glue and alum enter), then passing over them a bread-roller, -continually adding paste and paper till the whole is complete. When -finished, rub in black or any other colour, then rub in oil, rub again, -apply SOEHNÉE, No. 3, and finally rub by hand. This will make very -beautiful binding. - -It is much to be regretted that, although there has been of late years, -owing to machinery and patent processes, such immense production of -cheap and showy binding, as shown in photograph albums, there has been -as steady and rapid decrease in quality, strength, and durability. It -is becoming unusual, even in very expensive books, to find one which -can be honestly and well opened or is well stitched. I have, since -writing that last word, tested it with two books recently published, -one costing six shillings, the other a guinea. The latter was fairly -well put together and “held,” but was warped in the stitching and -pasting. It was “bad work.” As for the six shilling book, it cracked -_clear through to the back_ at every page which I opened, and yet I -did not open it very widely. I should say that any amateur who could -not learn to bind books better in a month or six weeks than these were -bound must be stupid indeed. The examination of a number of other books -shows that what I have said is now generally true, and that even very -expensive and pretentiously elegant works are not half so well bound in -reality as were common and cheap school-books two hundred years ago. -This I have also confirmed by examining a number of the latter bound in -parchment, which bid fair to last for centuries to come. - -Should this cheap, trashy, and showy style of binding continue, -and with it a constant rise in the price of everything made by -hand, the result will be that everything durable will be made by -“amateurs”--that is, by people who to artistic spirit unite a -certain personal independence. Owners of libraries will bind their -own books, or else employ people who will work as artists, and not -like mere machines. The vulgar and ignorant will continue to buy -showy, cheap duplicates--induced by hearing, “’Ere’s an harticle, mum, -that we’re sellin’ a great many hof”--while the cultured will prefer -the hand-made, which is not necessarily more expensive. In fact, if -the unemployed in England--or the victims of the wholesale steam -trash-maker--could be taught easy hand-work, as they all _can_ be, it -would be possible to not only vastly relieve national poverty, but we -could have a variety of articles of better quality. For it appears to -be, by some strange law, a _fact_ that, with all the improvements in -machinery, men can still make by _hand_--and well--pictures, clothes, -shoes or boots, bookbindings, and works of art generally--that is to -say, anything in which skill or character can be shown; while, on -the contrary, in all such matters machinery, instead of making any -progress, is, owing to competition, actually falling behind! Scientific -and other journals are continually boasting of new discoveries and -improvements, but despite this the jerry-built houses of three-fourths -of London, the sawed and glued cheap and vile furniture (made by -scientific steam) with which they are filled, the average quality of -everything into which skill and taste are supposed to enter, show that -this boasted “end of the century” is also rapidly coming to an end in -good taste and the quality of its work. - -He who will learn to _mend_ with care, taste, and skill, firstly -his books, will find that to progress from this to binding and to -making elegant covers is only going from A to B. The binding of the -olden time, while it was incredibly strong, vigorous, and quaint, was -extremely easy to make, as I have satisfied myself by much examination -and personal practice. The stitching was not with the weakest and -cheapest cotton-thread; still less was it with wires too thin for the -purpose; it was executed with linen pack-thread, _from the top to -the bottom of the page_, in three or four stitches, so that the book -could really be opened and bent back till the covers touched without -injury to it. All of which could be given to-day with the parchment -covers at the same price which the book now costs, and to pay the same -profit, were it not that public “taste” prefers showy trash. Beyond -good, strong _stitching_, all the _necessary_ process of binding is -very easy. It requires neatness and care, and some practice, but it is -decidedly not difficult. He who has mastered it will find that other -kinds of mending, and also the practice of allied minor arts, are -simply the succeeding letters of the alphabet. - -It is a fact, to which I invite attention, that dilettante amateurs -of books invariably understand by binding nothing more than its -refinements and easily ruined adornment, which books had better be -without. Amateurs of this class always attempt at once the most -difficult work, and generally fail. As a rule, almost without -exception, the prize specimens of modern binding seen at exhibitions -are chiefly remarkable for ornament, which will not endure handling or -rubbing, such as surface-gilding. - -Pamphlets or letters, &c., can be bound with “eyelets,” and the clamp -or punch which is sold with them. Or they may be simply gummed -together, in which case use the powerful fish-glue, which holds -perfectly. - -The easiest and most effective method of side-binding, or where leaves -are held together by passing the tie through from side to side, is -as follows:--Have by you strips of metal, say sheet-tin, one-fourth -or one-third of an inch in breadth; also small rivets or tacks. Take -two strips of the same length as the pamphlet or papers to be bound, -and strike holes in them with a brad-awl and hammer, on a solid piece -of wood, at regular distances. Then place these strips on the book, -and drive the rivets through the holes. Turn the whole round, and -laying the other side on an anvil or a reversed flat-iron, flatten -the points of the rivets so that they will hold. Any old tins, such -as are thrown away in such numbers, can be made to supply strips. A -strip of parchment or strong paper bent over to form a back can then -be pasted over the strips to improve the appearance of the volume. Any -tinman will, for a trifle, supply these strips and punch the holes -neatly for use. They should be found in every library, and ought to -be in every stationer’s. It may be observed that in inserting the -rivets or tacks you should place them alternately, one on one side -and one on the other. A lighter form of this binding is to take a -flat-headed drawing-pin, similar to those used by artists, and have a -round, flat tin or brass disc, like a thin sixpence or threepenny-bit, -corresponding to it. In the latter punch a small hole, and rivet as -before. Tinmen will also punch these discs; in fact, they often throw -away a great many cut from certain kinds of work. - -Where the leader may have a great number of books to bind, he will -find it an economy or a means to secure good work to hire a girl who -is an experienced book-stitcher to come and work for him. He can -thus be _sure_ of having his works _well_ sewed from top to bottom -with strongest linen-thread in ancient style, instead of their being -shabbily wired (and all wiring is shabby, since the thin does not -hold, and the thick bursts the binding), or still more shabbily looped -together with weak cotton-thread. This effected, he can easily do his -own binding. He may not rival a Grolier, or turn out such exquisite -“gems” as require to be kept in caskets, and are utterly unsuitable for -use or reading, and, like most “elegant and unrivalled” modern binding, -marvels of tooling and gilding. But he can most assuredly hope to bind -strongly in parchment as books were bound in the olden time, and if -he chooses to also ornament them with richly stamped leather covers, -he can in a short time learn to do the latter, as may be seen in the -_Manual of Leather-Work_. - -The great test of excellence in a book is, Can it be freely handled and -read without injury? The most careless examination of most books will -convince the reader that this test is almost unknown. The exquisitely -whitened vellum bindings of Florence and Venice, which are stained -almost with the pressure of a lady’s clean finger; the photograph -album, so beautifully stamped in leather as thin as blotting-paper, -which scratches and wears into shabbiness in a week, if often -opened--all the show-pieces of exhibitions will not endure _use_. -And it seems as if, after all the binding of this decade shall have -perished, that of the common, cheap books of the seventeenth century -will be as good as ever. - -A great number of the adhesives and cements mentioned in this book are -quite applicable to mending bindings or making paper stick to paper, -&c. The following is, however, not only a paste, but also a glaze, and -is extensively used as such on labels, boxes, and cards:-- - -Boil borax with water, and work it thoroughly into caseine till it -forms a clear, thick, and extremely adhesive cement, which is also much -used to varnish leather or muslins. - -It is often desirable to have a varnish or glaze for the covers of -books, and still more frequently a paste, which will hold very firmly -and yet not penetrate, as glue and paste very often do. - -To make such a cement, mix heavy solution of warm glue with freshly -made starch or flour-paste. Add to this one-fourth part of turpentine -and one-fourth of spirits of wine. This excellent cement is applicable -to many purposes. - -To paper walls _well_ we make flour-paste, and to every quart add -ten grammes of alum dissolved in hot water. Then wash the wall with -glue-water, and cover the paper with the paste. The alum and glue form -a combination which is leathery and insoluble, and not only arrests -decay, but clings with great force. Most wall-paper put on with common -paste decays more or less in time, and becomes simply poisonous. - -A STRONG GUM OR ADHESIVE FOR PAPER, CARDBOARD WORK, OR BINDING:-- - - -I. - -Dissolve:-- - - Gilder’s glue 100 - Water 200 - -Add to this:-- - - Bleached shellac 2 - Alcohol 10 - - -II. - -Dissolve together:-- - - Dextrine 50 - Water 50 - -Unite the two solutions thus formed; pass them through a cloth, so as -to fall into a flat mould. When dry, use by dissolving in hot water. - -AMERICAN GLAZE FOR POSTAGE-STAMPS:-- - - Dextrine 2 - Vinegar 1 - Water 5 - Alcohol 1 - -Stamps are, however, very often surreptitiously removed by means of -moisture. The following recipe renders this difficult. It consists of -two preparations, one of which is applied to the stamp and one to the -letter. It is particularly needed in America, where, according to a -statement in a newspaper, _nearly one-third_ of all the postage-stamps -are removed from letters, cleaned, and used over again. - -I. _For the Letter._ - - Chromic acid 2.5 gr. - Caustic potash 15.0 ” - Water 15.0 ” - Sulphuric acid 0.5 ” - Sulphuric copper-oxide of ammonia 30.0 ” - Fine paper 4.0 ” - -II. _On the Stamp._ - - Sturgeon’s bladder in water 7.0 gr. - Vinegar 1.0 ” - -The chromic acid forms with the glue a substance insoluble in water, -which causes the stamp not to yield to moisture. The two should be -kept in two cups, and the letter first smeared with one and the stamp -with the other. I have read of a physician who, finding that his -postage-stamps were often stolen, adopted the precaution of giving -their backs an application of croton-oil, or some similar powerful -“anti-thief-matic,” the result of which was great temporary illness in -his landlady and her family. For this recipe the reader must apply to a -chemist! - -EDER’S GUM FOR PHOTOGRAPHS.--Dissolve oxyhydrate of ammonia in vinous -acid, to one part of which add twenty of starch-paste. - -CEMENT FOR LEATHER OR PAPER IN BINDING BOOKS, &C.--Take 1 kilogramme of -wheat-flour, and make it to a paste with 20 grammes of finely powdered -alum. Boil this till a spoon will stand uptight in it. Cover the -cardboard or cover with this, lay the leather or muslin upon it, and -then with a roller press one upon the other. Leather should first be -damped. Care must be taken that the paste be not too moist; secondly, -that it is laid on very evenly and thinly. - -Engravings or texts which have had a piece torn out can be restored as -follows:-- - -Obtain a photograph from a perfect copy on corresponding paper, then -with gum set it in, so as to supply the deficiency. - -As the ravages of the _Book-worm_ form an important item in mending -books, and as there is always some interest for collectors regarding -this much talked of and rarely seen insect, I take the liberty of -reproducing from the American _Science_ of March 24, 1893, an article -on the subject. An appropriate motto for it might be:-- - - “Come hither, boy; we’ll hunt to-day - The book-worm, ravening beast of prey.” - - -THE RAVAGES OF BOOK-WORMS - -At a meeting of the Massachusetts Historical Society, held February -9, 1893, Dr. Samuel A. Green, after showing two volumes that had been -completely riddled by the ravages of insects, as well as some specimens -of the animals in various stages, made the following remarks:-- - - * * * * * - -For a long period of years I have been looking for living specimens of -the so-called “book-worm,” of which traces are occasionally found in -old volumes; and I was expecting to find an invertebrate animal of the -class of annelids. In this library at the present time there are books -perforated with clean-cut holes opening into sinuous cavities, which -usually run up the back of the volumes, and sometimes perforate the -leather covers and the body of the book; but I have never detected the -live culprit that does the mischief. For the most part the injury is -confined to such as are bound in leather, and the ravages of the insect -appear to depend on its hunger. The external orifices look like so many -shot-holes, but the channels are anything but straight. From a long -examination of the subject I am inclined to think that all the damage -was done before the library came to this site in the spring of 1833. -At all events, there is no reason to suppose that any of the mischief -has been caused during the last fifty years. Perhaps the furnace-heat -dries up the moisture which is a requisite condition for the life and -propagation of the little animal. - -Nearly two years ago I received a parcel of books from Florida, of -which some were infested with vermin, and more or less perforated in -the manner I have described. It occurred to me that they would make a -good breeding farm and experiment station for learning the habits of -the insect; and I accordingly sent several of the volumes to my friend -Mr. Samuel Garman, who is connected with the Museum of Comparative -Zoology at Cambridge, for his care and observation. From him I learn -that the principal offender is an animal known popularly as the Buffalo -Bug, though he is helped in his work by kindred spirits, not allied -to him according to the rules of natural history. Mr. Garman’s letter -gives the result of his labours so fully as to leave nothing to be -desired, and is as follows:-- - -“MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY, CAMBRIDGE, MASS., _February 7, 1893_. - -“DR. SAMUEL A. GREEN, BOSTON, MASS. - -“SIR,--The infested books sent for examination to this Museum, through -the kindness of Mr. George E. Littlefield, were received July 15, -1891. They were inspected, and, containing individuals of a couple of -species of living insects, were at once enclosed in glass for further -developments. A year afterward live specimens of both kinds were still -at work. Besides those that reached us alive, a third species had left -traces of former presence in a number of empty egg-cases. - -“Five of the volumes were bound in cloth. On these the principal -damage appeared at the edges, which were eaten away and disfigured by -large burrows extending inward. Two volumes were bound in leather. The -edges of these were not so much disturbed; but numerous perforations, -somewhat like shot-holes externally, passed through the leather, -enlarging and ramifying in the interior. As if made by smaller insects, -the sides of these holes were neater and cleaner cuttings than those in -the burrows on the edges of the other volumes. - -“The insects were all identified as well known enemies of libraries, -cabinets, and wardrobes. One of them is a species of what are -commonly designated ‘fish bugs,’ ‘silver fish,’ ‘bristle tails,’ &c. -By entomologists they are called _Lepisma_; the species in hand is -probably _Lepisma saccharina_. It is a small, elongate, silvery, very -active creature, frequently discovered under objects, or between the -leaves of books, whence it escapes by its extraordinary quickness of -movement. Paste and the sizing or enamel of some kinds of paper are -very attractive to it. In some cases it eats off the entire surface of -the sheet, including the ink, without making perforations; in others -the leaves are completely destroyed. The last specimen of this insect -in these books was killed February 5, 1893, which proves the species to -be sufficiently at home in this latitude. - -“The second of the three is one of the ‘Buffalo Bugs.’ or ‘Carpet -Bugs,’ so called; not really bugs, but beetles. The species before -us is the _Anthrenus varius_ of scientists, very common in Boston -and Cambridge, as in other portions of the temperate regions and the -tropics. Very likely the ‘shot-holes’ in the leather-bound volumes are -of its making, though it may have been aided in the deeper and larger -chambers by one or both of the others. The damage done by this insect -in the house, museum, and library is too well known to call for further -comment. Living individuals were taken from the books nearly a year -after they were isolated. - -“The third species had disappeared before the arrival of the books, -leaving only its burrows, excrement, and empty egg-cases, which, -however, leave no doubt of the identity of the animal with one of the -cockroaches, possibly the species _Blatta Australasiæ_. The cases agree -in size with those of _Blatta Americana_, but have thirteen impressions -on each side, as if the number of eggs were twenty-six. The ravages of -the cockroaches are greatest in the tropics, but some of the species -range through the temperate zones and even northward. An extract from -Westwood and Drury will serve to indicate the character of their work:-- - -“‘They devour all kinds of victuals, dressed and undressed, and damage -all sorts of clothing, leather, books, paper, &c., which, if they do -not destroy, at least they soil, as they frequently deposit a drop of -their excrement where they settle. They swarm by myriads in old houses, -making every part filthy beyond description. They have also the power -of making a noise like a sharp knocking with the knuckle upon the -wainscotting, _Blatta gigantea_ being thence known to the West Indies -by the name of drummer; and this they keep up, replying to each other, -throughout the night. Moreover, they attack sleeping persons, and will -even eat the extremities of the dead.’ - -“This quotation makes it appear that authors as well as books are -endangered by this outlaw. With energies exclusively turned against -properly selected examples of both, what a world of good it might do -mankind! The discrimination lacking, the insect must be treated as a -common enemy. As a bane for ‘silver fish’ and cockroaches, pyrethrum -insect powder is said to be effectual. For a number of years I have -used, on lepisma and roach, a mixture containing phosphorus, ‘The -Infallible Water Bug and Roach Exterminator,’ made by Barnard & Co., -7 Temple Place, Boston, and, without other interest in advertising -the compound, have found it entirely satisfactory in its effects. -Bisulphide carbon, evaporated in closed boxes or cases containing the -infested articles, is used to do away with the ‘Buffalo Bugs.’--Very -respectfully yours, - - “SAMUEL GARMAN.” - -I can remember that many years ago there was to be seen in the bookshop -of John Penington, Philadelphia, a book-worm preserved in spirits in a -vial. The manner in which this species of teredo penetrates wood and -leather as well as paper is not the least curious of its habits. - -The great amount of injury inflicted by boring-insects in books, wood, -and all weak substances is sufficient reason for giving so much space -to this subject. From a ship to a manuscript, nothing is safe from -them. - - - - -PAPIER-MÂCHÉ - -REPAIRING TOYS--MAKING GROUNDS FOR PICTURES AND WALLS--CARTON-CUIR AND -CARTON-PIERRE - - -Soft paper, when mixed with water, gum, or, better still, with -flour-paste, forms a substance which can be moulded to any form, -and which, when dry, will be as hard as cardboard. Its hardness and -durability may be increased by mingling with it many substances. - -Combined with soft leather in small fragments or with the dust of -leather, it forms what the French call _carton-cuir_. In this, or -even in its natural state--that is, paper and paste--_papier-mâché_, -as it is termed, can under pressure be made as hard as any wood. I -have seen all kinds of articles of furniture made from it. In America -there are manufactories in which pails or buckets, tubs, firkins, and -even durable boats, are thus manufactured. There is in Bergen, Norway, -a church built entirely of it mixed with lime. For certain kinds of -mending it is very valuable. - -Though not so plastic as clay, _papier-mâché_ can, with a little -practice, be moulded into any form. It consists simply of pasting piece -on to piece, pressing it meantime as much as possible with the fingers -or a wooden implement like a pestle. The pressure should be applied as -it gradually dries. Any one can thus make very hard cardboard with a -bread-roller on a board. - -If you have the cardboard cover of a book badly damaged, with even a -portion gone, it can be restored by using _papier-mâché_ in which a -solution of glue or gum has been infused. Glue it specially at the -edges. For such repairing take paper-dust or pulp, combined with -gum-arabic in alum-water solution, or simply the gum. This is easily -moulded and smoothed into any cracks or torn places. - -If _parchment_ be torn away it is easily replaced. Cut a piece to -replace the missing portion, dampen it and the edge which it is to join -till quite soft, then glue the two together, using pressure. I have -just effected this myself with a cover of which half was gone, and the -mending is hardly visible. Use the broad knife freely to press down the -edges. - -By combination with a mixture of nitric or sulphuric acid and water, -_soft_ paper becomes parchment-like and very hard. This requires -careful experimenting, for its success depends on the quality of the -acid and the texture of the paper. Very remarkable results have been -obtained from this, such as material resembling ivory, horn, and -tortoise-shell, in large blocks. - -Waste-paper is so common and cheap that _papier-mâché_ can always be -made anywhere. It is well adapted to close cracks in wood, walls, or -elsewhere; and for those who wish for an employment or amusement, it -affords endless facilities. One of these is the mending or making of -toys. - -A common mask is made as follows. On a face carved in wood and oiled -there is spread common coarse soft paper wetted, which is carefully -pressed down, and more paper and paste added, till it is of the -requisite thickness. It is then, when rather dry, taken off and left -to dry perfectly. It is then painted and varnished. Should a mask be -broken, wet it, paste glue-paper over it, and paint it again. - -_Papier-mâché_ is popularly synonymous with that which is trashy and -sham in art, simply because its capacities and applications are not -known. Thus leather-work was long despised as only affording imitations -of carved wood. But in the hands of a true artist--that is, of an -_original designer_, who applies, and not a mere artisan, who imitates -or copies--_papier-mâché_ is as much a subject for art as any other -material. It can be used in many ways, more or less allied to mending, -as are all arts. Thus paper in fine powder, or reduced to a fine -paste--or pulp--can be, with a little practice, mixed with gum and -_painted_ with a brush on a surface so as to produce relief. A very -little elevation or depression thus serves to produce grounds which -may serve to give light or shadow to pictures. Thus pastel painting -or crayon in colours rubbed in, which has always been, even in the -most vigorous hands, a weak or “softly sweet” art, may be made very -vigorous by firmly relieving and roughening the ground; for, as the -great American painter, ALLSTON, often strengthened his colours by -mixing sand with them, so pastel painting which lacks “sand” can have -it supplied by mixing it with the gum for the ground. - -To understand this process more clearly, let it be observed that, as -the illuminators of mediæval manuscripts gave relief and the appearance -of solidity to gold by making a raised surface with a powder of _gesso_ -(plaster of Paris) and clay and gum, so this principle can be carried -out to a far greater extent by giving relief to a ground. Here those of -limited views, who never get beyond the merely artisan stage of art, -will at once decry this as shamming, and as imitating effect by the aid -of modelling, and not being true art, quite forgetting that all is true -to genius, and everything more or less sham in the mere imitation. - -Having a surface, either panel or Bristol board, which latter had -better be pasted to a panel or good thick solid cardboard, begin by -taking a little gum or glue in tolerably fluid solution on the point -of a brush, and incorporating with it the paper pulp or cloth-dust to -a very soft paste, with which paint what is to be in relief. The same -effect is produced in oil by using a heavier, thicker kind of paint. -That is all the difference, one being as legitimate as the other. By -intermixing chalk or sand or clay, and by using glass-paper where the -crayon, &c., refuse to take easily, the relief adapts itself to every -substance. In this, as in every process known, the artist must at first -experiment a little, according to his materials. - -Solid sheets of fine hard paper, with strong paste between, when passed -between rollers form a kind of _papier-mâché_ which, is as hard as -wood, fire-proof, and, what is most singular, more durable than iron. -Wheels for railway carriages are often made of it, and they never warp -under the action of heat or cold, neither do they crack nor bend. You -can make this cardboard for yourself of very good quality by this -process:--Take a sheet of writing-paper--the better the quality the -better the result will be--cover it with good flour-paste in which -there is a little alum and glue and a few drops of oil of cloves, which -latter will prevent paste from turning or souring. Then lay on this -another sheet, apply another coat of paste, and when it is a little dry -or past the softer stage, yet while still capable of adhesion, lay the -sheets on a hard, smooth slab or table, and pass a roller over them, at -first gently, but eventually frequently, and with force. Add as many -sheets as necessary for the thickness required. It will be understood -that if the surface on which this sheet is formed were an intaglio-cut -die or mould, the cardboard when taken up would present a bas-relief of -it as hard as any wood, and the whole would form a panel which could be -used for the side of a box or to be set in a cabinet. If made of good -paper and firmly rolled, this panel will be in every respect equal to -wood for all decorative purposes. - -As anybody who can carve wood at all can cut moulds, and as a wooden -mould, if kept well oiled (or otherwise secured from yielding to -moisture), will serve for _papier-mâché_ and leather or wood-paste -casting, it is remarkable that such work is so very little practised -by the students of the minor arts. That such panels can be very easily -and rapidly made I know by experience; that the materials for the work -are cheap speaks for itself; and, finally, that beautiful panels for -cabinets and doors, whether made of carved wood, stamped leather, or -_papier-mâché_ bring a very good price will also be most apparent to -anybody who will go to a fashionable cabinetmaker and order them. -Thus we will say that a small plain cabinet costs £5. Put into it six -panels, really costing about 6d. each to mould, and the price will be -£10. Such pressed panels are admirably adapted for binding books, as, -when properly made and dried, they cannot warp or bend. If covered with -relief they may be made very beautiful. Simply blackened or browned, -then rubbed with oil, varnished with SOEHNÉE, No. 3, and rubbed by -hand, they are as beautiful as polished wood or leather. - -_Papier-mâché_, pulp, or paper powder can be combined with caoutchouc -or indiarubber, which latter can be itself dissolved in benzine, -camphine, sulphuric ether, and other solvent mediums, so as to form a -paste which becomes like indiarubber when dry or as it hardens. Mixed -with sulphur this forms vulcanite. Or it may be combined with white -colouring matter of almost any kind. This can be applied to mending -the broken noses of dolls, or any other wounds which these pretty -semblances of humanity often receive, their beauty being unfortunately -generally more shortlived than that of their prototypes. The final -finish of such reparation is a coat of paint. In many cases this is -better when rubbed on with the finger than when directly painted. The -reader who shall have studied this work will find no difficulty in -restoring any toy. - -I may, however, here remark that “no solution of india rubber can be -well moulded without intimate intermixture of sulphur, aided by heat -and pressure. This is a difficult process, and the amateur would do -well, therefore, to purchase rubber composition, which he may do at -any large shop in which rubber goods are made as a specialty” (_Work_, -May 21, 1892). - -[Illustration] - -It is easy to make any article of _papier-mâché_ if the mere beginning -of a form has once been shaped; because, after that is set, all that we -have to do is to gradually paste one piece of paper on, here and there, -till it is finished. This beginning is very easy if we have an object -on which to begin. Thus take a vase or cup. Oil this, and then lay on -and all around it soft, damp paper. Newspaper will do--a _soft_, white -printing paper. Then, with a broad brush, lay on paste, and apply a -second coat of paper. Press it meanwhile as hard as you can. Continue -this till the _papier-mâché_ is thick enough. When dry, take a penknife -and cut a line through from top to bottom. Scale it off, and reunite -the edges with strong glue; then paste over the line of junction a -strip of paper. Then you will have a cup. - -If it be rough, cut it smooth and use glass-paper. When finished it -may be painted or covered with wet leather, which can be worked into -relief. Or it may be made to look like ivory by the process elsewhere -described. Paper may in this process be combined with soft leather -rags; as, for instance, pieces of old gloves out of which the thread -has been taken, old chamois, bookbinders’ clippings, or the like. This -forms effectively leather. - -CARTON-PIERRE, or stone-paper, is a very useful composition, which is -very fully described by GEORGE PARLAND in _Work_, July 2, 1893. It -consists of paper scraps, in the proportion of an ordinary washing -boiler or copper one-half full of boiling water and about one-half -paper waste. Add two pounds of best flour-paste; also, in a separate -vessel, a quart of water, into which sprinkle a handful of fine plaster -of Paris. Let it stand ten minutes before mixing it. “When the paper -in the copper has become a fine pulp add the flour-paste, keeping the -whole well stirred. Fifteen minutes after add the plaster, and a few -minutes later rake out the fire from under the boiler. Have ready three -pails of fine ground whiting; pour in one pail of whiting and stir up -well, adding more whiting till the stick used to stir will stand of -itself in the mixture. Let it cool, and it will be ready for use. - -“Some firms,” writes Mr. PARLAND, “add powdered alum in the boiling -process, others add one pint of boiled linseed-oil; but if made -according to the previous directions, an excellent _carton-pierre_ will -result, which gives very fine impressions from moulds. If it be cast in -a plaster mould, the latter should have two or three coats of shellac -varnish, and then be well oiled.... In using the _carton_, sprinkle -some fine plaster of Paris on a bench, and taking a lump of the newly -made _carton_, mix it well with dry plaster, adding more plaster, as -bakers would add flour to their dough. Having worked it well in this -way until it will not stick to the fingers, with clean hands roll -pieces very smooth in the palms, or on a smooth level board, and press -each roll into the cavities and hollows of the mould, _often wetting -the edges of the carton_ in the mould before adding a fresh piece to -it. The casts must not be more than from an eighth to a quarter of an -inch in thickness, except at the outside edges of the mould.... The -casts must stand about twenty-four hours, and then be baked in not more -than 100° heat.” - -The reader who is specially interested in _papier-mâché_ will find a -series of articles on the subject in _Work_, Nos. 3, 6, 12, 17, 22, 25. - -Pipeclay, to which calcined magnesia, whiting, or baryta may be -added or omitted according to the body required, may be combined -with _papier-mâché_ and gluten, such as gum-arabic or dextrine or -flour-paste, which will form under pressure, or even by hand-rolling, -a very hard and finely grained substance, which is specially adapted -to painting pictures. Plates or _tavole_ are sold very cheaply in -Florence of _papier-mâché_, which are as hard, heavy, and glossy as -ebony. It is not generally realised that an expensive hydraulic-press -or steam-engine is not needed by the amateur to harden _papier-mâché_. -A common bread-roller, passed many times over the material, will work -it “down and in,” quite as well as direct pressure, and very often much -better. - -_Papier-mâché_ mixed and macerated with indiarubber or gutta-percha and -benzole (_vide_ Indiarubber) forms in many cases a very good substitute -for leather. It can also be combined with _flexible_ varnish to make -leather. Very valuable soles can be made, or broken ones repaired, -by taking card or pasteboard and soaking it in a hot solution of -indiarubber. These waterproofed soles, whether of cardboard or leather, -are easily prepared, as easily applied and renewed, and they will keep -the true sole from wearing out forever, if renewed. - -Singular as it seems, there are not many persons who are familiar -with the properties or texture of so familiar a substance as paper. -We know that if wetted it grows soft, but still remains, as it were, -knotty, and that when chewed it does not properly dissolve. Yet if -the reader will take a piece of thoroughly wetted paper, and knead or -macerate it with a knife for some time with gum in solution, he will -find it gradually becomes a soft paste, as flexible and as capable of -moulding as putty or clay. This is not the same as _papier-mâché_, -which consists of paper merely wet or mixed and boiled with paste, and -contains fibre and knottiness. The finely macerated paper, combined -with an adhesive, is ductile, impressionable, sets well, and readily -receives pressure on rolling, under which it becomes extremely hard. -Paper thus _completely softened_ is readily made into sheets, and -may be easily applied not only to fill up worm-holes in leaves and -completely torn-away corners, &c., but is very useful for cracks -and cavities in wood and other substances. It may be made up with -any gums, such as gum-arabic, dextrine, fish-glue, and also with -caseine, gutta-percha, varnish, and most of the substances used in -cements. Paper when thus softened and mixed with, _e.g._, fine glue -and glycerine, or with flour-paste, can be moulded and applied in -ornamental forms to any surface. - -There is this great difference between simply _wet_ paper, however wet -it may be, and that which is completely softened by maceration. The -former is always lumpy, the latter passes under the blade of a knife -like soft clay or putty. When made up with gum, glue, and glycerine, -or strong paste, it is, when dry, like light wood, but less brittle. -Kneaded with Indiarubber solution and glue, it becomes like leather, -and can be used in several varieties of repairs. Rolled into sheets, -this composition makes very good and cheap artificial leather for -hangings. To manufacture these, spread the composition with a broad -brush or dabber on a slate or marble table, and when rather dry pass -over it a wooden roller. Some practice is needed not to roll it when -too soft. If intaglio patterns are cut in the roller, the sheets will -give them in relief. It is worth noting here that a great many pieces -of old hangings sold as leather are really only made of _papier-mâché_, -or _carton-cuir_, and glue. These hangings, whether of leather or -counterfeited, can be often bought in a damaged condition very cheaply, -and can be easily restored with this composition, to great profit. When -mixed with white lead, or oil paint and glue, soft paper becomes harder -and firmer, and under pressure is as hard and heavy as any wood. White -paper with holly wood or white larch or lime-tree wood in powder, and -white gelatine--better if bone or ivory dust be added, with a little -Naples yellow (oil)--forms a beautiful cement. - -It will be seen by what I have written that cavities, holes, cracks, -and defects in most substances, including wood and leather, can be -perfectly remedied with paper in combination with glue, gum, or other -substances; and as it is always to be obtained, a knowledge of its -nature and applications cannot fail to be of value to all menders and -restorers. - -_Papier-mâché_, like all substantial or putty-like cements, involves -moulding or casting. This subject is exhaustively treated in the -_Vollständige Anleitung zum Formen und Giessen_, by Eduard Uhlenhuth; -Vienna, A. Hartleben, price 3s. On the subject of paper consult the -_Handbuch der praktischen Papier-Fabrikation_, by Dr. Stanislaus -Mierzinski, three volumes, which is not only the latest, but by far the -most comprehensive, work on the subject with which I am acquainted. -And here I may observe in this connection that if my references have -been chiefly to German works, it is because, in the minor technical -applications of chemistry to the arts, and in preparing intelligible -practical treatises on such subjects, the Germans have been, especially -of late, by far the first nation in Europe. - -I may mention that since writing the foregoing passages I purchased, -for a mere trifle, in Florence two carved heads of the fourteenth -century in walnut wood. They had suffered very much from time and -wanton abuse, their noses having been hacked off. I made a mixture of -soft paper-paste and gum-arabic, working the two thoroughly in together -with a knife-blade till the composition was as soft as butter. This -thorough maceration is essential to produce a durable body. With this I -filled up the holes, made new noses, and painted the whole with Vandyke -brown, or brown-black. In a few minutes the restoration was complete, -and the heads which had cost one franc each are now worth at least -thirty francs. I should say that the portions restored are as hard as -the original wood. - -It is not always an easy matter to reduce paper to a perfectly soft -paste, such as is called in French _papier-pourri_. A small quantity -can be mashed with a knife-blade and flour-paste or gum. A large -quantity is prepared as follows:-- - -Take clippings of paper and leave them a long time in water, which -must be occasionally changed. When quite dissolved or soft, bray the -paper in a mortar, and finally boil in very hot water. To give it -consistency, add flour-paste or gum. This makes a very fine cement, -which will receive the most delicate impression. It is invaluable for -all kinds of dry mending. - -As I have shown, it can be applied to make or mend defective leaves of -books, to fill up worm-holes in leaves, to repair drawings and pictures -on wood or canvas, and when mixed with any gum which sets hard, to -restore, add to, fill, or imitate woodwork. Under pressure and combined -with different powders it becomes as hard as ebony and fire-proof. Its -extraordinary value and general utility are as yet very far from being -much known. - - - - -MENDING STONE-WORK - -MOSAICS--CERESA-WORK--PORCELAIN OR CROCKERY MOSAIC - - -Mending or repairing _stone_, involving its imitations, is a widely -extended branch of technical science, and one which has of late years -called forth much invention. The most widely spread and ancient means -of uniting and repairing this material is mortar, or the mixture of -burned and then slacked lime with water. Lime is made most commonly -from limestone or marble. It improves in quality when carbonate of -lime in organic formation, such as sea-shells, is used; and there are -degrees of excellence in these, from common oyster-shells to others -of a finer kind, such as those with which the brilliantly white and -hard _chunam_ of India is made. In certain places mortar, when well -made, becomes with age as hard as flint. In American towns, where -anthracite coal is burned, it rots away in chimneys under the influence -of sulphurous acid with great rapidity. In the Pacific Islands, where -lime is made from delicate small sea-shells or coral, and mortar is -like a paint or enamel, a missionary has recorded that, when he taught -the natives how to make it, they whitewashed everything, even to the -children, who thus became white people. - -The misapplied word _mastic_, which suggests a gum, refers to certain -modifications of mortar into which _oil_ enters; also the oxides of -lead or zinc. “Oil forms with these an insoluble soap, which includes -or binds the other materials, forming, after one month’s drying, a very -hard substance,” which some say is as hard as stone, but which depends -entirely on the quality and combination; for I have seen so-called -_mastic_ applied to coating cheaply built houses, which cracked or -crumbled away like mere plaster of Paris. - -To thoroughly amalgamate mastics, it is usual to put their ingredients -into casks which are two-thirds filled, and then revolved by machinery. -The oil is then added. At least two days are required for the process. -The following recipes for mastics are among the best, having been -approved by LEHNER. It may here be remarked, once for all, not only -as regards mastics, but all recipes in this work, that unless the -materials indicated are of the very best quality, and the processes be -most thoroughly carried out, the experimenter cannot expect complete -success. More than this, the experimenter must not be satisfied with a -single trial. If every recipe could be at once executed by every cook, -we should find the most exquisite cookery on every table in Europe. -I once published the correct recipe for making objects of a peculiar -kind of _papier-mâché_ hardened. It was very easy to make. I had seen -specimens of the ware, and I received the recipe from the inventor. -Moreover, a great deal of money had been made by it. However, soon -after I had published it I received an indignant letter from the head -of a large manufacturing house, stating that they had tried my recipe -and utterly failed! - -FRENCH MASTIC:-- - - Quartz or flint sand, parts 300 - Powdered quicklime, ” 100 - Litharge, ” 50 - Linseed-oil, ” 35 - -PAGET’S MASTIC:-- - - Flint sand 315 - Washed chalk 105 - White lead 25 - Minium 10 - Sugar of lead in solution 45 - Linseed-oil 35 - -The paste or “dough” thus formed should be ground with horizontal -rollers in a mill, such as is used for chocolate, until all the -ingredients are _very_ thoroughly amalgamated. - -A VERY GOOD CEMENT FOR MENDING, especially where the objects are -exposed to water, whether they be of stone or earthenware, is made as -follows:-- - - Powdered glass 40 - Washed litharge 40 - Linseed-oil varnish 20 - -The powdered glass is prepared by heating glass red-hot, casting it -into water, grinding and sifting it. This powder is saturated with the -linseed-oil varnish, and heated in a kettle. This cement sets hard in -three days. LEHNER observes that glass-powder serves in such recipes to -resist the action of acids, &c., since it forms in combination on the -surface a glaze of great hardness; that is, the glass and lead form a -chemical combination. Pulverised calcined glass therefore acts not as -an “indifferent” but as a chemical ingredient. - -CASEINE, or Cheese, forms the basis of several recipes for mending -stone, as when there are holes in a block or the mortar has given way. -To prepare it for use (LEHNER), we let milk stand in a cool place, -skimming away with the utmost care all the cream. Place this on a -filter, and pour on it rain-water till it is purified from every trace -of lactic acid; then tie it in a cloth, boil it in water, and spread -it on blotting-paper in a warm place, when it will be a horn-like -substance. This will keep for a long time. To prepare it for use, rub -it in a saucer with water. - -TO MEND STONE make the following:-- - - Caseine 12 - Slacked lime 50 - Fine sand 50 - -Another recipe:-- - -Boil new cheese in water till it draws out in threads, stirring in -slacked lime and sifted wood-ashes in the following proportions:-- - - Cheese 100 - Water 200 - Slacked lime 25 - Wood-ashes 20 - -This may also be used to close cavities in trees or in wood. - -A CHEESE CEMENT FOR STONE, and for many other purposes, is made as -follows. It may be kept for a long time, and is very durable (LEHNER):-- - - Caseine 200 - Calcined lime 40 - Camphor 1 - -This must be closely incorporated and kept well corked. When it is to -be used mix it with water, and apply at once. - -The following cement was used by the Romans especially in setting -mosaics. It becomes as hard as marble, and sets with great -rapidity:--To one quart of milk add the white of five eggs, and stir in -powdered quicklime till a paste is formed. This composition may be used -to repair or make _scagliola_, which is fragments of marble or stone -embedded in a hard mass. When it sets, polish the surface with rasps, -and rub down with a rough stone, and finally polish with marble dust, -and then emery or tripoli. Beautiful slabs for tables, columns, floors, -and walls can thus be made. It is valuable for repairing. - -CERESA is allied to this. We make a basis of this or any other cement -which will _hold firmly_, and press into the surface powdered glass, -which may be fine or of any degree of coarseness. Coarse grains shine -most brilliantly; fine powder is best adapted to delicate shading. -The effect is best when mosaic stones and gold cubes are sparingly -introduced. To make the gold cubes, take two small panes of window -glass, cover one side of each with varnish or mastic cement, lay -between them gold-leaf, and join them. Very beautiful pictures can be -made in this manner. Nor is it at all necessary that they should be -finely executed for ordinary decoration. All that is needed for this -beautiful and little-known art is the cement, a quantity of glass or -stone of different colours, and a mortar and pestle. The mosaic cubes, -with those of gold, can be bought in London. - -Allied to this is an art which I believe I can claim to have invented. -It consists of breaking waste chinaware, crockery, or fictile ware -into small squares or triangles, and setting them as mosaic in -cement. The advantage of it is the cheapness of the material, and the -infinite number of shades of colour which can be selected for it. -Its disadvantage is, that it will not wear as a pavement, but it is -perfectly adapted to walls. - -A STRONG, COARSE CEMENT FOR BRICK OR STONE WORK in building is made as -follows:-- - - Slacked lime 40 - Brick-dust 10 - Iron filings 10 - Ox-blood 8 - Water 8 - -The blood is stirred as it comes from the slaughtered beast with a -broom for ten minutes to break the fibre. It should then be mixed with -the water and kneaded with the powder. Glue may be substituted for the -blood. This cement, if properly made, sets very hard and adhesively. - -FOR TILES, BRICKS, OR COMPOSITION:-- - - Slacked lime 100 - Sifted stone-coal ashes 50 - Stirred ox-blood 15 - -It may be observed that many of the cheaper cements can be employed to -form large bricks by combination with broken stone or rubble, gravel, -pebbles, brickbats, &c. Another method, called CONCRETE, is to make -cases of boards, and to form a solid wall by pouring in the mixture, -or ramming it down, according to its hardness. Thus a house is made -entirely in one piece; but its excellence depends entirely on the -quality of the cement employed, and on the care taken in building. -Simple lime mortar, if not of a superior quality, hastily formed, as I -have seen, is very apt to crack and break off. Where hydraulic cement -is cheap and good, houses can be built as firm as granite. A good and -strong cement of this kind can be made as follows:-- - - Burned lime 10 - Caseine 12 - Hydraulic cement 30 - -The proportions may be very much varied in such cements according to -their price, but generally with a satisfactory result. - -Fractures or discolorations in marble, as in statuary, are so perfectly -repaired in Florence that the juncture is not perceptible. Even dark -spots are drilled out. The process is to drill a round concave hole, -and cut the piece to be inserted so as to exactly fit as a convex -plug. It is then fastened in with transparent mastic or other clear -cement. It will be seen, on due consideration, that this is extremely -ingenious, because by it alone can a perfectly tight fit be secured. -By turning the plug in the hollow it speedily grinds itself into an -accurate plug; so when the cement is applied it can be reduced to a -minimum--in fact, by this means the line of junction is reduced to its -finest limit. - -Where a very strong cement is needed for stone-work, it can be prepared -by mixing a fine cement powder--_e.g._, Portland cement--with liquid -silicate of soda. As it dries almost at once, it must be promptly -applied. It is particularly well adapted for building under water, -since it then becomes extremely hard. Before applying it smear the -stone with pure silicate. - -The following is highly commended by LEHNER:-- - -Mending statues of gypsum or plaster of Paris is allied to stone-work. -The broken edges are washed with water till no more is absorbed and the -surface remains wet. Then stir fresh calcined white plaster of Paris -with much water to a thin paste, and continue to stir this till it is -cold. Then rapidly paint this paste on the broken edges, continuing to -press the two together till they set hard. - -It is, says LEHNER, a peculiarity of gypsum that when mixed with _alum_ -dissolved in water it takes a much longer time to harden, but is very -much harder in the end. Thus, if we let the powdered gypsum lie for -twenty-four hours in alum-water, dry it, and then calcine it again, the -powder when mixed with water sets to a stone as hard as marble. - -Plaster of Paris and alum, combined with the fine powder of calcined -glass, form a very hard and durable cement, of very general utility in -all mending of stone-work. - -For an exhaustive work on the subject of not only mending stone-work, -but also of making artificial stone and many cements, as well as -combining and adapting to use paper, cellulose, sawdust and shavings, -gypsum, chalk, glue, &c., including not only ancient but also the -most recent recipes, consult _Die Fabrikation künstlicher plastischer -Massen_, by Johannes Hofer; Leipzig, A. Hartleben, price 4s. - - - - -REPAIRING IVORY - - -Works of art in carved ivory or bone are very valuable when perfect, -yet when broken or defective they may very often be purchased for -a trifle. Yet the process of mending them or restoring the missing -portions is not difficult. - -The first thing to consider is the colour. When old ivory has only -acquired a delicate hue, as of Naples yellow, this adds to its -attractiveness; nor are the brownish shadows and marks which gather -in the angles of the reliefs repulsive. These may be left untouched, -and even imitated. But a great deal of old ivory becomes of blackish -bistre, or of a dirty, spotted brown or neutral tint, which has nothing -in common with artistic effect, and suggests, like old slums in cities, -more that is repulsive than picturesque. To clean such pieces, dissolve -rock-alum in rain-water till it is white or forms a full saturation. -Boil this, and keep the ivory in the boiling solution for about an -hour, taking it out from time to time and cleaning it with a soft -brush. Then let it dry in a damp linen or muslin rag; it will then be -cleaned. - -Ivory is often bleached by the simple process of damping, or wiping -it with water and then exposing it to the rays of the sun; which -must, however, be frequently repeated. According to LEHNER, the only -perfect and certain process by which any ivory can be cleaned is to -steep the article for some time in ether or benzole, in order to -extract any fatty matter, then to wash it in water, and finally keep -it in super-oxide of hydrogen (_Wasserstoff, super-oxide_) till it is -bleached, after which wash again in water. - -TO SUPPLY MISSING PORTIONS.--Take ivory-dust, such as can be bought of -every ivory-turner, sift it to an impalpable powder, or else levigate -or grind it down under water as fine as flour in a mortar. Then combine -this with gum arabic, in alum solution, or the silicate of potash. -Egg-shells, levigated, may be substituted for the ivory-dust, and are -even less likely to turn grey; and very fine white glue or gelatine of -the clearest kind may be substituted for the gum-arabic. - -LOUIS EDGAR ANDÉS, in his able work on Ivory, Horn, Mother-of-Pearl, -and Tortoise-shell, explains a process much like that already -described. According to him, take finely powdered bone (or ivory-dust), -combine it with white of eggs, and the result will be an intensely hard -substance, which can be turned or carved like ivory. To perfect this -the mass should be subjected to a heat of from 50° to 60° centigrade, -and then to strong pressure. Gelatine or best glue, with glycerine, is -quite as good as the white of eggs, and it may to advantage be combined -with the latter. Having very thoroughly mixed the composition, take -the broken ivory article, repair the missing portions, and fill the -cavities with the paste. Though not equal to celluloid as an imitation -of new and fresh ivory, this cement is very much like old bone and -ivory, and _after a little experimenting_ the artistic amateur may -succeed in so blending the _binder_ or adhesive with the dust as to -take casts which are almost perfect imitations of the originals. But -let it be observed in this, as in everything, one must not expect -perfect success at a first trial, as too many do. - -When the paste is dry, smooth the surface with a sharp cutter, so as to -remove any small projections, and then polish it, first with fine emery -or tripoli, then with a burnisher, finally by hand. - -If you have, for example, an old flat plate of ivory, like one of the -fourteenth century now before me, which I bought for a mere trifle -because it was broken, lay it in an exactly fitting box--a strip of tin -in a square will answer--and fill in the vacancy. The missing ornament -on the upper side can be carved, or even supplied from a hardened stamp -or mould of rolled soft bread-crumb. This bread-crumb can be made very -hard by admixture with a very little nitric acid and water. Imitation -meerschaum pipes, which are rather like ivory or bone, are made from -this composition by pressure. - -I may here mention that this ivory or bone cement, which is little -known, is admirably adapted to repair broken inlaying. There was -in Florence, in the sixteenth century, an extensive manufacture of -delicate bas-reliefs for small caskets from _lime and rice_, which -greatly resembled bone or ivory. It was extremely durable, probably -from being extremely well worked. Specimens of it bring a high price. - -A very slight infusion of Naples yellow, to which a suspicion of -brown, reduced in Chinese white, has been added, gives to the paste an -old-ivory colour. The corners and outlines may be shaded in Vandyke -brown. - -Before attempting to glue or mastic fractured ivories, they should -always be washed in the alum solution, else they will often refuse to -adhere. - -When there is a little addition of whiting and a little oil, very well -worked into the ivory paste, and it is allowed to dry thoroughly, it -may be cut or carved into any shape. - -Ivory or bone when very old becomes brittle or crumbling and falls -to powder, because certain organic substances dry out of it, leaving -chiefly lime as their residue. When the ivories from Nineveh were -brought to the British Museum the celebrated Sir Joseph Hooker -suggested that they should be steeped in gelatine. This effected a -perfect restoration. When a case occurs in which an ivory article, a -bone, or skull is so fragile that it will not bear the slightest touch -without falling to dust, it may often be saved by gently _spraying_ on -it water in which gelatine or glue has been dissolved. As the glue may -be made by boiling old gloves, and as a spray can be easily improvised, -it will be seen that excavators and openers of ancient tombs might -by this means save thousands of curious relics which are allowed to -perish. As it is certainly a species of mending or of restoration, it -is in place in this work. This is especially to be desired as to skulls -of the earliest ages, which are of inestimable value, of which we have -so very few, and of which thousands have perished which might have been -preserved in the manner which I have indicated. - -_Sprays_ for spreading perfume or medicated liquids, which can be -adapted to thin liquid glue, may be had of all chemists. But we can -effect the purpose better by taking a tooth-brush, or any brush of -the kind, wetting, and then drawing it over a dull edge of a knife or -a strip of tin. According to J. C. WIEGLEB, a Frenchman in his time -received a very large pension for this invention, which was applied -to spraying pastels. The Romans made a spray, very imperfectly, by -suddenly squeezing or throwing liquids from a sponge. - -Ivory handles to knives and forks, when loose, can be best reset by -first pouring in a little strong vinegar. When dry use acidulated glue. -A common recipe for this purpose is the following:-- - - Resin (colophonium) 20 parts - Sulphur 5 ” - Iron filings 8 ” - -Heat, and use while soft. - -In repairing ivory it is often necessary to stain it of different -colours. Most of the old works on recipes contain directions for this. -In that of RIS PAQUOT they are given as follows:-- - -First prepare a mixture of copper filings, rock-alum, and Roman -vitriol. Boil it, let it be for six days, then add a little rock-alum. -The piece of ivory to be dyed is kept in this solution for half -an-hour. _To dye Red._--Boil logwood chips or cochineal in water; when -hot add lead dross (_cendre gravelée_) about 25 grammes, keep it in the -fire till the colour has taken, then add rock-alum. This is strained -through linen, and the ivory to be dyed is put into this liquor. -_Green._--Take one quart of lye made from vine-ashes (_cendre de -sarment_), 7 grammes of powdered verdigris, a handful of common salt, -with a little alum. Boil it to one-half; as soon as it is taken from -the fire place the ivory in it, and leave it till properly coloured. -_Blue._--Dissolve indigo and potash in water, and then mix this with -a quart of vine-ash lye. _Black._--Boil the ivory in the following -composition:--Vinegar, 500 grammes; gall-nuts pulverised, 12 grammes; -nut-shells, 12 grammes. Boil down to one-half. These are all very -strong dyes, which may be used for other substances. - -“Ivory can be softened and made almost plastic by soaking in phosphoric -acid. When washed with water, pressed, and dried, it will regain its -former consistency.” Ivory-dust thus treated can be really rendered -plastic. The process requires care. - -In the _Magia Naturalis_ of HILDEBRAND, a work of the sixteenth -century, we are told that ivory can be imitated or repaired with a -cement made of powdered egg-shells, gum-arabic in solution, and the -white of eggs. Dry it in the sun. - -Allied to ivory is Horn. Deer-horn was frequently used as a material -whence to make a substance which was moulded into many forms. For -this purpose the hardest part of the horns was selected and filed or -powdered, and then boiled in strong potash lye. Thus it became a paste, -which was promptly pressed into moulds. When dry the figures were -carefully polished. Ox-horn can be treated in the same manner. When -cracked, carved horns or powder-flasks can be mended with this paste; -also with mastic and whiting. Horn in a soft state is easily coloured -by mixing with it any dye.[3] - -It has been recently complained in a leading review, in an article on -sales of ancient works of art, that imitations of antique works of -ivory are now carried to such perfection that even the learned in such -matters have been deceived. This is perfectly true, and therefore it -is the greater pity that such imitation, which is not necessarily very -expensive, cannot be extended to our great museums, the wealthiest of -which thus far seldom get beyond rough, plain plaster-casts to make -duplicates of ivory-work. The artists in imitation seem to be entirely -in the employ of the people who deliberately sell counterfeits for -genuine relics of antiquity. But, as Martin Luther or some one once -remarked in reference to adapting hymns to popular airs, “There was no -reason why the devil should keep all the good tunes to himself,” so is -there none why duplicates of thousands of exquisite works in ivory, -bone, and horn should not be better known to the world. It is possible -that, to the world at large, there is little _real_ interest in such -works; but interest will come in time with familiarity. - -_Apropos_ to ivory, or horn, there is a process of applying an -imitation of them to any kind of surface, which is, when executed with -skill, remarkably effective. It is chiefly executed in Vienna, where -it is applied to leather, plaster of Paris, wood, and wall-paper. With -variations, it is essentially as follows:-- - -Cover the ground with flexible varnish, then paint over this with light -Naples yellow, graduated as nicely to some old ivory model as possible. -It is best not to have it all too uniformly of one tone, since old work -often has its shades. The object here need not be to ape or copy old -work, but to catch what is beautiful in it. Then fill in the outlines -of the pattern, and the dots and irregularities near it, or anywhere, -with brown more or less dark. For this, study old ivory. Then varnish -with SOEHNÉE, No. 3. A great deal depends on the quality of this second -coat. Finally rub down very thoroughly with chamois and hand, and -repeat the process more than once if you want it very much like ivory. -Very extraordinary and perfect imitations of ivory, bone, worn and -glossy parchment and brown leather, wood, marble--in short, of any kind -of work of art which has been rubbed and worn smooth by hand during -centuries, can be made by this process of ivorying with alternate -layers of varnish, colour, varnish, and so on. - -When there is no relief the paint itself can be worked with wheel and -tracer, and then repainted and varnished. This is a very beautiful art, -specially applicable to book-covers, and often useful in repairing old -work. I would here repeat what I said, that the object of imitating -effects in old works of art, or in other kinds of art--which is so -staunchly repudiated by mere artisans who themselves are generally -only imitators of the designs of others--is not to make counterfeits, -but to take from age or art beautiful effects, however produced, -and apply them to work. Those who are too conscientious to execute -stencilling on a wall, or to use moulds for leather-work, would do -well to first consider whether they _know enough_ to design a really -good or admirable stencil, or an excellent mould, for it is in the -genius which originates and executes, not in the mere means, tools, and -materials employed, that art consists. Art does not depend in the least -on either making skill difficult or in rendering its methods easy; it -displays skill, but scorns the Chinese standard of mere industry. An -artist like ALBERT DÜRER would never have prided himself on only using -certain tools as being “artistic;” he would, however, have made designs -which would have forced originality and art into a photograph. There -are marvellous effects of corrugation in ancient walls, plays of light -and shade and colour and polish in rock and strand and heaps of ashes, -which LEONARDO DA VINCI knew how to catch and transfer to different -subjects, and at which perhaps the artisans of his time sneered as “not -artistic.” - -Age, which gives a certain exquisite charm to wine and words of wisdom, -has done the same to all material things, of which, indeed, it may be -strangely said that wherever it does not destroy a charm it confers -one, like moonlight, which renders nightly shadows more terrible or -else more beautiful. - -It is to be regretted that this principle, which is a very important -one, is but little understood. The manufacturers of all decorative -art work at present endeavour without exception to make everything -staringly, cruelly brand new, or else a mere copy of old work. What -they need is to draw, as REMBRANDT did, from age so much of its -peculiar charm as is adaptable to modern work. - -I have introduced these remarks because the mender and restorer of old -ivories and bookbindings and pictures, if he regards his occupation as -an art--which it really is--is peculiarly adapted to fully appreciate -them. Restoring, like copying, leads to creating new work. I think that -any person of ordinary intelligence can, with zeal and application, -learn to mend anything as described in this work, and from such mending -it is much easier to learn to make works of minor art. “Short the step -from senator to _podestá_--shorter the step from _podestá_ to king.” - -A great merit and peculiarity of ivory, as of horn, is that it is -tough and elastic, as well as of a beautiful transparent or diaphanous -quality. These characteristics have, with the exception of its graining -or texture, been well imitated thus far only in _celluloid_, which is -unfortunately too expensive for very general use, and, what is worse, -too liable to destruction. I, however, confidently anticipate that -ere long some substance will be discovered much superior to celluloid -as a substitute, and probably much cheaper and less perishable. To -_celluloid_ I may, however, add the sulphuretted preparations of -caoutchouc and gutta-percha, known as vulcanite or ebonite. These are -indeed hard, tough, and elastic to perfection, but very dark and opaque. - -LEHNER, in his work _Die Imitationen_, observes that imitations of -ivory must be varied to suit the colour and quality of originals. -This requires a study, firstly, of the adhesive or glue which is to -be used. This, when colourless, is known as French gelatine, and is -very expensive. In lieu thereof the experimenter may take best white -Salisbury glue or gum-arabic prepared with alum-water. Secondly, the -body, which may be of carbonate of magnesia, carbonate of lime, such as -powdered marble, sulphuretted lime, or powdered gypsum, chalk, starch, -or flour, white oxide of tin, zinc, sulphate of barytes or Chinese -white, white oxide of lead. In combining, _e.g._, magnesia with the -glue, an addition of ten per cent. of glycerine gives elasticity and -a horn-like clearness. To harden artificial ivory made with glue, the -objects are dipped into strong solution of alum or tannin for about -four minutes. The tannin is best made from gall-apples. Objects thus -made have an antique ivory, yellowish hue. Red chrome alkali may be -used in solution with water instead of tannin, but it gives a stronger -yellow. - -According to HYATT’S patent, artificial ivory is made by combining a -syrup made of eight parts shellac and three parts of ammoniac with -forty of the oxide of zinc. This is heated and subjected to pressure. - -CELLULOID is the best material for making artificial ivory. It is made -by the combination of cellulose or vegetable fibre in the form of -cotton-wool treated with acid; that is to say, gun-cotton and camphor. -It is sold in thin leaves, &c., which can be softened at from 100° -to 125° centigrade, so as to be moulded to any form. By infusion of -colouring matter, such as oxide of zinc, cinnabar, &c., celluloid is -made to resemble ivory, coral, or tortoise-shell. It has often been -applied to making a perfect imitation of Florentine mosaic, and of -course serves admirably to repair such work when broken. - -A very strong cement for ivory, bone, or fine wood is made by boiling -transparent gelatine in water to a thick mass. Add to this gum-mastic -dissolved in alcohol, this solution being one-fourth, and stir into -it pure white oxide of zinc till it forms a fluid like honey. This is -also of itself an artificial ivory, when prepared and dried in the -mass. Another can be made by combining diamond cement (_vide_ Glass) -with powdered ivory and a little glycerine. Also with the same, or -very strong white glue and powdered egg-shells, which latter should -have been boiled. Also white of egg, gum-arabic, a very little strong -vinegar, and levigated egg-shells. - -Another recipe for such mending or making of ivory and similar -substances is to take soft and very white paper in pulp, combined with -cotton-wool, treated with very dilute acid or _strong_ vinegar. To -this add powdered egg-shells, made into paste with a little glycerine; -amalgamate this with the paper and cotton mixture as thoroughly as -possible, and submit to strong pressure or rolling. - -CELLULOSE in any form, whether made from cotton, linen, wood, or other -vegetable fibrous substance, affords a basis which can be treated -with dilute acid to produce a horny or parchment-like substance. A -modification of this is seen in making celluloid with camphor. These -modified forms of organic creation can be combined with other organic -substances or minerals in great variety. Thus glycerine, and at times -oil of different kinds, in such admixtures confers elasticity, or a -diaphanous appearance; ivory-dust has an affinity for oil and glue; and -these all combine with parchment, boiled ivory-dust, and fibrine or -cellulose. - -Certain marine plants, such as _kelp_, yield a fibrous substance which -has very peculiar qualities, and which admits of ingenious combination. -Certain experiments and observations convince me that there is here -a vast field, as yet unexplored, in which science will yet make -discoveries and afford valuable contributions to technology. - -The reader who is specially interested in this subject may consult to -advantage _Die Verarbeitung des Hornes, Elfenbeines, Schildpatts und -der Perlenmutter_, &c., von Louis Edgar Andés; Vienna, A. Hartleben, -price 3s. - - - - -REPAIRING AMBER - -HOW TO PERFECTLY RE-JOIN BROKEN AMBER, AND TO IMITATE IT--HOW TO MELT -AMBER IN FRAGMENTS TO A SINGLE BODY - - -Amber has been admired in all ages and everywhere from its exquisite -colour and semi-transparency. Many superstitions were attached to it, -and many still believe that to carry a bead made from it is good for -the eyesight. It is principally found on the Prussian coast, off the -German Ocean, but is also picked up in considerable quantities on the -English shore. It is the gum or resin of a now extinct species of pine, -which was probably much like that in New Zealand, which produces the -gum _kauri_, which so much resembles amber. - -Some amber is yellow and clear like lemon-candy. This is extensively -imitated for cigar-holders and pipe-mouthpieces, beads, &c. Then there -is the clouded, varying from white to straw-colour, and the beautiful -golden-brown, which appears so rich in sunlight; also the dark-brown -and black. These dark-brown ambers are generally seen in old ornaments, -and are of a kind which is dug out of the earth. Light amber can be -darkened to brown by an artificial process. - -Gum _copal_, which comes from Africa, much resembles amber, but is less -beautiful and more brittle. Gum _kauri_, from New Zealand, is very much -like it. Both are used to imitate amber. - -There are not many who know how to mend amber when broken. I am assured -that the following is a trustworthy method:--Warm the pieces, dampen -them with caustic potash (_ætz-kali_), and then press them together. -When well done the joining will not be perceptible. It is said that by -this process small pieces of amber, amber-dust, &c., can be made into -blocks. - -In imitating amber, the best pieces of copal are picked out, put into -an air-tight vessel, and dissolved in petroleum, sulphuric ether, or -benzole. After being dried in blocks this is submitted to a great -pressure. As it dries the pressure is increased. - -It occurred to me many years ago that the proper way to unite copal to -a tough body like amber would be to use a tough or flexible varnish -as a binding medium. I find by the work of LEHNER on Imitations that -he has verified this by experiment. What is also important is, that -the process of hardening by pressure is by this means very much -facilitated. I should judge, by all chemical laws, that a varnish -infused with glycerine in combination with copal, kauri, or amber-dust -would, even without pressure, form in time a substance quite as hard as -amber, and much less brittle. It is to be desired that some technist -would experiment on a variety of gums in this manner, and thus _fix_ -or render permanent their beauty. There is a wide field here to be -worked. The subject of meerschaum and amber is fully treated in a work -entitled _Die Meerschaum- und Bernstein-Fabrikationen_, von G. M. -Raufer; Vienna, A. Hartleben, 2 marks. - -I may add that carving amber is a very elegant art, yielding beautiful -results. I have known a young lady, the late Miss Catherine L. Bayard, -who excelled in it. It is effected chiefly with fine files and emery -or glass paper, as, owing to its extremely brittle nature, there -is much risk for any save experts to use cutting tools. Amber is a -very expensive material, but objects made from it are of more than -proportionate value. Those who would practise carving it should begin -with pieces of copal. As I have already explained, small fragments and -the dust of both amber and copal can be melted and combined with clear -turpentine into large masses, which are even tougher than the native -gums. - -An inferior, but still very pretty, imitation of amber can be made -by combining almost any gum properly clarified and coloured; as, for -instance, gum-arabic or dextrine with gelatine (best quality white) and -glycerine. If thoroughly well combined and dried, this will wear as -well as amber. Some of the gums of fruit-trees--_e.g._, of the peach -and cherry--are very beautifully coloured and clear, and seem to be -admirably adapted to be hardened by the same process. They occur very -frequently in old books of recipes as adhesives or cements. Perfectly -clear glue or gelatine with glycerine and transparent dyes form an -excellent imitation for beads. - - - - -INDIARUBBER AND GUTTA-PERCHA - -MENDING INDIARUBBER SHOES AND MAKING GARMENTS WATERPROOF, WITH OTHER -APPLICATIONS - - -Indiarubber or gutta-percha enters into so many familiar and useful -objects that there are few people who would not like to know how to -repair them when injured. - -Like the brittle or non-elastic gums, caoutchouc (with which I include -the nearly allied gutta-percha) is greatly modified by admixture with -certain pulverised substances, which form with it a partly mechanical, -partly chemical, combination. Those who would thoroughly study the -subject in all its relations may consult _Kautschuk_ (_Caoutchouc_) -_und Guttapercha_, von Raimund Hoffer; Wien, 1892, Hartleben. - -Caoutchouc is partially soluble in carburetted sulphur, ether, pure -petroleum, or benzole, but gutta-percha is perfectly so. In this state -it may be applied as a varnish or coating for repairs, as it hardens -by exposure to the air. When mixed with sulphur and exposed to a -heat of 110° to 115° centigrade, gutta-percha becomes what is called -“vulcanised,” assuming a very light grey colour, is more elastic, and -retains this elasticity at a much lower grade than before. When the -heat is raised to (maximum) 180° the mass becomes very hard, tough, -and black, or like horn. The conditions of its toughness, elasticity, -and hardness depend upon the amount of sulphur used; as in other -combinations, the harder the material becomes the less elastic it -is--that is, the more brittle. - -EBONITE is extremely hardened caoutchouc. It is first treated with -chlorine, washed with sulphate of soda infused in water, and finally -mixed with hardening substances and submitted to severe pressure. - -As indiarubber or “gum” shoes are in general use, most people would -consider them the proper objects to begin with. To do this, first make -two separate preparations as follows: - - -I. - - Caoutchouc 10 - Chloroform 280 - - -II. - - Caoutchouc 10 - Resin 4 - Turpentine 2 - Oil of turpentine 40 - -No. I. is simply kept for a time in a bottle or tightly closed jar by -itself. No. II. is made by cutting the gum very fine, mixing it with -the resin, then adding the turpentine, and finally dissolving the whole -in the oil of turpentine. Then combine I. and II. To repair the shoe, -take a linen patch, steep it in the mixture, and place it over the -rent. When this is dry apply one or more coats. - -It may be observed that this preparation may be used not only for -indiarubber shoes, but many other objects. Applied to the soles of -leather boots, and then heated in, repeating the process a few times, -they become perfectly waterproof. This is better when the shoemaker -makes a coating of it between the two soles. I have tested this often. -The inner sole may be made by simply dissolving the indiarubber in -benzole or ether. A solution for ordinary repairing can be made by -simply steeping the indiarubber in benzine. - -Rents or holes in ordinary leather shoes or other objects can be very -well repaired in this way. A piece of leather can in this case be -substituted for the linen rag. Boots or shoes which will be very much -exposed to wet should be warmed and then soaked or permeated with a -solution of indiarubber. Preparations for the purpose can be bought of -all dealers in gum and gutta-percha. - -Cloth is generally waterproofed by steeping it in a slight solution of -caoutchouc. - -Another recipe (LEHNER) is as follows:-- - - Caoutchouc 150 - Tallow 10 - Slacked lime 10 - -This is used to cork or close bottles. To render it more resistant, -substitute pipeclay for the lime. Or if in place of either we use red -oxide of lead, it will form in time an extremely hard and perfectly -waterproof cement of great value. - -A STRONG INDIARUBBER CEMENT:-- - - Caoutchouc, about 90 - Pulverised sulphur 10 - Or from 6 to 12 of the latter. - -This is specially commended as useful to close tins containing fruits, -&c. It is simply vulcanised indiarubber. - -MARINE GLUE is a very valuable and generally useful cement. It is -so called because, being perfectly waterproof, it is used for many -purposes in ships. It is applicable not only to repairing indiarubber -or gutta-percha garments, but also to objects of metal, wood, glass, -stone, paper, or cloth; as, for instance, umbrellas, on which, when -torn, a patch or strip of silk or muslin may be gummed, which will last -as long as the rest. It is also good for waterproofing shoes. It is -sold by dealers in ships’ stores, chemists, and others. “It is a good -thing to have in the country.” - -HARD MARINE GLUE:-- - - Caoutchouc 10 - Rectified petroleum 120 - Asphalt 20 - -To prepare this, the caoutchouc should be hung in a linen bag in a -cask with a very large bung, or in a large jar, so that the bag shall -be only half immersed. This is kept in a warm place for from ten to -fourteen days, till the solution is effected. Then the asphaltum -may be melted in an iron kettle. Let the rubber solution slowly run -into the kettle over a gentle heat, and stir in the one to the other -till the mass is thoroughly preserved are put in the bag; the edge -is then turned incorporated. When this is effected pour the mixture -into moulds which have been oiled to prevent adhesion. The result is -dark brown or black thin cakes, which are broken with difficulty. The -excellence of this cement is somewhat counteracted by the difficulty -or care which must be observed in using it. To do this, put the vessel -in which it is to be melted in another or a _balneum mariæ_, as for -glue, filled with boiling water. When fluid take the kettle from the -fire and subject it directly to heat till it attains a temperature of -150° centigrade. When it is possible, heat the object to be glued to -100°. The thinner the coat and the hotter the surface the better will -it adhere, unless the objects be such as hard boards. In all cases as -strong a pressure as possible should be employed to bring the two parts -together, which should be continued till the glue has dried. Boxes -which are cemented together by means of marine glue and are also nailed -are of extraordinary strength, and may be thus made air-tight and -waterproof. Those who intend to send articles which can be affected by -sea-air, such as silks and tea, which change their colour and quality -even when packed in the tightest ordinary cases, should employ boxes -well secured with good marine glue. It is also invaluable to secure -clothing against moths, for if anything be very thoroughly dusted and -there are no moths in it, none can get in if it be enclosed in a box -rendered air-tight. - -_Apropos_ of which I would say that in America moths, which are far -more of a pest than in Europe, are effectively excluded by means of -bags of strong paper, well tarpaulined or tarred. The objects to be -over and warmed, so that it seals itself up. Strong paper bags are -better than any trunks to exclude moths, but they must always be well -gummed up. Tobacco is no protection at all against these insects. I -have even had an old woollen Turkish tobacco-bag which had been in use -ten years, and which was partly full of tobacco, almost devoured by -moths, which must have eaten no small quantity of tobacco in so doing. -Nor is camphor or any other scent half as effective as hermetic closing -in some substance which insects will not eat. - -LEHNER gives a suggestion regarding the rendering walls air-tight which -is of such remarkable practical utility that it ought to be enforced by -health laws in every house. Whenever walls have any tendency to absorb -dampness--and all have it in damp weather, especially in underground -rooms--it is _far_ more dangerous than is generally supposed to put -paper on them. This is so much the case that where workmen, from -carelessness, paste one coat of paper over another on a damp wall, -the mass in time gives out a very poisonous exhalation, so that an -instance is recorded in which several people died, one after the other, -in consequence of sleeping in such a room. To prevent this take the -following waterproof cement:-- - - Caoutchouc 10 - Washed chalk 10 - Oil of turpentine 20 - Bisulphide of carbon 10 - Resin (colophonium) 5 - Asphalt 5 - -These are combined in a large flask, kept in a moderately warm place, -and often shaken till well incorporated. The wall to be covered should -be brushed and wiped, and in some cases heated, until extremely dry. -Then, using the cement, apply the paper in the ordinary way. It will -stick with great tenacity, this being a very tight and strong glue. -All wall-paper whatever is more or less productive of malaria in damp -weather, as is the smell of a _damp_ library, or one where the scent -of old paper is rankly and offensively perceptible. Therefore every -precaution should be taken to render it innocuous. - -Even if no paper be applied, this cement is very valuable when simply -used to coat the interior or exterior of damp walls. It can, of course, -be used to repair many articles of indiarubber, and to mend shoes, tan -garments, &c. _Apropos_ of which latter I may here remark that all -persons who intend to rough it in the bush as colonists, or go into -any region where mending or getting mended is difficult--as I myself -have many a time experienced--would do well to carry a tight tin box of -waterproof glue, with which torn shoes, and very often torn clothes, -can be promptly repaired. In fact, with the aid of a little rough -stitching, or even without it, garments of leather, muslin, and even -of cloth can be made to hold together with certain cements, which will -literally bind anything. - -It is well worth while for those who propose to live in the wilderness, -wherever it may be, to know how to prepare or make indiarubber -garments. The recipe is very easily made:-- - - Gutta-percha 10 - Benzine 100 - Linseed-oil varnish 100 - -The gutta-percha is dissolved in the benzine; the solution, when clear, -is poured into a bottle already containing the varnish, and all is -then thoroughly shaken. This mixture, when spread on woven fabrics of -any kind, renders them completely waterproof. The garments can then -be cut out and “sewed;” that is, bound together with the same cement. -According to LEHNER, this cement can be used for making the soles of -shoes, and is marvellously elastic. All travellers, and assuredly all -housekeepers, should have this cement among their possessions. - -It may also happen to a traveller to find himself with an aching -hollow tooth in a region where no dentist is accessible. Should he -have with him some gutta-percha (bleached is best for this purpose) he -may combine it with very finely pulverised glass. (To _levigate_ or -powder anything as fine as flour, it must be pounded in a mortar, or on -metal or hard stone _under water_.) Then warm and thoroughly mix the -gutta-percha and glass. Make it into little pencils, which, when they -are to be used, must be dipped in hot water. This cement may be also -used for a great variety of other purposes. - -A very admirable cement, which should be found in every stable and -known to every one who owns a horse, is made as follows:-- - - Hartshorn and resin ammoniacum (_Ammoniakharz_) 10 - Purified gutta-percha 20-25 - -Heat the gutta-percha to 90°-100° centigrade, and thoroughly -incorporate it with the powdered resin. The chief use of this admirable -composition is to fill up cracks or splits in horses’ hoofs. It may -also be used for plaster on occasion. To apply it to hoofs, warm it and -spread it in with a warmed knife. It sets so hard that it will hold -nails. - -In mending or making, it may be observed that a very little indiarubber -or gutta-percha may be combined with benzole or ether, or rectified -petroleum in large amount, which soon becomes dense. Therefore, to -produce a surface or a skin, we first spread a _thin_ coat over the -object or mould, and then apply another with a broad, soft brush or -“dabber” with great care, so as to make it of uniform thickness. It is, -therefore, best to have the preparation always rather thin, and use it -at the right time, and not when it has become dense by long keeping. In -the latter case add more of the solvent. - -Glass bottles or vials containing liquids are often broken, even by -the pressure of soft objects, such as clothing, when placed in trunks. -It is therefore advisable to dip or coat them with this solution, -which forms a bag which will contain the fluid; that is, unless it be -of a nature which will soften it. I have known a bottle of hair-oil -to be packed in a valuable cashmere shawl, which was almost ruined by -its breaking, and which could have easily been prevented by this easy -precaution. - -Any apothecary will make up these recipes. - -A very curious and valuable imitation of indiarubber waterproof cloth -is made as follows:--Caseine is macerated with water and with borax to -a solution. The cloth is dipped in this, and when quite dry, again -dipped into a strong infusion of gall-apples. This is a kind of tanning. - -For exhaustive information on the subject of indiarubber the -technologist may consult _Kautschuk und Guttapercha_, by Raimund -Hoffer, Leipzig, 1892, which is, I believe, the latest and best work on -this important subject. - - - - -MENDING METAL-WORK OR REPAIRING BY MEANS OF IT - -FIREPROOF CEMENTS, WITH IRON BINDERS - - -Metal-work, especially in iron, requires so much forging and so many -appliances that it is to a certain extent beyond the ordinary mender, -who must in most cases have resort to the smith or artificer. But there -is still much within the capacity of the amateur to effect, and this I -will describe. - -One of the commonest requirements in repairing trunks and many other -objects is to make a strap or strip of metal hold either to a surface -or to itself. This is to be promptly effected by _riveting_. If the -iron band on a trunk is broken, you cannot well nail it again into its -place. A nail will not hold in the thin side, possibly of pasteboard. -To learn how to repair in such a case, take a piece of common hoop -iron, lay it on a block of wood or a board, and with a fine nail or -brad-awl and hammer knock a hole in it. Then take a rivet or any -flat-headed tack, put it through the hole, lay it with the head of the -tack down on iron or stone if possible, and then give the point a blow, -a little sideways. The result is that the point will be flattened and -the tack firmly held. The result will be the same if the rivet passes -through two thick pieces of metal. In this manner the two ends of an -iron hoop for a box are fastened. Therefore, if we take a piece of tin -or sheet-iron, put it in the trunk against the side, and bring down the -broken strip on the outside, we can, with a little care, rivet it. It -is advisable, when this is done, to paste a strong piece of muslin or -leather over the tin to prevent it from cutting anything in the trunk. -These riveted strips are _far_ better for surrounding and holding many -bundles than cords. They are better for books, because they do not -leave marks on the edges, neither do they untie nor are they hard to -fasten, requiring no knotting. - -Riveted bands, corners, or bent pieces of sheet-metal are more -generally applicable to broken furniture than is generally supposed. -The plate thus applied can generally be concealed either by chiselling -a place for it or by hammering it into the wood, and then cementing and -painting it over. - -Wire is also very useful for mending of many kinds, either in metal -or wood. To manage it we need a pair of cutting pliers or pincers, as -well as the long-nosed and flat pliers. Thus, to attach two bodies--for -instance, the two parts of a broken gunstock--begin by fastening one -end of the wire in one piece, and wind it round both, drawing it as -tightly as possible with the flat pliers. When united, fasten the other -end by driving it under the _twist_ or into the wood. This also can be -so adroitly treated that the wire, flattened with a file and hammered -down, can be concealed under paint and varnish. By means of wire passed -through holes made with long brad-awls or fine gimlets, picture-frames -can be firmly repaired. In many cases the wire should be brought round -and the ends fastened or wound together; in others, make a double ring -in one end of the wire and nail it down, then pass the wire through the -hole and fasten the other end in the same way. Many kinds of broken -implements may be thus mended. Endeavour to get strong, _flexible_ wire -for such purposes. - -Boxes containing goods will be doubly strong when protected by strips -of iron nailed round them. Hoop-iron is generally used for this purpose. - -Soldering is, however, the best and most usual means of repairing all -kinds of metal-work, and this is very far from being so difficult as -is generally supposed; indeed, a lady-writer on metal-work goes so -far as to declare that it is fascinating. As every tinker and tinman -knows how to “sodder,” and will willingly give instruction for a trifle -(children, indeed, often behold the whole process admiringly for -nothing), and, finally, as it is most unlikely that any reader of this -work should be in a place where neither tinkers nor tinmen are to be -found--for I have read that a gipsy tinker was once discovered mending -a kettle seated in the shadow of the Great Wall of China--it is hardly -necessary to describe in detail processes which any one can take in -at a glance. The principle is this:--As in cementing glass, the glue -which binds requires powdered glass to be mixed in it, so that it may -establish a quicker and closer affinity with the glass; so to unite two -metallic surfaces we must have a flux or some fusible substance as an -intermediary. For this purpose various substances, such as resin and -borax, are employed with the solder, which is a compound of metals, -which melts very easily, takes a firm hold of other metals, and sets -hard at once. There are many varieties of it, adapted to different -metals. It is generally sold in small sticks for use. - -I lay some stress on the fact that there should be some one in every -family knowing how to repair, especially in metal, because there is no -household in which there is not damage of tin and iron ware, trunks, -kitchen utensils, and often even of jewellery, which a clever youth or -young lady could easily restore. A pin is detached from a brooch. You -could repair it yourself in five minutes, at a halfpenny’s expense; -but no, it must be sent to a jeweller’s to be mended for a shilling. -It is the same with earrings and chains and bracelets and clasps and -securing-rings. When they become shaky you fasten them with thread. It -will hold for the present, of course; and then comes an advertisement -in the _Times_: “Lost--Twenty-five Pounds Reward!” All because you -never learned how to repair or solder. - -[Illustration] - -But, as ’tis never too late to mend, and no one should be a mend -I-can’t, or go begging to others to do for him what he can do for -himself, I trust that reflection on this subject will induce many to -become practical repairers. If you have a valuable coin, do not take -half the value out of it, as most people do, by boring a hole through -it. Make a simple twist and eyelet of a bit of silver wire and solder -it on the edge. Do not tie a gold chain with twine; mend it properly. -Rivet your broken scissors, and when hinges come out screw them on -again. If there were really anything _difficult_ in all this I would -honestly say so, but there is not, and people who have received some -education learn how to do it all with ease in a short time. - -A recipe for a cement to attach metal to any other substance is made as -follows:-- - - Purified flint-sand (or glass-powder) 10 - Caseine or curd 8 - Slacked lime 10 - -Mix thoroughly, and add water to a creamy consistency. - -The following for metals is also very strong:-- - - Sturgeon’s bladder solution 100 - Nitric acid 1 - -The acid is stirred in at the same time with the cement, which should -be as dense as possible, and with this mixture the surfaces of the -metal are covered. “The nitric acid is intended to make the surfaces of -the metal rough, but it has the drawback that it hinders the drying of -the glue” (LEHNER). This slowly drying is, however, a great advantage. -The same is found when it is mixed with common glue, which generally -dries too rapidly. Cements which dry rather slowly take hold the most -firmly and permanently. The acid hardens the mass by contracting the -cellular tissue. To hasten the drying, the metallic parts, which should -be very strongly compressed together, must be exposed to heat. - -A simpler method for light articles of metal is to wet the surfaces -with nitric acid for a few minutes till they are roughened, then wash -away the acid in water, and cement the metal with sturgeon’s bladder -cement. - -A special cement for zinc is made by thickening very strong dense glue -with powdered slacked lime, into which is kneaded one-tenth part of -flowers of sulphur. - -A so-called Jeweller’s Cement, which holds firmly, is the so-called -Diamond, elsewhere given; also the following:-- - - Sturgeon’s bladder 100 - Gum mastic varnish 50 - -The sturgeon’s bladder is dissolved in as little water as possible -with strong spirits of wine (equivalent to ordinary spirits). To -prepare the mastic varnish, mix finely powdered mastic with the most -highly rectified spirits of wine and benzine, and use as little liquid -as possible. The two mixtures must be then rubbed as intimately as -possible together. When carefully made this cement will serve for -anything--glass or china, &c. - -A CEMENT FOR ZINC, especially for ornaments and small work:--In -ten parts by weight of silicate of soda (solution) stir two parts -of cleansed chalk and three of zinc in powder. This is kneaded for -some time into a putty, with which defects, roughnesses, &c., can be -remedied. After twenty-four hours, when polished with agate, this -cement has all the appearance of zinc. - -It may be observed that other metals in fine powder may be substituted -for the zinc, and that with bronze powders, oxides of metals, and -indeed with all the range of painters’ colours, combinations may be -formed of infinite application in the arts. According to LEHNER the -silicate of soda should be of 33°. - -A specially strong and valuable cement, capable of many uses in -metal, wood, glass, or china, or to fasten glass to metal, is made as -follows:--Take best purified litharge, stir it with glycerine until it -becomes a thin homogeneous mass, which in less than an hour will become -a very hard mass, which is of almost universal application. It is not -affected by water, and resists the action (according to LEHNER) of -almost all acids, the strongest alkalies, as well as etherised oils and -the fumes of chlorine and alcohol. The surfaces which are to be united -with it must first be covered with pure, thick glycerine. - -It will readily occur to the reader that in or to this, as in every -recipe given in this book, modifications, alterations, and additions -can be made, of very great value, adaptable to a great variety of -substances. It is to be observed that in such cases as this, where -one cannot be sure of the exact result, it is best, _e.g._, to first -experiment with a very little finest pulverised oxide of lead with the -glycerine. - -Another form of this powerful metallic cement is given as follows:-- - - Concentrated glycerine ½ litre - Litharge 5 kilogs. - -To make a cement to fill or close joints in zinc-work:--Soak three -parts by weight of glue in water, pour off the superfluous water, -dissolve the glue in warm water, stir into it six parts of slacked -lime and one of flowers of sulphur. - -When ironwork, as, for instance, window-bars, is to be set in stone, -the following is commended as taking a firm hold:-- - - Calcined gypsum 30 - Finely powdered iron 10 - Vinegar 20 - -The following recipes, though I have found many of them in other works, -are here taken, with acknowledgment, from LEHNER, as his proportions -are invariably accurate, or confirmed by experiment. - -AN IRON CEMENT which resists heat and moisture:-- - - Clay 10 - Iron filings 5 - Vinegar 2 - Water 3 - -A VERY STRONG WATERPROOF CEMENT FOR IRON:-- - - Iron filings 100 - Sal-ammoniac 2 - Water 10 - -This in a few days will begin to turn into a hard rust. - -Another OXIDISED CEMENT, which holds like iron, is made as follows:-- - - Iron filings 65 - Sal-ammoniac 2.5 - Flowers of Sulphur 1.5 - Sulphuric acid 1 - -The sulphuric acid is diluted with water and added to the mixed powders. - -A RUST OR OXIDE CEMENT, resisting fire:-- - - Common iron filings 45 - Clay 20 - Finest porcelain clay 15 - Salt in water 8 - -Fine clay may be used in lack of the finest porcelain clay. - -AN IRON CEMENT to resist heat:-- - - Iron filings 20 - Clay in powder 45 - Borax 5 - Salt 5 - Peroxide of manganese 10 - -The borax and salt are melted in water and then quickly mixed with the -remaining ingredients, which are in a combined powder. At a white-heat -this becomes a glassy substance, which seals hermetically. - -IRON CEMENT to resist intense heat:-- - - Peroxide of manganese 52 - White oxide of zinc 25 - Borax 5 - -This is applied with silicate of soda. It must dry gradually. - -IRON CEMENT to resist heat:-- - - Iron filings 100 - Clay 50 - Salt 10 - Flint-sand 20 - -FIREPROOF CEMENT:-- - - Iron filings 140 - Hydraulic cement 20 - Flint-sand 25 - Sal-ammoniac 3 - -This powder is made into a paste with vinegar. It must dry for a long -time before being submitted to heat. - -Another cement of the same kind is as follows:-- - - Iron filings 180 - Clay 45 - Salt 8 - -This is also made up with vinegar, and must be dried for a long time. - -TO SET IRON IN STONE:-- - - Iron filings, fine 10 - Calcined gypsum 30 - Sal-ammoniac 0.5 - -Also combined with vinegar. - -When there are defects in iron castings, they may be filled up with the -following cement:-- - - Clean iron filings 100 - Flowers of sulphur 0.5 - Sal-ammoniac 0.8 - -To be mixed with water to a paste. It does not fuse nor act as a paste -until exposed to great heat. Before applying it wash the edges to -be united with liquid ammonia. Brimstone or sulphur melts iron very -promptly when the latter is red-hot, and applied to it, the iron will -drop like melted sealing-wax. - -A CEMENT FOR IRON STOVES is made as follows:-- - - Iron filings 100 - Chalk-marl 40 - Flint-sand 50 - Vinegar 20 - -This is made into a paste, which can be rendered porous by mixing with -it bristles, chopped straw, sawdust, or chaff. When the latter is -converted to coal by heat, the cement is, of course, full of cavities. -In like manner, clay for water-coolers is made light and spongy by -mixing it with salt. The salt gradually melts in the damp clay, forming -a porous substance. - -When iron doors are to be hermetically sealed at very high temperatures -the following may be used:-- - - Finest iron filings 100 - Sal-ammoniac 1 - Limestone 10 - Silicate of soda 10 - -When the iron plates about a fireplace give way the following may be -used:-- - - Iron filings 20 - Iron dross or refuse 12 - Calcined gypsum 30 - Common salt 10 - -This mixture may be combined with either blood or silicate of soda, -preferably the latter, as the former has a disagreeable smell. - -Iron filings mixed with vinegar are allowed to stand till of a brown -colour, and then driven with plugs and hammer into cavities, where they -form a rust cement. - -FOR CRACKS IN IRON POTS, &c.:-- - - Iron filings 10 - Clay 60 - -This is mixed with linseed-oil to a paste. It requires several weeks to -harden, but forms a hard cement. - -A BLACK CEMENT FOR IRONWARE:-- - - Iron filings 10 - Sand 12 - Ivory black 10 - Slacked lime 12 - Lime water 5 - -SCHWARTZ’S IRON CEMENT for holes in pots, &c.:-- - -I. - - Finely powdered glue 4-5 - Finest iron dust 2 - Peroxide of manganese 1 - Common salt ½ - Borax ½ - -To be powdered extremely fine or levigated and made with water to a -paste. Resists fire and hot water. - -II. - - Pulverised peroxide of manganese 1 - White oxide of zinc 1 - -To be finely pulverised and combined with silicate of soda. - -An important part of all metal-mending is soldering. This is based on -the principle that certain metallic compounds which fuse at a very -low heat can, however, be so brought into union with others which have -an affinity for them as by melting to unite the harder objects. Thus -bismuth, which will melt in hot water, has an affinity for lead, which -combines easily with tin and brass, &c.; as, in like manner, borax and -resin with iron. - -NEWTON’S SOLDER (LEHNER):-- - - Bismuth 8 - Tin 3 - Lead 5 - -This melts at 94.5° Celsius. - -ROSE’S SOLDERS:-- - -I. - - Bismuth 2 - Lead 1 - Tin 1 - -II. - - Bismuth 5 - Lead 3 - Tin 2 - -A METALLIC-GLASS SOLDER:-- - - Lead 30 - Tin 20 - Bismuth 25 - -The lead is first carefully melted, then the tin added, and the melted -mixture carefully stirred; the bismuth is put in last of all. - -CEMENT FOR IRON STOVES:-- - - Wood-ashes 10 - Clay 10 - Calcined lime 4 - -To be mixed with water to form a firm paste. Also applicable to holes -in trees. Clay mixed with waste-paper is also applicable for the latter -purpose (LEHNER). (Glue may be added to it.) This mixture of clay and -paper should be well mixed with sour milk. - -CLAUS’S CEMENT FOR METAL AND GLASS:--40 grammes of starch and 320 -grammes purified chalk are dissolved in 2 quarts water, into which is -stirred ½ pint solution of caustic soda. - -The most important part of mending broken metal-work is _soldering_, -and this is so difficult to practically teach by mere _writing_, while -it can be so easily learned from any tinsmith, or even tinker, that -I deem it common-sensibly best to acquire it from the latter. Those -who would study it in all its details, scientific or technological, -may do so in _Das Löthen und die Bearbeitung der Metalle_, by Edmund -Schlosser; Vienna, A. Hartleben, price 3s. - - - - -REPAIRING LEATHER-WORK - -TRUNKS, SHOES, OR IN ANY OTHER FORMS--JOINING STRAPS--MAKING CHEAP SHOES - - -Leather-work when much worn is seldom restored, and, except by a -few experts, it is generally regarded as incurable. That is to say, -that leather-work is only repaired by the same method in which it is -made--that is, by sewing--when in fact a great deal is lost which -might be saved, and much imperfectly repaired which might seem like -new by resorting to a more scientific process. And therefore, having -devoted much attention to it, I am persuaded that the worst cases may -be mended. Within a week I purchased two small folio volumes which -had been beautifully bound in black leather, embossed in deep relief, -about 1520, in a style which was then becoming antiquated. The pattern -had been cut in a wooden mould, stamped on the wet leather, and then -completely worked over by hand with tracers and matted or stamped in -the ground. But the black colour had been worn away from the relief and -turned brown, and it was otherwise dilapidated at the edges. - -I took a volume and where the surface was ragged moistened it, applied -gum-arabic in solution, and smoothed it down with an agate burnisher. -Leather treated in this way soon becomes like a paste. When it was -all even I painted it over with strong liquid Indian ink. Common ink -would have done as well. Then I varnished it over lightly with the -admirable _vernis à retoucher_, No. 3, of SOEHNÉE, which is flexible, -preservative, and does not crack. I may add for ladies that it smells -like _eau de cologne_. This dries almost immediately. It may be had -at all artists’ material shops. Finally, I rubbed it for some time by -hand. Then the binding was as good as new, yet not too new. It was -simply perfectly restored. - -I have in the introduction mentioned another work which I also -restored. This was a Madonna in high relief, very much dilapidated; -that is to say, it was of thin leather, which had been originally -made in a mould, and was accordingly puffed out, so to speak, like a -pie-crust. On the mould there had been laid a coat of muslin or cotton -fabric; this, when dry, had been very thinly covered with _gesso_ or -plaster of Paris, and on this, when dry, a thin wet leather had been -pressed. I may here note that very often the _gesso_ was then blackened -without any leather being applied, and that when thus blackened, -covered, and varnished it looked exactly like leather--an easy art, -which may be practised to profit by any one who can carve or buy moulds. - -On examining this, I found that it would be very difficult to repair -it with good leather. I found in a shop some thin black sham-leather, -such as the Japanese apparently manufacture from leather dust, made by -grinding up all kinds of leather waste to a powder. It was wretched, -rotten stuff as leather, but all the better suited to my purpose. Some -of this I cut into small bits, and with a knife soon mashed it, mixed -with gum-arabic and water, into a very smooth paste. With such a paste -one can repair any tear, roughening, or imperfection, care being taken -that the paste and leather be alike in colour. With this I filled the -hollows at the back, making the work solid; and having wetted all the -ragged edges and fractured or torn places, smoothed them down with gum -and a pen or paper knife, supplying deficiencies with the black paste. -When all was smooth and dry I applied a coat of SOEHNÉE’S varnish, and -then rubbed it well down by hand. It was quite restored. - -As this varnishing leather may sound like a heresy to artistic -leather-workers, I would ask them if they would consider an application -of tannin in solution--which is the preservative principle of leather -itself--as “inartistic.” Certainly it is not, nor is the application of -SOEHNÉE (which is more of a simple preservative than a glaze) a mere -finish for show. - -The leather-paste of which I speak has certain qualities of its -own which make it quite different from any other substance. We may -include in leather “paste” not only the mere dust made from the dried -substance, but all scraps, and also any thin leather, thoroughly -softened or macerated. Even in the latter form it is, combined with a -binder, really a plastic substance, since it can be worked into any -form with ease. Mixed with caoutchouc or indiarubber in solution, and -then dried, it is invaluable for mending boots and making waterproof -soles. As I have indicated, it is excellent for mending old books. And -here I may mention that if you have, let us say, one cover of a book -in high relief, and the other, it may be, lost or worn plain, you can -supply or make the duplicate very easily, very cheaply, and in a short -time as follows:--Take a sheet of soft, white newspaper, dampen it, and -press it on the relief. As soon as possible, taking care not to wet -the book, fill in the back of the _squeeze_ either with other coats of -wet paper, melted wax, or liquid plaster of Paris. When this is dry, -wax or oil carefully the face of the squeeze, wipe it dry, and make a -cast from it in _leather-paste_. Thus you will have a facsimile of the -relief. From a solid plaster mould, well oiled or boiled in wax, a cast -may be taken in softened or wet leather, which is even better; it sets -hard and tough. - -I may here mention that it is very unusual to see books bound in deep -relief with _hand-worked_, black, or black and gold, antique patterns, -and that such a cover, say of eight by ten inches, would probably cost -at least a pound, and be cheap at that. And yet any girl of ordinary -capacity with, let us say, fifty shillings’ worth of moulds, and two -weeks’ practice in tracing and stamping grounds, could produce from two -to four such book-covers as those before me in a day. - -There is now generally sold in furnishing or chemists’ shops a good -waterproof glue. Leather softened and then well incorporated with this -is also waterproof, and may be used to mend trunks. I have known a -torn boot to be mended in this manner, and that so well that it lasted -for a long time. Even a leather strap which is subjected to great -tugging may be restored, if cut or broken in two, by shaving the edges -obliquely, so as to sharpen them. - -[Illustration] - -Then apply glue with acid, and before it is quite dry apply pressure, -though not so great as to squeeze the glue out. Shaving across the -edges, judicious pressing together, and final smoothing are of the -greatest importance in all leather patching and piecing, because -it depends on these to make the juncture imperceptible. Very few -persons--even shoemakers--are at all aware of the degree of perfection -to which mending rents in foot-covering can be carried by the use of -waterproof glue, such as is sold by many chemists. I have worn such a -patch for months, and it was hardly perceptible. But, like every art, -it requires some practice to apply such patches properly, and I cannot -promise to any lady that she can perfectly and neatly patch a boot by -simply daubing on a piece of leather at a first trial. - -It may be noted that in such strap-joining as that which I have -described, the repair will be greatly strengthened by pasting very -thin bits of leather, or even of muslin, over the edges and pressing -them in. It is true that this cover will soon wear away, but meanwhile -the mended leather is all the while growing stronger and uniting more -perfectly. Even paper, glued and pressed on, materially aids to make -the exposed joint unite. - -And here I may say that many a lady and youth would do well to take a -few practical lessons from any shoemaker in the noble art of cobbling; -that is to say, of heeling, soleing, and patching, all of which are as -easy to learn as steps in dancing, and are even more interesting or -amusing when once mastered. It is, moreover, an art which will be of -use through life. Those who can do this will probably, if ambitious -by nature, progress to making slippers, it may be shoes; and he who -can do this may be assured that he never need quite starve to death -while human beings go shod. It is not so difficult as many think, for -I have known shoemakers of very ordinary minds, and I also once knew -a mechanical artist who learned to make a fine pair of shoes in a few -weeks. In fact, there is a living in a great many things for those who -have once learned to use their fingers. - -Few people are aware of the extraordinary durability of leather-work of -certain kinds. There are in the British Museum Roman sandals, probably -made of raw hide, but cut into pretty form, which were found in the -Thames, and which look as new as if recently made. I have seen within -a day as I write a gracefully formed pitcher of the early fifteenth -century of very solid black leather, like the old blackjacks once -common in England, which has probably passed through centuries of -use, and is as perfect as ever. Wood splits, earthenware breaks, and -metal rusts, but raw hide, or _cuir bouilli_, as set forth in the old -song of the “Leather Bottél,” seems to endure every trial. As the man -commemorated in “Æsop’s Fables” declared, “After all, there is nothing -like leather.” The reader who may be especially interested in this -easiest of all the minor arts may consult on this subject my _Manual of -Leather-Work_ (5s.); Whittaker & Co., 2 White Hart Street, Paternoster -Square, London, E.C. - -Strips of raw hide are without equal for repairing broken vehicles, -wheels, saddles, and similar articles, because they shrink while -drying, drawing everything tight, and set so hard when once dry -that what is mended is often stronger than before. I have elsewhere -mentioned that the strongest trunks in the world are made in America -from it, as they had need to be, since there is no country in the world -where the “baggage-smasher,” figurative or literal, is so much to be -feared. - -The reader who has occasion to repair anything in leather should study -the chapter of this book which treats of indiarubber and gutta-percha, -the subjects being in many respects the same. - -A strong cement for leather is made by combining gutta-percha and -_Schwefelkohlenstoff_, or bisulphide of carbon, with petroleum to a -syrupy consistency. A very good cement specially adapted to joining -leather straps is as follows:-- - - Asphalt 12 - Resin 10 - Gutta-percha 40 - Bisulphide of carbon 150 - Petroleum 60 - -The materials, excepting the _Schwefelkohlenstoff_, are put together in -a bottle which stands in hot water for several hours; when the mass has -grown thick with the petroleum add the rest, and let the whole stand -for several days, shaking it very often. If the pieces of leather to be -united are first heated and then pressed very tightly together, the -adhesion will be increased. This cement is as well adapted for glass, -crockery, horn, ivory, wood, or metal as for leather. It is admirable -for mending trunks, whether made of leather, wood, or pasteboard. - -When a trunk is made of any of these, and a hole is broken through -the side or top, take a newspaper and coat it with this cement, -applying another, till there are a dozen or more thicknesses. If, as -it gradually dries, this be pressed and hardened with a roller, or -even a round ruler, it will be much improved. Glue this into or upon -the fracture. In most cases with care it can be made as strong as -ever. Where a rib is broken it should be promptly replaced. (_Vide_ -Metal-Work.) All trunks should be covered with waterproof glue or -varnish, as it effectually protects them from exposure to the rain. -This is very rarely done, however, the result being an immense amount -of loss to all travellers. In any town where there is a chemist’s shop, -and where a bit of indiarubber is to be had, even at the stationer’s, a -waterproof cement can be at once manufactured. The easiest of these to -prepare is the following:-- - - Gutta-percha 100 - Pine resin 200 - -The resin is first melted in a pan, the gutta-percha, in very small -bits, being gradually stirred in till all is amalgamated. When used it -must be warmed again. This cement can be used for as many different -articles as the preceding. - -It may here be noted that vast quantities of waste leather from -shoemakers and bookbinders, which sell for a mere trifle, can be -utilised to make admirable waterproof carpets and wall-covers. The -leather is first soaked till soft, then smoothed out and mixed with -waterproof cement, and rolled into one flat piece. This makes a very -cheap sub-carpet for winter--better than oil-cloth, being softer. For -walls it can be pressed in moulds, gilded, or painted. If varnished -there is no unpleasant smell from it. The harder it is compressed -or rolled the more will all smell disappear. Even with rolling by -hand with a bread-roller almost all substances--for instance, paper, -cloth-rags, sawdust, leather, clay, wool, cotton-wool, when combined -with any fit adhesive or cement--can be made very hard or tough; and it -is remarkable, considering the cheapness of the materials, how little -this principle is as yet applied. - -It may be remarked that there are many people who do not know what -to do when the sole of a boot splits off or wears away and there is -no shoemaker at hand. If the heel is lost and no leather can be had, -a very good substitute can be cut from wood and cemented on. A few -tacks will make it last as long almost as leather. If a piece of sole -leather can be got, even from another old shoe, one or two layers -can be cemented on to make a sole. A short screw or nail through -three-quarters of the heel greatly aids in making the layers adhere. -This may also be done with a vice. - -In the town of Bagni di Lucca, where I now am, a pair of leather shoes -with wooden soles, such as are commonly worn by women and children, -cost only fivepence. They are, of course, rough, but still far better -than none. The sole is rudely and very easily cut, with a high heel, -from white pine or larch wood. The upper is a single piece of leather, -which only covers the front half of the foot. It is moistened and bent -into shape, and then tacked or glued on. Many people simply buy the -soles, then the leather, and make the shoes for themselves, in which -case the expense does not amount to more than twopence. In Florence -there is often added to this the back, or heel-piece, which costs -twopence more, and makes an almost perfect shoe. This art would be -worth knowing in a wild country. - -[Illustration: _Italian (Lucchese) Peasant Shoe, costing from 5d. to -8d. per pair, undecorated._] - -LEHNER (_vide_ Indiarubber and Gutta-percha) specially commends for -mending soles the composition of--Gutta-percha, 10; benzine, 100; -linseed-oil varnish, 100. It is extremely elastic and tough, and -therefore suitable to soles. Mixed with black dye, or made with japan, -it forms patent leather or polished leather. It should for this purpose -be applied with a broad brush in _thin_ successive coats, and well -dried before applying a new one. This is far superior to ordinary -blacking; it is more easily applied, and does not injure the leather so -much, because the latter is often made with vitriol, which, while it -promptly gives a shine, eats away the fibre. Boots and shoes will, in -fact, wear much longer with this coating than without it. - -This is even more applicable to a great deal of harness, saddle, and -bridle mending, and restoring sheet leather in every form; as, for -instance, waggon curtains, when worn and dry. First soften the leather, -then restore its quality, if required, with tannin or indiarubber in -solution. If very dry and exhausted, it may first be treated with -neat’s-foot oil for several days. Then sew it up, if a seam, or mend by -applying leather and the cement. If all persons who own much harness -would carefully study this subject, they would be astonished to find -what economy could be effected by judicious mending. - -It may happen that the reader may have occasion to wish to renew black, -glazed leather-work, or to make a brilliant black pattern on a brown -ground in stamped leather. I have often executed it with success. In -such a case it suffices to simply blacken the leather with ink or dye, -and then coat it with any flexible varnish; that is, one into which -glycerine or gutta-percha has been infused. Any one who can draw can -in this manner execute very beautiful work for covering walls, panels, -chests, or doors. Or flexible black varnish can be directly applied. - -LEHNER gives a recipe for attaching leather to metal, which may also be -applied to any other substance:--Cover the leather with a thin and very -hot coating of glue, press it on the metal, and then wet the other -side with a strong solution of gall-apples or tannin (_Lohe_, extract -of oak-bark) till it is thoroughly-penetrated. The tannin combines with -the glue, and attaches the leather with extreme tenacity to the metal, -&c. It is advisable to roughen the metallic surface to facilitate -adhesion. - -By combining glue (and many other adhesives) directly with the tannin -or gall nut astringent we obtain _a waterproof cement_ of great -strength, which is very useful for shoes. It is, in fact, not at -all a difficult matter, where other appliances are wanting, to make -from leather, without sewing, a soled shoe when tannin and glue are -obtainable. The same can be done with canvas. - -During the great wars in America thousands of soldiers often went -barefoot in winter-time, with abundance of horses or cattle killed -all round them, because they did not know that a strong moccasin can -be made by cutting out a piece of raw hide, piercing holes in it, and -drawing it up like a bag round the ankles, as is so commonly done -here in the mountain districts in Italy. I once astonished a soldier -in the war by suggesting this, and he declared he must try it. It -is remarkable how rarely man in an uneducated state ever _invents_ -anything, be it a myth, a tale, or a practical invention. - -If the upper leather of a slipper or shoe be cut out, it can, if wet, -be easily made to assume the form of a foot by drying it on a last, or -even on another shoe. Let the seam of the back jut or flap over the -edge, and allow full selvage for the rest to turn under the sole. The -latter may be of sole leather. If there is none, glue two or three -pieces of the leather together with the tannin cement, and roll them -over strongly. Then glue the back and the under-lap with great care. -With a little practice a fairly good shoe can be thus made. Canvas -can be used in the same way. To dwellers in the wilderness this may -be valuable information. But very pretty ornamental slippers can be -made by young ladies out of scraps of gaily coloured leather. They can -buy a pair of soles, and get the leather at a leather-dealer’s. This -is all simply substituting glueing for sewing, and strong tannin-glue -holds _quite_ as strongly as a great deal of the sewing of cheap, -machine-made shoes. It would, indeed, not be a very difficult or -expensive thing to shoe or clothe all mankind comfortably, were it not -for the fashions followed by the wealthy. - -These very cheap shoes, made with either wooden or leather soles, -and that so easily that a child can learn to manufacture them in an -hour, can be easily ornamented so as to be really attractive. Take the -leather, moisten it with a sponge, and then with a tracer, which is -like the end of a screw-driver--_i.e._-- - -[Illustration] - -draw a pattern in the damp, soft leather. When it dries the pattern -will remain. Then with a point or stamp, dot or roughen the ground. -Finally, when dry, paint the pattern black, and then varnish it. -Anybody with the least knowledge of drawing can make and sell such -ornamented shoes for a good profit, as they are as yet hardly known -to anybody. Other colours may be substituted for black, or gilding -applied. - -I have in another place shown (_vide_ Papier-Mâché) how good artificial -leather can be made by combining paper--best in pulp--with indiarubber -and benzole fluid solution. Also how soles can be made by steeping -pasteboard in the same, and how these, which are very easily and -cheaply made, can be glued on to the leather so as to protect the -latter from wearing out, for ever, if renewed. A bottle of this cement, -combined with Diamond or Turkish Cement, will in like manner repair -boots when the sole begins to split or part; and if applied when it -begins to gape, it will be closed for a long time. This is such a -practical, cheap, and easy method of making boots and shoes last, -that my wonder is that every man who goes shod, and especially every -traveller, has not a bottle of it by him. Observe that the two edges -should be well pinched or screwed together (a six-penny vice will -answer for this), and the leather first heated, though all this is not -a _sine quâ non_, but only an improvement. - -Leather thus attached by a very strong cement is quite as durable -and much pleasanter to wear than “copper toes” or iron heels, which -assimilate their wearers to horses. And it takes no longer to make and -attach a heel or a sole in this manner than to black a pair of boots, -as I have myself verified within a few hours. - -Where seams _rip out_, the best repairing is by sewing as shoemakers -do, which is not hard to learn, and I advise all young people to learn -it. But where sewing cannot be resorted to, the cement, well applied -and compressed till dry, will hold almost any break for a long time. - -I urge ladies of all classes and conditions to carefully consider this -chapter. They are more accustomed to repairing than men, and will take -to it more intelligently. As their _chaussures_ are made of thinner -leather than ours, they need repair oftener, but are, on the other -hand, so much the easier to repair. Every mother of a family will at -least profit by studying this book. - -Shoemakers’ paste, much used for shoes, belongs properly to -leather-work. It is made by boiling crushed barley to a thick mess, the -water being kept extremely hot. It is then set aside till fermentation -begins, which announces itself by an extremely offensive smell. Thence -it passes to a stage in which it is a brownish syrupy mass, possessing -great power as an adhesive. It is now taken from the fire and a little -carbolic acid added to arrest fermentation. This can be used by itself -for an adhesive; it also combines well with _indifferent_ substances, -such as powdered lime, or chalk, white zinc, ochre, clay, or umber. It -may be as well used for binding books. - -I have already given a very good recipe for reuniting broken leather -straps. I here add another from LEHNER. It is very good, but hardly -worth the very considerable extra trouble and expense as compared to -the former:-- - - Gilders’ glue 250 - Sturgeon’s bladder 60 - Gum-arabic 60 - -Reduce to bits and boil in water to a solution, to which add:-- - - Venice turpentine 5 - Oil of turpentine 6 - Spirits of wine 10 - -The strap-ends, or pieces of leather, having been thoroughly cleaned, -are now covered with the adhesive and pressed together between hot -plates, where the work must remain till cold. - -A very good artificial leather, perfectly waterproof, may be made by -covering a strip of strong paper, or, better still, one of glazed -muslin, with the gutta-percha cement. Add to this fresh layers of -cement and paper, till the requisite thickness is obtained. This is -useful for mending soles. Where the gutta-percha or indiarubber cement -is not to be had, substitute copal varnish and glycerine, or thick -turpentine varnish and a little glycerine. - - - - -TO MEND HATS, BLANKETS, AND SIMILAR FABRICS BY FELTING - - -Wool, as is well known, if put into a pair of shoes, will pack or -settle into a solid felt sole if the shoes are worn. This felt is like -cloth. The same can be done by rolling it like dough on a board with -a roller. Lay the cloth or hat to be mended so that the felt to be -made can be worked into it. Then take fine wool and clean and roll it -thoroughly, working it into the edges. It may happen many a time to a -man without a needle to succeed in mending garments in this manner. - -Waterproof glue or adhesive, such as is fully described in the chapter -on Indiarubber, may be added to facilitate the adhesion of the felt to -the cloth or felt ground. There is a peculiar art or knack of working -moistened felt into the edges of cloth, and of ironing or pressing -them down so as not to show, which can, however, be soon acquired. -In this way cloth may be glued upon cloth with very good effect. The -extraordinary tenacity and fineness of the adhesives now made, be it -specially observed, renders mending of this kind (which was impossible -a generation ago) now perfectly possible. I advise those who doubt -this to get a piece of cloth and experiment for themselves. The patch -may not be invisible, but it will look better than if botched with a -needle. Felt, however, can easily be repaired to perfection. - -Large pieces of stuff can be made by rolling slightly gummed wool, -which fact many men do not know, even when living in the wilderness, -where wool or hair may be abundant. Nothing is so common as to see -shepherds in utter raggedness where the very shreds of wool left by -their sheep on the thorns would clothe them, with a little industry. -The quality, durability, and fineness of felt depend on the quality of -the wool, and the care and skill of the operator. Many of the cheap -cloths known as shoddy are really felts. - -Felt is easily formed, because under certain conditions it seems -to have a strange tendency to form itself. The reader knows that a -string in the pocket, subjected to our every movement, will inevitably -tangle and knot itself up in the most mysterious manner; and so the -fibres of wool, if rubbed together, twine and bind themselves into -most intimate union. I earnestly advise all who expect to live where -sheep are plenty, and tailors or seamstresses few and far between, to -experiment in felt-making, and, if possible, learn from a hatmaker how -it is done. There was at one time in New York a factory where strong, -serviceable suits of felt cloth were made, and these, consisting of -coat, waistcoat, and trousers, were sold at retail for five dollars, or -one pound--I myself having seen them. - -When a piece of cloth is thus adjusted or applied to fill a hole or -mend a rent, the edges may be either simply gummed and adjusted, or -they may be treated with a mixture of felt or cloth-dust and gum. In -this case, before the adhesive is _quite_ hard, yet after it has ceased -to be soft, lay over the patch a piece of cloth of exactly the same -kind, and press it with a warm flat-iron. (_Vide_ Invisible Mending of -Garments, Laces, or Embroideries.) - -In most cases a torn woollen garment may be very well restored by -carefully sewing a piece into the hole, or by uniting the edges with -long stitches. Then make a paste of felt or dust, or short, fine -threads of the same cloth, with indiarubber cement, and work it over -the surface. With practice this can be done so neatly as to quite -conceal the mending. Pass an iron over the whole. When indiarubber -cement cannot be obtained, glue mixed with one-fourth glycerine can be -used. - -Ammonia combined with wool forms a solvent which is also a cement. I -have not experimented with it. - - - - -INVISIBLE MENDING OF GARMENTS, LACES, OR EMBROIDERIES - - -Most people are aware that there are tailors or others who are such -artists in mending that they can sew up a rent “in almost anything” -so skilfully that the tear cannot be perceived. I have myself seen -this done so admirably in fine black cloth that not only was there no -sign of a tear perceptible, but none was manifest after long wearing -the garment. This nicety is partly due to skill, but there is also a -method in it. Such mending is specially shown in Italy by Jewesses in -repairing valuable old laces, embroideries, and the like. As a very -large proportion of those who buy and sell such goods are Jews, it is -but natural that their wives and female friends should be specially -employed in mending. The process which they employ is as follows:-- - -[Illustration] - -“Thread a needle with one of your own hairs, then draw the edge of the -rent or tear together in this manner, darning it, as it were, very -finely and carefully, for it is in this that the whole art consists. - -“After this take a piece of cloth as near like to the stuff you wish -to mend as you can obtain. Lay this piece on the rent so as to cover -it, then damp it slightly, and press it down with a hot iron until the -surface looks quite even.” - -It may here be observed that, firstly, the _thinner_ the thread used, -so that it be only strong enough to hold, the less probability is there -that the repair will show. For this purpose, for extremely delicate -mending a human hair is almost invisible; for most work silk thread -will answer. It is, however, more likely to cut through the edge than a -hair, because the hair is more elastic. - -Secondly, it may be observed that the so-called darning is really a -kind of invisible weaving, and not a sewing together or a stitching -close of edges, which latter, as it always puckers up or rises, must -show the line of repair. The darning has its strength of attachment -afar off, not close to the edges; it makes, as it were, a kind of -network or a weaving together of the cloth--that is, the cloth is -woven again into one piece by an invisible thread which hides itself -in the thicker fabric. The laying down of a cloth of _precisely the -same texture_ as that mended, and then ironing it, is very ingenious, -because one of a different kind would produce a different impression. - -The friend from whom I received the above, Miss ROMA LISTER, adds -that the Jewesses do this kind of work very well, but ask a franc or -twenty-five sous for mending the smallest rent. However, when the torn -shawl is once finished you cannot see where the hole has been. - -Somewhat allied to this is the patient German method of mending -stockings by reknitting; also that of spreading strong flexible glue -on a patch of chamois. This is laid under the rent, the edges being -carefully reunited over it. I would here suggest that if the tear be -first carefully darned, even with human hair or finest silk, and the -gummed leather then applied to the reverse, the mending would endure -for a much longer time. - -There is a stitch known in Germany as _Kettenstich_, or -chain-stitch--though it is _not_ that which is generally known among -us as the “German chain-stitch.” It is peculiarly long and strong, -and will hold together the edges of even soft leather, for which -reason it is generally used in Turkey and Russia to sew together the -many-coloured pieces of leather such as we see in Kasan work--slippers -and boots--and cushions from Constantinople. This is a valuable stitch -for close, invisible mending. It is allied to the lock-stitch of the -sewing-machine. - -A great variety of fabrics can be carefully adjusted and drawn together -over a piece of strong, glazed muslin (of the same colour) covered with -waterproof glue--_e.g._, indiarubber or glue and rubber cement--so that -the mending will not be apparent. This process is very applicable to -loose skirts, or to any garments on which there is no such severe pull, -as, _e.g._, trousers or coat-sleeves. To effect these as well as all -other repairs perfectly it will be necessary to experiment a few times. -Unfortunately nearly all amateurs without exception make no experiment -till it is necessary to repair something, and then, because they very -naturally botch it, find fault with the recipe. Yet, strangely as it -may sound, there are many cases in which mending or making fabrics can -be executed far more neatly with a very strong cement, such as that -of mastic and sturgeon’s bladder, than with needle and thread, the -former actually requiring less margin to hold than the average width -of a seam, for the least possible overlap suffices to bind where the -adhesive is strong. This process of mending is little known, probably -because there has been hitherto very little general knowledge of the -immense strength and tenacity of certain cements, which have, indeed, -only been discovered of late. For all ordinary mending, in fact, glue -with glycerine, or glue and indiarubber solution in benzole, will -answer as well as the far more expensive Turkish or Diamond cement. - -If the reader will only reflect that a large proportion of all black -and glossy silks are heavily gummed, sometimes up to their own weight, -it will be understood that there can be no substance with which they -can be more appropriately mended than with cement--a fact well known -to many who employ postage-stamps or black court-plaster to heal their -rents; but as this is generally very expensive, and as any old silk -and glue or gelatine, or dextrine, answer just as well, the latter had -better be considered. - -There is much weaving of the most exquisite fabrics done in the East, -and even among savages, almost entirely by hand; that is to say, the -threads are simply attached to a rod, while the woof is worked in with -a needle. Most fabrics can be mended by an analogous process, which is -a remaking the cloth. Much depends on the proper finishing or dressing -the surface by laying on it a piece of cloth and ironing it. - - - - -MENDING MOTHER-OF-PEARL AND CORAL - - -Mother-of-Pearl is the shell of the pearl-oyster (_Avigula -margaritifera_), much admired for its beautiful texture and white -colour, in which there is a peculiar iridescence or rainbow play of -colours. The best, and by far the principal portion in commerce, comes -from the islands of the Pacific. It has risen immensely in value of -late years. Almost, if not quite, equal to it is the East Indian, from -the Sulu Islands, Ceylon, and Aden, or the Persian Gulf. An inferior -kind comes from the Eastern Mediterranean, also another from America. - -The iridescent glaze, accompanied with more or less of the mother or -solid substance, is found in a very great number of shells; _e.g._, the -Peter’s Ear (_Halyotis iris_) of the Pacific; also in common mussels, -especially the _Unio_, found in most clear streams or brooks in Europe -and America where there is not much lime. These often yield pearls of -great value. - -Mother-of-pearl can be sawed without any great difficulty into plates, -which are polished with fine sand and then with tripoli. Of late a -great deal of small furniture inlaid with squares and triangles of this -material has found its way from Turkey and Persia to London. These -pieces are simply attached with cement made of sturgeon’s bladder, -mastic, salmiac, or even glue. They can generally be obtained from -dealers in Oriental goods. ABRAHAM SASSOON, of Wardour Street, will -supply them in any quantity. - -LOUIS EDGAR ANDÉS and SIGMUND LEHNER, both experimental technologists, -have given several curious recipes for imitating mother-of-pearl. From -filing or grinding, the best mother-of-pearl shell becomes like a white -metal, which can be combined with white of egg or pure white gelatine -to a fine marble-like substance, which, however, lacks iridescence. -Broken into very small pieces, which are set in a bed of glue and -glycerine, and then covered, when dry, with another coating of the -same, we have what its inventor, LEHNEr, assures us is a very good -imitation of pearl-shell. - -But there is scaled away from a variety of shells a coating of _nacre_, -or coloured glaze, which when powdered still retains the pearly lustre. -This may be taken even from the common American oyster or all mussels. -According to ANDÉS, who refers, I think, to this, it can be laid on any -substance and covered with a gum-glaze. He also informs us that the -pearl-like inner layers of oyster-shells, or of any other kind, reduced -to powder and mixed with sturgeon’s bladder and spirits, painted on -grey paper in several coats, present the appearance of _nacre_. I have -seen specimens of such painting which were indeed very pretty, but -the pearly iridescence was rather faint. According to the author, the -pearly brilliancy is much increased by an addition of silver-bronze -powder. - -I conclude from this, not having in this instance experimented -personally, save in carving pearl, that coarse powders of the highly -coloured greenish and other _nacres_ of tropical shells, as well as -of the European mussel and some other shells, can be combined with -binding-gums of a transparent nature so as to form a very admirable -imitation of mother-of-pearl. - -I may here remark, in connection with this, that the common American -clam (_Venus mercernaria_) has a white shell of intense hardness, -which, when polished, is as beautiful as porcelain or ivory; also that -the purple spot in the American oyster-shell, from which the Indians -made a very hard and beautiful bead, might easily be drilled out for -buttons. - -A very beautiful imitation of mother-of-pearl is made in Japan. It is -not, however, iridescent. It is said to be made with rice. I conjecture -that this is rice treated with diluted acid. - -I have before me now a string of 400 imitation red _coral_ beads, price -twopence, such as are commonly sold everywhere. They are manufactured -of vermilion powder, rice-flour, and gum, and, when they are carefully -made, are extremely hard and durable, so much so that the composition -may be used to mend broken articles made of red coral. Such objects -in a fractured state are very common in curiosity shops, but the art -of repairing them seems to be as yet unknown, though it is extremely -profitable. - -Of coral, LEHNER tells us that celluloid in combination with different -substances--_e.g._, white zinc or cinnabar--can be coloured from -delicate rose to fiery vermilion, and forms a very close imitation -of coral. A very good and much cheaper imitation can be made by -preparing perfectly white paper-paste (_vide_ Papier-Mâché), and -combining it with vermilion, zinc, &c. From such artificial coral very -beautiful cups, plates, and ornaments for inlaying, beads, pendants -for jewellery, book-covers, &c., can easily be made. The colour can be -varied to turquoise, emerald, ebony, ivory, &c., by simply changing the -colouring-powders used. - -There is a very cheap and common imitation of coral made by dipping -vermicelli, twigs, &c., into a solution of red sealing-wax in spirits -of wine. This is, however, extremely brittle. White marble-dust, or -very fine white flint sand, combined with vermilion and silicate of -soda, is said to produce a very admirable imitation of coral. The -basis of levigated sand, or carbonate of lime, with silicate, can be -varied with the dyes to imitate any gems, and is invaluable for mending -pottery or stone-work. - -Coral and several other substances are also imitated by combining about -nine parts of very clear glue to one of glycerine. This is qualified -with one equivalent of white zinc or dye-stuffs. Thus the glue basis is -combined with colcothar, ochre-sepia, umber, ochre, or chrome. This is -also a valuable cement for mending a great variety of objects. - -Any fine white shells ground to powder may be combined with gum and -a very little glycerine and vermilion to make artificial coral; also -white glue or gelatine with glycerine. This may be made in quantity for -casts of all kinds of objects, such as plates in inlaid work. - - - - -RESTORING AND REPAIRING PICTURES - - - “_The restoration of disfigured and decayed works of art is next in - importance to their production._”--Field, Chromatography. - -I published in 1864 a work entitled _The Egyptian Sketch Book_, which -began with the following abridged account of how oil pictures are -cleaned:-- - -“Three young painters had often heard what the American PAGE has -proved, that by carefully peeling the pictures of certain great -artists, coat by coat, one may learn all their secrets of colour. So, -having obtained an undoubted Titian, representing the Holy Virgin, -they laid it on a table and proceeded to remove the outer varnish by -means of friction with the fingers; which varnish very soon rose up in -a cloud of white dust, and acted very much as a shower of snuff would -have done. - -“Then they arrived at the ‘naked colours,’ which had by this time -assumed a very crude form, owing to the fact that a certain amount of -liquorish tincture, as of Turkey rhubarb, or _tinct. rhabarbara_, had -become incorporated with the varnish, and to which the colours had been -indebted for their golden warmth. - -“This brought them to the _glazing proper_, which had been deprived of -the evidence of the age or antiquity by the removal of the _patinæ_, -or little cups, which had formed in the canvas between the web and the -woof. - -“The next process was to remove the _glaze_ from the saffron robe, -composed of yellow lake and burnt sienna. This brought them to a flame -colour, in which the _modelling_ had been made. They next attacked the -robe of the Virgin Mary, and having taken away the crimson lake, were -astonished to find a greenish drab. When they had thus in turn removed -every colour in the picture, dissecting every part by diligent care, -loosening every glaze by solvents too numerous to mention--including -alcohol and various adaptations of alkali--they had the ineffable -satisfaction of seeing the _design_ in a condition of crude, blank -chiaroscuro. Blinded by enthusiasm, having made careful notes of all -they had done, they flew at the white and black with pumice-stone and -potash; when, lo and behold! something very rubicund appeared, which -further excavation declared was the tip of the red--nose of King George -the Fourth! The Titian for which they had sacrificed so much was a -false god.” - -The foregoing extracts were dictated by the late HENRY MERRITT, a very -distinguished restorer and artist, the author of _Pictures and Art -separated in the Works of the Old Masters_, and other works of which I -can truly say that the name MERRITT indicates that _nomen est omen_. I -was often by him while at his work, and had the benefit of seeing the -processes employed and the progress which he made in bringing to light -the “buried beauties” of pictures by great artists. What I have since -learned in addition will be found in the following pages. - -Though it is simple and easy to describe the manner in which old -pictures in general are restored, it must be borne in mind that, as -regards a detailed and comprehensive description, the task would be the -most difficult in the whole range of repairing; for when a picture has -suffered so much that repainting is absolutely necessary, then nothing -but the skill of the original artist himself would ever do full justice -to it. In many cases we have pictures, like decayed works in wood, so -far gone that only a mere hint or sketch of the original remains, so -that they are generally deemed not worth keeping. In such cases the -restorer or repairer may very well do his best. There is, and always -will be, an immense field for every skilled repairer in this remaking -of antiques, to great profit, because there is an unlimited supply of -material, almost everywhere, wherewith to work. - -To be a perfectly accomplished restorer of pictures one should be -an expert in chemistry, and not only one very familiar with all the -styles and schools of art, and gifted with great knowledge of the -_technique_ of great artists, but also no mean painter oneself. There -is a very general, but very vulgar and stupid, popular belief that the -restoration and cleaning of old pictures is a merely mechanical art, -about on a par with house-painting as regards skill or intelligence; -but this I earnestly deny, having found, since I have practised it -myself, that it affords a wide field to ingenuity, and that the -greatest artists living--I care not who they may be--can find in -restoration tasks which would fully tax all their skill, knowledge, or -genius. - -Before proceeding to clean or repair a picture it is often advisable -for the artist to make an outline sketch of it with great care, in -order to correct and guide him in details. To do this, take very -transparent tracing-paper--the recipe for making which is elsewhere -given--then with a soft crayon-pencil, or a very black lead-pencil -(from 3 to 4 B), trace the whole. If the paper be not transparent -enough, then use thin glass, or, what is far better, sheets of mica, -gummed together at the edges, which will not break even if dropped. -Trace the picture on this with a fine brush and black oil-colour, or -any black paint which will hold. Then make a tracing from this on -transparent paper. To transfer crayon or lead pencil drawing to wood or -paper, very slightly dampen the surface of the latter, lay the tracing -on it face down, and rub the back of the latter with a burnisher or -ivory paper-knife. It will thus be perfectly transferred. This making -preparatory sketches or copies will be found in many cases extremely -useful, as training the eye carefully to the work to be done. - -It is not _invariably_ true, though a great authority on -picture-cleaning (HENRY MOGFORD) has declared the contrary--that -“pictures ... unquestionably enjoy their highest perfection at the -first moment of production.” Many artists recognise the truth that a -year, or even years, are needed to give a certain delicate tone, which -is like the ripeness of fruit, to certain pictures; and the same is -true of certain artists, though by no means in the same degree of all. -But there are many persons who can associate the mellowing tones of -age or the venerable grey of antiquity with nothing but dirt, decay, -and poverty; as was the case with an Italian marquis, who, having heard -that a distinguished artist[4] had copied an old moss-grown wall or -fragment of ruin on his estate, sent an apology to the latter, stating -that if he had known that such a distinguished person intended to copy -it he would have had it cleaned and lime-washed, not in glaring white -(he knew better than that, he said), but in light blue! So I have known -an American gentleman to be distressed at discovering the appearance -of lichen on a corner of a “spick-and-span, brand-new villa,” which -he at once declared must be cleaned and painted all over. People who -suffer from this vulgar mania of over-scouring are apt to imagine -that when they detect the least sign of age in a picture it suggests -dirt and neglect, and hurry it off to the cleaner; unless, indeed (as -is too often the case), they--with insufficient knowledge, and with -“notions generally derived from guess-work, and suggested by the usual -arrangements for taking care of other household objects”--attempt to -restore the work themselves, which has been the cause of the ruin of -thousands of great works of art. - -It may here be observed that modern pictures, owing to the hurried -processes of manufacture and the use of cheap materials in -machinery-made paints, change so rapidly that many lose half their -value in fifty years’ time. And, as if this were not enough, we -have the sulphuric acids generated by coal-fires (especially that -from anthracite coal in America, which even eats away the lime in -chimneys), as well as the deleterious effects of gas, vapours from -food, and, finally, the want of air and light in ever-curtained and -shaded rooms. - -The causes, in fact, which lead to deterioration in pictures are -almost as many as those which produce diseases in man, and in not a -few instances they will be found to be the same. These are, as I have -said, foul air or malaria, or want of fresh air, dampness, the smoke -of candles in churches, too long exposure to sunshine, the exhalations -of charcoal, sulphur, sinks, &c.; “in short, all penetrating scents -are injurious to painting, especially if it be new.” Owing to this -prevalence of gas and coal smoke in houses, allied to the bad quality -of paints, as now manufactured cheaply by machinery, it is, indeed, -considered doubtful whether any of the pictures painted during the -reign of Queen Victoria will exist in “half-visible” condition fifty or -a hundred years hence. There is, as regards them, a grand future for -the restorer. One need only look at most of Turner’s earlier pictures -to fully verify what is here asserted. - -The face of all old pictures long untouched will always be found -covered more or less with what is simply dirt; that is, dust more or -less dissolved by moisture. Now, dust consists simply of all kinds of -substances, even invisible extinct animal organisms in vast numbers. -The first step is simply to wash away this dirt with distilled or rain -water and ox-gall. Use a very soft, clean sponge, and pass it over the -picture many times. The last time wrap the sponge in a clean, white -linen or muslin handkerchief to see whether the surface is quite clean. -This and nothing more will often produce an astonishing improvement. - -The next task will be to remove the varnish. _Hot_ water attacks any -varnish, reducing it to a dry powder; but, as M. GOUPIL remarks, this -is _très hasarde_, or is very risky, because it may also attack and -dissolve anything like gum or glue in the colours. M. GOUPIL, however, -sanctions the use of cold water in cleaning even to mere abuse, in -which he is in contradiction to HENRY MOGFORD, whose work I regard as -by far the best with which I am acquainted on the subject of cleaning -and restoring pictures which I have read.[5] On this subject he says:-- - - * * * * * - -“During all operations of lining, and of picture-cleaning generally, -saturation by water is attended with disastrous effects, and the -use of it should therefore be limited to application by means of a -squeezed piece of sponge, or, what is better, a piece of buff leather, -soaked and wrung out. Water is a most dangerous enemy to pictures; -it penetrates to the priming or ground, loosens them by promoting -decomposition of the size with which they are worked, and thus lays the -foundation for their eventual disintegration and decay. Imbibed damp -will sooner or later cause the destruction of every woven material, and -while our daily experience shows its lamentable effects on the walls of -our dwellings, it will be well for us to remember that it is no less -destructive to the canvas of our pictures, and to the materials which -form its priming. - -“All the pictures of the early masters of the Italian school, and -those of Claude and William Vandervelde, which are painted on chalk -and absorbent grounds, are in the greatest danger if washed with -water. It penetrates through the small crevices which may exist in the -paint, and often totally destroys the picture. If the painting be upon -canvas, like those of the two latter-named masters, it breaks into a -thousand small lines or cracks; and if upon panel, like the pictures of -Raffaelle, Andrea del Sarto, or Fra Bartolomeo, it breaks up the paint -by scaling it off in small points of the size of a pin’s head. If the -picture, again, is of the Spanish school, and is painted upon the red -absorbent grounds and upon a rough canvas, water not only breaks the -unity of its surface, but from the canvas being of a coarser texture -than the pictures of Claude or William Vandervelde, it often penetrates -in a greater proportion, and frequently scales off pieces as large as a -sixpence, especially in the dark shadows, or where the ground has not -been sufficiently protected by a thick _impasto_ (heavy coat or ground) -of colour. At all times and to all pictures water is more or less -dangerous, unless used with the greatest caution, and then it should -only be applied by means of a piece of thick buckskin leather well -wrung out, and left just wet enough to slip lightly over the surface -of the picture. In the case of some masters, as with those we have -specialised above, the free use of water may be regarded as next door -to absolute destruction; and the warmer and drier the weather the more -active and ruinous the operation. Instances have occurred in which an -Andrea del Sarto, a Claude and a William Vandervelde, were destroyed in -a few minutes by the injudicious use of simple water.” - - * * * * * - -I have given this quotation in full, because water is generally the -first thing freely resorted to clean pictures by the ignorant. Thus I -have heard of very valuable pictures being actually given to common -servants or the washerwoman to scour clean, which was effected -with soap and hot water and sand, to the speedy ruin of the work. -Nor is it any great wonder that this should be done, when we find -in GOUPIL’S work that, while he admits that cold water “infiltrates -itself partially to the fissures of a painting and does great harm,” -he declares that “_hot_ water acts differently,” giving the impression -that it may be very freely used, and declaring that “clean cold water -harmlessly dissolves grease and dirt resulting from dust deposited by -the air.” This is true, but he does not seem, like Mr. MOGFORD, to have -fully understood the other side of the question. (_Manuel Général et -Complet de la Peinture à l’Huile_, par F. GOUPIL.) - -For first cleaning away impurities from a surface MOGFORD recommends -_ox-gall_ to be applied with a soft brush. This may be obtained in -shilling or six-penny bottles from Winsor & Newton, or any other -dealers in artists’ materials. “It is,” he adds, “an excellent -detergent, which may be freely applied without fear. It must, however, -be well washed” (_i.e._, wiped) “off with pure water, or it will leave -a clamminess on the surface that may prevent the varnish, afterwards -applied, from drying.” But a distinction must be carefully borne in -mind between _washing_ with water and letting it _soak_ into a picture -and simply wiping off the surface with a damp chamois or buckskin -or soft _old_ linen handkerchief. In fact, this latter is the first -thing to be done before slightly cleaning the surface with the diluted -ox-gall. It is very necessary that the skilled cleaner shall understand -exactly the nature of varnishes, so as to know on what he is to work. -Thus, according to the picture, he may employ “liquor potassæ, oil of -tartar, spirits of wine, pure alcohol, liquor ammoniæ fortis, naphtha, -ether, soda, and oil of spike or lavender. The very nomenclature of -these powerful agents will at once show the great risk of their being -injudiciously or carelessly employed.” - -Great care should be taken not to allow an excessive or unequal -quantity of cleaning fluid to gather in one place. Therefore all -pictures should be laid flat while being restored, as streams, for -instance of ammonia, would cut very irregularly into a surface. -With pictures of any value, the process of cleaning is always very -delicate, requiring much practice and very perfect knowledge of all the -principles of the art. - -Where the varnishes are tender and thin, such as mastic, MOGFORD -advises the use of spirits of wine; but to be sure that no harm can be -done by it, it is desirable that “the spirit, which is usually sold -at 58° of strength, should be diluted by a fourth part of water, or -by the same proportion of rectified spirits of turpentine, or it may -be used with an addition of a sixth part of linseed oil, added to the -diluted or pure spirit.” In every instance the mixture is to be “well -shaken before taken,” or applied. Care should be taken to prevent oil -from softening the paint, which it is apt to do. As a rule it is best -to begin with the lightest or brightest portions of a picture--as, -for instance, the face of a portrait--as these parts are always the -hardest. Beginning by wiping the surface with white cotton wool and -turpentine, observe if any varnish comes off on it, and as soon as it -is seen change the part of the rubber used, else you will go on simply -taking up “dirt” from one place and rubbing it into another. This is -elsewhere explained as regards cleaning cloth or absorbing ink, that we -must continually subtract from and not add again to the ground. - -“Turpentine is a counteracting medium, which instantly arrests the -action of the solvent spirit.” When all the varnish has thus been -removed, the whole may be wiped over with spirits of turpentine, and -then when dry revarnished, if nothing more be required. - -Rubbing with the fingers, or powders, or any kind of dry cleaning must -be avoided, or else practised with great care, since it produces an -effect known as _woolliness_, which will begin to show very decidedly -after some time. But when a picture has had no varnish it can only be -cleaned mechanically, as by using tripoli, pumice-stone, or whiting. -This method requires great skill. Sometimes a very fine-edged scraper -or knife is used to thin the varnish before using turpentine. - -“Solvents,” adds Mogford, “are only necessary to remove _varnish_.” -Unvarnished pictures are best cleaned by carefully wiping with buff or -chamois leather, damp, not _wet_, aided by a little powdered whiting. - -Varnish, when not on a picture, may, however, be removed by rubbing -it with the fingers, or palm, or leather, aided by powdered resin, or -rosin. For certain purposes, as to make a panel of a piano thoroughly -seasoned for heat, and, as it were, enamel it, a coat of varnish is -applied, and when dry is rubbed down smooth with pumice-powder or -resin, and this process is repeated many times. - -If pictures are painted in oil, directly on canvas, without a ground, -the paint sinks down in between the threads and lies thinly on them. -Therefore if there is rubbing on the surface the grain of the canvas -becomes very apparent. If oil-paint be laid directly on a panel of -wood, the soft parts between the hard fibres, lines, or grain shrink -away, drawing the paint with them. Old artists avoided this by laying -on a strong ground of gesso or plaster of Paris mixed with glue or -white of eggs. - -The great task in cleaning is to remove the repainting or coats of -paint which have been added by restorers. I have seen this done with -extraordinary skill by the late Mr. MERRITT, who was recommended by -RUSKIN, and who was the first and most truly artistic restorer of his -time. I can recall his cleaning the most beautiful Carpoccio which I -ever saw, and a magnificent Velasquez, both of which had been repainted -again and again, and were in such wretched condition that even the -painter of the latter had been mistaken. They bore about the same -relation when untouched and afterwards that a dirty old rag has to a -magnificent cashmere shawl. “Caustic, soap-makers’ lye, liquor potassæ, -pure alcohol, and the scraper,” remarks MOGFORD, “are the ordinary -means to take off repaints; all of them dangerous appliances if not -closely watched and used without violence or carelessness.” - -It is advisable to examine carefully the backs of old pictures for -signatures, date, or documents, all of which are sometimes pasted over -with other paper or canvas. Once, in Florence, I found in a small shop -a portrait of Charles I., but differing in many respects from any -which I had ever seen. I told the owner that it was by Vandyke, but -he insisted on it that it was by an Italian with some such name as -Guillermo or Gillonio, till I proposed that we should examine the back, -where we found, after some investigation, the name of Vandyke. At which -discovery the dealer promptly raised the price of the picture from one -hundred to one thousand francs, and it was, indeed, cheap enough at -that. A lady to whom I narrated the occurrence said, “Oh, why didn’t -you buy the picture before you told the man who painted it?” To which I -replied, “For the same reason that I did not steal a valuable ring out -of the case in the shop when his back was turned.” Much is said about -the shrewdness of dealers in antiques, but it has often happened to me -to explain to them that articles in their possession were worth far -more than they imagined; while, on the other hand, they will, surmising -that a thing _may_ be worth a great deal, charge a fearful sum for -something that is merely _cinque cento_; _e.g._, a thousand francs for -what is really dear at ten. I mention this in order that the reader may -realise (which few do) what bargains may be picked up by any one who -knows anything of art, and especially of the humble art of cleaning, -mending, or restoring, which lets us into a world of secrets even in -high art, and which is of more use to a picture-buyer than all the -high-flown æsthetic culture in all the works of all the rhapsodists of -the age. - -The preceding remarks on _cleaning_ were drawn chiefly from the manual -by H. MOGFORD, and my own experiences. I add to them those of M. GOUPIL -on the same subject. The intelligent leader will find no difficulty in -collecting and drawing his own inferences from both:-- - -“When the picture is certainly in oil, steam may be used to remove the -varnish. There is, however, the great risk of loosening the painting -from its ground.” - -But when a picture has been, instead of varnished, _glazed_ with white -of egg, we have a coating which, when old, cannot be dissolved by -water or acids; for this other and specially elaborate detergents, or -cleaners, are employed. There are few substances which so persistently -harden with time as the white of egg, as does also the yolk when boiled. - -Ordinary varnish, when dry and old, can be removed by mechanically -scraping or rubbing with fine, dry powders, such as that of resin. The -dust from the varnish itself aids in the operation. This process is -slow and tiresome, but it is very often advisable to begin with it, -after washing, as it does not injure the colours. It is needless to say -that it requires great skill, care, and experience not to “cut into the -colour.” - -It may be remarked, as regards this, that in all cases where there is a -difference of opinion between the French and English artist--as in the -use of water--we must remember that both are, or may be, in the right -as regards certain kinds of pictures. So varied are the methods of -painters that it seems to me to be by far wiser to describe different -methods than to attempt the impossible task of giving infallible rules. - -“Varnish can be removed by means of _spirits_. To effect this, lay the -picture on a table, and wet a small portion of it with spirits of -wine. After a minute or more, wash the place with clean water and a -sponge. Thus, little by little, clean the entire surface, taking care -not to injure the paint, When quite dry, apply new varnish.” - -Practised restorers, who can tell by examination and knowledge of -the methods employed by painters what they can venture on, often use -detergents which would ruin the picture if applied by a person without -experience. These are alkaline salts, such as wood-ashes or lye, pearl -and pot ashes, or salts of tartar, all of which, except the latter, are -extremely hazardous for a tyro. Salts of tartar may be safely employed -if we begin with a feeble solution, which may be gradually strengthened. - -Wood-ashes, _very_ finely sifted, are spread on the face of the -picture, and delicately, or carefully and lightly, rubbed with a soft -sponge. This must be carefully washed away as soon as the surface is -cleaned. - -Other detergents failing, borax dissolved in water may be employed. -This works slowly but surely; but, as M. GOUPIL remarks, this -_lessive_, like wood ashes, must not be left long on the colours, but -be promptly wiped away with a sponge. Lime-water will serve as well as -the solution of borax. - -Soaps of different qualities are also used for cleaning, according to -the state of the picture. It may be here again remarked that no exact -rule can be given regarding an art specially founded on skill and -experience. The beginner should first try his hand on a few common old -pictures. - -Soap made into a foam or lather with water will generally clean -a surface, however dark it may be from smoke. Let the foam settle -completely, and then wipe it clean with a damp sponge. - -Essential oils, especially turpentine, or those of spikenard, lavender, -and rosemary--of either two parts of spirits of wine to one of -turpentine, &c.--are commonly used to clean pictures. - -Pictures not varnished require great care and skill in cleaning. For -these _yeast_ with water, or flour mixed with lime-water, is employed; -also spirits of wine or vinegar. Ammonia is also used. GOUPIL mentions -that one of the most dangerous mediums for this purpose is the old one -of urine, and that it should never be used. - -When the canvas of a picture is very old and rotten, it may be replaced -by a process requiring the utmost nicety. If only certain portions are -injured, it will suffice to glue pieces of fine canvas on the back. - -To completely transfer the painting, gum over its surface two coats of -soft paper. Lay it on the face, and carefully remove the old canvas -ground. This is effected by wetting every thread till soft, and then -picking it away. A piece of pumice-stone and tweezers are also used. -When all fibres are removed, carefully glue a canvas and apply it, -pressing it well on the back of the paint. Before it is quite dry, -press the picture with a warm flat-iron, not too hot. Then remove the -paper carefully with a damp sponge and by tearing. - -To transfer a picture on wood, the back is sawn into many small -triangles or squares, which are carefully chiselled away one by one. -Then with files and scrapers approach the paint till only a thin film -of wood remains. The last remnant is wetted with a sponge, and picked -or scraped away. First, use paper on the face and restore as before. - -There is a great enemy to pictures in mould or mildew, which has -quasi-equivalents in must, dry-rot, _mucor_, or _robigo_. It is divided -by Goupil into apparent softening and actual softening or mildew. The -former is mildew or mere superficial mould; _i.e._, a light vegetation -which gathers on the surface from germs in the air. It can easily be -wiped away, and is caused by dampness. Sometimes, when long rooted, it -destroys the varnish, which must be replaced. There is also a mould -which is properly decay, or a radical destruction of fabric, for which -there is, in fact, no cure, save in renewing the canvas and retouching -the picture. - -Where a picture is painted by glazing, especially where varnish comes -in instead of body, it is apt to crack or thread like a cobweb. In time -these divisions will scale off in flakes. Wax dissolved in turpentine -is used for the light cracks. Scaling must be treated by careful -softening with oil and pressing down a warm iron. The surface must, -previous to ironing, be covered with chalked paper. - -It sometimes happens that a picture has been painted over, and I have -seen a very distinguished restorer in such case succeed in removing the -outer coat. This requires great knowledge of the chemical properties -of the paint; also of solvents, and the different methods of scraping, -absorbing, &c. Still, it can be learned with patience. Extraordinary -results have been thus obtained. It has often happened that men with -little or no knowledge of painting have fancied themselves capable of -“repairing” very valuable pictures, and so smeared them over to utter -ruin. - -Before attempting to retouch an old picture, let the restorer make a -copy of it. If he can do this very well he is qualified for his work, -and not otherwise. The fraternity of picture-cleaners and menders -may protest against this; but the vast amount--I may say the vast -proportion, meaning the majority--of good pictures spoiled by bad -retouching confirms the truth of my assertion. - -It is worth remarking in this connection that very few amateurs, -æsthetes, or “connoisseurs,” so called, appreciate the value of mere -_technique_ or practical work in art. They “swarm for the ideal,” and -that is all. The great masters were wiser than this. It would do much -good if very generous prizes on a large scale were to be paid annually -for copies of great pictures. And I would have rewards given specially -for pictures painted with colours prepared by the artists themselves -from chemically pure and unalterable materials, according to the -ancient recipes. I would like to see a society formed of artists who -would produce such work. It would certainly find buyers--in time. - -There are to be found in most curiosity shops in Italy panel pictures -of the fourteenth century, earlier or later, with gold grounds, which -can be had of all prices, from a very few francs upward. They are -without name and of no great artistic merit, but very curious and -interesting indeed as ancient relics painted “before oil,” and as -inspired with the spirit of the Middle Ages. These generally require -restoration. They were painted on wood of all kinds, very often on -deal. The surface was covered with a thin coat of gesso or plaster -of Paris, mixed with the white of egg, and on this the gilding and -paint were applied. The latter was in white of egg and fig-juice, or -encaustic--that is, wax and white of egg, which is the most ancient and -durable method known; so much so that long after every oil-painting -ever executed (if left to itself) will have disappeared, the ancient -Egyptian, Roman, or Middle Ages pictures will be as fresh as if made -yesterday. - -If a panel be warped or bent, it is straightened by damping the concave -side, and screwing to it crosspieces. If the ground be scaled away, -supply it with powdered plaster of Paris mixed with gum-water. The -repainting can be executed with water-colours mixed with white of egg, -_gouache_, or even oil in small quantities, which should be rather -rubbed in or glazed than painted in body. - -A common panel picture of the fourteenth and fifteenth century, painted -with white of egg, can be well enough restored with water-colour, or -_gouache_, and then varnished. But the colour with _gouache_ medium -will not _hold_ well, except on the gesso-ground. It is apt to scale -off from any smooth, hard surface. Therefore it is difficult to restore -them by painting on the old hard glaze. Most of the mediums which -are sold to heighten water-colours--_e.g._, Winsor & Newton’s glass -medium--will cause the colour to adhere. - -A GROUND FOR WAX-PAINTING ON POROUS SUBSTANCES was made as follows:-- - - White wax 10 - Resin 5 - Essence of turpentine 40 - -Melt the wax in a _bain-marie_, pass the solution through a linen -strainer, and lay it on in successive coats on a wall which is first -heated by a hand-furnace or brazier. To close holes in the wall use a -putty made of wax, gum-animé, resin, and whiting. - -Colours are prepared for wax-painting by grinding them with a -gluten. They are the same in substance as those mixed with oil for -oil-painting. The gluten is made as follows:-- - - Resin 1 - White wax 4 - Essence of spikenard 16 - -A harder gluten can be made by substituting copal for the gum-animé. - -There is a vast field for profitable labour in the cleaning and -restoration of old pictures, as well as of antiques of all kinds, and -thousands of young or even elder artists, whose life is a painful -struggle towards becoming known, would do well to endeavour to raise -the art of restoration to its proper place, instead of being ashamed to -descend to it. - -The restorer should make a point of studying _varnishes, oils, and -colours_, with great care. Let him read what cyclopædia articles and -books he can find on these subjects, and make all practical inquiries -from manufacturers and dealers. He should, if he intends to seriously -practise the art, study chemistry. I can imagine no better restorer -than a skilful analyst. There is a great deal yet to be learned -regarding colours, and most of it will come by the way of chemistry. -A great deal is, however, actually being revived or arriving as new -from training “the popular eye” to hitherto unaccustomed shades, tints, -and tones. During the Middle Ages, when culture was exhausted in art -and decoration, there was a marvellous development in this respect, -even in most delicate details, though much of it now seems so “loud” -or excessive to us. We have of late years learned a great deal from -China and Japan as regards subdued colours. It may be that as in -Oriental music even the tenth part of a note becomes as distinct to the -practised ear as a natural one, so these blendings and subdivisions of -hues may be as perceptible to people as the normal colours. All of this -should be carefully studied by the restorer as well as the painter. - -The restoration of a fine work of art which has become utterly dim, -wrinkled with a thousand lines, and, it may be, utterly ugly to beauty -and freshness, is so much like a resurrection or transfiguration to -new life, youth, and beauty, that poets have not failed to use it as -a simile for all that is expressive of renaissance. Thus Dean Hole, -in his Memoirs, remarks that, “as when some beautiful picture which -has been concealed and forgotten, removed in time of battle lest it -should be destroyed by the enemy, is found after many years, and is -carefully cleaned and skilfully restored, and the eye is delighted with -the successive development of colour and of form, and the life-like -countenance, the historical scene, the sunny landscape, or the moonlit -sea come out once more upon the canvas; so in that great revival of -religion which began in England more than half a century ago the -glorious truths of the Gospel were restored.” Regarded in itself, the -art of restoring beauty is both beautiful and noble, and deserves to be -regarded as such. - - - - -GENERAL RECIPES - - - RECIPE.--_The word. A formula or prescription is a_ recipe, - _derived from the Latin word_ recipe, _meaning take. An - acknowledgment of money paid is a_ receipt_, from_ receptus, _or - received. A description of the materials to be used in making a pie - is not a_ receipt, _but a_ recipe.--Familiar Errors. - -TO CLEAN WOOLLEN CLOTH.--Rub it with sal-ammoniac and water till clean, -then wash with pure water. This liquid is very useful, when any article -of clothing has been stained by vinegar, wine, or lemon, to restore the -original colour. - -An old-fashioned but excellent method of cleaning greased silk ribbons -or cloth is as follows:--Lay the ribbon on a wad or flat surface -of cotton wadding, strew on this dried clay, or calcined magnesia, -or whiting, and over this another layer of wadding. Pass over it a -flat-iron not too warm. The oil or grease will be absorbed into the -cotton. Repeat this till the cure is effected. If any spots still -remain, paint them with yolk of egg, dry the stuff in a draught of air, -and when quite hardened remove the yoke and wash with water. - -WINE-STAINS can be removed by simply _pressing_ on them pads dampened -with cold water. This method will succeed, when wiping only spreads a -stain. Salt alone is also employed. - -“When a lady’s skirt of any material has had spilt on it gravy, wine, -oil, or any _light liquid_, as distinguished from such substances as -paint, pitch, or tar, do not attempt, as is usually the case, to wipe -or wash it clean. Lay a linen sheet or even spongy white paper--wanting -this, newspapers may be used--on a table; on this spread the soiled -fabric very evenly. Then lay on the upper surface another clean white -sheet, or white muslin cloth, or napkins or towels, and press on it -till as much as possible of the fluid is sucked out. By changing -the white cloths or paper, and pressing continually, the fabric can -be very nearly cleaned. Then dust it well with calcined magnesia in -powder or whiting. Where these cannot be had chalk will answer. This -will generally absorb all that remains of the grease.”--_Notes by a -Housekeeper (MS.)._ - -“Clean, dry blotting-paper laid on grease-stains is admirable for -extraction. Apply pressure with a flat-iron or hand-roller such as is -used for bread. There are blotting-paper rollers, made for ink, which -are quite suitable for cleaning cloth; but the paper should be thrown -away the instant it has received any grease; otherwise it will only -spread the stain and make it indelible by rubbing it into the fibre of -the threads. A good soft sponge will also be found to be almost equal -to it.”--_Notes by a Housekeeper (MS.)._ - -OLD WOOLLEN OR SILK GARMENTS can be very brilliantly renewed in -the following manner:--They are steeped in sulphuric cupreous acid -(copper or blue vitriol), oxide of lead, or bismuth oxide, or simply -with their metallic oxides, and then exposed to steam, mingled with -sulphuric acid gas. Another method is to steep the stuffs simply in -a solution of sulphuric acid and copper or of oxide of bismuth. This -is slowly heated, but the heating must be qualified according to the -colour of the stuffs to be revived. The application of these requires -great care and some knowledge or experience. - -Ink for restoring inscriptions on metal of any kind, silver, zinc, or -brass:--To one part of crystallised acetic acid, oxide of copper, one -of ammonia, and half a part of soot from fir wood. Mix in a saucer with -ten parts of water. This is said to resist exposure to the weather very -well. - -A VERY VALUABLE AID TO THE RESTORER OR MENDER OF IMPLEMENTS, when it -can be obtained, is RAW HIDE. This material dries as hard as any wood -and is tougher than any textile fabric. Thus, if a broken wheel or any -portion of a vehicle is tied with a thong of raw hide, firmly drawn, -when the latter dries, shrinking a little, it holds better than iron. -Raw or untanned ox-hide or similar skin, when dried, is in fact similar -to parchment, and, like it, resembles horn in hardness. The strongest -trunks in the world are made in America from raw hide. This material, -when made into small objects, such as flasks, boxes, sheaths, or -portable ink-stands, has often withstood the wear of generations. As it -is cheap, easily moulded into form, or stamped, it is remarkable that -it is no longer used as it once was. - -LEAD-PENCIL OR CRAYON DRAWINGS can be preserved from rubbing by a light -wash of gum of any kind, diluted varnish, or even milk. The latter is -in most cases preferable. It is also preservative of handwriting, and, -like all glazes, prevents fading. - -BASES FOR BEADS and similar work can be made as follows:--Take -mother-of-pearl dust, which can be bought cheaply at a turner’s, -powder or levigate it finely, mix it with half its bulk of fine white -barley-meal, and make it up with a weak solution of gum-mastic. Also -take snail-shells, or the glaze of any large, hard sea-shells, washing -them first in strong lye to clean them. Pulverise and make up with -yolk of eggs and alum, or any other fine binder. The same can be done -with rock-crystal or pure flint. Grind it to finest powder, and make -it up with a well-incorporated mixture of the white of eggs and pure -gum-arabic. This will, when dry, become hard as a stone, and more and -more waterproof with age. - -TO PULVERISE GLASS.--First put in the fire till red-hot, then drop it -into cold water, after which reduce it in a mortar. Glass-powder thus -made, mixed with almost any cement, renders it extremely hard. It is -also mixed with paint. - -BURNISHED STEEL OR IRON-WORK can be preserved from rusting by rubbing -the article with oil of cloves or oil of lavender; also with a mixture -of turpentine, oil of lavender or cloves, and petroleum. Mercurial -ointment is commonly used for guns. - -RUST can be removed from iron by rubbing it with oil of tartar (_oleum -tartari_), using a woollen rag. - -BRASS-WARE, when it has become dull or rusty, may be renewed and made -to look like gold. Take sal-ammoniac, grind it in a mortar with saliva; -rub this on the brass; lay it on hot coals to dry it well, and tub it -with a woollen cloth. So says JOHANN WALLBERGER; adding: “With this -art a certain man did once, in Rome, gain much money, inasmuch as he -thereby did clean the brass lamps of the churches and other things of -the same metal.” There is another preparation for the same purpose -still more gold-like. It consists of sulphur, chalk, and the soot from -wood fires. But as it soon disappears, the brass should be lackered or -varnished. - -THE BEST CLEANER FOR BRASS with which I am acquainted is a German -preparation used by BARKENTIN & KRALL, Regent Street, from whom it can -also be obtained. - -A VERY STRONG CEMENT, and one good for luting, can be made by combining -sturgeon’s bladder, dissolved in spirits, with finest pulverised flint -or sand. - -GLUE, into which resin has been well infused by heat, combined with -sand or ashes or clay, forms a strong cement, useful for all kinds of -coarse work. - -A VERY GOOD, STRONG CEMENT is made as follows:--To three-eighths of a -pound of water add three-eighths of a pound of spirits and a quarter -of a pound of starch; also, prepare two ounces of good glue in water, -mixed with two ounces of thick turpentine, and stir well into the first -composition. This is a very good bookbinders’ glue. - -THE TUFA OR SOFT STONE which abounds in Italy and elsewhere is much -used when reduced to powder and burned for building. It is also useful -as a cement. An old writer says it can be brayed in a mortar, but that -“there are many who, for lack of a mortar, take old baptismal fonts out -of the churches, and in lieu of a pestle use the clapper of a church -bell.” - -A CURIOUS DECORATION may be made by drawing figures--for example, of -animals--with glue or gum on a wall surface, and then powdering it with -cloth-dust of appropriate colours. These figures can be stencilled. - -As of all repairing and restoring that of _human beauty_ is the most -important, it may be worth while to give here a few recipes, which have -held their own for centuries:-- - -TO MAKE WRINKLES AND FRECKLES DISAPPEAR.--This is more possible than is -generally supposed, and I have known a lady, a great beauty, of whom -all my readers have heard, who at fifty years of age had artificially -and miraculously preserved her face in perfect smoothness, though I do -not know by what means. The following is given by WALLBERGER:--“Take -fine, pure alum, compound it carefully with the fresh white of eggs, -and boil it gently in a pipkin, stirring it constantly with a wooden -stick or spoon till it forms a soft paste. Spread this on the face, -morning and evening, for two or three days, and you will soon see -that it is free from wrinkles and freckles, and marvellously fair and -pleasant to view. Frivolous souls may carry the sinful misuse of such -beauty to their own account; the virtuous hold in horror all such -deeds” (_Zauberbuch_, 1760). - -LEMON-JUICE or the salts of lemon, or lemon-juice and salt, are of -great service in whitening the hands and causing freckles to disappear. - -GUM-BENZOIN DISSOLVED IN SPIRITS may be had of every apothecary. Pour -a few drops into a wine-glassful of warm water, and it will form a -milk-white emulsion, which is a perfect and harmless cosmetic for the -face, and serves as a delightful soap in washing. This is the _lac -virginis_ so much used two centuries ago. - -EAU DE COLOGNE mixed with water forms a white emulsion, which is much -superior to any soap for delicate hands. It forms a perfectly harmless -cosmetic for the face. Even a few drops of it in a basin of water -will have a good result. Too much of it, or of any wash, will have a -contrary effect, and dry the skin. If the mouth be rinsed with this -emulsion of _eau de cologne_ and water, it will purify the breath, and -that for a long time if used as a gargle. - -A STRONG MARKING-INK, or black dye, which will resist much exposure -to the weather, is made as follows:--Take gum-arabic 10 lbs., logwood -liquor (specific gravity 1.37) 20 fluid oz., bi-chromate of potash 2½ -oz., with water sufficient to dissolve the bi-chromate. Dissolve the -gum in one gallon of water, strain, add the logwood liquor, mix, and -let the mixture stand for twenty-four hours; then stir in rapidly the -bi-chromate solution, and add a little nitrate of iron and fustic acid. -If too thick, thin with lukewarm water. - -A VERY HARD CEMENT can be made by digesting fluor spar for some time -in sulphuric acid, adding magnesium sulphate and stirring calcined -magnesia into the mixture. - -A RED CEMENT FOR IRON OR STONE OR LUTING is made of red lead and -litharge in equal parts mixed with concentrated glycerine to the -consistency of soft putty. When dry it is water and fire proof. - -SILICO ENAMEL is a thin liquid glaze, finer than varnish, which is -easily applied to all polished metals, as well as other substances. -It may be obtained in bottles, price one shilling, with brush, of the -Silico Enamel Company, 97 Hampstead Road, London, N.W. - -LIGHT-COLOURED GLOVES may be cleaned by rolling bread-crumb over them; -also with indiarubber. Also by means of benzine. Several patent washes -for this purpose are now sold. - -CLEANING MARBLE.--“If ‘Sculptor’ will get some salts of wormwood, -and dissolve in warm water, then mix with whiting into a moderate -paste, and apply to stone or marble, and let it remain upon either -for twenty-four hours--and if not successful the first time, apply -again--he will draw all stains out of marble, and clear all lichen -either from sandstones or oolitic stones. Thoroughly wash the stone -with a strong soap (say, of Hudson’s No. 2 soap powder) and lukewarm -water, and, when thoroughly dry, give a coat of sulphuretted oil. He -can make his own oil. Boil in a bath one quart of linseed-oil for one -hour, with half-a-pound of flower of sulphur gently and continually -stirring same; then take off fire and let cool; then pour oil from -sediment, using oil upon stone. No lichen will hurt his stone if out -exposed to the air, for the rain will wash all clean every time. I -have cleaned several statues with nothing but Hudson’s No. 2 and -water.”--_Work, April 2, 1892._ - -CALCINED MAGNESIA, or calcined and powdered bone, laid for some time on -simply oiled or greased marble, which has first been well washed with -soap and water, will often extract the stain. For ink use oxalic acid -in weak solution with water. - -GUM-DEXTRINE, or gum substitute, is made from roasted flour. It forms, -mixed with water, a gum not much inferior to gum-arabic, for which it -is, as the name denotes, a substitute. It is very extensively used in -many manufactures, and may be obtained of any chemist. It sometimes -happens that it is too brittle after drying, and does not hold. In such -case add four or five drops of glycerine to a teacupful of the dextrine -in solution. - -MOUTH GLUE (MUNDLEIM) OR SOLID CEMENT.--This is sold by stationers in -thin, flat sticks or tablets, and is used by wetting and rubbing it, -chiefly for paper. It is made as follows for labels:-- - - Sturgeon’s bladder 25 - Sugar 12 - Water 36 - Carbolic acid - -The sturgeon’s bladder is first dissolved, the sugar then added, also -a few drops of carbolic acid, which causes it to set more firmly, and -also to resist mould in dampness, induced by the presence of sugar. -This cement is applicable to glass, wood, or metal. Like the following, -it has the advantage of being always ready to use, and requires no -boiling. If it becomes too hard to use freely, let so much of it as is -required steep for a time in water. Many think, from merely dampening -it in the mouth when it is hard, and using it immediately, that it is -a very weak adhesive, which is a mistake. A great deal of that sold by -the stationers is, however, of very inferior quality, and made with -very common glue. - -MOUTH GLUE IN TABLETS:-- - - Transparent glue, No. 1 24 - Sugar 13 - Gum-arabic 5 - Water 50 - -The glue, sugar, and gum are boiled in the water until a drop let fall -on a slab hardens. It is then rolled and cut into flat cakes. - -TO MEND OR MAKE MEERSCHAUM PIPES.--Dissolve caseine in silicate of -soda; stir into the cement fine calcined magnesia. By the addition of -meerschaum powder a close imitation of meerschaum in the mass can be -made. - -TURKISH CEMENT of the strongest kind, and such as is used to attach -gems to metal, is made as follows:-- - - Sturgeon’s bladder cement 30 - Mastic (best) 2 - Gum-ammoniac 1 - Spirits of wine 10 - -The sturgeon’s bladder, shredded, is dissolved with spirits of wine -while remaining in a warm place; the gum is also dissolved in spirit -and mixed with the sturgeon’s bladder; the whole must be then carefully -and slowly boiled to a syrup. Close with a cork, as it is sure to gum -tightly. - -TO IMPROVE CORKS.--When bottles contain substances which adhere to -the _cork_ and _harden_, the latter should be first steeped in oil or -vaseline, or boiled in a mixture of both. - -ARMENIAN CEMENT.--This is much like Diamond and Turkish cements:-- - - I. - - Sturgeon’s bladder 600 - - II. - - Gum-ammoniac 6 - Mastic 60 - -The sturgeon’s bladder is dissolved in spirits of wine separately, the -gum-ammoniac and mastic also, but with a minimum of spirit; the two are -then combined. - -A cement which will resist the action of spirits of wine will often be -very valuable, as when large lids are to be fastened to jars containing -anatomical preparations. One is made as follows:-- - - Cleaned manganese powder 20 - Soluble silicate of soda 10 - -This must be freely used to make the cover adhere. When in time it -shall become brittle, coat it over with a thick solution of asphaltum -in turpentine or petroleum. - -TO SEAL BOTTLES very securely, roughen the opening or mouth with a file -or glass-paper, drive in a hard cork till half-an-inch below the top, -and then seal it with silicate of soda mixed with marble-dust. - -CHLORIDE OF ZINC added to silicate of soda and oxide of zinc forms a -very good cement, which will resist most influences. - -BREAD macerated with glue or gelatine, with a little glycerine, makes -an admirable substance for artificial flowers, casts, medallions, &c. -If worked with gum-arabic and a little alum, or dextrine, or common -mucilage, we shall have the same result. It can also be worked with -thin varnish or gutta-percha cement; also with diluted sulphuric or -nitric acids to produce a hard substance. It may here be observed that -_bread_ is for certain work far superior to flour or starch paste, -since the combination with _yeast_ causes a development of cellular -tissue, the result of which is a firmer and more wax-like substance. I -was led to observe this at first, not from what I read of the action -of acids on bread, but from observing the bread-flowers made by the -Italian peasantry to adorn images of saints. I believe that in these -there is a little vinegar mixed. They are quite wax-like. The bread -used should be soft household bread, of course well kneaded with -the acid and colours. Bread-paste would probably combine well with -indiarubber in solution. - -Of late, German illustrated newspapers have published patterns of small -ornamental dishes made of dough or bread, intended to receive conserves -of fruit and other edibles--the dishes themselves not being intended to -be eaten. - -Soft bread with a little varnish or any ordinary gum and a little -glycerine, well worked, makes an admirable filler for cracks in wood. -Combined with any gum, or even with tragacanth or peach or cherry -gum, and lamp-black (or liquid Indian ink), it forms a cement which -resembles ebony. The more thoroughly it is macerated the harder it -will be. Casts of panels, &c., made with this are really beautiful. -Rub with oil and the hand after it is quite dry. Add a few drops of -glycerine and alum in solution to prevent cracking, or, better, a -_little_ indiarubber. Soft rye bread hardens to a rather tougher -cement than wheat. Bread cement makes an admirable ground for gilding -or painting. Bread macerated with lime and white of egg forms a very -hard composition like ivory. Bread, glue, and glycerine, _ditto_. - -HORSE-CHESTNUT PASTE.--This is called a cement, but it is properly a -paste like that of flour. Horse-chestnuts are generally neglected, but -they can be profitably utilised for paste, which admits of the same -combinations as flour. - -WASTE TEA-LEAVES from which the tea has been extracted can be macerated -with gum and treated as rose-leaves to form artificial ebony. Carefully -separate all the hard portions. - -GUM FOR GENERAL USE, like gum-arabic:-- - - Common sugar, by weight 12 - Water 36 - Slacked lime 3 - -Stir the lime into the warm solution of sugar and water. Keep it -boiling and stir it often for one hour. Pour off the liquid from the -lees of the lime. This gum also admits of modifications. One of these -is the well-known SYNDETIKON, which is made as follows:--To fifteen -parts of the sugar and lime solution add three of good glue, leaving -them to soak for twenty-four hours; warm gradually, and frequently -stir, till the glue is dissolved. Then let it boil for a few minutes. -This makes a good plain cement, which serves to unite paper, leather, -glass, or porcelain. It, however, spots or changes colour in paper, &c. - -A GENERAL CEMENT, which may be used for joining metal and glass, stone, -tiles, &c., is thus made:-- - - Plaster of Paris 21 - Iron filings 3 - Water 10 - White of eggs 4 - -THE GENERAL MENDING CEMENT so commonly sold consists of nothing but-- - - Gum-arabic 1 - Plaster of Paris 3 - -This must be mixed with water when used. It does not, however, resist -the action of hot water. - -A CEMENT WHICH RESISTS ACIDS is made as follows:--Indiarubber is -dissolved in double its weight of linseed-oil, and kneaded to a dough -with white bolus. Should the cement harden too quickly, add to it a -little litharge. - -INDIARUBBER CEMENT FOR CHEMICAL APPARATUS:-- - - Indiarubber 8 - Tallow 2 - Linseed-oil 16 - White bolus 3 - -This does not resist high temperature, but is good against acids. - -SCHEIBLER’S CEMENT FOR CHEMICAL APPARATUS:-- - - Gutta-percha 2 - Wax 1 - Shellac 3 - -SOREL’S CEMENT.--This consists of oxide of zinc combined with its -chloride. The chloride of zinc is in a heavy, syrupy form, which, -combined with the white oxide, sets very hard. It is chiefly used for -filling teeth, but is also applicable to making medallions and other -objects of art. For this latter purpose it is mixed with powdered -chalk, pulverised glass, &c. The process of preparing and combining -the ingredients of this cement is, however, so tedious that it is most -unlikely that the ordinary repairer will care to attempt it; the more -so as there are many preparations far superior to it. - -GLUE FOR TAPESTRY, &c.:-- - - Flour-paste 100 - Alum water 3 - Dextrine-paste 5 - -This may also be applied in many ways. - -TO LUTE STILLS, &c.:-- - - Glue in powder 20 - Flour 10 - Bran 5 - -To be well mixed with water. - -As alum cannot be affected by petroleum, it is used to fasten rings to -petroleum-lamp holders. These are lined with alum which has been melted -by heat. Alum melted forms a strong cement for glass and metal. - -PASTE FOR WALL-PAPER.--Ten parts of flour are made into common paste; -add one of glue boiled in hot water; add to the whole one-twentieth -part of white of egg. This holds very firmly. Paste made with flour and -gum-arabic, &c., does not mould or turn sour if it be mixed with a few -drops of oil of cloves or carbolic acid. - -CLAY MORTAR.--Where lime cannot be had, a very good mortar for chimneys -may be made by mixing clay with common molasses. This is said (LEHNER) -to resist the action of heat when well dried. - -Another fireproof cement is made as follows:-- - - Clay 40 - Flint-sand 40 - Slacked lime 4 - Borax 2 - -This is mixed with a very little water. It is used as a wash, and -should, when dry, be heated by fire. - -LOG CABINS and houses built with wood are, in America, often swarming -with vermin to a degree which would seem incredible. In all such cases -the joints and cavities should be well packed and plastered with -cement--lime if possible--and then whitewashed. Rat-holes should be -plugged with stones or gravel and then cemented. - -ZEIODELETH.--Vessels of wood, iron, stoneware, or of moulded cement, -are often eaten away by the action of acids and alkalies. To prevent -this they are in Germany coated with a composition called _Zeiodeleth_. -In its simplest form this is simply sulphur mixed with _very finely_ -sifted flint-sand, or else ground glass, chinaware, or stone. Of this -thin plates are also made to coat such vessels, or even to form them. - -MERRICK’S ZEIODELETH:-- - - Sulphur 20 - Glass-powder 40 - -BÖTTGER’S ZEIODELETH (LEHNER):-- - - Powdered flint 90 - Graphite 10 - Sulphur 100 - - -I. - -A FLUID PASTE is made by pouring into a porcelain jar 5 kilogrammes -of potato-starch with 6 kilogrammes of water and 250 grammes of white -nitric acid. Keep the whole in a warm place for forty-eight hours, -stirring it frequently, and then boil it till syrupy and transparent. -Add a little water, or sufficient to make it fluid enough to be -filtered through a closely woven towel. - - -II. - -Dissolve 5 kilogrammes of gum-arabic to 1 of sugar in 5 quarts of -water, adding 50 grammes of nitric acid; warm to boiling, and then add -No. I. The result is a perfectly fluid adhesive, which will not mould, -and dries on paper with a glaze. It is adapted for postage-stamps, -marking over impressions, and fine stationery. - -DURABLE FLOUR-PASTE FOR STATIONERS.--Take good flour-paste, adding -to it while boiling one-tenth part of clear liquid glue, to be well -stirred in. Add a few drops of carbolic acid or oil of cloves. Keep it -corked in wide-mouthed, large vials. - -DRY CEMENT, OR TRAVELLERS’ GLUE:-- - - Glue 600 grms. - Sugar 250 ” - -The glue must be of the best quality, and perfectly melted in water, -as usual, and the sugar stirred in. It is then steamed away until it -becomes hard when cold. To use, place it in hot water, when it at once -liquefies. This is specially used for paper. - -COATING TO PROTECT TREES FROM INSECTS:-- - - Colophonium (resin) 100 - Common soap 100 - Tar 50 - Whale-oil 25 - -Smear the trunks of the trees with this. It may also be put on sheets -of brown paper to catch flies. - -CEMENT FOR FILLING.--Take fresh curd (caseine), and knead it with water -to a putty. It can be used in this state for many purposes. To greatly -harden it, add one-twentieth of its weight in lime, and more or less of -some indifferent substance, such as chalk, calcined magnesia, oxide of -zinc, and colouring matter. This sets so hard that it may be used to -make casts or many small works of art. - -FRENCH GLUES.--Two very excellent glues used in France are the _colle -forte de Flandre_ and that of _Givet_. GOUPIL recommends as the best -glue, where a very superior article is required, one made of equal -parts of the two. Break them up, let the pieces remain fifteen hours -in water, then boil for two hours in the _bain-marie_, or glue-kettle. -After a time the glue will settle and become clear. Add, if needed, a -little water from the _bain-marie_. - -TO GIVE A SATIN GLOSS TO PAPER.--Paint with a broad, soft brush on -the paper with a solution of hypo-sulphite of barium (chemically -expressed by BaS_{2}O_{3}). It may be laid on by itself or mingled with -a colour. It is used sometimes by bookbinders. This may be applied in -water-colour pictures to the imitation of silk or satin. - -GOMME LAQUE, or shellac, also gelatine glue, is sold in thin leaves. To -prepare it, put into a _bain-marie_ twenty parts of the gum to one of -flowers of sulphur, stir it well, and add a little lukewarm water. It -may be made into little bars by hand; let them cool, and warm them when -required for use. - -A VERY GOOD CEMENT, which, according to FRED. DILLAYE, is both fire -and water proof, is made as follows:--Take half-a-pint of milk, as -much vinegar, mix them, and take away the whey. Add the white of five -eggs to the curd, mix the whole well, and add so much finely sifted -quicklime as will form a paste. - -SNAIL CEMENT.--It is said that snails or slugs, mashed, form a strong -and hard glue. This is probable; also, that it would combine with -powdered quicklime, or carbonate of lime in powder, to set very hard. - -TO MEND MARBLE use shellac in leaves, mixed with white wax. - -TO MEND ALABASTER use gum-arabic mixed with powdered alabaster. This is -also useful for many other purposes. - -A CEMENT useful for many purposes, also as a ground for painting, is -made as follows:--Take barley and soak it in six equivalents of water -for several days, or till the barley expands or sprouts. Throw out -the barley, after pressing it. This gives a glutinous liquid, which, -combined with pipeclay and white soap, sets hard. It is improved by -adding the powder of calcined bone. Barley water may also be used -in many other combinations. Gum-arabic and thin glue, dextrine, and -fish-glue may be used in its place. - -A STRONG CEMENT FOR HORN OR TORTOISE-SHELL:-- - - Glue (fluid) 1½ - Sugar-candy 3 - Gum-arabic ¾ - -The two latter to be dissolved in six parts of water. - -ANOTHER FOR THE SAME:--Take strong lime-water; combine it with new -cheese. The latter is to be mixed with two parts of water, so as to -form a soft mass. Pour into this the lime-water, but see that there is -no solid cheese in it. This will form a liquid which can be used as a -cement. - -CAT-GUT, which is, however, made from the intestines of sheep, &c., is -of great service in some kinds of repairing, owing to its strength. It -can be made into very small cord, which will sustain a man. - -Very strong cords for fishermen are also said to be made by taking -silkworms just before they spin, cutting them open, and using the -silk, which is then found in a solid, longish lump, and which can be -artificially drawn out into any shape. It is probable that the silk in -this state could be thinned and applied in combination with fibre to -produce useful results. It is also probable that this substance, or the -silk _en masse_, could be used for mending silk fabrics in many ways. -It could be produced very cheaply, because the greatest expense in -manufacturing silk is the reeling, winding, and spinning the thread. - -An incredibly strong and serviceable silk is spun by the _elm-worm_, -which can be raised in any quantities wherever elm-trees abound. This -is much cultivated in China, and it is said that garments made of its -silk descend from father to son. It is several times larger than the -silkworm, and survives even the severe winters of Canada. It would be -much easier to raise than the delicate _bombyx_, or common silkworm. It -is worth noting that a man can carry easily in his pocket fifty yards -of cat-gut or elm worm silk cord strong enough to sustain his weight, -which is very useful for travellers to know, since it is useful to mend -harness or tether horses. - -TO SOFTEN HORN.--This material can be softened so as to bend in hot -water. It requires long boiling. According to Geissler, a horn can be -moulded to shape by steeping the horn for two or three days in half a -kilogramme of black alicant, 375 grammes of newly calcined lime, and -2 litres (two full quarts) of hot water. Should the mixture assume a -reddish colour it is all right; if not, add more alicant and lime. -After the horn has been moulded, dry it in well-dried common salt. Horn -shavings and filings are made into a paste, which hardens by being -in a strong solution of potash and slacked lime, in which it becomes -jelly-like and can be moulded. This must be subjected to pressure to -expel the moisture. By adding a little glycerine its brittleness is -much diminished. - -ARTIFICIAL BONEWORK.--Reduce the bone or ivory to a very fine, -flour-like powder, mix it very thoroughly with the white of eggs, and -a very hard and tough mass will be the result. This can be turned -and highly polished. This is improved in hardness and quality by -grinding the mass again and subjecting it to heat and pressure (_Die -Verarbeitung Hornes, &c._, von Louis Edgar Andés; Vienna, 1892). - -TO PROPERLY DUST CLOTHES.--The following extract on cleaning garments -is taken from my forthcoming work, entitled _One Hundred Arts_:-- - - * * * * * - -“The obvious way to remove dust from a coat--as some take evil out of -children (_vide_ NORTHCOTE’S _Fables_)--is by whipping or beating with -a stick. This, indeed, effects the purpose, but it speedily breaks the -fibre of the cloth. Therefore in Germany, as in Italy, a little _bat_ -plaited of split cane or reeds is employed to exorcise the demon of -dust, known as _Pāpākeewis_ to the Chippeways. But better than this is -a small _whisp-broom_. Half a century ago this simple contrivance was -only known in the United States and in Poland. - -“Whip the garment with the _side_ of the soft whisp, and as the dust -rises to the surface brush it away. If the reader will try this on any -coat, however clean it may be, he will be astonished to find how much -dust he will extract or raise. - -“All the dust which thus lies hidden in cloth, when it comes to the -surface, acts as _grit_ or powder insensibly but certainly, and helps -to wear away the surface whenever it is touched. That we take in dust -every time we go out will appear from inspecting a silk hat. Again, -the dust on a coat, &c., every time it is rubbed by the cleanest hand, -takes in grease, which in time aids in spoiling the surface. In fact, -half the wear-out of all cloth is due to dust alone. - -“Therefore, if we _carefully_ dust our clothes with a whisp, every -time we take them off, fold them with care, and lay them in a drawer, -they will last much longer than they do. Pure air free from dust is -as conducive to the well-being of coats as to that of their wearers, -and Dominie Sampson uttered more truth than he imagined when he -observed that the atmosphere of his patron’s dwelling was singularly -preservative of broadcloth.” - - * * * * * - -In proof of this it may be observed, that as a sandblast attacks some -substances exclusively, so dust or grit injures certain fabrics and not -others, and that the latter are all known as the more lasting fabrics. - - - - -INDEX - - - Accuracy and care required in making cements, 28 - - Adding art to arts, 47 - - Alabaster, to mend, 249 - - ALLSTON, the painter, 123 - - Alum as a base, 6 - - Amber, repairing and imitating, 156-158; - carving amber, 158 - - American cement, 240 - - American glaze for postage-stamps, 113, 114 - - ANDÉS, LOUIS EDGAR, 207, 252; - varnishes, 4; - on ivory and bone, 144, 155; - on working horn, 149 - - Arabic, gum, cement of, with vinegar, 37 - - Avoiding excess in cementing, 31 - - - Badly bound books, 108 - - BAER, J., catalogue on glass, 44 - - Bark, powdered, combined with glue, 82 - - Barley cement, 249, 250 - - Bases for beads, &c., 234 - - BAYARD, MISS CATHERINE L., 158 - - Bell made of a bottle, 49 - - Bent leaves in books, or dog’s ears, 89, 90 - - Benzoin, gum, or _lac virginis_, 236, 237 - - Binding books, 97-100 (_illustrations_), 97, 98 - - Blood in cements, 6 - - Blowpipe, the, 17, 36 - - Boats or canoes made from shavings, 52 - - Boiling china in milk, 19 - - Bone, calcined, 92; - artificial, 251 - - Bookbinders’ varnish, 89; - glue, 235 - - Books, repairing and restoring, 86-120 - - Book-worms, 115-120 - - BÖTTGER’S cement for pavements, stone slabs, &c., 29; - acid-proof cement, 247 - - Bottles, cracked, how to mend, 26, 37; - to close (a cement), 44; - to cork or seal them firmly, 161; - to seal, 241 - - Brass-ware, to look like gold, 234, 235 - - Bread cement, 241-243 - - Bread in cements, 8 - - BREWSTER, Sir D., 37 - - Brickwork tiles, how to repair, 28 - - Burnished steel or iron work, 234 - - - Canes and bows made of shavings, 54 - - Caoutchouc, indiarubber, gutta-percha, 2, 4, 126, 127, 159 - - Cardboard or pasteboard as hard as wood, how to make, 124, 125 - - Carpenters’ cement, 79 - - _Carton-cuir_, 121 - - _Carton-pierre_, or “stone-paper,” to make, 128 - - Caseine or cheese in cements, 6, 27, 40, 41, 137, 138 - - CASTELLANI, Signore, 48 - - Cat-gut, 250 - - Cedar, to imitate, 83 - - Cellular tissue, cause of hardening in organic substances, 9, 10 - - Celluloid, or artificial ivory, its raw materials, manufacture, &c., - by Dr. F. BOCKMANN, 9, 152, 153 - - Cellulose, 9; - how discovered and made, 82; - to prepare it with acid, 154 - - Cement, or adhesive, definition, 1; - for broken glass or china, 23-49; - for glass, china, leather, &c., 34; - for wood, 76-83; - for horses’ hoofs, 166, 167; - to attach metal, 173, 174 - - Ceresa, or mosaic in powder, 29, 138 - - Chalk, 2 - - Chamois-leather in repairs, 203 - - Chemical apparatus, cement for, 244 - - Chestnut, horse, paste, 243 - - China, broken, porcelain, crockery, majolica, terra-cotta, brick and - tile work, 12-32 - - Chinese transparent vases, a lost art rediscovered, 47, 48 - - Chloride of zinc cement, 241 - - Cholula, vase from, 13, 14 - - Chrome glue, 26, 34 - - _Chunam_, or Indian shell-lime, 24, 134 - - Circles, to draw, 103 - - Clamps, or strips of sheet-iron or wire, 67 - - CLAUDE and VANDERVELDE, 216, 217 - - CLAUS’S cement for metal and glass, 182 - - Clay and molasses mortar, 246 - - Closing wine-bottles, old method, 48, 49 - - Cloth-dust on gum in decoration, 236 - - Cloth, waterproofed, recipe for, 161; - felt, how to make, 199, 200 - - Clothes, to properly dust and keep clean, 252, 253 - - Coarse cements for brick, &c., 139 - - Cobbling and shoemaking, 187, 188 - - Cologne, eau de, 237 - - Concrete, 140 - - Copal, gum, 157 - - Coral, imitation of, 209 - - Corks, to improve, 240 - - Cracking of seasoned wood in America, 50 - - Cracks in furniture, filling, 67 - - CRANE, WALTER, 24 - - Crockery, 17, 18 - - Crockery or china, mosaic made from broken fragments, 139 - - Cups and vases of _papier-maché_, how to make (_illustration_), 172 - - - DAVIDOWSKY, F., on glue and gelatine, 4 - - Decayed wood, to restore, 63 - - _Decorator, The_, 73 - - Defacing books, 90 - - DELILLE, alleged inventor of wiring porcelain, 18 - - Deterioration in pictures, causes of, 214, 215 - - Dextrine, or _Leiokom_, 7; - gum, 238 - - Diamond cement, 41. (_Vide_ Turkish) - - DILLAYE, F., 32 - - DILLAYE’S cement, 249 - - Dirt in old pictures, its nature, 215 - - Domes or arched roofs, building, 64 - - DRAKE, Sir W., 47 - - Drawers, to put handles to, 62; - shrinking of them, 62, 63 - - Dry cleaning, 220 - - DÜRER, ALBERT, 151 - - Dusting broken china, 31 - - - Earthenware tubes, how to lute, 27 - - Ebonite, 160 - - Ebony, repairing or imitating, 66, 67 - - EDER’S gum for photographs, 114 - - Eggs in cements, 5 - - “Egyptian Sketch-Book,” 210 - - Elmworm silk, 250 - - Embossing leather, 100 - - Engraving and etching glass or china, 38 - - Erasures in paper, 103 - - Essential oils in cleaning pictures, 225 - - Etruscan vases repaired, 15 - - Excess of cleaning and ignorance as to effects by age, 214 - - - Fastening broken furniture, 60, 61 - - Fictile or ceramic ware, 12 - - FIELD, “Chromatography” 210 - - Fillers for wood, 69 - - Fire-proof paper, 103 - - Floors laid with shavings, 53 - - Flour and starch paste, 4, 5 - - Flour-paste, to make a strong, 112 - - Flowers made from wood-shavings and plaster of Paris, glue, &c., 68 - - Fluid paste, 247 - - Flour spar cement, 237 - - Flux, vitreous or metallic, 17 - - Forgeries in antiques, 94, 149 - - French glue for wood, 80 - - French glues, 248 - - Furniture, cheap and bad, 58 - - Furniture-making, 72 - - - GARMAN, SAMUEL, 116 - - Garments, invisible mending of, 202-205 - - Gelatine and vinegar cement for china, 25 - - General cements, 244 - - GERNER, RAIMUND, _Die Glas Fabrikation_, by, 34, 35 - - Gesso-painting, 24 - - Glass-mending, with allied processes, 33-49; - old proverb on, 33 - - Glass-powder, 136; - how to prepare, 27 - - Glass, to pulverise, 234 - - Glazed or patent leather, how to make, 193 - - Glaze-mediums, 228 - - Gloves, how cleaned, 238 - - Glue, 4; - and lime cement, 41; - for coarse work, 235; - waterproof, 186 - - Glycerine, in cements, 6; - with glue, 68 - - _Gomme laque_, or shellac, 249 - - GOUPIL, F., Manual of Mending, 32, 64, 218, 222, 225 - - Grease-spots, to remove, 92 - - GREEN, Dr. SAMUEL A., on book-worms, 115 - - Grinding off fractures in glass, 48 - - Ground for wax-painting, 228, 229 - - Grounds of pictures, 221 - - Guards for mending broken fictile wares, 31, 32 - - Gum for general use, 243 - - Gum-mastic, 16, 22 - - Gum (or starch), 2, 3 - - Gutta-percha and oil cement for mending soles, 192 - - Gutta-percha cement for leather, 189 - - Gypsum, 6 - - - Hard cement for all wood, 80 - - Harness, saddle, and bridle repairing, 193 - - Hats, blankets, &c., to mend by felting, 199-201 - - Heating wood before glueing, 60 - - HEIGELIN, Professor, exhibition of flowers made from shavings, 68 - - Hide, raw, 189 - - HILDEBRAND, WOLFGANG, on liquid glass, 7, 35, 148 - - HOFER, JOHANNES, 142 - - HOFER, RAIMUND, on indiarubber, 159, 168 - - Holding together broken china while mending, &c., 17 - - Holes in leather repaired with linen, 161 - - Horn, to mould or soften, 148, 251 - - HUBBARD, ERNST, “The rendering Valuable of Refuse Wood,” by, 69 - - HYATT’S patent ivory, 153 - - Hydraulic lime, 8 - - - Ignorance, general, as to cleaning pictures, 212 - - Imitation indiarubber cloth, 167 - - Imperfect work, 107, 108 - - Indiarubber, applied to soles of shoes, 161; - or vulcanised cement, 162 - - Indifferent substances, 6 - - Ink-stains, to remove, 90-94, 96 - - Inserting pieces in china, &c., 19, 20 - - Iron cements to resist heat, 177, 178 - - Iron doors of furnaces, how to seal hermetically, 179 - - Iron in cements, 6 - - Iron strips and bands in repairing, 171 - - Iron, to set in stone, 178 - - Iron ware, or block cement, 180 - - Ironwork, setting a cement for, 176 - - Italian peasants’ shoes (_illustration_), 192 - - Ivory, repairing and imitating, 143-155; - cleaning, 143, 144; - imitations, 144; - staining, 147, 148; - softening, 148 - - - Jewellers’ cement, 43. (_Vide_ Turkish) - - Jewellers’ or Diamond cement, 174 - - Jewesses, repair of embroidery by, 202 - - _Joco-Seriorum Naturæ et Artis_, - 1670, story from, referring to broken pottery, 20, 21, 35. - - Join, to, glass and metal, 43 - - Joints in timbers, holes and cracks, how to close, 80 - - JUNEMANN, F., _Die Fabrikation des Alauns_, 6 - - - Kaleidoscope, folding, how to make a, 37, 38 - - Kauri, the gum, 156, 157 - - Kelp, 154 - - _Kettenstich_, for German chain-stitch, 204 - - KIRCHER, ATHANASIUS, 92, 95 - - Knotting, patent, 72-74 - - KOPPE, J. W., on glycerine, 6 - - KRALL, BARKENTIN &, brass-cleaner, 235 - - KRATZER, HARRMANN, on liquid glass, 8 - - - Lacquers, 34 - - LAYARD, Sir AUSTIN, 47 - - Lead pencil or crayon drawings, to protect, 233 - - Leather, artificial, 196, 198 - - Leather, durability of, 188, 189 - - Leather-glue, 197 - - Leather-Work, Manual of, 111 - - Leather-work, repairing, 183-198 - - LEHNER, 2, 5, 7, 9, 26, 28, 29, 31, 34, 40, 44, 77, 79, 80, 135, 136, - 141, 144, 152, 157, 193, 197, 207, 208 - - LELAND, CHARLES G., quotation from, 50 - - Lemon-juice to whiten the hands, 236 - - Lime, 5, 24, 134 - - Lime cement for glass, 43 - - Liquid acid glue, 59, 60; - recipe for, 81 - - LISTER, MISS ROMA, 203; - MS. of Recipes, 65 - - Litharge cements for many uses, 175 - - LUTHER, MARTIN, 149 - - Luting cement, 235 - - Luting or closing chemical apparatus, &c., cements for, 30 - - - Magnesia, calcined, to extract stains, 238 - - Majolica, 13, 15, 16 - - Malleable glass, 38 - - _Manuel Général du Modelage_, 64 - - Marble, fractures, &c., in, 140; - how to clean, 238; - to mend, 249 - - Marine glue, hard glue, recipe and description, 162, 163 - - Marking-ink, 237 - - Marquetry, or inlaid wood, repairing, 71, 72, 83-85 - - Mastic, 19, 135, 136; - French mastic, 136 - - Materials used in mending, 1-11 - - Meerschaum pipes, to mend or make, 240 - - Mending cloth with indiarubber, 165-168 - - Mending furniture, 74-76 - - Mending or repairing defined, 1, 2 - - MERRICK’S acid-proof cement, 246 - - MERRITT, HENRY, 211, 221 - - Metal, to attach leather to, 193 - - Metal-work, mending, 169-182 - - Metallic corners for books (_illustrations_), 104-106 - - Mica, leaves of, how to prepare them for windows, 47 - - MIERZINSKI, Dr. STANISLAUS, on the manufacture of paper, 132 - - Minor ingredients in cements, 10 - - Mirror with ornaments (_illustration_), 85 - - MOGFORD, HENRY, 213, 218, 219-222 - - Mosaics, 134 - - Mother-of-pearl and coral, mending, 206-209; - how imitated, 207; - from rice, 208 - - Mould or mildew in pictures, 226 - - Mouth-glue, or solid cement, 239, 240 - - Musical glasses of different kinds, 39 - - Musical instruments repaired with shavings, 54, 55 - - - Neutral substances in cements, 6 - - - Oil, as a basis, 2; - combination, 3; - softening paint, 219 - - Old recipes for mending crockery, 23 _et seq._ - - OLYMPIODORUS, 99 - - “One Hundred Arts,” a book by the Author, 38 - - Ornamenting panes for windows, and doubling them, 44 45; - beautiful and varied effects, 46 - - Ornamental work made of shavings, 56, 57 - - Ox-gall in cleaning pictures, 218 - - Oxidised cement, 176 - - - PAGE, the American painter, 210 - - Pages in books, to repair when torn, 90, 91, 94 - - PAGET’S French mastic, 136 - - Pamphlets, binding, 100 - - Panel pictures, repairing, with shavings, 57; - fourteenth century, in distemper, &c., 227 - - Panel, warped, how to straighten a, 228 - - Panels of artificial wood, 81; - cements for, 82 - - Paper and wood-shavings, 52 - - Paper, its composition, 86, 87; - repairing damaged paper, 86, 87 - - Paper-leather, 129, 130 - - _Papier-mâché_, or softened paper, 106, 121-133; - articles made from, 121; - moulding, 121, 122 - - PARACELSUS, 35 - - Parchment paper, how to prepare, 95, 96 - - Parchment, repairing, 122; - artificial, from paper, 122 - - PARLAND, Mr., 128 - - Paste of starch or flour, 10 - - Paste, leather, the same mixed with indiarubber, 185; - use and preparation, &c., 186 - - Paste, bookbinders’, 96; - shoemakers’, 197 - - Patches, inserting, 201 - - Patterns cut from wood-shavings (_engraving_), 51-53 - - Pavements, to repair different kinds, 28 - - Peat, 78 - - PHILATIUS, the inventor of book-binding and glue, 99 - - Pictures, restoring, 210-230; - glazed and scaling, how to treat, 226 - - Plaster of Paris, alum, and glass cement, 141 - - Plugging teeth with indiarubber, 166 - - Polytechnic cement and imperial liquid glue, also KEYE’S cement, 39 - - Porcelain, 18 - - Potatoes as cement, &c., 9 - - Pots, cracks in iron, 180 - - Prepare, to, wood for paint, 83 - - Process of restoring worn and injured binding of a book, and of a - bas-relief in leather, 183-185 - - Proper paste, the, for wallpaper, waterproof, 164, 165 - - Pulp, paper, 130-133 - - Putty, 33, 34, 69 - - - RAUFER, G. M., on meerschaum and amber, 158 - - Raw hide, 233 - - Recipe, old, for repairing glass, 36, 37; - definition of, 231; - general, 231-253 - - Red cement for iron, 237 - - Reliefs cut in brick, 29 - - Repainting old pictures, 226, 227 - - Repairing wood with paper-pulp, 132 - - Resin or pitch, 2, 3 - - Restoring fragments of engravings, &c., 115 - - Rice and lime cement, 145 - - RIMMEL, bookseller in Oxford Street, 40 - - Ringing or sounding glasses by blowing on them, 39 - - RIS-PACQUOT, M., 18, 29, 147 - - Riveting sheet-metal, 169, 170 - - Roller, use of the, 54 - - Roman and Hungarian pottery, &c., 12 - - Roman cement, 24; - for fine mosaics, 138 - - Rosewood stain, 74 - - Rubbing in colour, 14 - - RUPRECHT, KARL, on egg substances and albumen, 5 - - RUSKIN, 221 - - Rust, how removed, 234 - - Rust or oxide cement, 177 - - - SALLE’S cement for glass, 44 - - Satin gloss for paper, 248, 249 - - Sawdust (_vide_ also Wood-paste or artificial wood), 80 - - SCHEIBLER’S cement, 244 - - SCHLOSSER, EDMUND, on soldering and metal-work, 182 - - SCHWARTZ’S iron cement, 180 - - Scissors, cutting glass with, 48 - - Scraping varnish, 223 - - Screws, to be dipped in oil or boiling wax, 67 - - Seams, to repair, 196 - - SEDNA, LUDWIG, on wax, &c., 7 - - Sewing or stitching books, 109 - - Shoes, easily made, 194, 195; - indiarubber, to repair, 160 - - Side-binding, 110 - - Silicate of soda, or liquid glass, 7, 20; - with colour, 29, 33, 35 - - Silico-enamel, 237, 238 - - Silk or woolen cloth, to clean, 232, 233 - - Silks, black, gummed, 205 - - Silkworm gum, 250 - - Silver bands, 20 - - Snail cement, 249 - - Soaps in cleaning pictures, 224 - - Solder, NEWTON’S and ROSE’S, a metallic glass, 181 - - Soldering, 171, 172, 180, 181 - - Soles, wooden, for shoes, 191 - - SOREL’S cement, 244 - - South Sea Bubble, 58 - - Spirits of wine to remove dry varnish, 219 - - Splicing broken rods, spars, &c. (_with illustration_), 61 - - Spraying, to restore crumbling substances by, 146, 147 - - Staining or colouring wood, 69, 70 - - Stains, grease, wine, oil, to remove, 232 - - Stationer’s paste, 247 - - Statues, mending, of plaster of Paris, 141 - - Steam, to clean pictures by, 223 - - STEVENS’ and MANDERS’ wood-stains, 70 - - Stills, to lute, 245 - - STOHMANN, classification of cements, with LEHNER’S extension of it, 2, 3 - - Stonework, mending, 134-142 - - Stopper, glass, filed to shape, 48 - - Stoves, cement for, 179, 182 - - Strips or braces on panels, &c., 61, 62 - - Strong adhesives for paper, &c., 113, 114 - - Strong cement, for glass, wood, or stone, 42; - for porcelain, glass, &c., 26, 136 - - Strop, leather, how to mend a, 186, 187 - - Sturgeon’s bladder or fish-glue gum, &c., 5, 32, 42 - - Syndetikon, 243 - - - Tapestry glue, 245 - - Tarred or tarpaulin paper-bags, 163 - - _Tausendkünstler_ of 1782, 23 - - Tea-leaves, 243 - - Terra-cotta, 12, 13, 15 - - To preserve the contents of bottles when broken, 167 - - To protect wood under water, 79 - - Tortoise-shell or horn, cement for, 250 - - Toys, mending, 122, 123 - - Tragacanth, gum, 8 - - Transferring pictures, 225 - - Travellers’ glue, 247 - - Trees: bark, splits or cavities in, 82; - to protect, 248 - - Triangles of tin, &c., used to fasten panes of glass, 35 - - _Tribune_, the New York, 60 - - Trunks, mending, 190 - - Tufa cement, 235 - - Turkish or diamond cement, 19, 41, 42 - - Turpentine, a counteracting medium of solvent spirit, 220 - - - ULENHUTH, EDUARD, on moulding, 131 - - - VANDYKE, picture by, 222 - - VAN HELMONT on liquid glass, 7 - - Varnish, 3, 34; - to remove, 216-220 - - Veneers, 51, 53 - - Venetian marquetry, 71 - - Venetian glass, 36 - - _Venus mercernaria_, or American clam, 208 - - Vermin in wooden dwellings, 246 - - VINCI, LEONARDO DA, 151 - - Vinegar, commonly made from sulphuric acid, 60 - - Vitreous paint, 40 - - - WAGNER, R., on liquid glass, 7, 8, 35 - - WALLBERGER, JOHANN, _Zauberbuch_, 96, 234-236 - - Wall-paper of wood, used in America, 69 - - Wall-paper paste, 245 - - Wall-paper with common paste poisonous, 165 - - Walls rendered air-tight (recipe), 164 - - Warped or curved wood, and how to flatten it, 61, 62 - - Washing broken china for repairing, 31 - - Water in cleaning pictures, 216-218 - - Waterproof carpets and wall-covering made from waste-paper, 191 - - Waterproof cement, 194 - - Wax in cements, 7 - - White of egg glaze, 223 - - Whitewash, to make equal to paint, 79 - - WIEGLEB, J. C., quotation from, 1, 147 - - Windows, stained glass, works on the subject by A. W. FRANKS, OWEN - JONES, WESTLAKE, &c., 40 - - Wine-stains, to remove, 231, 232 - - Wire, for mending china, 19; - in repairing, 170, 171 - - Wire-mending, 62 - - Wood-ashes in picture-cleaning, 224 - - Wood-Carving, a Manual of, by CHARLES GODFREY LELAND, 70 - - Wood-paste, or artificial wood, 63 _et seq._; - houses can be made of it, 64 - - Wood-shavings in mending and making, 50-57 - - Woodwork, repairing, 58-85 - - Woollen cloth, to clean, 231 - - _Work_, a scientific journal, 129 - - Worms in wood, to exterminate, 72 - - Wrinkles and freckles, 236 - - - _Zeiodeleth_, 246, 247 - - Zinc, a cement for, 174, 175 - - ZWICK, Dr. H., on lime and mortar, 5; - in _Hydraulischer Kalk und Portland Cement_, 8 - - -THE END - - - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[1] _Ceresa_ is the setting of powdered glass of different colours in a -cement bed. Mosaic cubes are often combined with it. - -[2] _Vide_ “Wood-Carving,” by CHARLES GODFREY LELAND, F.R.L.S., M.A. -(London, Whittaker & Co., 5s.), for a chapter on this subject. - -[3] For fullest details as to the treatment of horn, the reader may -consult _Die Verarbeitung des Hornes_, &c., by LOUIS E. ANDÉS, in which -he will also find full details as to dyeing ivory. - -[4] The late W. W. STORY, the sculptor and man of letters. - -[5] “Handbook on the Preservation of Pictures,” by HENRY MOGFORD; -twelfth edition, revised. London: Winsor & Newton, 1s. - - -[Transcriber’s Note: - -Obvious printer errors corrected silently. - -Inconsistent spelling and hyphenation are as in the original.] - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of A manual of Mending and Repairing with -diagrams, by Charles Godfrey Leland - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MENDING, REPAIRING, WITH DIAGRAMS *** - -***** This file should be named 61786-0.txt or 61786-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/6/1/7/8/61786/ - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Wayne Hammond and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: A manual of Mending and Repairing with diagrams - -Author: Charles Godfrey Leland - -Release Date: April 8, 2020 [EBook #61786] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MENDING, REPAIRING, WITH DIAGRAMS *** - - - - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Wayne Hammond and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - -</pre> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_iii">iii</span></p> - -<h1> -<span class="x-large">A MANUAL OF</span><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Mending and Repairing</span><br /> - -<span class="x-large">WITH DIAGRAMS<br /> - -<span class="small">BY</span><br /> - -<span class="smcap">Charles Godfrey Leland</span></span><br /> - -<span class="medium">——</span><br /> - -<span class="table medium">NEW YORK<br /> -DODD, MEAD AND COMPANY<br /> -1896</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_iv">iv</span></h1> - -<p class="copy"><span class="smcap">Copyright</span>, 1896,<br /> - -<span class="smcap">By</span> DODD, MEAD AND COMPANY.</p> - -<p class="copy">BURR PRINTING HOUSE, FRANKFORT AND JACOB STS., N. Y. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_v">v</span></p> - -<table id="toc"> - <tr> - <th colspan="2" id="CONTENTS">CONTENTS</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td /> - <td class="tdr small">PAGES</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap"><a href="#INTRODUCTION">Introduction</a></span></td> - <td class="tdr">vii-xxiii</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap"><a href="#MATERIALS_USED_IN_MENDING">Materials used in Mending</a></span></td> - <td class="tdr">1-11</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap"><a href="#MENDING_BROKEN_CHINA_PORCELAIN">Mending Broken China, Porcelain, Crockery, Majolica, - Terra-Cotta, Brick and Tile Work</a></span></td> - <td class="tdr">12-32</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap"><a href="#MENDING_GLASS">Mending Glass, together with several Allied Processes: - Approved Cements—Silicate of Soda</a></span></td> - <td class="tdr">33-49</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap"><a href="#WOOD-SHAVINGS">Wood-Shavings in Mending and Making many Objects—Ornamental - Work of Shavings—Marquetry—Repairing - Panel Pictures with Shavings</a></span></td> - <td class="tdr">50-57</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap"><a href="#REPAIRING_WOODWORK">Repairing Woodwork</a></span></td> - <td class="tdr">58-85</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap"><a href="#ON_REPAIRING_AND_RESTORING_BOOKS">On Repairing and Restoring Books, Manuscripts, and - Papers, with Directions for Easy Binding and - Paper-Mending—Book-Worms—The Ravages of - Book-Worms</a></span></td> - <td class="tdr">86-120</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap"><a href="#PAPIER-MACHE">Papier-Mâché: Repairing Toys—Making Grounds for - Pictures and Walls—Carton-Cuir and Carton-Pierre</a></span></td> - <td class="tdr">121-133</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap"><a href="#MENDING_STONE-WORK">Mending Stone-Work: Mosaics—Ceresa-Work—Porcelain - or Crockery Mosaic</a></span></td> - <td class="tdr">134-142</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap"><a href="#REPAIRING_IVORY">Repairing Ivory</a></span></td> - <td class="tdr">143-155</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap"><a href="#REPAIRING_AMBER">Repairing Amber: How to perfectly Re-Join Broken - Amber, and to imitate it—How to Melt Amber in - Fragments to a Single Body</a></span></td> - <td class="tdr">156-158<span class="pagenum" id="Page_vi">vi</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap"><a href="#INDIARUBBER_AND">Indiarubber and Gutta-Percha: Mending Indiarubber - Shoes and making Garments Waterproof, with - other Applications</a></span></td> - <td class="tdr">159-168</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap"><a href="#MENDING_METAL-WORK_OR_REPAIRING">Mending Metal-Work or Repairing by means of it: - Fireproof Cements, with Iron Binders</a></span></td> - <td class="tdr">169-182</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap"><a href="#REPAIRING_LEATHER-WORK">Repairing Leather-Work: Trunks, Shoes, or in any - other Forms—Joining Straps—Making Cheap - Shoes</a></span></td> - <td class="tdr">183-198</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap"><a href="#TO_MEND_HATS_BLANKETS_AND">To Mend Hats, Blankets, and similar Fabrics by - Felting</a></span></td> - <td class="tdr">199-201</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap"><a href="#INVISIBLE_MENDING_OF_GARMENTS">Invisible Mending of Garments, Laces, or Embroideries</a></span></td> - <td class="tdr">202-205</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap"><a href="#MENDING_MOTHER-OF-PEARL_AND">Mending Mother-of-Pearl and Coral</a></span></td> - <td class="tdr">206-209</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap"><a href="#RESTORING_AND_REPAIRING">Restoring and Repairing Pictures</a></span></td> - <td class="tdr">210-230</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap"><a href="#GENERAL_RECIPES">General Recipes</a></span></td> - <td class="tdr">231-253</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#INDEX">INDEX</a></td> - <td class="tdr">255-264 -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_vii">vii</span></td> - </tr></table> - -<h2 id="INTRODUCTION">INTRODUCTION</h2> - -<p>The author of this work modestly trusts that all -who read it with care will admit that in it he has distinctly -shown that mending or repairing, which has -hitherto been regarded as a mere adjunct to other -arts, is really an art by itself, if not a science, since it -is based on chemical and other principles, which -admit of extensive application and general combination. -It has its <i>laws</i>—a fact which has never been -hinted at by any writer, since all recipes for restoration -in existence are each singly inventions made to -suit certain cases. This work has been conceived on -a different principle.</p> - -<p>A thorough knowledge of this art of repairing, -mending, or restoring various objects is of very great -value, since there is no household in which it is not -often called into requisition. In the kitchen or drawing-room, -in the library and nursery, there are daily -breakages, of which a large and needless proportion -are losses, simply because such a man as a general -mender, who is accomplished in <i>all</i> branches of the -art, does not exist. And, what is more, it is equally -true that no one has ever realised to what a vast extent -mending and saving may be carried, with a little -expenditure of time, practice, and money, by any intelligent -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_viii">viii</span> -person who will devote serious attention to -it. Within a comparatively few years discoveries in -science or in nature have enlarged the ability of the -mender to an extraordinary extent—I need only mention -the applications now made with silicate of soda, -celluloid, gutta percha, and glycerine to confirm what -I say—so largely, indeed, that only the accomplished -technologist and chemist is really aware of what can -be done in general repairing compared to what was -possible only a few years ago. I believe that there -are few thoroughly practical persons (and, I may add, -few who take an interest in art in any form, or even -in books) who will read this work without deep interest, -and without acquiring information of such value -that in comparison to it the cost of the book will seem -a trifle.</p> - -<p>Though mending or restoring is a subject which in -some form comes home to and concerns everybody, -and which it is assuredly everybody’s interest to -understand, this is, I believe, the first book in which -its application to a <i>great</i> variety of wants has been -made, and that in such a clearly co-ordinated manner, -and according to such a simple principle, that -whoever reads it can have no difficulty in mending -any object, even though it be not described here. In -all works of the kind which I have seen the recipes -for repairing have been given simply according to -their <i>subjects</i>, without any view to general principles -of application, and a great proportion of these -were in turn simply copied from old books of miscellaneous -“receipts,” or newspapers in which every so-called -new discovery is announced as infallible, or as -if it had been tried and tested to perfection. That I -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_ix">ix</span> -have not recklessly accumulated in this fashion all -kinds of <i>recipes</i> to fill my pages will appear very -plainly to every chemist or technologist, who will perceive -that, proceeding from a comprehensive table of -generally recognised and long-tested bases of cements, -I have given deductions and combinations scientifically -agreeing with their laws and with experiment. -The true object of giving a great number of recipes -has not been solely or simply to supply the house-keeper -or mechanic with instructions for certain repairs, -but also to suggest to the technologist and inventor -new ideas and applications. Thus, when we -know that given proportions of zinc in powder, silicate -of soda, and chalk form a strong cement, resembling -zinc, it is as well to suggest that this may be varied -by employing other metals and substances, such as -bronze-powders and mineral oxides, to be always preceded -by a little experiment. I venture to say that -any intelligent person who masters this work can, on -this hint, make for himself innumerable inventions; -and I am sure that there is not the editor of a single -technological journal who will not testify to the fact -that every year a great many patents are taken out -and fortunes made from recipes which are neither so -scientifically combined nor practically useful as those -which I here give. That there are fortunes still to be -made is abundantly proved by the fact that there are -very few people, comparatively speaking, who know -where to get or how to make waterproof glue, or how -to mend with it, neatly and durably, shoes, umbrellas, -and many rents in garments; how to unite a -broken strap; mend, by felting, torn hats; rehabilitate -perfectly worm-eaten and torn-away paper; restore -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_x">x</span> -decayed broken wood; or mend, in fact, anything -except with common glue or mucilage—both of -which soon give way and crack or melt. So long as -such general ignorance prevails, just so long there -will be an opportunity for the inventor to make and -sell cements, and for the repairer to find employment.</p> - -<p>I call special attention to the fact that this book contains -no merely traditional, untested recipes which -have been simply transferred from one Housekeeper’s -Manual to another for generations. Where I have -not been guided by my own personal experience—which -is, I venture to say, not very limited—I have -either followed truly scientific works, such as the -three hundred volumes of the Chemical-Technical -Library of <span class="smcap">A. Hartleben</span>; or, when citing from -older authors, have invariably given recipes which -agree with the principles advanced by modern analysts -and inventors. And though not a professor of -chemistry, yet, as I studied it and natural philosophy -in my youth under <span class="smcap">Leopold Gmelin</span>, <span class="smcap">L. Passelt</span>, and -Professor <span class="smcap">Joseph Henry</span>, I trust that I have been sufficiently -qualified to avoid errors in what I have written. -In short, that I have <i>not</i> recklessly accumulated -every recipe which I could find, and that what I give -are really trustworthy, will appear plainly to the -chemist or technologist, who will perceive that, proceeding -from a given table of generally recognised -and long-tested bases of cements, &c., I have then -given deductions and combinations scientifically -agreeing with their laws and with experiment. My -book is not a <i>pièce de manufacture</i>, or of hack-work, -but one which is the result of many years of practical -experience in the minor arts and industries, on which -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xi">xi</span> -subject alone I have published twenty-two works, -without including pamphlets, lectures, and at least -one hundred letters or articles in leading magazines -and newspapers. There is, in short, very little -mending or making described in this book which I -have not at one time or other personally effected, having -had all my life a passion for mending and restoring -all kinds of objects, and that scientifically and -thoroughly.</p> - -<p>As I have observed, there is in every household -continual breakage of many kinds—“or of the rending -which cries for mending”—it is a matter of some -importance that some one in the family should pay -special attention to such matters. How often have I -seen very valuable objects stuck together—anyhow -and clumsily—with putty, wafers, sealing-wax, glue, -flour-paste, or anything which will “hold” for a time, -when a perfect cure might have just as well been -effected had the proper recipe been taken to the first -chemist. This is equally true as regards taking ink -or stains out of garments, or repairing the latter perfectly, -or mending shoes or indiarubber cloth, or -felting worn hats and many other articles, all of which -are treated of in this work.</p> - -<p>It is true that everybody is not naturally ingenious, -or clever, or gifted, but all may become <i>skilful menders</i> -if they will duly consider the subject (which requires -no hard study) and experiment on it a little. -And here I would seriously address a few words to -all who are interested in education. There is a certain -faculty which may be called constructiveness, -which is nearly allied to invention, and which is a -marvellous developer in all children of quickness of -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xii">xii</span> -perception, thought, or intellect. It is the art of -using the fingers to make or manipulate, in any way; -it exists in every human being, and it may be brought -out to an extraordinary degree in the young, as has -been fully tested and proved. Now, if we take two -children of the same age, sex, and capacity, both -going to the same school and pursuing the same -studies, and if one of the two devotes from two to -four hours a week to an industrial art class (<i>i.e.</i>, -studying simple original <i>design</i>, easy wood-carving, -repoussé, embroidery, &c.), it will be found—as it has -been by very extensive experiment—that the latter -child will at the end of the year excel the former in -<i>all</i> branches of learning; that is to say, in arithmetic -or geography, so greatly does ingenuity proceed from -the fingers to the brain. Now, mending is so nearly -allied to all the minor or mechanical arts, it enters -into them so closely, that it in a manner belongs to -and is an introduction to them all. Like them, it -stimulates invention or ingenuity, and is perhaps of -far greater practical utility or direct use. Boys and -girls learn very willingly how to mend, and, from a -long experience in teaching them, I should say that a -class with experiments and practical instruction in -what is given in this book should take precedence of -all carpentry, metal-work, joining, leather-work, or -any other branches whatever. For it is <i>easier</i> than -any of them, and it is of far more general utility, as -the following pages clearly show. Such teaching -would cost next to nothing for outfit, and would be -the best introduction to technical education of all -kinds.</p> - -<p>There is an immense amount of breakage in this -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xiii">xiii</span> -world, yet, as a French writer on the subject observes, -there are more great artists than good <i>menders</i>; the -latter being so extremely rare that proofs of it are -seen in bungling restorations in every museum in -Europe, and in the almost impossibility of finding -(out of Italy) men who can perfectly mend first-class -ceramic ware. We see this ignorance in reproductions -of delicate ivory ware coarsely cast in gypsum, and in -a vast rejection and destruction of antiquities in wood, -stone, or ceramic ware, simply because they are most -ignorantly supposed to be beyond repair when they -might, with <i>proper knowledge</i>, be very easily and cheaply -restored, to great profit. And if the reader will -visit the “dead rooms” of any museum in Europe -and then study this book, he will find ample confirmation -of what I say.</p> - -<p>And here I would mention that every collector or -owner of any kind of works of art, of <i>bric-à-brac</i>, or -curiosities, who will master the art of mending, can -find an illimitable field for picking up bargains in -almost every shop of antiquities in Europe, especially -in the smaller or humbler kind. For it is very far -from being true that these dealers know “how to -mend everything;” on the contrary, I have often -found them very ignorant indeed of mending, and -have frequently instructed them in it. Thus I now -have before me a “Holy Family” of the early sixteenth -century, bas-relief in stamped leather, twelve -inches by eight, for which I paid two francs, but -which I might have had for one, it being utterly -dilapidated, and apparently of no value. In two or -three hours I restored it perfectly, and it would now -sell for perhaps a hundred francs. By it hangs a -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xiv">xiv</span> -“Madonna and Child,” painted on a panel, gold -ground, fourteenth century, which, including a very -broad and remarkable old frame, I purchased both -for twelve francs. The panel was warped like a sabre, -<img src="images/i_xiv.jpg" alt="" />, the colour and <i>gesso</i> ground badly scaled -away in many places. It was split in two pieces; in -short, it appeared to be nearly worthless. Now it is -in very good condition, and would be an ornament to -any gallery. As regards repairing ceramic ware or -china, glass, and porcelain, art has of late years made -remarkable advances, this kind of mending being the -most in requisition. As for old carved wood, no -matter how badly broken it may be, eaten away by -worms, or rotten, or even wanting large pieces, so -long as its original form is evident, it can be <i>very -easily</i> repaired or restored to all its original beauty -and integrity, as I shall fully explain. In this alone -there is a vast field for investment or money-making, -because there are annually destroyed almost everywhere -quantities of old wood-carvings; for, being -badly worm-eaten, they are ignorantly supposed to -be irreparable. The same may be said of ancient -carved ivories, which are ready to drop at a touch -into dust, as were those from Nineveh in the British -Museum, yet which are now firm and clear. It is also -true of the bindings of old books, many of marvellous -beauty, whether of stamped leather, parchment, or -carved. Even more interesting and curious is the -repairing or restoring worm-eaten manuscripts or -papers of any kind, or parchment, the easy process -of filling the holes not being known to many bibliophiles. -This art is becoming known in Germany, -where it is not unusual to buy an old book for a -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xv">xv</span> -mark, rebind it in hard old parchment, repair it generally -for two or three, and then sell it, according to -the subject, for several hundred or thousand per cent. -profit.</p> - -<p>It is greatly to be regretted that it is so little -known, especially in England, that to repair a few -holes or restore a little broken, crumbling carving it -is not absolutely necessary to tear down an entire -Gothic church and build a new one, as is so very generally -the case. There is no stone-work, however -dilapidated it may be, which cannot be mended very -perfectly, and that in almost all cases with a material -which sets even harder than the original, as was perfectly -shown at the Paris Exhibition of 1889. Dilapidated -stone carved work, of all ages and kinds, which -could be perfectly restored to a degree which even -very few artists suspect, abounds in Italy, where it -can be purchased for a song. The song, it is true, is -generally sung to a small silver accompaniment, but -the purchaser may make it golden for himself. For -very few know how to restore a knocked-off nose so -that the line of juncture be not visible; yet even this -is possible, as I shall show. And I may here remark -that in all the first galleries and museums of Europe, -without one exception, there is abundant evidence to -prove that, of all the arts, the one of repairing and -restoring is the one least understood and most strangely -neglected.</p> - -<p>There is hardly a village so small that one man or -woman could not make in it or eke out a living by repairing -different objects. In towns and cities the demand -for such work is much greater, for there ladies -break expensive fans and jewellery, and children -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xvi">xvi</span> -their dolls and toys, for mending of which the “rehabilitators” -require “much moneys,” especially in -the United States, where prices for anything out of -the way are appalling.</p> - -<p>I would therefore beg all people who are gifted -with some small allowance of “ingenuity,” tact, art, -or common-sense to consider that Mending or Restoring -is a calling very easily learned by a little practice, -and one by which a living can be made, even in its -humblest branches, as is shown by the umbrella-menders -and chair-caners in the streets. But common-sense -teaches that any one who shall have mastered -all that is explicitly set forth in this book ought -certainly to be able to gain money, even largely; for, -as I said, the opportunities of purchasing dilapidated -works of art, mending and selling them, are innumerable, -and Restoration is as yet everywhere in its -mere rudiments and very little practised. That which -might be a very great general industry of vast utility, -employing many thousands now idle, only exists in a -hap-hazard, casual way, as dependent on other kinds -of work. But to me it appears as a great art by itself, -dependent on certain principles of general application. -And when we consider what is generally -wasted for want of proper knowledge of this great -art, it seems to me to be but rational that if we had -in London a school for teaching mending and restoring -in all its branches as a trade, with a museum to -show the public, probably to its great astonishment, -what marvels can be wrought by renewing what is -old, it would be of great service to the country at -large. A very little reflection will convince the least -visionary or most practical reader that what is wasted -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xvii">xvii</span> -or annually destroyed of valuable old works, which -cannot be replaced, because they are no longer manufactured, -if restored, would form the basis of a great -national industry. It has not as yet, however, entered -into the head of any one to conceive this, simply -because no one has ever been educated as a general -restorer, but only in a secondary, supplementary, -small way as a specialist, generally as a botcher. -And I maintain, from no inconsiderable knowledge -of the subject, that the best menders and restorers -by far are those who understand the most branches -of their calling. The reason for this is plain; it is -because a repairer, when he comes to some unforeseen -difficulty—for example, in mending china—and -finds the cements used are not exactly applicable, he -will, if sensible, think of some other adhesive used in -other kinds of work, or other combinations or appliances.</p> - -<p>I go so far as to say that an exhibition of specimens -showing all that can be done in mending and restoration -in ceramic art, leather, carved stone, books, -carved and wrought wood, castings, metal, furniture, -fans, and toys, would probably serve as sufficient beginning -to establish classes and a school. The objects -should, when possible, be accompanied by a -duplicate or photograph showing the condition they -were in before restoration, on the principle of the -picture-cleaners, who amaze the public with such -startling contrasts of dirt and splendour.</p> - -<p>How this can all be done will be found in this book, -which I venture to suggest will often be found useful -in every family, or wherever “things” are broken -and worn. For the collector of curiosities who would -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xviii">xviii</span> -willingly pick up bargains, I seriously and earnestly -commend it as a <i>vade mecum</i> by means of which he -may literally make money in any shop. For, as I -have already said, strange as it may seem, the small -dealers in <i>bric-à-brac</i> are generally very ignorant of -all the curious secrets of restoration, or else they have -no time or means to attend to such work. Again, if -the collector has learned what I here teach, he will -often detect restoration allied to forgery in expensive -antiques, guaranteed to be perfect. It has been well -observed by M. <span class="smcap">Ris-Paquot</span>, in his valuable work, -<i>L’Art de restaurer soi-même les Faïences et Porcelaines</i>, -that it often happens, most unfortunately, that precious -relics whose value is immense, such as the Italian -<i>faïences</i> and those of Palissy or Henri II., come to -collections in such a condition, so pitifully injured, -that <i>de visu</i> we cannot buy them because we know of -nobody who can actually restore them, and because -this delicate work requires so much special knowledge. -Add to this, that their great value and rarity -disincline us to trust to the first-comer, or general -workman, treasures which he might utterly ruin by -clumsiness or ignorance.</p> - -<p>I may add that I seldom walk out in Florence without -seeing old worn <i>faïences</i> for sale for a mere trifle -which with a little retouching, gilding, and firing -could be made quite valuable. In such instances -there need be no complaint of destroying the venerable -effect and value of antiquity. In them antique -material may be legitimately employed as a -basis for newer work, especially when it is broken -away, worn down to the core, or full of holes. Now, -with what this book teaches in his mind, the artist or -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xix">xix</span> -tourist will very soon realise, if he be at all ingenious, -or can avail himself of the aid of some friend -who has even a very slight knowledge of art, that he -can at a slight outlay purchase objects which will become -very valuable when afterwards restored at -home.</p> - -<p>As I can imagine no head of a family, and no dealer -in miscellaneous works of art or any small wares, no -provider of furniture or furnisher, to whom this work -will not be a most acceptable gift, so I am very confident -that every traveller who has trunks to mend or -broken straps to join, and every emigrant roughing -it in the forests or the bush of Australia or Canada, -may learn from it many useful devices, and the fact -that with nothing more than a small tin of liquid -glue and another of indiarubber he can effect more -than could be imagined by any one who has not -studied the subject. On this I speak not without -experience, having found that, both as a soldier and -a traveller in the Wild West of America, my knowledge -of mending was of great use to my friends as -well as myself. A perusal of the Index of what is -here given will satisfy the reader that this manual is -in fact a <i>vade mecum</i> for almost all sorts and conditions -of men and women, and that there are none -who would not be thankful for it.</p> - -<p>A friend adds to these remarks the suggestion that -this work may properly be included among the presents -to a bride as an aid to housekeeping; and it will -probably be admitted that it would prove quite as -useful as many of the gifts which are usually bestowed -on such occasions.</p> - -<p>I have truly said that, while breaking and decay -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xx">xx</span> -are universal, there are literally nowhere any generally -accomplished repairers—that is to say, experts -who know and can practise even what is set forth in -this book. Certain menders of broken china there -are, of whom the great authority on fictile restoration, -<span class="smcap">Ris-Pasquot</span>, declares that none can be trusted -with anything valuable. There are so few needle-women -who can sew up a rent perfectly that a lady -“to the manor born” paid in Rome <i>two pounds</i>, or -<i>fifty lire</i>, for being taught the stitch, described in -this book, by which it can be done. That it was a -great secret to an expert and accomplished needle-woman -proves that it cannot be generally known. -A house-furnisher in London doing a large business -once explained to me with manifest pride how he -had, by dint of persuasion and treating, obtained -from another what is really one of the simplest -recipes for restoring a brown stain. All of this being -true, it is apparent enough that any accomplished -mender and restorer, lady or gentleman, can hardly -fail to make a living by the art; and I sincerely believe -that it is the simple truth that it is set forth in -the following pages so fully and clearly that any one -who will make the experiment can learn from it how -to make a living. This is effectively, in all its fulness, -a new art and a new calling, and it is time that -it were established.</p> - -<p>It is a great mistake to suppose that manufacturers -are necessarily good menders of what they make. I -have found, as have my readers, that it is not the -great watchmaker who oversees the production of -thousands of watches to whom a watch can be most -safely trusted for rehabilitation. For, in nine cases -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xxi">xxi</span> -out of ten, it is some extremely humble brother of -the craft, who does nothing but mend in a small shop, -who restores your chronometer most admirably. The -same is true as regards trunks anywhere out of England, -since in Germany and France anything of the -kind is invariably botched with incredible want of -skill. This runs through most trades; for which -reason I believe that a really well-accomplished general -<i>mender</i>, earnestly devoted to the calling in every -detail and resolved to be perfect in it, could ere long -repair better than most manufacturers, since the latter, -in these days, all work by machinery or by vast -subdivision of labour, and not, so to speak, by hand. -But all repairing <i>must</i> be by hand. We can make -every detail of a watch or of a gun by machinery, but -the machine cannot mend it when broken, much less -a clock or a pistol!</p> - -<p>The value of this book will appear to any one who -knows how little really good repairing there is in -Europe. Since writing the foregoing pages I have -gone through the galleries of the Vatican and many -other museums, and been amazed at the coarse, ignorant, -and bungling manner in which the <i>great majority</i> -of antique statues and other objects of immense value -have been mended up. There is in most cases no -pretence whatever to conceal the lines of repair, and -when this has been attempted it has failed through -ignorance of recipes and instructions which may be -found in this work. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xxii">xxii</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1">1</span></p> - -<h2 class="xx-large">A MANUAL OF<br /> - -MENDING AND REPAIRING</h2> - -<h2 id="MATERIALS_USED_IN_MENDING">MATERIALS USED IN MENDING</h2> - -<blockquote> - -<p>“<i>There are full many admirable and practical recipes</i> -(Hausmitteln), <i>which are often known only in certain -families</i>.”—Die Natürliche Magie. By <span class="smcap">Johann C. -Wiegleb</span>, 1782.</p></blockquote> - -<p>The art of mending or of repairing may be broadly -stated as being effected, firstly, by mechanical processes, -such as those employed by carpenters in nailing -and joining, in embroidery with the needle, and -in metal-work with clumps, or soldering; and, secondly, -by chemical means. The latter consist of -<i>cements</i> and <i>adhesives</i>, which are, however, effectively -the same thing. This glue, or gum, is an adhesive -or <i>sticker</i>; that is, a simple substance which causes -two objects to adhere. The same, when combined -with powder of chalk or glass, would be a <span class="smcap">Cement</span>. -This latter term is again applied somewhat generally -and loosely by many, not only to all adhesives, but -also more correctly to all soft substances which -harden, such as Portland cement, mortar, and putty, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_2">2</span> -and which are often used by themselves to form objects, -such as “bricks” and castings; but these latter, -having also the quality of acting as adhesives or -stickers, are naturally regarded as being the same.</p> - -<p>As will be speedily observed in the great number -of recipes for mending which will be given in this -book, there are many which occur frequently in different -combinations; therefore it will be advisable -and indispensable for those who wish to master mending -as an art to indicate these as a basis.</p> - -<p>As <span class="smcap">Sigmund Lehner</span> has observed in his valuable -work on <i>Die Kitte- und Klebemittel</i>, there have been -such vast numbers of recipes published of late years -for adhesives in various technological works, that the -combination of the usual materials depends almost on -the judgment of the experimenter, and every practical -operator will soon learn to make inventions of his -own. These materials, according to <span class="smcap">Stohmann</span>, may -be classified as follows:—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td class="tdrt">I.</td> - <td>Those in which <span class="smcap">Oil</span> is the basis.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdrt">II.</td> - <td>Resin or pitch.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdrt">III.</td> - <td>Caoutchouc (indiarubber) or gutta-percha.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdrt">IV.</td> - <td>Gum or starch.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdrt">V.</td> - <td>Lime and chalk.</td> - </tr></table> - -<p><span class="smcap">Lehner</span> extends the list as follows into adhesives, -or cements:—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td class="tdrt">I.</td> - <td>For glass and porcelain in every form.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdrt">II.</td> - <td>For metals not exposed to changes of temperature. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_3">3</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdrt">III.</td> - <td>For stoves and furnaces, or objects exposed to -heat.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdrt">IV.</td> - <td>For chemical apparatus and objects exposed to -corrosive liquids.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdrt">V.</td> - <td>Luting or cements, to protect glass or porcelain -vessels from the action of fire.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdrt">VI.</td> - <td>Cements for microscopic preparations, for filling -teeth and similar work.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdrt">VII.</td> - <td>Those for special objects, such as are made of -tortoise-shell, meerschaum (ivory), &c.</td> - </tr></table> - -<p><span class="smcap">Oils</span> are divided into those (such as olive) which -never become hard, and the linseed, which in time -dries into a substance like gum. The latter combined -with a great variety of mineral substances, such as -plumbago, calcined lime, magnesia, chalk, red oxide -of iron, soapstone, or with varnishes, forms insoluble -“soaps,” which, as cements, resist water. They require -a long time to <i>set</i> or become hard.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Resins</span> and <span class="smcap">Gums</span> include a great number of substances, -such as resin or hard pitch, which is distilled -from pine-trees; shellac, mastic, elemi, copal, kauri -gum, amber, gum arabic, dextrine made from flour, -the gum of the peach and cherry, and of many other -trees. To these may be added frankincense and -tragacanth, which is less an adhesive than a stiffener -and dresser. Gums are generally rather brittle; this -is remedied by combination with oily substances, volatile -oils, or caoutchouc. With these gums <span class="smcap">Lehner</span> -includes asphaltum. The defect of such adhesives -is, as he also remarks, that they will not resist <i>high</i> -temperatures. This, however, will apply to most objects. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_4">4</span></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Varnish.</span>—This belongs properly to the gums, but -is technically regarded as a separate material. It is -gum in solution in turpentine or spirits. For details -vide <i>Die Fabrikation der Copal- Terpentinöl und Spiritus-Lacke</i>, -by L. E. Andés; Leipzig, price 5 m. 40 pf.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Caoutchouc</span> and <span class="smcap">Gutta-Percha</span> are gums which -when hard are still elastic, and resist the action of -water. I have read that a perfect imitation or substitute -for them has been made of turpentine, but have -not seen it, though I have met with glue made with oil -and turpentine, which very much resembled them in -elasticity or flexibility. Reduced to a liquid form -with ether, benzine, &c., these gums can be kept in a -liquid state for a long time, and then hardened in any -form by exposure to the air. They enter into a very -great variety of cements, such as are meant to be -tough or waterproof. Indiarubber is, on the whole, -the best, and gutta-percha the cheapest, for cements.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Glue.</span>—This is made, by boiling, from horns and -bones; it is essentially the same as gelatine. It is -the most generally known of all adhesives, and may -be modified by certain admixtures to suit almost any -substance. It has the peculiarity that it must always -be boiled in a <i>balneum mariæ</i>, or in a kettle in hot -water in another kettle. Its strength is vastly increased -by admixture with nitric acid or <i>strong</i> vinegar. -On the subject of glue in all its relations, the -reader may consult <i>Die Leim- und Gelatine-Fabrikation</i>, -or “The Manufacture of Glue and Gelatine,” by F. -Dawidowsky; Vienna, price 3s.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Flour-Paste and Starch-Paste.</span>—These mixtures, -though generally used for weak work, such as -to make papers adhere, can be very much strengthened -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_5">5</span> -by admixture with glue and gums. Combined -with certain substances, such as paper, mineral powders, -and <i>alum</i>, they, when submitted to pressure, become -intensely hard, and resist not only water but -heat, when not excessive. Also combined with varnishes -they are decided resistants. <span class="smcap">Lehner</span> speaks -of them as if they were perishable in any condition.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Sturgeon’s Bladder.</span>—With this the bladders of -several kinds of fish are classed. Cut in small pieces -and dissolved in spirits it makes a very strong adhesive, -which is mixed with many others.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Lime</span> is the most extensively used cement in the -world. Combined with water it forms mortar. It is -united with many substances, such as caseine or -cheese, the white of eggs, and silicate of soda, to -make powerful minor cements. On the subject of -lime the practical technologist should consult <i>Kalk -und Luftmortel</i>, by Dr. Herrmann Zwick; Vienna, A. -Hartleben, price 3s., in which all details of the subject -are given in full.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Eggs.</span>—The yolk, and more particularly the white, -of eggs is sometimes used as an adhesive, and it -enters into many very excellent cements. For details -as to the chemistry and technology of this material -consult <i>Die Fabrikationen von Albumin- und Eierkonserven</i> -(A Full Account of the Characteristics of all -Egg Substances, the Fabrication of Egg, and Blood -Albumen, &c.), by Karl Ruprecht; Vienna, A. Hartleben, -price 2s. 3d.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Neutral Substances, or Binding Materials.</span>—Almost -any substance not easily soluble in water, -and many which are, from common dust or earth, -or clay, sand, chalk, powdered egg-shells, sawdust, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_6">6</span> -shell-powder, &c., when combined with certain adhesives, -form cements. This is sometimes due to chemical -combination, but more frequently to mechanical -union. In the latter case the adhesive clinging to -every separate grain has the more points of adhesion, -just as a man by clinging with both hands to two -posts is harder to remove than if he held by one.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Caseine or Cheese.</span>—This in several forms, but -chiefly of curd in combination with several substances, -but mostly with lime or borax, forms a very valuable -cement. It is also combined with strong <i>lye</i> and silicate -of soda. It must not, however, be too much depended -on as a resistant to water or heat.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Blood</span>, generally of oxen or cows, combined with -lime, alum, and coal ashes, forms a solid and durable -cement.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Glycerine</span> forms the basis, with plumbago, &c., of -several cements. Like oil, it renders glue flexible -and partly waterproof. For chemical details on this -subject, vide <i>Das Glycerin</i>, by J. W. Koppe, Leipzig.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Gypsum</span> is combined with many substances to form -cements, some of them of great and peculiar value.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Iron</span> pulverised is the basis of a great number of -very durable and strongly resistant cements.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Alum</span> may be included among the bases, as it is -very important in several compositions, forming a -powerful chemical aid. It is excellent as aiding resistance -to both moisture and heat. For an exhaustive -work on alum consult <i>Die Fabrikation des Alauns</i>, -&c., by Frederic Junemann, which should be carefully -studied by all who work in cements.</p> - -<p>There is a very great number of “indifferent” or -minor aids to these, such as sugar, milk, honey, spirits -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_7">7</span> -of wine, water, ochre, galbanum, tannin, ammonia, -feldspar, plumbago, sulphur, vinegar, salt, zinc (white), -umber, bismuth, tin, cadmium, clay, ashes, &c., -which are essential in certain combinations.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Dextrine</span>, the gum of flour or starch, or <i>Leiokom</i>, -much resembles gum-arabic, but is more brittle. Its -adhesiveness depends somewhat on the manner in -which it is dissolved. “It is,” says <span class="smcap">Lehner</span>, “prepared -by heating starch which has been moistened -with nitric acid; also by warming paste with very -much diluted sulphuric acid.”</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Wax</span>, including that of bees as well as paraffine, is -used in repairs, and forms a part of several cements. -On this subject consult <i>Das Wachs</i>, or “Wax and its -Technical Applications,” by Ludwig Sedna; Leipzig, -2s. 6d.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Silicate of Soda, or Liquid Glass.</span>—This is generally -sold in the form of a very dense liquid. It is -prepared by mixing quartz or flint sand with soda, or -more rarely with potash. “It is,” says <span class="smcap">Lehner</span>, “a -glass which is distinguished from other glasses by -being easily soluble in water. It is believed to be a -very modern invention; but I have seen Venetian -glasses of the fifteenth century which appeared to be -painted with it, or something very similar; and I -have found decided indications of a knowledge of it -in two writers of the sixteenth century, <span class="smcap">Wolfgang -Hildebrand</span> and <span class="smcap">Van Helmont</span>. According to Wagner, -there are three kinds of liquid glass. By itself -liquid glass can only be used for mending glass; but -when combined with other substances, such as cement, -calcined lime, or clay, or glass, in powder, it forms a -body as hard as stone, or a double silicate, which is -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_8">8</span> -strongly resistant to chemical influences.” It occupies -the first position as an adhesive for glass, nor is -it surpassed as a cement in solid form. On this subject -vide <i>Wasserglas und Infusorienerde</i>, &c., by Hermann -Krätzer; Vienna, 3s.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Natural Cement, or Hydraulic Lime.</span>—This is -familiarly known to all readers as Portland cement, -but it is found of different qualities in many countries, -and is also made artificially. Certain mineral -substances have the quality when powdered and combined -with water of setting hard as stone; hence the -name <i>hydraulic</i>. I have seen at Budapest articles of -Portland cement made in Hungary which equalled in -appearance fine black slate or marble, and, while -much less brittle, were indeed in every respect more -durable and resistant to exposure. These artificial -cements can be largely incorporated with indifferent -substances, such as sand; they, however, require intense -baking, and may in consequence be regarded as -a kind of fictile ware.</p> - -<p>Portland cement is very thoroughly treated in <i>Hydraulischer -Kalk und Portland Cement</i> (in all their relations), -by Dr. H. Zwick.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Tragacanth</span>, though called a gum, is properly -nothing of the kind, not being a true adhesive. It is -the product of the <i>Astragalus verus</i>, a tree found in -Asia. It swells out in water, and softens, but without -dissolving. It is more of a glaze than a paste; -hence it is used extensively by confectioners, bookbinders, -or to stiffen laces. It enters, however, into -the composition of several cements.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Bread</span> may be classed as a material by itself, as it -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_9">9</span> -derives certain peculiar virtues from the yeast which -causes its fermentation. With certain combinations -it becomes wax-like, or hard, and may be used to advantage -in many repairs as well as for modelling. It -has the great advantage of being easily worked and -always at hand.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Celluloid</span> is treated of in this work under the head -of Artificial Ivory. It is made from gun-cotton and -camphor. For full information on this subject consult -<i>Das Celluloid</i>, or “Celluloid, its Raw Materials, -Manufacture, Peculiarities, and Technical Applications, -&c.,” by Dr. Fr. Böckmann, Vienna and -Leipzig.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Potatoes</span>, peeled and mashed, and kept for thirty-six -hours in a mixture of eight parts of sulphuric acid -to a hundred of water, and then dried and pressed, -form a white, hard substance very much like ivory, -or, as one may say, like white boxwood. <span class="smcap">Lehner</span> -expresses his doubt as to whether artificial meerschaum -pipes were ever made of this substance, but -I have seen them, and can testify that they looked -like meerschaum, and certainly were much harder -than <i>bruyere</i>, or briar-wood. Whether they will -“colour” I cannot say.</p> - -<p>The principle by which potatoes, paper, and many -other substances can be hardened like parchment or -horn is curious. Potatoes consist of about seventy -per cent. water and twenty-five per cent. of starch, -the remainder being salts and <i>cellulose</i>, which forms -cells surrounded by the grains of starch. “When -such a substance is for some time brought into contact -with diluted sulphuric acid, that which results is -simply a contraction of the cells” (<i>i.e.</i>, a hardening), -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_10">10</span> -“or a kind of parchmenting.” Thus soft paper is -converted into parchment.</p> - -<p>It is evident that chemistry is as yet in its infancy -as regards the conversion of cellulose by acid into -hard substances. Since cotton, paper, and potatoes -all produce by this process different substances, it is -probable that hundreds of organic, or at least vegetable, -substances will all yield new forms.</p> - -<p>There is a marked difference between paste made -of <i>starch</i> or <i>flour</i>, each having its peculiar merits. -The former is principally prepared from potatoes. -To prepare the cement we mix it with a very little -water, stirring it very thoroughly till it assumes a -bluish appearance. A little more hot water is then -added, and the mass left till an opal-like tinge indicates -that it has formed. To this then add hot water -<i>ad libitum</i>. As it is almost colourless in very thin -coats, it is largely used to glaze and give body or -weight to, and often to simply falsify, woven fabrics, -which by its aid seem heavier. To increase this -weight white lead and other substances are used.</p> - -<p>To make the best flour-paste, flour should be kneaded -in a bag under water till all the starch is washed -away. What remains is a substance closely allied to -caseine, or the white of egg. Combined with lime it -forms a hard cement. A very slight admixture of -carbolic acid (also oil of cloves) will keep paste from -souring or decay. This acid has the property of destroying -the growth of the minute vegetation which -constitutes fermentation, just as other strong scents -or perfumes are supposed to disinfect rooms, &c.</p> - -<p>A very great number of other ingredients, such as -the oxides of lead or zinc, manganese, baryta, sulphur, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_11">11</span> -sal ammoniac, flint-sand, clay, salt, ochre, varnish, -galbanum, or frankincense, enter into certain -recipes, but those already given may be regarded as -constituting by far the principal portion of all cements -in ordinary use. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_12">12</span></p> - -<h2 id="MENDING_BROKEN_CHINA_PORCELAIN">MENDING BROKEN CHINA, PORCELAIN, -CROCKERY, MAJOLICA, TERRA-COTTA, -BRICK AND TILE WORK.</h2> - -<p>Fictile or Ceramic ware embraces, roughly speaking, -all that is made of clay, or mineral bases or materials, -and which is subsequently baked to give it hardness. -The better the material and the more intense the heat, -or the greater the number of bakings to which most -kinds are subjected, the harder and more lasting will -they be. The old china ware which preceded porcelain, -a great many specimens of old Roman vessels, -and, for a more modern example, old Italian majolica -and Hungarian wine-pitchers, made all within a century, -are as hard as stone. They chip a great deal -before they break, just as agate might do.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Terra-cotta</span> is simply earth or clay “baked.” -In most of the examples known as terra-cotta, earth -predominates. Pure fine clay well fired is superior -to what is generally called terra-cotta. Neither can -we really class with it articles made of superior Portland -cement, of which, as I have said, I have seen -many made at Budapest which were like the finest -hard slate.</p> - -<p>Many writers confuse majolica with faïence; others -regard the latter as what we should call crockery, or -such ware as ranges between glazed terra-cotta and -porcelain. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_13">13</span></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Majolica</span> consists generally of terra-cotta covered -with a glaze. A glaze is a fusible substance, we may -say a kind of glass, mixed with colouring matter, -which is at the same time a protection and an ornament. -Enamel is glass in fine powder melted, used -generally on metal or by itself. The base of the -paint is a substance fusible by heat which is mixed -with colours also fusible. Therefore when the painting -is submitted to heat it melts, adheres, and is permanent. -Glazing, enamelling, and china painting -are essentially the same.</p> - -<p>Terra-cotta is not difficult to mend. I can best -illustrate this by an example. A friend once gave me -a terra-cotta vase from the Pyramid of Cholula, in -Mexico. These are supposed to be of very great antiquity. -This contained a fragment of pottery, probably -a sacred relic of ruder style, and I suppose of far -earlier times. The vase, however, had been broken -to fragments, and the owner was about to throw it -away as worthless. I begged it of him. Firstly, I put -the principal pieces together, using, to make them -adhere, glue with nitric acid. For finer work I should -have used Turkish cement or the best gum-mastic -dissolved in spirit or fish glue. Piece by piece with -care I reconstructed the whole.</p> - -<p>There was wanting, however, one piece about three -inches square. I pasted with great care a piece of -paper inside the vase for a <i>back</i>, and then poured on -it plaster of Paris liquefied with water. To make this -<i>set</i> hard, the plaster or <i>gesso</i> should be made with -burnt alum-water and dissolved gum-arabic. This -exactly supplied the missing piece.</p> - -<p>When it was finished, I filled in all the broken edges -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_14">14</span> -and other cavities with the plaster-paste, which set -even harder than the terra-cotta. The outer colour -of the vase was of reddish rusty black. I painted -the whole over with a corresponding colour; that -is to say, I rubbed it in by thumb, which is very different -from mere painting. By cementing and -rubbing I so restored the whole that the repair -was hardly perceptible. This process is carried -to great perfection in Italy with broken Etruscan -ware.</p> - -<p>I may here remark as regards <i>rubbing in</i> oil or water -colours, that it is little known or practised, but it is of -great value in restoration when we wish to produce -certain curious antique-looking effects. I once knew -in Rome an artist who had bought for a trifle an old -carved <i>baule</i> or chest. By rubbing in with care on it -Naples yellow and brown shades, and subsequent -friction, he had made it look strangely like old ivory. -Mere painting, however skilfully performed, would -not have given it its antique ivory look. The same -artist had purchased one or two common, large, yellowish -terra-cotta wine-jars. He drew on them classical -figures, cut out the outlines a little with chisel -and file, and smoothing the figures with sandpaper, -also ivoried the whole by <i>rubbing in</i> colour. This was -but a few hours’ work, yet the effect was startling. -What had cost but a few francs would have sold for -hundreds. I should add that with the aid of fine retouching -flexible varnish this process could be very -much facilitated. Any one who can draw or paint at -all can try this experiment on any old piece of wood-carving, -or on a common yellow coarse earthenware. -Smooth the latter first with sandpaper, then rub in -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_15">15</span> -the colours. The same is applicable to old carving -in marble.</p> - -<p>All of these devices are of use to the restorer. As -regards restoration of terra-cotta, the field is wide -and profitable. Not only in Italy, but even in London, -we may find for sale broken Etruscan vases or -similar objects for a trifle, which are extremely easy -to restore. These are generally of red or light yellow -clay baked. If you have, let us say, a vase fractured, -obtain clay of the same colour—if you cannot -readily get it, take pipeclay—and colour it with a -strong infusion of red or yellow, though this is not -necessary if the exterior is black. Mix the clay well -with glue or gum-arabic and alum-water, supply the -missing portions, and let them harden. With a little -care and practice, remarkable restorations may thus -be made. I may here add that with this composition, -bottles, decanters, and cups can be coated, which, -when painted or rubbed in, exactly resemble Etruscan -or other ancient pottery. To prevent cracking, they -should first be painted with thick, coarse oil paint -mixed with sand or umber, which forms a ground. -Let it dry—the longer the better—and then rub in, -thinly, the gum and clay. There is another composition -of <i>blanc d’Espagne</i>, or whiting, and silicate of -soda, which sets even harder, but which is a little -more difficult at first to work, which may be used for -such restoration. This can be directly painted on -glass for a ground.</p> - -<p><i>Majolica</i> or <i>Faïence</i> can generally be sufficiently well -mended with acidulated glue, but as the latter often -communicates a dark stain, it is better to use for fine -ware, or any which is to be used, the so-called Turkish -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_16">16</span> -cement. The best quality of this is made of the finest -quality of gum-mastic dissolved in spirit. It is so -tenacious that in the East gems are frequently directly -attached by means of it to metal, and they will often -break sooner than separate from it. Most chemists -have for sale, or will prepare for you, some form of it. -The silicate of potash and whiting can also be supplied -by chemists; they should be mixed with great -care, so as to form a medium paste, and then used -rapidly and with skill, because this cement hardens -very quickly. It is, however, a very powerful binder, -and sets as hard as glass.</p> - -<p>Having put together and cemented the broken -pieces of a cup or vase, they must be kept in place till -the cement dries. This is effected by means of many -contrivances, regarding which the operator must employ -<i>some</i> original inventiveness. Firstly, the pieces -can often be simply tied, or attached by pieces of -tape, or parchment, or paper glued on. In other cases -india-rubber bands are useful. Again, bits of wood, -or sticks and wires, are the things useful. A bed of -wax is generally a sure guard. It is best to do this -with great care, and not impatiently rely on holding -the pieces together with the fingers till they stick. -This is often the most difficult part of the whole operation; -therefore it should be done well and deliberately. -And here it may be remarked that, as in surgery, -the most complicated cases of fracture may be -studied out and adjusted; for which reason I dare -say that skilful surgeons would be good menders of -crockery, just as good astronomers are always good -riflemen.</p> - -<p>When the broken pieces are adjusted and all is dry, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_17">17</span> -there remain the chips, hollows, ragged edges, and -“hairs,” as the French call them, or lines of juncture, -to be filled and smoothed. This is done with -the cement which you employ, according to the quality -of the material, either plaster and gum-arabic, silicate -and whiting, or powdered chalk. Some experts -succeed with white of an egg and finely powdered -quicklime, which holds firmly, but which requires -practice to amalgamate. Fill the cavities carefully, -pressing the cement well in, as the Romans did, with -a stick or point. When all is smooth, paint over the -blank spaces and varnish with Sohnée, No. 3, or with -a slight coating of silicate. Fine copal varnish is -rather tougher or less brittle.</p> - -<p>The most thorough process of all is to unite the -fragments with a vitreous or metallic <i>flux</i>, such as the -silicate—there are several of these—and then have the -work baked or fired. It can then be painted with -porcelain colours under glaze, and fired again. As -this is very delicate, difficult, and expensive, few -amateurs will care to try it. It is, however, perfect, -and by means of it the most complete reparation can -be effected. The Japanese do this simply with the -blow-pipe, by means of which they fix enamel powders -even on wood. This use of the pipe is also difficult, -but the ancient Romans are said to have employed -the process with most minor work. As a -thread of glass will melt in a candle, and as fine-glass -powder is equally fusible, it can be understood that -under the flame of a blow-pipe the latter can often -be melted so as to avail in restoration.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Crockery, or Faïence, and Porcelain.</span>—“Crockery,” -by which we commonly understand such ware -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_18">18</span> -as that of the blue willow plates, is far superior to -terra-cotta, since its <i>core</i> or basis is thin, and very -hard, and its gloss of a different description, and more -incorporated with the body; or it is of a single superior -body.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Porcelain</span> differs entirely from the other two kinds -of fictile ware, being an elaborate mineralogical compound, -its base being <i>kaolin</i>, a friable, white, earthy -substance, requiring great care in its preparation, and -<i>petunse</i>, or feldspar, which is united with the <i>kaolin</i>. -The result is a very delicate and beautiful diaphanous -ware, or one through which light passes to a limited -degree. Both crockery and porcelain are far more -difficult to mend, owing to the impossibility—particularly -with the latter—of making fractures disappear.</p> - -<p>The first and most simple process of mending both -kinds of ware is to make small holes with a drill -along the edges of the fracture, and then, adjusting -the fragments, bind them together with wire. <span class="smcap">M. -Ris-Paquot</span> claims that “the honour of this discovery -belongs properly to a humble and modest workman -named <span class="smcap">Delille</span>, of the little village of Montjoye, -in Normandy.” But the archæologist will say -of this claim, as the English judge did of a similar -one, that the plaintiff might as well apply for a patent -for having discovered the art of mixing brandy with -water, since there was probably never yet a savage -who had wire, or even string, who did not know -enough to mend broken calabashes, jars, and pipes -by this solid method of sewing. From the time when -large earthen punch-bowls were first used in Europe, -we find them mended with silver wire. It is needless -to devote whole pages with illustrations, as <span class="smcap">M. Ris-Paquot</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_19">19</span> -has done, to show how to effect such mending. -The holes are made with either a bore or hand -drill, such as can be bought in every tool shop. If -the reader will obtain one and experiment with it on -any penny plate or broken fragment, he will soon -master all the mystery. The wire is made fast by a -turn with a pair of nippers or pincers. Before fastening, -wash the edges of the ware with white of egg in -which a very little whiting, or finely powdered lime -or plaster of Paris, has been mixed.</p> - -<p>I may here observe that the wire for china-drilling -should be half round, or flat on one side. To prepare -this, take brass wire, say a length of about two -feet, and, holding an old knife, draw the wire firmly -and steadily against it.</p> - -<p>There are endless cements for sale by chemists, all -warranted perfect, to mend glass and china, and most -of them do indeed answer the purpose very well, for -nature has given us not a few materials wherewith to -repair accidents. Thus, even boiling in milk will -often suffice to reunite broken edges. But I believe -that of all, the Turkish cement already described, -which is made of gum <small>MASTIC</small> (a term improperly applied -in France to putty, by Americans to lime-plaster -on houses, and by Levantines to spirit with resin -in it), is the most adhesive and resistant to heat, cold, -or moisture.</p> - -<p>The art of mending does not consist so much of -knowing what to use for an <small>ADHESIVE</small> (since, as I have -said, every chemist’s shop abounds in these) as in skill -and tact with which fragments are brought and kept -together, missing portions supplied, and in knowing -the substance with which to fill a blank. There are -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_20">20</span> -cases in which, when a hole has been knocked in a -china or glass plate, it can be drilled out round, and a -disc of the same substance or colour, or even of another, -inserted. This is almost an art by itself, and by means -of it very singular and puzzling effects may be introduced; -as, for instance, when a number of holes are -drilled in a white china plate and then filled with -discs of coloured china, agate, coral, &c. In the -East, turquoise and coral beads are often thus set into -porcelain, as well as wood. The mastic or acidulated -glue is used to make the objects inserted hold firmly.</p> - -<p>As the smoker, when he breaks his pipe across the -stem, has it repaired with a short silver slide or tube, -so when a china jar is broken across the neck, the -reparation can be concealed by a silver collar, which -is sometimes a great improvement; as, for instance, -when the head of a china dog, or even of a china man, -is taken off. But in a great many cases, or in all -where this kind of concealment is advisable, it may -be made, like Cæsar’s wife, beyond suspicion, by -making the collar or concealing ornament, or leaf or -flower, of silicate and whiting so as to resemble the -ware itself, which can be done very nicely.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Silicate of Soda</span> is sometimes sold in the form of -a dry solid, which is placed in a little vinegar, and -warmed. When dissolved it can be used <i>ad libitum</i>. -It is often used as a glaze for stone.</p> - -<p>There is a curious old story about mending broken -crockery by means of magic—or rather by deceit—which, -though not of a practical nature, is at least -amusing. It is partially told in a book published -about 1670, entitled <i>Joco-Seriorum Naturæ et Artis -Magiæ Naturales Centuriæ Tres</i>. It happened once in -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_21">21</span> -Mergentheim that there was a great fair, when the -whole courtyard of the palace was full of earthenware -vessels for sale <i>ab assidentibus muliebibus</i> (by attendant -women). Seeing this, the Prince of Mergentheim -went about among these women, and so arranged it -that they divided all their stock into two parts, or -exact duplicates, half of which they hid away, while -the other half was exposed for sale. While at dinner -the Prince spoke much of magic, and professed to be -able to produce such a delirium in people’s minds -that they would act like lunatics. “Thus, for instance,” -he said, pointing casually out of the window, -“you see all those women. I can drive them -mad at once.” Whereupon one who was present -wagered a handsome carriage and four horses that -the Prince could not do it. The latter smiled, waved -his hand, and uttered a spell, when lo! all at once -the market-women began, <i>bacchantium more</i>—like raging -Bacchantæ—to attack their crockery with sticks -and stools, and hurl it about, and dash it to pieces.</p> - -<p>The one who had betted the chariot protested -that it was a trick arranged beforehand. The Prince -replied, “Well, the pots are all broken. If I can -mend them again by a spell, wilt thou then believe?” -The other said, “Most certainly.” Then the Prince -waved his wand and said, “It is done. Let us go -down into the courtyard and see.” And when there, -sure enough they found the pots all whole again—at -least they discovered others exactly like them in their -places.</p> - -<p>The legend continued that the Prince, though he -kept the carriage and horses as a trophy, liberally -paid for them. The author of the <i>Tres Centuriæ</i>, who -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_22">22</span> -does not record the secret of the little arrangement, -declares that he does not know whether it was all -done by a fraud or by magic. If it was the latter, I -regret that the incantation by which broken crockery -is mended is now lost. The most powerful spell -known to me is <i>Recipe Gummæ Mastichæ duæ unciæ cum -Spirito Vini fiat mixtio</i>—that is, mastic cement. It is -generally combined with sturgeon’s bladder glue.</p> - -<p>This cement answers very well for glass. One of -the old recipes, which was very good indeed, is thus -given by <span class="smcap">Johannes Wallburger</span> (1760):—“Take -finely cut and a little powdered sturgeon’s bladder” -(still sold by all chemists), “soften it all night in -spirits, add to this a little clean and powdered mastic, -boil it a little in a brass pan. Should it become too -thick, add a little spirits.” This may be also used for -many other purposes.</p> - -<p>A strong but coarser adhesive, especially for crockery -and stone, can be made as follows:—Take old -and hard goat’s milk cheese, and warm it in hot water -till it forms, by pounding, a mass like turpentine. -Add to this, while grinding, finely pulverised quicklime -and the well-shaken white of eggs.</p> - -<p>I do not hesitate to give a variety of such recipes, -because in every one the artist will find valuable suggestions -for other purposes than simply glueing -broken articles together. This latter is a valuable -“filler” for many purposes. Glue was formerly -made into a strong cement by boiling it for a time in -water, but before it had become incorporated with the -water, the latter was poured off and strong spirits -substituted and stirred well in.</p> - -<p>A very popular old cement for crockery, of which -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_23">23</span> -there were several variations, was made by mixing -glue, turpentine, ox-gall, the juice of garlic, and -sturgeon-bladder, tragacanth, and mastic. All of -this singularly smelling mixture was put into a pan -and boiled in strong spirits, such as whisky, then -kneaded on a board under a roller, again boiled with -more spirits, yet again rolled, and this was repeated -a third time, and then cooled till it could be cut into -cakes. When these were to be used they were again -steeped in spirits. But with this cement, glass or -metal could be most firmly attached to wood. I confess -that I have never tried it, but it was evidently a -very strong cement.</p> - -<p>Another of these somewhat complicated recipes for -crockery, glass, and porcelain, which I find in the -<i>Tausandkünstler</i>, 1782, is as follows:—Half an ounce -of finely cut sturgeon’s bladder, two teaspoonfuls of -alabaster powder or gypsum, quarter of an ounce of -tragacanth, one teaspoonful of silberglatt, two of powdered -mastic, two of frankincense, two of gum-arabic, -one of Marienglas, one tablespoonful of spirits of -wine, one of beer-vinegar. Boil it and stir, and apply. -Any drops sticking to the mended article may -be removed with vinegar. When it is to be used -again revive it by heating, adding spirits of wine and -beer-vinegar. The gum-frankincense is here worth -noting.</p> - -<p>A common cement for mending broken glass or -china is prepared as follows:—To two parts of gum-shellac -add one of turpentine; boil them over a slow -fire, and form the mass into small cakes before it dries. -To use it, warm with a lamp. To mend ivory or -wood, take a cake and let it dissolve in spirits of wine. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_24">24</span></p> - -<p>A very strong cement is made as follows:—Take -one ounce of finely powdered mastic dissolved in six -of spirits of wine and two ounces of shredded sturgeon’s -bladder dissolved in two ounces common -spirits; add one half ounce of <i>gum-ammoniac</i> as it -hardens; warm it when it is to be used. This is as -strong a cement as can be made.</p> - -<p>Defects, cracks, and repairs in porcelain, &c., may -often be concealed as follows:—Paint the spot with -silicate of soda, not too much thinned, and dust it over -before it dries with bronze powder. This will set so -hard that it may be polished with an agate burnisher.</p> - -<p>It is also possible that many of my readers have -heard of <i>gesso painting</i>, an art perfected by Mr. <span class="smcap">Walter -Crane</span>. This consists of painting with plaster of -Paris in solution, with the point of a brush, depositing -the soft paste in relief. The same principle is -applicable to painting in silicate and whiting on glass -surfaces. By means of it decoration can be given to -any glass bottle or other object.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Lime</span> enters into the composition of many cements, -the simplest being the mortar formed by its admixture -with water. But the quality of this is very much -determined by that of the lime. The <i>chunam</i> of -India, which resembles white marble or a fine white -stone, is made of sea-shells burned to lime. A wonderfully -hard, fine, white cement used by the Romans -for their best mosaic-work, and which set with great -rapidity, was made of shell-lime with the white of -eggs. I have found the same composition worthless -when made with inferior stone-lime.</p> - -<p>A good cheap cement for porcelain and glass is -combined as follows:— -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_25">25</span></p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Starch or wheat flour</td> - <td class="tdr">8</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Glue</td> - <td class="tdr">4</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Purified chalk</td> - <td class="tdr">12</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Turpentine</td> - <td class="tdr">4</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Spirits of wine</td> - <td class="tdr">24</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Water</td> - <td class="tdr">24</td> - </tr></table> - -<p>Pour a part of the spirits and water mixed on -the flour and chalk, add the glue, boil it down till -the latter dissolves, and stir the turpentine into the -whole. This can be used to make artificial wood -with shavings or sawdust.</p> - -<p>A very good cement for porcelain, and one which -is colourless, is made by cutting the finest clear gelatine -into bits, and dissolving it in vinegar of 50°, stirring -it in a porcelain vessel until well mixed. When -cold it will harden, but softens under the influence of -heat, when it may be applied to the broken edges of -the porcelain, which are to be pressed together. It -will be perfectly hard within twenty-four hours. It -is to be observed that the art of keeping such joined -pieces together is the most difficult problem in mending. -This cement is widely applicable to many objects, -and also admits of considerable modification -and additions, like all cements. As it is colourless, -it may be combined with ivory dust, or white powders -of baryta, magnesia, whiting, &c., to form artificial -ivory with glycerine. With sturgeon’s bladder it -makes a still stronger cement.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Lehner</span> observes that glue has the property, when -combined with acid chrome salt (<i>sauren chromsalzen</i>), -of losing its solubility when exposed to the light, so -that it can be used as a cement for broken porcelain -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_26">26</span> -and glass. If the juncture is to be invisible, take the -purest white gelatine; otherwise the cheaper gilder’s -glue will answer. To prepare the chrome glue, dissolve -the gelatine or the glue in boiling water, then -add the solution of double chromic acid alkali, or the -red chrome alkali of commerce, stir it well up, and -put it into tin boxes.</p> - -<p>The formula is:—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Gelatine or gilders’ glue</td> - <td class="tdr">5-10</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Water</td> - <td class="tdr">90</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Red chrome alkali</td> - <td class="tdr">1-2</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Dissolved in water</td> - <td class="tdr">10</td> - </tr></table> - -<p>To use, warm the cement, apply it to the broken -glass, which must then be exposed for several hours -to the sunshine.</p> - -<p>Cracked bottles are mended by a very ingenious -process, described by <span class="smcap">Lehner</span>. The bottle is corked, -but not tightly, and then exposed to heat about 100° -centigrade. Then the cork is driven in tightly, which -causes an expansion of the cracks, which are at once -filled by means of a finely pointed brush with the -silicate. Removed to a cooler place the glass contracts -on the as yet fluid silicate, and the fractures -are mended.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p><span class="smcap">A very strong, clean cement for porcelain or -glass</span> is made as follows:—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Well-cleaned</td> - <td>glass powder</td> - <td class="tdr">10</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc">”</td> - <td>fluor spar powder</td> - <td class="tdr">20</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2">Silicate of soda solution</td> - <td class="tdr">60 -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_27">27</span></td> - </tr></table> - -<p>This must be very quickly stirred and applied. -This is one of the <i>hardest</i> and best cements, and it -resists heat and other influences so well that when -very carefully amalgamated it may be applied to the -manufacture of many useful articles. The same may -be made with the substitution of white pipeclay for -fluor spar, or with the addition of the same in somewhat -larger proportion. Pipeclay or any good clay -can also be combined with glycerine to prevent its -drying. With gelatine and a <i>little</i> glycerine it will -harden and not crack.</p> - -<p>This requires careful amalgamation and rapid work.</p> - -<p>To prepare very fine glass-powder for this cement, -heat any glass till red-hot, then drop it into cold -water. It may then be reduced in a mortar to an impalpable -powder.</p> - -<p>Earthenware tubes or pipes which are to be exposed -to intense heat may be luted or joined with the following -cement:—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Peroxide of manganese</td> - <td class="tdr">80</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>White oxide of zinc</td> - <td class="tdr">100</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Silicate of soda</td> - <td class="tdr">20</td> - </tr></table> - -<p>“This does <i>not melt</i>, save at a very high temperature; -and when melted it forms a glassy substance, -which holds with extreme tenacity” (<span class="smcap">Lehner</span>).</p> - -<p>To prepare <i>caseine</i> cement for crockery or marble, it -may be observed that we should always take <i>fresh</i> -white cheese and macerate or knead it thoroughly till -only pure <small>CASEINE</small> adding to this one-third -of powdered quicklime and blending the two -ingredients very thoroughly we get a very strong -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_28">28</span> -glue. An admixture of 10 parts silicate of soda also -forms a powerful cement.</p> - -<p>The following for tile-work and common brick-crockery, -or terra-cotta or porcelain, is very highly -commended by <span class="smcap">Lehner</span>, who says that anything -mended with it will sooner break in another place -than where it is cemented:—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Slacked lime</td> - <td class="tdr">10</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Borax</td> - <td class="tdr">10</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Litharge</td> - <td class="tdr">5</td> - </tr></table> - -<p>The cement is mixed with water, and the tile or -crockery, &c., heated just before being mended.</p> - -<p>I cannot insist too strongly on this—that no one is -to expect that by simply taking recipes, as written, -compounding and applying them, there will be a -successful result at the first trial. We must always -have the best material, often fresh, and generally attempt -the application more than once. <i>Perseverando -vinces</i>—“By perseverance you will conquer.” Not -only must the <i>quality</i> of the ingredients used be of the -best, but the composition be made exactly in the -order in which they are given. The same substances -often give very different results, simply because the -order of combination in the two was different.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">To repair pavements</span>:—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Calcined lime</td> - <td class="tdr">10</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Purified chalk</td> - <td class="tdr">100</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Silicate of soda</td> - <td class="tdr">25</td> - </tr></table> - -<p>This hardens slowly. It can, when mixed with -small sharp-edged fragments of broken stone, be used -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_29">29</span> -to form pavements, or as a bed for mosaics. For the -same purposes, or for cementing marble slabs, a -cement known as that of <span class="smcap">Böttger</span> may be used. It -is made thus:—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Purified chalk</td> - <td class="tdr">100</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Thick solution silicate of soda</td> - <td class="tdr">25</td> - </tr></table> - -<p>This becomes (<span class="smcap">Lehner</span>) in a few hours so hard that -it can be polished. It is the principal, and almost -the only, cement used by <span class="smcap">M. Ris-Pacquot</span>, or commended -in his work on mending crockery. It admits -of a great variety of modifications. It is very superior -as a bed for mosaics of all kinds. It forms, like -the preceding, also a good bed for scagliola and -ceresa.<a id="FNanchor_1" href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">1</a> I would here say of the latter, that I could -wish to see it more generally used for mural or wall -ornament, since any one who can paint a face or decoration -boldly and largely in oil or water colours will -find it very easy. It admits of rapid execution, and -is striking from its brilliancy. Everything in it depends -on having a good bed to which it can easily -adhere. I may here observe that beds like these -which set hard and <i>fine</i> are also adapted to fresco-painting, -in which the difficulty is to select colours -which, when absorbed and dried, do not fade. Most -paints made from mineral substances combine with -silicate of soda.</p> - -<p>I may here remark that a curious and easy art, very -little known, consists of carving or cutting low reliefs -on tiles or terra-cotta or brick-like ware, which, when -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_30">30</span> -outlined or in relief, can be glazed in colour with -silicate of soda; also with many other cements.</p> - -<p>A common and good <small>CEMENT FOR PORCELIAN OR -GLASS</small> is made as follows:—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Calcined gypsum or plaster of Paris</td> - <td class="tdr">50</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Calcined lime</td> - <td class="tdr">10</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>White of egg</td> - <td class="tdr">20</td> - </tr></table> - -<p>This must be quickly mingled and rapidly used, as -it sets very rapidly and becomes extremely hard. It -makes an admirable bed for mosaics or ceresa.</p> - -<p>When plaster of Paris is simply combined with -burnt alum in water, the objects mended with it require -several weeks to set or adhere. Gypsum combined -with gum alone holds firmly, but does not resist -water (vide <i>General Recipes</i>).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Cements for luting</span> or closing chemical apparatus:—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Dried clay</td> - <td class="tdr">10</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Linseed-oil</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - </tr></table> - -<p>This endures heat to boiling-point of quicksilver.</p> - -<p>A more resistant fireproof is as follows:—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Manganese</td> - <td class="tdr">10</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Grey oxide of zinc</td> - <td class="tdr">20</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Clay</td> - <td class="tdr">40</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Linseed-oil varnish</td> - <td class="tdr">7</td> - </tr></table> - -<p>Of the oil only so much is needed as to combine -the mass to a paste.</p> - -<p>A <small>LUTING</small> for very high temperatures:—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Clay</td> - <td class="tdr">100</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Glass powder</td> - <td class="tdr">2 -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_31">31</span></td> - </tr></table> - -<p>Another <small>CEMENT</small>:—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Clay</td> - <td class="tdr">100</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Chalk</td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Boracic acid</td> - <td class="tdr">3</td> - </tr></table> - -<p><span class="smcap">Lehner</span> has in his work on Cements many valuable -suggestions as to mending porcelain. <i>Firstly</i>, that in -such mending, the adhesive be applied with care, in -as even and as thin a coat as possible; to which I -would add, that the unskilful amateur is apt to daub -it on irregularly and carelessly, with the impression -that the more cement there is the better it will stick, -which is just so far wrong that every superfluous -grain is just so much of an impediment to good drying -or adhesion. Again, the inexpert daubs it on -with a stick or “anything,” when a fine-pointed -brush or hair-pencil should be used.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Broken china which is to be mended</span> should be -carefully covered away so as to protect it from dust, -which is hard to clean off. Beware of fitting the -pieces together again and again, as is often done.</p> - -<p>If the broken china was used to contain milk or -soup, &c., it should be laid in lye to dissolve all the -fatty substance, and then be washed with clear water. -Painted porcelain cannot, however, be laid in lye, -which would ruin all the colours; in this case wipe -them clean with dilute acid.</p> - -<p>The great difficulty in mending is to bring the -pieces together and keep them so till the adhesive -dries. <span class="smcap">Lehner</span> recommends that when objects are -small and costly, a mould of gypsum be constructed -round them. In most cases putty or wax is far more -manageable. As before remarked, indiarubber bands -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_32">32</span> -are chiefly to be relied on; even if not capable of -holding permanently, they aid greatly in tying with -cord.</p> - -<p>In the Manual of <span class="smcap">F. Goupil</span>, rewritten by <span class="smcap">Frederick -Dillaye</span>, the following method of restoring -broken vases, &c., is commended:—</p> - -<p>“Form a solid mass of clay in the form of the original -object. Then place on it, one by one, the fragments -in their place, keeping the clay moist. When -this is done, paste over the exterior strips of paper, -in sufficient quantity to hold the whole firmly together. -Then remove the moist clay, and paste -strong slips of paper” (or thin parchment) “over the -interior so as to hold the whole. Then” (when dry) -“carefully moisten and remove the outer coating.”</p> - -<p>The author mentions that this is only applicable to -vases the mouth of which is wide enough to permit -the hand to be introduced. I would here, however, -add, that even when it is too small for this purpose, -the restoration can be equally well effected as follows:—Make -the core of wet clay, or, better, of beeswax, -then paste over it thin tough paper. Cover this -with gum-arabic solution, and set the pieces on it. -When dry, melt out the wax or clay.</p> - -<p>Fish-gum, <i>colle de poisson</i>—that is to say, what is -generally called <i>sturgeon’s bladder</i>, which includes the -bladder of several kinds of fishes dissolved—is best -for glass, marble, porcelain, and all kinds of mending -where the cement should not show. This, when combined -with oil, is <i>said</i>, if mixed with cloth-dust and -fibre of wool or silk or cotton, to spin up into thread. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_33">33</span></p> - -<h2 id="MENDING_GLASS">MENDING GLASS<br /> - -<span class="large">WITH SEVERAL ALLIED PROCESSES</span><br /> - -<span class="large">APPROVED CEMENTS—SILICATE OF SODA</span></h2> - -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i2">“<i>Glück und Glas</i><br /></span> -<span class="i3"><i>Wie bald bricht dass.</i>”<br /></span> -</div><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i2">“<i>Good luck, like glass,</i><br /></span> -<span class="i3"><i>Soon breaks, alas!</i><br /></span> -<span class="i0"><i>Yet skill can bring it so to pass</i><br /></span> -<span class="i0"><i>As to mend a fortune or a glass.</i>”<br /></span> -<span class="author">—Old German Proverb.<br /></span> -</div></div> - -<p>Putty is naturally the first cement which suggests -itself in connection with the mending of glass, since -this latter material is most familiar to the world in -the form of windows, although in many places—as, -for instance, Florence, where it is called <i>mastico</i> and -<i>pasta</i>—it is little used or known. The word is from -the French <i>potée</i>, which also means a potful. It is -very useful, not only for setting glass-panes, but for -filling holes in wood, and forms a part of certain mixtures -as a cement for moulding ornaments. It may -be weak and brittle, or else strong and very hard, -according to the manner in which it is prepared. It -is commonly made by combining chalk in paste, with -water, with linseed-oil; other powders are also used. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_34">34</span> -In America it is made with pulverised soap-stone and -oil. Its excellence depends on the quality of the oil -and the care with which it is kneaded. It should be -kept in a damp cellar, in wet cloth or under water. -Should it dry and become brittle, fresh oil must be -added.</p> - -<p>“<i>To take hard old putty from glass window-panes</i>, cover -it with a mixture of one part of calcined lime, two of -soda, and two of water” (<span class="smcap">Lehner</span>). Oxide of lead -combined with oil makes an excellent but yellow -putty. It sets very hard.</p> - -<p>The white or grey oxide of zinc combined with linseed-oil -or linseed-oil varnish makes a cement which -is used for making glass adhere to wood or metal.</p> - -<p><i>Thick lacquers</i>, such as copal or amber, may be used -instead of common varnish with better effect, and the -composition is better when calcined lime or oxide of -lead are added. The excellence of the cement depends -on the degree to which the ingredients are -amalgamated or rubbed in together; and this rule -holds good for all similar mixtures.</p> - -<p><i>Varnish</i>, or heavy or “flat” lacquer of copal or amber, -forms of itself a strong adhesive, with the only -drawback that it takes a long time to dry.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">A very good cement for glass</span> (<span class="smcap">Lehner</span>) is as follows:</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Gutta-percha</td> - <td class="tdr">100</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Black pitch (asphalt)</td> - <td class="tdr">100</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Oil of turpentine</td> - <td class="tdr">15</td> - </tr></table> - -<p>This is a glue of general application, and specially -good for leather and mending shoes.</p> - -<p>The reader who would thoroughly study the subject -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_35">35</span> -of glass may consult <i>Die Glas-Fabrikation</i>, a very admirable -work by Raimund Gerner, glass manufacturer; -A. Hartleben, Vienna and Leipzig, price 4s. 6d.</p> - -<p>Small triangles of sheet tin or iron are often used -to fasten panes.</p> - -<p>The mending of broken glass is in most cases much -the same as that of broken crockery or porcelain. -The cement made from mastic, or mastic combined -with sturgeon’s bladder, or generally of silicate with -whiting, is the proper adhesive. As silicate of soda -is simply liquid glass, it can be employed to fill spaces -or to make glass; but, owing to its sticky nature, it -is hard to manage. This may be often effected by -first preparing a layer of soft paper, on which successive -coats of silicate are laid. When dry the paper -can be washed away.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Silicate of Soda</span> has become of such importance -that a French work on mending fictile ware is almost -entirely limited to its use as a binder, when combined -with whiting. <i>Water-glass</i> was long supposed to be -a modern invention, till some one found it described -in Van Helmont’s works, <small>A.D.</small> 1610. But I have -found it also in the <i>Joco-seriorum Naturæ</i>, 1545; in the -<i>Magia Naturalis</i> of Wolfgang Hildebrand, which is of -the same time; and, finally, by <i>Paracelsus</i> (<i>Liber de -Præparationibus</i>), where he describes it as <i>Destillatio -Crystalli</i>. And the author of the <i>Joco-seriorum</i> speaks -of soft glass as a thing which had been treated by -several writers.</p> - -<p>According to <span class="smcap">Wagner</span> there are three kinds of soluble -glass—(i.) the soluble potash glass, 45 silex, 3 -charcoal, 34 carb. potass.; (ii.) soluble soda glass, -100 pts. quartz, 60 cal. sulp. soda, 15 of charcoal; -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_36">36</span> -(iii.) double soluble glass, 100 quartz, 22 cal. soda, 28 -carb. potass., 6 wood-coal. Water-glass combines -well with any “indifferent” powder, such as powdered -glass, to make a strong cement. To powder glass, -heat it red-hot, drop it into cold water and pulverise -it. It will become as fine as flour, and in this state -combines with gum-arabic, or glue, or gums to make -a powerful glass-mender. Mixed with powdered -glass, oxide of zinc, or whiting, powdered marble, -calcined bone, plaster of Paris, wood-ashes, &c., -it can be worked like putty. Mixed with colours -it is used for stereochrome painting, a kind of -fresco.</p> - -<p>Missing pieces of glass, such as leaves from a chandelier, -can be easily replaced with water-glass, and -all cracks or defects glazed over with it.</p> - -<p>This mending is allied, however, to certain processes -in art which are so interesting that I venture -on a description of them.</p> - -<p>A great deal of mending and restoring in glass can -be effected by means of the blow-pipe and spirit-lamp -or gas-flame. Difficult as this may sound, it is not -only an easy, but also a very curious and entertaining, -occupation. In any city an expert or workman -may be found who would give a few lessons. I have -very often been impressed with the fact that so little -artistic invention or originality is found in glass-work. -Even the far-famed Venetian work is extremely limited, -and “mannered” or conventional, compared to -what it might be.</p> - -<p>The following is an old recipe for repairing glass:—Take -finest powdered glass, best mastic, with equal -parts of white resin and distilled turpentine. Melt -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_37">37</span> -all well together. To use, gradually warm it and -then apply.</p> - -<p>Quicklime and white of egg, intimately rubbed into -one another on a flat surface, make a good cement -for ordinary glass or pottery.</p> - -<p>The cement of <i>gum-arabic</i> is much stronger when -made as follows:—Take gum-arabic and dissolve it -in acetic acid (vinegar) instead of water. It must be -melted in a hottish place, as it will in that case be -much better. The finest quality of sheet-gelatine -makes a transparent glue, invaluable where colour is -to be avoided.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">To mend a cracked Glass Bottle or Decanter.</span>—Heat -the bottle, pressing in the cork, till the hot -air within expands the cracks, which must be at once -filled with the liquid glass. Then, as the water-glass -is driven in by the pressure of the outer air, as the -bottle cools the cracks are closed.</p> - -<p>You cannot well mend a broken looking-glass, but -something can be done with the large pieces. Varnish -or paste a piece of paper and lay it on the quicksilver. -Then with an American glass-cutter, price -one shilling, or a diamond-cutter, divide them into -squares for small mirrors. Two of these of equal -size can easily be converted into a folding kaleidoscope -(not described by <span class="smcap">Brewster</span> in his work on the -Kaleidoscope). Lay the two pieces face to face, and -paste over the whole, on the quicksilvered side, a -piece of thin leather or muslin. When dry, with a -penknife, cut a slit down between the two on three -sides. It will then open and shut like a portfolio. -This may serve as a travelling, looking or shaving -glass, but it is very useful to designers of patterns. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_38">38</span> -Place the glass upright on a table at a right angle, or -more or less, and lay between the mirrors any object -or a pattern, and you will see it multiplied from three -to twelve times, according to the angle. Beautiful -variations of designs can thus be made, <i>ad infinitum</i>. -They may be used as reflectors, when placed behind -a light.</p> - -<p>Take such a piece of looking-glass and lay a piece -of paper on the back, and then with an agate or ivory -point write or draw on it, but not as hard as to break -the silvering. Then turn it to the sun or a strong -light, and let the reflection fall on a white surface. -Though nothing be perceptible on the face of the -mirror, the writing will appear in the reflection.</p> - -<p>Glass is engraved as metal is etched; with this exception, -that, instead of sulphuric or nitric acids, -fluoric acid is used. Both glass and <i>china</i> can also be -directly etched with a steel point, aided by emery -powder; which latter art I have never seen described, -but which I have successfully practised. It is fully -set forth in my forthcoming work on “One Hundred -Arts.”</p> - -<p>Malleable glass, or at least that which does not -break easily when let fall, is prepared by dipping the -objects made from it, while quite hot, into oil. I conjecture -that panes of window-glass thus prepared -would not be broken by hail, as I have observed that -plate-glass is not.</p> - -<p>It sometimes happens that goblets of thin glass—especially -those which have had a peculiar kind of annealing -or tempering—ring beautifully when blown -on so as to vibrate them. The effect is almost magical -on one who hears it for the first time. I mention -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_39">39</span> -it that the reader may, when he finds old Venetian or -any other thin glass goblets for sale, see if there be -not among them a finely ringing one. An organ -could be thus made to play by wind. With regard -to music on glass, take any ordinary bottle, and by -rubbing on it a cork a little wetted you can, with a -little practice, produce a startling imitation of the -chirping, and even warbling, of birds. I knew one -who could thus imitate to perfection nightingales and -call forth responsive songs. The effect depends in a -degree on the quality of the cork, and also that of the -glass. With a violin-bow very musical sounds may -be drawn from the edge of a pane of glass. It seems -as if these methods might also be developed into musical -instruments. It is well known that tubes of glass -suspended when a candle is placed beneath them give -forth musical sounds, often of great richness and -strength. There are also the musical glasses, which -may be played in two ways, either by rubbing the -edges with a wetted finger or by filling the glasses -more or less with water till an octave is formed, and -then tapping them with a stick of wood. All of -which has, indeed, nothing to do with mending glass, -yet which may not be without interest to those who -wish to learn all its qualities.</p> - -<p>Among <span class="smcap">Glass Cements</span> in common use which can -be recommended are the well-known Polytechnic, -also the Imperial Liquid Glue (no heating required), -Hayden & Co., Warwick Square, London. There is -also a very good glass cement made and sold by Keye, -filter-maker, Hill Street, Birmingham.</p> - -<p>The Venetians made ordinary glass goblets very -beautiful by painting on them in relief with a substance -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_40">40</span> -which I suspect was in some cases a form of -silicate, or else with a kind of paint which was not -enamel, yet which seems to have been partly vitreous. -It rather resembles oil paint with glass powder, but -I doubt if it was this.</p> - -<p>Working in glass implies the mending and restoration -of stained-glass windows; that is, of painting on -glass and a study of designs. Of all this there is -almost a literature. Among other works I can commend -<i>A Book of Ornamental Glazing Quarries</i>, by A. W. -Franks, £1, 1s.; <i>Divers Works of Early Masters in -Ecclesiastical Decoration</i>, by Owen Jones, £3, 10s.; -<i>Westlake’s History of Stained Glass</i>, vol. i., <i>Fourteenth -Century</i>, 13s. 6d.; vol. iii., <i>Fifteenth Century</i>, 18s., published -by Batsford, 52 High Holborn. At Rimmel’s, -in Oxford Street, the reader can generally obtain -these, and all works on similar subjects at prices -much below the original cost.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">A mending cement for glass</span> is made as follows:—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Common cheese</td> - <td class="tdr">100</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Water</td> - <td class="tdr">50</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Slacked lime</td> - <td class="tdr">20</td> - </tr></table> - -<p>This is found in many books of recipes. It must -be observed that the cheese is to be for sometime -carefully pounded with the water till quite soft, and -the lime then very quickly stirred in. This is not only -useful to mend glass, but can be applied to many -other purposes. The cheese is best when fresh.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Caseine</span> (or pure cheese) can be combined with -ease with liquid silicate of soda (<span class="smcap">Lehner</span>), and thus -forms a very strong cement for porcelain or glass, or -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_41">41</span> -any other material. Fill a flask with one-fourth of -fresh caseine to three-fourths of silicate, and shake it -thoroughly and frequently.</p> - -<p>Another formula is as follows:—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Caseine</td> - <td class="tdr">10</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Silicate of soda</td> - <td class="tdr">60</td> - </tr></table> - -<p>This must be used very promptly, and the article -mended dried in the air.</p> - -<p>A <small>CEMENT</small> which may be used in several combinations -is made by dissolving fresh acidulated caseine -(made by adding vinegar to milk, and carefully washing -the deposit) in a very little caustic lye. It must -be kept corked in bottles.</p> - -<p>These <i>caseine</i> or cheese or curd cements hold well, -but do not well resist water, except in powerful combination.</p> - -<p>The excellence of cements depends to a great degree -on the quality of the materials and the scrupulous -observance of care in making. Thus for the following, -for glass:—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Glue</td> - <td class="tdr">200</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Water</td> - <td class="tdr">100</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Calcined lime</td> - <td class="tdr">50</td> - </tr></table> - -<p>in which we have one of the commonest and oldest -formulas, the value depends on “the make-up” that -is, the glue must be left in cold water for two days, -then boiled in a <i>balneum mariæ</i>, or a double kettle, in -lukewarm water; that is, it must not boil, or the -glue will be weakened.</p> - -<p>The so-called <span class="smcap">Diamond</span> or <span class="smcap">Turkish Cement</span>, for -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_42">42</span> -glass or any other fine work, has been known since -early times as incredibly strong. Its formula, according -to Lehner, is as follows:—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td rowspan="3" class="tdrt">I.</td> - <td>Sturgeon’s bladder</td> - <td class="tdr">20</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Water</td> - <td class="tdr">140</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Spirits of wine</td> - <td class="tdr">60</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td rowspan="2" class="tdrt">II.</td> - <td>Gum-mastic</td> - <td class="tdr">10</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Alcohol</td> - <td class="tdr">80</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdrt">III.</td> - <td>Gum-ammoniac</td> - <td class="tdr">6</td> - </tr></table> - -<p>These are three separate portions, No. I. being prepared -by warming and filtering. The gum-ammoniac -is reserved from the others, and added <i>after</i> they are -mingled.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">A strong base for a cement for glass</span>, as well as -wood or stone, is made by gradually stirring finely -sifted wood-ashes into silicate of soda, or strong acid -glue, till a syrup-like substance results. In America -the best ashes for this purpose are those of the hickory. -Perhaps beech wood yields them equally good.</p> - -<p>There is a <span class="smcap">Diamond Cement</span> which is of special -value to attach gems to rings or metal, to make coral -or pearl or ivory adhere together, and, in short, for -all fine work where a very strong adhesive is required. -It is as follows:—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Sturgeon’s bladder</td> - <td class="tdr">8</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Gum-ammoniac</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Galbanum</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Spirits of wine</td> - <td class="tdr">4</td> - </tr></table> - -<p>The sturgeon’s bladder is cut into small pieces and -steeped in the spirits, and the rest, in solution, then -added. It must be warmed again when used. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_43">43</span></p> - -<p>As this cement will bear long exposure to moisture -before being at all injured by it, it can be used as a -medium for painting on glass, and thereby producing -effects very little inferior, either as regards beauty or -durability, to glass itself. The experiment can be -easily tried, as any chemist can make up the recipe. -When finished, the painting can be coated with liquid -silicate of soda, which will give it all the property of -glass.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">A lime cement for glass</span> is made as follows:—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Calcined lime</td> - <td class="tdr">30</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Litharge</td> - <td class="tdr">30</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Linseed-oil varnish</td> - <td class="tdr">5</td> - </tr></table> - -<p><span class="smcap">Jewellers’ cement.</span> Extremely strong:—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Fish-glue solution</td> - <td class="tdr">100</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Mastic varnish (pure)</td> - <td class="tdr">50</td> - </tr></table> - -<p>The fish-glue must first be dissolved in spirits of -wine.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">To join Glass and Metal</span>, &c.—Stir slacked and -powdered lime in hot glue. This sets as a very hard -substance. It can be extensively modified and varied -for many substances, and used for painting.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Cement for glass</span>:—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Gum-arabic</td> - <td class="tdr">50</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Sugar</td> - <td class="tdr">10</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Water</td> - <td class="tdr">50</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Oil of turpentine</td> - <td class="tdr">10</td> - </tr></table> - -<p>The gum, sugar, and water are first carefully combined, -and then the turpentine well stirred with the -mixture. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_44">44</span></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Salle’s cement for glass</span>:—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Muriate of lime</td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Gum-arabic</td> - <td class="tdr">20</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Water</td> - <td class="tdr">25</td> - </tr></table> - -<p>Not commended by <span class="smcap">Lehner</span>, as being too soluble. -<span class="smcap">To close bottles</span>:—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Powdered resin</td> - <td class="tdr">6</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Caustic soda</td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Water</td> - <td class="tdr">10</td> - </tr></table> - -<p>To be thoroughly mixed and left for several hours. -Before using, stir well into it eight to nine parts of -calcined plaster of Paris. This will in half-an-hour -take firm hold or “set,” and is waterproof. A good -filler for cracks.</p> - -<p>The reader who desires to be perfectly informed as -to glass in all its relations can obtain, by application -to <span class="smcap">J. Baer</span>, Rossmarkt, Frankfort on the Main, Germany, -a catalogue which is perhaps the most extensive -on the subject ever published.</p> - -<p>Coloured or stained glass windows may be repaired -or made by the following process, which has the advantage -of being quite as durable as any in which the -colours are burned in:—Take two panes of glass, and -paint on one your pattern with fine varnish and transparent -colour mixed. When dry, go over the whole, -with a broad, soft brush, with a liquid mastic cement, -which must be quite transparent and thin. Any -transparent strong cement will serve, but it is advisable -to use the mastic in all cases as a narrow border -and at the edges. If you have an engraving, especially -one on very soft spongy paper, take a pane of -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_45">45</span> -glass, cover it with a coat of varnish, and just before -it dries press the engraving face down, on it. When -quite dry, with a sponge slightly damped and the end -of the finger, peel away all the soft paper, leaving the -lines of the engraving. These may now be coloured -over, with even very little skill and care. A very -good effect may be produced, so that a very indifferent -artist can in this way produce very tolerable pictures. -Then, to better preserve this, double it with -the other pane.</p> - -<p>By painting and shading also on this <i>second</i> pane, as -I have discovered, very beautiful and striking effects -of light and shade can be developed, so that this -forms, as it were, a new art by itself. This will remind -the reader of the porcelain lamp-shades, which -so much resemble pictures in Indian ink; but the -effects of the double panes are more singular and far -more varied. There may be even a third pane employed. -As the materials for this art are far from expensive, -and as it is extremely easy, I have no doubt -that it will be extensively practised. Protecting one -glass picture by another is not a new art; but I am -not aware that the obtaining a series of lights by thus -reduplicating the panes has been practised.</p> - -<p>A modification of it is as follows:—Cut out several -panes, corresponding to the size of the two glass -covers, of quite transparent paper or parchment, prepared -by rubbing with oil or vaseline, lard, or the -like. Paint on these the required modifications of -the picture. The advantage of this is, that a great -many shades can thus be given in a thinner space, -creating an astonishing effect. As this is not at all a -mere imitation of stained glass, and as it produces -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_46">46</span> -effects not to be found in the latter, it may rank as an -art by itself. The chief of these effects is <i>relief</i>, especially -shown in the human figure. But the most extraordinary -are the variations of chiaroscuro which -it affords, by availing himself of which the artist may -create or obtain striking suggestions for oil or <i>aquarelle</i> -pictures; for these transparencies can be so infinitely -and ingeniously varied that no one can fail to derive -from them many ideas.</p> - -<p>This may be tested by simply preparing any picture, -say of a statue, a castle on a rock, or a face. -Cut out from sheets of the same size in very transparent -paper a series of shadows adapted to it, and adjust -them. They may be all in monochrome or one -colour, or in many hues. They may range, with -proper care, from almost imperceptible shadow to -opaque black. By beginning with only two stencils -or shaded pictures—for as regards these the artist -must be guided by his own skill—and gradually increasing -the number, the proper adjustment will soon -be found. I advise the beginner in copying to -proceed from monochrome to two colours before -attempting many. Teachers in <i>aquarelle</i> will find -that such copies are—after a certain degree of proficiency -shall have been obtained—much superior -to those commonly used, as they come nearer to -nature.</p> - -<p>The most perfect form of this curious art is an improvement -which, I believe, is my own invention. -This consists of introducing leaves of painted <i>mica</i> -between the two glasses. In this way four grades or -tones of colour and light and shade can be made in a -picture. Mica-leaves can be made into one by using -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_47">47</span> -mastic cement. Rub the edges with emery-paper to -roughen them.</p> - -<p>As I have already intimated, the materials for this -work are so cheap and the process so easy, that all -which I here assert may be at once verified by the outlay -of a few shillings, with a few hours of time. It -is, in another form, the same thing as arranging lights -around a statue in a dark room, but adapted to all -kinds of pictures.</p> - -<p>As a Latin poet has declared, “It is an easy thing -to add to arts,” when a beginning has once been -made (“<i>Inventis facile semper aliquid addere</i>”), so I will -add to this a curious discovery in glass made by me -in Venice a few years ago. I was being taken by Sir -<span class="smcap">Austin Layard</span> over his celebrated glass-factory. It -was he who, with the aid of Sir <span class="smcap">William Drake</span>, <i>first</i> -revived the almost forgotten manufacture of glass in -Murano. While standing with him by a furnace -watching a workman skilfully forming ornaments in -glass, it suddenly occurred to me that the Chinese -were said to have possessed in remote times an art, -now lost, of making vases or bottles which appeared -externally to be quite plain, but on the surface of -which, when red wine was poured in, patterns or inscriptions -appeared of the same colour. It at once -occurred to me that this could be perfectly effected by -making a bottle, on the interior of which the ground -should be of considerable thickness, say half-an-inch, -while the inscription or pattern would be no thicker -than ordinary window-glass. Then if the whole exterior -were to be lightly ground on a wheel or sandpapered, -the difference between ground and pattern -would not be perceptible until red wine or some -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_48">48</span> -highly coloured fluid were poured in, when the pattern -would at once show itself.</p> - -<p>Sir <span class="smcap">Austin Layard</span> was so much struck by the -suggestion that he sent at once for his foreman, Signore -Castellani, who said that he had heard of such -bottles, but always supposed it was a fable. He, -however, at once admitted that they could be made -as I proposed, but added that the expense would be -so great as to render the invention practically useless.</p> - -<p>It has, however, since occurred to me that such -bottles could be made, and cheaply, as follows:—Take -a Florence flask, and divide it into two parts -with a diamond, using a saw for the bottom. Then -on the sides within place the ground. It could be -made of silicate of soda and powdered glass or flint, -or even of white wax, hardened with powdered glass. -Close the bottle with silicate, and grind the whole.</p> - -<p>When any glass has been broken and mended, the -fracture still discernible may be thus concealed by -grinding the surface, and in many cases by surrounding -it with a ring or tube of metal, also by one of silicate, -or with an ornament formed with it.</p> - -<p>A glass stopper when too large can be easily filed -down to fit. Should the neck of the bottle be too -narrow, it can also be enlarged by the same process. -When the rim of a goblet is fractured, it can be ground -down on a grindstone. I have done it with a file.</p> - -<p>A pane of glass can be somewhat rudely cut into -shape with a pair of strong scissors, under water. In -this, as in other things, practice leads to perfection.</p> - -<p>An old method of effectually closing bottles of wine -was as follows:—The edge of the opening on the top -was ground down on a stone, and a small disc of -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_49">49</span> -glass was exactly fitted to it. Heat was then applied -till both were in partial fusion and the cover was -welded to the bottle. A little powdered glass would -aid the fusion, or it could be effected with silicate -without heating. The process is the same as using -glass stoppers, rather sunk in, and sealing up with -silicate.</p> - -<p>A broken champagne bottle is not easily mended, -but I have seen one curiously utilised. The bottom -only had been broken, and it was cut off round and -evenly with a file. Within it there hung from the -cork by a cord a very large nail or small bolt of iron. -Thus prepared, it made a capital and appropriate -dinner-bell. Here in Italy I have often seen bells -made of crockery or terra-cotta; their tone is better -than would be supposed. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_50">50</span></p> - -<h2 id="WOOD-SHAVINGS">WOOD-SHAVINGS<br /> - -<span class="large">IN MENDING AND MAKING MANY OBJECTS</span></h2> - -<blockquote> - -<p>“<i>In human industry, there is on an average a loss -of fifty per cent. in labour or material.</i>”—Observations -on Art, by <span class="smcap">Charles G. Leland</span>.</p></blockquote> - -<p>There is no country in the world in which the art of -mending is so much required as in the United States -of North America. The reason for this is the extraordinary -and sudden changes in temperature, causing -the expansion and contraction of cells and fibre, -especially in wood, which results in cracks. Thus -seasoned furniture and carvings, which have remained -unchanged for centuries, it may be for a thousand -years, in any part of Europe, shrink and split very -often within a month after being placed in a drawing -or dining room in Boston or Philadelphia, as I know -by sad experience. Thus I have known a very beautiful -Italian mandoline, three hundred years old, richly -inlaid with ivory, to so shrink and warp in America -that a professional mender declared that nothing -could be done with it. The sounding-board had -curled up like a scroll and split, and the mosaic or -inlaying had fallen out in bits.</p> - -<div class="figright"> -<img id="i_051" src="images/i_051.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><i>Patterns cut from Wood-Shavings.</i></p></div> - -<p>In such a case, carefully detach the warped piece or -pieces, and dampen the concave side carefully with a -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_51">51</span> -sponge till it resumes its flatness or usual form. -When this is attained, take very thin shavings of a -firm wood, as thin as they can be shaved, and glue -them transversely, or <i>grain across grain</i>, to the under -or plain side of the board. This will probably prevent -all warping in -future, especially -if the best mastic -and fish-glue is employed. -It may -here be noted that -where the shavings -cannot be obtained, -thin parchment -or even note-paper -may be used, -and that good, -strong varnish, or -not too thin, may -be used for a binder. -There are many -cases in which -parchment or paper -are preferable -to wood in repairing, -as being less -liable to warp or -crack.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Wood-shavings</span>, which are as yet but little utilised -in art, have, however, before them “a great future.” -Combined with glue, or other binders, they can be -made, even under the hand-roller, into boards, which -have the advantage that they can be moulded, curved, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_52">52</span> -or turned to suit many emergencies which would require -a great deal of saw or carving work.</p> - -<p>It is not unusual to employ veneers, or very thin -sheets of wood, as a guard across the grain where -shrinking is to be apprehended, as in tablets for painting -on or panels, and it is a great pity that this very -cheap precaution is so little used. But there are very -few cases in which shavings are not as applicable, -and they have the great advantage of being obtainable -wherever there is a plane and wood.</p> - -<p>Holes or defects in wood—for example, in American -shingle roofs or the clap-boarded sides of houses—can -often be more cheaply and readily repaired with shavings -and glue (into which oil is infused) than by any -other means. And it may be observed that such a -coating of shavings and glue, laid on to a new roof, -is the cheapest and most effective protector against -rain or sun or frost.</p> - -<p>In certain work wood-shavings can be advantageously -combined with paper to give a solid, smooth surface -and firm body. Here the paper-paste, with or -without sawdust, is first forced into the cavities, and -the shavings superadded.</p> - -<p>Shavings and glue are excellent for the temporary -repair of boats, and if the mending be <i>properly executed</i>, -it will be as durable as the original wood. It -would be an easy matter indeed to make a canoe entirely -of shavings and glue. If the hand-roller be -well used and thoroughly applied, the result will be -a very firm fabric.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="i_053" src="images/i_053.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><i>Pattern to be cut out of Shavings and applied with Glue to a Panel.</i></p></div> - -<p>It may be worth knowing in the wilderness, that -where a backwoodsman has a <i>plane</i> (and he can always -make one if he has a chisel, which, again, can be -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_53">53</span> -made out of a -knife-blade) he -can make shavings, -and with -these and some -kind of <i>binder</i>—even -clay—he -can lay a -dry, hard floor, -when perhaps -boards are not -to be obtained. -The substratum -may be of -beaten clay or -stone. If of sufficient -thickness -and well -rolled, such a -floor as this -would be impervious -to -damp.</p> - -<p>Any surface -can be very -well <i>veneered</i> -with shavings -and glue. -Smooth the -surface by -pressure or -rolling, and -when dry glass-paper -it. Veneers -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_54">54</span> -are often not to be had; shavings may be got -in every carpenter’s shop.</p> - -<p>Not only very strong and elastic canes, but even -<i>bows</i> of a superior quality, can be made of shavings. -The Indians in Pacific America make the latter by -pasting and pressing one shaving on another with -great care. It may be understood that where the -grain, as in a piece of wood, runs <i>altogether</i> in one -way, it will split with the grain. But where it is not -uniform or connected, and is very powerfully incorporated -by pressure with a good binder, we may -easily have a very elastic and tough fabric, not so -likely to split as wood. Thus we can make from -hickory shavings a wood less liable to warp or split -than the original wood itself.</p> - -<p>Wood-shavings and glue are admirably adapted to -repair broken boxes or any other articles of wood, -especially for smoothing over roughly mended surfaces -and covering knot-holes or other defects. In -all cases when possible use the roller, and when pasting -one piece on the other cross the grains.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Musical instruments</span>, such as guitars, violins, and -mandolins, are very easily repaired with shavings and -glue; and this is, indeed, in many cases, the very best -means of reparation, since, while a piece of wood may -or may not injure the tone, the shavings always give -a good vibration. And where it is quite beyond the -power of any ordinary amateur, say a lady, to set in -a piece of wood or apply one, or to get it of a proper -thickness, anybody with care can paste on thin shavings—the -thinner the better—till the defect is repaired. -In many cases parchment or paper will answer -just as well, and I have myself thus perfectly mended -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_55">55</span> -violins which were apparently beyond all bettering, -and got to the stage of <i>lasciate ogni speranza</i>, or hopelessness.</p> - -<p>There are, however, many cases of badly fractured -objects in which the owner gives up hope, because it -seems <i>impossible to make a beginning</i>. Now, “whatever -can be made can be mended” is true of everything -except morals, and even in these there is more to be -done than men wot of. And in a great number of -these cases parchment strips, thin linen tape, or especially -wood-shavings, can be used with success. -Bring the broken edges together if they warp apart, -and attach them with the strip and strongest cement; -that is, with small pieces of the “fastener.” Do not -attempt to do everything at once. When the edges -are united and the <i>binder</i> dried, fill in all crevices or -holes with a suitable paste or “filler”—not too much -at once, in certain cases. Then, as will generally be -required, cover the surface with thin shavings and -binder; as it dries, file or glass-paper it smooth. -The shavings will make, with mastic and fish-glue, in -many cases, a far better repair than could be effected -with a piece of wood or parchment, because they will -never <i>split</i>, like the former, if they are applied lying -transversely or crossways, nor stretch like the latter.</p> - -<p>It may depend, in many cases, on what <i>wood</i> the -shavings consist of. As I have observed, even in the -bush a plane can be made with a chisel or a piece of a -table-knife blade, set in a wooden block; but elsewhere -any carpenter will easily supply what is wanted, -<i>ad libitum</i>.</p> - -<p>The paste or filler of wood-powder or paper-pulp -will be found described in other chapters. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_56">56</span></p> - -<h3>ORNAMENTAL WORK OF SHAVINGS—MARQUETRY</h3> - -<p><i>A curious kind of ornament</i> can be made by cutting -out decorative patterns, human figures, animals, -flowers, &c., from shavings with scissors or pen-knives, -then glueing them on a smooth soft board. -Apply as much pressure as possible, so as to make -them sink into the wood, and when dry coat the -whole with varnish, till an even surface is established. -Rub over the dried surface with finest glass or emery-paper, -and then smooth patiently with the palm of -the hand. If this be well executed the result will be -a perfect imitation of inlaid wood, although it is really -an art by itself, which, I believe, is my own invention. -Thin veneers may also be used instead of shavings. -Ebony or walnut thus <i>appliqué</i> on <i>larch</i> or <i>holly</i> make -exquisite work.</p> - -<p>This kind of ornament has great advantage over -inlaid wood or marquetry, for the pieces of which it -consist are far less liable to be detached or peel off, -while it looks quite as beautiful. And be it observed -that, laid with a transverse grain, it prevents warping -and strengthens the ground, while inlaying weakens -it; for to make the bed for inlaying or mosaic we -must excavate the bed till it is extremely thin and -liable to warp, whereas in shaving-work we make a -light but very strengthening addition.</p> - -<p>A single experiment will suffice to convince the -reader of the merits of this very useful, elegant, and -novel art. It is specially applicable to ornamenting -albums and book-covers, where it may be used even -on pasteboard. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_57">57</span></p> - -<h3>REPAIRING PANEL PICTURES WITH -SHAVINGS</h3> - -<p>It is often a very difficult matter to obtain a thin -panel or strips and do all the work properly when we -wish to put into shape a warped panel, let us say of -an old picture, which is on the point of splitting. -The inserting screws is very dangerous. I myself -have inadvertently thus made a fearful blemish in a -Madonna’s face. But if we use <i>shavings</i> there is no -such danger. Wet the back till the panel is flat, and -then <i>gradually</i> glue on the shavings across the grain. -This is as well done with small bits as large. With -a picture it would be well to continue the coating to -the thickness of one-third of an inch or more, but a -very thin coating will go far to prevent warping or -bending. The thinnest panels or veneers may be -thus “backed up” into solid boards. In all cases -where practicable, use heavy pressure on the roller. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_58">58</span></p> - -<h2 id="REPAIRING_WOODWORK">REPAIRING WOODWORK</h2> - -<blockquote> - -<p>“<i>Among the thousand mad schemes which were -proposed by projectors was one for making sawdust -into boards.</i>”—History of the South Sea -Bubble.</p></blockquote> - -<p>Very few people, even among workmen and artists, -are aware of what remarkable and curious restoration -the most decayed pieces of wood are capable. We -will, however, begin with the simplest repairing, or -that of furniture.</p> - -<p>When articles of furniture have been strongly and -properly made of oak or other hard wood, and as -properly used, they will last for centuries; and should -some unforeseen accident take away legs or arms, -they can be perfectly replaced, especially in the admirable -old-fashioned German objects of the kind, -which were all put together with wooden pins or by -means of mortise and tenon, so that, when need required, -they could be packed as boards;—nor were they -the less elegant for this. But if furniture be simply -sawed from soft, cheap deal or poplar, and merely -glued together (as most cheap furniture made in England -is), it will soon warp and break up, and all the -mending in the world will not make it better than it -was when new. Glue is, therefore, the great material -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_59">59</span> -for most woodwork, and, as I shall show, in two -very different forms.</p> - -<p>Having a broken chair-leg, which can, however, be -fitted together, first prepare your glue in a proper -kettle—that is, a <i>balneum mariæ</i>, or one kettle in another. -In the outer is only boiling water; in the -inner the glue, mixed with water. The reason for -this is, that glue, when softened with water, dries up -very rapidly under the action of air or fire, while the -softer heat of water keeps it, so to speak, “alive.”</p> - -<p>But if, while the glue is soft, we pour, say, a -teaspoonful of nitric acid into half-a-pint of glue, it -will remain soft a much longer time—which is a valuable -secret to many, especially where large, broad -surfaces of veneers are to be glued on, and where, -the process being slow, it is desirable for the adhesive -to remain soft for many minutes. And here I would -mention that the acid-glue will remain in a liquid -state for one year if tightly corked up in a bottle. Its -only defect is a disagreeable, pungent smell.</p> - -<p>This glue can be improved by being made as follows:—Take -of best glue three parts, place them in -eight parts of water, and allow the mixture to soak -some hours. Take half a part of hydrochloric or -muriatic acid and three-quarters of a part of sulphate -of zinc; add to these the glue, and keep the whole at -a moderately high temperature till fluid—that is to -say, boil the glue as usual in a <i>balneum mariæ</i> or in -hot water, after soaking it all night in water. Then -stir in the hydrochloric (or muriatic) acid and sulphate -of zinc. This is a first-class glue. Keep it in -a bottle with an oiled cork; any other stopper would -adhere. But for all ordinary work the glue, with -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_60">60</span> -nitric acid, will suffice, as it holds with great tenacity -to anything.</p> - -<p>This glue, which keeps liquid for a long time, and -which holds without scaling off, as common glue often -does, may also be made with <i>very strong</i> vinegar. The -latter, in fact, amounts to the same thing in most -European countries, but especially in the United -States, where, according to the New York <i>Tribune</i>, -there is literally no vinegar sold or made, save from -sulphuric acid and water. Perhaps when mankind -shall have reached a higher stage of civilisation, all -dealers will be compelled by law to place on every -article of food sold the list of ingredients of which it -is composed. We should then know how much oleomargarine -passes for butter, and what proportion of -“delicious conserves” are manufactured from apples -alone or turnips.</p> - -<p>Observe that in glueing ordinary wood together the -two pieces to be attached should be gradually but -very well <i>heated</i> first. This renders them more inclined -to “take” the glue. This is applicable to -other substances.</p> - -<p>Also note that when two surfaces have been made -to adhere with ordinary water-glue, should they come -apart when cold, it is very difficult to make them -unite again. But this is not the case with acid-glue. -And if you have such surfaces which will not unite, -wash them with nitric acid or very strong vinegar, -and the glue then applied will “take.” Also observe -that the acid-glue is far stronger than the common -kind.</p> - -<p>Having the broken leg fitted, first with a narrow -gimlet or brad-awl make a hole crossing the fracture, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_61">61</span> -then glue the pieces together, and before the glue -dries put a screw or two through the hole; <i>i.e.</i>, <i>screw</i> -the pieces together. This will hold perfectly, if you -will sink the head of the screw in the wood, smooth -it with a file, then putty it over and paint it.</p> - -<p>It seems strange that anything can be so mended as -to be stronger than before; yet this is literally true as -regards the broken leg of a chair, a cane, a beam, the -mast or spar of a vessel, or any similar long piece of -wood. This is effected as follows:—Cut the two -separated pieces into two exactly fitting “steps” or -mortises, as shown in this illustration.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="i_061a" src="images/i_061a.jpg" alt="" /></div> - -<p>Fasten these with glue and screws; or, better still, -by adding to both two sliding, tightly fitting ring-tubes, -or one long one. This will actually make the -stick stronger than it was at first. The rings should -be covered with paper, glued, and then painted and -varnished.</p> - -<p>The processes of glueing and screwing are applicable -to most fractures of furniture. Where a piece of -wood is broken away, it, or a similar piece, must be -inserted. When wood is warped it may be straightened -by applying wet towels. Observe that if a flat -panel is warped thus—<br /> - -<span class="center"><img id="i_061b" src="images/i_061b.jpg" alt="" /></span><br /> - -you must wet the upper or concave side, put it under -heavy weight, and as soon as it becomes straight, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_62">62</span> -screw it down with transverse strips. Drawers which -are made from badly seasoned wood are a grief to the -heart. They warp and stick. When you find that -such is the case you can save yourself much annoyance -by examining them, planing away the obstructions, -and nailing transverse strips of wood across; -that is to say, pieces in which <i>the grain</i> of the strip -crosses that of the wood. Very good and well-seasoned -English furniture often warps badly in India; -therefore it should be thus protected. This can in -most cases be better done with strips of metal. In -large wardrobes, presses, or chests, where there are -broad and often thin panels, this precaution should -always be taken. As I write I have just seen two exquisitely -painted and valuable pictures on panel, one -of which had curved and split in two, while the other -was badly warped for want of such a precaution, -which would have cost only a penny’s worth of strip -and screws and half-an-hour’s work to save them.</p> - -<p>It will very often happen in mending furniture that -neither nail, glue, nor screw can be relied on. In -such case bore with a suitable gimlet and pass wire -through the hole. Flexible wire twisted in two -strands, with the ends properly secured, say to the -head of a screw, all being sunk beneath the level, will -hold almost anything.</p> - -<p>Frames for looking-glasses or pictures often -“spring” at the joints. In such cases a screw with -acidulated glue will make them permanently strong.</p> - -<p>Always put handles to drawers. The vile invention -or device of using the key for a handle is by far too -common. Metallic handles of brass are preferable to -wooden knobs. Keys are often lost, or else break. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_63">63</span> -The bottom of a drawer should always be secured by -screws.</p> - -<p>When the bottom of a drawer, as frequently happens, -shrinks and becomes too short, so that there is -a long opening, the latter should be filled with a strip -of wood. The chief cause why modern furniture is -apt to become loose or separate is chiefly due to its -being made either of unseasoned or soft wood, such -as weak deal or poplar, which absorbs moisture from -the air and then dries and shrinks, or because it is -made of too many pieces only glued together, and -that with cheap, bad glue.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Restoring Decayed Wood.</span>—The worst cases of -decay or of worm-eaten wood can be perfectly restored -in this manner:—Take fine sawdust of the -same kind of wood as the original. Let it be as fine -as possible, either cut with a refined saw or powdered -in a mortar. Sift it. Then with acidulated glue, or -else plain, clear, white Salisbury glue for light wood, -make a paste, well mixed. With this you can fill up -holes (using a spatula or flexible knife or ivory paper-knife). -But, what is more, you can thus make a very -strong <i>artificial wood</i> which can be moulded into any -form, and when dry polished by cutting over the surface -with a chisel or flat gouge, and using a file or -glass-paper to finish. In fact, you can mould or -model figures with this wood-paste by itself. Putty -is generally used for such repairs, but the wood-paste -is like wood, and quite as durable.</p> - -<p>If you have a mould of plaster of Paris, boil it in -oil, clean it, and then oil it. With the wood-paste -you can make ornaments which can be applied to -plain wood surfaces. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_64">64</span></p> - -<p>Splints, fractures, cracks, holes, corners broken -away, are all easily restored with wood-paste. In -moulding it the fingers should be oiled to prevent its -sticking.</p> - -<p>Any kind of dry sawdust can thus be converted into -a paste, which, when dry, becomes wood. It may be -very much hardened under a hydraulic-press or by a -wooden hand-roller. Housekeepers should use this -composition for filling up rat-holes, or any kind of -crevices in furniture, or panels, or doors and walls, -especially where such cracks harbour insects.</p> - -<p>It would be perfectly possible to construct an entire -house of such wood-cement, and one which would be -perfectly durable, or even more so than wood, since -beams and planks thus made never crack, split, nor -warp. With it the boldest vaulting and arch work -can be more easily made than in stone or with wood, -as the latter is usually worked. As builders in Turkey -form domes by making circles of clay or mud, and -gradually add to the first a smaller one, so by using -wood-paste the largest space could be covered or domed -over without building a scaffolding. There are many -places in the world where (as in the prairies of America, -Russia, and Hungary) large timber is wanting, -but where small wood for sawdust is more available, -and yet where, as cattle abound, glue would be very -cheap. This material deserves more serious attention -than it has ever received.</p> - -<p>More than twenty years after I had invented, or at -least projected and put in practice, this method of -making artificial wood, I found the following in the -<i>Manuel Général du Modelage</i>, par F. Goupil; Paris, -Le Bailly:— -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_65">65</span></p> - -<p>“To make vases, take fine dry sawdust and pass it -through a sieve. It may be made into a paste with a -compound of turpentine, resin, and wax. Or mix the -adhesive with five parts of best strong white glue -(<i>colle de Flandre</i>) to one part of fish-glue. Melt them -separately, ... pour them together, boil to a proper -consistency, and mix with the sawdust. By this process -figures can be cast which, when finished by hand, -exactly resemble carved wood.”</p> - -<p>Another recipe is to take 750 grammes of strong glue -to 1½ kilogramme of gall nuts. To be mixed cold. -Mix in hot water with sawdust.</p> - -<p>Since writing the foregoing I have found the following -recipe in a MS. of 1780, a family heirloom -kindly lent me by Miss Roma Lister:—</p> - -<p>“<i>To cast Wood in Moulds as fine as Ivory, of a fragrant -Smell, and indifferent Colours.</i>—Dry Lime Tree -wood sawdust in a pan by a gentle fire, and beat it to -a fine powder in a stone mortar. Sift it through -Cambric, and keep it in a dry place free from dust. -Then add to an equal quantity of Gum Tragacanth -and Gum Arabic 4 times the quantity of Parchment -Glue. Boil them in Pump Water, and filter through -Linen. Stir into it the Wood powder till it becomes -of the substance of a thick pastry; stir it all together, -and set it in a glazed pan in hot sand, for the moisture -to evaporate till it be fit for casting. Mix your -colours with the Paste, and to give it a Scent put Oil -of Cloves or Roses or the like, which, if you please, -you may mix with powdered Amber. Anoint the -mould with Oil of Almonds, and put your paste into -it. Let it dry for 4 or 5 days, then take off your -mould, and the Images will be as hard as Ivory. You -may cut, turn, carve, and plane this wood, and it will -have a fine scent. The mould may be Plaster of -Paris, but it were better made of metal.” -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_66">66</span></p> - -<p>I would add to this, that where heavy pressure or -hand-rolling can be applied this becomes really hard. -Also note that any light, dry wood of fine texture can -be dried and powdered for this purpose. The paste, -even with common fine glue, can be used for very fine -repairing. By sifting and pulverising, the dust may -be made as fine as flour. A little calcined and powdered -glass adds to its strength.</p> - -<p>To make <i>panels</i> for furniture, walls, or boxes, take -firstly a thin panel of seasoned wood, fasten two strips -of sheet-tin across the back to prevent warping, and -make or apply the cast to this. Very beautiful work -can thus be produced very cheaply.</p> - -<p>It may be here observed that this principle of mixing -a powdered substance with glue or gum or an -adhesive runs through all the arts of mending. The -powder of cocoa-nut shells, slate, of paper, plaster of -Paris, of leather, clay, lime, fine sand, and many -other substances, can all be combined with adhesives, -acids, or chemical solvents in such a manner as to -form what may be called generically <i>cements</i>, or substances, -or <i>pastes</i>, which become hard. Any glue or -gum, or liquid which will make two surfaces adhere, -can be mixed with most organic or inorganic hard -substances in powder so as to form a paste which, -when dry, forms a solid, hard substance, because the -grains of the powder are thereby cemented together. -Most of these yield to the action of water, but there -are a few which resist both water and fire, all of -which will be described in this work.</p> - -<p>Broken ebony can be filled in cracks with a very -neat and dainty paste or cement made as follows:—Take -dried rose-leaves, or any others as soft, steep -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_67">67</span> -them in just enough water to soften them, add of -gum-tragacanth and gum-arabic just enough to make -a paste, and sufficient ivory black to give it an ebony -colour. Macerate the whole in a mortar. In the -East a few drops of otto of roses or of geranium are -added. From this heads are made, also medallions, -or any other small objects. The composition sets -very hard, and much resembles ebony. I have made -many small objects of it myself, and can testify to its -excellence. It is in this manner that the black rosaries -from Constantinople are made.</p> - -<p>A very good cement for filling cracks in furniture -or other woodwork is made as follows:—One part of -finely powdered resin and two parts of yellow wax -are melted together, and to this is added two parts -of finely pulverised ochre, or other suitable colouring -earthy substance. This is an excellent cement in all -respects, except that it yields to great heat. For all -such repairing sawdust and glue is much to be preferred.</p> - -<p>In repairing furniture, remember the screws hold -much more firmly if they are just dipped in boiling -beeswax or turpentine. If you are not accustomed -to screwing or nailing, just make a hole with a brad-awl, -else you will find the screw or nail going out of -the side of the box, or in some other undesired direction.</p> - -<p>Clamps, or pieces of wood connected by screws, -ties, or elastic bands, are indispensable in much glueing -pieces together. They are, however, easily made. -A good clamp can be made by bending over the two -ends of a strong piece of wire. Hammer the ends -into the wood. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_68">68</span></p> - -<p>Glue is more elastic when mixed with a little glycerine. -This should be borne in mind when mixing -glue with sawdust to form artificial wood, and, in -fact, in many manufactures and combinations where -it is specially desirous to have a certain degree of -toughness or flexibility in the object made.</p> - -<p>To utilise waste matter is allied to mending, which -is only preventing waste. For this purpose common -wood-shavings may be used for a pretty art. Take -good shavings of any wood, and after moistening -them with glue or gum tragacanth and arabic, press -them flat. Trim them with scissors into leaves, or -make them into flowers, and attach them together. -Then pour over them liquid plaster of Paris, in -which there is gum-arabic and alum dissolved. Take -a bush, or plant without leaves, and gum the leaves -to it or to its twigs. Cover bare places with the gypsum. -When dry varnish the whole. A Professor -<span class="smcap">Heigelin</span>, in Stuttgart, once had an exhibition of -such work. Frames can be decorated in this manner. -Paint, gilding, and enamel, or bronze powders, can, -of course, be applied. Shavings combined with weak -glue submitted to pressure form artificial wood or -boards, which can be improved by further combination -with waste-paper. Made with a solution of alum -it is fireproof. Its strength will be in proportion to -the pressure applied. It can often be employed in -repairing when suitable wood is wanting, and has the -advantage that it can be turned to any shape.</p> - -<p>The reader can easily satisfy himself by experiment -that these artificial woods made from sawdust or -shavings, combined with adhesives, are very easy to -manufacture, very cheap, and, when properly made, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_69">69</span> -extremely strong. When strong pressure or rolling -can be applied, the quantity of adhesive may be -diminished. Linen or muslin rags, cotton-wool, or -any textile fabric can be added to the shavings, as -well as waste-paper of all kinds. Anything fibrous -or stringy will aid in the binding.</p> - -<p>This subject may be studied in detail in a work entitled -<i>Die Verwerthung der Holtzabfälle</i>—The rendering -valuable of Refuse-Wood, such as Shavings, -Refuse Dye-Wood, &c., showing how they may be -converted to Artificial Wood, Fuel, Chemicals, Explosives, -&c.—by <span class="smcap">Ernst Hubbard</span>; Vienna, price 3 -marks.</p> - -<p>Wood of all kinds is in America sawed into such -thin veneers that they are used to serve as wall-paper, -being attached with paste. When damp they bend -like paper. Such veneer is very useful for repairing -wooden surfaces.</p> - -<p>Common putty is not always to be trusted in for -repairing wood. It sometimes shrinks, and is never -very hard. The glue with glycerine and sawdust or -cocoa-nut dust is preferable.</p> - -<p>“Scratches and chance cuts may be remedied by -merely melting or washing and rubbing in with cold -water. But for most small defects a <i>filler</i> is used. -This is a kind of paint or liquid cement, the object of -which is to fill up the pores of certain coarse woods -and make the surface fine. Soft wax, flour, and varnish -are used for this purpose.”</p> - -<p>Any dealer in paints and varnishes will supply a -filler for any special work.</p> - -<p>Staining or colouring wood is an important part of -repairing. “Oiling alone is a kind of colouring, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_70">70</span> -for all oiled wood becomes much darker in a short -time.”<a id="FNanchor_2" href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">2</a></p> - -<p>Soda dissolved in water gives to oak wood a much -darker tone. Dark tea and alum is also useful, and -still better very strong coffee. Also porter or beer -mixed with umber. Also a decoction of walnut-leaves -boiled down. In using these or any other colours the -following rules must be strictly observed:—(1.) Use -a sponge or brush, and do not apply the dye freely or -pour it on, as you will run great risk of warping the -wood or making it split. (2.) Exercise the greatest -care in drying it near a fire. (3.) Do not expect to -colour all at once by a profuse application. However -light the colour may seem, always when it is dry rub -off the colour with a rag or chamois-skin, and then -make a second wash. This process will make the dye -strike in deeper and last longer.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Stevens’</span> Stains, also those of <span class="smcap">Mander</span>, are very -good and strong. They generally require dilution.</p> - -<p>Ammonia is much used to give wood a dark rich -colour. Wood thus treated, if afterwards exposed to -the smoke of a wood fire, assumes a very ancient appearance. -Bichromate of potash with water is a good -dark dye, but it must be carefully handled, as it is -very poisonous and injurious to clothing. It is used -to give a waterproof quality to certain cements.</p> - -<p>Good writing-ink is a very good black dye. When -it is quite dry, oil, rub, and polish it, and the ink will -resist a great deal of wetting.</p> - -<p>It should be remembered that with ink, as with -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_71">71</span> -dyes, there should always be at least two applications, -and that the first should be very thoroughly dried, if -possible, in a strong light, though not in sunshine, -before the second is laid on. Three coats of blackest -ink well dried in, then rubbed in well, and finally -oiled, form an almost waterproof cover.</p> - -<p>When panels of marquetry or of inlaid wood of different -colours are broken away or require to be replaced, -it can be done in the following manner:—Take -a panel of very firm fine white wood—holly is -the best; next to it Swiss or German larch—draw -on it your pattern, and then with a penknife go over -all the pattern, cutting into the panel about a quarter -of an inch, or rather less—in no case far enough to -cut through. Then carefully fill all these lines with -a firm cement, and let it dry well. Then with a dye—not -with paint—color each piece appropriately. -The cement and lines will prevent the dye from -spreading from piece to piece. This is known as -Venetian marquetry. When finished, apply <i>Soehnée</i> -varnish, and rub down very carefully by hand. It is -a very beautiful and easy work, not to be distinguished -when well done from real inlaying. Very -cheap and plain old furniture can be easily made very -elegant by having panels, &c., of this work applied. -The reader may begin with a small box or three-legged -stool, working directly on the wood, and will -then probably be encouraged to proceed. Dark -brown patterns on light yellow wood look well.</p> - -<p>This work is very easy and elegant, very little -made, and may be therefore profitable. Any kind of -light or white wood, such as deal or pine, may be -used for common decoration. Cheap violins and -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_72">72</span> -guitars are sometimes made into handsome ornaments -for rooms by this process. For designs for this purpose -consult the Manuals of Design, Wood-Carving, -and Leather-Work, by the Author (Whittaker & Co., -No. 2 White Hart Street, London, E.C.).</p> - -<p>Marquetry may also be mended by making and colouring -wood-paste, in which case prepare the ground -with great care, by roughening, to hold the glue; -also by using coloured cements, such as bread, well -worked with powder and glycerine-glue.</p> - -<p>It does not seem to occur to many people—even to -those living in the country—that there is a great deal -of strong, plain, useful furniture which can be easily -made at home at no very great expense, boards of -good quality being cheap enough. With a few lessons -from an expert, or even with the study of a good -elementary manual of cabinetmaking, any amateur -can succeed. Whoever can make a good box can -make an antique chair, and this can, however plain, -be carved, stained, or marquetried into beauty; but -let him beware of sawed curves.</p> - -<p>Where there are worms in furniture or other wood, -they should always be very promptly exterminated, -else they will destroy it in time. To remove them, -dissolve 2 drachms of corrosive sublimate in 2 oz. of -methylated spirit and 2 oz. of water, to be applied -freely with a feather or brush. This is an unfailing -remedy; but the mixture is poisonous, and therefore -should be kept labelled out of harm’s way (<i>Work</i>, -Sept. 1892).</p> - -<p>In restoring or repairing woodwork we must have -some knowledge not only of paints, varnishes, putties, -and filling, but also of agents which prevent organic -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_73">73</span> -change or are applicable to peculiar accidents. One -of the principal of these is known as <i>knotting</i>. Its -properties and general nature are freely explained in -the following article from <i>The Decorator</i>, Sept. 1892:—</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>“‘Knotting,’ or, as it is usually written, <i>Patent -Knotting</i>, is a quick-drying, semi-transparent fluid. -It is made from naphtha and shellac; hence its quick-drying -nature. The knots of woodwork, especially -pine, contain much resin, which gradually exudes -from the surface. This resin will speedily darken, -and ultimately destroy, the covering film of oil paint -with which woodwork is usually coated. The object -of coating knots in woodwork with ‘patent knotting -composition’ is to seal up, so to term it, the resin. -In the earlier history of house-painting processes a -mixture of red lead and strong glue-size, applied -warm, was often used. The chief point in view is to -stop the ‘cause,’ but without objectionable ‘effect;’ -therefore the thinnest perceptible covering—so long -as it is effectual—is the best. The <i>patent knotting</i> of -commerce is the article now generally purchased and -used. The knots are given one or two <i>bare</i> coatings—according -to the nature of the knot, and the conscience -of the workman. The best knotting is the -colour of dark oak varnish; the worst is the blackest -and dirtiest-looking. It always pays to have the best -knotting, since ‘black knotting’ requires an extra -coat of paint to cover the dark patches which ‘grin -through’ any light tints. For the best work it is -usually advisable—especially when the woodwork has -to be finished, and perhaps hand-polished, in ‘ivory-white’ -enamel—to have the knots cut out with a -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_74">74</span> -chisel or gouge, then fill up with lead ‘filling-up’ in -distemper. I recently had to have the door of an -elaborately decorated drawing-room so treated, since, -despite being fresh knotted, the resin began to discolour -the work, which had received some six coats -of paint and enamel, ere the room was furnished—a -very annoying and costly matter. Very occasionally -knots are gilded over with best gold-leaf; this is generally -conceded to be an effectual plan to adopt, when -gouging is not resorted to, for finest work. Knotting -woodwork is, therefore, not an insignificant detail of -house-painting, especially when we are dealing with -a door-side; that alone, when finished in hand-polished -enamel, may cost a ten-pound note to produce. -‘Tin-paint’ will do for common priming; good linseed -oil is the chief element required. All new woodwork -requires three coats of good lead and oil paint -before standing any time—viz., priming and two after-coats. -This is known as ‘builders’ finish.’ When -permanently decorated it usually requires ‘getting -up’ to a proper surface, and two or three more coats.”</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>It is sometimes an advantage to “gouge”—<i>i.e.</i>, to -cut—out a bad knot and fill the cavity with wood, -wood-paste, or <i>carton-pierre</i>.</p> - -<p>A very beautiful stain can be given to wood by rubbing -it with nitric or sulphuric acid, and exposing it -to the heat of a fire. In this way American hickory -can be made to look like rosewood. Pine becomes -red, which grows darker with increased heat.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Mending Furniture.</span>—There is but one rule for -repairing creaky chairs and tables with loose legs. -They must be <i>carefully</i> taken apart, which can be done -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_75">75</span> -with chisels, a knife, and hammer, and then glued -and screwed or put together again as they were originally -made. The old-fashioned rounds or rungs of -chairs, now so seldom seen, were a great aid to -strength and durability.</p> - -<p>I have already remarked that when a drawer in a -bureau table is troublesome by continually sticking -or catching, take it out, find where it rubs, and plane -away the obtrusive portion. If it is made of badly -seasoned, green, warping wood, nail across it strips -of tin. To which I add that doors of closets, cabinets, -&c., which are shrunk must have strips of wood -glued to their edges. In some cases strips of paper -will do as a temporary substitute.</p> - -<p>It is no exaggeration whatever to declare that two -or three centuries ago the slight and trashily made -article of furniture was a great exception, while at the -present day it is the well-made, durable article which -forms the rarity—to the great shame, be it said, firstly, -of all furniture-makers, and, secondly, to fashionable -“taste,” which prefers slightness to strength.</p> - -<p>This trashy and flimsy lightness is vastly to the -profit of the cabinetmaker, since he can thus utilise -the cheapest and smallest pieces of worthless wood -by turning them into supports for light <i>étagères</i> or -shelves, cross-backs and legs of spider-like little -chairs, and all parts of small curved sofas, which are to -be duly puttied, French polished, or completely hidden -in velveteen or rep. It is not unusual to see what is considered -a handsomely furnished room in which there -is not one absolutely well-made or strong article -which would bear careful examination or turning up. -It is a pitiful sight indeed to see a load of such furniture -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_76">76</span> -on its way from the cabinetmakers, or the mill -where it is sawed out by steam, to the place where it -is to be veneered or painted, glazed, and clothed into -elegance. The pieces of refuse pine wood and American -greenish-yellow poplar stuck together with glue, -and as few short nails as possible, look so shammy -and shabby! I have wondered, in beholding them, -at the marvellous boldness of their makers, who could -deliberately calculate the time that such stuff would -endure before its <i>débacle</i>. And as it is all destined to -be broken and mended sometime or other, it is the -more necessary that the art of repairing should be -studied. Unfortunately, badly seasoned deal cannot -be repaired into well-seasoned oak. Yet he who will -take the pains to ascertain the price of the latter will -be amazed to learn that so few people have it made -into good, solid, strong furniture. “It is not <i>there</i> -that the expense comes in.” If the reader, having -some sense or taste in art, would make his own furniture, -employing an assistant at six shillings a day to -do the rough sawing and planing, he would find that -he could have strong, substantial furniture; and if -he would add to this so much knowledge of panel-carving -as he could acquire in a few lessons, he might -make it beautiful.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">A cement for wood</span> is made as follows:—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Caseine</td> - <td class="tdr">10</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Borax</td> - <td class="tdr">5</td> - </tr></table> - -<p>This is carefully worked into a thickish milk-like -mass. It may be used as a glue for wood or as a -paste for paper. It admits of many modifications. -To make a very good waterproof cement for wood, as -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_77">77</span> -well as other purposes, take this cement when it shall -have hardened, or after it has been applied, and wash -it over frequently with a very strong extract of gall-apples. -This forms, according to <span class="smcap">Lehner</span>, an insoluble -union with caseine.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">A cement much employed in China</span> to combine and -make woodwork, basket-work, pasteboard, &c., waterproof -is made as follows:—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Slacked lime</td> - <td class="tdr">100</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Stirred ox-blood</td> - <td class="tdr">75</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Alum</td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - </tr></table> - -<p>This is commended as being very strong and durable. -It is probable that a slight increase of the alum -in solution, or an addition of strong infusion of gall-apples, -would improve it.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">A water-proof cement for wooden casks</span> is made -as follows:—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Strong solution of glue</td> - <td class="tdr">10</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Linseed-oil varnish</td> - <td class="tdr">5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Oxide of lead</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - </tr></table> - -<p>Boil together for ten minutes. This cement must -not be brought into connection with lye (<span class="smcap">Lehner</span>).</p> - -<p>A good, strong, cheap cement for joining wood -with metal or stone is made with</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Carpenters’ glue</td> - <td class="tdr">50</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Sifted wood-ashes</td> - <td class="tdr">100</td> - </tr></table> - -<p>While the glue is soft stir into it the wood-ashes in -greater or lesser quantity, according to their quality -and fineness, till a syrupy mass is formed. Clay can -also be combined with this mixture to make casts. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_78">78</span></p> - -<p>Common <i>peat</i> of fine quality (for there are different -kinds or degrees of it), carefully cleaned from sticks -and fibres, combined with common glue infused freely -with nitric acid, submitted to strong pressure, is said -to form a valuable substitute for wood, which may be -used not only for repairing, filling chinks in trees, -making up decayed timber, &c., but also to form -blocks and planks.</p> - -<p>I have elsewhere mentioned that shavings are utilised -in Germany. Combined with glue, infused with -glycerine, and submitted to pressure, they form -boards which are even less brittle than many which -are in ordinary use. The peculiar advantage of this -artificial timber is the limitless length of the boards -which can be thus made, which is often a great desideratum -in flooring, or indeed in any building where -piecing should be avoided. A canoe can thus be -made on another as mould, in which case the shaving-cement -is to be hardened by rollers. There is a -book on this subject, elsewhere mentioned.</p> - -<p>It may be observed that, as long and broad timber -becomes every year more rare and valuable, artificial -timber from smaller plants must certainly take its -place.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Whitewash for wood</span> is rendered more durable -and glossy by the addition of liquid glue, well stirred -in. It is still further improved by the addition of -milk. This lasts so much longer than common wash -that it is in the end perhaps ten times as cheap. -When well made it has been known, when applied to -the exterior of certain Government buildings in Washington, -U.S.A., to last for seven years. If colouring -matter, such as umber, be added, let the latter be -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_79">79</span> -mixed separately with the glue, and very thoroughly, -before it is joined to the lime. The addition of a few -eggs to the mixture will improve it. The lime prepared -with the following forms a still better and -stronger wash, which is well worth the extra expense:—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Glue</td> - <td class="tdr">60</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Linseed-oil varnish</td> - <td class="tdr">20</td> - </tr></table> - -<p>The varnish, while <i>hot</i>, is mixed with the boiling -glue, and it is to be used at once. This is (<span class="smcap">Lehner</span>) -useful to coat and caulk casks, especially those in -which such fluids as highly rectified spirits of wine -are carried. Be it observed that the hotter the mixture -is when applied the more deeply does it penetrate, -yet the less is in the end required.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">A good cement for carpenters</span>:—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Slacked lime</td> - <td class="tdr">50</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Flour</td> - <td class="tdr">100</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Linseed-oil varnish</td> - <td class="tdr">15</td> - </tr></table> - -<p><span class="smcap">Woodwork</span> which is to be under water or much exposed -to rain may be cemented with the following:—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Calcined lime</td> - <td class="tdr">10</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Flint sand</td> - <td class="tdr">15</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Iron (powder filings)</td> - <td class="tdr">5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Ochre</td> - <td class="tdr">20</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Brick-dust</td> - <td class="tdr">20</td> - </tr></table> - -<p>The powder must be well mixed by shaking, and, -just before use, to be mixed with water.</p> - -<p>The following may be used for <small>JOINTS IN TIMBERS</small>, -holes and cracks, or for covering the surfaces, as it is -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_80">80</span> -an excellent protective against wet. It may also be -used for stone, &c.:—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Purified brick-dust</td> - <td class="tdr">10</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Calcined lime</td> - <td class="tdr">10</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Purified red iron ore</td> - <td class="tdr">10</td> - </tr></table> - -<p>Work this to a paste with dissolved soda. Modifications -of this combination of soda with iron and -brick-dust will readily occur to all who have carefully -studied this work.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">A cement for wood</span>:—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Slacked lime powder</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Rye-meal</td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Linseed-oil varnish</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - </tr></table> - -<p>To which burnt umber or similar powder may be -added at discretion. This cement dries slowly, but -becomes very hard. It is good for filling cracks, -holes, &c.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">French glue for wood</span>:—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Gum-arabic</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Water</td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Potato starch</td> - <td class="tdr">3-5</td> - </tr></table> - -<p><span class="smcap">Sawdust</span>, as I have explained, from my own conjecture -and experiment, can be combined with cements -so as to form an artificial wood, which can be easily -moulded or carved, and with which all kinds of worm-eaten -and decayed wood can be restored. I find that -for this purpose <span class="smcap">Lehner</span> gives the following:—</p> - -<p>“Take the finest sawdust and combine it with linseed-oil -varnish, kneading the mass very carefully.”</p> - -<p>This, when properly combined and worked, would -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_81">81</span> -form a very good artificial wood. It may be here observed, -that because the experimenter finds at a first -trial that the wood is too brittle or too hard, he is not -to conclude that the <i>recipe</i> is good for nothing. Thus, -to prepare it with, glue we should take—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Water</td> - <td class="tdr">20</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Glue</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - </tr></table> - -<p>First boil the glue very carefully, and stir into it -the finest wood-dust or cocoa-nut shell powder. The -quality will be improved if the latter has already been -steeped for some time in a strong solution of oak-bark -or gall-apples in spirit, or, instead of the latter, water. -This disposes the dust to amalgamate with the glue. -Stir the whole thoroughly. A commoner or coarser -preparation for simply repairing is made by combining -plaster of Paris, glue in watery solution, and sawdust. -Common bone-dust, plaster of Paris, and glue -make a good cement for light wood-dust. With a -little glycerine it can be used for moulding. Add a -little pipeclay, and if the bone-dust be very fine the -surface will take a very high polish. Finish with oil -and hand rubbing. This composition combines well -with perfectly softened and macerated paper—not -merely <i>soaked</i>—to form panels, which, however, to -make them hard, should be pressed or rolled.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Cements for deals or boards of soft wood</span>:—</p> - -<p class="caption">I.</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Caseine</td> - <td class="tdr">500</td> - <td /> - <td>grams.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Water</td> - <td class="tdr">4</td> - <td /> - <td>qts.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Spirit sal-ammoniac</td> - <td class="tdr">0</td> - <td>.5</td> - <td>qt.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Calcined lime</td> - <td class="tdr">250</td> - <td /> - <td>grams. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_82">82</span></td> - </tr></table> - -<p class="caption">II.</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Glue</td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Water</td> - <td class="tdr">14</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Cement lime</td> - <td class="tdr">7</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Sawdust</td> - <td class="tdr">3-4</td> - </tr></table> - -<p><span class="smcap">For splits in trees</span>, or fractures in the bark:—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Pitch or resin</td> - <td class="tdr">50</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Tallow</td> - <td class="tdr">10</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Oil of turpentine</td> - <td class="tdr">5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Spirits of wine</td> - <td class="tdr">5</td> - </tr></table> - -<p>The resin is first melted, the turpentine then stirred -in, then the tallow, and finally the spirits.</p> - -<p>I have spoken of artificial wood as chiefly made of -sawdust combined with a binder such as glue. There -are, however, strictly speaking, other kinds. The -first of these is made from <i>cellulose</i>, which is disintegrated -wood which still retains its fibre. It was discovered, -I believe, by accident, in New York about -thirty years ago. A stick, which fitted tightly, had -been left in a cannon, when the latter was fired off. -The result was that the stick was converted into a -pulpy, fibrous mass, which was found to be admirable -as a material for making paper. This, combined with -glue, makes good boards.</p> - -<p>Bark of different kinds is also combined in powder -with glue to make wood. In all of these mixtures, -where it is desirable to avoid brittleness or hardness, -there must be an admixture of oil or glycerine. -There is generally about 20/100 of the latter to 80/100 of -sawdust, but the proportion varies according to the -degree of elasticity or hardness required. To make -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_83">83</span> -boards the mixture is passed under heavy rollers, and -when dry it is further treated with alum in solution, -or tanner’s infusion of oak-bark, to make it waterproof. -This is not necessary for ordinary work or -repair.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">To imitate Cedar.</span>—Take any white wood and -boil it for several hours in the following mixture:—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Catechu</td> - <td class="tdr">200</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Caustic soda</td> - <td class="tdr">100</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Water</td> - <td class="tdr">10,000</td> - </tr></table> - -<p>This penetrates very deeply into any wood. It is a -very good protective.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">To prepare Wood for Paint.</span>—When you have a -board or box, &c., however rough, and of any kind -of inferior wood, first smooth the surface, if possible -by planing, or else with a rasp and glass-paper. Fill -all the holes and chinks with putty, or bread and -gum, or gum and plaster of Paris. Then, with a mixture -of glue (not too stiff) and fine white plaster of -Paris, rub over all the surface to perfect smoothness, -and when quite dry remove any irregularities with -finest glass-paper. Then paint as desired. This is -an approved method of repairing old panel pictures, -which were all made with such a ground of plaster -and glue.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">To repair Marquetry or Inlaid Woodwork.</span>—This, -as I have already said, and will now describe -more in detail, is made of different pieces of coloured -wood, glued on a panel. Take a piece of fine hard -wood, such as holly, and saw it out to exactly fit the -place where pieces are missing. Draw the pattern on -it, and then outline it very neatly with a fine pen-knife-point, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_84">84</span> -so as to cut a little way into the wood, -but not <i>through</i> it. Fill up this line thus cut with a -composition of varnish and any black powder. Then -with <i>dyes</i>, not oil paint or water-colour, but such as -are made with spirit, colour the pattern, a separate -colour to every piece. The dye will sink in and grow -pale; then apply it again, and till it is of the hue desired. -Polish the whole. This is what is called -Venetian marquetry. It is, very easy to make, and -produces beautiful results, quite equal to the sawed-out -and inlaid work. It is, moreover, much more -durable and far less expensive. <span class="smcap">Mander’s</span> dyes are -used for such staining.</p> - -<p>Even a single inlaid figure of wood, set into a panel, -as in the back of a chair, gives a character, and apparently -greater value, to the whole. Such inlaying -is easily made with a fret-saw. If we take two thin -plates of wood, one dark and one light, and saw the -same pattern out of both, we can then set one into the -other, and so make two inlays by one process. <i>Parquetry</i> -is large inlaying for floors. For this it is well -to study such forms as can be <i>set together</i>, as, for instance, -squares, diamonds, crosses, <span class="t">T</span>’s and the like.</p> - -<p>Violins, guitars, and lutes can be beautifully -adorned by the Venetian process. As the colours do -not wear away, and cannot scale off like common inlaying, -it will be seen that it is by far the best way to -decorate them. Furniture of all kinds can be ornamented -in the same way. It is peculiarly appropriate -to picture-frames. It being very little known, objects -thus prepared meet with a ready sale.</p> - -<p>When a corner of a pane in a window, as often happens—as -also to the glass of a picture-frame or mirror—is -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_85">85</span> -broken away, we can easily make or have made -a small ornament which will fit into the corner and -conceal the defect, This can be made of wood, <i>papier-mâché</i> -(which is best), or hard putty or cement. It -may be gilded or painted. Windows may be prettily -ornamented in this manner, even if not broken.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="i_085" src="images/i_085.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><i>Mirror with Ornaments of Papier-mâché or Wood-Paste.</i> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_86">86</span></p></div> - -<h2 id="ON_REPAIRING_AND_RESTORING_BOOKS">ON REPAIRING AND RESTORING BOOKS, -MANUSCRIPTS, AND PAPERS<br /> - -<span class="large">WITH DIRECTIONS FOR EASY BINDING AND -PAPER-MENDING—BOOK-WORMS</span></h2> - -<p>It happens often enough that some valuable old manuscript -or early printed work, if not destroyed as useless, -is sold for a trifle because it is torn and worm-eaten -or otherwise injured. The loss to literature -from this cause has been terrible, and it is all the -more so because in most cases it was the result of -sheer ignorance.</p> - -<p>Paper is a composition of linen, cotton, or other -vegetable fibre reduced to powder and then combined -with <i>size</i>, which is a kind of glue, paste, or binding -medium. Therefore paper can be mended by using, in -the soft, macerated, or pasty form, <i>paper itself</i>—which -very simple fact appears to have been hitherto a -secret from the greater portion of mankind. That is -to say, having a piece of paper with a small round -hole in it—looking as if some one had fired a shot -through it—take another piece of paper of the same -quality and reduce some of it to a very fine powder or -mash it fine with a knife, combine it with good flour-paste -infused with a little clear white glue, and make -a soft paste with the powder; then, laying a porcelain -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_87">87</span> -tile or piece of tin under the sheet, with a hole in it, -to prevent sticking, spread the paste, which is really -soft paper, with a knife over the hole. When dry it -will be mended permanently. Observe that the pulp -must be a fine <i>paste</i>, not merely paper mixed with -paste—<i>i.e.</i>, lumpy and stringy, but soft. Secondly, -that a better “binder” or size than flour-paste is one -made from scraps of parchment boiled, till all the -gelatine is extracted. Take the latter and let it boil -till thick. It makes a finely glazed surface.</p> - -<p>Do not begin to do this with a book, but with a -sheet out of which holes have been punched. It is -delicate work, and you must not expect to succeed in -it at once. But in time, with care, you will remake -the paper with great skill. There are workmen who -can even reunite torn edges in this manner so that the -mending is almost imperceptible. This is remaking -paper with paper. In some cases it will suffice to -simply neatly paste a piece of paper over a torn-away -space. This may be done—as in most cases—very -clumsily, or it may be performed artistically and -daintily. In the latter case, using a very sharp and -specially <i>thin</i> bladed penknife, shave down or scrape -away the overlapping edge, and apply the paste sparingly -with the point of a camel’s-hair small brush. -Before it is quite dry lay the leaf on a smooth, hard -surface, and with the penknife or a burnisher flatten -down the thinned edge to an uniform surface. This -also requires a little practice, but when learned the -artist may effect miracles of restoration. One may, -and that not infrequently, buy for shillings books -which when mended sell for many pounds.</p> - -<p>It often happens that we find some curious little -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_88">88</span> -old book which has been sadly cut or worn, almost -down to the type. Take it, and with a flat rule carefully -cut out every page, leaving just a little rim of -margin. Then having obtained old paper corresponding -to your text, or good modern hand-made Dutch, -using strong glue-paste or flour and gum-arabic, or -paper-paste, make borders, on which paste the old -pages. If you have old paper—there are dealers who -can supply it—you may do this so well that the juncture -will be hardly perceptible. In any case you will -greatly enhance the value of the book. In this, as in -all such work, never attempt to restore anything of -value till you shall have succeeded by experimenting. -This is very seldom done, and yet books thus restored -sell for a price which must make the work very profitable. -One reason, however, why we see so little of -it is the <i>extravagant</i> price charged for all such work -by the agent who supplies it.</p> - -<p>The prices paid for books thus restored and mounted -are extremely high, simply because there are so -few people who know how to do it well; and yet, as -any of my readers may find, the art is an easy one, -requiring only neatness and care. There are very -few libraries where such restorers might not be employed, -to the very great profit of the collection. All -purchasers for libraries are continually rejecting books -because they are tattered and worn or “holey,” which -could be sent to the hospital and doctored into value. -And it is, indeed, to be regretted for the sake of the -public that our great libraries have not all shops attached -where duplicates and damaged rarities restored -could be sold at fair, not fancy, prices. For it -is firstly the great librarian who sees and rejects the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_89">89</span> -most books, and who could do an immense amount -of good, and greatly stimulate an interest in collection -and literature—and make money—if he would -also facilitate acquisition. The art of restoring and -of mending is as yet so much in its infancy, and is so -little understood and practised, that there is not one -book in a thousand, even of <i>rariora</i> and <i>curiosa</i>, preserved -as it might be.</p> - -<p>It may be worth while to lay some stress on the -fact that many persons, especially women, if they -will take a little pains to experiment, can easily make -a living by thus restoring books and injured documents. -There are, indeed, many other means of -earning money indicated in this work.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">A cheap and durable varnish</span> specially made for -bookbinders is prepared as follows:—Take coarsely -powdered gum-copal, add to it oil of thyme (<i>oleum -thymi serpilli</i>) or pure oil of rosemary (<i>oleum rosmarini</i>), -sufficient to form a solution. Pour off the superfluous -liquid, and mix the remainder with sufficient alcohol -to dissolve it well. In making take only so much of -the oil of thyme or rosemary as will cover the copal, -and of alcohol about eight or ten parts to the whole. -Special varnishes, and perhaps better, are known to -many bookbinders, who will sell them, or inform you -where to obtain them. I know of none so good as -that of <span class="smcap">Soehnée</span>, which is, however, very expensive, -costing about ninepence per ounce. It is rather brittle, -however, for pictures.</p> - -<p>When a book is dog’s-eared, or its leaves have been -turned, if the paper be of a thin, poor quality, its -chances of restoration are better than if it were good -and stiff. In the former case damp the leaves one by -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_90">90</span> -one with water in which a <i>little</i> gum tragacanth has -been infused. This is not so much an adhesive as a -mere stiffener, and is used as such for laces. Then -flatten them, putting a piece of smooth white paper -between every leaf.</p> - -<p>There is, I fear, nothing to be done where the -reader is so utterly devoid of all the instincts of a -gentleman or a lady as to turn over a stiff, thick, -highly glazed paper to mark the place! I have just -found this done in a magnificently illustrated work -from a circulating library, and, to aggravate the -offence, it was on pictured pages! I would here remark -that if every reader would keep by him a piece -of indiarubber or eraser, and obliterate, or at least -render illegible, all the scribblings made on margins, -this detestably vulgar practice would soon be at -an end.</p> - -<p>It may be observed that to repair pages which have -been torn across, or engravings, the rent is usually -<i>transverse</i>—that is, such as to leave a small flap edge. -If we take very strong gum in very minute quantity -on the point of a camel’s-hair brush, we may often -succeed with great care in perfectly reuniting the -edges. Observe that in this, as in everything, the -mender should not draw his conclusions from the first -effort, which will probably be a failure, but from frequent -careful observation and experiment. There are -marvellously few people in the world who take the -pains to become really good menders of anything—excepting -lace and the like—hence there are few -things mended at all except by botchers and amateurs.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Ink-Stains</span> can be removed from paper by laying -underneath the blot a pad of clean blotting-paper or -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_91">91</span> -fine muslin. Take a fine sponge, dip it in lemon-juice, -and press it gently on the stain, so as to moisten -it. Then with a clean, white, soft rag, folded into a -pad, press on the spot, and the pad, lifted off, will remove -a little of the ink. Repeat this process a few -times, taking care to change the pad in your hand -every time <i>to a clean</i> spot. Do not try to <i>rub</i> the stain -out (as most people do), but to <i>draw</i> the ink away or -out by sucking up or by absorption. If you simply -rub or press the ink in again which has just been -drawn out, you will only make bad worse. And here -I would observe that by this process of pressing, absorbing, -and changing the “sucker” applied, you can -draw appalling stains out of almost anything. You -cannot, of course, prevent chemical action or change -of colour, but in most cases this is the best process.</p> - -<p>It is better to begin with lemon-juice and a little -salt and water where the paper is thin. When it is -strong, a mixture of muriatic acid and water generally -extracts ink.</p> - -<p>In a great many cases the staining fluid can be -drawn out by absorption before any chemical change -in the colour of the stuff can have been effected. -Therefore it is all-important to know how to do this -yourself <i>at once</i>, and not wait till it can be sent to a -dyer or scourer or cleaner. In a few hours’ time that -which could have been promptly extracted will be -past all cure. When you spill ink on paper, promptly -apply, first of all, blotting-paper, and then try absorption. -If any stain remains then, apply the acid.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">To take out a Grease-Spot.</span>—Heat an iron (I generally -effect it with a burning cigar), and hold it as -near as possible to the stain without burning the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_92">92</span> -paper. If this be well done the grease, wax, &c., -will rapidly disappear. If there are any traces left, -place on it powdered calcined magnesia for a time. -This is also a good means to extract grease, wax, or -oil from cloth. Very often, where lemon-juice or -acid would ruin the colour of a cloth or other fabric, -chloroform will take out the spot and leave the colour -unchanged.</p> - -<p><i>Bone</i>, well calcined and powdered, is an excellent -absorbent of grease. It should be remembered that -all such processes must be renewed, for after the -powder or cloth applied has received a certain quantity -of the grease or stain, it ceases to be taken in. -A gentle pressure or rubbing, after laying paper over -the powder, facilitates the absorption.</p> - -<p>The celebrated <span class="smcap">Athanasius Kircher</span>, who wrote in -the sixteenth century, has left an amusing account of -how he one night, stopping at a convent in Sicily, -took a book from the library (it was <span class="smcap">Stephanus -Fagundez’</span> <i>In Præcep’a Ecclesiæ</i>)—“a new book and -elegantly bound”—and spilt over it and in it all the -midnight oil from his lamp! In great alarm he sent -for quicklime, but there was none to be had. So he -bade the monks bring him some <i>bones</i>, which he -quickly calcined and pulverised and applied. And -the next morning there was not a trace of a spot, only -a little smell of oil, which soon vanished. He adds, -that plaster of Paris would have done as well.</p> - -<p>Ascertain carefully the nature of the spot before -trying to extract it. For resinous substances use -spirits, or eau de cologne, or turpentine. Benzine -extracts several substances.</p> - -<p>An old recipe for removing ink-stains was to take -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_93">93</span> -a spoonful of good aquafortis, in which break a piece -of chalk the size of a large barley corn; add two -spoonfuls of rose-water and one of vinegar. This -should be mixed in a clean glass and left to stand for -several hours. It is to be applied with a piece of new -sponge, by pressure, and not too freely nor too long. -When the paper is nearly dry renew the process, and -when the ink shall have disappeared, promptly wash -out the acid with pure water and a clean linen rag. -(But it is <i>too strong</i> for many fabrics.)</p> - -<p>When the ink does not penetrate the paper it can -be removed by erasure with a sharp penknife, or a -preparation of vulcanised indiarubber and powdered -pumice-stone sold by most stationers. When this -latter does not “bite,” its action can be aided by very -slightly moistening it. After erasure rub the spot -scraped with very finely powdered pumice-stone, and -polish with a burnisher or any smooth substance.</p> - -<p>Even when an inkstand has been spilled over a -printed or long-written page, we can by prompt action -extract the new ink and leave the old plain as ever; -but the reader who expects to work this miracle of -changing night into day must not wait till the accident -happens to first attempt to remedy it, or he will -probably fail. Let him first of all, not once but often, -pour ink on some waste and worthless page, and then -experiment first with the blotting-paper, then with -the dilute acids and the padding. The time will not -by any means be wasted.</p> - -<p>A fresh ink-spot can be easily removed from paper -by rubbing it with a finely pulverised mixture of saltpetre, -sulphur, alum, and pumice. If the spot is an -old one, moisten it first a little with water. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_94">94</span></p> - -<p>Ink-spots, &c., in old MSS. were sometimes ingeniously -covered by ornaments in gold or colour.</p> - -<p>When an entire page or many pages of a book are -missing, it often happens that, at much less expense -than would be supposed, an ingenious printer can restore -the whole. There are many books for which it -would be worth while to have the type cast, for even -with a page thus restored the book may be worth ten -times as much as if it were wanting. Missing pages -are often supplied by photographic fac-similes from -another copy.</p> - -<p>It was only yesterday, as I write, here in Florence, -that I heard a tourist declare that there was nothing -worth buying to be found, and that everything curious -was snapped up at once. To which I could not -assent, never having seen so many objects as of late -which I regarded as great bargains. But they were -all <i>dilapidated</i>, and the tourist generally likes to see -everything in splendid condition. To him who can -restore old books and ivories and leather-work and -panel pictures, there will be no lack of bargains for a -long time anywhere. The men who sell are not all -such marvellous experts in mending up, repairing, -and forging as literary dealers in the wonderful would -have us believe. If they were so clever they would -not let valuable panel pictures split in two before their -eyes from ignorance of knowing how to straighten -and tack them at a penny’s cost. There is abundance -of clever forging, of lying ivories and silver-work and -sham antique leather, but of restoration of smaller or -of single objects there is very little; and there is, as -I have said, in this a vast field for every collector who -knows enough to make practical application of what -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_95">95</span> -is taught in this book. It is so far from true that -everything is now snapped up, that I confidently assert -that there is hardly a <i>bric-à-brac</i> shop in Europe -in which a skilled repairer cannot find a bargain, and -in most cases several.</p> - -<p>It will often be of service to the mender of books -to be able to prepare parchment-paper for himself. -If we take a mixture of one part nitric acid to three -of water—the proportions varying very much with the -quality of the acid and of the paper—and dip into it -a piece of soft unglazed paper, the latter will at once -harden into a substance like parchment. It should -be at once washed in changes of pure water. I may -here observe that neither in making this nor anything -else should the operator be satisfied with a single experiment.</p> - -<p>Regarding paper, there are certain curious facts -worth knowing by every reader. Before the invention -or general use of window-glass, a very transparent -kind of paper was, according to <span class="smcap">Kircher</span> (<i>De -Secretis</i>), prepared as follows:—</p> - -<p>Take paper from the mill, not as yet sized, and mix -with it to six parts of turpentine two of mastic. This -really makes a very clear, or at least diaphanous, -medium, which may be used for temporarily repairing -broken glass windows.</p> - -<p>The same writer informs us that if we take fine -parchment (<i>pergamenam hædinum</i>), prepared without -lime, or naturally dried, we should lay it in water, -which will just cover it, in which has been well infused -boiled honey and the white of eggs. This was -used to repair coloured glass windows.</p> - -<p>There is also given in the <i>Zauberbuch</i> of <span class="smcap">Johann</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_96">96</span> -<span class="smcap">Wallberger</span>, Frankfort, 1760, a recipe for the same -purpose:—</p> - -<p>“Take parchment prepared without lime, and steep -it in a mixture of thick gum-arabic dissolved in water, -the yolk of eggs well shaken, and clarified honey.”</p> - -<p>It is worth observing, as regards these recipes from -old works, that while those founded on modern chemistry -and experiment are generally cheaper and apparently -better, the former are often more <i>durable</i> in -effect, and were, indeed, more thoroughly tested. -There were a great many parchment windows in those -days, and there are none now. And in these old -works of <span class="smcap">Porta</span>, <span class="smcap">Weckerus</span>, <span class="smcap">Tenzelius</span>, <span class="smcap">Kircher</span>, -<span class="smcap">Alexander of Piedmont</span>, <span class="smcap">Mizaldus</span>, <span class="smcap">Valentine -Krautemann</span>, and many more of which I have a large -collection, there are many curious prescriptions, many -of which I have seen revived from time to time of late -years as modern scientific inventions—on which subject -an interesting article could be written.</p> - -<p>A weak solution of oxalic acid in water is often the -best to remove ink and other stains from strong white -paper or linen. It should be applied by gently pressing -or <i>dabbing</i> (not rubbing) with a cotton pad. As -soon as the stain is removed, dab it again with clean -water. Take good care, however, that there are no -scratches or cuts on your fingers, for if the acid gets -into them it will cause great pain.</p> - -<p>I may here mention that the old bookbinders’ paste -was made as follows:—</p> - -<p>Take a quarter of a pound of starch, steep it a -quarter of an hour in water, and stir it till it is milky. -Add a pinch of alum, and boil it once more.</p> - -<p>This was said to keep better than paste made from -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_97">97</span> -flour. (Add a few drops of oil of cloves or carbolic -acid, and it will keep very well.) Flour can, however, -be used instead of starch, and a good adhesive be the -result. A little glue very much improves it. There -is a great difference in the quality of cement made -from bread, as the condition of the latter has been -changed by fermentation.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Binding.</span>—Repairing books is nearly allied to <i>binding</i>, -and the latter is, in perfection, a somewhat difficult -art. Yet it is not at all difficult for a careful -person to bind up many works in such a manner that -they will bear much reading, and with a little artistic -skill look very well. This may be effected as follows:—</p> - -<p>When a book is stitched together, there are sewed -into the back two or more cross pieces of string or -strips of muslin, which project a little on either side, -and which, by being pasted down inside the cover -under a leaf, hold the book and cover together. This -is further strengthened sometimes by another strip of -muslin. When the back is firmly gummed or pasted -to the book, so as to bend with -it, it is called a flexible back, -which also adds to the strength -of the whole.</p> - -<div class="figright"> -<img id="i_097" src="images/i_097.jpg" alt="" /></div> - -<p>If the reader will now take a -simply sewn or stitched book, -without binding, and will place -across its back two or more strips -of parchment, and glue them on -with the strongest possible cement—mastic -being the best, but acidulated glue or -flour-paste with glue, or even dextrine-paste, will -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_98">98</span> -answer the purpose—and if he will again paste up -and down over these a strip just the width of the -back, he will have all that is necessary to make a -strong binding, for this will hold as well as the -strings. Note that the parchment strips must first -be thoroughly wet through and macerated, or crumpled -till quite soft. Again, that when the paste is -nearly dry the strip should be rubbed in.</p> - -<p>Next cut out two pieces of <i>strong</i> pasteboard, each -a very little larger than the length and width of the -book. These are the covers.</p> - -<div class="figleft"> -<img id="i_098" src="images/i_098.jpg" alt="" /></div> - -<p>Now paste the outside of the <i>straps</i> exactly to the -inside of the covers, leaving -just enough space for opening -and closing. When dry, the -book should open and close -easily. Then take the outer -cover of leather or cloth, which -is cut in the shape indicated -in the accompanying outline, -paste it well over the back, -and then turn the edges over and paste them -down over the cover inside, so as to form a narrow -margin, as may be seen by examining any book. Also -turn down, before doing this, the edges at the ends -of the book. The binding will be much stronger if, -after pasting the ends of the parchment strips to the -covers, we paste over them in turn good, strong pieces -of paper, close to the back, to prevent the strips from -pulling up.</p> - -<p>If there be fly or blank leaves on the sides of the -book, paste one of each down over the inside of the -cover. This will conceal the margin and add greatly -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_99">99</span> -to the strength of the book. But if there be none, -you can supply them, firstly, by a method which will -make your binding even stronger than that of most -books. Take a very strong piece, let us say, of Whatman’s -or any other good tough linen drawing-paper, -just of the size to cover the whole book—that is, back -and sides. Cut in it four slits, and pass the strips -which are to bind the book to the cover through, and -gum them down, and then paste the fly-leaf thus -added down over the strips. But it will answer every -purpose if you simply gum fly-leaves on by a very -narrow margin of “adhesive.” All of this will become -clear to any one who will carefully examine a -book. And anybody who has the dexterity to fold a -letter neatly or do up a parcel properly, can in a short -time, after one or two experiments, succeed in binding -a book in this manner. I have observed that -those who fail as amateur bookbinders generally do -so because they attempt too much too soon, and aim -at producing elegant masterpieces before they have -learned to manage with ease such common work as I -have described.</p> - -<p>Though this manner of strip-binding is little known, -it was, strange to say, the very first ever practised; -for, according to <span class="smcap">Olympiodorus</span>, one <span class="smcap">Philatius</span> was -the first who taught the use of <i>glue</i> to fasten written -or blank leaves together, for which great discovery a -statue was erected to him. Binders were called -among the Romans <i>ligatores</i>, as they are still in Italy, -<i>legatori</i>; and it was here, indeed, that I myself learned -the craft, as I now generally bind my own books. -Those who prepared and sold the covers for Roman -booksellers were called <i>scrutarii</i>. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_100">100</span></p> - -<p>There is a very easy way to bind up pamphlets, -MSS., or letters when they have any margin for a -back. If you cannot have them stitched—which, -though difficult to an inexpert, can be done for a mere -trifle—then sew them together across from side to -side. Where the pages are of great value, gum them -together by a <i>very narrow</i> doubled or folded strip of -adhesive. This done, bind as before, or else simply -paste on a cover of drawing-paper at the back, and -the fly-leaves to the sides. A great deal of loose literature, -flying leaves, clippings from newspapers, letters, -&c., can in this way, at no great expenditure of -time or money, be converted into really valuable -books.</p> - -<p>I may here observe that cloth for binding, thin -leather, and even common parchment or parchment-paper, -are much cheaper than would be supposed, -and that the average cost, all expenses included, of -binding a duodecimo book in these would only be -from threepence to a shilling. Any waste parchment -will serve for binding.</p> - -<p>Any person, however, who can emboss leather with -tracer and stamp, even though but a little, after a -week’s practice, can decorate and ornament books so -as to greatly enhance their value. Nor do I exaggerate -when I say that here is a field in which any person -who can draw or copy decorative patterns moderately -well might make a living. The reader will find the -fullest details as to how this is done in my <i>Manual of -Leather Work</i>. (Price 5s. London, Whittaker & Co., -2 White Hart Street, E.C.) In the present work I -can only state that it is executed as follows:—Bind -your book with cardboard in fairly thick, hard, and -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_101">101</span> -firm brown leather; there is a kind made for the purpose -in Germany. Draw the pattern on it, or else -draw it on paper with a crayon-pencil, and rub it -from the back on the leather. This done, go over it -with the fine point of a miniature brush in Indian -ink. Dampen the leather slightly as you work with -a sponge, and mark the outline with a tracer and -stamp the ground with a matt. You may leave it -brown, but if the work be coarse, I advise painting -the whole with ink or Indian ink, and then coating it -with <span class="smcap">Soehnée’s</span> varnish, No. 3. Rub this down well -by hand.</p> - -<p>If you can supply the design (which should always -be bold and simple), any wood-carver will, for a few -shillings, execute it in <i>intaglio</i> on a block of wood, -which should be at least one inch in thickness, and -also have a transverse piece screwed to its back to -prevent its warping. With this you can stamp off as -many covers as you want. Retouch them by hand -with tracer and stamp. If blackened, and then -touched up with gilding and varnished, such books -are very attractive, and should sell well. Any person -who can design, or even trace, a pattern can have it -cut on a block for a few shillings, and anybody having -such a block can print off any number of impressions -in damp leather, and retouch them with stamp -and tracer, and glue them to cardboard covers, for -books or albums, and sell them at a good profit. Yet, -though this has been clearly set forth by me several -times in manuals, &c., I have never yet met with a -single amateur who has attempted it. There is as a -rule far more suffering in this world from <i>laziness</i>, inertness, -and an indisposition to <i>try</i> to do something -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_102">102</span> -than from any other contaminating influences which -lead to poverty.</p> - -<p>When a book is even woefully dilapidated, so that -there is no margin to stitch, do not despair. First -separate every leaf, smooth it, and, if necessary, -dampen it with a slight infusion of tragacanth. Then, -if there is even the twentieth part of an inch of margin -left, take strips of good, tough, thin paper, and -with care stitch the leaves to these strips. For some -severe cases you must use very thin transparent or -tracing paper to gum over the text, but which must -be visible through it. This, if neatly done, does not -look so badly as it would seem. If one strip be folded -and used to connect two leaves, the stitching and -binding become easy. I have already described how -to restore margins and fill worm-holes.</p> - -<p>I think that if any person of literary habits will -consider all that is written in this chapter, and will -begin to practise it with deliberation and care, he will -surely succeed, and find it a very profitable and agreeable -occupation. All of such men have pamphlets, -MSS., autographs, letters, newspaper clippings, and -papers, which, if classed and made up into book-form, -would be more available for use, and far more -valuable. I say nothing of repairing old books; it -speaks for itself as an easy and lucrative employment. -And it may be observed that a young man who can -thus bind and repair would make a most valuable assistant-librarian, -though the business can be mastered -very soon indeed; and it would often happen that in -choosing a secretary, where there are many papers to -file or a library to look after, or an assistant in an -antiquarian book-shop—particularly the latter—preference -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_103">103</span> -would be given to one who had mastered practically -what is taught in this chapter. And as on -board ship the best sailor is generally the best mender—every -old tar being proverbially skilled in repairing -and having a quick eye for emergencies, even on -shore—so the one who can rehabilitate and “form” -books will probably be a good assistant in all things.</p> - -<p>It may often happen to a writer or copyist that he -has occasion to erase a word, and cannot write over -the space lest the ink should spread. In old times -this was remedied as follows:—A very little juniper -gum, levigated to the finest powder, was rubbed over -the spot with a soft linen rag.</p> - -<p>In all kinds of repairing or technical work it is sometimes -necessary to draw circles when the artist has -no compasses. Yet this can be done to perfection, -almost by free-hand, and very easily. Take several -sheets of paper or a blotter; lay on it the piece to be -drawn on. Take a pencil in the fingers, as is usual, -rest the hand on the nail of the little finger as a point—having -previously pulled the sleeve of his coat well -up, so as to get a full view—and then with the left -hand draw or revolve the paper. In most cases a -perfect circle will be the result. This is admirable -practice for learning to draw circles entirely by free -hand, as may be found by experiment.</p> - -<p>Paper can be made, if not absolutely fire-proof, at -least deprived of inflammability, by being steeped in -alum-water, or in <i>oleum tartari per deliquium</i>, or oil of -tartar. Stationers might find a sale for such paper. -If the document which was thrown by a certain -Duchess into the fire had been thus prepared, it might -have been rescued by a bystander before it perished. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_104">104</span></p> - -<p>The art of preservation, or prevention of injury, is -allied to restoration, for which reason it would be -well if more people who send books by mail would -use protecting corners, which can readily be made by -anybody with a pair of strong scissors from thin sheet -brass, tin, or iron. Take a piece of metal of a rectangular -shape, as follows:—<br /> - -<span class="center"><img src="images/i_104a.jpg" alt="" /></span><br /> - -Then double it into a triangle over a piece of cardboard, -or of wood, exactly the thickness of the cover -of the book:—</p> - -<p class="center"> -<img src="images/i_104b.jpg" alt="" /></p> - -<p>Very valuable books should be kept in boxes of thin -metal, especially in India. Such cases should not be -made to open and shut with a hinged lid, but with a -covering, and like a cigar case. Such cases, or at -least metallic guards, should also be used when a -book is wrapped and tied in the usual manner and -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_105">105</span> -sent by mail. I am quite sure that at least every -other book which I have received by mail during the -past year has shown on its edges melancholy scars -from its strings, reminding one of the wounds which -the heroic red Indian retained from his bonds. A -guard is simply a piece of sheet-metal, bent as follows, -once or twice:—</p> - -<p class="center"> -<img src="images/i_105.jpg" alt="" /></p> - -<p>These guards are invaluable for packing books in -trunks. Their price is trifling, and in the end there -would be great economy in using them. Books -should not be packed very tightly together on their -shelves. It bursts the binding, especially of modern -works in boards and paper. The old parchment flexible -bindings were in every respect better, and they -could even now be made far more cheaply than is -generally supposed to be possible. I have before me -a book nearly three hundred years old, bound in -skiver parchment (split, or very thin), which has evidently -been much used, yet which is still in good -condition. But parchment need not be prepared very -carefully for ordinary binding, and it could be sold -for half the price charged by law stationers for what -is used to write on. In the United States one must -pay much more for a sheepskin than for a sheep, indeed -in some cases three or four times as much—that -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_106">106</span> -is to say, the skin as a parchment in New York costs -as much as three sheep in the Far West—and yet the -expense of bringing the skin to the East and of tanning -it are in no proportion whatever to the stationer’s -profits.</p> - -<p>Any one who will examine an ordinary old parchment-bound -book, such as lies before me, will see at -a glance why it must be more durable than a modern -binding. In the modern book the <i>stiff</i> back rises full -to the edge, or generally <i>above</i> the level of the sides, -and is made of muslin, paper, or at best of soft -leather. Therefore in time it breaks from pressure -and friction, or wears away. The parchment or vellum -had in most cases this back-edge put back or -kept down as much as possible, and the tough covering -was all in one piece. It is very true that it is not -possible to obtain plain, old-fashioned parchment -now, and that those who would have vellum, or even -sheep, must pay an enormous price for it. This -would not, however, be the case long if there were as -great a popular demand for parchment binding as -there now is for flimsy muslin. Those who prefer -the former will find no difficulty in having it made -for them, and in binding their books themselves according -to the directions which I have given.</p> - -<p>I shall in the chapter on <i>Papier-mâché</i> show how -covers for books may be cheaply made at no great -expense, which may be beautifully embossed and are -extremely durable. This is, briefly, by having a flat -mould or die, on which lay alternate coats of paper -and firm paste (into which glue and alum enter), then -passing over them a bread-roller, continually adding -paste and paper till the whole is complete. When -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_107">107</span> -finished, rub in black or any other colour, then rub -in oil, rub again, apply <span class="smcap">Soehnée</span>, No. 3, and finally -rub by hand. This will make very beautiful binding.</p> - -<p>It is much to be regretted that, although there has -been of late years, owing to machinery and patent -processes, such immense production of cheap and -showy binding, as shown in photograph albums, -there has been as steady and rapid decrease in quality, -strength, and durability. It is becoming unusual, -even in very expensive books, to find one which can -be honestly and well opened or is well stitched. I -have, since writing that last word, tested it with two -books recently published, one costing six shillings, -the other a guinea. The latter was fairly well put -together and “held,” but was warped in the stitching -and pasting. It was “bad work.” As for the six -shilling book, it cracked <i>clear through to the back</i> at -every page which I opened, and yet I did not open it -very widely. I should say that any amateur who -could not learn to bind books better in a month or -six weeks than these were bound must be stupid indeed. -The examination of a number of other books -shows that what I have said is now generally true, -and that even very expensive and pretentiously elegant -works are not half so well bound in reality as -were common and cheap school-books two hundred -years ago. This I have also confirmed by examining -a number of the latter bound in parchment, which -bid fair to last for centuries to come.</p> - -<p>Should this cheap, trashy, and showy style of binding -continue, and with it a constant rise in the price -of everything made by hand, the result will be that -everything durable will be made by “amateurs”—that -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_108">108</span> -is, by people who to artistic spirit unite a certain -personal independence. Owners of libraries will bind -their own books, or else employ people who will work -as artists, and not like mere machines. The vulgar -and ignorant will continue to buy showy, cheap duplicates—induced -by hearing, “’Ere’s an harticle, mum, -that we’re sellin’ a great many hof”—while the cultured -will prefer the hand-made, which is not necessarily -more expensive. In fact, if the unemployed in -England—or the victims of the wholesale steam trash-maker—could -be taught easy hand-work, as they all -<i>can</i> be, it would be possible to not only vastly relieve -national poverty, but we could have a variety of articles -of better quality. For it appears to be, by some -strange law, a <i>fact</i> that, with all the improvements in -machinery, men can still make by <i>hand</i>—and well—pictures, -clothes, shoes or boots, bookbindings, and -works of art generally—that is to say, anything in -which skill or character can be shown; while, on the -contrary, in all such matters machinery, instead of -making any progress, is, owing to competition, actually -falling behind! Scientific and other journals are -continually boasting of new discoveries and improvements, -but despite this the jerry-built houses of three-fourths -of London, the sawed and glued cheap and -vile furniture (made by scientific steam) with which -they are filled, the average quality of everything into -which skill and taste are supposed to enter, show that -this boasted “end of the century” is also rapidly -coming to an end in good taste and the quality of its -work.</p> - -<p>He who will learn to <i>mend</i> with care, taste, and -skill, firstly his books, will find that to progress from -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_109">109</span> -this to binding and to making elegant covers is only -going from A to B. The binding of the olden time, -while it was incredibly strong, vigorous, and quaint, -was extremely easy to make, as I have satisfied myself -by much examination and personal practice. The -stitching was not with the weakest and cheapest cotton-thread; -still less was it with wires too thin for -the purpose; it was executed with linen pack-thread, -<i>from the top to the bottom of the page</i>, in three or four -stitches, so that the book could really be opened and -bent back till the covers touched without injury to -it. All of which could be given to-day with the -parchment covers at the same price which the book -now costs, and to pay the same profit, were it not that -public “taste” prefers showy trash. Beyond good, -strong <i>stitching</i>, all the <i>necessary</i> process of binding is -very easy. It requires neatness and care, and some -practice, but it is decidedly not difficult. He who -has mastered it will find that other kinds of mending, -and also the practice of allied minor arts, are simply -the succeeding letters of the alphabet.</p> - -<p>It is a fact, to which I invite attention, that dilettante -amateurs of books invariably understand by -binding nothing more than its refinements and easily -ruined adornment, which books had better be without. -Amateurs of this class always attempt at once -the most difficult work, and generally fail. As a rule, -almost without exception, the prize specimens of -modern binding seen at exhibitions are chiefly remarkable -for ornament, which will not endure handling or -rubbing, such as surface-gilding.</p> - -<p>Pamphlets or letters, &c., can be bound with “eyelets,” -and the clamp or punch which is sold with -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_110">110</span> -them. Or they may be simply gummed together, in -which case use the powerful fish-glue, which holds -perfectly.</p> - -<p>The easiest and most effective method of side-binding, -or where leaves are held together by passing the -tie through from side to side, is as follows:—Have -by you strips of metal, say sheet-tin, one-fourth or -one-third of an inch in breadth; also small rivets or -tacks. Take two strips of the same length as the -pamphlet or papers to be bound, and strike holes in -them with a brad-awl and hammer, on a solid piece -of wood, at regular distances. Then place these -strips on the book, and drive the rivets through the -holes. Turn the whole round, and laying the other -side on an anvil or a reversed flat-iron, flatten the -points of the rivets so that they will hold. Any old -tins, such as are thrown away in such numbers, can -be made to supply strips. A strip of parchment or -strong paper bent over to form a back can then be -pasted over the strips to improve the appearance of -the volume. Any tinman will, for a trifle, supply -these strips and punch the holes neatly for use. They -should be found in every library, and ought to be in -every stationer’s. It may be observed that in inserting -the rivets or tacks you should place them alternately, -one on one side and one on the other. A -lighter form of this binding is to take a flat-headed -drawing-pin, similar to those used by artists, and -have a round, flat tin or brass disc, like a thin sixpence -or threepenny-bit, corresponding to it. In the -latter punch a small hole, and rivet as before. Tinmen -will also punch these discs; in fact, they often throw -away a great many cut from certain kinds of work. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_111">111</span></p> - -<p>Where the leader may have a great number of -books to bind, he will find it an economy or a means -to secure good work to hire a girl who is an experienced -book-stitcher to come and work for him. He -can thus be <i>sure</i> of having his works <i>well</i> sewed from -top to bottom with strongest linen-thread in ancient -style, instead of their being shabbily wired (and all -wiring is shabby, since the thin does not hold, and -the thick bursts the binding), or still more shabbily -looped together with weak cotton-thread. This -effected, he can easily do his own binding. He may -not rival a Grolier, or turn out such exquisite “gems” -as require to be kept in caskets, and are utterly unsuitable -for use or reading, and, like most “elegant -and unrivalled” modern binding, marvels of tooling -and gilding. But he can most assuredly hope to bind -strongly in parchment as books were bound in the -olden time, and if he chooses to also ornament them -with richly stamped leather covers, he can in a short -time learn to do the latter, as may be seen in the -<i>Manual of Leather-Work</i>.</p> - -<p>The great test of excellence in a book is, Can it be -freely handled and read without injury? The most -careless examination of most books will convince the -reader that this test is almost unknown. The exquisitely -whitened vellum bindings of Florence and -Venice, which are stained almost with the pressure of -a lady’s clean finger; the photograph album, so -beautifully stamped in leather as thin as blotting-paper, -which scratches and wears into shabbiness in -a week, if often opened—all the show-pieces of exhibitions -will not endure <i>use</i>. And it seems as if, -after all the binding of this decade shall have perished, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_112">112</span> -that of the common, cheap books of the seventeenth -century will be as good as ever.</p> - -<p>A great number of the adhesives and cements mentioned -in this book are quite applicable to mending -bindings or making paper stick to paper, &c. The -following is, however, not only a paste, but also a -glaze, and is extensively used as such on labels, boxes, -and cards:—</p> - -<p>Boil borax with water, and work it thoroughly into -caseine till it forms a clear, thick, and extremely adhesive -cement, which is also much used to varnish -leather or muslins.</p> - -<p>It is often desirable to have a varnish or glaze for -the covers of books, and still more frequently a paste, -which will hold very firmly and yet not penetrate, as -glue and paste very often do.</p> - -<p>To make such a cement, mix heavy solution of -warm glue with freshly made starch or flour-paste. -Add to this one-fourth part of turpentine and one-fourth -of spirits of wine. This excellent cement is -applicable to many purposes.</p> - -<p>To paper walls <i>well</i> we make flour-paste, and to -every quart add ten grammes of alum dissolved in hot -water. Then wash the wall with glue-water, and -cover the paper with the paste. The alum and glue -form a combination which is leathery and insoluble, -and not only arrests decay, but clings with great -force. Most wall-paper put on with common paste -decays more or less in time, and becomes simply -poisonous.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">A strong gum or adhesive for paper, cardboard -work, or binding</span>:— -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_113">113</span></p> - -<p class="caption">I.</p> - -<p>Dissolve:—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Gilder’s glue</td> - <td class="tdr">100</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Water</td> - <td class="tdr">200</td> - </tr></table> - -<p>Add to this:—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Bleached shellac</td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Alcohol</td> - <td class="tdr">10</td> - </tr></table> - -<p class="caption">II.</p> - -<p>Dissolve together:—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Dextrine</td> - <td class="tdr">50</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Water</td> - <td class="tdr">50</td> - </tr></table> - -<p>Unite the two solutions thus formed; pass them -through a cloth, so as to fall into a flat mould. When -dry, use by dissolving in hot water.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">American glaze for postage-stamps</span>:—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Dextrine</td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Vinegar</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Water</td> - <td class="tdr">5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Alcohol</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - </tr></table> - -<p>Stamps are, however, very often surreptitiously removed -by means of moisture. The following recipe -renders this difficult. It consists of two preparations, -one of which is applied to the stamp and one to the -letter. It is particularly needed in America, where, -according to a statement in a newspaper, <i>nearly one-third</i> -of all the postage-stamps are removed from letters, -cleaned, and used over again. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_114">114</span></p> - -<p class="caption">I. <i>For the Letter.</i></p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Chromic acid</td> - <td class="tdc">2.5</td> - <td class="tdr">gr.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Caustic potash</td> - <td class="tdr">15.0</td> - <td class="tdc">”</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Water</td> - <td class="tdr">15.0</td> - <td class="tdc">”</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Sulphuric acid</td> - <td class="tdr">0.5</td> - <td class="tdc">”</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Sulphuric copper-oxide of ammonia</td> - <td class="tdr">30.0</td> - <td class="tdc">”</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Fine paper</td> - <td class="tdr">4.0</td> - <td class="tdc">”</td> - </tr></table> - -<p class="caption">II. <i>On the Stamp.</i></p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Sturgeon’s bladder in water</td> - <td class="tdr">7.0</td> - <td>gr.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Vinegar</td> - <td class="tdr">1.0</td> - <td class="tdc">”</td> - </tr></table> - -<p>The chromic acid forms with the glue a substance -insoluble in water, which causes the stamp not to -yield to moisture. The two should be kept in two -cups, and the letter first smeared with one and the -stamp with the other. I have read of a physician -who, finding that his postage-stamps were often stolen, -adopted the precaution of giving their backs an application -of croton-oil, or some similar powerful -“anti-thief-matic,” the result of which was great temporary -illness in his landlady and her family. For -this recipe the reader must apply to a chemist!</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Eder’s Gum for Photographs.</span>—Dissolve oxyhydrate -of ammonia in vinous acid, to one part of which -add twenty of starch-paste.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Cement for Leather or Paper in Binding Books, -&c.</span>—Take 1 kilogramme of wheat-flour, and make it -to a paste with 20 grammes of finely powdered alum. -Boil this till a spoon will stand uptight in it. Cover -the cardboard or cover with this, lay the leather or -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_115">115</span> -muslin upon it, and then with a roller press one upon -the other. Leather should first be damped. Care -must be taken that the paste be not too moist; secondly, -that it is laid on very evenly and thinly.</p> - -<p>Engravings or texts which have had a piece torn -out can be restored as follows:—</p> - -<p>Obtain a photograph from a perfect copy on corresponding -paper, then with gum set it in, so as to supply -the deficiency.</p> - -<p>As the ravages of the <i>Book-worm</i> form an important -item in mending books, and as there is always some -interest for collectors regarding this much talked of -and rarely seen insect, I take the liberty of reproducing -from the American <i>Science</i> of March 24, 1893, an -article on the subject. An appropriate motto for it -might be:—</p> - -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">“Come hither, boy; we’ll hunt to-day<br /></span> -<span class="i1">The book-worm, ravening beast of prey.”<br /></span> -</div></div> - -<h3>THE RAVAGES OF BOOK-WORMS</h3> - -<p>At a meeting of the Massachusetts Historical Society, -held February 9, 1893, Dr. Samuel A. Green, -after showing two volumes that had been completely -riddled by the ravages of insects, as well as some -specimens of the animals in various stages, made the -following remarks:—</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>For a long period of years I have been looking for -living specimens of the so-called “book-worm,” of -which traces are occasionally found in old volumes; -and I was expecting to find an invertebrate animal of -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_116">116</span> -the class of annelids. In this library at the present -time there are books perforated with clean-cut holes -opening into sinuous cavities, which usually run up -the back of the volumes, and sometimes perforate the -leather covers and the body of the book; but I have -never detected the live culprit that does the mischief. -For the most part the injury is confined to such as are -bound in leather, and the ravages of the insect appear -to depend on its hunger. The external orifices look -like so many shot-holes, but the channels are anything -but straight. From a long examination of the -subject I am inclined to think that all the damage -was done before the library came to this site in the -spring of 1833. At all events, there is no reason to -suppose that any of the mischief has been caused -during the last fifty years. Perhaps the furnace-heat -dries up the moisture which is a requisite condition -for the life and propagation of the little animal.</p> - -<p>Nearly two years ago I received a parcel of books -from Florida, of which some were infested with vermin, -and more or less perforated in the manner I have -described. It occurred to me that they would make -a good breeding farm and experiment station for -learning the habits of the insect; and I accordingly -sent several of the volumes to my friend Mr. Samuel -Garman, who is connected with the Museum of Comparative -Zoology at Cambridge, for his care and observation. -From him I learn that the principal offender -is an animal known popularly as the Buffalo Bug, -though he is helped in his work by kindred spirits, -not allied to him according to the rules of natural history. -Mr. Garman’s letter gives the result of his -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_117">117</span> -labours so fully as to leave nothing to be desired, and -is as follows:—</p> - -<p class="caption">“<span class="smcap">Museum of Comparative Zoology, Cambridge, -Mass.</span>, <i>February 7, 1893</i>.</p> - -<p>“<span class="smcap">Dr. Samuel A. Green, Boston, Mass.</span></p> - -<p>“<span class="smcap">Sir</span>,—The infested books sent for examination to -this Museum, through the kindness of Mr. George E. -Littlefield, were received July 15, 1891. They were -inspected, and, containing individuals of a couple of -species of living insects, were at once enclosed in -glass for further developments. A year afterward -live specimens of both kinds were still at work. Besides -those that reached us alive, a third species had -left traces of former presence in a number of empty -egg-cases.</p> - -<p>“Five of the volumes were bound in cloth. On -these the principal damage appeared at the edges, -which were eaten away and disfigured by large burrows -extending inward. Two volumes were bound -in leather. The edges of these were not so much -disturbed; but numerous perforations, somewhat like -shot-holes externally, passed through the leather, enlarging -and ramifying in the interior. As if made by -smaller insects, the sides of these holes were neater -and cleaner cuttings than those in the burrows on -the edges of the other volumes.</p> - -<p>“The insects were all identified as well known enemies -of libraries, cabinets, and wardrobes. One of -them is a species of what are commonly designated -‘fish bugs,’ ‘silver fish,’ ‘bristle tails,’ &c. By entomologists -they are called <i>Lepisma</i>; the species in -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_118">118</span> -hand is probably <i>Lepisma saccharina</i>. It is a small, -elongate, silvery, very active creature, frequently discovered -under objects, or between the leaves of books, -whence it escapes by its extraordinary quickness of -movement. Paste and the sizing or enamel of some -kinds of paper are very attractive to it. In some -cases it eats off the entire surface of the sheet, including -the ink, without making perforations; in others -the leaves are completely destroyed. The last specimen -of this insect in these books was killed February -5, 1893, which proves the species to be sufficiently at -home in this latitude.</p> - -<p>“The second of the three is one of the ‘Buffalo -Bugs.’ or ‘Carpet Bugs,’ so called; not really bugs, -but beetles. The species before us is the <i>Anthrenus -varius</i> of scientists, very common in Boston and Cambridge, -as in other portions of the temperate regions -and the tropics. Very likely the ‘shot-holes’ in the -leather-bound volumes are of its making, though it -may have been aided in the deeper and larger chambers -by one or both of the others. The damage done -by this insect in the house, museum, and library is -too well known to call for further comment. Living -individuals were taken from the books nearly a year -after they were isolated.</p> - -<p>“The third species had disappeared before the arrival -of the books, leaving only its burrows, excrement, -and empty egg-cases, which, however, leave no -doubt of the identity of the animal with one of the -cockroaches, possibly the species <i>Blatta Australasiæ</i>. -The cases agree in size with those of <i>Blatta Americana</i>, -but have thirteen impressions on each side, as if the -number of eggs were twenty-six. The ravages of the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_119">119</span> -cockroaches are greatest in the tropics, but some of -the species range through the temperate zones and -even northward. An extract from Westwood and -Drury will serve to indicate the character of their -work:—</p> - -<p>“‘They devour all kinds of victuals, dressed and -undressed, and damage all sorts of clothing, leather, -books, paper, &c., which, if they do not destroy, at -least they soil, as they frequently deposit a drop of -their excrement where they settle. They swarm by -myriads in old houses, making every part filthy beyond -description. They have also the power of making -a noise like a sharp knocking with the knuckle -upon the wainscotting, <i>Blatta gigantea</i> being thence -known to the West Indies by the name of drummer; -and this they keep up, replying to each other, throughout -the night. Moreover, they attack sleeping persons, -and will even eat the extremities of the dead.’</p> - -<p>“This quotation makes it appear that authors as -well as books are endangered by this outlaw. With -energies exclusively turned against properly selected -examples of both, what a world of good it might do -mankind! The discrimination lacking, the insect -must be treated as a common enemy. As a bane for -‘silver fish’ and cockroaches, pyrethrum insect powder -is said to be effectual. For a number of years I -have used, on lepisma and roach, a mixture containing -phosphorus, ‘The Infallible Water Bug and Roach -Exterminator,’ made by Barnard & Co., 7 Temple -Place, Boston, and, without other interest in advertising -the compound, have found it entirely satisfactory -in its effects. Bisulphide carbon, evaporated in -closed boxes or cases containing the infested articles, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_120">120</span> -is used to do away with the ‘Buffalo Bugs.’—Very -respectfully yours,</p> - -<p class="author"> -“<span class="smcap">Samuel Garman</span>.”</p> - -<p>I can remember that many years ago there was to -be seen in the bookshop of John Penington, Philadelphia, -a book-worm preserved in spirits in a vial. The -manner in which this species of teredo penetrates -wood and leather as well as paper is not the least -curious of its habits.</p> - -<p>The great amount of injury inflicted by boring-insects -in books, wood, and all weak substances is sufficient -reason for giving so much space to this subject. -From a ship to a manuscript, nothing is safe from -them. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_121">121</span></p> - -<h2 id="PAPIER-MACHE">PAPIER-MÂCHÉ<br /> - -<span class="large">REPAIRING TOYS—MAKING GROUNDS FOR PICTURES -AND WALLS—CARTON-CUIR AND CARTON-PIERRE</span></h2> - -<p>Soft paper, when mixed with water, gum, or, better -still, with flour-paste, forms a substance which can -be moulded to any form, and which, when dry, will -be as hard as cardboard. Its hardness and durability -may be increased by mingling with it many substances.</p> - -<p>Combined with soft leather in small fragments or -with the dust of leather, it forms what the French -call <i>carton-cuir</i>. In this, or even in its natural state—that -is, paper and paste—<i>papier-mâché</i>, as it is termed, -can under pressure be made as hard as any wood. I -have seen all kinds of articles of furniture made from -it. In America there are manufactories in which -pails or buckets, tubs, firkins, and even durable boats, -are thus manufactured. There is in Bergen, Norway, -a church built entirely of it mixed with lime. For -certain kinds of mending it is very valuable.</p> - -<p>Though not so plastic as clay, <i>papier-mâché</i> can, -with a little practice, be moulded into any form. It -consists simply of pasting piece on to piece, pressing -it meantime as much as possible with the fingers or a -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_122">122</span> -wooden implement like a pestle. The pressure should -be applied as it gradually dries. Any one can thus -make very hard cardboard with a bread-roller on a -board.</p> - -<p>If you have the cardboard cover of a book badly -damaged, with even a portion gone, it can be restored -by using <i>papier-mâché</i> in which a solution of glue or -gum has been infused. Glue it specially at the -edges. For such repairing take paper-dust or pulp, -combined with gum-arabic in alum-water solution, or -simply the gum. This is easily moulded and smoothed -into any cracks or torn places.</p> - -<p>If <i>parchment</i> be torn away it is easily replaced. Cut -a piece to replace the missing portion, dampen it and -the edge which it is to join till quite soft, then glue -the two together, using pressure. I have just effected -this myself with a cover of which half was gone, and -the mending is hardly visible. Use the broad knife -freely to press down the edges.</p> - -<p>By combination with a mixture of nitric or sulphuric -acid and water, <i>soft</i> paper becomes parchment-like -and very hard. This requires careful experimenting, -for its success depends on the quality of the -acid and the texture of the paper. Very remarkable -results have been obtained from this, such as material -resembling ivory, horn, and tortoise-shell, in large -blocks.</p> - -<p>Waste-paper is so common and cheap that <i>papier-mâché</i> -can always be made anywhere. It is well -adapted to close cracks in wood, walls, or elsewhere; -and for those who wish for an employment or amusement, -it affords endless facilities. One of these is the -mending or making of toys. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_123">123</span></p> - -<p>A common mask is made as follows. On a face -carved in wood and oiled there is spread common -coarse soft paper wetted, which is carefully pressed -down, and more paper and paste added, till it is of -the requisite thickness. It is then, when rather dry, -taken off and left to dry perfectly. It is then painted -and varnished. Should a mask be broken, wet it, -paste glue-paper over it, and paint it again.</p> - -<p><i>Papier-mâché</i> is popularly synonymous with that -which is trashy and sham in art, simply because its -capacities and applications are not known. Thus -leather-work was long despised as only affording imitations -of carved wood. But in the hands of a true -artist—that is, of an <i>original designer</i>, who applies, -and not a mere artisan, who imitates or copies—<i>papier-mâché</i> -is as much a subject for art as any other material. -It can be used in many ways, more or less allied -to mending, as are all arts. Thus paper in fine powder, -or reduced to a fine paste—or pulp—can be, with -a little practice, mixed with gum and <i>painted</i> with a -brush on a surface so as to produce relief. A very -little elevation or depression thus serves to produce -grounds which may serve to give light or shadow to -pictures. Thus pastel painting or crayon in colours -rubbed in, which has always been, even in the most -vigorous hands, a weak or “softly sweet” art, may -be made very vigorous by firmly relieving and roughening -the ground; for, as the great American painter, -<span class="smcap">Allston</span>, often strengthened his colours by mixing -sand with them, so pastel painting which lacks -“sand” can have it supplied by mixing it with the -gum for the ground.</p> - -<p>To understand this process more clearly, let it be -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_124">124</span> -observed that, as the illuminators of mediæval manuscripts -gave relief and the appearance of solidity to -gold by making a raised surface with a powder of -<i>gesso</i> (plaster of Paris) and clay and gum, so this -principle can be carried out to a far greater extent by -giving relief to a ground. Here those of limited -views, who never get beyond the merely artisan stage -of art, will at once decry this as shamming, and as -imitating effect by the aid of modelling, and not being -true art, quite forgetting that all is true to genius, -and everything more or less sham in the mere imitation.</p> - -<p>Having a surface, either panel or Bristol board, -which latter had better be pasted to a panel or good -thick solid cardboard, begin by taking a little gum or -glue in tolerably fluid solution on the point of a brush, -and incorporating with it the paper pulp or cloth-dust -to a very soft paste, with which paint what is to -be in relief. The same effect is produced in oil by -using a heavier, thicker kind of paint. That is all -the difference, one being as legitimate as the other. -By intermixing chalk or sand or clay, and by using -glass-paper where the crayon, &c., refuse to take -easily, the relief adapts itself to every substance. In -this, as in every process known, the artist must at first -experiment a little, according to his materials.</p> - -<p>Solid sheets of fine hard paper, with strong paste -between, when passed between rollers form a kind of -<i>papier-mâché</i> which, is as hard as wood, fire-proof, and, -what is most singular, more durable than iron. -Wheels for railway carriages are often made of it, -and they never warp under the action of heat or cold, -neither do they crack nor bend. You can make this -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_125">125</span> -cardboard for yourself of very good quality by this -process:—Take a sheet of writing-paper—the better -the quality the better the result will be—cover it with -good flour-paste in which there is a little alum and -glue and a few drops of oil of cloves, which latter will -prevent paste from turning or souring. Then lay on -this another sheet, apply another coat of paste, and -when it is a little dry or past the softer stage, yet -while still capable of adhesion, lay the sheets on a -hard, smooth slab or table, and pass a roller over -them, at first gently, but eventually frequently, and -with force. Add as many sheets as necessary for the -thickness required. It will be understood that if the -surface on which this sheet is formed were an intaglio-cut -die or mould, the cardboard when taken up would -present a bas-relief of it as hard as any wood, and the -whole would form a panel which could be used for -the side of a box or to be set in a cabinet. If made -of good paper and firmly rolled, this panel will be in -every respect equal to wood for all decorative purposes.</p> - -<p>As anybody who can carve wood at all can cut -moulds, and as a wooden mould, if kept well oiled -(or otherwise secured from yielding to moisture), will -serve for <i>papier-mâché</i> and leather or wood-paste casting, -it is remarkable that such work is so very little -practised by the students of the minor arts. That -such panels can be very easily and rapidly made I -know by experience; that the materials for the work -are cheap speaks for itself; and, finally, that beautiful -panels for cabinets and doors, whether made of -carved wood, stamped leather, or <i>papier-mâché</i> bring -a very good price will also be most apparent to anybody -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_126">126</span> -who will go to a fashionable cabinetmaker and -order them. Thus we will say that a small plain cabinet -costs £5. Put into it six panels, really costing -about 6d. each to mould, and the price will be £10. -Such pressed panels are admirably adapted for binding -books, as, when properly made and dried, they -cannot warp or bend. If covered with relief they -may be made very beautiful. Simply blackened or -browned, then rubbed with oil, varnished with -<span class="smcap">Soehnée</span>, No. 3, and rubbed by hand, they are as -beautiful as polished wood or leather.</p> - -<p><i>Papier-mâché</i>, pulp, or paper powder can be combined -with caoutchouc or indiarubber, which latter -can be itself dissolved in benzine, camphine, sulphuric -ether, and other solvent mediums, so as to form a -paste which becomes like indiarubber when dry or as -it hardens. Mixed with sulphur this forms vulcanite. -Or it may be combined with white colouring matter -of almost any kind. This can be applied to mending -the broken noses of dolls, or any other wounds which -these pretty semblances of humanity often receive, -their beauty being unfortunately generally more -shortlived than that of their prototypes. The final -finish of such reparation is a coat of paint. In many -cases this is better when rubbed on with the finger -than when directly painted. The reader who shall -have studied this work will find no difficulty in restoring -any toy.</p> - -<p>I may, however, here remark that “no solution of -india rubber can be well moulded without intimate -intermixture of sulphur, aided by heat and pressure. -This is a difficult process, and the amateur would do -well, therefore, to purchase rubber composition, which -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_127">127</span> -he may do at any large shop in which rubber goods -are made as a specialty” (<i>Work</i>, May 21, 1892).</p> - -<div class="figright"> -<img src="images/i_127.jpg" alt="" /></div> - -<p>It is easy to make any article of <i>papier-mâché</i> if the -mere beginning of a form has once been shaped; because, -after that is set, all that we have to do is to -gradually paste one piece of paper on, here and there, -till it is finished. This beginning is very easy if we -have an object on which to begin. -Thus take a vase or cup. Oil this, -and then lay on and all around it -soft, damp paper. Newspaper will -do—a <i>soft</i>, white printing paper. -Then, with a broad brush, lay on -paste, and apply a second coat of -paper. Press it meanwhile as hard as you can. Continue -this till the <i>papier-mâché</i> is thick enough. When -dry, take a penknife and cut a line through from -top to bottom. Scale it off, and reunite the edges -with strong glue; then paste over the line of junction -a strip of paper. Then you will have a cup.</p> - -<p>If it be rough, cut it smooth and use glass-paper. -When finished it may be painted or covered with wet -leather, which can be worked into relief. Or it may -be made to look like ivory by the process elsewhere -described. Paper may in this process be combined -with soft leather rags; as, for instance, pieces of old -gloves out of which the thread has been taken, old -chamois, bookbinders’ clippings, or the like. This -forms effectively leather.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Carton-pierre</span>, or stone-paper, is a very useful -composition, which is very fully described by <span class="smcap">George -Parland</span> in <i>Work</i>, July 2, 1893. It consists of paper -scraps, in the proportion of an ordinary washing -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_128">128</span> -boiler or copper one-half full of boiling water and -about one-half paper waste. Add two pounds of best -flour-paste; also, in a separate vessel, a quart of -water, into which sprinkle a handful of fine plaster of -Paris. Let it stand ten minutes before mixing it. -“When the paper in the copper has become a fine -pulp add the flour-paste, keeping the whole well -stirred. Fifteen minutes after add the plaster, and a -few minutes later rake out the fire from under the -boiler. Have ready three pails of fine ground whiting; -pour in one pail of whiting and stir up well, -adding more whiting till the stick used to stir will -stand of itself in the mixture. Let it cool, and it will -be ready for use.</p> - -<p>“Some firms,” writes Mr. <span class="smcap">Parland</span>, “add powdered -alum in the boiling process, others add one pint -of boiled linseed-oil; but if made according to the -previous directions, an excellent <i>carton-pierre</i> will result, -which gives very fine impressions from moulds. -If it be cast in a plaster mould, the latter should have -two or three coats of shellac varnish, and then be well -oiled.... In using the <i>carton</i>, sprinkle some fine -plaster of Paris on a bench, and taking a lump of the -newly made <i>carton</i>, mix it well with dry plaster, adding -more plaster, as bakers would add flour to their -dough. Having worked it well in this way until it -will not stick to the fingers, with clean hands roll -pieces very smooth in the palms, or on a smooth level -board, and press each roll into the cavities and hollows -of the mould, <i>often wetting the edges of the carton</i> -in the mould before adding a fresh piece to it. The -casts must not be more than from an eighth to a quarter -of an inch in thickness, except at the outside edges -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_129">129</span> -of the mould.... The casts must stand about -twenty-four hours, and then be baked in not more -than 100° heat.”</p> - -<p>The reader who is specially interested in <i>papier-mâché</i> -will find a series of articles on the subject in -<i>Work</i>, Nos. 3, 6, 12, 17, 22, 25.</p> - -<p>Pipeclay, to which calcined magnesia, whiting, or -baryta may be added or omitted according to the -body required, may be combined with <i>papier-mâché</i> -and gluten, such as gum-arabic or dextrine or flour-paste, -which will form under pressure, or even by -hand-rolling, a very hard and finely grained substance, -which is specially adapted to painting pictures. -Plates or <i>tavole</i> are sold very cheaply in Florence of -<i>papier-mâché</i>, which are as hard, heavy, and glossy as -ebony. It is not generally realised that an expensive -hydraulic-press or steam-engine is not needed by the -amateur to harden <i>papier-mâché</i>. A common bread-roller, -passed many times over the material, will -work it “down and in,” quite as well as direct pressure, -and very often much better.</p> - -<p><i>Papier-mâché</i> mixed and macerated with indiarubber -or gutta-percha and benzole (<i>vide</i> Indiarubber) forms -in many cases a very good substitute for leather. It -can also be combined with <i>flexible</i> varnish to make -leather. Very valuable soles can be made, or broken -ones repaired, by taking card or pasteboard and soaking -it in a hot solution of indiarubber. These waterproofed -soles, whether of cardboard or leather, are -easily prepared, as easily applied and renewed, and -they will keep the true sole from wearing out forever, -if renewed.</p> - -<p>Singular as it seems, there are not many persons -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_130">130</span> -who are familiar with the properties or texture of so -familiar a substance as paper. We know that if -wetted it grows soft, but still remains, as it were, -knotty, and that when chewed it does not properly -dissolve. Yet if the reader will take a piece of thoroughly -wetted paper, and knead or macerate it with -a knife for some time with gum in solution, he will -find it gradually becomes a soft paste, as flexible and -as capable of moulding as putty or clay. This is not -the same as <i>papier-mâché</i>, which consists of paper -merely wet or mixed and boiled with paste, and contains -fibre and knottiness. The finely macerated -paper, combined with an adhesive, is ductile, impressionable, -sets well, and readily receives pressure on -rolling, under which it becomes extremely hard. -Paper thus <i>completely softened</i> is readily made into -sheets, and may be easily applied not only to fill up -worm-holes in leaves and completely torn-away corners, -&c., but is very useful for cracks and cavities in -wood and other substances. It may be made up with -any gums, such as gum-arabic, dextrine, fish-glue, -and also with caseine, gutta-percha, varnish, and -most of the substances used in cements. Paper when -thus softened and mixed with, <i>e.g.</i>, fine glue and glycerine, -or with flour-paste, can be moulded and applied -in ornamental forms to any surface.</p> - -<p>There is this great difference between simply <i>wet</i> -paper, however wet it may be, and that which is completely -softened by maceration. The former is always -lumpy, the latter passes under the blade of a knife like -soft clay or putty. When made up with gum, glue, -and glycerine, or strong paste, it is, when dry, like -light wood, but less brittle. Kneaded with Indiarubber -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_131">131</span> -solution and glue, it becomes like leather, and -can be used in several varieties of repairs. Rolled -into sheets, this composition makes very good and -cheap artificial leather for hangings. To manufacture -these, spread the composition with a broad brush -or dabber on a slate or marble table, and when rather -dry pass over it a wooden roller. Some practice is -needed not to roll it when too soft. If intaglio patterns -are cut in the roller, the sheets will give them in -relief. It is worth noting here that a great many -pieces of old hangings sold as leather are really only -made of <i>papier-mâché</i>, or <i>carton-cuir</i>, and glue. These -hangings, whether of leather or counterfeited, can be -often bought in a damaged condition very cheaply, -and can be easily restored with this composition, to -great profit. When mixed with white lead, or oil -paint and glue, soft paper becomes harder and firmer, -and under pressure is as hard and heavy as any wood. -White paper with holly wood or white larch or lime-tree -wood in powder, and white gelatine—better if -bone or ivory dust be added, with a little Naples yellow -(oil)—forms a beautiful cement.</p> - -<p>It will be seen by what I have written that cavities, -holes, cracks, and defects in most substances, including -wood and leather, can be perfectly remedied with -paper in combination with glue, gum, or other substances; -and as it is always to be obtained, a knowledge -of its nature and applications cannot fail to be -of value to all menders and restorers.</p> - -<p><i>Papier-mâché</i>, like all substantial or putty-like -cements, involves moulding or casting. This subject -is exhaustively treated in the <i>Vollständige Anleitung -zum Formen und Giessen</i>, by Eduard Uhlenhuth; -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_132">132</span> -Vienna, A. Hartleben, price 3s. On the subject of -paper consult the <i>Handbuch der praktischen Papier-Fabrikation</i>, -by Dr. Stanislaus Mierzinski, three volumes, -which is not only the latest, but by far the most -comprehensive, work on the subject with which I am -acquainted. And here I may observe in this connection -that if my references have been chiefly to German -works, it is because, in the minor technical applications -of chemistry to the arts, and in preparing intelligible -practical treatises on such subjects, the Germans -have been, especially of late, by far the first -nation in Europe.</p> - -<p>I may mention that since writing the foregoing passages -I purchased, for a mere trifle, in Florence two -carved heads of the fourteenth century in walnut -wood. They had suffered very much from time and -wanton abuse, their noses having been hacked off. I -made a mixture of soft paper-paste and gum-arabic, -working the two thoroughly in together with a knife-blade -till the composition was as soft as butter. This -thorough maceration is essential to produce a durable -body. With this I filled up the holes, made new -noses, and painted the whole with Vandyke brown, -or brown-black. In a few minutes the restoration -was complete, and the heads which had cost one franc -each are now worth at least thirty francs. I should -say that the portions restored are as hard as the original -wood.</p> - -<p>It is not always an easy matter to reduce paper to -a perfectly soft paste, such as is called in French -<i>papier-pourri</i>. A small quantity can be mashed with -a knife-blade and flour-paste or gum. A large quantity -is prepared as follows:— -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_133">133</span></p> - -<p>Take clippings of paper and leave them a long time -in water, which must be occasionally changed. When -quite dissolved or soft, bray the paper in a mortar, -and finally boil in very hot water. To give it consistency, -add flour-paste or gum. This makes a very -fine cement, which will receive the most delicate -impression. It is invaluable for all kinds of dry -mending.</p> - -<p>As I have shown, it can be applied to make or mend -defective leaves of books, to fill up worm-holes in -leaves, to repair drawings and pictures on wood or -canvas, and when mixed with any gum which sets -hard, to restore, add to, fill, or imitate woodwork. -Under pressure and combined with different powders -it becomes as hard as ebony and fire-proof. Its extraordinary -value and general utility are as yet very -far from being much known. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_134">134</span></p> - -<h2 id="MENDING_STONE-WORK">MENDING STONE-WORK<br /> - -<span class="large">MOSAICS—CERESA-WORK—PORCELAIN OR CROCKERY -MOSAIC</span></h2> - -<p>Mending or repairing <i>stone</i>, involving its imitations, -is a widely extended branch of technical science, and -one which has of late years called forth much invention. -The most widely spread and ancient means of -uniting and repairing this material is mortar, or the -mixture of burned and then slacked lime with water. -Lime is made most commonly from limestone or marble. -It improves in quality when carbonate of lime -in organic formation, such as sea-shells, is used; and -there are degrees of excellence in these, from common -oyster-shells to others of a finer kind, such as those -with which the brilliantly white and hard <i>chunam</i> of -India is made. In certain places mortar, when well -made, becomes with age as hard as flint. In American -towns, where anthracite coal is burned, it rots -away in chimneys under the influence of sulphurous -acid with great rapidity. In the Pacific Islands, -where lime is made from delicate small sea-shells or -coral, and mortar is like a paint or enamel, a missionary -has recorded that, when he taught the natives -how to make it, they whitewashed everything, even -to the children, who thus became white people. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_135">135</span></p> - -<p>The misapplied word <i>mastic</i>, which suggests a gum, -refers to certain modifications of mortar into which -<i>oil</i> enters; also the oxides of lead or zinc. “Oil -forms with these an insoluble soap, which includes or -binds the other materials, forming, after one month’s -drying, a very hard substance,” which some say is as -hard as stone, but which depends entirely on the -quality and combination; for I have seen so-called -<i>mastic</i> applied to coating cheaply built houses, which -cracked or crumbled away like mere plaster of -Paris.</p> - -<p>To thoroughly amalgamate mastics, it is usual to -put their ingredients into casks which are two-thirds -filled, and then revolved by machinery. The oil is -then added. At least two days are required for the -process. The following recipes for mastics are among -the best, having been approved by <span class="smcap">Lehner</span>. It may -here be remarked, once for all, not only as regards -mastics, but all recipes in this work, that unless the -materials indicated are of the very best quality, and -the processes be most thoroughly carried out, the experimenter -cannot expect complete success. More -than this, the experimenter must not be satisfied with -a single trial. If every recipe could be at once executed -by every cook, we should find the most exquisite -cookery on every table in Europe. I once published -the correct recipe for making objects of a peculiar -kind of <i>papier-mâché</i> hardened. It was very easy -to make. I had seen specimens of the ware, and I received -the recipe from the inventor. Moreover, a -great deal of money had been made by it. However, -soon after I had published it I received an indignant -letter from the head of a large manufacturing house, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_136">136</span> -stating that they had tried my recipe and utterly -failed!</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">French Mastic</span>:—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Quartz or flint sand,</td> - <td>parts</td> - <td class="tdr">300</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Powdered quicklime,</td> - <td class="tdc">”</td> - <td class="tdr">100</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Litharge,</td> - <td class="tdc">”</td> - <td class="tdr">50</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Linseed-oil,</td> - <td class="tdc">”</td> - <td class="tdr">35</td> - </tr></table> - -<p><span class="smcap">Paget’s Mastic</span>:—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Flint sand</td> - <td class="tdr">315</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Washed chalk</td> - <td class="tdr">105</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>White lead</td> - <td class="tdr">25</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Minium</td> - <td class="tdr">10</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Sugar of lead in solution</td> - <td class="tdr">45</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Linseed-oil</td> - <td class="tdr">35</td> - </tr></table> - -<p>The paste or “dough” thus formed should be -ground with horizontal rollers in a mill, such as is -used for chocolate, until all the ingredients are <i>very</i> -thoroughly amalgamated.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">A very good cement for mending</span>, especially where -the objects are exposed to water, whether they be of -stone or earthenware, is made as follows:—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Powdered glass</td> - <td class="tdr">40</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Washed litharge</td> - <td class="tdr">40</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Linseed-oil varnish</td> - <td class="tdr">20</td> - </tr></table> - -<p>The powdered glass is prepared by heating glass -red-hot, casting it into water, grinding and sifting it. -This powder is saturated with the linseed-oil varnish, -and heated in a kettle. This cement sets hard in -three days. <span class="smcap">Lehner</span> observes that glass-powder -serves in such recipes to resist the action of acids, &c., -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_137">137</span> -since it forms in combination on the surface a glaze -of great hardness; that is, the glass and lead form a -chemical combination. Pulverised calcined glass -therefore acts not as an “indifferent” but as a chemical -ingredient.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Caseine</span>, or Cheese, forms the basis of several -recipes for mending stone, as when there are holes in -a block or the mortar has given way. To prepare it -for use (<span class="smcap">Lehner</span>), we let milk stand in a cool place, -skimming away with the utmost care all the cream. -Place this on a filter, and pour on it rain-water till it -is purified from every trace of lactic acid; then tie it -in a cloth, boil it in water, and spread it on blotting-paper -in a warm place, when it will be a horn-like -substance. This will keep for a long time. To prepare -it for use, rub it in a saucer with water.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">To mend stone</span> make the following:—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Caseine</td> - <td class="tdr">12</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Slacked lime</td> - <td class="tdr">50</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Fine sand</td> - <td class="tdr">50</td> - </tr></table> - -<p>Another recipe:—</p> - -<p>Boil new cheese in water till it draws out in threads, -stirring in slacked lime and sifted wood-ashes in the -following proportions:—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Cheese</td> - <td class="tdr">100</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Water</td> - <td class="tdr">200</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Slacked lime</td> - <td class="tdr">25</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Wood-ashes</td> - <td class="tdr">20</td> - </tr></table> - -<p>This may also be used to close cavities in trees or -in wood.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">A cheese cement for stone</span>, and for many other -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_138">138</span> -purposes, is made as follows. It may be kept for a -long time, and is very durable (<span class="smcap">Lehner</span>):—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Caseine</td> - <td class="tdr">200</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Calcined lime</td> - <td class="tdr">40</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Camphor</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - </tr></table> - -<p>This must be closely incorporated and kept well -corked. When it is to be used mix it with water, and -apply at once.</p> - -<p>The following cement was used by the Romans -especially in setting mosaics. It becomes as hard as -marble, and sets with great rapidity:—To one quart -of milk add the white of five eggs, and stir in powdered -quicklime till a paste is formed. This composition -may be used to repair or make <i>scagliola</i>, which -is fragments of marble or stone embedded in a hard -mass. When it sets, polish the surface with rasps, -and rub down with a rough stone, and finally polish -with marble dust, and then emery or tripoli. Beautiful -slabs for tables, columns, floors, and walls can -thus be made. It is valuable for repairing.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Ceresa</span> is allied to this. We make a basis of this -or any other cement which will <i>hold firmly</i>, and press -into the surface powdered glass, which may be fine -or of any degree of coarseness. Coarse grains shine -most brilliantly; fine powder is best adapted to delicate -shading. The effect is best when mosaic stones -and gold cubes are sparingly introduced. To make -the gold cubes, take two small panes of window glass, -cover one side of each with varnish or mastic cement, -lay between them gold-leaf, and join them. Very -beautiful pictures can be made in this manner. Nor -is it at all necessary that they should be finely executed -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_139">139</span> -for ordinary decoration. All that is needed for -this beautiful and little-known art is the cement, a -quantity of glass or stone of different colours, and a -mortar and pestle. The mosaic cubes, with those of -gold, can be bought in London.</p> - -<p>Allied to this is an art which I believe I can claim -to have invented. It consists of breaking waste chinaware, -crockery, or fictile ware into small squares or -triangles, and setting them as mosaic in cement. The -advantage of it is the cheapness of the material, and -the infinite number of shades of colour which can be -selected for it. Its disadvantage is, that it will not -wear as a pavement, but it is perfectly adapted to -walls.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">A strong, coarse cement for brick or stone work</span> -in building is made as follows:—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Slacked lime</td> - <td class="tdr">40</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Brick-dust</td> - <td class="tdr">10</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Iron filings</td> - <td class="tdr">10</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Ox-blood</td> - <td class="tdr">8</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Water</td> - <td class="tdr">8</td> - </tr></table> - -<p>The blood is stirred as it comes from the slaughtered -beast with a broom for ten minutes to break the -fibre. It should then be mixed with the water and -kneaded with the powder. Glue may be substituted -for the blood. This cement, if properly made, sets -very hard and adhesively.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">For tiles, bricks, or composition</span>:—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Slacked lime</td> - <td class="tdr">100</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Sifted stone-coal ashes</td> - <td class="tdr">50</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Stirred ox-blood</td> - <td class="tdr">15 -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_140">140</span></td> - </tr></table> - -<p>It may be observed that many of the cheaper -cements can be employed to form large bricks by combination -with broken stone or rubble, gravel, pebbles, -brickbats, &c. Another method, called <span class="smcap">Concrete</span>, is -to make cases of boards, and to form a solid wall by -pouring in the mixture, or ramming it down, according -to its hardness. Thus a house is made entirely -in one piece; but its excellence depends entirely on -the quality of the cement employed, and on the care -taken in building. Simple lime mortar, if not of a -superior quality, hastily formed, as I have seen, is -very apt to crack and break off. Where hydraulic -cement is cheap and good, houses can be built as firm -as granite. A good and strong cement of this kind -can be made as follows:—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Burned lime</td> - <td class="tdr">10</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Caseine</td> - <td class="tdr">12</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Hydraulic cement</td> - <td class="tdr">30</td> - </tr></table> - -<p>The proportions may be very much varied in such -cements according to their price, but generally with -a satisfactory result.</p> - -<p>Fractures or discolorations in marble, as in statuary, -are so perfectly repaired in Florence that the juncture -is not perceptible. Even dark spots are drilled out. -The process is to drill a round concave hole, and cut -the piece to be inserted so as to exactly fit as a convex -plug. It is then fastened in with transparent mastic -or other clear cement. It will be seen, on due consideration, -that this is extremely ingenious, because -by it alone can a perfectly tight fit be secured. By -turning the plug in the hollow it speedily grinds itself -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_141">141</span> -into an accurate plug; so when the cement is applied -it can be reduced to a minimum—in fact, by this -means the line of junction is reduced to its finest -limit.</p> - -<p>Where a very strong cement is needed for stone-work, -it can be prepared by mixing a fine cement -powder—<i>e.g.</i>, Portland cement—with liquid silicate -of soda. As it dries almost at once, it must be -promptly applied. It is particularly well adapted for -building under water, since it then becomes extremely -hard. Before applying it smear the stone with pure -silicate.</p> - -<p>The following is highly commended by <span class="smcap">Lehner</span>:—</p> - -<p>Mending statues of gypsum or plaster of Paris is -allied to stone-work. The broken edges are washed -with water till no more is absorbed and the surface -remains wet. Then stir fresh calcined white plaster -of Paris with much water to a thin paste, and continue -to stir this till it is cold. Then rapidly paint -this paste on the broken edges, continuing to press -the two together till they set hard.</p> - -<p>It is, says <span class="smcap">Lehner</span>, a peculiarity of gypsum that -when mixed with <i>alum</i> dissolved in water it takes a -much longer time to harden, but is very much harder -in the end. Thus, if we let the powdered gypsum lie -for twenty-four hours in alum-water, dry it, and then -calcine it again, the powder when mixed with water -sets to a stone as hard as marble.</p> - -<p>Plaster of Paris and alum, combined with the fine -powder of calcined glass, form a very hard and durable -cement, of very general utility in all mending of -stone-work.</p> - -<p>For an exhaustive work on the subject of not only -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_142">142</span> -mending stone-work, but also of making artificial -stone and many cements, as well as combining and -adapting to use paper, cellulose, sawdust and shavings, -gypsum, chalk, glue, &c., including not only -ancient but also the most recent recipes, consult <i>Die -Fabrikation künstlicher plastischer Massen</i>, by Johannes -Hofer; Leipzig, A. Hartleben, price 4s. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_143">143</span></p> - -<h2 id="REPAIRING_IVORY">REPAIRING IVORY</h2> - -<p>Works of art in carved ivory or bone are very valuable -when perfect, yet when broken or defective they -may very often be purchased for a trifle. Yet the -process of mending them or restoring the missing -portions is not difficult.</p> - -<p>The first thing to consider is the colour. When old -ivory has only acquired a delicate hue, as of Naples -yellow, this adds to its attractiveness; nor are the -brownish shadows and marks which gather in the -angles of the reliefs repulsive. These may be left -untouched, and even imitated. But a great deal of -old ivory becomes of blackish bistre, or of a dirty, -spotted brown or neutral tint, which has nothing in -common with artistic effect, and suggests, like old -slums in cities, more that is repulsive than picturesque. -To clean such pieces, dissolve rock-alum in -rain-water till it is white or forms a full saturation. -Boil this, and keep the ivory in the boiling solution -for about an hour, taking it out from time to time -and cleaning it with a soft brush. Then let it dry in -a damp linen or muslin rag; it will then be cleaned.</p> - -<p>Ivory is often bleached by the simple process of -damping, or wiping it with water and then exposing -it to the rays of the sun; which must, however, be -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_144">144</span> -frequently repeated. According to <span class="smcap">Lehner</span>, the only -perfect and certain process by which any ivory can be -cleaned is to steep the article for some time in ether -or benzole, in order to extract any fatty matter, then -to wash it in water, and finally keep it in super-oxide -of hydrogen (<i>Wasserstoff, super-oxide</i>) till it is bleached, -after which wash again in water.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">To supply Missing Portions.</span>—Take ivory-dust, -such as can be bought of every ivory-turner, sift it to -an impalpable powder, or else levigate or grind it -down under water as fine as flour in a mortar. Then -combine this with gum arabic, in alum solution, or -the silicate of potash. Egg-shells, levigated, may be -substituted for the ivory-dust, and are even less likely -to turn grey; and very fine white glue or gelatine of -the clearest kind may be substituted for the gum-arabic.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Louis Edgar Andés</span>, in his able work on Ivory, Horn, -Mother-of-Pearl, and Tortoise-shell, explains a process -much like that already described. According to -him, take finely powdered bone (or ivory-dust), combine -it with white of eggs, and the result will be an -intensely hard substance, which can be turned or -carved like ivory. To perfect this the mass should -be subjected to a heat of from 50° to 60° centigrade, -and then to strong pressure. Gelatine or best glue, -with glycerine, is quite as good as the white of eggs, -and it may to advantage be combined with the latter. -Having very thoroughly mixed the composition, take -the broken ivory article, repair the missing portions, -and fill the cavities with the paste. Though not -equal to celluloid as an imitation of new and fresh -ivory, this cement is very much like old bone and -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_145">145</span> -ivory, and <i>after a little experimenting</i> the artistic amateur -may succeed in so blending the <i>binder</i> or adhesive -with the dust as to take casts which are almost perfect -imitations of the originals. But let it be observed -in this, as in everything, one must not expect perfect -success at a first trial, as too many do.</p> - -<p>When the paste is dry, smooth the surface with a -sharp cutter, so as to remove any small projections, -and then polish it, first with fine emery or tripoli, -then with a burnisher, finally by hand.</p> - -<p>If you have, for example, an old flat plate of ivory, -like one of the fourteenth century now before me, -which I bought for a mere trifle because it was broken, -lay it in an exactly fitting box—a strip of tin in a -square will answer—and fill in the vacancy. The -missing ornament on the upper side can be carved, -or even supplied from a hardened stamp or mould -of rolled soft bread-crumb. This bread-crumb can -be made very hard by admixture with a very little -nitric acid and water. Imitation meerschaum pipes, -which are rather like ivory or bone, are made from -this composition by pressure.</p> - -<p>I may here mention that this ivory or bone cement, -which is little known, is admirably adapted to repair -broken inlaying. There was in Florence, in the sixteenth -century, an extensive manufacture of delicate -bas-reliefs for small caskets from <i>lime and rice</i>, which -greatly resembled bone or ivory. It was extremely -durable, probably from being extremely well worked. -Specimens of it bring a high price.</p> - -<p>A very slight infusion of Naples yellow, to which a -suspicion of brown, reduced in Chinese white, has -been added, gives to the paste an old-ivory colour. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_146">146</span> -The corners and outlines may be shaded in Vandyke -brown.</p> - -<p>Before attempting to glue or mastic fractured -ivories, they should always be washed in the alum -solution, else they will often refuse to adhere.</p> - -<p>When there is a little addition of whiting and a -little oil, very well worked into the ivory paste, and -it is allowed to dry thoroughly, it may be cut or -carved into any shape.</p> - -<p>Ivory or bone when very old becomes brittle or -crumbling and falls to powder, because certain organic -substances dry out of it, leaving chiefly lime as -their residue. When the ivories from Nineveh were -brought to the British Museum the celebrated Sir -Joseph Hooker suggested that they should be steeped -in gelatine. This effected a perfect restoration. -When a case occurs in which an ivory article, a bone, -or skull is so fragile that it will not bear the slightest -touch without falling to dust, it may often be saved -by gently <i>spraying</i> on it water in which gelatine or -glue has been dissolved. As the glue may be made -by boiling old gloves, and as a spray can be easily -improvised, it will be seen that excavators and openers -of ancient tombs might by this means save thousands -of curious relics which are allowed to perish. -As it is certainly a species of mending or of restoration, -it is in place in this work. This is especially to -be desired as to skulls of the earliest ages, which are -of inestimable value, of which we have so very few, -and of which thousands have perished which might -have been preserved in the manner which I have indicated.</p> - -<p><i>Sprays</i> for spreading perfume or medicated liquids, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_147">147</span> -which can be adapted to thin liquid glue, may be had -of all chemists. But we can effect the purpose better -by taking a tooth-brush, or any brush of the kind, -wetting, and then drawing it over a dull edge of a -knife or a strip of tin. According to <span class="smcap">J. C. Wiegleb</span>, -a Frenchman in his time received a very large pension -for this invention, which was applied to spraying -pastels. The Romans made a spray, very imperfectly, -by suddenly squeezing or throwing liquids from a -sponge.</p> - -<p>Ivory handles to knives and forks, when loose, can -be best reset by first pouring in a little strong vinegar. -When dry use acidulated glue. A common recipe for -this purpose is the following:—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Resin (colophonium)</td> - <td class="tdr">20</td> - <td>parts</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Sulphur</td> - <td class="tdr">5</td> - <td class="tdc">”</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Iron filings</td> - <td class="tdr">8</td> - <td class="tdc">”</td> - </tr></table> - -<p>Heat, and use while soft.</p> - -<p>In repairing ivory it is often necessary to stain it of -different colours. Most of the old works on recipes -contain directions for this. In that of <span class="smcap">Ris Paquot</span> -they are given as follows:—</p> - -<p>First prepare a mixture of copper filings, rock-alum, -and Roman vitriol. Boil it, let it be for six days, -then add a little rock-alum. The piece of ivory to be -dyed is kept in this solution for half an-hour. <i>To dye -Red.</i>—Boil logwood chips or cochineal in water; -when hot add lead dross (<i>cendre gravelée</i>) about 25 -grammes, keep it in the fire till the colour has taken, -then add rock-alum. This is strained through linen, -and the ivory to be dyed is put into this liquor. -<i>Green.</i>—Take one quart of lye made from vine-ashes -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_148">148</span> -(<i>cendre de sarment</i>), 7 grammes of powdered verdigris, -a handful of common salt, with a little alum. Boil it -to one-half; as soon as it is taken from the fire place -the ivory in it, and leave it till properly coloured. -<i>Blue.</i>—Dissolve indigo and potash in water, and then -mix this with a quart of vine-ash lye. <i>Black.</i>—Boil -the ivory in the following composition:—Vinegar, -500 grammes; gall-nuts pulverised, 12 grammes; -nut-shells, 12 grammes. Boil down to one-half. -These are all very strong dyes, which may be used -for other substances.</p> - -<p>“Ivory can be softened and made almost plastic -by soaking in phosphoric acid. When washed -with water, pressed, and dried, it will regain its -former consistency.” Ivory-dust thus treated can -be really rendered plastic. The process requires -care.</p> - -<p>In the <i>Magia Naturalis</i> of <span class="smcap">Hildebrand</span>, a work of -the sixteenth century, we are told that ivory can be -imitated or repaired with a cement made of powdered -egg-shells, gum-arabic in solution, and the white of -eggs. Dry it in the sun.</p> - -<p>Allied to ivory is Horn. Deer-horn was frequently -used as a material whence to make a substance which -was moulded into many forms. For this purpose the -hardest part of the horns was selected and filed or -powdered, and then boiled in strong potash lye. -Thus it became a paste, which was promptly pressed -into moulds. When dry the figures were carefully -polished. Ox-horn can be treated in the same manner. -When cracked, carved horns or powder-flasks -can be mended with this paste; also with mastic and -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_149">149</span> -whiting. Horn in a soft state is easily coloured by -mixing with it any dye.<a id="FNanchor_3" href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">3</a></p> - -<p>It has been recently complained in a leading review, -in an article on sales of ancient works of art, that imitations -of antique works of ivory are now carried to -such perfection that even the learned in such matters -have been deceived. This is perfectly true, and therefore -it is the greater pity that such imitation, which -is not necessarily very expensive, cannot be extended -to our great museums, the wealthiest of which thus -far seldom get beyond rough, plain plaster-casts to -make duplicates of ivory-work. The artists in imitation -seem to be entirely in the employ of the people -who deliberately sell counterfeits for genuine relics -of antiquity. But, as Martin Luther or some one -once remarked in reference to adapting hymns to -popular airs, “There was no reason why the devil -should keep all the good tunes to himself,” so is -there none why duplicates of thousands of exquisite -works in ivory, bone, and horn should not be better -known to the world. It is possible that, to the world -at large, there is little <i>real</i> interest in such works; -but interest will come in time with familiarity.</p> - -<p><i>Apropos</i> to ivory, or horn, there is a process of applying -an imitation of them to any kind of surface, -which is, when executed with skill, remarkably effective. -It is chiefly executed in Vienna, where it is -applied to leather, plaster of Paris, wood, and wall-paper. -With variations, it is essentially as follows:— -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_150">150</span></p> - -<p>Cover the ground with flexible varnish, then paint -over this with light Naples yellow, graduated as -nicely to some old ivory model as possible. It is best -not to have it all too uniformly of one tone, since old -work often has its shades. The object here need not -be to ape or copy old work, but to catch what is -beautiful in it. Then fill in the outlines of the pattern, -and the dots and irregularities near it, or anywhere, -with brown more or less dark. For this, study -old ivory. Then varnish with <span class="smcap">Soehnée</span>, No. 3. A -great deal depends on the quality of this second coat. -Finally rub down very thoroughly with chamois and -hand, and repeat the process more than once if you -want it very much like ivory. Very extraordinary -and perfect imitations of ivory, bone, worn and glossy -parchment and brown leather, wood, marble—in -short, of any kind of work of art which has been -rubbed and worn smooth by hand during centuries, -can be made by this process of ivorying with alternate -layers of varnish, colour, varnish, and so on.</p> - -<p>When there is no relief the paint itself can be -worked with wheel and tracer, and then repainted -and varnished. This is a very beautiful art, specially -applicable to book-covers, and often useful in repairing -old work. I would here repeat what I said, that -the object of imitating effects in old works of art, or -in other kinds of art—which is so staunchly repudiated -by mere artisans who themselves are generally -only imitators of the designs of others—is not to make -counterfeits, but to take from age or art beautiful -effects, however produced, and apply them to work. -Those who are too conscientious to execute stencilling -on a wall, or to use moulds for leather-work, would -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_151">151</span> -do well to first consider whether they <i>know enough</i> to -design a really good or admirable stencil, or an excellent -mould, for it is in the genius which originates -and executes, not in the mere means, tools, and materials -employed, that art consists. Art does not depend -in the least on either making skill difficult or in -rendering its methods easy; it displays skill, but -scorns the Chinese standard of mere industry. An -artist like <span class="smcap">Albert Dürer</span> would never have prided -himself on only using certain tools as being “artistic;” -he would, however, have made designs which -would have forced originality and art into a photograph. -There are marvellous effects of corrugation -in ancient walls, plays of light and shade and colour -and polish in rock and strand and heaps of ashes, -which <span class="smcap">Leonardo da Vinci</span> knew how to catch and -transfer to different subjects, and at which perhaps -the artisans of his time sneered as “not artistic.”</p> - -<p>Age, which gives a certain exquisite charm to wine -and words of wisdom, has done the same to all material -things, of which, indeed, it may be strangely said -that wherever it does not destroy a charm it confers -one, like moonlight, which renders nightly shadows -more terrible or else more beautiful.</p> - -<p>It is to be regretted that this principle, which is a -very important one, is but little understood. The -manufacturers of all decorative art work at present -endeavour without exception to make everything staringly, -cruelly brand new, or else a mere copy of old -work. What they need is to draw, as <span class="smcap">Rembrandt</span> -did, from age so much of its peculiar charm as is -adaptable to modern work.</p> - -<p>I have introduced these remarks because the mender -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_152">152</span> -and restorer of old ivories and bookbindings and pictures, -if he regards his occupation as an art—which -it really is—is peculiarly adapted to fully appreciate -them. Restoring, like copying, leads to creating new -work. I think that any person of ordinary intelligence -can, with zeal and application, learn to mend -anything as described in this work, and from such -mending it is much easier to learn to make works of -minor art. “Short the step from senator to <i>podestá</i>—shorter -the step from <i>podestá</i> to king.”</p> - -<p>A great merit and peculiarity of ivory, as of horn, -is that it is tough and elastic, as well as of a beautiful -transparent or diaphanous quality. These characteristics -have, with the exception of its graining or -texture, been well imitated thus far only in <i>celluloid</i>, -which is unfortunately too expensive for very general -use, and, what is worse, too liable to destruction. I, -however, confidently anticipate that ere long some -substance will be discovered much superior to celluloid -as a substitute, and probably much cheaper and -less perishable. To <i>celluloid</i> I may, however, add the -sulphuretted preparations of caoutchouc and gutta-percha, -known as vulcanite or ebonite. These are indeed -hard, tough, and elastic to perfection, but very -dark and opaque.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Lehner</span>, in his work <i>Die Imitationen</i>, observes that -imitations of ivory must be varied to suit the colour -and quality of originals. This requires a study, -firstly, of the adhesive or glue which is to be used. -This, when colourless, is known as French gelatine, -and is very expensive. In lieu thereof the experimenter -may take best white Salisbury glue or gum-arabic -prepared with alum-water. Secondly, the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_153">153</span> -body, which may be of carbonate of magnesia, carbonate -of lime, such as powdered marble, sulphuretted -lime, or powdered gypsum, chalk, starch, or flour, -white oxide of tin, zinc, sulphate of barytes or Chinese -white, white oxide of lead. In combining, <i>e.g.</i>, -magnesia with the glue, an addition of ten per cent. -of glycerine gives elasticity and a horn-like clearness. -To harden artificial ivory made with glue, the objects -are dipped into strong solution of alum or tannin for -about four minutes. The tannin is best made from -gall-apples. Objects thus made have an antique -ivory, yellowish hue. Red chrome alkali may be -used in solution with water instead of tannin, but it -gives a stronger yellow.</p> - -<p>According to <span class="smcap">Hyatt’s</span> patent, artificial ivory is -made by combining a syrup made of eight parts shellac -and three parts of ammoniac with forty of the -oxide of zinc. This is heated and subjected to -pressure.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Celluloid</span> is the best material for making artificial -ivory. It is made by the combination of cellulose or -vegetable fibre in the form of cotton-wool treated -with acid; that is to say, gun-cotton and camphor. -It is sold in thin leaves, &c., which can be softened -at from 100° to 125° centigrade, so as to be moulded -to any form. By infusion of colouring matter, such -as oxide of zinc, cinnabar, &c., celluloid is made to -resemble ivory, coral, or tortoise-shell. It has often -been applied to making a perfect imitation of Florentine -mosaic, and of course serves admirably to repair -such work when broken.</p> - -<p>A very strong cement for ivory, bone, or fine wood -is made by boiling transparent gelatine in water to a -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_154">154</span> -thick mass. Add to this gum-mastic dissolved in -alcohol, this solution being one-fourth, and stir into -it pure white oxide of zinc till it forms a fluid like -honey. This is also of itself an artificial ivory, when -prepared and dried in the mass. Another can be -made by combining diamond cement (<i>vide</i> Glass) with -powdered ivory and a little glycerine. Also with the -same, or very strong white glue and powdered egg-shells, -which latter should have been boiled. Also -white of egg, gum-arabic, a very little strong vinegar, -and levigated egg-shells.</p> - -<p>Another recipe for such mending or making of -ivory and similar substances is to take soft and very -white paper in pulp, combined with cotton-wool, -treated with very dilute acid or <i>strong</i> vinegar. To -this add powdered egg-shells, made into paste with a -little glycerine; amalgamate this with the paper and -cotton mixture as thoroughly as possible, and submit -to strong pressure or rolling.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Cellulose</span> in any form, whether made from cotton, -linen, wood, or other vegetable fibrous substance, -affords a basis which can be treated with dilute acid -to produce a horny or parchment-like substance. A -modification of this is seen in making celluloid with -camphor. These modified forms of organic creation -can be combined with other organic substances or -minerals in great variety. Thus glycerine, and at -times oil of different kinds, in such admixtures confers -elasticity, or a diaphanous appearance; ivory-dust -has an affinity for oil and glue; and these all -combine with parchment, boiled ivory-dust, and fibrine -or cellulose.</p> - -<p>Certain marine plants, such as <i>kelp</i>, yield a fibrous -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_155">155</span> -substance which has very peculiar qualities, and which -admits of ingenious combination. Certain experiments -and observations convince me that there is here -a vast field, as yet unexplored, in which science will -yet make discoveries and afford valuable contributions -to technology.</p> - -<p>The reader who is specially interested in this subject -may consult to advantage <i>Die Verarbeitung des -Hornes, Elfenbeines, Schildpatts und der Perlenmutter</i>, -&c., von Louis Edgar Andés; Vienna, A. Hartleben, -price 3s. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_156">156</span></p> - -<h2 id="REPAIRING_AMBER">REPAIRING AMBER<br /> - -<span class="large">HOW TO PERFECTLY RE-JOIN BROKEN AMBER, -AND TO IMITATE IT—HOW TO MELT AMBER IN -FRAGMENTS TO A SINGLE BODY</span></h2> - - -<p>Amber has been admired in all ages and everywhere -from its exquisite colour and semi-transparency. -Many superstitions were attached to it, and many still -believe that to carry a bead made from it is good for -the eyesight. It is principally found on the Prussian -coast, off the German Ocean, but is also picked up in -considerable quantities on the English shore. It is -the gum or resin of a now extinct species of pine, -which was probably much like that in New Zealand, -which produces the gum <i>kauri</i>, which so much resembles -amber.</p> - -<p>Some amber is yellow and clear like lemon-candy. -This is extensively imitated for cigar-holders and pipe-mouthpieces, -beads, &c. Then there is the clouded, -varying from white to straw-colour, and the beautiful -golden-brown, which appears so rich in sunlight; -also the dark-brown and black. These dark-brown -ambers are generally seen in old ornaments, and are -of a kind which is dug out of the earth. Light amber -can be darkened to brown by an artificial process. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_157">157</span></p> - -<p>Gum <i>copal</i>, which comes from Africa, much resembles -amber, but is less beautiful and more brittle. -Gum <i>kauri</i>, from New Zealand, is very much like it. -Both are used to imitate amber.</p> - -<p>There are not many who know how to mend amber -when broken. I am assured that the following is a -trustworthy method:—Warm the pieces, dampen them -with caustic potash (<i>ætz-kali</i>), and then press them -together. When well done the joining will not be -perceptible. It is said that by this process small -pieces of amber, amber-dust, &c., can be made into -blocks.</p> - -<p>In imitating amber, the best pieces of copal are -picked out, put into an air-tight vessel, and dissolved -in petroleum, sulphuric ether, or benzole. After -being dried in blocks this is submitted to a great -pressure. As it dries the pressure is increased.</p> - -<p>It occurred to me many years ago that the proper -way to unite copal to a tough body like amber would -be to use a tough or flexible varnish as a binding -medium. I find by the work of <span class="smcap">Lehner</span> on Imitations -that he has verified this by experiment. What -is also important is, that the process of hardening by -pressure is by this means very much facilitated. I -should judge, by all chemical laws, that a varnish infused -with glycerine in combination with copal, kauri, -or amber-dust would, even without pressure, form in -time a substance quite as hard as amber, and much -less brittle. It is to be desired that some technist -would experiment on a variety of gums in this manner, -and thus <i>fix</i> or render permanent their beauty. -There is a wide field here to be worked. The subject -of meerschaum and amber is fully treated in a work -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_158">158</span> -entitled <i>Die Meerschaum- und Bernstein-Fabrikationen</i>, -von G. M. Raufer; Vienna, A. Hartleben, 2 marks.</p> - -<p>I may add that carving amber is a very elegant art, -yielding beautiful results. I have known a young -lady, the late Miss Catherine L. Bayard, who excelled -in it. It is effected chiefly with fine files and emery -or glass paper, as, owing to its extremely brittle nature, -there is much risk for any save experts to use -cutting tools. Amber is a very expensive material, -but objects made from it are of more than proportionate -value. Those who would practise carving it -should begin with pieces of copal. As I have already -explained, small fragments and the dust of both amber -and copal can be melted and combined with clear -turpentine into large masses, which are even tougher -than the native gums.</p> - -<p>An inferior, but still very pretty, imitation of amber -can be made by combining almost any gum properly -clarified and coloured; as, for instance, gum-arabic -or dextrine with gelatine (best quality white) -and glycerine. If thoroughly well combined and -dried, this will wear as well as amber. Some of the -gums of fruit-trees—<i>e.g.</i>, of the peach and cherry—are -very beautifully coloured and clear, and seem to -be admirably adapted to be hardened by the same -process. They occur very frequently in old books of -recipes as adhesives or cements. Perfectly clear glue -or gelatine with glycerine and transparent dyes form -an excellent imitation for beads. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_159">159</span></p> - -<h2 id="INDIARUBBER_AND">INDIARUBBER AND -GUTTA-PERCHA<br /> - -<span class="large">MENDING INDIARUBBER SHOES AND MAKING GARMENTS -WATERPROOF, WITH OTHER APPLICATIONS</span></h2> - -<p>Indiarubber or gutta-percha enters into so many -familiar and useful objects that there are few people -who would not like to know how to repair them when -injured.</p> - -<p>Like the brittle or non-elastic gums, caoutchouc -(with which I include the nearly allied gutta-percha) -is greatly modified by admixture with certain pulverised -substances, which form with it a partly mechanical, -partly chemical, combination. Those who would -thoroughly study the subject in all its relations may -consult <i>Kautschuk</i> (<i>Caoutchouc</i>) <i>und Guttapercha</i>, von -Raimund Hoffer; Wien, 1892, Hartleben.</p> - -<p>Caoutchouc is partially soluble in carburetted sulphur, -ether, pure petroleum, or benzole, but gutta-percha -is perfectly so. In this state it may be applied -as a varnish or coating for repairs, as it hardens by -exposure to the air. When mixed with sulphur and -exposed to a heat of 110° to 115° centigrade, gutta-percha -becomes what is called “vulcanised,” assuming -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_160">160</span> -a very light grey colour, is more elastic, and retains -this elasticity at a much lower grade than before. -When the heat is raised to (maximum) 180° the -mass becomes very hard, tough, and black, or like -horn. The conditions of its toughness, elasticity, -and hardness depend upon the amount of sulphur -used; as in other combinations, the harder the material -becomes the less elastic it is—that is, the more -brittle.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Ebonite</span> is extremely hardened caoutchouc. It is -first treated with chlorine, washed with sulphate of -soda infused in water, and finally mixed with hardening -substances and submitted to severe pressure.</p> - -<p>As indiarubber or “gum” shoes are in general use, -most people would consider them the proper objects -to begin with. To do this, first make two separate -preparations as follows:</p> - -<p class="caption">I.</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Caoutchouc</td> - <td class="tdr">10</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Chloroform</td> - <td class="tdr">280</td> - </tr></table> - -<p class="caption">II.</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Caoutchouc</td> - <td class="tdr">10</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Resin</td> - <td class="tdr">4</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Turpentine</td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Oil of turpentine</td> - <td class="tdr">40</td> - </tr></table> - -<p>No. I. is simply kept for a time in a bottle or tightly -closed jar by itself. No. II. is made by cutting the -gum very fine, mixing it with the resin, then adding -the turpentine, and finally dissolving the whole in the -oil of turpentine. Then combine I. and II. To repair -the shoe, take a linen patch, steep it in the mixture, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_161">161</span> -and place it over the rent. When this is dry -apply one or more coats.</p> - -<p>It may be observed that this preparation may be -used not only for indiarubber shoes, but many other -objects. Applied to the soles of leather boots, and -then heated in, repeating the process a few times, -they become perfectly waterproof. This is better -when the shoemaker makes a coating of it between -the two soles. I have tested this often. The inner -sole may be made by simply dissolving the indiarubber -in benzole or ether. A solution for ordinary repairing -can be made by simply steeping the indiarubber -in benzine.</p> - -<p>Rents or holes in ordinary leather shoes or other -objects can be very well repaired in this way. A -piece of leather can in this case be substituted for the -linen rag. Boots or shoes which will be very much -exposed to wet should be warmed and then soaked or -permeated with a solution of indiarubber. Preparations -for the purpose can be bought of all dealers in -gum and gutta-percha.</p> - -<p>Cloth is generally waterproofed by steeping it in a -slight solution of caoutchouc.</p> - -<p>Another recipe (<span class="smcap">Lehner</span>) is as follows:—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Caoutchouc</td> - <td class="tdr">150</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Tallow</td> - <td class="tdr">10</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Slacked lime</td> - <td class="tdr">10</td> - </tr></table> - -<p>This is used to cork or close bottles. To render it -more resistant, substitute pipeclay for the lime. Or -if in place of either we use red oxide of lead, it will -form in time an extremely hard and perfectly waterproof -cement of great value. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_162">162</span></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">A strong indiarubber cement</span>:—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Caoutchouc, about</td> - <td class="tdr">90</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Pulverised sulphur</td> - <td class="tdr">10</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2" class="i4">Or from 6 to 12 of the latter.</td> - </tr></table> - -<p>This is specially commended as useful to close tins -containing fruits, &c. It is simply vulcanised indiarubber.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Marine glue</span> is a very valuable and generally useful -cement. It is so called because, being perfectly -waterproof, it is used for many purposes in ships. It -is applicable not only to repairing indiarubber or -gutta-percha garments, but also to objects of metal, -wood, glass, stone, paper, or cloth; as, for instance, -umbrellas, on which, when torn, a patch or strip of -silk or muslin may be gummed, which will last as -long as the rest. It is also good for waterproofing -shoes. It is sold by dealers in ships’ stores, chemists, -and others. “It is a good thing to have in the -country.”</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Hard marine glue</span>:—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Caoutchouc</td> - <td class="tdr">10</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Rectified petroleum</td> - <td class="tdr">120</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Asphalt</td> - <td class="tdr">20</td> - </tr></table> - -<p>To prepare this, the caoutchouc should be hung in -a linen bag in a cask with a very large bung, or in a -large jar, so that the bag shall be only half immersed. -This is kept in a warm place for from ten to fourteen -days, till the solution is effected. Then the asphaltum -may be melted in an iron kettle. Let the rubber solution -slowly run into the kettle over a gentle heat, and -stir in the one to the other till the mass is thoroughly -preserved are put in the bag; the edge is then turned -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_163">163</span> -incorporated. When this is effected pour the mixture -into moulds which have been oiled to prevent adhesion. -The result is dark brown or black thin cakes, -which are broken with difficulty. The excellence of -this cement is somewhat counteracted by the difficulty -or care which must be observed in using it. To -do this, put the vessel in which it is to be melted in -another or a <i>balneum mariæ</i>, as for glue, filled with -boiling water. When fluid take the kettle from the -fire and subject it directly to heat till it attains a -temperature of 150° centigrade. When it is possible, -heat the object to be glued to 100°. The thinner the -coat and the hotter the surface the better will it adhere, -unless the objects be such as hard boards. In -all cases as strong a pressure as possible should be -employed to bring the two parts together, which -should be continued till the glue has dried. Boxes -which are cemented together by means of marine glue -and are also nailed are of extraordinary strength, and -may be thus made air-tight and waterproof. Those -who intend to send articles which can be affected by -sea-air, such as silks and tea, which change their colour -and quality even when packed in the tightest ordinary -cases, should employ boxes well secured with -good marine glue. It is also invaluable to secure -clothing against moths, for if anything be very thoroughly -dusted and there are no moths in it, none -can get in if it be enclosed in a box rendered air-tight.</p> - -<p><i>Apropos</i> of which I would say that in America moths, -which are far more of a pest than in Europe, are -effectively excluded by means of bags of strong -paper, well tarpaulined or tarred. The objects to be -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_164">164</span> -over and warmed, so that it seals itself up. Strong -paper bags are better than any trunks to exclude -moths, but they must always be well gummed up. -Tobacco is no protection at all against these insects. -I have even had an old woollen Turkish tobacco-bag -which had been in use ten years, and which was -partly full of tobacco, almost devoured by moths, -which must have eaten no small quantity of tobacco -in so doing. Nor is camphor or any other scent half -as effective as hermetic closing in some substance -which insects will not eat.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Lehner</span> gives a suggestion regarding the rendering -walls air-tight which is of such remarkable practical -utility that it ought to be enforced by health laws in -every house. Whenever walls have any tendency to -absorb dampness—and all have it in damp weather, -especially in underground rooms—it is <i>far</i> more dangerous -than is generally supposed to put paper on -them. This is so much the case that where workmen, -from carelessness, paste one coat of paper over another -on a damp wall, the mass in time gives out a -very poisonous exhalation, so that an instance is -recorded in which several people died, one after -the other, in consequence of sleeping in such a -room. To prevent this take the following waterproof -cement:—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Caoutchouc</td> - <td class="tdr">10</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Washed chalk</td> - <td class="tdr">10</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Oil of turpentine</td> - <td class="tdr">20</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Bisulphide of carbon</td> - <td class="tdr">10</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Resin (colophonium)</td> - <td class="tdr">5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Asphalt</td> - <td class="tdr">5 -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_165">165</span></td> - </tr></table> - -<p>These are combined in a large flask, kept in a moderately -warm place, and often shaken till well incorporated. -The wall to be covered should be brushed -and wiped, and in some cases heated, until extremely -dry. Then, using the cement, apply the paper in the -ordinary way. It will stick with great tenacity, this -being a very tight and strong glue. All wall-paper -whatever is more or less productive of malaria in -damp weather, as is the smell of a <i>damp</i> library, or -one where the scent of old paper is rankly and offensively -perceptible. Therefore every precaution should -be taken to render it innocuous.</p> - -<p>Even if no paper be applied, this cement is very -valuable when simply used to coat the interior or exterior -of damp walls. It can, of course, be used to -repair many articles of indiarubber, and to mend -shoes, tan garments, &c. <i>Apropos</i> of which latter I -may here remark that all persons who intend to rough -it in the bush as colonists, or go into any region -where mending or getting mended is difficult—as I -myself have many a time experienced—would do well -to carry a tight tin box of waterproof glue, with -which torn shoes, and very often torn clothes, can be -promptly repaired. In fact, with the aid of a little -rough stitching, or even without it, garments of -leather, muslin, and even of cloth can be made to -hold together with certain cements, which will literally -bind anything.</p> - -<p>It is well worth while for those who propose to live -in the wilderness, wherever it may be, to know -how to prepare or make indiarubber garments. The -recipe is very easily made:— -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_166">166</span></p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Gutta-percha</td> - <td class="tdr">10</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Benzine</td> - <td class="tdr">100</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Linseed-oil varnish</td> - <td class="tdr">100</td> - </tr></table> - -<p>The gutta-percha is dissolved in the benzine; the -solution, when clear, is poured into a bottle already -containing the varnish, and all is then thoroughly -shaken. This mixture, when spread on woven fabrics -of any kind, renders them completely waterproof. -The garments can then be cut out and “sewed;” -that is, bound together with the same cement. According -to <span class="smcap">Lehner</span>, this cement can be used for making -the soles of shoes, and is marvellously elastic. -All travellers, and assuredly all housekeepers, should -have this cement among their possessions.</p> - -<p>It may also happen to a traveller to find himself -with an aching hollow tooth in a region where no -dentist is accessible. Should he have with him some -gutta-percha (bleached is best for this purpose) he -may combine it with very finely pulverised glass. -(To <i>levigate</i> or powder anything as fine as flour, it -must be pounded in a mortar, or on metal or hard -stone <i>under water</i>.) Then warm and thoroughly mix -the gutta-percha and glass. Make it into little pencils, -which, when they are to be used, must be dipped -in hot water. This cement may be also used for a -great variety of other purposes.</p> - -<p>A very admirable cement, which should be found -in every stable and known to every one who owns a -horse, is made as follows:—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Hartshorn and resin ammoniacum (<i>Ammoniakharz</i>)</td> - <td class="tdr">10</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Purified gutta-percha</td> - <td class="tdr">20-25 -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_167">167</span></td> - </tr></table> - -<p>Heat the gutta-percha to 90°-100° centigrade, and -thoroughly incorporate it with the powdered resin. -The chief use of this admirable composition is to fill -up cracks or splits in horses’ hoofs. It may also be -used for plaster on occasion. To apply it to hoofs, -warm it and spread it in with a warmed knife. It -sets so hard that it will hold nails.</p> - -<p>In mending or making, it may be observed that a very -little indiarubber or gutta-percha may be combined -with benzole or ether, or rectified petroleum in large -amount, which soon becomes dense. Therefore, to produce -a surface or a skin, we first spread a <i>thin</i> coat -over the object or mould, and then apply another with a -broad, soft brush or “dabber” with great care, so as to -make it of uniform thickness. It is, therefore, best to -have the preparation always rather thin, and use it at the -right time, and not when it has become dense by long -keeping. In the latter case add more of the solvent.</p> - -<p>Glass bottles or vials containing liquids are often -broken, even by the pressure of soft objects, such as -clothing, when placed in trunks. It is therefore advisable -to dip or coat them with this solution, which -forms a bag which will contain the fluid; that is, unless -it be of a nature which will soften it. I have known -a bottle of hair-oil to be packed in a valuable cashmere -shawl, which was almost ruined by its breaking, -and which could have easily been prevented by this -easy precaution.</p> - -<p>Any apothecary will make up these recipes.</p> - -<p>A very curious and valuable imitation of indiarubber -waterproof cloth is made as follows:—Caseine is -macerated with water and with borax to a solution. -The cloth is dipped in this, and when quite dry, again -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_168">168</span> -dipped into a strong infusion of gall-apples. This is -a kind of tanning.</p> - -<p>For exhaustive information on the subject of indiarubber -the technologist may consult <i>Kautschuk und -Guttapercha</i>, by Raimund Hoffer, Leipzig, 1892, which -is, I believe, the latest and best work on this important -subject. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_169">169</span></p> - -<h2 id="MENDING_METAL-WORK_OR_REPAIRING">MENDING METAL-WORK OR REPAIRING -BY MEANS OF IT<br /> - -<span class="large">FIREPROOF CEMENTS, WITH IRON BINDERS</span></h2> - -<p>Metal-work, especially in iron, requires so much -forging and so many appliances that it is to a certain -extent beyond the ordinary mender, who must in -most cases have resort to the smith or artificer. But -there is still much within the capacity of the amateur -to effect, and this I will describe.</p> - -<p>One of the commonest requirements in repairing -trunks and many other objects is to make a strap or -strip of metal hold either to a surface or to itself. -This is to be promptly effected by <i>riveting</i>. If the -iron band on a trunk is broken, you cannot well nail -it again into its place. A nail will not hold in the -thin side, possibly of pasteboard. To learn how to -repair in such a case, take a piece of common hoop -iron, lay it on a block of wood or a board, and with -a fine nail or brad-awl and hammer knock a hole in it. -Then take a rivet or any flat-headed tack, put it -through the hole, lay it with the head of the tack -down on iron or stone if possible, and then give the -point a blow, a little sideways. The result is that the -point will be flattened and the tack firmly held. The -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_170">170</span> -result will be the same if the rivet passes through two -thick pieces of metal. In this manner the two ends -of an iron hoop for a box are fastened. Therefore, -if we take a piece of tin or sheet-iron, put it in the -trunk against the side, and bring down the broken -strip on the outside, we can, with a little care, rivet -it. It is advisable, when this is done, to paste a -strong piece of muslin or leather over the tin to prevent -it from cutting anything in the trunk. These -riveted strips are <i>far</i> better for surrounding and holding -many bundles than cords. They are better for -books, because they do not leave marks on the edges, -neither do they untie nor are they hard to fasten, requiring -no knotting.</p> - -<p>Riveted bands, corners, or bent pieces of sheet-metal -are more generally applicable to broken furniture -than is generally supposed. The plate thus applied -can generally be concealed either by chiselling -a place for it or by hammering it into the wood, and -then cementing and painting it over.</p> - -<p>Wire is also very useful for mending of many -kinds, either in metal or wood. To manage it we -need a pair of cutting pliers or pincers, as well as the -long-nosed and flat pliers. Thus, to attach two -bodies—for instance, the two parts of a broken gunstock—begin -by fastening one end of the wire in one -piece, and wind it round both, drawing it as tightly -as possible with the flat pliers. When united, fasten -the other end by driving it under the <i>twist</i> or into the -wood. This also can be so adroitly treated that the -wire, flattened with a file and hammered down, can -be concealed under paint and varnish. By means of -wire passed through holes made with long brad-awls -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_171">171</span> -or fine gimlets, picture-frames can be firmly repaired. -In many cases the wire should be brought round and -the ends fastened or wound together; in others, make -a double ring in one end of the wire and nail it down, -then pass the wire through the hole and fasten the -other end in the same way. Many kinds of broken -implements may be thus mended. Endeavour to get -strong, <i>flexible</i> wire for such purposes.</p> - -<p>Boxes containing goods will be doubly strong when -protected by strips of iron nailed round them. Hoop-iron -is generally used for this purpose.</p> - -<p>Soldering is, however, the best and most usual -means of repairing all kinds of metal-work, and this -is very far from being so difficult as is generally supposed; -indeed, a lady-writer on metal-work goes so -far as to declare that it is fascinating. As every -tinker and tinman knows how to “sodder,” and will -willingly give instruction for a trifle (children, indeed, -often behold the whole process admiringly for -nothing), and, finally, as it is most unlikely that any -reader of this work should be in a place where neither -tinkers nor tinmen are to be found—for I have read -that a gipsy tinker was once discovered mending a -kettle seated in the shadow of the Great Wall of -China—it is hardly necessary to describe in detail -processes which any one can take in at a glance. -The principle is this:—As in cementing glass, the -glue which binds requires powdered glass to be mixed -in it, so that it may establish a quicker and closer -affinity with the glass; so to unite two metallic surfaces -we must have a flux or some fusible substance -as an intermediary. For this purpose various substances, -such as resin and borax, are employed with -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_172">172</span> -the solder, which is a compound of metals, which -melts very easily, takes a firm hold of other metals, -and sets hard at once. There are many varieties of -it, adapted to different metals. It is generally sold -in small sticks for use.</p> - -<p>I lay some stress on the fact that there should be -some one in every family knowing how to repair, -especially in metal, because there is no household in -which there is not damage of tin and iron ware, -trunks, kitchen utensils, and often even of jewellery, -which a clever youth or young lady could easily restore. -A pin is detached from a brooch. You could -repair it yourself in five minutes, at a halfpenny’s -expense; but no, it must be sent to a jeweller’s to be -mended for a shilling. It is the same with earrings -and chains and bracelets and clasps and securing-rings. -When they become shaky you fasten them -with thread. It will hold for the present, of course; -and then comes an advertisement in the <i>Times</i>: -“Lost—Twenty-five Pounds Reward!” All because -you never learned how to repair or solder.</p> - -<div class="figleft"> -<img src="images/i_172.jpg" alt="" /></div> - -<p>But, as ’tis never too late to -mend, and no one should be a -mend I-can’t, or go begging to -others to do for him what he can -do for himself, I trust that reflection -on this subject will induce -many to become practical repairers. -If you have a valuable coin, -do not take half the value out of -it, as most people do, by boring -a hole through it. Make a simple twist and eyelet -of a bit of silver wire and solder it on the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_173">173</span> -edge. Do not tie a gold chain with twine; mend it -properly. Rivet your broken scissors, and when -hinges come out screw them on again. If there were -really anything <i>difficult</i> in all this I would honestly -say so, but there is not, and people who have received -some education learn how to do it all with ease -in a short time.</p> - -<p>A recipe for a cement to attach metal to any other -substance is made as follows:—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Purified flint-sand (or glass-powder)</td> - <td class="tdr">10</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Caseine or curd</td> - <td class="tdr">8</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Slacked lime</td> - <td class="tdr">10</td> - </tr></table> - -<p>Mix thoroughly, and add water to a creamy consistency.</p> - -<p>The following for metals is also very strong:—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Sturgeon’s bladder solution</td> - <td class="tdr">100</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Nitric acid</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - </tr></table> - -<p>The acid is stirred in at the same time with the -cement, which should be as dense as possible, and -with this mixture the surfaces of the metal are covered. -“The nitric acid is intended to make the surfaces -of the metal rough, but it has the drawback -that it hinders the drying of the glue” (<span class="smcap">Lehner</span>). -This slowly drying is, however, a great advantage. -The same is found when it is mixed with common -glue, which generally dries too rapidly. Cements -which dry rather slowly take hold the most firmly -and permanently. The acid hardens the mass by -contracting the cellular tissue. To hasten the drying, -the metallic parts, which should be very strongly -compressed together, must be exposed to heat. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_174">174</span></p> - -<p>A simpler method for light articles of metal is to -wet the surfaces with nitric acid for a few minutes -till they are roughened, then wash away the acid in -water, and cement the metal with sturgeon’s bladder -cement.</p> - -<p>A special cement for zinc is made by thickening -very strong dense glue with powdered slacked lime, -into which is kneaded one-tenth part of flowers of -sulphur.</p> - -<p>A so-called Jeweller’s Cement, which holds firmly, -is the so-called Diamond, elsewhere given; also the -following:—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Sturgeon’s bladder</td> - <td class="tdr">100</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Gum mastic varnish</td> - <td class="tdr">50</td> - </tr></table> - -<p>The sturgeon’s bladder is dissolved in as little -water as possible with strong spirits of wine (equivalent -to ordinary spirits). To prepare the mastic varnish, -mix finely powdered mastic with the most -highly rectified spirits of wine and benzine, and use -as little liquid as possible. The two mixtures must -be then rubbed as intimately as possible together. -When carefully made this cement will serve for anything—glass -or china, &c.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">A cement for zinc</span>, especially for ornaments and -small work:—In ten parts by weight of silicate of -soda (solution) stir two parts of cleansed chalk and -three of zinc in powder. This is kneaded for some -time into a putty, with which defects, roughnesses, -&c., can be remedied. After twenty-four hours, when -polished with agate, this cement has all the appearance -of zinc.</p> - -<p>It may be observed that other metals in fine powder -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_175">175</span> -may be substituted for the zinc, and that with bronze -powders, oxides of metals, and indeed with all the -range of painters’ colours, combinations may be -formed of infinite application in the arts. According -to <span class="smcap">Lehner</span> the silicate of soda should be of 33°.</p> - -<p>A specially strong and valuable cement, capable of -many uses in metal, wood, glass, or china, or to fasten -glass to metal, is made as follows:—Take best purified -litharge, stir it with glycerine until it becomes a -thin homogeneous mass, which in less than an hour -will become a very hard mass, which is of almost universal -application. It is not affected by water, and -resists the action (according to <span class="smcap">Lehner</span>) of almost all -acids, the strongest alkalies, as well as etherised oils -and the fumes of chlorine and alcohol. The surfaces -which are to be united with it must first be covered -with pure, thick glycerine.</p> - -<p>It will readily occur to the reader that in or to this, -as in every recipe given in this book, modifications, -alterations, and additions can be made, of very great -value, adaptable to a great variety of substances. It -is to be observed that in such cases as this, where one -cannot be sure of the exact result, it is best, <i>e.g.</i>, to -first experiment with a very little finest pulverised -oxide of lead with the glycerine.</p> - -<p>Another form of this powerful metallic cement is -given as follows:—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Concentrated glycerine</td> - <td /> - <td class="tdr">½</td> - <td>litre</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Litharge</td> - <td class="tdr">5</td> - <td /> - <td>kilogs.</td> - </tr></table> - -<p>To make a cement to fill or close joints in zinc-work:—Soak -three parts by weight of glue in water, -pour off the superfluous water, dissolve the glue in -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_176">176</span> -warm water, stir into it six parts of slacked lime and -one of flowers of sulphur.</p> - -<p>When ironwork, as, for instance, window-bars, is -to be set in stone, the following is commended as -taking a firm hold:—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Calcined gypsum</td> - <td class="tdr">30</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Finely powdered iron</td> - <td class="tdr">10</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Vinegar</td> - <td class="tdr">20</td> - </tr></table> - -<p>The following recipes, though I have found many -of them in other works, are here taken, with acknowledgment, -from <span class="smcap">Lehner</span>, as his proportions are invariably -accurate, or confirmed by experiment.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">An iron cement</span> which resists heat and moisture:—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Clay</td> - <td class="tdr">10</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Iron filings</td> - <td class="tdr">5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Vinegar</td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Water</td> - <td class="tdr">3</td> - </tr></table> - -<p><span class="smcap">A very strong waterproof cement for iron</span>:—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Iron filings</td> - <td class="tdr">100</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Sal-ammoniac</td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Water</td> - <td class="tdr">10</td> - </tr></table> - -<p>This in a few days will begin to turn into a hard -rust.</p> - -<p>Another <small>OXIDISED CEMENT</small>, which holds like iron, is -made as follows:—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Iron filings</td> - <td class="tdr">65</td> - <td /> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Sal-ammoniac</td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td>.5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Flowers of Sulphur</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td>.5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Sulphuric acid</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_177">177</span></td> - </tr></table> - -<p>The sulphuric acid is diluted with water and added -to the mixed powders.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">A rust or oxide cement</span>, resisting fire:—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Common iron filings</td> - <td class="tdr">45</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Clay</td> - <td class="tdr">20</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Finest porcelain clay</td> - <td class="tdr">15</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Salt in water</td> - <td class="tdr">8</td> - </tr></table> - -<p>Fine clay may be used in lack of the finest porcelain -clay.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">An iron cement</span> to resist heat:—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Iron filings</td> - <td class="tdr">20</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Clay in powder</td> - <td class="tdr">45</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Borax</td> - <td class="tdr">5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Salt</td> - <td class="tdr">5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Peroxide of manganese</td> - <td class="tdr">10</td> - </tr></table> - -<p>The borax and salt are melted in water and then -quickly mixed with the remaining ingredients, which -are in a combined powder. At a white-heat this becomes -a glassy substance, which seals hermetically.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Iron cement</span> to resist intense heat:—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Peroxide of manganese</td> - <td class="tdr">52</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>White oxide of zinc</td> - <td class="tdr">25</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Borax</td> - <td class="tdr">5</td> - </tr></table> - -<p>This is applied with silicate of soda. It must dry -gradually.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Iron cement</span> to resist heat:—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Iron filings</td> - <td class="tdr">100</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Clay</td> - <td class="tdr">50</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Salt</td> - <td class="tdr">10</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Flint-sand</td> - <td class="tdr">20 -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_178">178</span></td> - </tr></table> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fireproof cement</span>:—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Iron filings</td> - <td class="tdr">140</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Hydraulic cement</td> - <td class="tdr">20</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Flint-sand</td> - <td class="tdr">25</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Sal-ammoniac</td> - <td class="tdr">3</td> - </tr></table> - -<p>This powder is made into a paste with vinegar. It -must dry for a long time before being submitted to -heat.</p> - -<p>Another cement of the same kind is as follows:—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Iron filings</td> - <td class="tdr">180</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Clay</td> - <td class="tdr">45</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Salt</td> - <td class="tdr">8</td> - </tr></table> - -<p>This is also made up with vinegar, and must be -dried for a long time.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">To set iron in stone</span>:—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Iron filings, fine</td> - <td class="tdr">10</td> - <td /> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Calcined gypsum</td> - <td class="tdr">30</td> - <td /> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Sal-ammoniac</td> - <td class="tdr">0</td> - <td>.5</td> - </tr></table> - -<p>Also combined with vinegar.</p> - -<p>When there are defects in iron castings, they may -be filled up with the following cement:—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Clean iron filings</td> - <td class="tdr">100</td> - <td /> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Flowers of sulphur</td> - <td class="tdr">0</td> - <td>.5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Sal-ammoniac</td> - <td class="tdr">0</td> - <td>.8</td> - </tr></table> - -<p>To be mixed with water to a paste. It does not -fuse nor act as a paste until exposed to great heat. -Before applying it wash the edges to be united with -liquid ammonia. Brimstone or sulphur melts iron -very promptly when the latter is red-hot, and applied -to it, the iron will drop like melted sealing-wax. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_179">179</span></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">A cement for iron stoves</span> is made as follows:—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Iron filings</td> - <td class="tdr">100</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Chalk-marl</td> - <td class="tdr">40</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Flint-sand</td> - <td class="tdr">50</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Vinegar</td> - <td class="tdr">20</td> - </tr></table> - -<p>This is made into a paste, which can be rendered -porous by mixing with it bristles, chopped straw, sawdust, -or chaff. When the latter is converted to coal -by heat, the cement is, of course, full of cavities. In -like manner, clay for water-coolers is made light and -spongy by mixing it with salt. The salt gradually -melts in the damp clay, forming a porous substance.</p> - -<p>When iron doors are to be hermetically sealed at -very high temperatures the following may be used:—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Finest iron filings</td> - <td class="tdr">100</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Sal-ammoniac</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Limestone</td> - <td class="tdr">10</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Silicate of soda</td> - <td class="tdr">10</td> - </tr></table> - -<p>When the iron plates about a fireplace give way the -following may be used:—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Iron filings</td> - <td class="tdr">20</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Iron dross or refuse</td> - <td class="tdr">12</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Calcined gypsum</td> - <td class="tdr">30</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Common salt</td> - <td class="tdr">10</td> - </tr></table> - -<p>This mixture may be combined with either blood -or silicate of soda, preferably the latter, as the former -has a disagreeable smell.</p> - -<p>Iron filings mixed with vinegar are allowed to stand -till of a brown colour, and then driven with plugs -and hammer into cavities, where they form a rust -cement. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_180">180</span></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">For cracks in iron pots</span>, &c.:—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Iron filings</td> - <td class="tdr">10</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Clay</td> - <td class="tdr">60</td> - </tr></table> - -<p>This is mixed with linseed-oil to a paste. It requires -several weeks to harden, but forms a hard -cement.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">A black cement for ironware</span>:—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Iron filings</td> - <td class="tdr">10</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Sand</td> - <td class="tdr">12</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Ivory black</td> - <td class="tdr">10</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Slacked lime</td> - <td class="tdr">12</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Lime water</td> - <td class="tdr">5</td> - </tr></table> - -<p><span class="smcap">Schwartz’s iron cement</span> for holes in pots, &c.:—</p> - -<p class="caption">I.</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Finely powdered glue</td> - <td class="tdr">4-5</td> - <td /> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Finest iron dust</td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - <td /> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Peroxide of manganese</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td /> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Common salt</td> - <td /> - <td class="tdr">½</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Borax</td> - <td /> - <td class="tdr">½</td> - </tr></table> - -<p>To be powdered extremely fine or levigated and -made with water to a paste. Resists fire and hot -water.</p> - -<p class="caption">II.</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Pulverised peroxide of manganese</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>White oxide of zinc</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - </tr></table> - -<p>To be finely pulverised and combined with silicate -of soda.</p> - -<p>An important part of all metal-mending is soldering. -This is based on the principle that certain -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_181">181</span> -metallic compounds which fuse at a very low heat -can, however, be so brought into union with others -which have an affinity for them as by melting to unite -the harder objects. Thus bismuth, which will melt -in hot water, has an affinity for lead, which combines -easily with tin and brass, &c.; as, in like manner, -borax and resin with iron.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Newton’s solder</span> (<span class="smcap">Lehner</span>):—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Bismuth</td> - <td class="tdr">8</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Tin</td> - <td class="tdr">3</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Lead</td> - <td class="tdr">5</td> - </tr></table> - -<p>This melts at 94.5° Celsius.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Rose’s solders</span>:—</p> - -<p class="caption">I.</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Bismuth</td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Lead</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Tin</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - </tr></table> - -<p class="caption">II.</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Bismuth</td> - <td class="tdr">5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Lead</td> - <td class="tdr">3</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Tin</td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - </tr></table> - -<p><span class="smcap">A metallic-glass solder</span>:—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Lead</td> - <td class="tdr">30</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Tin</td> - <td class="tdr">20</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Bismuth</td> - <td class="tdr">25</td> - </tr></table> - -<p>The lead is first carefully melted, then the tin added, -and the melted mixture carefully stirred; the -bismuth is put in last of all. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_182">182</span></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Cement for iron stoves</span>:—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Wood-ashes</td> - <td class="tdr">10</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Clay</td> - <td class="tdr">10</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Calcined lime</td> - <td class="tdr">4</td> - </tr></table> - -<p>To be mixed with water to form a firm paste. Also -applicable to holes in trees. Clay mixed with waste-paper -is also applicable for the latter purpose -(<span class="smcap">Lehner</span>). (Glue may be added to it.) This mixture -of clay and paper should be well mixed with sour -milk.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Claus’s cement for metal and glass</span>:—40 grammes -of starch and 320 grammes purified chalk are dissolved -in 2 quarts water, into which is stirred ½ pint -solution of caustic soda.</p> - -<p>The most important part of mending broken metal-work -is <i>soldering</i>, and this is so difficult to practically -teach by mere <i>writing</i>, while it can be so easily -learned from any tinsmith, or even tinker, that I -deem it common-sensibly best to acquire it from the -latter. Those who would study it in all its details, -scientific or technological, may do so in <i>Das Löthen -und die Bearbeitung der Metalle</i>, by Edmund Schlosser; -Vienna, A. Hartleben, price 3s. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_183">183</span></p> - -<h2 id="REPAIRING_LEATHER-WORK">REPAIRING LEATHER-WORK<br /> - -<span class="large">TRUNKS, SHOES, OR IN ANY OTHER FORMS—JOINING -STRAPS—MAKING CHEAP SHOES</span></h2> - -<p>Leather-work when much worn is seldom restored, -and, except by a few experts, it is generally regarded -as incurable. That is to say, that leather-work is -only repaired by the same method in which it is made—that -is, by sewing—when in fact a great deal is lost -which might be saved, and much imperfectly repaired -which might seem like new by resorting to a more -scientific process. And therefore, having devoted -much attention to it, I am persuaded that the worst -cases may be mended. Within a week I purchased -two small folio volumes which had been beautifully -bound in black leather, embossed in deep relief, -about 1520, in a style which was then becoming antiquated. -The pattern had been cut in a wooden -mould, stamped on the wet leather, and then completely -worked over by hand with tracers and matted -or stamped in the ground. But the black colour had -been worn away from the relief and turned brown, -and it was otherwise dilapidated at the edges.</p> - -<p>I took a volume and where the surface was ragged -moistened it, applied gum-arabic in solution, and -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_184">184</span> -smoothed it down with an agate burnisher. Leather -treated in this way soon becomes like a paste. When -it was all even I painted it over with strong liquid -Indian ink. Common ink would have done as well. -Then I varnished it over lightly with the admirable -<i>vernis à retoucher</i>, No. 3, of <span class="smcap">Soehnée</span>, which is flexible, -preservative, and does not crack. I may add for -ladies that it smells like <i>eau de cologne</i>. This dries -almost immediately. It may be had at all artists’ -material shops. Finally, I rubbed it for some time -by hand. Then the binding was as good as new, -yet not too new. It was simply perfectly restored.</p> - -<p>I have in the introduction mentioned another work -which I also restored. This was a Madonna in high -relief, very much dilapidated; that is to say, it was -of thin leather, which had been originally made in a -mould, and was accordingly puffed out, so to speak, -like a pie-crust. On the mould there had been laid a -coat of muslin or cotton fabric; this, when dry, had -been very thinly covered with <i>gesso</i> or plaster of Paris, -and on this, when dry, a thin wet leather had been -pressed. I may here note that very often the <i>gesso</i> -was then blackened without any leather being applied, -and that when thus blackened, covered, and -varnished it looked exactly like leather—an easy art, -which may be practised to profit by any one who can -carve or buy moulds.</p> - -<p>On examining this, I found that it would be very -difficult to repair it with good leather. I found in a -shop some thin black sham-leather, such as the Japanese -apparently manufacture from leather dust, made -by grinding up all kinds of leather waste to a powder. -It was wretched, rotten stuff as leather, but all -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_185">185</span> -the better suited to my purpose. Some of this I cut -into small bits, and with a knife soon mashed it, mixed -with gum-arabic and water, into a very smooth paste. -With such a paste one can repair any tear, roughening, -or imperfection, care being taken that the paste -and leather be alike in colour. With this I filled the -hollows at the back, making the work solid; and -having wetted all the ragged edges and fractured or -torn places, smoothed them down with gum and a -pen or paper knife, supplying deficiencies with the -black paste. When all was smooth and dry I applied -a coat of <span class="smcap">Soehnée’s</span> varnish, and then rubbed it well -down by hand. It was quite restored.</p> - -<p>As this varnishing leather may sound like a heresy -to artistic leather-workers, I would ask them if they -would consider an application of tannin in solution—which -is the preservative principle of leather itself—as -“inartistic.” Certainly it is not, nor is the -application of <span class="smcap">Soehnée</span> (which is more of a simple -preservative than a glaze) a mere finish for -show.</p> - -<p>The leather-paste of which I speak has certain qualities -of its own which make it quite different from any -other substance. We may include in leather “paste” -not only the mere dust made from the dried substance, -but all scraps, and also any thin leather, thoroughly -softened or macerated. Even in the latter -form it is, combined with a binder, really a plastic -substance, since it can be worked into any form with -ease. Mixed with caoutchouc or indiarubber in solution, -and then dried, it is invaluable for mending -boots and making waterproof soles. As I have indicated, -it is excellent for mending old books. And -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_186">186</span> -here I may mention that if you have, let us say, one -cover of a book in high relief, and the other, it may -be, lost or worn plain, you can supply or make the -duplicate very easily, very cheaply, and in a short -time as follows:—Take a sheet of soft, white newspaper, -dampen it, and press it on the relief. As soon -as possible, taking care not to wet the book, fill in -the back of the <i>squeeze</i> either with other coats of wet -paper, melted wax, or liquid plaster of Paris. When -this is dry, wax or oil carefully the face of the squeeze, -wipe it dry, and make a cast from it in <i>leather-paste</i>. -Thus you will have a facsimile of the relief. From a -solid plaster mould, well oiled or boiled in wax, a -cast may be taken in softened or wet leather, which -is even better; it sets hard and tough.</p> - -<p>I may here mention that it is very unusual to see -books bound in deep relief with <i>hand-worked</i>, black, -or black and gold, antique patterns, and that such a -cover, say of eight by ten inches, would probably -cost at least a pound, and be cheap at that. And yet -any girl of ordinary capacity with, let us say, fifty -shillings’ worth of moulds, and two weeks’ practice -in tracing and stamping grounds, could produce from -two to four such book-covers as those before me in a -day.</p> - -<p>There is now generally sold in furnishing or chemists’ -shops a good waterproof glue. Leather softened -and then well incorporated with this is also waterproof, -and may be used to mend trunks. I have -known a torn boot to be mended in this manner, and -that so well that it lasted for a long time. Even a -leather strap which is subjected to great tugging may -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_187">187</span> -be restored, if cut or broken in two, by shaving the -edges obliquely, so as to sharpen them.</p> - -<p class="center"> -<img src="images/i_187.jpg" alt="" /></p> - -<p>Then apply glue with acid, and before it is quite -dry apply pressure, though not so great as to squeeze -the glue out. Shaving across the edges, judicious -pressing together, and final smoothing are of the -greatest importance in all leather patching and piecing, -because it depends on these to make the juncture -imperceptible. Very few persons—even shoemakers—are -at all aware of the degree of perfection to which -mending rents in foot-covering can be carried by the -use of waterproof glue, such as is sold by many chemists. -I have worn such a patch for months, and it -was hardly perceptible. But, like every art, it requires -some practice to apply such patches properly, -and I cannot promise to any lady that she can perfectly -and neatly patch a boot by simply daubing on -a piece of leather at a first trial.</p> - -<p>It may be noted that in such strap-joining as that -which I have described, the repair will be greatly -strengthened by pasting very thin bits of leather, or -even of muslin, over the edges and pressing them in. -It is true that this cover will soon wear away, but -meanwhile the mended leather is all the while growing -stronger and uniting more perfectly. Even paper, -glued and pressed on, materially aids to make the -exposed joint unite.</p> - -<p>And here I may say that many a lady and youth -would do well to take a few practical lessons from -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_188">188</span> -any shoemaker in the noble art of cobbling; that is -to say, of heeling, soleing, and patching, all of which -are as easy to learn as steps in dancing, and are even -more interesting or amusing when once mastered. It -is, moreover, an art which will be of use through -life. Those who can do this will probably, if ambitious -by nature, progress to making slippers, it -may be shoes; and he who can do this may be assured -that he never need quite starve to death while -human beings go shod. It is not so difficult as many -think, for I have known shoemakers of very ordinary -minds, and I also once knew a mechanical artist who -learned to make a fine pair of shoes in a few weeks. -In fact, there is a living in a great many things for -those who have once learned to use their fingers.</p> - -<p>Few people are aware of the extraordinary durability -of leather-work of certain kinds. There are in -the British Museum Roman sandals, probably made -of raw hide, but cut into pretty form, which were -found in the Thames, and which look as new as if -recently made. I have seen within a day as I write a -gracefully formed pitcher of the early fifteenth century -of very solid black leather, like the old blackjacks -once common in England, which has probably -passed through centuries of use, and is as perfect as -ever. Wood splits, earthenware breaks, and metal -rusts, but raw hide, or <i>cuir bouilli</i>, as set forth in the -old song of the “Leather Bottél,” seems to endure -every trial. As the man commemorated in “Æsop’s -Fables” declared, “After all, there is nothing like -leather.” The reader who may be especially interested -in this easiest of all the minor arts may consult -on this subject my <i>Manual of Leather-Work</i> (5s.); -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_189">189</span> -Whittaker & Co., 2 White Hart Street, Paternoster -Square, London, E.C.</p> - -<p>Strips of raw hide are without equal for repairing -broken vehicles, wheels, saddles, and similar articles, -because they shrink while drying, drawing everything -tight, and set so hard when once dry that what is -mended is often stronger than before. I have elsewhere -mentioned that the strongest trunks in the -world are made in America from it, as they had need -to be, since there is no country in the world where -the “baggage-smasher,” figurative or literal, is so -much to be feared.</p> - -<p>The reader who has occasion to repair anything in -leather should study the chapter of this book which -treats of indiarubber and gutta-percha, the subjects -being in many respects the same.</p> - -<p>A strong cement for leather is made by combining -gutta-percha and <i>Schwefelkohlenstoff</i>, or bisulphide of -carbon, with petroleum to a syrupy consistency. A -very good cement specially adapted to joining leather -straps is as follows:—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Asphalt</td> - <td class="tdr">12</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Resin</td> - <td class="tdr">10</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Gutta-percha</td> - <td class="tdr">40</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Bisulphide of carbon</td> - <td class="tdr">150</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Petroleum</td> - <td class="tdr">60</td> - </tr></table> - -<p>The materials, excepting the <i>Schwefelkohlenstoff</i>, are -put together in a bottle which stands in hot water for -several hours; when the mass has grown thick with -the petroleum add the rest, and let the whole stand -for several days, shaking it very often. If the pieces -of leather to be united are first heated and then -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_190">190</span> -pressed very tightly together, the adhesion will be increased. -This cement is as well adapted for glass, -crockery, horn, ivory, wood, or metal as for leather. -It is admirable for mending trunks, whether made of -leather, wood, or pasteboard.</p> - -<p>When a trunk is made of any of these, and a hole -is broken through the side or top, take a newspaper -and coat it with this cement, applying another, till -there are a dozen or more thicknesses. If, as it gradually -dries, this be pressed and hardened with a -roller, or even a round ruler, it will be much improved. -Glue this into or upon the fracture. In -most cases with care it can be made as strong as ever. -Where a rib is broken it should be promptly replaced. -(<i>Vide</i> Metal-Work.) All trunks should be covered -with waterproof glue or varnish, as it effectually protects -them from exposure to the rain. This is very -rarely done, however, the result being an immense -amount of loss to all travellers. In any town where -there is a chemist’s shop, and where a bit of indiarubber -is to be had, even at the stationer’s, a waterproof -cement can be at once manufactured. The -easiest of these to prepare is the following:—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Gutta-percha</td> - <td class="tdr">100</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Pine resin</td> - <td class="tdr">200</td> - </tr></table> - -<p>The resin is first melted in a pan, the gutta-percha, -in very small bits, being gradually stirred in till all is -amalgamated. When used it must be warmed again. -This cement can be used for as many different articles -as the preceding.</p> - -<p>It may here be noted that vast quantities of waste -leather from shoemakers and bookbinders, which sell -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_191">191</span> -for a mere trifle, can be utilised to make admirable -waterproof carpets and wall-covers. The leather is -first soaked till soft, then smoothed out and mixed -with waterproof cement, and rolled into one flat -piece. This makes a very cheap sub-carpet for winter—better -than oil-cloth, being softer. For walls it -can be pressed in moulds, gilded, or painted. If -varnished there is no unpleasant smell from it. The -harder it is compressed or rolled the more will all -smell disappear. Even with rolling by hand with a -bread-roller almost all substances—for instance, paper, -cloth-rags, sawdust, leather, clay, wool, cotton-wool, -when combined with any fit adhesive or cement—can -be made very hard or tough; and it is remarkable, -considering the cheapness of the materials, how little -this principle is as yet applied.</p> - -<p>It may be remarked that there are many people -who do not know what to do when the sole of a boot -splits off or wears away and there is no shoemaker at -hand. If the heel is lost and no leather can be had, -a very good substitute can be cut from wood and -cemented on. A few tacks will make it last as long -almost as leather. If a piece of sole leather can be -got, even from another old shoe, one or two layers -can be cemented on to make a sole. A short screw -or nail through three-quarters of the heel greatly aids -in making the layers adhere. This may also be done -with a vice.</p> - -<p>In the town of Bagni di Lucca, where I now am, a -pair of leather shoes with wooden soles, such as are -commonly worn by women and children, cost only -fivepence. They are, of course, rough, but still far -better than none. The sole is rudely and very easily -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_192">192</span> -cut, with a high heel, from white pine or larch wood. -The upper is a single piece of leather, which only -covers the front half of the foot. It is moistened and -bent into shape, and then tacked or glued on. Many -people simply buy the soles, then the leather, and -make the shoes for themselves, in which case the expense -does not amount to more than twopence. In -Florence there is often added to this the back, or -heel-piece, which costs twopence more, and makes an -almost perfect shoe. This art would be worth knowing -in a wild country.</p> - -<div class="center"> -<img id="i_192" src="images/i_192.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><i>Italian (Lucchese) Peasant Shoe, costing from 5d. to 8d. per pair, -undecorated.</i></p></div> - -<p><span class="smcap">Lehner</span> (<i>vide</i> Indiarubber and Gutta-percha) specially -commends for mending soles the composition -of—Gutta-percha, 10; benzine, 100; linseed-oil varnish, -100. It is extremely elastic and tough, and -therefore suitable to soles. Mixed with black dye, -or made with japan, it forms patent leather or polished -leather. It should for this purpose be applied -with a broad brush in <i>thin</i> successive coats, and well -dried before applying a new one. This is far superior -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_193">193</span> -to ordinary blacking; it is more easily applied, -and does not injure the leather so much, because the -latter is often made with vitriol, which, while it -promptly gives a shine, eats away the fibre. Boots -and shoes will, in fact, wear much longer with this -coating than without it.</p> - -<p>This is even more applicable to a great deal of harness, -saddle, and bridle mending, and restoring sheet -leather in every form; as, for instance, waggon curtains, -when worn and dry. First soften the leather, -then restore its quality, if required, with tannin or -indiarubber in solution. If very dry and exhausted, -it may first be treated with neat’s-foot oil for several -days. Then sew it up, if a seam, or mend by applying -leather and the cement. If all persons who own -much harness would carefully study this subject, -they would be astonished to find what economy could -be effected by judicious mending.</p> - -<p>It may happen that the reader may have occasion -to wish to renew black, glazed leather-work, or to -make a brilliant black pattern on a brown ground in -stamped leather. I have often executed it with success. -In such a case it suffices to simply blacken the -leather with ink or dye, and then coat it with any -flexible varnish; that is, one into which glycerine or -gutta-percha has been infused. Any one who can -draw can in this manner execute very beautiful work -for covering walls, panels, chests, or doors. Or flexible -black varnish can be directly applied.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Lehner</span> gives a recipe for attaching leather to -metal, which may also be applied to any other substance:—Cover -the leather with a thin and very hot -coating of glue, press it on the metal, and then wet -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_194">194</span> -the other side with a strong solution of gall-apples or -tannin (<i>Lohe</i>, extract of oak-bark) till it is thoroughly-penetrated. -The tannin combines with the glue, and -attaches the leather with extreme tenacity to the -metal, &c. It is advisable to roughen the metallic -surface to facilitate adhesion.</p> - -<p>By combining glue (and many other adhesives) -directly with the tannin or gall nut astringent we obtain -<i>a waterproof cement</i> of great strength, which is -very useful for shoes. It is, in fact, not at all a difficult -matter, where other appliances are wanting, to -make from leather, without sewing, a soled shoe -when tannin and glue are obtainable. The same can -be done with canvas.</p> - -<p>During the great wars in America thousands of -soldiers often went barefoot in winter-time, with -abundance of horses or cattle killed all round them, -because they did not know that a strong moccasin -can be made by cutting out a piece of raw hide, piercing -holes in it, and drawing it up like a bag round -the ankles, as is so commonly done here in the mountain -districts in Italy. I once astonished a soldier in -the war by suggesting this, and he declared he must -try it. It is remarkable how rarely man in an uneducated -state ever <i>invents</i> anything, be it a myth, a tale, -or a practical invention.</p> - -<p>If the upper leather of a slipper or shoe be cut out, -it can, if wet, be easily made to assume the form of a -foot by drying it on a last, or even on another shoe. -Let the seam of the back jut or flap over the edge, and -allow full selvage for the rest to turn under the sole. -The latter may be of sole leather. If there is none, -glue two or three pieces of the leather together with -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_195">195</span> -the tannin cement, and roll them over strongly. Then -glue the back and the under-lap with great care. -With a little practice a fairly good shoe can be thus -made. Canvas can be used in the same way. To -dwellers in the wilderness this may be valuable information. -But very pretty ornamental slippers can -be made by young ladies out of scraps of gaily coloured -leather. They can buy a pair of soles, and get -the leather at a leather-dealer’s. This is all simply -substituting glueing for sewing, and strong tannin-glue -holds <i>quite</i> as strongly as a great deal of the sewing -of cheap, machine-made shoes. It would, indeed, -not be a very difficult or expensive thing to shoe or -clothe all mankind comfortably, were it not for the -fashions followed by the wealthy.</p> - -<p>These very cheap shoes, made with either wooden -or leather soles, and that so easily that a child can -learn to manufacture them in an hour, can be easily -ornamented so as to be really attractive. Take the -leather, moisten it with a sponge, and then with a -tracer, which is like the end of a screw-driver—<i>i.e.</i>—<br /> - -<span class="center"><img src="images/i_195.jpg" alt="" /></span><br /> - -draw a pattern in the damp, soft leather. When it -dries the pattern will remain. Then with a point or -stamp, dot or roughen the ground. Finally, when -dry, paint the pattern black, and then varnish it. -Anybody with the least knowledge of drawing can -make and sell such ornamented shoes for a good -profit, as they are as yet hardly known to anybody. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_196">196</span> -Other colours may be substituted for black, or gilding -applied.</p> - -<p>I have in another place shown (<i>vide</i> Papier-Mâché) -how good artificial leather can be made by combining -paper—best in pulp—with indiarubber and benzole -fluid solution. Also how soles can be made by steeping -pasteboard in the same, and how these, which -are very easily and cheaply made, can be glued on to -the leather so as to protect the latter from wearing -out, for ever, if renewed. A bottle of this cement, -combined with Diamond or Turkish Cement, will in -like manner repair boots when the sole begins to -split or part; and if applied when it begins to gape, -it will be closed for a long time. This is such a practical, -cheap, and easy method of making boots and -shoes last, that my wonder is that every man who -goes shod, and especially every traveller, has not a -bottle of it by him. Observe that the two edges -should be well pinched or screwed together (a six-penny -vice will answer for this), and the leather first -heated, though all this is not a <i>sine quâ non</i>, but only -an improvement.</p> - -<p>Leather thus attached by a very strong cement is -quite as durable and much pleasanter to wear than -“copper toes” or iron heels, which assimilate their -wearers to horses. And it takes no longer to make -and attach a heel or a sole in this manner than to -black a pair of boots, as I have myself verified within -a few hours.</p> - -<p>Where seams <i>rip out</i>, the best repairing is by sewing -as shoemakers do, which is not hard to learn, and -I advise all young people to learn it. But where sewing -cannot be resorted to, the cement, well applied -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_197">197</span> -and compressed till dry, will hold almost any break -for a long time.</p> - -<p>I urge ladies of all classes and conditions to carefully -consider this chapter. They are more accustomed -to repairing than men, and will take to it more -intelligently. As their <i>chaussures</i> are made of thinner -leather than ours, they need repair oftener, but are, -on the other hand, so much the easier to repair. -Every mother of a family will at least profit by studying -this book.</p> - -<p>Shoemakers’ paste, much used for shoes, belongs -properly to leather-work. It is made by boiling -crushed barley to a thick mess, the water being kept -extremely hot. It is then set aside till fermentation -begins, which announces itself by an extremely offensive -smell. Thence it passes to a stage in which it -is a brownish syrupy mass, possessing great power -as an adhesive. It is now taken from the fire and a -little carbolic acid added to arrest fermentation. -This can be used by itself for an adhesive; it also -combines well with <i>indifferent</i> substances, such as -powdered lime, or chalk, white zinc, ochre, clay, -or umber. It may be as well used for binding -books.</p> - -<p>I have already given a very good recipe for reuniting -broken leather straps. I here add another from -<span class="smcap">Lehner</span>. It is very good, but hardly worth the very -considerable extra trouble and expense as compared -to the former:—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Gilders’ glue</td> - <td class="tdr">250</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Sturgeon’s bladder</td> - <td class="tdr">60</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Gum-arabic</td> - <td class="tdr">60 -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_198">198</span></td> - </tr></table> - -<p>Reduce to bits and boil in water to a solution, to -which add:—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Venice turpentine</td> - <td class="tdr">5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Oil of turpentine</td> - <td class="tdr">6</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Spirits of wine</td> - <td class="tdr">10</td> - </tr></table> - -<p>The strap-ends, or pieces of leather, having been -thoroughly cleaned, are now covered with the adhesive -and pressed together between hot plates, where -the work must remain till cold.</p> - -<p>A very good artificial leather, perfectly waterproof, -may be made by covering a strip of strong paper, or, -better still, one of glazed muslin, with the gutta-percha -cement. Add to this fresh layers of cement -and paper, till the requisite thickness is obtained. -This is useful for mending soles. Where the gutta-percha -or indiarubber cement is not to be had, substitute -copal varnish and glycerine, or thick turpentine -varnish and a little glycerine. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_199">199</span></p> - -<h2 id="TO_MEND_HATS_BLANKETS_AND">TO MEND HATS, BLANKETS, AND -SIMILAR FABRICS BY FELTING</h2> - -<p>Wool, as is well known, if put into a pair of shoes, -will pack or settle into a solid felt sole if the shoes -are worn. This felt is like cloth. The same can be -done by rolling it like dough on a board with a -roller. Lay the cloth or hat to be mended so that -the felt to be made can be worked into it. Then take -fine wool and clean and roll it thoroughly, working -it into the edges. It may happen many a time to a -man without a needle to succeed in mending garments -in this manner.</p> - -<p>Waterproof glue or adhesive, such as is fully described -in the chapter on Indiarubber, may be added -to facilitate the adhesion of the felt to the cloth or -felt ground. There is a peculiar art or knack of -working moistened felt into the edges of cloth, and -of ironing or pressing them down so as not to show, -which can, however, be soon acquired. In this way -cloth may be glued upon cloth with very good effect. -The extraordinary tenacity and fineness of the adhesives -now made, be it specially observed, renders -mending of this kind (which was impossible a generation -ago) now perfectly possible. I advise those -who doubt this to get a piece of cloth and experiment -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_200">200</span> -for themselves. The patch may not be invisible, -but it will look better than if botched with a -needle. Felt, however, can easily be repaired to perfection.</p> - -<p>Large pieces of stuff can be made by rolling slightly -gummed wool, which fact many men do not know, -even when living in the wilderness, where wool or -hair may be abundant. Nothing is so common as to -see shepherds in utter raggedness where the very -shreds of wool left by their sheep on the thorns would -clothe them, with a little industry. The quality, -durability, and fineness of felt depend on the quality -of the wool, and the care and skill of the operator. -Many of the cheap cloths known as shoddy are really -felts.</p> - -<p>Felt is easily formed, because under certain conditions -it seems to have a strange tendency to form -itself. The reader knows that a string in the pocket, -subjected to our every movement, will inevitably -tangle and knot itself up in the most mysterious manner; -and so the fibres of wool, if rubbed together, -twine and bind themselves into most intimate union. -I earnestly advise all who expect to live where sheep -are plenty, and tailors or seamstresses few and far -between, to experiment in felt-making, and, if possible, -learn from a hatmaker how it is done. There -was at one time in New York a factory where strong, -serviceable suits of felt cloth were made, and these, -consisting of coat, waistcoat, and trousers, were sold -at retail for five dollars, or one pound—I myself having -seen them.</p> - -<p>When a piece of cloth is thus adjusted or applied -to fill a hole or mend a rent, the edges may be either -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_201">201</span> -simply gummed and adjusted, or they may be treated -with a mixture of felt or cloth-dust and gum. In this -case, before the adhesive is <i>quite</i> hard, yet after it has -ceased to be soft, lay over the patch a piece of cloth -of exactly the same kind, and press it with a warm -flat-iron. (<i>Vide</i> Invisible Mending of Garments, -Laces, or Embroideries.)</p> - -<p>In most cases a torn woollen garment may be very -well restored by carefully sewing a piece into the -hole, or by uniting the edges with long stitches. -Then make a paste of felt or dust, or short, fine -threads of the same cloth, with indiarubber cement, -and work it over the surface. With practice this can -be done so neatly as to quite conceal the mending. -Pass an iron over the whole. When indiarubber -cement cannot be obtained, glue mixed with one-fourth -glycerine can be used.</p> - -<p>Ammonia combined with wool forms a solvent -which is also a cement. I have not experimented -with it. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_202">202</span></p> - -<h2 id="INVISIBLE_MENDING_OF_GARMENTS">INVISIBLE MENDING OF GARMENTS, -LACES, OR EMBROIDERIES</h2> - -<p>Most people are aware that there are tailors or others -who are such artists in mending that they can sew up -a rent “in almost anything” so skilfully that the tear -cannot be perceived. I have myself seen this done -so admirably in fine black cloth that not only was -there no sign of a tear perceptible, but none was -manifest after long wearing the garment. This -nicety is partly due to skill, but there is also a method -in it. Such mending is specially shown in Italy by -Jewesses in repairing valuable old laces, embroideries, -and the like. As a very large proportion of those -who buy and sell such goods are Jews, it is but natural -that their wives and female friends should be -specially employed in mending. The process which -they employ is as follows:—</p> - -<div class="figleft"> -<img src="images/i_202.jpg" alt="" /></div> - -<p>“Thread a needle with one of your own -hairs, then draw the edge of the rent or -tear together in this manner, darning it, -as it were, very finely and carefully, for -it is in this that the whole art consists.</p> - -<p>“After this take a piece of cloth as near like to the -stuff you wish to mend as you can obtain. Lay this -piece on the rent so as to cover it, then damp it -slightly, and press it down with a hot iron until the -surface looks quite even.” -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_203">203</span></p> - -<p>It may here be observed that, firstly, the <i>thinner</i> the -thread used, so that it be only strong enough to hold, -the less probability is there that the repair will show. -For this purpose, for extremely delicate mending a -human hair is almost invisible; for most work silk -thread will answer. It is, however, more likely to -cut through the edge than a hair, because the hair is -more elastic.</p> - -<p>Secondly, it may be observed that the so-called -darning is really a kind of invisible weaving, and not -a sewing together or a stitching close of edges, which -latter, as it always puckers up or rises, must show -the line of repair. The darning has its strength of -attachment afar off, not close to the edges; it makes, -as it were, a kind of network or a weaving together -of the cloth—that is, the cloth is woven again into -one piece by an invisible thread which hides itself in -the thicker fabric. The laying down of a cloth of -<i>precisely the same texture</i> as that mended, and then -ironing it, is very ingenious, because one of a different -kind would produce a different impression.</p> - -<p>The friend from whom I received the above, Miss -<span class="smcap">Roma Lister</span>, adds that the Jewesses do this kind of -work very well, but ask a franc or twenty-five sous -for mending the smallest rent. However, when the -torn shawl is once finished you cannot see where the -hole has been.</p> - -<p>Somewhat allied to this is the patient German -method of mending stockings by reknitting; also -that of spreading strong flexible glue on a patch of -chamois. This is laid under the rent, the edges being -carefully reunited over it. I would here suggest that -if the tear be first carefully darned, even with human -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_204">204</span> -hair or finest silk, and the gummed leather then applied -to the reverse, the mending would endure for a -much longer time.</p> - -<p>There is a stitch known in Germany as <i>Kettenstich</i>, -or chain-stitch—though it is <i>not</i> that which is generally -known among us as the “German chain-stitch.” -It is peculiarly long and strong, and will hold together -the edges of even soft leather, for which reason -it is generally used in Turkey and Russia to sew together -the many-coloured pieces of leather such as we -see in Kasan work—slippers and boots—and cushions -from Constantinople. This is a valuable stitch for -close, invisible mending. It is allied to the lock-stitch -of the sewing-machine.</p> - -<p>A great variety of fabrics can be carefully adjusted -and drawn together over a piece of strong, glazed -muslin (of the same colour) covered with waterproof -glue—<i>e.g.</i>, indiarubber or glue and rubber cement—so -that the mending will not be apparent. This process -is very applicable to loose skirts, or to any garments -on which there is no such severe pull, as, <i>e.g.</i>, -trousers or coat-sleeves. To effect these as well as -all other repairs perfectly it will be necessary to experiment -a few times. Unfortunately nearly all amateurs -without exception make no experiment till it is -necessary to repair something, and then, because they -very naturally botch it, find fault with the recipe. -Yet, strangely as it may sound, there are many cases -in which mending or making fabrics can be executed -far more neatly with a very strong cement, such as -that of mastic and sturgeon’s bladder, than with -needle and thread, the former actually requiring less -margin to hold than the average width of a seam, for -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_205">205</span> -the least possible overlap suffices to bind where the -adhesive is strong. This process of mending is little -known, probably because there has been hitherto very -little general knowledge of the immense strength and -tenacity of certain cements, which have, indeed, only -been discovered of late. For all ordinary mending, -in fact, glue with glycerine, or glue and indiarubber -solution in benzole, will answer as well as the far -more expensive Turkish or Diamond cement.</p> - -<p>If the reader will only reflect that a large proportion -of all black and glossy silks are heavily gummed, -sometimes up to their own weight, it will be understood -that there can be no substance with which they -can be more appropriately mended than with cement—a -fact well known to many who employ postage-stamps -or black court-plaster to heal their rents; but -as this is generally very expensive, and as any old -silk and glue or gelatine, or dextrine, answer just as -well, the latter had better be considered.</p> - -<p>There is much weaving of the most exquisite fabrics -done in the East, and even among savages, almost -entirely by hand; that is to say, the threads are simply -attached to a rod, while the woof is worked in -with a needle. Most fabrics can be mended by an -analogous process, which is a remaking the cloth. -Much depends on the proper finishing or dressing the -surface by laying on it a piece of cloth and ironing it. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_206">206</span></p> - -<h2 id="MENDING_MOTHER-OF-PEARL_AND">MENDING MOTHER-OF-PEARL AND -CORAL</h2> - -<p>Mother-of-Pearl is the shell of the pearl-oyster -(<i>Avigula margaritifera</i>), much admired for its beautiful -texture and white colour, in which there is a -peculiar iridescence or rainbow play of colours. The -best, and by far the principal portion in commerce, -comes from the islands of the Pacific. It has risen -immensely in value of late years. Almost, if not -quite, equal to it is the East Indian, from the Sulu -Islands, Ceylon, and Aden, or the Persian Gulf. An -inferior kind comes from the Eastern Mediterranean, -also another from America.</p> - -<p>The iridescent glaze, accompanied with more or -less of the mother or solid substance, is found in a -very great number of shells; <i>e.g.</i>, the Peter’s Ear -(<i>Halyotis iris</i>) of the Pacific; also in common mussels, -especially the <i>Unio</i>, found in most clear streams or -brooks in Europe and America where there is not -much lime. These often yield pearls of great value.</p> - -<p>Mother-of-pearl can be sawed without any great -difficulty into plates, which are polished with fine -sand and then with tripoli. Of late a great deal of -small furniture inlaid with squares and triangles of -this material has found its way from Turkey and -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_207">207</span> -Persia to London. These pieces are simply attached -with cement made of sturgeon’s bladder, mastic, salmiac, -or even glue. They can generally be obtained -from dealers in Oriental goods. <span class="smcap">Abraham Sassoon</span>, -of Wardour Street, will supply them in any quantity.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Louis Edgar Andés</span> and <span class="smcap">Sigmund Lehner</span>, both -experimental technologists, have given several curious -recipes for imitating mother-of-pearl. From filing -or grinding, the best mother-of-pearl shell becomes -like a white metal, which can be combined with white -of egg or pure white gelatine to a fine marble-like -substance, which, however, lacks iridescence. Broken -into very small pieces, which are set in a bed of glue -and glycerine, and then covered, when dry, with another -coating of the same, we have what its inventor, -<span class="smcap">Lehne</span>r, assures us is a very good imitation of pearl-shell.</p> - -<p>But there is scaled away from a variety of shells a -coating of <i>nacre</i>, or coloured glaze, which when powdered -still retains the pearly lustre. This may be -taken even from the common American oyster or all -mussels. According to <span class="smcap">Andés</span>, who refers, I think, -to this, it can be laid on any substance and covered -with a gum-glaze. He also informs us that the pearl-like -inner layers of oyster-shells, or of any other kind, -reduced to powder and mixed with sturgeon’s bladder -and spirits, painted on grey paper in several -coats, present the appearance of <i>nacre</i>. I have seen -specimens of such painting which were indeed very -pretty, but the pearly iridescence was rather faint. -According to the author, the pearly brilliancy is much -increased by an addition of silver-bronze powder.</p> - -<p>I conclude from this, not having in this instance -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_208">208</span> -experimented personally, save in carving pearl, that -coarse powders of the highly coloured greenish and -other <i>nacres</i> of tropical shells, as well as of the European -mussel and some other shells, can be combined -with binding-gums of a transparent nature so as to -form a very admirable imitation of mother-of-pearl.</p> - -<p>I may here remark, in connection with this, that -the common American clam (<i>Venus mercernaria</i>) has a -white shell of intense hardness, which, when polished, -is as beautiful as porcelain or ivory; also that the -purple spot in the American oyster-shell, from which -the Indians made a very hard and beautiful bead, -might easily be drilled out for buttons.</p> - -<p>A very beautiful imitation of mother-of-pearl is -made in Japan. It is not, however, iridescent. It is -said to be made with rice. I conjecture that this is -rice treated with diluted acid.</p> - -<p>I have before me now a string of 400 imitation red -<i>coral</i> beads, price twopence, such as are commonly -sold everywhere. They are manufactured of vermilion -powder, rice-flour, and gum, and, when they are -carefully made, are extremely hard and durable, so -much so that the composition may be used to mend -broken articles made of red coral. Such objects in a -fractured state are very common in curiosity shops, -but the art of repairing them seems to be as yet unknown, -though it is extremely profitable.</p> - -<p>Of coral, <span class="smcap">Lehner</span> tells us that celluloid in combination -with different substances—<i>e.g.</i>, white zinc or -cinnabar—can be coloured from delicate rose to fiery -vermilion, and forms a very close imitation of coral. -A very good and much cheaper imitation can be made -by preparing perfectly white paper-paste (<i>vide</i> Papier-Mâché), -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_209">209</span> -and combining it with vermilion, zinc, &c. -From such artificial coral very beautiful cups, plates, -and ornaments for inlaying, beads, pendants for jewellery, -book-covers, &c., can easily be made. The -colour can be varied to turquoise, emerald, ebony, -ivory, &c., by simply changing the colouring-powders -used.</p> - -<p>There is a very cheap and common imitation of -coral made by dipping vermicelli, twigs, &c., into a -solution of red sealing-wax in spirits of wine. This -is, however, extremely brittle. White marble-dust, -or very fine white flint sand, combined with vermilion -and silicate of soda, is said to produce a very admirable -imitation of coral. The basis of levigated sand, -or carbonate of lime, with silicate, can be varied with -the dyes to imitate any gems, and is invaluable for -mending pottery or stone-work.</p> - -<p>Coral and several other substances are also imitated -by combining about nine parts of very clear glue to -one of glycerine. This is qualified with one equivalent -of white zinc or dye-stuffs. Thus the glue basis -is combined with colcothar, ochre-sepia, umber, ochre, -or chrome. This is also a valuable cement for mending -a great variety of objects.</p> - -<p>Any fine white shells ground to powder may be -combined with gum and a very little glycerine and -vermilion to make artificial coral; also white glue or -gelatine with glycerine. This may be made in quantity -for casts of all kinds of objects, such as plates in -inlaid work. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_210">210</span></p> - -<h2 id="RESTORING_AND_REPAIRING">RESTORING AND REPAIRING -PICTURES</h2> - -<blockquote> - -<p>“<i>The restoration of disfigured and decayed works -of art is next in importance to their production.</i>”—Field, -Chromatography.</p></blockquote> - -<p>I published in 1864 a work entitled <i>The Egyptian -Sketch Book</i>, which began with the following abridged -account of how oil pictures are cleaned:—</p> - -<p>“Three young painters had often heard what the -American <span class="smcap">Page</span> has proved, that by carefully peeling -the pictures of certain great artists, coat by coat, one -may learn all their secrets of colour. So, having obtained -an undoubted Titian, representing the Holy -Virgin, they laid it on a table and proceeded to remove -the outer varnish by means of friction with the -fingers; which varnish very soon rose up in a cloud -of white dust, and acted very much as a shower of -snuff would have done.</p> - -<p>“Then they arrived at the ‘naked colours,’ which -had by this time assumed a very crude form, owing -to the fact that a certain amount of liquorish tincture, -as of Turkey rhubarb, or <i>tinct. rhabarbara</i>, had become -incorporated with the varnish, and to which the -colours had been indebted for their golden warmth. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_211">211</span></p> - -<p>“This brought them to the <i>glazing proper</i>, which -had been deprived of the evidence of the age or antiquity -by the removal of the <i>patinæ</i>, or little cups, -which had formed in the canvas between the web and -the woof.</p> - -<p>“The next process was to remove the <i>glaze</i> from -the saffron robe, composed of yellow lake and burnt -sienna. This brought them to a flame colour, in -which the <i>modelling</i> had been made. They next attacked -the robe of the Virgin Mary, and having taken -away the crimson lake, were astonished to find a -greenish drab. When they had thus in turn removed -every colour in the picture, dissecting every part by -diligent care, loosening every glaze by solvents too -numerous to mention—including alcohol and various -adaptations of alkali—they had the ineffable satisfaction -of seeing the <i>design</i> in a condition of crude, blank -chiaroscuro. Blinded by enthusiasm, having made -careful notes of all they had done, they flew at the -white and black with pumice-stone and potash; when, -lo and behold! something very rubicund appeared, -which further excavation declared was the tip of the -red—nose of King George the Fourth! The Titian -for which they had sacrificed so much was a false -god.”</p> - -<p>The foregoing extracts were dictated by the late -<span class="smcap">Henry Merritt</span>, a very distinguished restorer and -artist, the author of <i>Pictures and Art separated in the -Works of the Old Masters</i>, and other works of which I -can truly say that the name <span class="smcap">Merritt</span> indicates that -<i>nomen est omen</i>. I was often by him while at his work, -and had the benefit of seeing the processes employed -and the progress which he made in bringing to light -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_212">212</span> -the “buried beauties” of pictures by great artists. -What I have since learned in addition will be found -in the following pages.</p> - -<p>Though it is simple and easy to describe the manner -in which old pictures in general are restored, it -must be borne in mind that, as regards a detailed and -comprehensive description, the task would be the -most difficult in the whole range of repairing; for -when a picture has suffered so much that repainting -is absolutely necessary, then nothing but the skill of -the original artist himself would ever do full justice -to it. In many cases we have pictures, like decayed -works in wood, so far gone that only a mere hint or -sketch of the original remains, so that they are generally -deemed not worth keeping. In such cases the -restorer or repairer may very well do his best. There -is, and always will be, an immense field for every -skilled repairer in this remaking of antiques, to great -profit, because there is an unlimited supply of material, -almost everywhere, wherewith to work.</p> - -<p>To be a perfectly accomplished restorer of pictures -one should be an expert in chemistry, and not only -one very familiar with all the styles and schools of -art, and gifted with great knowledge of the <i>technique</i> -of great artists, but also no mean painter oneself. -There is a very general, but very vulgar and stupid, -popular belief that the restoration and cleaning of old -pictures is a merely mechanical art, about on a par -with house-painting as regards skill or intelligence; -but this I earnestly deny, having found, since I have -practised it myself, that it affords a wide field to ingenuity, -and that the greatest artists living—I care -not who they may be—can find in restoration tasks -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_213">213</span> -which would fully tax all their skill, knowledge, or -genius.</p> - -<p>Before proceeding to clean or repair a picture it is -often advisable for the artist to make an outline -sketch of it with great care, in order to correct and -guide him in details. To do this, take very transparent -tracing-paper—the recipe for making which is -elsewhere given—then with a soft crayon-pencil, or a -very black lead-pencil (from 3 to 4 B), trace the -whole. If the paper be not transparent enough, then -use thin glass, or, what is far better, sheets of mica, -gummed together at the edges, which will not break -even if dropped. Trace the picture on this with a -fine brush and black oil-colour, or any black paint -which will hold. Then make a tracing from this on -transparent paper. To transfer crayon or lead pencil -drawing to wood or paper, very slightly dampen the -surface of the latter, lay the tracing on it face down, -and rub the back of the latter with a burnisher or -ivory paper-knife. It will thus be perfectly transferred. -This making preparatory sketches or copies -will be found in many cases extremely useful, as -training the eye carefully to the work to be done.</p> - -<p>It is not <i>invariably</i> true, though a great authority -on picture-cleaning (<span class="smcap">Henry Mogford</span>) has declared -the contrary—that “pictures ... unquestionably -enjoy their highest perfection at the first moment of -production.” Many artists recognise the truth that -a year, or even years, are needed to give a certain -delicate tone, which is like the ripeness of fruit, to -certain pictures; and the same is true of certain -artists, though by no means in the same degree of all. -But there are many persons who can associate the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_214">214</span> -mellowing tones of age or the venerable grey of antiquity -with nothing but dirt, decay, and poverty; as -was the case with an Italian marquis, who, having -heard that a distinguished artist<a id="FNanchor_4" href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">4</a> had copied an old -moss-grown wall or fragment of ruin on his estate, -sent an apology to the latter, stating that if he had -known that such a distinguished person intended to -copy it he would have had it cleaned and lime-washed, -not in glaring white (he knew better than that, he -said), but in light blue! So I have known an American -gentleman to be distressed at discovering the appearance -of lichen on a corner of a “spick-and-span, -brand-new villa,” which he at once declared must be -cleaned and painted all over. People who suffer -from this vulgar mania of over-scouring are apt to -imagine that when they detect the least sign of age in -a picture it suggests dirt and neglect, and hurry it -off to the cleaner; unless, indeed (as is too often the -case), they—with insufficient knowledge, and with -“notions generally derived from guess-work, and -suggested by the usual arrangements for taking care -of other household objects”—attempt to restore the -work themselves, which has been the cause of the -ruin of thousands of great works of art.</p> - -<p>It may here be observed that modern pictures, -owing to the hurried processes of manufacture and -the use of cheap materials in machinery-made paints, -change so rapidly that many lose half their value in -fifty years’ time. And, as if this were not enough, -we have the sulphuric acids generated by coal-fires -(especially that from anthracite coal in America, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_215">215</span> -which even eats away the lime in chimneys), as well -as the deleterious effects of gas, vapours from food, -and, finally, the want of air and light in ever-curtained -and shaded rooms.</p> - -<p>The causes, in fact, which lead to deterioration in -pictures are almost as many as those which produce -diseases in man, and in not a few instances they will -be found to be the same. These are, as I have said, -foul air or malaria, or want of fresh air, dampness, -the smoke of candles in churches, too long exposure -to sunshine, the exhalations of charcoal, sulphur, -sinks, &c.; “in short, all penetrating scents are injurious -to painting, especially if it be new.” Owing -to this prevalence of gas and coal smoke in houses, -allied to the bad quality of paints, as now manufactured -cheaply by machinery, it is, indeed, considered -doubtful whether any of the pictures painted -during the reign of Queen Victoria will exist in “half-visible” -condition fifty or a hundred years hence. -There is, as regards them, a grand future for the restorer. -One need only look at most of Turner’s -earlier pictures to fully verify what is here asserted.</p> - -<p>The face of all old pictures long untouched will -always be found covered more or less with what is -simply dirt; that is, dust more or less dissolved by -moisture. Now, dust consists simply of all kinds of -substances, even invisible extinct animal organisms -in vast numbers. The first step is simply to wash -away this dirt with distilled or rain water and ox-gall. -Use a very soft, clean sponge, and pass it over -the picture many times. The last time wrap the -sponge in a clean, white linen or muslin handkerchief -to see whether the surface is quite clean. This and -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_216">216</span> -nothing more will often produce an astonishing improvement.</p> - -<p>The next task will be to remove the varnish. <i>Hot</i> -water attacks any varnish, reducing it to a dry powder; -but, as M. <span class="smcap">Goupil</span> remarks, this is <i>très hasarde</i>, -or is very risky, because it may also attack and dissolve -anything like gum or glue in the colours. M. -<span class="smcap">Goupil</span>, however, sanctions the use of cold water in -cleaning even to mere abuse, in which he is in contradiction -to <span class="smcap">Henry Mogford</span>, whose work I regard -as by far the best with which I am acquainted on the -subject of cleaning and restoring pictures which I -have read.<a id="FNanchor_5" href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">5</a> On this subject he says:—</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>“During all operations of lining, and of picture-cleaning -generally, saturation by water is attended -with disastrous effects, and the use of it should therefore -be limited to application by means of a squeezed -piece of sponge, or, what is better, a piece of buff -leather, soaked and wrung out. Water is a most -dangerous enemy to pictures; it penetrates to the -priming or ground, loosens them by promoting decomposition -of the size with which they are worked, -and thus lays the foundation for their eventual disintegration -and decay. Imbibed damp will sooner -or later cause the destruction of every woven material, -and while our daily experience shows its lamentable -effects on the walls of our dwellings, it will be -well for us to remember that it is no less destructive -to the canvas of our pictures, and to the materials -which form its priming.</p> - -<p>“All the pictures of the early masters of the Italian -school, and those of Claude and William Vandervelde, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_217">217</span> -which are painted on chalk and absorbent -grounds, are in the greatest danger if washed with -water. It penetrates through the small crevices which -may exist in the paint, and often totally destroys the -picture. If the painting be upon canvas, like those -of the two latter-named masters, it breaks into a -thousand small lines or cracks; and if upon panel, -like the pictures of Raffaelle, Andrea del Sarto, or -Fra Bartolomeo, it breaks up the paint by scaling it -off in small points of the size of a pin’s head. If the -picture, again, is of the Spanish school, and is painted -upon the red absorbent grounds and upon a rough -canvas, water not only breaks the unity of its surface, -but from the canvas being of a coarser texture than -the pictures of Claude or William Vandervelde, it -often penetrates in a greater proportion, and frequently -scales off pieces as large as a sixpence, especially -in the dark shadows, or where the ground has -not been sufficiently protected by a thick <i>impasto</i> -(heavy coat or ground) of colour. At all times and -to all pictures water is more or less dangerous, unless -used with the greatest caution, and then it should -only be applied by means of a piece of thick buckskin -leather well wrung out, and left just wet enough to -slip lightly over the surface of the picture. In the -case of some masters, as with those we have specialised -above, the free use of water may be regarded as -next door to absolute destruction; and the warmer -and drier the weather the more active and ruinous -the operation. Instances have occurred in which an -Andrea del Sarto, a Claude and a William Vandervelde, -were destroyed in a few minutes by the injudicious -use of simple water.”</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>I have given this quotation in full, because water -is generally the first thing freely resorted to clean -pictures by the ignorant. Thus I have heard of very -valuable pictures being actually given to common servants -or the washerwoman to scour clean, which was -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_218">218</span> -effected with soap and hot water and sand, to the -speedy ruin of the work. Nor is it any great wonder -that this should be done, when we find in <span class="smcap">Goupil’s</span> -work that, while he admits that cold water “infiltrates -itself partially to the fissures of a painting and -does great harm,” he declares that “<i>hot</i> water acts -differently,” giving the impression that it may be -very freely used, and declaring that “clean cold -water harmlessly dissolves grease and dirt resulting -from dust deposited by the air.” This is true, but -he does not seem, like Mr. <span class="smcap">Mogford</span>, to have fully -understood the other side of the question. (<i>Manuel -Général et Complet de la Peinture à l’Huile</i>, par F. -<span class="smcap">Goupil</span>.)</p> - -<p>For first cleaning away impurities from a surface -<span class="smcap">Mogford</span> recommends <i>ox-gall</i> to be applied with a -soft brush. This may be obtained in shilling or six-penny -bottles from Winsor & Newton, or any other -dealers in artists’ materials. “It is,” he adds, “an -excellent detergent, which may be freely applied -without fear. It must, however, be well washed” -(<i>i.e.</i>, wiped) “off with pure water, or it will leave a -clamminess on the surface that may prevent the varnish, -afterwards applied, from drying.” But a distinction -must be carefully borne in mind between -<i>washing</i> with water and letting it <i>soak</i> into a picture -and simply wiping off the surface with a damp -chamois or buckskin or soft <i>old</i> linen handkerchief. -In fact, this latter is the first thing to be done before -slightly cleaning the surface with the diluted ox-gall. -It is very necessary that the skilled cleaner shall understand -exactly the nature of varnishes, so as to -know on what he is to work. Thus, according to -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_219">219</span> -the picture, he may employ “liquor potassæ, oil of -tartar, spirits of wine, pure alcohol, liquor ammoniæ -fortis, naphtha, ether, soda, and oil of spike or lavender. -The very nomenclature of these powerful -agents will at once show the great risk of their being -injudiciously or carelessly employed.”</p> - -<p>Great care should be taken not to allow an excessive -or unequal quantity of cleaning fluid to gather in -one place. Therefore all pictures should be laid flat -while being restored, as streams, for instance of ammonia, -would cut very irregularly into a surface. -With pictures of any value, the process of cleaning is -always very delicate, requiring much practice and -very perfect knowledge of all the principles of the art.</p> - -<p>Where the varnishes are tender and thin, such as -mastic, <span class="smcap">Mogford</span> advises the use of spirits of wine; -but to be sure that no harm can be done by it, it is -desirable that “the spirit, which is usually sold at -58° of strength, should be diluted by a fourth part of -water, or by the same proportion of rectified spirits -of turpentine, or it may be used with an addition of -a sixth part of linseed oil, added to the diluted or -pure spirit.” In every instance the mixture is to be -“well shaken before taken,” or applied. Care should -be taken to prevent oil from softening the paint, -which it is apt to do. As a rule it is best to begin -with the lightest or brightest portions of a picture—as, -for instance, the face of a portrait—as these parts -are always the hardest. Beginning by wiping the -surface with white cotton wool and turpentine, observe -if any varnish comes off on it, and as soon as it -is seen change the part of the rubber used, else you -will go on simply taking up “dirt” from one place -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_220">220</span> -and rubbing it into another. This is elsewhere explained -as regards cleaning cloth or absorbing ink, -that we must continually subtract from and not add -again to the ground.</p> - -<p>“Turpentine is a counteracting medium, which instantly -arrests the action of the solvent spirit.” -When all the varnish has thus been removed, the -whole may be wiped over with spirits of turpentine, -and then when dry revarnished, if nothing more be -required.</p> - -<p>Rubbing with the fingers, or powders, or any kind -of dry cleaning must be avoided, or else practised -with great care, since it produces an effect known as -<i>woolliness</i>, which will begin to show very decidedly -after some time. But when a picture has had no -varnish it can only be cleaned mechanically, as by -using tripoli, pumice-stone, or whiting. This method -requires great skill. Sometimes a very fine-edged -scraper or knife is used to thin the varnish before -using turpentine.</p> - -<p>“Solvents,” adds Mogford, “are only necessary -to remove <i>varnish</i>.” Unvarnished pictures are best -cleaned by carefully wiping with buff or chamois -leather, damp, not <i>wet</i>, aided by a little powdered -whiting.</p> - -<p>Varnish, when not on a picture, may, however, be -removed by rubbing it with the fingers, or palm, or -leather, aided by powdered resin, or rosin. For certain -purposes, as to make a panel of a piano thoroughly -seasoned for heat, and, as it were, enamel it, -a coat of varnish is applied, and when dry is rubbed -down smooth with pumice-powder or resin, and this -process is repeated many times. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_221">221</span></p> - -<p>If pictures are painted in oil, directly on canvas, -without a ground, the paint sinks down in between -the threads and lies thinly on them. Therefore if -there is rubbing on the surface the grain of the canvas -becomes very apparent. If oil-paint be laid -directly on a panel of wood, the soft parts between -the hard fibres, lines, or grain shrink away, drawing -the paint with them. Old artists avoided this by laying -on a strong ground of gesso or plaster of Paris -mixed with glue or white of eggs.</p> - -<p>The great task in cleaning is to remove the repainting -or coats of paint which have been added by restorers. -I have seen this done with extraordinary -skill by the late Mr. <span class="smcap">Merritt</span>, who was recommended -by <span class="smcap">Ruskin</span>, and who was the first and most truly -artistic restorer of his time. I can recall his cleaning -the most beautiful Carpoccio which I ever saw, and a -magnificent Velasquez, both of which had been repainted -again and again, and were in such wretched -condition that even the painter of the latter had been -mistaken. They bore about the same relation when -untouched and afterwards that a dirty old rag has to -a magnificent cashmere shawl. “Caustic, soap-makers’ -lye, liquor potassæ, pure alcohol, and the -scraper,” remarks <span class="smcap">Mogford</span>, “are the ordinary means -to take off repaints; all of them dangerous appliances -if not closely watched and used without violence or -carelessness.”</p> - -<p>It is advisable to examine carefully the backs of -old pictures for signatures, date, or documents, all of -which are sometimes pasted over with other paper or -canvas. Once, in Florence, I found in a small shop -a portrait of Charles I., but differing in many respects -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_222">222</span> -from any which I had ever seen. I told the owner -that it was by Vandyke, but he insisted on it that it -was by an Italian with some such name as Guillermo -or Gillonio, till I proposed that we should examine -the back, where we found, after some investigation, -the name of Vandyke. At which discovery the dealer -promptly raised the price of the picture from one -hundred to one thousand francs, and it was, indeed, -cheap enough at that. A lady to whom I narrated -the occurrence said, “Oh, why didn’t you buy the -picture before you told the man who painted it?” -To which I replied, “For the same reason that I did -not steal a valuable ring out of the case in the shop -when his back was turned.” Much is said about the -shrewdness of dealers in antiques, but it has often -happened to me to explain to them that articles in -their possession were worth far more than they imagined; -while, on the other hand, they will, surmising -that a thing <i>may</i> be worth a great deal, charge a -fearful sum for something that is merely <i>cinque cento</i>; -<i>e.g.</i>, a thousand francs for what is really dear at ten. -I mention this in order that the reader may realise -(which few do) what bargains may be picked up by -any one who knows anything of art, and especially -of the humble art of cleaning, mending, or restoring, -which lets us into a world of secrets even in high art, -and which is of more use to a picture-buyer than all -the high-flown æsthetic culture in all the works of all -the rhapsodists of the age.</p> - -<p>The preceding remarks on <i>cleaning</i> were drawn -chiefly from the manual by H. <span class="smcap">Mogford</span>, and my -own experiences. I add to them those of M. <span class="smcap">Goupil</span> -on the same subject. The intelligent leader will find -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_223">223</span> -no difficulty in collecting and drawing his own inferences -from both:—</p> - -<p>“When the picture is certainly in oil, steam may -be used to remove the varnish. There is, however, -the great risk of loosening the painting from its -ground.”</p> - -<p>But when a picture has been, instead of varnished, -<i>glazed</i> with white of egg, we have a coating which, -when old, cannot be dissolved by water or acids; for -this other and specially elaborate detergents, or -cleaners, are employed. There are few substances -which so persistently harden with time as the white -of egg, as does also the yolk when boiled.</p> - -<p>Ordinary varnish, when dry and old, can be removed -by mechanically scraping or rubbing with -fine, dry powders, such as that of resin. The dust -from the varnish itself aids in the operation. This -process is slow and tiresome, but it is very often advisable -to begin with it, after washing, as it does not -injure the colours. It is needless to say that it requires -great skill, care, and experience not to “cut -into the colour.”</p> - -<p>It may be remarked, as regards this, that in all -cases where there is a difference of opinion between -the French and English artist—as in the use of water—we -must remember that both are, or may be, in -the right as regards certain kinds of pictures. So -varied are the methods of painters that it seems to -me to be by far wiser to describe different methods -than to attempt the impossible task of giving infallible -rules.</p> - -<p>“Varnish can be removed by means of <i>spirits</i>. To -effect this, lay the picture on a table, and wet a small -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_224">224</span> -portion of it with spirits of wine. After a minute or -more, wash the place with clean water and a sponge. -Thus, little by little, clean the entire surface, taking -care not to injure the paint, When quite dry, apply -new varnish.”</p> - -<p>Practised restorers, who can tell by examination -and knowledge of the methods employed by painters -what they can venture on, often use detergents which -would ruin the picture if applied by a person without -experience. These are alkaline salts, such as wood-ashes -or lye, pearl and pot ashes, or salts of tartar, -all of which, except the latter, are extremely hazardous -for a tyro. Salts of tartar may be safely employed -if we begin with a feeble solution, which may -be gradually strengthened.</p> - -<p>Wood-ashes, <i>very</i> finely sifted, are spread on the -face of the picture, and delicately, or carefully and -lightly, rubbed with a soft sponge. This must be -carefully washed away as soon as the surface is -cleaned.</p> - -<p>Other detergents failing, borax dissolved in water -may be employed. This works slowly but surely; -but, as M. <span class="smcap">Goupil</span> remarks, this <i>lessive</i>, like wood -ashes, must not be left long on the colours, but be -promptly wiped away with a sponge. Lime-water -will serve as well as the solution of borax.</p> - -<p>Soaps of different qualities are also used for cleaning, -according to the state of the picture. It may be -here again remarked that no exact rule can be given -regarding an art specially founded on skill and experience. -The beginner should first try his hand on -a few common old pictures.</p> - -<p>Soap made into a foam or lather with water will -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_225">225</span> -generally clean a surface, however dark it may be -from smoke. Let the foam settle completely, and -then wipe it clean with a damp sponge.</p> - -<p>Essential oils, especially turpentine, or those of -spikenard, lavender, and rosemary—of either two -parts of spirits of wine to one of turpentine, &c.—are -commonly used to clean pictures.</p> - -<p>Pictures not varnished require great care and skill -in cleaning. For these <i>yeast</i> with water, or flour -mixed with lime-water, is employed; also spirits of -wine or vinegar. Ammonia is also used. <span class="smcap">Goupil</span> -mentions that one of the most dangerous mediums -for this purpose is the old one of urine, and that it -should never be used.</p> - -<p>When the canvas of a picture is very old and rotten, -it may be replaced by a process requiring the utmost -nicety. If only certain portions are injured, it will -suffice to glue pieces of fine canvas on the back.</p> - -<p>To completely transfer the painting, gum over its -surface two coats of soft paper. Lay it on the face, -and carefully remove the old canvas ground. This -is effected by wetting every thread till soft, and then -picking it away. A piece of pumice-stone and tweezers -are also used. When all fibres are removed, carefully -glue a canvas and apply it, pressing it well on the -back of the paint. Before it is quite dry, press the -picture with a warm flat-iron, not too hot. Then remove -the paper carefully with a damp sponge and by -tearing.</p> - -<p>To transfer a picture on wood, the back is sawn -into many small triangles or squares, which are carefully -chiselled away one by one. Then with files and -scrapers approach the paint till only a thin film of -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_226">226</span> -wood remains. The last remnant is wetted with a -sponge, and picked or scraped away. First, use -paper on the face and restore as before.</p> - -<p>There is a great enemy to pictures in mould or -mildew, which has quasi-equivalents in must, dry-rot, -<i>mucor</i>, or <i>robigo</i>. It is divided by Goupil into apparent -softening and actual softening or mildew. The -former is mildew or mere superficial mould; <i>i.e.</i>, a -light vegetation which gathers on the surface from -germs in the air. It can easily be wiped away, and -is caused by dampness. Sometimes, when long -rooted, it destroys the varnish, which must be replaced. -There is also a mould which is properly decay, -or a radical destruction of fabric, for which there -is, in fact, no cure, save in renewing the canvas and -retouching the picture.</p> - -<p>Where a picture is painted by glazing, especially -where varnish comes in instead of body, it is apt to -crack or thread like a cobweb. In time these divisions -will scale off in flakes. Wax dissolved in turpentine -is used for the light cracks. Scaling must -be treated by careful softening with oil and pressing -down a warm iron. The surface must, previous to -ironing, be covered with chalked paper.</p> - -<p>It sometimes happens that a picture has been painted -over, and I have seen a very distinguished restorer -in such case succeed in removing the outer coat. -This requires great knowledge of the chemical properties -of the paint; also of solvents, and the different -methods of scraping, absorbing, &c. Still, it can be -learned with patience. Extraordinary results have -been thus obtained. It has often happened that men -with little or no knowledge of painting have fancied -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_227">227</span> -themselves capable of “repairing” very valuable pictures, -and so smeared them over to utter ruin.</p> - -<p>Before attempting to retouch an old picture, let the -restorer make a copy of it. If he can do this very -well he is qualified for his work, and not otherwise. -The fraternity of picture-cleaners and menders may -protest against this; but the vast amount—I may say -the vast proportion, meaning the majority—of good -pictures spoiled by bad retouching confirms the truth -of my assertion.</p> - -<p>It is worth remarking in this connection that very -few amateurs, æsthetes, or “connoisseurs,” so called, -appreciate the value of mere <i>technique</i> or practical -work in art. They “swarm for the ideal,” and that -is all. The great masters were wiser than this. It -would do much good if very generous prizes on a -large scale were to be paid annually for copies of -great pictures. And I would have rewards given -specially for pictures painted with colours prepared -by the artists themselves from chemically pure and -unalterable materials, according to the ancient recipes. -I would like to see a society formed of artists who -would produce such work. It would certainly find -buyers—in time.</p> - -<p>There are to be found in most curiosity shops in -Italy panel pictures of the fourteenth century, earlier -or later, with gold grounds, which can be had of all -prices, from a very few francs upward. They are -without name and of no great artistic merit, but very -curious and interesting indeed as ancient relics painted -“before oil,” and as inspired with the spirit of the -Middle Ages. These generally require restoration. -They were painted on wood of all kinds, very often -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_228">228</span> -on deal. The surface was covered with a thin coat -of gesso or plaster of Paris, mixed with the white of -egg, and on this the gilding and paint were applied. -The latter was in white of egg and fig-juice, or encaustic—that -is, wax and white of egg, which is the -most ancient and durable method known; so much -so that long after every oil-painting ever executed -(if left to itself) will have disappeared, the ancient -Egyptian, Roman, or Middle Ages pictures will be as -fresh as if made yesterday.</p> - -<p>If a panel be warped or bent, it is straightened by -damping the concave side, and screwing to it crosspieces. -If the ground be scaled away, supply it with -powdered plaster of Paris mixed with gum-water. -The repainting can be executed with water-colours -mixed with white of egg, <i>gouache</i>, or even oil in small -quantities, which should be rather rubbed in or glazed -than painted in body.</p> - -<p>A common panel picture of the fourteenth and fifteenth -century, painted with white of egg, can be -well enough restored with water-colour, or <i>gouache</i>, -and then varnished. But the colour with <i>gouache</i> -medium will not <i>hold</i> well, except on the gesso-ground. -It is apt to scale off from any smooth, hard -surface. Therefore it is difficult to restore them by -painting on the old hard glaze. Most of the mediums -which are sold to heighten water-colours—<i>e.g.</i>, Winsor -& Newton’s glass medium—will cause the colour -to adhere.</p> - -<p>A <small>GROUND FOR WAX-PAINTING ON POROUS SUBSTANCES</small> -was made as follows:—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>White wax</td> - <td class="tdr">10</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Resin</td> - <td class="tdr">5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Essence of turpentine</td> - <td class="tdr">40 -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_229">229</span></td> - </tr></table> - -<p>Melt the wax in a <i>bain-marie</i>, pass the solution -through a linen strainer, and lay it on in successive -coats on a wall which is first heated by a hand-furnace -or brazier. To close holes in the wall use a -putty made of wax, gum-animé, resin, and whiting.</p> - -<p>Colours are prepared for wax-painting by grinding -them with a gluten. They are the same in substance -as those mixed with oil for oil-painting. The gluten -is made as follows:—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Resin</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>White wax</td> - <td class="tdr">4</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Essence of spikenard</td> - <td class="tdr">16</td> - </tr></table> - -<p>A harder gluten can be made by substituting copal -for the gum-animé.</p> - -<p>There is a vast field for profitable labour in the -cleaning and restoration of old pictures, as well as of -antiques of all kinds, and thousands of young or even -elder artists, whose life is a painful struggle towards -becoming known, would do well to endeavour to raise -the art of restoration to its proper place, instead of -being ashamed to descend to it.</p> - -<p>The restorer should make a point of studying <i>varnishes, -oils, and colours</i>, with great care. Let him read -what cyclopædia articles and books he can find on -these subjects, and make all practical inquiries from -manufacturers and dealers. He should, if he intends -to seriously practise the art, study chemistry. I can -imagine no better restorer than a skilful analyst. -There is a great deal yet to be learned regarding colours, -and most of it will come by the way of chemistry. -A great deal is, however, actually being revived -or arriving as new from training “the popular -eye” to hitherto unaccustomed shades, tints, and -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_230">230</span> -tones. During the Middle Ages, when culture was -exhausted in art and decoration, there was a marvellous -development in this respect, even in most delicate -details, though much of it now seems so “loud” -or excessive to us. We have of late years learned a -great deal from China and Japan as regards subdued -colours. It may be that as in Oriental music even -the tenth part of a note becomes as distinct to the -practised ear as a natural one, so these blendings and -subdivisions of hues may be as perceptible to people -as the normal colours. All of this should be carefully -studied by the restorer as well as the painter.</p> - -<p>The restoration of a fine work of art which has become -utterly dim, wrinkled with a thousand lines, -and, it may be, utterly ugly to beauty and freshness, -is so much like a resurrection or transfiguration to -new life, youth, and beauty, that poets have not failed -to use it as a simile for all that is expressive of renaissance. -Thus Dean Hole, in his Memoirs, remarks -that, “as when some beautiful picture which has -been concealed and forgotten, removed in time of -battle lest it should be destroyed by the enemy, is -found after many years, and is carefully cleaned and -skilfully restored, and the eye is delighted with the -successive development of colour and of form, and -the life-like countenance, the historical scene, the -sunny landscape, or the moonlit sea come out once -more upon the canvas; so in that great revival of religion -which began in England more than half a century -ago the glorious truths of the Gospel were restored.” -Regarded in itself, the art of restoring -beauty is both beautiful and noble, and deserves to -be regarded as such. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_231">231</span></p> - -<h2 id="GENERAL_RECIPES">GENERAL RECIPES</h2> - -<blockquote> - -<p><span class="smcap">Recipe.</span>—<i>The word. A formula or prescription -is a</i> recipe, <i>derived from the Latin word</i> recipe, -<i>meaning take. An acknowledgment of money -paid is a</i> receipt<i>, from</i> receptus, <i>or received. A -description of the materials to be used in making -a pie is not a</i> receipt, <i>but a</i> recipe.—Familiar -Errors.</p></blockquote> - -<p><span class="smcap">To clean Woollen Cloth.</span>—Rub it with sal-ammoniac -and water till clean, then wash with pure water. -This liquid is very useful, when any article of clothing -has been stained by vinegar, wine, or lemon, to -restore the original colour.</p> - -<p>An old-fashioned but excellent method of cleaning -greased silk ribbons or cloth is as follows:—Lay the -ribbon on a wad or flat surface of cotton wadding, -strew on this dried clay, or calcined magnesia, or -whiting, and over this another layer of wadding. -Pass over it a flat-iron not too warm. The oil or -grease will be absorbed into the cotton. Repeat this -till the cure is effected. If any spots still remain, -paint them with yolk of egg, dry the stuff in a draught -of air, and when quite hardened remove the yoke and -wash with water.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Wine-stains</span> can be removed by simply <i>pressing</i> on -them pads dampened with cold water. This method -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_232">232</span> -will succeed, when wiping only spreads a stain. Salt -alone is also employed.</p> - -<p>“When a lady’s skirt of any material has had spilt -on it gravy, wine, oil, or any <i>light liquid</i>, as distinguished -from such substances as paint, pitch, or tar, -do not attempt, as is usually the case, to wipe or -wash it clean. Lay a linen sheet or even spongy -white paper—wanting this, newspapers may be used—on -a table; on this spread the soiled fabric very -evenly. Then lay on the upper surface another clean -white sheet, or white muslin cloth, or napkins or -towels, and press on it till as much as possible of the -fluid is sucked out. By changing the white cloths or -paper, and pressing continually, the fabric can be -very nearly cleaned. Then dust it well with calcined -magnesia in powder or whiting. Where these cannot -be had chalk will answer. This will generally absorb -all that remains of the grease.”—<i>Notes by a Housekeeper -(MS.).</i></p> - -<p>“Clean, dry blotting-paper laid on grease-stains is -admirable for extraction. Apply pressure with a flat-iron -or hand-roller such as is used for bread. There -are blotting-paper rollers, made for ink, which are -quite suitable for cleaning cloth; but the paper should -be thrown away the instant it has received any grease; -otherwise it will only spread the stain and make it indelible -by rubbing it into the fibre of the threads. A -good soft sponge will also be found to be almost equal -to it.”—<i>Notes by a Housekeeper (MS.).</i></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Old woollen or silk garments</span> can be very brilliantly -renewed in the following manner:—They are -steeped in sulphuric cupreous acid (copper or blue -vitriol), oxide of lead, or bismuth oxide, or simply -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_233">233</span> -with their metallic oxides, and then exposed to steam, -mingled with sulphuric acid gas. Another method is -to steep the stuffs simply in a solution of sulphuric -acid and copper or of oxide of bismuth. This is -slowly heated, but the heating must be qualified according -to the colour of the stuffs to be revived. The -application of these requires great care and some -knowledge or experience.</p> - -<p>Ink for restoring inscriptions on metal of any kind, -silver, zinc, or brass:—To one part of crystallised -acetic acid, oxide of copper, one of ammonia, and -half a part of soot from fir wood. Mix in a saucer -with ten parts of water. This is said to resist exposure -to the weather very well.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">A very valuable aid to the restorer or mender -of implements</span>, when it can be obtained, is <span class="smcap">Raw -Hide</span>. This material dries as hard as any wood and -is tougher than any textile fabric. Thus, if a broken -wheel or any portion of a vehicle is tied with a thong -of raw hide, firmly drawn, when the latter dries, -shrinking a little, it holds better than iron. Raw or -untanned ox-hide or similar skin, when dried, is in -fact similar to parchment, and, like it, resembles horn -in hardness. The strongest trunks in the world are -made in America from raw hide. This material, -when made into small objects, such as flasks, boxes, -sheaths, or portable ink-stands, has often withstood -the wear of generations. As it is cheap, easily -moulded into form, or stamped, it is remarkable that -it is no longer used as it once was.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Lead-pencil or crayon drawings</span> can be preserved -from rubbing by a light wash of gum of any kind, -diluted varnish, or even milk. The latter is in most -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_234">234</span> -cases preferable. It is also preservative of handwriting, -and, like all glazes, prevents fading.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Bases for beads</span> and similar work can be made as -follows:—Take mother-of-pearl dust, which can be -bought cheaply at a turner’s, powder or levigate it -finely, mix it with half its bulk of fine white barley-meal, -and make it up with a weak solution of gum-mastic. -Also take snail-shells, or the glaze of any -large, hard sea-shells, washing them first in strong -lye to clean them. Pulverise and make up with yolk -of eggs and alum, or any other fine binder. The -same can be done with rock-crystal or pure flint. -Grind it to finest powder, and make it up with a well-incorporated -mixture of the white of eggs and pure -gum-arabic. This will, when dry, become hard as a -stone, and more and more waterproof with age.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">To pulverise Glass.</span>—First put in the fire till red-hot, -then drop it into cold water, after which reduce -it in a mortar. Glass-powder thus made, mixed with -almost any cement, renders it extremely hard. It is -also mixed with paint.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Burnished steel or iron-work</span> can be preserved -from rusting by rubbing the article with oil of cloves -or oil of lavender; also with a mixture of turpentine, -oil of lavender or cloves, and petroleum. Mercurial -ointment is commonly used for guns.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Rust</span> can be removed from iron by rubbing it with -oil of tartar (<i>oleum tartari</i>), using a woollen rag.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Brass-ware</span>, when it has become dull or rusty, may -be renewed and made to look like gold. Take sal-ammoniac, -grind it in a mortar with saliva; rub this -on the brass; lay it on hot coals to dry it well, and -tub it with a woollen cloth. So says <span class="smcap">Johann Wallberger</span>; -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_235">235</span> -adding: “With this art a certain man did -once, in Rome, gain much money, inasmuch as he -thereby did clean the brass lamps of the churches and -other things of the same metal.” There is another -preparation for the same purpose still more gold-like. -It consists of sulphur, chalk, and the soot from wood -fires. But as it soon disappears, the brass should be -lackered or varnished.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">The best cleaner for brass</span> with which I am acquainted -is a German preparation used by <span class="smcap">Barkentin -& Krall</span>, Regent Street, from whom it can also be -obtained.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">A very strong cement</span>, and one good for luting, -can be made by combining sturgeon’s bladder, dissolved -in spirits, with finest pulverised flint or sand.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Glue</span>, into which resin has been well infused by -heat, combined with sand or ashes or clay, forms a -strong cement, useful for all kinds of coarse work.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">A very good, strong cement</span> is made as follows:—To -three-eighths of a pound of water add three-eighths -of a pound of spirits and a quarter of a pound -of starch; also, prepare two ounces of good glue in -water, mixed with two ounces of thick turpentine, -and stir well into the first composition. This is a -very good bookbinders’ glue.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">The tufa or soft stone</span> which abounds in Italy -and elsewhere is much used when reduced to powder -and burned for building. It is also useful as a -cement. An old writer says it can be brayed in a -mortar, but that “there are many who, for lack of a -mortar, take old baptismal fonts out of the churches, -and in lieu of a pestle use the clapper of a church -bell.” -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_236">236</span></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">A curious decoration</span> may be made by drawing -figures—for example, of animals—with glue or gum -on a wall surface, and then powdering it with cloth-dust -of appropriate colours. These figures can be -stencilled.</p> - -<p>As of all repairing and restoring that of <i>human -beauty</i> is the most important, it may be worth while -to give here a few recipes, which have held their own -for centuries:—</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">To make Wrinkles and Freckles disappear.</span>—This -is more possible than is generally supposed, and -I have known a lady, a great beauty, of whom all my -readers have heard, who at fifty years of age had -artificially and miraculously preserved her face in -perfect smoothness, though I do not know by what -means. The following is given by <span class="smcap">Wallberger</span>:—“Take -fine, pure alum, compound it carefully with -the fresh white of eggs, and boil it gently in a pipkin, -stirring it constantly with a wooden stick or spoon -till it forms a soft paste. Spread this on the face, -morning and evening, for two or three days, and you -will soon see that it is free from wrinkles and freckles, -and marvellously fair and pleasant to view. Frivolous -souls may carry the sinful misuse of such beauty -to their own account; the virtuous hold in horror all -such deeds” (<i>Zauberbuch</i>, 1760).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Lemon-juice</span> or the salts of lemon, or lemon-juice -and salt, are of great service in whitening the hands -and causing freckles to disappear.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Gum-benzoin dissolved in spirits</span> may be had of -every apothecary. Pour a few drops into a wine-glassful -of warm water, and it will form a milk-white -emulsion, which is a perfect and harmless cosmetic -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_237">237</span> -for the face, and serves as a delightful soap in washing. -This is the <i>lac virginis</i> so much used two centuries -ago.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Eau de Cologne</span> mixed with water forms a white -emulsion, which is much superior to any soap for -delicate hands. It forms a perfectly harmless cosmetic -for the face. Even a few drops of it in a basin -of water will have a good result. Too much of it, or -of any wash, will have a contrary effect, and dry the -skin. If the mouth be rinsed with this emulsion of -<i>eau de cologne</i> and water, it will purify the breath, and -that for a long time if used as a gargle.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">A strong marking-ink</span>, or black dye, which will -resist much exposure to the weather, is made as follows:—Take -gum-arabic 10 lbs., logwood liquor -(specific gravity 1.37) 20 fluid oz., bi-chromate of potash -2½ oz., with water sufficient to dissolve the bi-chromate. -Dissolve the gum in one gallon of water, -strain, add the logwood liquor, mix, and let the mixture -stand for twenty-four hours; then stir in rapidly -the bi-chromate solution, and add a little nitrate of -iron and fustic acid. If too thick, thin with lukewarm -water.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">A very hard cement</span> can be made by digesting -fluor spar for some time in sulphuric acid, adding -magnesium sulphate and stirring calcined magnesia -into the mixture.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">A red cement for iron or stone or luting</span> is -made of red lead and litharge in equal parts mixed -with concentrated glycerine to the consistency of soft -putty. When dry it is water and fire proof.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Silico enamel</span> is a thin liquid glaze, finer than varnish, -which is easily applied to all polished metals, as -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_238">238</span> -well as other substances. It may be obtained in bottles, -price one shilling, with brush, of the Silico -Enamel Company, 97 Hampstead Road, London, N.W.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Light-coloured gloves</span> may be cleaned by rolling -bread-crumb over them; also with indiarubber. Also -by means of benzine. Several patent washes for this -purpose are now sold.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Cleaning Marble.</span>—“If ‘Sculptor’ will get some -salts of wormwood, and dissolve in warm water, then -mix with whiting into a moderate paste, and apply -to stone or marble, and let it remain upon either for -twenty-four hours—and if not successful the first -time, apply again—he will draw all stains out of -marble, and clear all lichen either from sandstones or -oolitic stones. Thoroughly wash the stone with a -strong soap (say, of Hudson’s No. 2 soap powder) -and lukewarm water, and, when thoroughly dry, give -a coat of sulphuretted oil. He can make his own oil. -Boil in a bath one quart of linseed-oil for one hour, -with half-a-pound of flower of sulphur gently and -continually stirring same; then take off fire and let -cool; then pour oil from sediment, using oil upon -stone. No lichen will hurt his stone if out exposed -to the air, for the rain will wash all clean every time. -I have cleaned several statues with nothing but Hudson’s -No. 2 and water.”—<i>Work, April 2, 1892.</i></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Calcined magnesia</span>, or calcined and powdered -bone, laid for some time on simply oiled or greased -marble, which has first been well washed with soap -and water, will often extract the stain. For ink use -oxalic acid in weak solution with water.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Gum-dextrine</span>, or gum substitute, is made from -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_239">239</span> -roasted flour. It forms, mixed with water, a gum -not much inferior to gum-arabic, for which it is, as -the name denotes, a substitute. It is very extensively -used in many manufactures, and may be obtained of -any chemist. It sometimes happens that it is too -brittle after drying, and does not hold. In such case -add four or five drops of glycerine to a teacupful of -the dextrine in solution.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Mouth Glue (Mundleim) or Solid Cement.</span>—This -is sold by stationers in thin, flat sticks or tablets, and -is used by wetting and rubbing it, chiefly for paper. -It is made as follows for labels:—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Sturgeon’s bladder</td> - <td class="tdr">25</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Sugar</td> - <td class="tdr">12</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Water</td> - <td class="tdr">36</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Carbolic acid</td> - <td /> - </tr></table> - -<p>The sturgeon’s bladder is first dissolved, the sugar -then added, also a few drops of carbolic acid, which -causes it to set more firmly, and also to resist mould -in dampness, induced by the presence of sugar. This -cement is applicable to glass, wood, or metal. Like -the following, it has the advantage of being always -ready to use, and requires no boiling. If it becomes -too hard to use freely, let so much of it as is required -steep for a time in water. Many think, from merely -dampening it in the mouth when it is hard, and using -it immediately, that it is a very weak adhesive, which -is a mistake. A great deal of that sold by the stationers -is, however, of very inferior quality, and made -with very common glue. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_240">240</span></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Mouth glue in tablets</span>:—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Transparent glue, No. 1</td> - <td class="tdr">24</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Sugar</td> - <td class="tdr">13</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Gum-arabic</td> - <td class="tdr">5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Water</td> - <td class="tdr">50</td> - </tr></table> - -<p>The glue, sugar, and gum are boiled in the water -until a drop let fall on a slab hardens. It is then -rolled and cut into flat cakes.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">To mend or make Meerschaum Pipes.</span>—Dissolve -caseine in silicate of soda; stir into the cement fine -calcined magnesia. By the addition of meerschaum -powder a close imitation of meerschaum in the mass -can be made.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Turkish cement</span> of the strongest kind, and such as -is used to attach gems to metal, is made as follows:—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Sturgeon’s bladder cement</td> - <td class="tdr">30</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Mastic (best)</td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Gum-ammoniac</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Spirits of wine</td> - <td class="tdr">10</td> - </tr></table> - -<p>The sturgeon’s bladder, shredded, is dissolved -with spirits of wine while remaining in a warm place; -the gum is also dissolved in spirit and mixed with the -sturgeon’s bladder; the whole must be then carefully -and slowly boiled to a syrup. Close with a cork, as -it is sure to gum tightly.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">To improve Corks.</span>—When bottles contain substances -which adhere to the <i>cork</i> and <i>harden</i>, the latter -should be first steeped in oil or vaseline, or boiled in -a mixture of both.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Armenian Cement.</span>—This is much like Diamond -and Turkish cements:— -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_241">241</span></p> - -<p class="caption">I.</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Sturgeon’s bladder</td> - <td class="tdr">600</td> - </tr></table> - -<p class="caption">II.</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Gum-ammoniac</td> - <td class="tdr">6</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Mastic</td> - <td class="tdr">60</td> - </tr></table> - -<p>The sturgeon’s bladder is dissolved in spirits of -wine separately, the gum-ammoniac and mastic also, -but with a minimum of spirit; the two are then combined.</p> - -<p>A cement which will resist the action of spirits of -wine will often be very valuable, as when large lids -are to be fastened to jars containing anatomical preparations. -One is made as follows:—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Cleaned manganese powder</td> - <td class="tdr">20</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Soluble silicate of soda</td> - <td class="tdr">10</td> - </tr></table> - -<p>This must be freely used to make the cover adhere. -When in time it shall become brittle, coat it over with -a thick solution of asphaltum in turpentine or petroleum.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">To seal bottles</span> very securely, roughen the opening -or mouth with a file or glass-paper, drive in a -hard cork till half-an-inch below the top, and then -seal it with silicate of soda mixed with marble-dust.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Chloride of zinc</span> added to silicate of soda and -oxide of zinc forms a very good cement, which will -resist most influences.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Bread</span> macerated with glue or gelatine, with a little -glycerine, makes an admirable substance for artificial -flowers, casts, medallions, &c. If worked with gum-arabic -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_242">242</span> -and a little alum, or dextrine, or common -mucilage, we shall have the same result. It can also -be worked with thin varnish or gutta-percha cement; -also with diluted sulphuric or nitric acids to produce -a hard substance. It may here be observed that -<i>bread</i> is for certain work far superior to flour or starch -paste, since the combination with <i>yeast</i> causes a development -of cellular tissue, the result of which is a -firmer and more wax-like substance. I was led to -observe this at first, not from what I read of the action -of acids on bread, but from observing the bread-flowers -made by the Italian peasantry to adorn images of -saints. I believe that in these there is a little vinegar -mixed. They are quite wax-like. The bread used -should be soft household bread, of course well kneaded -with the acid and colours. Bread-paste would -probably combine well with indiarubber in solution.</p> - -<p>Of late, German illustrated newspapers have published -patterns of small ornamental dishes made of -dough or bread, intended to receive conserves of fruit -and other edibles—the dishes themselves not being -intended to be eaten.</p> - -<p>Soft bread with a little varnish or any ordinary -gum and a little glycerine, well worked, makes an admirable -filler for cracks in wood. Combined with -any gum, or even with tragacanth or peach or cherry -gum, and lamp-black (or liquid Indian ink), it forms -a cement which resembles ebony. The more thoroughly -it is macerated the harder it will be. Casts -of panels, &c., made with this are really beautiful. -Rub with oil and the hand after it is quite dry. Add -a few drops of glycerine and alum in solution to prevent -cracking, or, better, a <i>little</i> indiarubber. Soft -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_243">243</span> -rye bread hardens to a rather tougher cement than -wheat. Bread cement makes an admirable ground -for gilding or painting. Bread macerated with lime -and white of egg forms a very hard composition like -ivory. Bread, glue, and glycerine, <i>ditto</i>.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Horse-Chestnut Paste.</span>—This is called a cement, -but it is properly a paste like that of flour. Horse-chestnuts -are generally neglected, but they can be -profitably utilised for paste, which admits of the same -combinations as flour.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Waste tea-leaves</span> from which the tea has been extracted -can be macerated with gum and treated as -rose-leaves to form artificial ebony. Carefully separate -all the hard portions.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Gum for general use</span>, like gum-arabic:—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Common sugar, by weight</td> - <td class="tdr">12</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Water</td> - <td class="tdr">36</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Slacked lime</td> - <td class="tdr">3</td> - </tr></table> - -<p>Stir the lime into the warm solution of sugar and -water. Keep it boiling and stir it often for one hour. -Pour off the liquid from the lees of the lime. This -gum also admits of modifications. One of these is -the well-known <span class="smcap">Syndetikon</span>, which is made as follows:—To -fifteen parts of the sugar and lime solution -add three of good glue, leaving them to soak for -twenty-four hours; warm gradually, and frequently -stir, till the glue is dissolved. Then let it boil for a -few minutes. This makes a good plain cement, -which serves to unite paper, leather, glass, or porcelain. -It, however, spots or changes colour in -paper, &c. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_244">244</span></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">A general cement</span>, which may be used for joining -metal and glass, stone, tiles, &c., is thus made:—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Plaster of Paris</td> - <td class="tdr">21</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Iron filings</td> - <td class="tdr">3</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Water</td> - <td class="tdr">10</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>White of eggs</td> - <td class="tdr">4</td> - </tr></table> - -<p><span class="smcap">The general mending cement</span> so commonly sold -consists of nothing but—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Gum-arabic</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Plaster of Paris</td> - <td class="tdr">3</td> - </tr></table> - -<p>This must be mixed with water when used. It -does not, however, resist the action of hot water.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">A cement which resists acids</span> is made as follows:—Indiarubber -is dissolved in double its weight of -linseed-oil, and kneaded to a dough with white bolus. -Should the cement harden too quickly, add to it a -little litharge.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Indiarubber cement for chemical apparatus</span>:—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Indiarubber</td> - <td class="tdr">8</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Tallow</td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Linseed-oil</td> - <td class="tdr">16</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>White bolus</td> - <td class="tdr">3</td> - </tr></table> - -<p>This does not resist high temperature, but is good -against acids.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Scheibler’s cement for chemical apparatus</span>:—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Gutta-percha</td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Wax</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Shellac</td> - <td class="tdr">3</td> - </tr></table> - -<p><span class="smcap">Sorel’s Cement.</span>—This consists of oxide of zinc -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_245">245</span> -combined with its chloride. The chloride of zinc is -in a heavy, syrupy form, which, combined with the -white oxide, sets very hard. It is chiefly used for -filling teeth, but is also applicable to making medallions -and other objects of art. For this latter purpose -it is mixed with powdered chalk, pulverised glass, &c. -The process of preparing and combining the ingredients -of this cement is, however, so tedious that it is -most unlikely that the ordinary repairer will care to -attempt it; the more so as there are many preparations -far superior to it.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Glue for tapestry</span>, &c.:—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Flour-paste</td> - <td class="tdr">100</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Alum water</td> - <td class="tdr">3</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Dextrine-paste</td> - <td class="tdr">5</td> - </tr></table> - -<p>This may also be applied in many ways.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">To lute stills</span>, &c.:—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Glue in powder</td> - <td class="tdr">20</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Flour</td> - <td class="tdr">10</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Bran</td> - <td class="tdr">5</td> - </tr></table> - -<p>To be well mixed with water.</p> - -<p>As alum cannot be affected by petroleum, it is used -to fasten rings to petroleum-lamp holders. These -are lined with alum which has been melted by heat. -Alum melted forms a strong cement for glass and -metal.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Paste for Wall-Paper.</span>—Ten parts of flour are -made into common paste; add one of glue boiled in -hot water; add to the whole one-twentieth part of -white of egg. This holds very firmly. Paste made -with flour and gum-arabic, &c., does not mould or -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_246">246</span> -turn sour if it be mixed with a few drops of oil of -cloves or carbolic acid.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Clay Mortar.</span>—Where lime cannot be had, a very -good mortar for chimneys may be made by mixing -clay with common molasses. This is said (<span class="smcap">Lehner</span>) -to resist the action of heat when well dried.</p> - -<p>Another fireproof cement is made as follows:—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Clay</td> - <td class="tdr">40</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Flint-sand</td> - <td class="tdr">40</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Slacked lime</td> - <td class="tdr">4</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Borax</td> - <td class="tdr">2</td> - </tr></table> - -<p>This is mixed with a very little water. It is used -as a wash, and should, when dry, be heated by fire.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Log cabins</span> and houses built with wood are, in -America, often swarming with vermin to a degree -which would seem incredible. In all such cases the -joints and cavities should be well packed and plastered -with cement—lime if possible—and then whitewashed. -Rat-holes should be plugged with stones or -gravel and then cemented.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Zeiodeleth.</span>—Vessels of wood, iron, stoneware, or -of moulded cement, are often eaten away by the action -of acids and alkalies. To prevent this they are -in Germany coated with a composition called <i>Zeiodeleth</i>. -In its simplest form this is simply sulphur mixed -with <i>very finely</i> sifted flint-sand, or else ground glass, -chinaware, or stone. Of this thin plates are also -made to coat such vessels, or even to form them.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Merrick’s Zeiodeleth</span>:—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Sulphur</td> - <td class="tdr">20</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Glass-powder</td> - <td class="tdr">40 -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_247">247</span></td> - </tr></table> - -<p><span class="smcap">Böttger’s Zeiodeleth</span> (<span class="smcap">Lehner</span>):—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Powdered flint</td> - <td class="tdr">90</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Graphite</td> - <td class="tdr">10</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Sulphur</td> - <td class="tdr">100</td> - </tr></table> - -<h3>I.</h3> - -<p><span class="smcap">A fluid paste</span> is made by pouring into a porcelain -jar 5 kilogrammes of potato-starch with 6 kilogrammes -of water and 250 grammes of white nitric -acid. Keep the whole in a warm place for forty-eight -hours, stirring it frequently, and then boil it till -syrupy and transparent. Add a little water, or sufficient -to make it fluid enough to be filtered through a -closely woven towel.</p> - -<h3>II.</h3> - -<p>Dissolve 5 kilogrammes of gum-arabic to 1 of sugar -in 5 quarts of water, adding 50 grammes of nitric -acid; warm to boiling, and then add No. I. The -result is a perfectly fluid adhesive, which will not -mould, and dries on paper with a glaze. It is adapted -for postage-stamps, marking over impressions, and -fine stationery.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Durable Flour-Paste for Stationers.</span>—Take -good flour-paste, adding to it while boiling one-tenth -part of clear liquid glue, to be well stirred in. Add -a few drops of carbolic acid or oil of cloves. Keep it -corked in wide-mouthed, large vials.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Dry Cement, or Travellers’ Glue</span>:—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Glue</td> - <td class="tdr">600</td> - <td>grms.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Sugar</td> - <td class="tdr">250</td> - <td class="tdc">” -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_248">248</span></td> - </tr></table> - -<p>The glue must be of the best quality, and perfectly -melted in water, as usual, and the sugar stirred in. -It is then steamed away until it becomes hard when -cold. To use, place it in hot water, when it at once -liquefies. This is specially used for paper.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Coating to protect trees from insects</span>:—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Colophonium (resin)</td> - <td class="tdr">100</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Common soap</td> - <td class="tdr">100</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Tar</td> - <td class="tdr">50</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Whale-oil</td> - <td class="tdr">25</td> - </tr></table> - -<p>Smear the trunks of the trees with this. It may -also be put on sheets of brown paper to catch flies.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Cement for Filling.</span>—Take fresh curd (caseine), -and knead it with water to a putty. It can be used -in this state for many purposes. To greatly harden -it, add one-twentieth of its weight in lime, and more -or less of some indifferent substance, such as chalk, -calcined magnesia, oxide of zinc, and colouring matter. -This sets so hard that it may be used to make -casts or many small works of art.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">French Glues.</span>—Two very excellent glues used in -France are the <i>colle forte de Flandre</i> and that of <i>Givet</i>. -<span class="smcap">Goupil</span> recommends as the best glue, where a very -superior article is required, one made of equal parts -of the two. Break them up, let the pieces remain -fifteen hours in water, then boil for two hours in the -<i>bain-marie</i>, or glue-kettle. After a time the glue will -settle and become clear. Add, if needed, a little -water from the <i>bain-marie</i>.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">To give a Satin Gloss to Paper.</span>—Paint with a -broad, soft brush on the paper with a solution of -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_249">249</span> -hypo-sulphite of barium (chemically expressed by -BaS<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>). It may be laid on by itself or mingled with -a colour. It is used sometimes by bookbinders. -This may be applied in water-colour pictures to the -imitation of silk or satin.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Gomme laque</span>, or shellac, also gelatine glue, is sold -in thin leaves. To prepare it, put into a <i>bain-marie</i> -twenty parts of the gum to one of flowers of sulphur, -stir it well, and add a little lukewarm water. It may -be made into little bars by hand; let them cool, and -warm them when required for use.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">A very good cement</span>, which, according to <span class="smcap">Fred. -Dillaye</span>, is both fire and water proof, is made as follows:—Take -half-a-pint of milk, as much vinegar, -mix them, and take away the whey. Add the white -of five eggs to the curd, mix the whole well, and add -so much finely sifted quicklime as will form a paste.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Snail Cement.</span>—It is said that snails or slugs, -mashed, form a strong and hard glue. This is probable; -also, that it would combine with powdered -quicklime, or carbonate of lime in powder, to set very -hard.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">To mend marble</span> use shellac in leaves, mixed with -white wax.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">To mend alabaster</span> use gum-arabic mixed with -powdered alabaster. This is also useful for many -other purposes.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">A cement</span> useful for many purposes, also as a -ground for painting, is made as follows:—Take barley -and soak it in six equivalents of water for several -days, or till the barley expands or sprouts. Throw -out the barley, after pressing it. This gives a glutinous -liquid, which, combined with pipeclay and white -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_250">250</span> -soap, sets hard. It is improved by adding the powder -of calcined bone. Barley water may also be used -in many other combinations. Gum-arabic and thin -glue, dextrine, and fish-glue may be used in its place.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">A strong cement for horn or tortoise-shell</span>:—</p> - -<table> - <tr> - <td>Glue (fluid)</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - <td>½</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Sugar-candy</td> - <td class="tdr">3</td> - <td /> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Gum-arabic</td> - <td /> - <td>¾</td> - </tr></table> - -<p>The two latter to be dissolved in six parts of water.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Another for the same</span>:—Take strong lime-water; -combine it with new cheese. The latter is to be -mixed with two parts of water, so as to form a soft -mass. Pour into this the lime-water, but see that -there is no solid cheese in it. This will form a liquid -which can be used as a cement.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Cat-gut</span>, which is, however, made from the intestines -of sheep, &c., is of great service in some kinds -of repairing, owing to its strength. It can be made -into very small cord, which will sustain a man.</p> - -<p>Very strong cords for fishermen are also said to be -made by taking silkworms just before they spin, cutting -them open, and using the silk, which is then -found in a solid, longish lump, and which can be artificially -drawn out into any shape. It is probable that -the silk in this state could be thinned and applied in -combination with fibre to produce useful results. It -is also probable that this substance, or the silk <i>en -masse</i>, could be used for mending silk fabrics in many -ways. It could be produced very cheaply, because -the greatest expense in manufacturing silk is the reeling, -winding, and spinning the thread.</p> - -<p>An incredibly strong and serviceable silk is spun -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_251">251</span> -by the <i>elm-worm</i>, which can be raised in any quantities -wherever elm-trees abound. This is much cultivated -in China, and it is said that garments made of -its silk descend from father to son. It is several times -larger than the silkworm, and survives even the severe -winters of Canada. It would be much easier to raise -than the delicate <i>bombyx</i>, or common silkworm. It is -worth noting that a man can carry easily in his pocket -fifty yards of cat-gut or elm worm silk cord strong -enough to sustain his weight, which is very useful -for travellers to know, since it is useful to mend harness -or tether horses.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">To soften Horn.</span>—This material can be softened -so as to bend in hot water. It requires long boiling. -According to Geissler, a horn can be moulded to -shape by steeping the horn for two or three days in -half a kilogramme of black alicant, 375 grammes of -newly calcined lime, and 2 litres (two full quarts) of -hot water. Should the mixture assume a reddish -colour it is all right; if not, add more alicant and -lime. After the horn has been moulded, dry it in -well-dried common salt. Horn shavings and filings -are made into a paste, which hardens by being in a -strong solution of potash and slacked lime, in which -it becomes jelly-like and can be moulded. This must -be subjected to pressure to expel the moisture. By -adding a little glycerine its brittleness is much diminished.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Artificial Bonework.</span>—Reduce the bone or ivory -to a very fine, flour-like powder, mix it very thoroughly -with the white of eggs, and a very hard and -tough mass will be the result. This can be turned -and highly polished. This is improved in hardness -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_252">252</span> -and quality by grinding the mass again and subjecting -it to heat and pressure (<i>Die Verarbeitung Hornes, -&c.</i>, von Louis Edgar Andés; Vienna, 1892).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">To properly dust Clothes.</span>—The following extract -on cleaning garments is taken from my forthcoming -work, entitled <i>One Hundred Arts</i>:—</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>“The obvious way to remove dust from a coat—as -some take evil out of children (<i>vide</i> <span class="smcap">Northcote’s</span> -<i>Fables</i>)—is by whipping or beating with a stick. -This, indeed, effects the purpose, but it speedily -breaks the fibre of the cloth. Therefore in Germany, -as in Italy, a little <i>bat</i> plaited of split cane or reeds is -employed to exorcise the demon of dust, known as -<i>Pāpākeewis</i> to the Chippeways. But better than this -is a small <i>whisp-broom</i>. Half a century ago this simple -contrivance was only known in the United States -and in Poland.</p> - -<p>“Whip the garment with the <i>side</i> of the soft whisp, -and as the dust rises to the surface brush it away. -If the reader will try this on any coat, however clean -it may be, he will be astonished to find how much -dust he will extract or raise.</p> - -<p>“All the dust which thus lies hidden in cloth, when it -comes to the surface, acts as <i>grit</i> or powder insensibly -but certainly, and helps to wear away the surface -whenever it is touched. That we take in dust every -time we go out will appear from inspecting a silk hat. -Again, the dust on a coat, &c., every time it is rubbed -by the cleanest hand, takes in grease, which in time -aids in spoiling the surface. In fact, half the wear-out -of all cloth is due to dust alone.</p> - -<p>“Therefore, if we <i>carefully</i> dust our clothes with a -whisp, every time we take them off, fold them with -care, and lay them in a drawer, they will last much -longer than they do. Pure air free from dust is as -conducive to the well-being of coats as to that of their -wearers, and Dominie Sampson uttered more truth -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_253">253</span> -than he imagined when he observed that the atmosphere -of his patron’s dwelling was singularly preservative -of broadcloth.”</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>In proof of this it may be observed, that as a sandblast -attacks some substances exclusively, so dust or -grit injures certain fabrics and not others, and that -the latter are all known as the more lasting fabrics. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_254">254</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_255">255</span></p> - -<h2 id="INDEX">INDEX</h2> - -<ul class="index"><li class="ifrst">Accuracy and care required in making cements, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Adding art to arts, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Alabaster, to mend, <a href="#Page_249">249</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Allston</span>, the painter, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Alum as a base, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Amber, repairing and imitating, <a href="#Page_156">156-158</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">carving amber, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li> - -<li class="indx">American cement, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li> - -<li class="indx">American glaze for postage-stamps, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Andés, Louis Edgar</span>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">varnishes, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on ivory and bone, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on working horn, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Arabic, gum, cement of, with vinegar, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Avoiding excess in cementing, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Badly bound books, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Baer, J.</span>, catalogue on glass, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bark, powdered, combined with glue, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Barley cement, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bases for beads, &c., <a href="#Page_234">234</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Bayard, Miss Catherine L.</span>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bell made of a bottle, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bent leaves in books, or dog’s ears, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Benzoin, gum, or <i>lac virginis</i>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Binding books, <a href="#Page_97">97-100</a> (<i>illustrations</i>), <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Blood in cements, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Blowpipe, the, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Boats or canoes made from shavings, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Boiling china in milk, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bone, calcined, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">artificial, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bookbinders’ varnish, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">glue, <a href="#Page_235">235</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Books, repairing and restoring, <a href="#Page_86">86-120</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Book-worms, <a href="#Page_115">115-120</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Böttger’s</span> cement for pavements, stone slabs, &c., <a href="#Page_29">29</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">acid-proof cement, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bottles, cracked, how to mend, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">to close (a cement), <a href="#Page_44">44</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">to cork or seal them firmly, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">to seal, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Brass-ware, to look like gold, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bread cement, <a href="#Page_241">241-243</a> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_256">256</span></li> - -<li class="indx">Bread in cements, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Brewster</span>, Sir D., <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Brickwork tiles, how to repair, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Burnished steel or iron work, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Canes and bows made of shavings, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Caoutchouc, indiarubber, gutta-percha, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cardboard or pasteboard as hard as wood, how to make, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Carpenters’ cement, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Carton-cuir</i>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Carton-pierre</i>, or “stone-paper,” to make, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Caseine or cheese in cements, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Castellani</span>, Signore, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cat-gut, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cedar, to imitate, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cellular tissue, cause of hardening in organic substances, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Celluloid, or artificial ivory, its raw materials, manufacture, &c., by Dr. <span class="smcap">F. Bockmann</span>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cellulose, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">how discovered and made, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">to prepare it with acid, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cement, or adhesive, definition, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">for broken glass or china, <a href="#Page_23">23-49</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">for glass, china, leather, &c., <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">for wood, <a href="#Page_76">76-83</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">for horses’ hoofs, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">to attach metal, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ceresa, or mosaic in powder, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Chalk, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Chamois-leather in repairs, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Chemical apparatus, cement for, <a href="#Page_244">244</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Chestnut, horse, paste, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></li> - -<li class="indx">China, broken, porcelain, crockery, majolica, terra-cotta, brick and tile work, <a href="#Page_12">12-32</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Chinese transparent vases, a lost art rediscovered, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Chloride of zinc cement, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cholula, vase from, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Chrome glue, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Chunam</i>, or Indian shell-lime, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Circles, to draw, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Clamps, or strips of sheet-iron or wire, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Claude</span> and <span class="smcap">Vandervelde</span>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Claus’s</span> cement for metal and glass, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Clay and molasses mortar, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Closing wine-bottles, old method, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cloth-dust on gum in decoration, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cloth, waterproofed, recipe for, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">felt, how to make, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Clothes, to properly dust and keep clean, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Coarse cements for brick, &c., <a href="#Page_139">139</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cobbling and shoemaking, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cologne, eau de, <a href="#Page_237">237</a> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_257">257</span></li> - -<li class="indx">Concrete, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Copal, gum, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Coral, imitation of, <a href="#Page_209">209</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Corks, to improve, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cracking of seasoned wood in America, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cracks in furniture, filling, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Crane, Walter</span>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Crockery, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Crockery or china, mosaic made from broken fragments, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cups and vases of <i>papier-maché</i>, how to make (<i>illustration</i>), <a href="#Page_172">172</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst"><span class="smcap">Davidowsky, F.</span>, on glue and gelatine, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Decayed wood, to restore, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Decorator, The</i>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Defacing books, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Delille</span>, alleged inventor of wiring porcelain, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Deterioration in pictures, causes of, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Dextrine, or <i>Leiokom</i>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">gum, <a href="#Page_238">238</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Diamond cement, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>. (<i>Vide</i> Turkish)</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Dillaye, F.</span>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Dillaye’s</span> cement, <a href="#Page_249">249</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Dirt in old pictures, its nature, <a href="#Page_215">215</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Domes or arched roofs, building, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Drake</span>, Sir W., <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Drawers, to put handles to, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">shrinking of them, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Dry cleaning, <a href="#Page_220">220</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Dürer, Albert</span>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Dusting broken china, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Earthenware tubes, how to lute, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ebonite, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ebony, repairing or imitating, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Eder’s</span> gum for photographs, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Eggs in cements, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li> - -<li class="indx">“Egyptian Sketch-Book,” <a href="#Page_210">210</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Elmworm silk, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Embossing leather, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Engraving and etching glass or china, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Erasures in paper, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Essential oils in cleaning pictures, <a href="#Page_225">225</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Etruscan vases repaired, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Excess of cleaning and ignorance as to effects by age, <a href="#Page_214">214</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Fastening broken furniture, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Fictile or ceramic ware, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Field</span>, “Chromatography” <a href="#Page_210">210</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Fillers for wood, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Fire-proof paper, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Floors laid with shavings, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Flour and starch paste, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Flour-paste, to make a strong, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Flowers made from wood-shavings and plaster of Paris, glue, &c., <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Fluid paste, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Flour spar cement, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Flux, vitreous or metallic, <a href="#Page_17">17</a> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_258">258</span></li> - -<li class="indx">Forgeries in antiques, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li> - -<li class="indx">French glue for wood, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> - -<li class="indx">French glues, <a href="#Page_248">248</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Furniture, cheap and bad, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Furniture-making, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst"><span class="smcap">Garman, Samuel</span>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Garments, invisible mending of, <a href="#Page_202">202-205</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Gelatine and vinegar cement for china, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li> - -<li class="indx">General cements, <a href="#Page_244">244</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Gerner, Raimund</span>, <i>Die Glas Fabrikation</i>, by, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Gesso-painting, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Glass-mending, with allied processes, <a href="#Page_33">33-49</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">old proverb on, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Glass-powder, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">how to prepare, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Glass, to pulverise, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Glazed or patent leather, how to make, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Glaze-mediums, <a href="#Page_228">228</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Gloves, how cleaned, <a href="#Page_238">238</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Glue, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">and lime cement, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">for coarse work, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">waterproof, <a href="#Page_186">186</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Glycerine, in cements, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">with glue, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Gomme laque</i>, or shellac, <a href="#Page_249">249</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Goupil, F.</span>, Manual of Mending, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Grease-spots, to remove, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Green</span>, Dr. <span class="smcap">Samuel A.</span>, on book-worms, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Grinding off fractures in glass, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ground for wax-painting, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Grounds of pictures, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Guards for mending broken fictile wares, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Gum for general use, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Gum-mastic, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Gum (or starch), <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Gutta-percha and oil cement for mending soles, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Gutta-percha cement for leather, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Gypsum, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Hard cement for all wood, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Harness, saddle, and bridle repairing, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hats, blankets, &c., to mend by felting, <a href="#Page_199">199-201</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Heating wood before glueing, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Heigelin</span>, Professor, exhibition of flowers made from shavings, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hide, raw, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Hildebrand, Wolfgang</span>, on liquid glass, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Hofer, Johannes</span>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Hofer, Raimund</span>, on indiarubber, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Holding together broken china while mending, &c., <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Holes in leather repaired with linen, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Horn, to mould or soften, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Hubbard, Ernst</span>, “The rendering Valuable of Refuse Wood,” by, <a href="#Page_69">69</a> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_259">259</span></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Hyatt’s</span> patent ivory, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hydraulic lime, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Ignorance, general, as to cleaning pictures, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Imitation indiarubber cloth, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Imperfect work, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Indiarubber, applied to soles of shoes, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">or vulcanised cement, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Indifferent substances, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ink-stains, to remove, <a href="#Page_90">90-94</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Inserting pieces in china, &c., <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Iron cements to resist heat, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Iron doors of furnaces, how to seal hermetically, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Iron in cements, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Iron strips and bands in repairing, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Iron, to set in stone, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Iron ware, or block cement, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ironwork, setting a cement for, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Italian peasants’ shoes (<i>illustration</i>), <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ivory, repairing and imitating, <a href="#Page_143">143-155</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">cleaning, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">imitations, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">staining, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">softening, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Jewellers’ cement, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>. (<i>Vide</i> Turkish)</li> - -<li class="indx">Jewellers’ or Diamond cement, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Jewesses, repair of embroidery by, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Joco-Seriorum Naturæ et Artis</i>,</li> - -<li class="isub1">1670, story from, referring to broken pottery, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Join, to, glass and metal, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Joints in timbers, holes and cracks, how to close, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Junemann, F.</span>, <i>Die Fabrikation des Alauns</i>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Kaleidoscope, folding, how to make a, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Kauri, the gum, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Kelp, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Kettenstich</i>, for German chain-stitch, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Kircher, Athanasius</span>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Knotting, patent, <a href="#Page_72">72-74</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Koppe, J. W.</span>, on glycerine, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Krall, Barkentin &</span>, brass-cleaner, <a href="#Page_235">235</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Kratzer, Harrmann</span>, on liquid glass, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Lacquers, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Layard</span>, Sir <span class="smcap">Austin</span>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lead pencil or crayon drawings, to protect, <a href="#Page_233">233</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Leather, artificial, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Leather, durability of, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Leather-glue, <a href="#Page_197">197</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Leather-Work, Manual of, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Leather-work, repairing, <a href="#Page_183">183-198</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Lehner</span>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Leland, Charles G.</span>, quotation from, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lemon-juice to whiten the hands, <a href="#Page_236">236</a> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_260">260</span></li> - -<li class="indx">Lime, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lime cement for glass, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Liquid acid glue, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">recipe for, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Lister, Miss Roma</span>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">MS. of Recipes, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Litharge cements for many uses, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Luther, Martin</span>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Luting cement, <a href="#Page_235">235</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Luting or closing chemical apparatus, &c., cements for, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Magnesia, calcined, to extract stains, <a href="#Page_238">238</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Majolica, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Malleable glass, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Manuel Général du Modelage</i>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Marble, fractures, &c., in, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">how to clean, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">to mend, <a href="#Page_249">249</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Marine glue, hard glue, recipe and description, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Marking-ink, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Marquetry, or inlaid wood, repairing, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83-85</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mastic, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">French mastic, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Materials used in mending, <a href="#Page_1">1-11</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Meerschaum pipes, to mend or make, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mending cloth with indiarubber, <a href="#Page_165">165-168</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mending furniture, <a href="#Page_74">74-76</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mending or repairing defined, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Merrick’s</span> acid-proof cement, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Merritt, Henry</span>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Metal, to attach leather to, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Metal-work, mending, <a href="#Page_169">169-182</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Metallic corners for books (<i>illustrations</i>), <a href="#Page_104">104-106</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mica, leaves of, how to prepare them for windows, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Mierzinski</span>, Dr. <span class="smcap">Stanislaus</span>, on the manufacture of paper, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Minor ingredients in cements, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mirror with ornaments (<i>illustration</i>), <a href="#Page_85">85</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Mogford, Henry</span>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219-222</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mosaics, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mother-of-pearl and coral, mending, <a href="#Page_206">206-209</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">how imitated, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">from rice, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mould or mildew in pictures, <a href="#Page_226">226</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mouth-glue, or solid cement, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Musical glasses of different kinds, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Musical instruments repaired with shavings, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Neutral substances in cements, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Oil, as a basis, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">combination, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">softening paint, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Old recipes for mending crockery, <a href="#Page_23">23</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Olympiodorus</span>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li> - -<li class="indx">“One Hundred Arts,” a book by the Author, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ornamenting panes for windows, and doubling them, <a href="#Page_44">44</a> <a href="#Page_45">45</a>; -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_261">261</span></li> -<li class="isub1">beautiful and varied effects, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ornamental work made of shavings, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ox-gall in cleaning pictures, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Oxidised cement, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst"><span class="smcap">Page</span>, the American painter, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pages in books, to repair when torn, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Paget’s</span> French mastic, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pamphlets, binding, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Panel pictures, repairing, with shavings, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">fourteenth century, in distemper, &c., <a href="#Page_227">227</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Panel, warped, how to straighten a, <a href="#Page_228">228</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Panels of artificial wood, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">cements for, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Paper and wood-shavings, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Paper, its composition, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">repairing damaged paper, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Paper-leather, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Papier-mâché</i>, or softened paper, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121-133</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">articles made from, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">moulding, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Paracelsus</span>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Parchment paper, how to prepare, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Parchment, repairing, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">artificial, from paper, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Parland</span>, Mr., <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Paste of starch or flour, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Paste, leather, the same mixed with indiarubber, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">use and preparation, &c., <a href="#Page_186">186</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Paste, bookbinders’, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">shoemakers’, <a href="#Page_197">197</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Patches, inserting, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Patterns cut from wood-shavings (<i>engraving</i>), <a href="#Page_51">51-53</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pavements, to repair different kinds, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Peat, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Philatius</span>, the inventor of book-binding and glue, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pictures, restoring, <a href="#Page_210">210-230</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">glazed and scaling, how to treat, <a href="#Page_226">226</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Plaster of Paris, alum, and glass cement, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Plugging teeth with indiarubber, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Polytechnic cement and imperial liquid glue, also <span class="smcap">Keye’s</span> cement, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Porcelain, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Potatoes as cement, &c., <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pots, cracks in iron, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Prepare, to, wood for paint, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Process of restoring worn and injured binding of a book, and of a bas-relief in leather, <a href="#Page_183">183-185</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Proper paste, the, for wallpaper, waterproof, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pulp, paper, <a href="#Page_130">130-133</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Putty, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst"><span class="smcap">Raufer, G. M.</span>, on meerschaum and amber, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Raw hide, <a href="#Page_233">233</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Recipe, old, for repairing glass, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">definition of, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">general, <a href="#Page_231">231-253</a> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_262">262</span></li> - -<li class="indx">Red cement for iron, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Reliefs cut in brick, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Repainting old pictures, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Repairing wood with paper-pulp, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Resin or pitch, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Restoring fragments of engravings, &c., <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Rice and lime cement, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Rimmel</span>, bookseller in Oxford Street, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ringing or sounding glasses by blowing on them, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Ris-Pacquot, M.</span>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Riveting sheet-metal, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Roller, use of the, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Roman and Hungarian pottery, &c., <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Roman cement, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">for fine mosaics, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Rosewood stain, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Rubbing in colour, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Ruprecht, Karl</span>, on egg substances and albumen, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Ruskin</span>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Rust, how removed, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Rust or oxide cement, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst"><span class="smcap">Salle’s</span> cement for glass, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Satin gloss for paper, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sawdust (<i>vide</i> also Wood-paste or artificial wood), <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Scheibler’s</span> cement, <a href="#Page_244">244</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Schlosser, Edmund</span>, on soldering and metal-work, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Schwartz’s</span> iron cement, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Scissors, cutting glass with, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Scraping varnish, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Screws, to be dipped in oil or boiling wax, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Seams, to repair, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Sedna, Ludwig</span>, on wax, &c., <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sewing or stitching books, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Shoes, easily made, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">indiarubber, to repair, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Side-binding, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Silicate of soda, or liquid glass, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">with colour, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Silico-enamel, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Silk or woolen cloth, to clean, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Silks, black, gummed, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Silkworm gum, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Silver bands, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Snail cement, <a href="#Page_249">249</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Soaps in cleaning pictures, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Solder, <span class="smcap">Newton’s</span> and <span class="smcap">Rose’s</span>, a metallic glass, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Soldering, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Soles, wooden, for shoes, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Sorel’s</span> cement, <a href="#Page_244">244</a></li> - -<li class="indx">South Sea Bubble, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Spirits of wine to remove dry varnish, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Splicing broken rods, spars, &c. (<i>with illustration</i>), <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Spraying, to restore crumbling substances by, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Staining or colouring wood, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Stains, grease, wine, oil, to remove, <a href="#Page_232">232</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Stationer’s paste, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Statues, mending, of plaster of Paris, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Steam, to clean pictures by, <a href="#Page_223">223</a> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_263">263</span></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Stevens’</span> and <span class="smcap">Manders’</span> wood-stains, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Stills, to lute, <a href="#Page_245">245</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Stohmann</span>, classification of cements, with <span class="smcap">Lehner’s</span> extension of it, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Stonework, mending, <a href="#Page_134">134-142</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Stopper, glass, filed to shape, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Stoves, cement for, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Strips or braces on panels, &c., <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Strong adhesives for paper, &c., <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Strong cement, for glass, wood, or stone, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">for porcelain, glass, &c., <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Strop, leather, how to mend a, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sturgeon’s bladder or fish-glue gum, &c., <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Syndetikon, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Tapestry glue, <a href="#Page_245">245</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tarred or tarpaulin paper-bags, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Tausendkünstler</i> of 1782, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tea-leaves, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Terra-cotta, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li> - -<li class="indx">To preserve the contents of bottles when broken, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li> - -<li class="indx">To protect wood under water, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tortoise-shell or horn, cement for, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Toys, mending, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tragacanth, gum, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Transferring pictures, <a href="#Page_225">225</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Travellers’ glue, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Trees: bark, splits or cavities in, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">to protect, <a href="#Page_248">248</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Triangles of tin, &c., used to fasten panes of glass, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Tribune</i>, the New York, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Trunks, mending, <a href="#Page_190">190</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tufa cement, <a href="#Page_235">235</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Turkish or diamond cement, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Turpentine, a counteracting medium of solvent spirit, <a href="#Page_220">220</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst"><span class="smcap">Ulenhuth, Eduard</span>, on moulding, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst"><span class="smcap">Vandyke</span>, picture by, <a href="#Page_222">222</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Van Helmont</span> on liquid glass, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Varnish, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">to remove, <a href="#Page_216">216-220</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Veneers, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Venetian marquetry, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Venetian glass, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Venus mercernaria</i>, or American clam, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Vermin in wooden dwellings, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Vinci, Leonardo da</span>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Vinegar, commonly made from sulphuric acid, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Vitreous paint, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst"><span class="smcap">Wagner, R.</span>, on liquid glass, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Wallberger, Johann</span>, <i>Zauberbuch</i>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234-236</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Wall-paper of wood, used in America, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Wall-paper paste, <a href="#Page_245">245</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Wall-paper with common paste poisonous, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Walls rendered air-tight (recipe), <a href="#Page_164">164</a> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_264">264</span></li> - -<li class="indx">Warped or curved wood, and how to flatten it, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Washing broken china for repairing, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Water in cleaning pictures, <a href="#Page_216">216-218</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Waterproof carpets and wall-covering made from waste-paper, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Waterproof cement, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Wax in cements, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li> - -<li class="indx">White of egg glaze, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Whitewash, to make equal to paint, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Wiegleb, J. C.</span>, quotation from, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Windows, stained glass, works on the subject by <span class="smcap">A. W. Franks</span>, <span class="smcap">Owen Jones</span>, <span class="smcap">Westlake</span>, &c., <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Wine-stains, to remove, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Wire, for mending china, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in repairing, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Wire-mending, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Wood-ashes in picture-cleaning, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Wood-Carving, a Manual of, by <span class="smcap">Charles Godfrey Leland</span>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Wood-paste, or artificial wood, <a href="#Page_63">63</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li> -<li class="isub1">houses can be made of it, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Wood-shavings in mending and making, <a href="#Page_50">50-57</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Woodwork, repairing, <a href="#Page_58">58-85</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Woollen cloth, to clean, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Work</i>, a scientific journal, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Worms in wood, to exterminate, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Wrinkles and freckles, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst"><i>Zeiodeleth</i>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Zinc, a cement for, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="smcap">Zwick</span>, Dr. H., on lime and mortar, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in <i>Hydraulischer Kalk und Portland Cement</i>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li></ul> - -<p class="caption">THE END</p> - -<div class="footnotes"> - -<h2 id="FOOTNOTES">FOOTNOTES:</h2> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1" href="#FNanchor_1" class="label">1</a> -<i>Ceresa</i> is the setting of powdered glass of different colours -in a cement bed. Mosaic cubes are often combined with it.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_2" href="#FNanchor_2" class="label">2</a> -<i>Vide</i> “Wood-Carving,” by <span class="smcap">Charles Godfrey Leland</span>, -F.R.L.S., M.A. (London, Whittaker & Co., 5s.), for a chapter -on this subject.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_3" href="#FNanchor_3" class="label">3</a> -For fullest details as to the treatment of horn, the reader -may consult <i>Die Verarbeitung des Hornes</i>, &c., by <span class="smcap">Louis E. -Andés</span>, in which he will also find full details as to dyeing ivory.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_4" href="#FNanchor_4" class="label">4</a> -The late <span class="smcap">W. W. Story</span>, the sculptor and man of letters.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_5" href="#FNanchor_5" class="label">5</a> -“Handbook on the Preservation of Pictures,” by <span class="smcap">Henry -Mogford</span>; twelfth edition, revised. London: Winsor & Newton, -1s.</p></div></div> - -<div class="transnote"> -<h3>Transcriber’s Note:</h3> - -<p>Obvious printer errors corrected silently.</p> - -<p>Inconsistent spelling and hyphenation are as in the original.</p> - -</div> - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of A manual of Mending and Repairing with -diagrams, by Charles Godfrey Leland - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MENDING, REPAIRING, WITH DIAGRAMS *** - -***** This file should be named 61786-h.htm or 61786-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/6/1/7/8/61786/ - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Wayne Hammond and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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