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If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: A manual of Mending and Repairing with diagrams - -Author: Charles Godfrey Leland - -Release Date: April 8, 2020 [EBook #61786] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MENDING, REPAIRING, WITH DIAGRAMS *** - - - - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Wayne Hammond and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - - - - - A MANUAL OF - - MENDING AND REPAIRING - - WITH DIAGRAMS - - BY - - CHARLES GODFREY LELAND - - NEW YORK - - DODD, MEAD AND COMPANY - 1896 - -COPYRIGHT, 1896, - -BY DODD, MEAD AND COMPANY. - -BURR PRINTING HOUSE, FRANKFORT AND JACOB STS., N. Y. - - - - -CONTENTS - - - PAGES - - INTRODUCTION vii-xxiii - - MATERIALS USED IN MENDING 1-11 - - MENDING BROKEN CHINA, PORCELAIN, CROCKERY, MAJOLICA, - TERRA-COTTA, BRICK AND TILE WORK 12-32 - - MENDING GLASS, TOGETHER WITH SEVERAL ALLIED PROCESSES: - APPROVED CEMENTS--SILICATE OF SODA 33-49 - - WOOD-SHAVINGS IN MENDING AND MAKING MANY OBJECTS--ORNAMENTAL - WORK OF SHAVINGS--MARQUETRY--REPAIRING - PANEL PICTURES WITH SHAVINGS 50-57 - - REPAIRING WOODWORK 58-85 - - ON REPAIRING AND RESTORING BOOKS, MANUSCRIPTS, AND - PAPERS, WITH DIRECTIONS FOR EASY BINDING AND - PAPER-MENDING--BOOK-WORMS--THE RAVAGES OF - BOOK-WORMS 86-120 - - PAPIER-MÂCHÉ: REPAIRING TOYS--MAKING GROUNDS FOR - PICTURES AND WALLS--CARTON-CUIR AND CARTON-PIERRE 121-133 - - MENDING STONE-WORK: MOSAICS--CERESA-WORK--PORCELAIN - OR CROCKERY MOSAIC 134-142 - - REPAIRING IVORY 143-155 - - REPAIRING AMBER: HOW TO PERFECTLY RE-JOIN BROKEN - AMBER, AND TO IMITATE IT--HOW TO MELT AMBER IN - FRAGMENTS TO A SINGLE BODY 156-158 - - INDIARUBBER AND GUTTA-PERCHA: MENDING INDIARUBBER - SHOES AND MAKING GARMENTS WATERPROOF, WITH - OTHER APPLICATIONS 159-168 - - MENDING METAL-WORK OR REPAIRING BY MEANS OF IT: - FIREPROOF CEMENTS, WITH IRON BINDERS 169-182 - - REPAIRING LEATHER-WORK: TRUNKS, SHOES, OR IN ANY - OTHER FORMS--JOINING STRAPS--MAKING CHEAP - SHOES 183-198 - - TO MEND HATS, BLANKETS, AND SIMILAR FABRICS BY - FELTING 199-201 - - INVISIBLE MENDING OF GARMENTS, LACES, OR EMBROIDERIES 202-205 - - MENDING MOTHER-OF-PEARL AND CORAL 206-209 - - RESTORING AND REPAIRING PICTURES 210-230 - - GENERAL RECIPES 231-253 - - - INDEX 255-264 - - - - -INTRODUCTION - - -The author of this work modestly trusts that all who read it with -care will admit that in it he has distinctly shown that mending or -repairing, which has hitherto been regarded as a mere adjunct to other -arts, is really an art by itself, if not a science, since it is based -on chemical and other principles, which admit of extensive application -and general combination. It has its _laws_--a fact which has never been -hinted at by any writer, since all recipes for restoration in existence -are each singly inventions made to suit certain cases. This work has -been conceived on a different principle. - -A thorough knowledge of this art of repairing, mending, or restoring -various objects is of very great value, since there is no household -in which it is not often called into requisition. In the kitchen or -drawing-room, in the library and nursery, there are daily breakages, -of which a large and needless proportion are losses, simply because -such a man as a general mender, who is accomplished in _all_ branches -of the art, does not exist. And, what is more, it is equally true that -no one has ever realised to what a vast extent mending and saving may -be carried, with a little expenditure of time, practice, and money, -by any intelligent person who will devote serious attention to it. -Within a comparatively few years discoveries in science or in nature -have enlarged the ability of the mender to an extraordinary extent--I -need only mention the applications now made with silicate of soda, -celluloid, gutta percha, and glycerine to confirm what I say--so -largely, indeed, that only the accomplished technologist and chemist -is really aware of what can be done in general repairing compared to -what was possible only a few years ago. I believe that there are few -thoroughly practical persons (and, I may add, few who take an interest -in art in any form, or even in books) who will read this work without -deep interest, and without acquiring information of such value that in -comparison to it the cost of the book will seem a trifle. - -Though mending or restoring is a subject which in some form comes -home to and concerns everybody, and which it is assuredly everybody’s -interest to understand, this is, I believe, the first book in which -its application to a _great_ variety of wants has been made, and that -in such a clearly co-ordinated manner, and according to such a simple -principle, that whoever reads it can have no difficulty in mending any -object, even though it be not described here. In all works of the kind -which I have seen the recipes for repairing have been given simply -according to their _subjects_, without any view to general principles -of application, and a great proportion of these were in turn simply -copied from old books of miscellaneous “receipts,” or newspapers in -which every so-called new discovery is announced as infallible, or -as if it had been tried and tested to perfection. That I have not -recklessly accumulated in this fashion all kinds of _recipes_ to fill -my pages will appear very plainly to every chemist or technologist, -who will perceive that, proceeding from a comprehensive table of -generally recognised and long-tested bases of cements, I have given -deductions and combinations scientifically agreeing with their laws and -with experiment. The true object of giving a great number of recipes -has not been solely or simply to supply the house-keeper or mechanic -with instructions for certain repairs, but also to suggest to the -technologist and inventor new ideas and applications. Thus, when we -know that given proportions of zinc in powder, silicate of soda, and -chalk form a strong cement, resembling zinc, it is as well to suggest -that this may be varied by employing other metals and substances, such -as bronze-powders and mineral oxides, to be always preceded by a little -experiment. I venture to say that any intelligent person who masters -this work can, on this hint, make for himself innumerable inventions; -and I am sure that there is not the editor of a single technological -journal who will not testify to the fact that every year a great many -patents are taken out and fortunes made from recipes which are neither -so scientifically combined nor practically useful as those which I here -give. That there are fortunes still to be made is abundantly proved by -the fact that there are very few people, comparatively speaking, who -know where to get or how to make waterproof glue, or how to mend with -it, neatly and durably, shoes, umbrellas, and many rents in garments; -how to unite a broken strap; mend, by felting, torn hats; rehabilitate -perfectly worm-eaten and torn-away paper; restore decayed broken wood; -or mend, in fact, anything except with common glue or mucilage--both -of which soon give way and crack or melt. So long as such general -ignorance prevails, just so long there will be an opportunity for -the inventor to make and sell cements, and for the repairer to find -employment. - -I call special attention to the fact that this book contains no merely -traditional, untested recipes which have been simply transferred from -one Housekeeper’s Manual to another for generations. Where I have not -been guided by my own personal experience--which is, I venture to say, -not very limited--I have either followed truly scientific works, such -as the three hundred volumes of the Chemical-Technical Library of A. -HARTLEBEN; or, when citing from older authors, have invariably given -recipes which agree with the principles advanced by modern analysts and -inventors. And though not a professor of chemistry, yet, as I studied -it and natural philosophy in my youth under LEOPOLD GMELIN, L. PASSELT, -and Professor JOSEPH HENRY, I trust that I have been sufficiently -qualified to avoid errors in what I have written. In short, that I -have _not_ recklessly accumulated every recipe which I could find, and -that what I give are really trustworthy, will appear plainly to the -chemist or technologist, who will perceive that, proceeding from a -given table of generally recognised and long-tested bases of cements, -&c., I have then given deductions and combinations scientifically -agreeing with their laws and with experiment. My book is not a _pièce -de manufacture_, or of hack-work, but one which is the result of -many years of practical experience in the minor arts and industries, -on which subject alone I have published twenty-two works, without -including pamphlets, lectures, and at least one hundred letters or -articles in leading magazines and newspapers. There is, in short, very -little mending or making described in this book which I have not at one -time or other personally effected, having had all my life a passion for -mending and restoring all kinds of objects, and that scientifically and -thoroughly. - -As I have observed, there is in every household continual breakage -of many kinds--“or of the rending which cries for mending”--it is -a matter of some importance that some one in the family should pay -special attention to such matters. How often have I seen very valuable -objects stuck together--anyhow and clumsily--with putty, wafers, -sealing-wax, glue, flour-paste, or anything which will “hold” for a -time, when a perfect cure might have just as well been effected had the -proper recipe been taken to the first chemist. This is equally true as -regards taking ink or stains out of garments, or repairing the latter -perfectly, or mending shoes or indiarubber cloth, or felting worn hats -and many other articles, all of which are treated of in this work. - -It is true that everybody is not naturally ingenious, or clever, or -gifted, but all may become _skilful menders_ if they will duly consider -the subject (which requires no hard study) and experiment on it a -little. And here I would seriously address a few words to all who are -interested in education. There is a certain faculty which may be called -constructiveness, which is nearly allied to invention, and which is -a marvellous developer in all children of quickness of perception, -thought, or intellect. It is the art of using the fingers to make or -manipulate, in any way; it exists in every human being, and it may -be brought out to an extraordinary degree in the young, as has been -fully tested and proved. Now, if we take two children of the same age, -sex, and capacity, both going to the same school and pursuing the same -studies, and if one of the two devotes from two to four hours a week -to an industrial art class (_i.e._, studying simple original _design_, -easy wood-carving, repoussé, embroidery, &c.), it will be found--as it -has been by very extensive experiment--that the latter child will at -the end of the year excel the former in _all_ branches of learning; -that is to say, in arithmetic or geography, so greatly does ingenuity -proceed from the fingers to the brain. Now, mending is so nearly allied -to all the minor or mechanical arts, it enters into them so closely, -that it in a manner belongs to and is an introduction to them all. -Like them, it stimulates invention or ingenuity, and is perhaps of far -greater practical utility or direct use. Boys and girls learn very -willingly how to mend, and, from a long experience in teaching them, -I should say that a class with experiments and practical instruction -in what is given in this book should take precedence of all carpentry, -metal-work, joining, leather-work, or any other branches whatever. For -it is _easier_ than any of them, and it is of far more general utility, -as the following pages clearly show. Such teaching would cost next to -nothing for outfit, and would be the best introduction to technical -education of all kinds. - -There is an immense amount of breakage in this world, yet, as a French -writer on the subject observes, there are more great artists than good -_menders_; the latter being so extremely rare that proofs of it are -seen in bungling restorations in every museum in Europe, and in the -almost impossibility of finding (out of Italy) men who can perfectly -mend first-class ceramic ware. We see this ignorance in reproductions -of delicate ivory ware coarsely cast in gypsum, and in a vast rejection -and destruction of antiquities in wood, stone, or ceramic ware, simply -because they are most ignorantly supposed to be beyond repair when they -might, with _proper knowledge_, be very easily and cheaply restored, -to great profit. And if the reader will visit the “dead rooms” of -any museum in Europe and then study this book, he will find ample -confirmation of what I say. - -And here I would mention that every collector or owner of any kind of -works of art, of _bric-à-brac_, or curiosities, who will master the art -of mending, can find an illimitable field for picking up bargains in -almost every shop of antiquities in Europe, especially in the smaller -or humbler kind. For it is very far from being true that these dealers -know “how to mend everything;” on the contrary, I have often found -them very ignorant indeed of mending, and have frequently instructed -them in it. Thus I now have before me a “Holy Family” of the early -sixteenth century, bas-relief in stamped leather, twelve inches by -eight, for which I paid two francs, but which I might have had for -one, it being utterly dilapidated, and apparently of no value. In two -or three hours I restored it perfectly, and it would now sell for -perhaps a hundred francs. By it hangs a “Madonna and Child,” painted -on a panel, gold ground, fourteenth century, which, including a very -broad and remarkable old frame, I purchased both for twelve francs. -The panel was warped like a sabre, [Illustration], the colour and -_gesso_ ground badly scaled away in many places. It was split in two -pieces; in short, it appeared to be nearly worthless. Now it is in very -good condition, and would be an ornament to any gallery. As regards -repairing ceramic ware or china, glass, and porcelain, art has of late -years made remarkable advances, this kind of mending being the most in -requisition. As for old carved wood, no matter how badly broken it may -be, eaten away by worms, or rotten, or even wanting large pieces, so -long as its original form is evident, it can be _very easily_ repaired -or restored to all its original beauty and integrity, as I shall -fully explain. In this alone there is a vast field for investment or -money-making, because there are annually destroyed almost everywhere -quantities of old wood-carvings; for, being badly worm-eaten, they are -ignorantly supposed to be irreparable. The same may be said of ancient -carved ivories, which are ready to drop at a touch into dust, as were -those from Nineveh in the British Museum, yet which are now firm and -clear. It is also true of the bindings of old books, many of marvellous -beauty, whether of stamped leather, parchment, or carved. Even more -interesting and curious is the repairing or restoring worm-eaten -manuscripts or papers of any kind, or parchment, the easy process of -filling the holes not being known to many bibliophiles. This art is -becoming known in Germany, where it is not unusual to buy an old book -for a mark, rebind it in hard old parchment, repair it generally for -two or three, and then sell it, according to the subject, for several -hundred or thousand per cent. profit. - -It is greatly to be regretted that it is so little known, especially -in England, that to repair a few holes or restore a little broken, -crumbling carving it is not absolutely necessary to tear down an entire -Gothic church and build a new one, as is so very generally the case. -There is no stone-work, however dilapidated it may be, which cannot be -mended very perfectly, and that in almost all cases with a material -which sets even harder than the original, as was perfectly shown at the -Paris Exhibition of 1889. Dilapidated stone carved work, of all ages -and kinds, which could be perfectly restored to a degree which even -very few artists suspect, abounds in Italy, where it can be purchased -for a song. The song, it is true, is generally sung to a small silver -accompaniment, but the purchaser may make it golden for himself. For -very few know how to restore a knocked-off nose so that the line of -juncture be not visible; yet even this is possible, as I shall show. -And I may here remark that in all the first galleries and museums of -Europe, without one exception, there is abundant evidence to prove -that, of all the arts, the one of repairing and restoring is the one -least understood and most strangely neglected. - -There is hardly a village so small that one man or woman could not make -in it or eke out a living by repairing different objects. In towns and -cities the demand for such work is much greater, for there ladies break -expensive fans and jewellery, and children their dolls and toys, for -mending of which the “rehabilitators” require “much moneys,” especially -in the United States, where prices for anything out of the way are -appalling. - -I would therefore beg all people who are gifted with some small -allowance of “ingenuity,” tact, art, or common-sense to consider that -Mending or Restoring is a calling very easily learned by a little -practice, and one by which a living can be made, even in its humblest -branches, as is shown by the umbrella-menders and chair-caners in the -streets. But common-sense teaches that any one who shall have mastered -all that is explicitly set forth in this book ought certainly to be -able to gain money, even largely; for, as I said, the opportunities -of purchasing dilapidated works of art, mending and selling them, -are innumerable, and Restoration is as yet everywhere in its mere -rudiments and very little practised. That which might be a very great -general industry of vast utility, employing many thousands now idle, -only exists in a hap-hazard, casual way, as dependent on other kinds -of work. But to me it appears as a great art by itself, dependent on -certain principles of general application. And when we consider what -is generally wasted for want of proper knowledge of this great art, it -seems to me to be but rational that if we had in London a school for -teaching mending and restoring in all its branches as a trade, with a -museum to show the public, probably to its great astonishment, what -marvels can be wrought by renewing what is old, it would be of great -service to the country at large. A very little reflection will convince -the least visionary or most practical reader that what is wasted or -annually destroyed of valuable old works, which cannot be replaced, -because they are no longer manufactured, if restored, would form the -basis of a great national industry. It has not as yet, however, entered -into the head of any one to conceive this, simply because no one has -ever been educated as a general restorer, but only in a secondary, -supplementary, small way as a specialist, generally as a botcher. And -I maintain, from no inconsiderable knowledge of the subject, that -the best menders and restorers by far are those who understand the -most branches of their calling. The reason for this is plain; it is -because a repairer, when he comes to some unforeseen difficulty--for -example, in mending china--and finds the cements used are not exactly -applicable, he will, if sensible, think of some other adhesive used in -other kinds of work, or other combinations or appliances. - -I go so far as to say that an exhibition of specimens showing all that -can be done in mending and restoration in ceramic art, leather, carved -stone, books, carved and wrought wood, castings, metal, furniture, -fans, and toys, would probably serve as sufficient beginning to -establish classes and a school. The objects should, when possible, be -accompanied by a duplicate or photograph showing the condition they -were in before restoration, on the principle of the picture-cleaners, -who amaze the public with such startling contrasts of dirt and -splendour. - -How this can all be done will be found in this book, which I venture -to suggest will often be found useful in every family, or wherever -“things” are broken and worn. For the collector of curiosities who -would willingly pick up bargains, I seriously and earnestly commend it -as a _vade mecum_ by means of which he may literally make money in any -shop. For, as I have already said, strange as it may seem, the small -dealers in _bric-à-brac_ are generally very ignorant of all the curious -secrets of restoration, or else they have no time or means to attend to -such work. Again, if the collector has learned what I here teach, he -will often detect restoration allied to forgery in expensive antiques, -guaranteed to be perfect. It has been well observed by M. RIS-PAQUOT, -in his valuable work, _L’Art de restaurer soi-même les Faïences et -Porcelaines_, that it often happens, most unfortunately, that precious -relics whose value is immense, such as the Italian _faïences_ and those -of Palissy or Henri II., come to collections in such a condition, so -pitifully injured, that _de visu_ we cannot buy them because we know -of nobody who can actually restore them, and because this delicate -work requires so much special knowledge. Add to this, that their -great value and rarity disincline us to trust to the first-comer, or -general workman, treasures which he might utterly ruin by clumsiness or -ignorance. - -I may add that I seldom walk out in Florence without seeing old worn -_faïences_ for sale for a mere trifle which with a little retouching, -gilding, and firing could be made quite valuable. In such instances -there need be no complaint of destroying the venerable effect and value -of antiquity. In them antique material may be legitimately employed as -a basis for newer work, especially when it is broken away, worn down -to the core, or full of holes. Now, with what this book teaches in his -mind, the artist or tourist will very soon realise, if he be at all -ingenious, or can avail himself of the aid of some friend who has even -a very slight knowledge of art, that he can at a slight outlay purchase -objects which will become very valuable when afterwards restored at -home. - -As I can imagine no head of a family, and no dealer in miscellaneous -works of art or any small wares, no provider of furniture or furnisher, -to whom this work will not be a most acceptable gift, so I am very -confident that every traveller who has trunks to mend or broken straps -to join, and every emigrant roughing it in the forests or the bush -of Australia or Canada, may learn from it many useful devices, and -the fact that with nothing more than a small tin of liquid glue and -another of indiarubber he can effect more than could be imagined by -any one who has not studied the subject. On this I speak not without -experience, having found that, both as a soldier and a traveller in the -Wild West of America, my knowledge of mending was of great use to my -friends as well as myself. A perusal of the Index of what is here given -will satisfy the reader that this manual is in fact a _vade mecum_ for -almost all sorts and conditions of men and women, and that there are -none who would not be thankful for it. - -A friend adds to these remarks the suggestion that this work may -properly be included among the presents to a bride as an aid to -housekeeping; and it will probably be admitted that it would prove -quite as useful as many of the gifts which are usually bestowed on such -occasions. - -I have truly said that, while breaking and decay are universal, there -are literally nowhere any generally accomplished repairers--that is to -say, experts who know and can practise even what is set forth in this -book. Certain menders of broken china there are, of whom the great -authority on fictile restoration, RIS-PASQUOT, declares that none -can be trusted with anything valuable. There are so few needle-women -who can sew up a rent perfectly that a lady “to the manor born” paid -in Rome _two pounds_, or _fifty lire_, for being taught the stitch, -described in this book, by which it can be done. That it was a great -secret to an expert and accomplished needle-woman proves that it -cannot be generally known. A house-furnisher in London doing a large -business once explained to me with manifest pride how he had, by dint -of persuasion and treating, obtained from another what is really one -of the simplest recipes for restoring a brown stain. All of this being -true, it is apparent enough that any accomplished mender and restorer, -lady or gentleman, can hardly fail to make a living by the art; and I -sincerely believe that it is the simple truth that it is set forth in -the following pages so fully and clearly that any one who will make the -experiment can learn from it how to make a living. This is effectively, -in all its fulness, a new art and a new calling, and it is time that it -were established. - -It is a great mistake to suppose that manufacturers are necessarily -good menders of what they make. I have found, as have my readers, -that it is not the great watchmaker who oversees the production of -thousands of watches to whom a watch can be most safely trusted for -rehabilitation. For, in nine cases out of ten, it is some extremely -humble brother of the craft, who does nothing but mend in a small -shop, who restores your chronometer most admirably. The same is true -as regards trunks anywhere out of England, since in Germany and France -anything of the kind is invariably botched with incredible want of -skill. This runs through most trades; for which reason I believe that -a really well-accomplished general _mender_, earnestly devoted to the -calling in every detail and resolved to be perfect in it, could ere -long repair better than most manufacturers, since the latter, in these -days, all work by machinery or by vast subdivision of labour, and not, -so to speak, by hand. But all repairing _must_ be by hand. We can make -every detail of a watch or of a gun by machinery, but the machine -cannot mend it when broken, much less a clock or a pistol! - -The value of this book will appear to any one who knows how little -really good repairing there is in Europe. Since writing the foregoing -pages I have gone through the galleries of the Vatican and many other -museums, and been amazed at the coarse, ignorant, and bungling manner -in which the _great majority_ of antique statues and other objects of -immense value have been mended up. There is in most cases no pretence -whatever to conceal the lines of repair, and when this has been -attempted it has failed through ignorance of recipes and instructions -which may be found in this work. - - - - -A MANUAL OF - -MENDING AND REPAIRING - - - - -MATERIALS USED IN MENDING - - “_There are full many admirable and practical recipes_ - (Hausmitteln), _which are often known only in certain - families_.”--Die Natürliche Magie. By JOHANN C. WIEGLEB, 1782. - - -The art of mending or of repairing may be broadly stated as being -effected, firstly, by mechanical processes, such as those employed by -carpenters in nailing and joining, in embroidery with the needle, and -in metal-work with clumps, or soldering; and, secondly, by chemical -means. The latter consist of _cements_ and _adhesives_, which are, -however, effectively the same thing. This glue, or gum, is an adhesive -or _sticker_; that is, a simple substance which causes two objects to -adhere. The same, when combined with powder of chalk or glass, would -be a CEMENT. This latter term is again applied somewhat generally and -loosely by many, not only to all adhesives, but also more correctly to -all soft substances which harden, such as Portland cement, mortar, and -putty, and which are often used by themselves to form objects, such -as “bricks” and castings; but these latter, having also the quality of -acting as adhesives or stickers, are naturally regarded as being the -same. - -As will be speedily observed in the great number of recipes for -mending which will be given in this book, there are many which occur -frequently in different combinations; therefore it will be advisable -and indispensable for those who wish to master mending as an art to -indicate these as a basis. - -As SIGMUND LEHNER has observed in his valuable work on _Die Kitte- und -Klebemittel_, there have been such vast numbers of recipes published -of late years for adhesives in various technological works, that the -combination of the usual materials depends almost on the judgment of -the experimenter, and every practical operator will soon learn to make -inventions of his own. These materials, according to STOHMANN, may be -classified as follows:-- - - I. Those in which OIL is the basis. - II. Resin or pitch. - III. Caoutchouc (indiarubber) or gutta-percha. - IV. Gum or starch. - V. Lime and chalk. - -LEHNER extends the list as follows into adhesives, or cements:-- - - I. For glass and porcelain in every form. - - II. For metals not exposed to changes of temperature. - - III. For stoves and furnaces, or objects exposed to - heat. - - IV. For chemical apparatus and objects exposed to - corrosive liquids. - - V. Luting or cements, to protect glass or porcelain - vessels from the action of fire. - - VI. Cements for microscopic preparations, for filling - teeth and similar work. - - VII. Those for special objects, such as are made of - tortoise-shell, meerschaum (ivory), &c. - -OILS are divided into those (such as olive) which never become hard, -and the linseed, which in time dries into a substance like gum. The -latter combined with a great variety of mineral substances, such as -plumbago, calcined lime, magnesia, chalk, red oxide of iron, soapstone, -or with varnishes, forms insoluble “soaps,” which, as cements, resist -water. They require a long time to _set_ or become hard. - -RESINS and GUMS include a great number of substances, such as resin or -hard pitch, which is distilled from pine-trees; shellac, mastic, elemi, -copal, kauri gum, amber, gum arabic, dextrine made from flour, the gum -of the peach and cherry, and of many other trees. To these may be added -frankincense and tragacanth, which is less an adhesive than a stiffener -and dresser. Gums are generally rather brittle; this is remedied by -combination with oily substances, volatile oils, or caoutchouc. With -these gums LEHNER includes asphaltum. The defect of such adhesives is, -as he also remarks, that they will not resist _high_ temperatures. -This, however, will apply to most objects. - -VARNISH.--This belongs properly to the gums, but is technically -regarded as a separate material. It is gum in solution in turpentine or -spirits. For details vide _Die Fabrikation der Copal- Terpentinöl und -Spiritus-Lacke_, by L. E. Andés; Leipzig, price 5 m. 40 pf. - -CAOUTCHOUC and GUTTA-PERCHA are gums which when hard are still elastic, -and resist the action of water. I have read that a perfect imitation or -substitute for them has been made of turpentine, but have not seen it, -though I have met with glue made with oil and turpentine, which very -much resembled them in elasticity or flexibility. Reduced to a liquid -form with ether, benzine, &c., these gums can be kept in a liquid state -for a long time, and then hardened in any form by exposure to the air. -They enter into a very great variety of cements, such as are meant to -be tough or waterproof. Indiarubber is, on the whole, the best, and -gutta-percha the cheapest, for cements. - -GLUE.--This is made, by boiling, from horns and bones; it is -essentially the same as gelatine. It is the most generally known of all -adhesives, and may be modified by certain admixtures to suit almost -any substance. It has the peculiarity that it must always be boiled in -a _balneum mariæ_, or in a kettle in hot water in another kettle. Its -strength is vastly increased by admixture with nitric acid or _strong_ -vinegar. On the subject of glue in all its relations, the reader may -consult _Die Leim- und Gelatine-Fabrikation_, or “The Manufacture of -Glue and Gelatine,” by F. Dawidowsky; Vienna, price 3s. - -FLOUR-PASTE AND STARCH-PASTE.--These mixtures, though generally -used for weak work, such as to make papers adhere, can be very much -strengthened by admixture with glue and gums. Combined with certain -substances, such as paper, mineral powders, and _alum_, they, when -submitted to pressure, become intensely hard, and resist not only water -but heat, when not excessive. Also combined with varnishes they are -decided resistants. LEHNER speaks of them as if they were perishable in -any condition. - -STURGEON’S BLADDER.--With this the bladders of several kinds of fish -are classed. Cut in small pieces and dissolved in spirits it makes a -very strong adhesive, which is mixed with many others. - -LIME is the most extensively used cement in the world. Combined -with water it forms mortar. It is united with many substances, such -as caseine or cheese, the white of eggs, and silicate of soda, to -make powerful minor cements. On the subject of lime the practical -technologist should consult _Kalk und Luftmortel_, by Dr. Herrmann -Zwick; Vienna, A. Hartleben, price 3s., in which all details of the -subject are given in full. - -EGGS.--The yolk, and more particularly the white, of eggs is sometimes -used as an adhesive, and it enters into many very excellent cements. -For details as to the chemistry and technology of this material consult -_Die Fabrikationen von Albumin- und Eierkonserven_ (A Full Account of -the Characteristics of all Egg Substances, the Fabrication of Egg, and -Blood Albumen, &c.), by Karl Ruprecht; Vienna, A. Hartleben, price 2s. -3d. - -NEUTRAL SUBSTANCES, OR BINDING MATERIALS.--Almost any substance not -easily soluble in water, and many which are, from common dust or earth, -or clay, sand, chalk, powdered egg-shells, sawdust, shell-powder, &c., -when combined with certain adhesives, form cements. This is sometimes -due to chemical combination, but more frequently to mechanical union. -In the latter case the adhesive clinging to every separate grain has -the more points of adhesion, just as a man by clinging with both hands -to two posts is harder to remove than if he held by one. - -CASEINE OR CHEESE.--This in several forms, but chiefly of curd in -combination with several substances, but mostly with lime or borax, -forms a very valuable cement. It is also combined with strong _lye_ and -silicate of soda. It must not, however, be too much depended on as a -resistant to water or heat. - -BLOOD, generally of oxen or cows, combined with lime, alum, and coal -ashes, forms a solid and durable cement. - -GLYCERINE forms the basis, with plumbago, &c., of several cements. -Like oil, it renders glue flexible and partly waterproof. For chemical -details on this subject, vide _Das Glycerin_, by J. W. Koppe, Leipzig. - -GYPSUM is combined with many substances to form cements, some of them -of great and peculiar value. - -IRON pulverised is the basis of a great number of very durable and -strongly resistant cements. - -ALUM may be included among the bases, as it is very important in -several compositions, forming a powerful chemical aid. It is excellent -as aiding resistance to both moisture and heat. For an exhaustive -work on alum consult _Die Fabrikation des Alauns_, &c., by Frederic -Junemann, which should be carefully studied by all who work in cements. - -There is a very great number of “indifferent” or minor aids to these, -such as sugar, milk, honey, spirits of wine, water, ochre, galbanum, -tannin, ammonia, feldspar, plumbago, sulphur, vinegar, salt, zinc -(white), umber, bismuth, tin, cadmium, clay, ashes, &c., which are -essential in certain combinations. - -DEXTRINE, the gum of flour or starch, or _Leiokom_, much resembles -gum-arabic, but is more brittle. Its adhesiveness depends somewhat on -the manner in which it is dissolved. “It is,” says LEHNER, “prepared -by heating starch which has been moistened with nitric acid; also by -warming paste with very much diluted sulphuric acid.” - -WAX, including that of bees as well as paraffine, is used in repairs, -and forms a part of several cements. On this subject consult _Das -Wachs_, or “Wax and its Technical Applications,” by Ludwig Sedna; -Leipzig, 2s. 6d. - -SILICATE OF SODA, OR LIQUID GLASS.--This is generally sold in the form -of a very dense liquid. It is prepared by mixing quartz or flint sand -with soda, or more rarely with potash. “It is,” says LEHNER, “a glass -which is distinguished from other glasses by being easily soluble -in water. It is believed to be a very modern invention; but I have -seen Venetian glasses of the fifteenth century which appeared to be -painted with it, or something very similar; and I have found decided -indications of a knowledge of it in two writers of the sixteenth -century, WOLFGANG HILDEBRAND and VAN HELMONT. According to Wagner, -there are three kinds of liquid glass. By itself liquid glass can only -be used for mending glass; but when combined with other substances, -such as cement, calcined lime, or clay, or glass, in powder, it forms -a body as hard as stone, or a double silicate, which is strongly -resistant to chemical influences.” It occupies the first position as -an adhesive for glass, nor is it surpassed as a cement in solid form. -On this subject vide _Wasserglas und Infusorienerde_, &c., by Hermann -Krätzer; Vienna, 3s. - -NATURAL CEMENT, OR HYDRAULIC LIME.--This is familiarly known to all -readers as Portland cement, but it is found of different qualities -in many countries, and is also made artificially. Certain mineral -substances have the quality when powdered and combined with water of -setting hard as stone; hence the name _hydraulic_. I have seen at -Budapest articles of Portland cement made in Hungary which equalled in -appearance fine black slate or marble, and, while much less brittle, -were indeed in every respect more durable and resistant to exposure. -These artificial cements can be largely incorporated with indifferent -substances, such as sand; they, however, require intense baking, and -may in consequence be regarded as a kind of fictile ware. - -Portland cement is very thoroughly treated in _Hydraulischer Kalk und -Portland Cement_ (in all their relations), by Dr. H. Zwick. - -TRAGACANTH, though called a gum, is properly nothing of the kind, not -being a true adhesive. It is the product of the _Astragalus verus_, a -tree found in Asia. It swells out in water, and softens, but without -dissolving. It is more of a glaze than a paste; hence it is used -extensively by confectioners, bookbinders, or to stiffen laces. It -enters, however, into the composition of several cements. - -BREAD may be classed as a material by itself, as it derives certain -peculiar virtues from the yeast which causes its fermentation. With -certain combinations it becomes wax-like, or hard, and may be used to -advantage in many repairs as well as for modelling. It has the great -advantage of being easily worked and always at hand. - -CELLULOID is treated of in this work under the head of Artificial -Ivory. It is made from gun-cotton and camphor. For full information on -this subject consult _Das Celluloid_, or “Celluloid, its Raw Materials, -Manufacture, Peculiarities, and Technical Applications, &c.,” by Dr. -Fr. Böckmann, Vienna and Leipzig. - -POTATOES, peeled and mashed, and kept for thirty-six hours in a mixture -of eight parts of sulphuric acid to a hundred of water, and then dried -and pressed, form a white, hard substance very much like ivory, or, -as one may say, like white boxwood. LEHNER expresses his doubt as to -whether artificial meerschaum pipes were ever made of this substance, -but I have seen them, and can testify that they looked like meerschaum, -and certainly were much harder than _bruyere_, or briar-wood. Whether -they will “colour” I cannot say. - -The principle by which potatoes, paper, and many other substances can -be hardened like parchment or horn is curious. Potatoes consist of -about seventy per cent. water and twenty-five per cent. of starch, the -remainder being salts and _cellulose_, which forms cells surrounded by -the grains of starch. “When such a substance is for some time brought -into contact with diluted sulphuric acid, that which results is simply -a contraction of the cells” (_i.e._, a hardening), “or a kind of -parchmenting.” Thus soft paper is converted into parchment. - -It is evident that chemistry is as yet in its infancy as regards the -conversion of cellulose by acid into hard substances. Since cotton, -paper, and potatoes all produce by this process different substances, -it is probable that hundreds of organic, or at least vegetable, -substances will all yield new forms. - -There is a marked difference between paste made of _starch_ or -_flour_, each having its peculiar merits. The former is principally -prepared from potatoes. To prepare the cement we mix it with a very -little water, stirring it very thoroughly till it assumes a bluish -appearance. A little more hot water is then added, and the mass left -till an opal-like tinge indicates that it has formed. To this then add -hot water _ad libitum_. As it is almost colourless in very thin coats, -it is largely used to glaze and give body or weight to, and often -to simply falsify, woven fabrics, which by its aid seem heavier. To -increase this weight white lead and other substances are used. - -To make the best flour-paste, flour should be kneaded in a bag under -water till all the starch is washed away. What remains is a substance -closely allied to caseine, or the white of egg. Combined with lime it -forms a hard cement. A very slight admixture of carbolic acid (also -oil of cloves) will keep paste from souring or decay. This acid has -the property of destroying the growth of the minute vegetation which -constitutes fermentation, just as other strong scents or perfumes are -supposed to disinfect rooms, &c. - -A very great number of other ingredients, such as the oxides of lead -or zinc, manganese, baryta, sulphur, sal ammoniac, flint-sand, clay, -salt, ochre, varnish, galbanum, or frankincense, enter into certain -recipes, but those already given may be regarded as constituting by far -the principal portion of all cements in ordinary use. - - - - -MENDING BROKEN CHINA, PORCELAIN, CROCKERY, MAJOLICA, TERRA-COTTA, BRICK -AND TILE WORK. - - -Fictile or Ceramic ware embraces, roughly speaking, all that is made of -clay, or mineral bases or materials, and which is subsequently baked -to give it hardness. The better the material and the more intense the -heat, or the greater the number of bakings to which most kinds are -subjected, the harder and more lasting will they be. The old china ware -which preceded porcelain, a great many specimens of old Roman vessels, -and, for a more modern example, old Italian majolica and Hungarian -wine-pitchers, made all within a century, are as hard as stone. They -chip a great deal before they break, just as agate might do. - -TERRA-COTTA is simply earth or clay “baked.” In most of the examples -known as terra-cotta, earth predominates. Pure fine clay well fired is -superior to what is generally called terra-cotta. Neither can we really -class with it articles made of superior Portland cement, of which, as I -have said, I have seen many made at Budapest which were like the finest -hard slate. - -Many writers confuse majolica with faïence; others regard the latter -as what we should call crockery, or such ware as ranges between glazed -terra-cotta and porcelain. - -MAJOLICA consists generally of terra-cotta covered with a glaze. -A glaze is a fusible substance, we may say a kind of glass, mixed -with colouring matter, which is at the same time a protection and an -ornament. Enamel is glass in fine powder melted, used generally on -metal or by itself. The base of the paint is a substance fusible by -heat which is mixed with colours also fusible. Therefore when the -painting is submitted to heat it melts, adheres, and is permanent. -Glazing, enamelling, and china painting are essentially the same. - -Terra-cotta is not difficult to mend. I can best illustrate this by an -example. A friend once gave me a terra-cotta vase from the Pyramid of -Cholula, in Mexico. These are supposed to be of very great antiquity. -This contained a fragment of pottery, probably a sacred relic of ruder -style, and I suppose of far earlier times. The vase, however, had -been broken to fragments, and the owner was about to throw it away as -worthless. I begged it of him. Firstly, I put the principal pieces -together, using, to make them adhere, glue with nitric acid. For finer -work I should have used Turkish cement or the best gum-mastic dissolved -in spirit or fish glue. Piece by piece with care I reconstructed the -whole. - -There was wanting, however, one piece about three inches square. I -pasted with great care a piece of paper inside the vase for a _back_, -and then poured on it plaster of Paris liquefied with water. To make -this _set_ hard, the plaster or _gesso_ should be made with burnt -alum-water and dissolved gum-arabic. This exactly supplied the missing -piece. - -When it was finished, I filled in all the broken edges and other -cavities with the plaster-paste, which set even harder than the -terra-cotta. The outer colour of the vase was of reddish rusty black. -I painted the whole over with a corresponding colour; that is to say, -I rubbed it in by thumb, which is very different from mere painting. -By cementing and rubbing I so restored the whole that the repair was -hardly perceptible. This process is carried to great perfection in -Italy with broken Etruscan ware. - -I may here remark as regards _rubbing in_ oil or water colours, that it -is little known or practised, but it is of great value in restoration -when we wish to produce certain curious antique-looking effects. I -once knew in Rome an artist who had bought for a trifle an old carved -_baule_ or chest. By rubbing in with care on it Naples yellow and brown -shades, and subsequent friction, he had made it look strangely like -old ivory. Mere painting, however skilfully performed, would not have -given it its antique ivory look. The same artist had purchased one or -two common, large, yellowish terra-cotta wine-jars. He drew on them -classical figures, cut out the outlines a little with chisel and file, -and smoothing the figures with sandpaper, also ivoried the whole by -_rubbing in_ colour. This was but a few hours’ work, yet the effect was -startling. What had cost but a few francs would have sold for hundreds. -I should add that with the aid of fine retouching flexible varnish this -process could be very much facilitated. Any one who can draw or paint -at all can try this experiment on any old piece of wood-carving, or -on a common yellow coarse earthenware. Smooth the latter first with -sandpaper, then rub in the colours. The same is applicable to old -carving in marble. - -All of these devices are of use to the restorer. As regards restoration -of terra-cotta, the field is wide and profitable. Not only in Italy, -but even in London, we may find for sale broken Etruscan vases or -similar objects for a trifle, which are extremely easy to restore. -These are generally of red or light yellow clay baked. If you have, let -us say, a vase fractured, obtain clay of the same colour--if you cannot -readily get it, take pipeclay--and colour it with a strong infusion of -red or yellow, though this is not necessary if the exterior is black. -Mix the clay well with glue or gum-arabic and alum-water, supply the -missing portions, and let them harden. With a little care and practice, -remarkable restorations may thus be made. I may here add that with -this composition, bottles, decanters, and cups can be coated, which, -when painted or rubbed in, exactly resemble Etruscan or other ancient -pottery. To prevent cracking, they should first be painted with thick, -coarse oil paint mixed with sand or umber, which forms a ground. Let it -dry--the longer the better--and then rub in, thinly, the gum and clay. -There is another composition of _blanc d’Espagne_, or whiting, and -silicate of soda, which sets even harder, but which is a little more -difficult at first to work, which may be used for such restoration. -This can be directly painted on glass for a ground. - -_Majolica_ or _Faïence_ can generally be sufficiently well mended with -acidulated glue, but as the latter often communicates a dark stain, -it is better to use for fine ware, or any which is to be used, the -so-called Turkish cement. The best quality of this is made of the -finest quality of gum-mastic dissolved in spirit. It is so tenacious -that in the East gems are frequently directly attached by means of it -to metal, and they will often break sooner than separate from it. Most -chemists have for sale, or will prepare for you, some form of it. The -silicate of potash and whiting can also be supplied by chemists; they -should be mixed with great care, so as to form a medium paste, and then -used rapidly and with skill, because this cement hardens very quickly. -It is, however, a very powerful binder, and sets as hard as glass. - -Having put together and cemented the broken pieces of a cup or vase, -they must be kept in place till the cement dries. This is effected by -means of many contrivances, regarding which the operator must employ -_some_ original inventiveness. Firstly, the pieces can often be simply -tied, or attached by pieces of tape, or parchment, or paper glued on. -In other cases india-rubber bands are useful. Again, bits of wood, or -sticks and wires, are the things useful. A bed of wax is generally a -sure guard. It is best to do this with great care, and not impatiently -rely on holding the pieces together with the fingers till they stick. -This is often the most difficult part of the whole operation; therefore -it should be done well and deliberately. And here it may be remarked -that, as in surgery, the most complicated cases of fracture may be -studied out and adjusted; for which reason I dare say that skilful -surgeons would be good menders of crockery, just as good astronomers -are always good riflemen. - -When the broken pieces are adjusted and all is dry, there remain -the chips, hollows, ragged edges, and “hairs,” as the French call -them, or lines of juncture, to be filled and smoothed. This is done -with the cement which you employ, according to the quality of the -material, either plaster and gum-arabic, silicate and whiting, or -powdered chalk. Some experts succeed with white of an egg and finely -powdered quicklime, which holds firmly, but which requires practice to -amalgamate. Fill the cavities carefully, pressing the cement well in, -as the Romans did, with a stick or point. When all is smooth, paint -over the blank spaces and varnish with Sohnée, No. 3, or with a slight -coating of silicate. Fine copal varnish is rather tougher or less -brittle. - -The most thorough process of all is to unite the fragments with a -vitreous or metallic _flux_, such as the silicate--there are several of -these--and then have the work baked or fired. It can then be painted -with porcelain colours under glaze, and fired again. As this is very -delicate, difficult, and expensive, few amateurs will care to try -it. It is, however, perfect, and by means of it the most complete -reparation can be effected. The Japanese do this simply with the -blow-pipe, by means of which they fix enamel powders even on wood. This -use of the pipe is also difficult, but the ancient Romans are said to -have employed the process with most minor work. As a thread of glass -will melt in a candle, and as fine-glass powder is equally fusible, it -can be understood that under the flame of a blow-pipe the latter can -often be melted so as to avail in restoration. - -CROCKERY, OR FAÏENCE, AND PORCELAIN.--“Crockery,” by which we commonly -understand such ware as that of the blue willow plates, is far -superior to terra-cotta, since its _core_ or basis is thin, and very -hard, and its gloss of a different description, and more incorporated -with the body; or it is of a single superior body. - -PORCELAIN differs entirely from the other two kinds of fictile ware, -being an elaborate mineralogical compound, its base being _kaolin_, -a friable, white, earthy substance, requiring great care in its -preparation, and _petunse_, or feldspar, which is united with the -_kaolin_. The result is a very delicate and beautiful diaphanous -ware, or one through which light passes to a limited degree. Both -crockery and porcelain are far more difficult to mend, owing to the -impossibility--particularly with the latter--of making fractures -disappear. - -The first and most simple process of mending both kinds of ware is -to make small holes with a drill along the edges of the fracture, -and then, adjusting the fragments, bind them together with wire. M. -RIS-PAQUOT claims that “the honour of this discovery belongs properly -to a humble and modest workman named DELILLE, of the little village of -Montjoye, in Normandy.” But the archæologist will say of this claim, -as the English judge did of a similar one, that the plaintiff might as -well apply for a patent for having discovered the art of mixing brandy -with water, since there was probably never yet a savage who had wire, -or even string, who did not know enough to mend broken calabashes, -jars, and pipes by this solid method of sewing. From the time when -large earthen punch-bowls were first used in Europe, we find them -mended with silver wire. It is needless to devote whole pages with -illustrations, as M. RIS-PAQUOT has done, to show how to effect such -mending. The holes are made with either a bore or hand drill, such as -can be bought in every tool shop. If the reader will obtain one and -experiment with it on any penny plate or broken fragment, he will soon -master all the mystery. The wire is made fast by a turn with a pair of -nippers or pincers. Before fastening, wash the edges of the ware with -white of egg in which a very little whiting, or finely powdered lime or -plaster of Paris, has been mixed. - -I may here observe that the wire for china-drilling should be half -round, or flat on one side. To prepare this, take brass wire, say a -length of about two feet, and, holding an old knife, draw the wire -firmly and steadily against it. - -There are endless cements for sale by chemists, all warranted perfect, -to mend glass and china, and most of them do indeed answer the purpose -very well, for nature has given us not a few materials wherewith to -repair accidents. Thus, even boiling in milk will often suffice to -reunite broken edges. But I believe that of all, the Turkish cement -already described, which is made of gum MASTIC (a term improperly -applied in France to putty, by Americans to lime-plaster on houses, and -by Levantines to spirit with resin in it), is the most adhesive and -resistant to heat, cold, or moisture. - -The art of mending does not consist so much of knowing what to use for -an ADHESIVE (since, as I have said, every chemist’s shop abounds in -these) as in skill and tact with which fragments are brought and kept -together, missing portions supplied, and in knowing the substance with -which to fill a blank. There are cases in which, when a hole has been -knocked in a china or glass plate, it can be drilled out round, and a -disc of the same substance or colour, or even of another, inserted. -This is almost an art by itself, and by means of it very singular and -puzzling effects may be introduced; as, for instance, when a number of -holes are drilled in a white china plate and then filled with discs -of coloured china, agate, coral, &c. In the East, turquoise and coral -beads are often thus set into porcelain, as well as wood. The mastic or -acidulated glue is used to make the objects inserted hold firmly. - -As the smoker, when he breaks his pipe across the stem, has it repaired -with a short silver slide or tube, so when a china jar is broken across -the neck, the reparation can be concealed by a silver collar, which is -sometimes a great improvement; as, for instance, when the head of a -china dog, or even of a china man, is taken off. But in a great many -cases, or in all where this kind of concealment is advisable, it may -be made, like Cæsar’s wife, beyond suspicion, by making the collar or -concealing ornament, or leaf or flower, of silicate and whiting so as -to resemble the ware itself, which can be done very nicely. - -SILICATE OF SODA is sometimes sold in the form of a dry solid, which is -placed in a little vinegar, and warmed. When dissolved it can be used -_ad libitum_. It is often used as a glaze for stone. - -There is a curious old story about mending broken crockery by means of -magic--or rather by deceit--which, though not of a practical nature, is -at least amusing. It is partially told in a book published about 1670, -entitled _Joco-Seriorum Naturæ et Artis Magiæ Naturales Centuriæ Tres_. -It happened once in Mergentheim that there was a great fair, when the -whole courtyard of the palace was full of earthenware vessels for sale -_ab assidentibus muliebibus_ (by attendant women). Seeing this, the -Prince of Mergentheim went about among these women, and so arranged it -that they divided all their stock into two parts, or exact duplicates, -half of which they hid away, while the other half was exposed for sale. -While at dinner the Prince spoke much of magic, and professed to be -able to produce such a delirium in people’s minds that they would act -like lunatics. “Thus, for instance,” he said, pointing casually out of -the window, “you see all those women. I can drive them mad at once.” -Whereupon one who was present wagered a handsome carriage and four -horses that the Prince could not do it. The latter smiled, waved his -hand, and uttered a spell, when lo! all at once the market-women began, -_bacchantium more_--like raging Bacchantæ--to attack their crockery -with sticks and stools, and hurl it about, and dash it to pieces. - -The one who had betted the chariot protested that it was a trick -arranged beforehand. The Prince replied, “Well, the pots are all -broken. If I can mend them again by a spell, wilt thou then believe?” -The other said, “Most certainly.” Then the Prince waved his wand and -said, “It is done. Let us go down into the courtyard and see.” And when -there, sure enough they found the pots all whole again--at least they -discovered others exactly like them in their places. - -The legend continued that the Prince, though he kept the carriage and -horses as a trophy, liberally paid for them. The author of the _Tres -Centuriæ_, who does not record the secret of the little arrangement, -declares that he does not know whether it was all done by a fraud -or by magic. If it was the latter, I regret that the incantation by -which broken crockery is mended is now lost. The most powerful spell -known to me is _Recipe Gummæ Mastichæ duæ unciæ cum Spirito Vini -fiat mixtio_--that is, mastic cement. It is generally combined with -sturgeon’s bladder glue. - -This cement answers very well for glass. One of the old recipes, -which was very good indeed, is thus given by JOHANNES WALLBURGER -(1760):--“Take finely cut and a little powdered sturgeon’s bladder” -(still sold by all chemists), “soften it all night in spirits, add to -this a little clean and powdered mastic, boil it a little in a brass -pan. Should it become too thick, add a little spirits.” This may be -also used for many other purposes. - -A strong but coarser adhesive, especially for crockery and stone, can -be made as follows:--Take old and hard goat’s milk cheese, and warm it -in hot water till it forms, by pounding, a mass like turpentine. Add to -this, while grinding, finely pulverised quicklime and the well-shaken -white of eggs. - -I do not hesitate to give a variety of such recipes, because in every -one the artist will find valuable suggestions for other purposes than -simply glueing broken articles together. This latter is a valuable -“filler” for many purposes. Glue was formerly made into a strong -cement by boiling it for a time in water, but before it had become -incorporated with the water, the latter was poured off and strong -spirits substituted and stirred well in. - -A very popular old cement for crockery, of which there were several -variations, was made by mixing glue, turpentine, ox-gall, the juice -of garlic, and sturgeon-bladder, tragacanth, and mastic. All of this -singularly smelling mixture was put into a pan and boiled in strong -spirits, such as whisky, then kneaded on a board under a roller, again -boiled with more spirits, yet again rolled, and this was repeated a -third time, and then cooled till it could be cut into cakes. When these -were to be used they were again steeped in spirits. But with this -cement, glass or metal could be most firmly attached to wood. I confess -that I have never tried it, but it was evidently a very strong cement. - -Another of these somewhat complicated recipes for crockery, glass, -and porcelain, which I find in the _Tausandkünstler_, 1782, is -as follows:--Half an ounce of finely cut sturgeon’s bladder, two -teaspoonfuls of alabaster powder or gypsum, quarter of an ounce of -tragacanth, one teaspoonful of silberglatt, two of powdered mastic, -two of frankincense, two of gum-arabic, one of Marienglas, one -tablespoonful of spirits of wine, one of beer-vinegar. Boil it and -stir, and apply. Any drops sticking to the mended article may be -removed with vinegar. When it is to be used again revive it by heating, -adding spirits of wine and beer-vinegar. The gum-frankincense is here -worth noting. - -A common cement for mending broken glass or china is prepared as -follows:--To two parts of gum-shellac add one of turpentine; boil them -over a slow fire, and form the mass into small cakes before it dries. -To use it, warm with a lamp. To mend ivory or wood, take a cake and let -it dissolve in spirits of wine. - -A very strong cement is made as follows:--Take one ounce of finely -powdered mastic dissolved in six of spirits of wine and two ounces of -shredded sturgeon’s bladder dissolved in two ounces common spirits; add -one half ounce of _gum-ammoniac_ as it hardens; warm it when it is to -be used. This is as strong a cement as can be made. - -Defects, cracks, and repairs in porcelain, &c., may often be concealed -as follows:--Paint the spot with silicate of soda, not too much -thinned, and dust it over before it dries with bronze powder. This will -set so hard that it may be polished with an agate burnisher. - -It is also possible that many of my readers have heard of _gesso -painting_, an art perfected by Mr. WALTER CRANE. This consists of -painting with plaster of Paris in solution, with the point of a brush, -depositing the soft paste in relief. The same principle is applicable -to painting in silicate and whiting on glass surfaces. By means of it -decoration can be given to any glass bottle or other object. - -LIME enters into the composition of many cements, the simplest being -the mortar formed by its admixture with water. But the quality of -this is very much determined by that of the lime. The _chunam_ of -India, which resembles white marble or a fine white stone, is made of -sea-shells burned to lime. A wonderfully hard, fine, white cement used -by the Romans for their best mosaic-work, and which set with great -rapidity, was made of shell-lime with the white of eggs. I have found -the same composition worthless when made with inferior stone-lime. - -A good cheap cement for porcelain and glass is combined as follows:-- - - Starch or wheat flour 8 - Glue 4 - Purified chalk 12 - Turpentine 4 - Spirits of wine 24 - Water 24 - -Pour a part of the spirits and water mixed on the flour and chalk, -add the glue, boil it down till the latter dissolves, and stir the -turpentine into the whole. This can be used to make artificial wood -with shavings or sawdust. - -A very good cement for porcelain, and one which is colourless, is made -by cutting the finest clear gelatine into bits, and dissolving it in -vinegar of 50°, stirring it in a porcelain vessel until well mixed. -When cold it will harden, but softens under the influence of heat, -when it may be applied to the broken edges of the porcelain, which are -to be pressed together. It will be perfectly hard within twenty-four -hours. It is to be observed that the art of keeping such joined pieces -together is the most difficult problem in mending. This cement is -widely applicable to many objects, and also admits of considerable -modification and additions, like all cements. As it is colourless, it -may be combined with ivory dust, or white powders of baryta, magnesia, -whiting, &c., to form artificial ivory with glycerine. With sturgeon’s -bladder it makes a still stronger cement. - -LEHNER observes that glue has the property, when combined with acid -chrome salt (_sauren chromsalzen_), of losing its solubility when -exposed to the light, so that it can be used as a cement for broken -porcelain and glass. If the juncture is to be invisible, take the -purest white gelatine; otherwise the cheaper gilder’s glue will answer. -To prepare the chrome glue, dissolve the gelatine or the glue in -boiling water, then add the solution of double chromic acid alkali, or -the red chrome alkali of commerce, stir it well up, and put it into tin -boxes. - -The formula is:-- - - Gelatine or gilders’ glue 5-10 - Water 90 - Red chrome alkali 1-2 - Dissolved in water 10 - -To use, warm the cement, apply it to the broken glass, which must then -be exposed for several hours to the sunshine. - -Cracked bottles are mended by a very ingenious process, described by -LEHNER. The bottle is corked, but not tightly, and then exposed to -heat about 100° centigrade. Then the cork is driven in tightly, which -causes an expansion of the cracks, which are at once filled by means -of a finely pointed brush with the silicate. Removed to a cooler place -the glass contracts on the as yet fluid silicate, and the fractures are -mended. - - * * * * * - -A VERY STRONG, CLEAN CEMENT FOR PORCELAIN OR GLASS is made as follows:-- - - Well-cleaned glass powder 10 - ” fluor spar powder 20 - Silicate of soda solution 60 - -This must be very quickly stirred and applied. This is one of the -_hardest_ and best cements, and it resists heat and other influences -so well that when very carefully amalgamated it may be applied to the -manufacture of many useful articles. The same may be made with the -substitution of white pipeclay for fluor spar, or with the addition of -the same in somewhat larger proportion. Pipeclay or any good clay can -also be combined with glycerine to prevent its drying. With gelatine -and a _little_ glycerine it will harden and not crack. - -This requires careful amalgamation and rapid work. - -To prepare very fine glass-powder for this cement, heat any glass till -red-hot, then drop it into cold water. It may then be reduced in a -mortar to an impalpable powder. - -Earthenware tubes or pipes which are to be exposed to intense heat may -be luted or joined with the following cement:-- - - Peroxide of manganese 80 - White oxide of zinc 100 - Silicate of soda 20 - -“This does _not melt_, save at a very high temperature; and when -melted it forms a glassy substance, which holds with extreme tenacity” -(LEHNER). - -To prepare _caseine_ cement for crockery or marble, it may be observed -that we should always take _fresh_ white cheese and macerate or knead -it thoroughly till only pure CASEINE remains. By adding to this -one-third of powdered quicklime and blending the two ingredients -very thoroughly we get a very strong glue. An admixture of 10 parts -silicate of soda also forms a powerful cement. - -The following for tile-work and common brick-crockery, or terra-cotta -or porcelain, is very highly commended by LEHNER, who says that -anything mended with it will sooner break in another place than where -it is cemented:-- - - Slacked lime 10 - Borax 10 - Litharge 5 - -The cement is mixed with water, and the tile or crockery, &c., heated -just before being mended. - -I cannot insist too strongly on this--that no one is to expect that by -simply taking recipes, as written, compounding and applying them, there -will be a successful result at the first trial. We must always have the -best material, often fresh, and generally attempt the application more -than once. _Perseverando vinces_--“By perseverance you will conquer.” -Not only must the _quality_ of the ingredients used be of the best, but -the composition be made exactly in the order in which they are given. -The same substances often give very different results, simply because -the order of combination in the two was different. - -TO REPAIR PAVEMENTS:-- - - Calcined lime 10 - Purified chalk 100 - Silicate of soda 25 - -This hardens slowly. It can, when mixed with small sharp-edged -fragments of broken stone, be used to form pavements, or as a bed for -mosaics. For the same purposes, or for cementing marble slabs, a cement -known as that of BÖTTGER may be used. It is made thus:-- - - Purified chalk 100 - Thick solution silicate of soda 25 - -This becomes (LEHNER) in a few hours so hard that it can be polished. -It is the principal, and almost the only, cement used by M. -RIS-PACQUOT, or commended in his work on mending crockery. It admits -of a great variety of modifications. It is very superior as a bed for -mosaics of all kinds. It forms, like the preceding, also a good bed for -scagliola and ceresa.[1] I would here say of the latter, that I could -wish to see it more generally used for mural or wall ornament, since -any one who can paint a face or decoration boldly and largely in oil -or water colours will find it very easy. It admits of rapid execution, -and is striking from its brilliancy. Everything in it depends on -having a good bed to which it can easily adhere. I may here observe -that beds like these which set hard and _fine_ are also adapted to -fresco-painting, in which the difficulty is to select colours which, -when absorbed and dried, do not fade. Most paints made from mineral -substances combine with silicate of soda. - -I may here remark that a curious and easy art, very little known, -consists of carving or cutting low reliefs on tiles or terra-cotta or -brick-like ware, which, when outlined or in relief, can be glazed in -colour with silicate of soda; also with many other cements. - -A common and good CEMENT FOR PORCELAIN OR GLASS is made as follows:-- - - Calcined gypsum or plaster of Paris 50 - Calcined lime 10 - White of egg 20 - -This must be quickly mingled and rapidly used, as it sets very rapidly -and becomes extremely hard. It makes an admirable bed for mosaics or -ceresa. - -When plaster of Paris is simply combined with burnt alum in water, the -objects mended with it require several weeks to set or adhere. Gypsum -combined with gum alone holds firmly, but does not resist water (vide -_General Recipes_). - -CEMENTS FOR LUTING or closing chemical apparatus:-- - - Dried clay 10 - Linseed-oil 1 - -This endures heat to boiling-point of quicksilver. - -A more resistant fireproof is as follows:-- - - Manganese 10 - Grey oxide of zinc 20 - Clay 40 - Linseed-oil varnish 7 - -Of the oil only so much is needed as to combine the mass to a paste. - -A LUTING for very high temperatures:-- - - Clay 100 - Glass powder 2 - -Another CEMENT:-- - - Clay 100 - Chalk 2 - Boracic acid 3 - -LEHNER has in his work on Cements many valuable suggestions as to -mending porcelain. _Firstly_, that in such mending, the adhesive be -applied with care, in as even and as thin a coat as possible; to -which I would add, that the unskilful amateur is apt to daub it on -irregularly and carelessly, with the impression that the more cement -there is the better it will stick, which is just so far wrong that -every superfluous grain is just so much of an impediment to good -drying or adhesion. Again, the inexpert daubs it on with a stick or -“anything,” when a fine-pointed brush or hair-pencil should be used. - -BROKEN CHINA WHICH IS TO BE MENDED should be carefully covered away -so as to protect it from dust, which is hard to clean off. Beware of -fitting the pieces together again and again, as is often done. - -If the broken china was used to contain milk or soup, &c., it should -be laid in lye to dissolve all the fatty substance, and then be washed -with clear water. Painted porcelain cannot, however, be laid in lye, -which would ruin all the colours; in this case wipe them clean with -dilute acid. - -The great difficulty in mending is to bring the pieces together and -keep them so till the adhesive dries. LEHNER recommends that when -objects are small and costly, a mould of gypsum be constructed round -them. In most cases putty or wax is far more manageable. As before -remarked, indiarubber bands are chiefly to be relied on; even if not -capable of holding permanently, they aid greatly in tying with cord. - -In the Manual of F. GOUPIL, rewritten by FREDERICK DILLAYE, the -following method of restoring broken vases, &c., is commended:-- - -“Form a solid mass of clay in the form of the original object. Then -place on it, one by one, the fragments in their place, keeping the clay -moist. When this is done, paste over the exterior strips of paper, in -sufficient quantity to hold the whole firmly together. Then remove -the moist clay, and paste strong slips of paper” (or thin parchment) -“over the interior so as to hold the whole. Then” (when dry) “carefully -moisten and remove the outer coating.” - -The author mentions that this is only applicable to vases the mouth of -which is wide enough to permit the hand to be introduced. I would here, -however, add, that even when it is too small for this purpose, the -restoration can be equally well effected as follows:--Make the core of -wet clay, or, better, of beeswax, then paste over it thin tough paper. -Cover this with gum-arabic solution, and set the pieces on it. When -dry, melt out the wax or clay. - -Fish-gum, _colle de poisson_--that is to say, what is generally called -_sturgeon’s bladder_, which includes the bladder of several kinds of -fishes dissolved--is best for glass, marble, porcelain, and all kinds -of mending where the cement should not show. This, when combined with -oil, is _said_, if mixed with cloth-dust and fibre of wool or silk or -cotton, to spin up into thread. - - - - -MENDING GLASS - -WITH SEVERAL ALLIED PROCESSES - -APPROVED CEMENTS--SILICATE OF SODA - - “_Glück und Glas - Wie bald bricht dass._” - - “_Good luck, like glass, - Soon breaks, alas! - Yet skill can bring it so to pass - As to mend a fortune or a glass._” - - --Old German Proverb. - - -Putty is naturally the first cement which suggests itself in connection -with the mending of glass, since this latter material is most familiar -to the world in the form of windows, although in many places--as, for -instance, Florence, where it is called _mastico_ and _pasta_--it is -little used or known. The word is from the French _potée_, which also -means a potful. It is very useful, not only for setting glass-panes, -but for filling holes in wood, and forms a part of certain mixtures as -a cement for moulding ornaments. It may be weak and brittle, or else -strong and very hard, according to the manner in which it is prepared. -It is commonly made by combining chalk in paste, with water, with -linseed-oil; other powders are also used. In America it is made with -pulverised soap-stone and oil. Its excellence depends on the quality -of the oil and the care with which it is kneaded. It should be kept in -a damp cellar, in wet cloth or under water. Should it dry and become -brittle, fresh oil must be added. - -“_To take hard old putty from glass window-panes_, cover it with a -mixture of one part of calcined lime, two of soda, and two of water” -(LEHNER). Oxide of lead combined with oil makes an excellent but yellow -putty. It sets very hard. - -The white or grey oxide of zinc combined with linseed-oil or -linseed-oil varnish makes a cement which is used for making glass -adhere to wood or metal. - -_Thick lacquers_, such as copal or amber, may be used instead of common -varnish with better effect, and the composition is better when calcined -lime or oxide of lead are added. The excellence of the cement depends -on the degree to which the ingredients are amalgamated or rubbed in -together; and this rule holds good for all similar mixtures. - -_Varnish_, or heavy or “flat” lacquer of copal or amber, forms of -itself a strong adhesive, with the only drawback that it takes a long -time to dry. - -A VERY GOOD CEMENT FOR GLASS (LEHNER) is as follows: - - Gutta-percha 100 - Black pitch (asphalt) 100 - Oil of turpentine 15 - -This is a glue of general application, and specially good for leather -and mending shoes. - -The reader who would thoroughly study the subject of glass may consult -_Die Glas-Fabrikation_, a very admirable work by Raimund Gerner, glass -manufacturer; A. Hartleben, Vienna and Leipzig, price 4s. 6d. - -Small triangles of sheet tin or iron are often used to fasten panes. - -The mending of broken glass is in most cases much the same as that -of broken crockery or porcelain. The cement made from mastic, or -mastic combined with sturgeon’s bladder, or generally of silicate with -whiting, is the proper adhesive. As silicate of soda is simply liquid -glass, it can be employed to fill spaces or to make glass; but, owing -to its sticky nature, it is hard to manage. This may be often effected -by first preparing a layer of soft paper, on which successive coats of -silicate are laid. When dry the paper can be washed away. - -SILICATE OF SODA has become of such importance that a French work on -mending fictile ware is almost entirely limited to its use as a binder, -when combined with whiting. _Water-glass_ was long supposed to be a -modern invention, till some one found it described in Van Helmont’s -works, A.D. 1610. But I have found it also in the _Joco-seriorum -Naturæ_, 1545; in the _Magia Naturalis_ of Wolfgang Hildebrand, -which is of the same time; and, finally, by _Paracelsus_ (_Liber de -Præparationibus_), where he describes it as _Destillatio Crystalli_. -And the author of the _Joco-seriorum_ speaks of soft glass as a thing -which had been treated by several writers. - -According to WAGNER there are three kinds of soluble glass--(i.) -the soluble potash glass, 45 silex, 3 charcoal, 34 carb. potass.; -(ii.) soluble soda glass, 100 pts. quartz, 60 cal. sulp. soda, 15 of -charcoal; (iii.) double soluble glass, 100 quartz, 22 cal. soda, -28 carb. potass., 6 wood-coal. Water-glass combines well with any -“indifferent” powder, such as powdered glass, to make a strong cement. -To powder glass, heat it red-hot, drop it into cold water and pulverise -it. It will become as fine as flour, and in this state combines with -gum-arabic, or glue, or gums to make a powerful glass-mender. Mixed -with powdered glass, oxide of zinc, or whiting, powdered marble, -calcined bone, plaster of Paris, wood-ashes, &c., it can be worked like -putty. Mixed with colours it is used for stereochrome painting, a kind -of fresco. - -Missing pieces of glass, such as leaves from a chandelier, can be -easily replaced with water-glass, and all cracks or defects glazed over -with it. - -This mending is allied, however, to certain processes in art which are -so interesting that I venture on a description of them. - -A great deal of mending and restoring in glass can be effected by -means of the blow-pipe and spirit-lamp or gas-flame. Difficult as -this may sound, it is not only an easy, but also a very curious and -entertaining, occupation. In any city an expert or workman may be found -who would give a few lessons. I have very often been impressed with -the fact that so little artistic invention or originality is found in -glass-work. Even the far-famed Venetian work is extremely limited, and -“mannered” or conventional, compared to what it might be. - -The following is an old recipe for repairing glass:--Take finest -powdered glass, best mastic, with equal parts of white resin and -distilled turpentine. Melt all well together. To use, gradually warm -it and then apply. - -Quicklime and white of egg, intimately rubbed into one another on a -flat surface, make a good cement for ordinary glass or pottery. - -The cement of _gum-arabic_ is much stronger when made as follows:--Take -gum-arabic and dissolve it in acetic acid (vinegar) instead of water. -It must be melted in a hottish place, as it will in that case be much -better. The finest quality of sheet-gelatine makes a transparent glue, -invaluable where colour is to be avoided. - -TO MEND A CRACKED GLASS BOTTLE OR DECANTER.--Heat the bottle, pressing -in the cork, till the hot air within expands the cracks, which must -be at once filled with the liquid glass. Then, as the water-glass is -driven in by the pressure of the outer air, as the bottle cools the -cracks are closed. - -You cannot well mend a broken looking-glass, but something can be -done with the large pieces. Varnish or paste a piece of paper and lay -it on the quicksilver. Then with an American glass-cutter, price one -shilling, or a diamond-cutter, divide them into squares for small -mirrors. Two of these of equal size can easily be converted into a -folding kaleidoscope (not described by BREWSTER in his work on the -Kaleidoscope). Lay the two pieces face to face, and paste over the -whole, on the quicksilvered side, a piece of thin leather or muslin. -When dry, with a penknife, cut a slit down between the two on three -sides. It will then open and shut like a portfolio. This may serve -as a travelling, looking or shaving glass, but it is very useful to -designers of patterns. Place the glass upright on a table at a right -angle, or more or less, and lay between the mirrors any object or a -pattern, and you will see it multiplied from three to twelve times, -according to the angle. Beautiful variations of designs can thus be -made, _ad infinitum_. They may be used as reflectors, when placed -behind a light. - -Take such a piece of looking-glass and lay a piece of paper on the -back, and then with an agate or ivory point write or draw on it, but -not as hard as to break the silvering. Then turn it to the sun or a -strong light, and let the reflection fall on a white surface. Though -nothing be perceptible on the face of the mirror, the writing will -appear in the reflection. - -Glass is engraved as metal is etched; with this exception, that, -instead of sulphuric or nitric acids, fluoric acid is used. Both glass -and _china_ can also be directly etched with a steel point, aided by -emery powder; which latter art I have never seen described, but which -I have successfully practised. It is fully set forth in my forthcoming -work on “One Hundred Arts.” - -Malleable glass, or at least that which does not break easily when let -fall, is prepared by dipping the objects made from it, while quite hot, -into oil. I conjecture that panes of window-glass thus prepared would -not be broken by hail, as I have observed that plate-glass is not. - -It sometimes happens that goblets of thin glass--especially those which -have had a peculiar kind of annealing or tempering--ring beautifully -when blown on so as to vibrate them. The effect is almost magical on -one who hears it for the first time. I mention it that the reader -may, when he finds old Venetian or any other thin glass goblets for -sale, see if there be not among them a finely ringing one. An organ -could be thus made to play by wind. With regard to music on glass, -take any ordinary bottle, and by rubbing on it a cork a little wetted -you can, with a little practice, produce a startling imitation of -the chirping, and even warbling, of birds. I knew one who could thus -imitate to perfection nightingales and call forth responsive songs. The -effect depends in a degree on the quality of the cork, and also that -of the glass. With a violin-bow very musical sounds may be drawn from -the edge of a pane of glass. It seems as if these methods might also -be developed into musical instruments. It is well known that tubes of -glass suspended when a candle is placed beneath them give forth musical -sounds, often of great richness and strength. There are also the -musical glasses, which may be played in two ways, either by rubbing the -edges with a wetted finger or by filling the glasses more or less with -water till an octave is formed, and then tapping them with a stick of -wood. All of which has, indeed, nothing to do with mending glass, yet -which may not be without interest to those who wish to learn all its -qualities. - -Among GLASS CEMENTS in common use which can be recommended are the -well-known Polytechnic, also the Imperial Liquid Glue (no heating -required), Hayden & Co., Warwick Square, London. There is also a very -good glass cement made and sold by Keye, filter-maker, Hill Street, -Birmingham. - -The Venetians made ordinary glass goblets very beautiful by painting -on them in relief with a substance which I suspect was in some cases -a form of silicate, or else with a kind of paint which was not enamel, -yet which seems to have been partly vitreous. It rather resembles oil -paint with glass powder, but I doubt if it was this. - -Working in glass implies the mending and restoration of stained-glass -windows; that is, of painting on glass and a study of designs. Of all -this there is almost a literature. Among other works I can commend _A -Book of Ornamental Glazing Quarries_, by A. W. Franks, £1, 1s.; _Divers -Works of Early Masters in Ecclesiastical Decoration_, by Owen Jones, -£3, 10s.; _Westlake’s History of Stained Glass_, vol. i., _Fourteenth -Century_, 13s. 6d.; vol. iii., _Fifteenth Century_, 18s., published by -Batsford, 52 High Holborn. At Rimmel’s, in Oxford Street, the reader -can generally obtain these, and all works on similar subjects at prices -much below the original cost. - -A MENDING CEMENT FOR GLASS is made as follows:-- - - Common cheese 100 - Water 50 - Slacked lime 20 - -This is found in many books of recipes. It must be observed that the -cheese is to be for sometime carefully pounded with the water till -quite soft, and the lime then very quickly stirred in. This is not only -useful to mend glass, but can be applied to many other purposes. The -cheese is best when fresh. - -CASEINE (or pure cheese) can be combined with ease with liquid silicate -of soda (LEHNER), and thus forms a very strong cement for porcelain or -glass, or any other material. Fill a flask with one-fourth of fresh -caseine to three-fourths of silicate, and shake it thoroughly and -frequently. - -Another formula is as follows:-- - - Caseine 10 - Silicate of soda 60 - -This must be used very promptly, and the article mended dried in the -air. - -A CEMENT which may be used in several combinations is made by -dissolving fresh acidulated caseine (made by adding vinegar to milk, -and carefully washing the deposit) in a very little caustic lye. It -must be kept corked in bottles. - -These _caseine_ or cheese or curd cements hold well, but do not well -resist water, except in powerful combination. - -The excellence of cements depends to a great degree on the quality of -the materials and the scrupulous observance of care in making. Thus for -the following, for glass:-- - - Glue 200 - Water 100 - Calcined lime 50 - -in which we have one of the commonest and oldest formulas, the value -depends on “the make-up” that is, the glue must be left in cold water -for two days, then boiled in a _balneum mariæ_, or a double kettle, in -lukewarm water; that is, it must not boil, or the glue will be weakened. - -The so-called DIAMOND or TURKISH CEMENT, for glass or any other fine -work, has been known since early times as incredibly strong. Its -formula, according to Lehner, is as follows:-- - - I. Sturgeon’s bladder 20 - Water 140 - Spirits of wine 60 - - II. Gum-mastic 10 - Alcohol 80 - - III. Gum-ammoniac 6 - -These are three separate portions, No. I. being prepared by warming -and filtering. The gum-ammoniac is reserved from the others, and added -_after_ they are mingled. - -A STRONG BASE FOR A CEMENT FOR GLASS, as well as wood or stone, is made -by gradually stirring finely sifted wood-ashes into silicate of soda, -or strong acid glue, till a syrup-like substance results. In America -the best ashes for this purpose are those of the hickory. Perhaps beech -wood yields them equally good. - -There is a DIAMOND CEMENT which is of special value to attach gems to -rings or metal, to make coral or pearl or ivory adhere together, and, -in short, for all fine work where a very strong adhesive is required. -It is as follows:-- - - Sturgeon’s bladder 8 - Gum-ammoniac 1 - Galbanum 1 - Spirits of wine 4 - -The sturgeon’s bladder is cut into small pieces and steeped in the -spirits, and the rest, in solution, then added. It must be warmed again -when used. - -As this cement will bear long exposure to moisture before being at -all injured by it, it can be used as a medium for painting on glass, -and thereby producing effects very little inferior, either as regards -beauty or durability, to glass itself. The experiment can be easily -tried, as any chemist can make up the recipe. When finished, the -painting can be coated with liquid silicate of soda, which will give it -all the property of glass. - -A LIME CEMENT FOR GLASS is made as follows:-- - - Calcined lime 30 - Litharge 30 - Linseed-oil varnish 5 - -JEWELLERS’ CEMENT. Extremely strong:-- - - Fish-glue solution 100 - Mastic varnish (pure) 50 - -The fish-glue must first be dissolved in spirits of wine. - -TO JOIN GLASS AND METAL, &c.--Stir slacked and powdered lime in hot -glue. This sets as a very hard substance. It can be extensively -modified and varied for many substances, and used for painting. - -CEMENT FOR GLASS:-- - - Gum-arabic 50 - Sugar 10 - Water 50 - Oil of turpentine 10 - -The gum, sugar, and water are first carefully combined, and then the -turpentine well stirred with the mixture. - -SALLE’S CEMENT FOR GLASS:-- - - Muriate of lime 2 - Gum-arabic 20 - Water 25 - -Not commended by LEHNER, as being too soluble. TO CLOSE BOTTLES:-- - - Powdered resin 6 - Caustic soda 2 - Water 10 - -To be thoroughly mixed and left for several hours. Before using, stir -well into it eight to nine parts of calcined plaster of Paris. This -will in half-an-hour take firm hold or “set,” and is waterproof. A good -filler for cracks. - -The reader who desires to be perfectly informed as to glass in all its -relations can obtain, by application to J. BAER, Rossmarkt, Frankfort -on the Main, Germany, a catalogue which is perhaps the most extensive -on the subject ever published. - -Coloured or stained glass windows may be repaired or made by the -following process, which has the advantage of being quite as durable -as any in which the colours are burned in:--Take two panes of glass, -and paint on one your pattern with fine varnish and transparent colour -mixed. When dry, go over the whole, with a broad, soft brush, with a -liquid mastic cement, which must be quite transparent and thin. Any -transparent strong cement will serve, but it is advisable to use the -mastic in all cases as a narrow border and at the edges. If you have an -engraving, especially one on very soft spongy paper, take a pane of -glass, cover it with a coat of varnish, and just before it dries press -the engraving face down, on it. When quite dry, with a sponge slightly -damped and the end of the finger, peel away all the soft paper, leaving -the lines of the engraving. These may now be coloured over, with even -very little skill and care. A very good effect may be produced, so -that a very indifferent artist can in this way produce very tolerable -pictures. Then, to better preserve this, double it with the other pane. - -By painting and shading also on this _second_ pane, as I have -discovered, very beautiful and striking effects of light and shade can -be developed, so that this forms, as it were, a new art by itself. This -will remind the reader of the porcelain lamp-shades, which so much -resemble pictures in Indian ink; but the effects of the double panes -are more singular and far more varied. There may be even a third pane -employed. As the materials for this art are far from expensive, and -as it is extremely easy, I have no doubt that it will be extensively -practised. Protecting one glass picture by another is not a new art; -but I am not aware that the obtaining a series of lights by thus -reduplicating the panes has been practised. - -A modification of it is as follows:--Cut out several panes, -corresponding to the size of the two glass covers, of quite transparent -paper or parchment, prepared by rubbing with oil or vaseline, lard, or -the like. Paint on these the required modifications of the picture. -The advantage of this is, that a great many shades can thus be given -in a thinner space, creating an astonishing effect. As this is not at -all a mere imitation of stained glass, and as it produces effects not -to be found in the latter, it may rank as an art by itself. The chief -of these effects is _relief_, especially shown in the human figure. -But the most extraordinary are the variations of chiaroscuro which -it affords, by availing himself of which the artist may create or -obtain striking suggestions for oil or _aquarelle_ pictures; for these -transparencies can be so infinitely and ingeniously varied that no one -can fail to derive from them many ideas. - -This may be tested by simply preparing any picture, say of a statue, -a castle on a rock, or a face. Cut out from sheets of the same size -in very transparent paper a series of shadows adapted to it, and -adjust them. They may be all in monochrome or one colour, or in many -hues. They may range, with proper care, from almost imperceptible -shadow to opaque black. By beginning with only two stencils or shaded -pictures--for as regards these the artist must be guided by his own -skill--and gradually increasing the number, the proper adjustment -will soon be found. I advise the beginner in copying to proceed -from monochrome to two colours before attempting many. Teachers in -_aquarelle_ will find that such copies are--after a certain degree of -proficiency shall have been obtained--much superior to those commonly -used, as they come nearer to nature. - -The most perfect form of this curious art is an improvement which, -I believe, is my own invention. This consists of introducing leaves -of painted _mica_ between the two glasses. In this way four grades -or tones of colour and light and shade can be made in a picture. -Mica-leaves can be made into one by using mastic cement. Rub the edges -with emery-paper to roughen them. - -As I have already intimated, the materials for this work are so cheap -and the process so easy, that all which I here assert may be at once -verified by the outlay of a few shillings, with a few hours of time. It -is, in another form, the same thing as arranging lights around a statue -in a dark room, but adapted to all kinds of pictures. - -As a Latin poet has declared, “It is an easy thing to add to arts,” -when a beginning has once been made (“_Inventis facile semper aliquid -addere_”), so I will add to this a curious discovery in glass made by -me in Venice a few years ago. I was being taken by Sir AUSTIN LAYARD -over his celebrated glass-factory. It was he who, with the aid of -Sir WILLIAM DRAKE, _first_ revived the almost forgotten manufacture -of glass in Murano. While standing with him by a furnace watching a -workman skilfully forming ornaments in glass, it suddenly occurred to -me that the Chinese were said to have possessed in remote times an -art, now lost, of making vases or bottles which appeared externally -to be quite plain, but on the surface of which, when red wine was -poured in, patterns or inscriptions appeared of the same colour. It at -once occurred to me that this could be perfectly effected by making a -bottle, on the interior of which the ground should be of considerable -thickness, say half-an-inch, while the inscription or pattern would be -no thicker than ordinary window-glass. Then if the whole exterior were -to be lightly ground on a wheel or sandpapered, the difference between -ground and pattern would not be perceptible until red wine or some -highly coloured fluid were poured in, when the pattern would at once -show itself. - -Sir AUSTIN LAYARD was so much struck by the suggestion that he sent at -once for his foreman, Signore Castellani, who said that he had heard -of such bottles, but always supposed it was a fable. He, however, at -once admitted that they could be made as I proposed, but added that -the expense would be so great as to render the invention practically -useless. - -It has, however, since occurred to me that such bottles could be made, -and cheaply, as follows:--Take a Florence flask, and divide it into two -parts with a diamond, using a saw for the bottom. Then on the sides -within place the ground. It could be made of silicate of soda and -powdered glass or flint, or even of white wax, hardened with powdered -glass. Close the bottle with silicate, and grind the whole. - -When any glass has been broken and mended, the fracture still -discernible may be thus concealed by grinding the surface, and in many -cases by surrounding it with a ring or tube of metal, also by one of -silicate, or with an ornament formed with it. - -A glass stopper when too large can be easily filed down to fit. Should -the neck of the bottle be too narrow, it can also be enlarged by the -same process. When the rim of a goblet is fractured, it can be ground -down on a grindstone. I have done it with a file. - -A pane of glass can be somewhat rudely cut into shape with a pair of -strong scissors, under water. In this, as in other things, practice -leads to perfection. - -An old method of effectually closing bottles of wine was as -follows:--The edge of the opening on the top was ground down on a -stone, and a small disc of glass was exactly fitted to it. Heat was -then applied till both were in partial fusion and the cover was welded -to the bottle. A little powdered glass would aid the fusion, or it -could be effected with silicate without heating. The process is the -same as using glass stoppers, rather sunk in, and sealing up with -silicate. - -A broken champagne bottle is not easily mended, but I have seen one -curiously utilised. The bottom only had been broken, and it was cut off -round and evenly with a file. Within it there hung from the cork by a -cord a very large nail or small bolt of iron. Thus prepared, it made a -capital and appropriate dinner-bell. Here in Italy I have often seen -bells made of crockery or terra-cotta; their tone is better than would -be supposed. - - - - -WOOD-SHAVINGS - -IN MENDING AND MAKING MANY OBJECTS - - - “_In human industry, there is on an average a loss of fifty per - cent. in labour or material._”--Observations on Art, by CHARLES G. - LELAND. - -There is no country in the world in which the art of mending is so -much required as in the United States of North America. The reason for -this is the extraordinary and sudden changes in temperature, causing -the expansion and contraction of cells and fibre, especially in wood, -which results in cracks. Thus seasoned furniture and carvings, which -have remained unchanged for centuries, it may be for a thousand years, -in any part of Europe, shrink and split very often within a month after -being placed in a drawing or dining room in Boston or Philadelphia, as -I know by sad experience. Thus I have known a very beautiful Italian -mandoline, three hundred years old, richly inlaid with ivory, to so -shrink and warp in America that a professional mender declared that -nothing could be done with it. The sounding-board had curled up like a -scroll and split, and the mosaic or inlaying had fallen out in bits. - -In such a case, carefully detach the warped piece or pieces, and dampen -the concave side carefully with a sponge till it resumes its flatness -or usual form. When this is attained, take very thin shavings of a -firm wood, as thin as they can be shaved, and glue them transversely, -or _grain across grain_, to the under or plain side of the board. This -will probably prevent all warping in future, especially if the best -mastic and fish-glue is employed. It may here be noted that where the -shavings cannot be obtained, thin parchment or even note-paper may be -used, and that good, strong varnish, or not too thin, may be used for a -binder. There are many cases in which parchment or paper are preferable -to wood in repairing, as being less liable to warp or crack. - -[Illustration: _Patterns cut from Wood-Shavings._] - -WOOD-SHAVINGS, which are as yet but little utilised in art, have, -however, before them “a great future.” Combined with glue, or other -binders, they can be made, even under the hand-roller, into boards, -which have the advantage that they can be moulded, curved, or turned -to suit many emergencies which would require a great deal of saw or -carving work. - -It is not unusual to employ veneers, or very thin sheets of wood, as -a guard across the grain where shrinking is to be apprehended, as in -tablets for painting on or panels, and it is a great pity that this -very cheap precaution is so little used. But there are very few cases -in which shavings are not as applicable, and they have the great -advantage of being obtainable wherever there is a plane and wood. - -Holes or defects in wood--for example, in American shingle roofs or the -clap-boarded sides of houses--can often be more cheaply and readily -repaired with shavings and glue (into which oil is infused) than by any -other means. And it may be observed that such a coating of shavings -and glue, laid on to a new roof, is the cheapest and most effective -protector against rain or sun or frost. - -In certain work wood-shavings can be advantageously combined with paper -to give a solid, smooth surface and firm body. Here the paper-paste, -with or without sawdust, is first forced into the cavities, and the -shavings superadded. - -Shavings and glue are excellent for the temporary repair of boats, -and if the mending be _properly executed_, it will be as durable as -the original wood. It would be an easy matter indeed to make a canoe -entirely of shavings and glue. If the hand-roller be well used and -thoroughly applied, the result will be a very firm fabric. - -[Illustration: _Pattern to be cut out of Shavings and applied with Glue -to a Panel._] - -It may be worth knowing in the wilderness, that where a backwoodsman -has a _plane_ (and he can always make one if he has a chisel, which, -again, can be made out of a knife-blade) he can make shavings, and -with these and some kind of _binder_--even clay--he can lay a dry, hard -floor, when perhaps boards are not to be obtained. The substratum may -be of beaten clay or stone. If of sufficient thickness and well rolled, -such a floor as this would be impervious to damp. - -Any surface can be very well _veneered_ with shavings and glue. -Smooth the surface by pressure or rolling, and when dry glass-paper -it. Veneers are often not to be had; shavings may be got in every -carpenter’s shop. - -Not only very strong and elastic canes, but even _bows_ of a superior -quality, can be made of shavings. The Indians in Pacific America make -the latter by pasting and pressing one shaving on another with great -care. It may be understood that where the grain, as in a piece of wood, -runs _altogether_ in one way, it will split with the grain. But where -it is not uniform or connected, and is very powerfully incorporated -by pressure with a good binder, we may easily have a very elastic and -tough fabric, not so likely to split as wood. Thus we can make from -hickory shavings a wood less liable to warp or split than the original -wood itself. - -Wood-shavings and glue are admirably adapted to repair broken boxes -or any other articles of wood, especially for smoothing over roughly -mended surfaces and covering knot-holes or other defects. In all cases -when possible use the roller, and when pasting one piece on the other -cross the grains. - -MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS, such as guitars, violins, and mandolins, are -very easily repaired with shavings and glue; and this is, indeed, in -many cases, the very best means of reparation, since, while a piece -of wood may or may not injure the tone, the shavings always give a -good vibration. And where it is quite beyond the power of any ordinary -amateur, say a lady, to set in a piece of wood or apply one, or to -get it of a proper thickness, anybody with care can paste on thin -shavings--the thinner the better--till the defect is repaired. In -many cases parchment or paper will answer just as well, and I have -myself thus perfectly mended violins which were apparently beyond -all bettering, and got to the stage of _lasciate ogni speranza_, or -hopelessness. - -There are, however, many cases of badly fractured objects in which the -owner gives up hope, because it seems _impossible to make a beginning_. -Now, “whatever can be made can be mended” is true of everything except -morals, and even in these there is more to be done than men wot of. And -in a great number of these cases parchment strips, thin linen tape, or -especially wood-shavings, can be used with success. Bring the broken -edges together if they warp apart, and attach them with the strip and -strongest cement; that is, with small pieces of the “fastener.” Do not -attempt to do everything at once. When the edges are united and the -_binder_ dried, fill in all crevices or holes with a suitable paste -or “filler”--not too much at once, in certain cases. Then, as will -generally be required, cover the surface with thin shavings and binder; -as it dries, file or glass-paper it smooth. The shavings will make, -with mastic and fish-glue, in many cases, a far better repair than -could be effected with a piece of wood or parchment, because they will -never _split_, like the former, if they are applied lying transversely -or crossways, nor stretch like the latter. - -It may depend, in many cases, on what _wood_ the shavings consist of. -As I have observed, even in the bush a plane can be made with a chisel -or a piece of a table-knife blade, set in a wooden block; but elsewhere -any carpenter will easily supply what is wanted, _ad libitum_. - -The paste or filler of wood-powder or paper-pulp will be found -described in other chapters. - - -ORNAMENTAL WORK OF SHAVINGS--MARQUETRY - -_A curious kind of ornament_ can be made by cutting out decorative -patterns, human figures, animals, flowers, &c., from shavings with -scissors or pen-knives, then glueing them on a smooth soft board. -Apply as much pressure as possible, so as to make them sink into the -wood, and when dry coat the whole with varnish, till an even surface -is established. Rub over the dried surface with finest glass or -emery-paper, and then smooth patiently with the palm of the hand. If -this be well executed the result will be a perfect imitation of inlaid -wood, although it is really an art by itself, which, I believe, is my -own invention. Thin veneers may also be used instead of shavings. Ebony -or walnut thus _appliqué_ on _larch_ or _holly_ make exquisite work. - -This kind of ornament has great advantage over inlaid wood or -marquetry, for the pieces of which it consist are far less liable to -be detached or peel off, while it looks quite as beautiful. And be it -observed that, laid with a transverse grain, it prevents warping and -strengthens the ground, while inlaying weakens it; for to make the bed -for inlaying or mosaic we must excavate the bed till it is extremely -thin and liable to warp, whereas in shaving-work we make a light but -very strengthening addition. - -A single experiment will suffice to convince the reader of the merits -of this very useful, elegant, and novel art. It is specially applicable -to ornamenting albums and book-covers, where it may be used even on -pasteboard. - - -REPAIRING PANEL PICTURES WITH SHAVINGS - -It is often a very difficult matter to obtain a thin panel or -strips and do all the work properly when we wish to put into shape -a warped panel, let us say of an old picture, which is on the point -of splitting. The inserting screws is very dangerous. I myself have -inadvertently thus made a fearful blemish in a Madonna’s face. But if -we use _shavings_ there is no such danger. Wet the back till the panel -is flat, and then _gradually_ glue on the shavings across the grain. -This is as well done with small bits as large. With a picture it would -be well to continue the coating to the thickness of one-third of an -inch or more, but a very thin coating will go far to prevent warping or -bending. The thinnest panels or veneers may be thus “backed up” into -solid boards. In all cases where practicable, use heavy pressure on the -roller. - - - - -REPAIRING WOODWORK - - - “_Among the thousand mad schemes which were proposed by projectors - was one for making sawdust into boards._”--History of the South Sea - Bubble. - -Very few people, even among workmen and artists, are aware of what -remarkable and curious restoration the most decayed pieces of wood are -capable. We will, however, begin with the simplest repairing, or that -of furniture. - -When articles of furniture have been strongly and properly made of oak -or other hard wood, and as properly used, they will last for centuries; -and should some unforeseen accident take away legs or arms, they can be -perfectly replaced, especially in the admirable old-fashioned German -objects of the kind, which were all put together with wooden pins or -by means of mortise and tenon, so that, when need required, they could -be packed as boards;--nor were they the less elegant for this. But if -furniture be simply sawed from soft, cheap deal or poplar, and merely -glued together (as most cheap furniture made in England is), it will -soon warp and break up, and all the mending in the world will not make -it better than it was when new. Glue is, therefore, the great material -for most woodwork, and, as I shall show, in two very different forms. - -Having a broken chair-leg, which can, however, be fitted together, -first prepare your glue in a proper kettle--that is, a _balneum mariæ_, -or one kettle in another. In the outer is only boiling water; in the -inner the glue, mixed with water. The reason for this is, that glue, -when softened with water, dries up very rapidly under the action of air -or fire, while the softer heat of water keeps it, so to speak, “alive.” - -But if, while the glue is soft, we pour, say, a teaspoonful of nitric -acid into half-a-pint of glue, it will remain soft a much longer -time--which is a valuable secret to many, especially where large, broad -surfaces of veneers are to be glued on, and where, the process being -slow, it is desirable for the adhesive to remain soft for many minutes. -And here I would mention that the acid-glue will remain in a liquid -state for one year if tightly corked up in a bottle. Its only defect is -a disagreeable, pungent smell. - -This glue can be improved by being made as follows:--Take of best glue -three parts, place them in eight parts of water, and allow the mixture -to soak some hours. Take half a part of hydrochloric or muriatic -acid and three-quarters of a part of sulphate of zinc; add to these -the glue, and keep the whole at a moderately high temperature till -fluid--that is to say, boil the glue as usual in a _balneum mariæ_ -or in hot water, after soaking it all night in water. Then stir in -the hydrochloric (or muriatic) acid and sulphate of zinc. This is a -first-class glue. Keep it in a bottle with an oiled cork; any other -stopper would adhere. But for all ordinary work the glue, with nitric -acid, will suffice, as it holds with great tenacity to anything. - -This glue, which keeps liquid for a long time, and which holds without -scaling off, as common glue often does, may also be made with _very -strong_ vinegar. The latter, in fact, amounts to the same thing in -most European countries, but especially in the United States, where, -according to the New York _Tribune_, there is literally no vinegar -sold or made, save from sulphuric acid and water. Perhaps when mankind -shall have reached a higher stage of civilisation, all dealers will -be compelled by law to place on every article of food sold the list -of ingredients of which it is composed. We should then know how much -oleomargarine passes for butter, and what proportion of “delicious -conserves” are manufactured from apples alone or turnips. - -Observe that in glueing ordinary wood together the two pieces to be -attached should be gradually but very well _heated_ first. This renders -them more inclined to “take” the glue. This is applicable to other -substances. - -Also note that when two surfaces have been made to adhere with ordinary -water-glue, should they come apart when cold, it is very difficult to -make them unite again. But this is not the case with acid-glue. And if -you have such surfaces which will not unite, wash them with nitric acid -or very strong vinegar, and the glue then applied will “take.” Also -observe that the acid-glue is far stronger than the common kind. - -Having the broken leg fitted, first with a narrow gimlet or brad-awl -make a hole crossing the fracture, then glue the pieces together, and -before the glue dries put a screw or two through the hole; _i.e._, -_screw_ the pieces together. This will hold perfectly, if you will sink -the head of the screw in the wood, smooth it with a file, then putty it -over and paint it. - -It seems strange that anything can be so mended as to be stronger -than before; yet this is literally true as regards the broken leg of -a chair, a cane, a beam, the mast or spar of a vessel, or any similar -long piece of wood. This is effected as follows:--Cut the two separated -pieces into two exactly fitting “steps” or mortises, as shown in this -illustration. - -[Illustration] - -Fasten these with glue and screws; or, better still, by adding to both -two sliding, tightly fitting ring-tubes, or one long one. This will -actually make the stick stronger than it was at first. The rings should -be covered with paper, glued, and then painted and varnished. - -The processes of glueing and screwing are applicable to most fractures -of furniture. Where a piece of wood is broken away, it, or a similar -piece, must be inserted. When wood is warped it may be straightened -by applying wet towels. Observe that if a flat panel is warped thus-- -[Illustration] you must wet the upper or concave side, put it under -heavy weight, and as soon as it becomes straight, screw it down with -transverse strips. Drawers which are made from badly seasoned wood -are a grief to the heart. They warp and stick. When you find that -such is the case you can save yourself much annoyance by examining -them, planing away the obstructions, and nailing transverse strips of -wood across; that is to say, pieces in which _the grain_ of the strip -crosses that of the wood. Very good and well-seasoned English furniture -often warps badly in India; therefore it should be thus protected. -This can in most cases be better done with strips of metal. In large -wardrobes, presses, or chests, where there are broad and often thin -panels, this precaution should always be taken. As I write I have just -seen two exquisitely painted and valuable pictures on panel, one of -which had curved and split in two, while the other was badly warped for -want of such a precaution, which would have cost only a penny’s worth -of strip and screws and half-an-hour’s work to save them. - -It will very often happen in mending furniture that neither nail, glue, -nor screw can be relied on. In such case bore with a suitable gimlet -and pass wire through the hole. Flexible wire twisted in two strands, -with the ends properly secured, say to the head of a screw, all being -sunk beneath the level, will hold almost anything. - -Frames for looking-glasses or pictures often “spring” at the joints. -In such cases a screw with acidulated glue will make them permanently -strong. - -Always put handles to drawers. The vile invention or device of using -the key for a handle is by far too common. Metallic handles of brass -are preferable to wooden knobs. Keys are often lost, or else break. -The bottom of a drawer should always be secured by screws. - -When the bottom of a drawer, as frequently happens, shrinks and becomes -too short, so that there is a long opening, the latter should be filled -with a strip of wood. The chief cause why modern furniture is apt to -become loose or separate is chiefly due to its being made either of -unseasoned or soft wood, such as weak deal or poplar, which absorbs -moisture from the air and then dries and shrinks, or because it is made -of too many pieces only glued together, and that with cheap, bad glue. - -RESTORING DECAYED WOOD.--The worst cases of decay or of worm-eaten -wood can be perfectly restored in this manner:--Take fine sawdust of -the same kind of wood as the original. Let it be as fine as possible, -either cut with a refined saw or powdered in a mortar. Sift it. Then -with acidulated glue, or else plain, clear, white Salisbury glue for -light wood, make a paste, well mixed. With this you can fill up holes -(using a spatula or flexible knife or ivory paper-knife). But, what -is more, you can thus make a very strong _artificial wood_ which can -be moulded into any form, and when dry polished by cutting over the -surface with a chisel or flat gouge, and using a file or glass-paper to -finish. In fact, you can mould or model figures with this wood-paste by -itself. Putty is generally used for such repairs, but the wood-paste is -like wood, and quite as durable. - -If you have a mould of plaster of Paris, boil it in oil, clean it, and -then oil it. With the wood-paste you can make ornaments which can be -applied to plain wood surfaces. - -Splints, fractures, cracks, holes, corners broken away, are all easily -restored with wood-paste. In moulding it the fingers should be oiled to -prevent its sticking. - -Any kind of dry sawdust can thus be converted into a paste, which, when -dry, becomes wood. It may be very much hardened under a hydraulic-press -or by a wooden hand-roller. Housekeepers should use this composition -for filling up rat-holes, or any kind of crevices in furniture, or -panels, or doors and walls, especially where such cracks harbour -insects. - -It would be perfectly possible to construct an entire house of such -wood-cement, and one which would be perfectly durable, or even more so -than wood, since beams and planks thus made never crack, split, nor -warp. With it the boldest vaulting and arch work can be more easily -made than in stone or with wood, as the latter is usually worked. -As builders in Turkey form domes by making circles of clay or mud, -and gradually add to the first a smaller one, so by using wood-paste -the largest space could be covered or domed over without building -a scaffolding. There are many places in the world where (as in the -prairies of America, Russia, and Hungary) large timber is wanting, -but where small wood for sawdust is more available, and yet where, as -cattle abound, glue would be very cheap. This material deserves more -serious attention than it has ever received. - -More than twenty years after I had invented, or at least projected and -put in practice, this method of making artificial wood, I found the -following in the _Manuel Général du Modelage_, par F. Goupil; Paris, Le -Bailly:-- - -“To make vases, take fine dry sawdust and pass it through a sieve. It -may be made into a paste with a compound of turpentine, resin, and wax. -Or mix the adhesive with five parts of best strong white glue (_colle -de Flandre_) to one part of fish-glue. Melt them separately, ... pour -them together, boil to a proper consistency, and mix with the sawdust. -By this process figures can be cast which, when finished by hand, -exactly resemble carved wood.” - -Another recipe is to take 750 grammes of strong glue to 1½ kilogramme -of gall nuts. To be mixed cold. Mix in hot water with sawdust. - -Since writing the foregoing I have found the following recipe in a MS. -of 1780, a family heirloom kindly lent me by Miss Roma Lister:-- - - * * * * * - -“_To cast Wood in Moulds as fine as Ivory, of a fragrant Smell, and -indifferent Colours._--Dry Lime Tree wood sawdust in a pan by a gentle -fire, and beat it to a fine powder in a stone mortar. Sift it through -Cambric, and keep it in a dry place free from dust. Then add to an -equal quantity of Gum Tragacanth and Gum Arabic 4 times the quantity -of Parchment Glue. Boil them in Pump Water, and filter through Linen. -Stir into it the Wood powder till it becomes of the substance of a -thick pastry; stir it all together, and set it in a glazed pan in hot -sand, for the moisture to evaporate till it be fit for casting. Mix -your colours with the Paste, and to give it a Scent put Oil of Cloves -or Roses or the like, which, if you please, you may mix with powdered -Amber. Anoint the mould with Oil of Almonds, and put your paste into -it. Let it dry for 4 or 5 days, then take off your mould, and the -Images will be as hard as Ivory. You may cut, turn, carve, and plane -this wood, and it will have a fine scent. The mould may be Plaster of -Paris, but it were better made of metal.” - -I would add to this, that where heavy pressure or hand-rolling can be -applied this becomes really hard. Also note that any light, dry wood -of fine texture can be dried and powdered for this purpose. The paste, -even with common fine glue, can be used for very fine repairing. By -sifting and pulverising, the dust may be made as fine as flour. A -little calcined and powdered glass adds to its strength. - -To make _panels_ for furniture, walls, or boxes, take firstly a thin -panel of seasoned wood, fasten two strips of sheet-tin across the back -to prevent warping, and make or apply the cast to this. Very beautiful -work can thus be produced very cheaply. - -It may be here observed that this principle of mixing a powdered -substance with glue or gum or an adhesive runs through all the arts of -mending. The powder of cocoa-nut shells, slate, of paper, plaster of -Paris, of leather, clay, lime, fine sand, and many other substances, -can all be combined with adhesives, acids, or chemical solvents in -such a manner as to form what may be called generically _cements_, or -substances, or _pastes_, which become hard. Any glue or gum, or liquid -which will make two surfaces adhere, can be mixed with most organic or -inorganic hard substances in powder so as to form a paste which, when -dry, forms a solid, hard substance, because the grains of the powder -are thereby cemented together. Most of these yield to the action of -water, but there are a few which resist both water and fire, all of -which will be described in this work. - -Broken ebony can be filled in cracks with a very neat and dainty -paste or cement made as follows:--Take dried rose-leaves, or any -others as soft, steep them in just enough water to soften them, add -of gum-tragacanth and gum-arabic just enough to make a paste, and -sufficient ivory black to give it an ebony colour. Macerate the whole -in a mortar. In the East a few drops of otto of roses or of geranium -are added. From this heads are made, also medallions, or any other -small objects. The composition sets very hard, and much resembles -ebony. I have made many small objects of it myself, and can testify -to its excellence. It is in this manner that the black rosaries from -Constantinople are made. - -A very good cement for filling cracks in furniture or other woodwork -is made as follows:--One part of finely powdered resin and two parts -of yellow wax are melted together, and to this is added two parts of -finely pulverised ochre, or other suitable colouring earthy substance. -This is an excellent cement in all respects, except that it yields -to great heat. For all such repairing sawdust and glue is much to be -preferred. - -In repairing furniture, remember the screws hold much more firmly if -they are just dipped in boiling beeswax or turpentine. If you are not -accustomed to screwing or nailing, just make a hole with a brad-awl, -else you will find the screw or nail going out of the side of the box, -or in some other undesired direction. - -Clamps, or pieces of wood connected by screws, ties, or elastic bands, -are indispensable in much glueing pieces together. They are, however, -easily made. A good clamp can be made by bending over the two ends of a -strong piece of wire. Hammer the ends into the wood. - -Glue is more elastic when mixed with a little glycerine. This should -be borne in mind when mixing glue with sawdust to form artificial -wood, and, in fact, in many manufactures and combinations where it is -specially desirous to have a certain degree of toughness or flexibility -in the object made. - -To utilise waste matter is allied to mending, which is only preventing -waste. For this purpose common wood-shavings may be used for a pretty -art. Take good shavings of any wood, and after moistening them with -glue or gum tragacanth and arabic, press them flat. Trim them with -scissors into leaves, or make them into flowers, and attach them -together. Then pour over them liquid plaster of Paris, in which there -is gum-arabic and alum dissolved. Take a bush, or plant without leaves, -and gum the leaves to it or to its twigs. Cover bare places with the -gypsum. When dry varnish the whole. A Professor HEIGELIN, in Stuttgart, -once had an exhibition of such work. Frames can be decorated in this -manner. Paint, gilding, and enamel, or bronze powders, can, of course, -be applied. Shavings combined with weak glue submitted to pressure form -artificial wood or boards, which can be improved by further combination -with waste-paper. Made with a solution of alum it is fireproof. Its -strength will be in proportion to the pressure applied. It can often -be employed in repairing when suitable wood is wanting, and has the -advantage that it can be turned to any shape. - -The reader can easily satisfy himself by experiment that these -artificial woods made from sawdust or shavings, combined with -adhesives, are very easy to manufacture, very cheap, and, when properly -made, extremely strong. When strong pressure or rolling can be -applied, the quantity of adhesive may be diminished. Linen or muslin -rags, cotton-wool, or any textile fabric can be added to the shavings, -as well as waste-paper of all kinds. Anything fibrous or stringy will -aid in the binding. - -This subject may be studied in detail in a work entitled _Die -Verwerthung der Holtzabfälle_--The rendering valuable of Refuse-Wood, -such as Shavings, Refuse Dye-Wood, &c., showing how they may be -converted to Artificial Wood, Fuel, Chemicals, Explosives, &c.--by -ERNST HUBBARD; Vienna, price 3 marks. - -Wood of all kinds is in America sawed into such thin veneers that they -are used to serve as wall-paper, being attached with paste. When damp -they bend like paper. Such veneer is very useful for repairing wooden -surfaces. - -Common putty is not always to be trusted in for repairing wood. It -sometimes shrinks, and is never very hard. The glue with glycerine and -sawdust or cocoa-nut dust is preferable. - -“Scratches and chance cuts may be remedied by merely melting or washing -and rubbing in with cold water. But for most small defects a _filler_ -is used. This is a kind of paint or liquid cement, the object of which -is to fill up the pores of certain coarse woods and make the surface -fine. Soft wax, flour, and varnish are used for this purpose.” - -Any dealer in paints and varnishes will supply a filler for any special -work. - -Staining or colouring wood is an important part of repairing. “Oiling -alone is a kind of colouring, for all oiled wood becomes much darker -in a short time.”[2] - -Soda dissolved in water gives to oak wood a much darker tone. Dark tea -and alum is also useful, and still better very strong coffee. Also -porter or beer mixed with umber. Also a decoction of walnut-leaves -boiled down. In using these or any other colours the following rules -must be strictly observed:--(1.) Use a sponge or brush, and do not -apply the dye freely or pour it on, as you will run great risk of -warping the wood or making it split. (2.) Exercise the greatest care in -drying it near a fire. (3.) Do not expect to colour all at once by a -profuse application. However light the colour may seem, always when it -is dry rub off the colour with a rag or chamois-skin, and then make a -second wash. This process will make the dye strike in deeper and last -longer. - -STEVENS’ Stains, also those of MANDER, are very good and strong. They -generally require dilution. - -Ammonia is much used to give wood a dark rich colour. Wood thus -treated, if afterwards exposed to the smoke of a wood fire, assumes -a very ancient appearance. Bichromate of potash with water is a good -dark dye, but it must be carefully handled, as it is very poisonous -and injurious to clothing. It is used to give a waterproof quality to -certain cements. - -Good writing-ink is a very good black dye. When it is quite dry, oil, -rub, and polish it, and the ink will resist a great deal of wetting. - -It should be remembered that with ink, as with dyes, there should -always be at least two applications, and that the first should be -very thoroughly dried, if possible, in a strong light, though not in -sunshine, before the second is laid on. Three coats of blackest ink -well dried in, then rubbed in well, and finally oiled, form an almost -waterproof cover. - -When panels of marquetry or of inlaid wood of different colours are -broken away or require to be replaced, it can be done in the following -manner:--Take a panel of very firm fine white wood--holly is the best; -next to it Swiss or German larch--draw on it your pattern, and then -with a penknife go over all the pattern, cutting into the panel about -a quarter of an inch, or rather less--in no case far enough to cut -through. Then carefully fill all these lines with a firm cement, and -let it dry well. Then with a dye--not with paint--color each piece -appropriately. The cement and lines will prevent the dye from spreading -from piece to piece. This is known as Venetian marquetry. When -finished, apply _Soehnée_ varnish, and rub down very carefully by hand. -It is a very beautiful and easy work, not to be distinguished when well -done from real inlaying. Very cheap and plain old furniture can be -easily made very elegant by having panels, &c., of this work applied. -The reader may begin with a small box or three-legged stool, working -directly on the wood, and will then probably be encouraged to proceed. -Dark brown patterns on light yellow wood look well. - -This work is very easy and elegant, very little made, and may be -therefore profitable. Any kind of light or white wood, such as deal or -pine, may be used for common decoration. Cheap violins and guitars are -sometimes made into handsome ornaments for rooms by this process. For -designs for this purpose consult the Manuals of Design, Wood-Carving, -and Leather-Work, by the Author (Whittaker & Co., No. 2 White Hart -Street, London, E.C.). - -Marquetry may also be mended by making and colouring wood-paste, in -which case prepare the ground with great care, by roughening, to hold -the glue; also by using coloured cements, such as bread, well worked -with powder and glycerine-glue. - -It does not seem to occur to many people--even to those living in the -country--that there is a great deal of strong, plain, useful furniture -which can be easily made at home at no very great expense, boards of -good quality being cheap enough. With a few lessons from an expert, or -even with the study of a good elementary manual of cabinetmaking, any -amateur can succeed. Whoever can make a good box can make an antique -chair, and this can, however plain, be carved, stained, or marquetried -into beauty; but let him beware of sawed curves. - -Where there are worms in furniture or other wood, they should always -be very promptly exterminated, else they will destroy it in time. -To remove them, dissolve 2 drachms of corrosive sublimate in 2 oz. -of methylated spirit and 2 oz. of water, to be applied freely with -a feather or brush. This is an unfailing remedy; but the mixture is -poisonous, and therefore should be kept labelled out of harm’s way -(_Work_, Sept. 1892). - -In restoring or repairing woodwork we must have some knowledge not only -of paints, varnishes, putties, and filling, but also of agents which -prevent organic change or are applicable to peculiar accidents. One -of the principal of these is known as _knotting_. Its properties and -general nature are freely explained in the following article from _The -Decorator_, Sept. 1892:-- - - * * * * * - -“‘Knotting,’ or, as it is usually written, _Patent Knotting_, is -a quick-drying, semi-transparent fluid. It is made from naphtha -and shellac; hence its quick-drying nature. The knots of woodwork, -especially pine, contain much resin, which gradually exudes from the -surface. This resin will speedily darken, and ultimately destroy, the -covering film of oil paint with which woodwork is usually coated. The -object of coating knots in woodwork with ‘patent knotting composition’ -is to seal up, so to term it, the resin. In the earlier history of -house-painting processes a mixture of red lead and strong glue-size, -applied warm, was often used. The chief point in view is to stop the -‘cause,’ but without objectionable ‘effect;’ therefore the thinnest -perceptible covering--so long as it is effectual--is the best. The -_patent knotting_ of commerce is the article now generally purchased -and used. The knots are given one or two _bare_ coatings--according to -the nature of the knot, and the conscience of the workman. The best -knotting is the colour of dark oak varnish; the worst is the blackest -and dirtiest-looking. It always pays to have the best knotting, since -‘black knotting’ requires an extra coat of paint to cover the dark -patches which ‘grin through’ any light tints. For the best work it is -usually advisable--especially when the woodwork has to be finished, and -perhaps hand-polished, in ‘ivory-white’ enamel--to have the knots cut -out with a chisel or gouge, then fill up with lead ‘filling-up’ in -distemper. I recently had to have the door of an elaborately decorated -drawing-room so treated, since, despite being fresh knotted, the resin -began to discolour the work, which had received some six coats of paint -and enamel, ere the room was furnished--a very annoying and costly -matter. Very occasionally knots are gilded over with best gold-leaf; -this is generally conceded to be an effectual plan to adopt, when -gouging is not resorted to, for finest work. Knotting woodwork is, -therefore, not an insignificant detail of house-painting, especially -when we are dealing with a door-side; that alone, when finished in -hand-polished enamel, may cost a ten-pound note to produce. ‘Tin-paint’ -will do for common priming; good linseed oil is the chief element -required. All new woodwork requires three coats of good lead and oil -paint before standing any time--viz., priming and two after-coats. This -is known as ‘builders’ finish.’ When permanently decorated it usually -requires ‘getting up’ to a proper surface, and two or three more coats.” - - * * * * * - -It is sometimes an advantage to “gouge”--_i.e._, to cut--out a bad knot -and fill the cavity with wood, wood-paste, or _carton-pierre_. - -A very beautiful stain can be given to wood by rubbing it with nitric -or sulphuric acid, and exposing it to the heat of a fire. In this way -American hickory can be made to look like rosewood. Pine becomes red, -which grows darker with increased heat. - -MENDING FURNITURE.--There is but one rule for repairing creaky chairs -and tables with loose legs. They must be _carefully_ taken apart, -which can be done with chisels, a knife, and hammer, and then glued -and screwed or put together again as they were originally made. The -old-fashioned rounds or rungs of chairs, now so seldom seen, were a -great aid to strength and durability. - -I have already remarked that when a drawer in a bureau table is -troublesome by continually sticking or catching, take it out, find -where it rubs, and plane away the obtrusive portion. If it is made of -badly seasoned, green, warping wood, nail across it strips of tin. To -which I add that doors of closets, cabinets, &c., which are shrunk must -have strips of wood glued to their edges. In some cases strips of paper -will do as a temporary substitute. - -It is no exaggeration whatever to declare that two or three centuries -ago the slight and trashily made article of furniture was a great -exception, while at the present day it is the well-made, durable -article which forms the rarity--to the great shame, be it said, -firstly, of all furniture-makers, and, secondly, to fashionable -“taste,” which prefers slightness to strength. - -This trashy and flimsy lightness is vastly to the profit of the -cabinetmaker, since he can thus utilise the cheapest and smallest -pieces of worthless wood by turning them into supports for light -_étagères_ or shelves, cross-backs and legs of spider-like little -chairs, and all parts of small curved sofas, which are to be duly -puttied, French polished, or completely hidden in velveteen or rep. -It is not unusual to see what is considered a handsomely furnished -room in which there is not one absolutely well-made or strong article -which would bear careful examination or turning up. It is a pitiful -sight indeed to see a load of such furniture on its way from the -cabinetmakers, or the mill where it is sawed out by steam, to the -place where it is to be veneered or painted, glazed, and clothed into -elegance. The pieces of refuse pine wood and American greenish-yellow -poplar stuck together with glue, and as few short nails as possible, -look so shammy and shabby! I have wondered, in beholding them, at -the marvellous boldness of their makers, who could deliberately -calculate the time that such stuff would endure before its _débacle_. -And as it is all destined to be broken and mended sometime or -other, it is the more necessary that the art of repairing should be -studied. Unfortunately, badly seasoned deal cannot be repaired into -well-seasoned oak. Yet he who will take the pains to ascertain the -price of the latter will be amazed to learn that so few people have it -made into good, solid, strong furniture. “It is not _there_ that the -expense comes in.” If the reader, having some sense or taste in art, -would make his own furniture, employing an assistant at six shillings -a day to do the rough sawing and planing, he would find that he could -have strong, substantial furniture; and if he would add to this so much -knowledge of panel-carving as he could acquire in a few lessons, he -might make it beautiful. - -A CEMENT FOR WOOD is made as follows:-- - - Caseine 10 - Borax 5 - -This is carefully worked into a thickish milk-like mass. It may be -used as a glue for wood or as a paste for paper. It admits of many -modifications. To make a very good waterproof cement for wood, as -well as other purposes, take this cement when it shall have hardened, -or after it has been applied, and wash it over frequently with a very -strong extract of gall-apples. This forms, according to LEHNER, an -insoluble union with caseine. - -A CEMENT MUCH EMPLOYED IN CHINA to combine and make woodwork, -basket-work, pasteboard, &c., waterproof is made as follows:-- - - Slacked lime 100 - Stirred ox-blood 75 - Alum 2 - -This is commended as being very strong and durable. It is probable that -a slight increase of the alum in solution, or an addition of strong -infusion of gall-apples, would improve it. - -A WATER-PROOF CEMENT FOR WOODEN CASKS is made as follows:-- - - Strong solution of glue 10 - Linseed-oil varnish 5 - Oxide of lead 1 - -Boil together for ten minutes. This cement must not be brought into -connection with lye (LEHNER). - -A good, strong, cheap cement for joining wood with metal or stone is -made with - - Carpenters’ glue 50 - Sifted wood-ashes 100 - -While the glue is soft stir into it the wood-ashes in greater or lesser -quantity, according to their quality and fineness, till a syrupy mass -is formed. Clay can also be combined with this mixture to make casts. - -Common _peat_ of fine quality (for there are different kinds or degrees -of it), carefully cleaned from sticks and fibres, combined with common -glue infused freely with nitric acid, submitted to strong pressure, is -said to form a valuable substitute for wood, which may be used not only -for repairing, filling chinks in trees, making up decayed timber, &c., -but also to form blocks and planks. - -I have elsewhere mentioned that shavings are utilised in Germany. -Combined with glue, infused with glycerine, and submitted to pressure, -they form boards which are even less brittle than many which are in -ordinary use. The peculiar advantage of this artificial timber is the -limitless length of the boards which can be thus made, which is often a -great desideratum in flooring, or indeed in any building where piecing -should be avoided. A canoe can thus be made on another as mould, in -which case the shaving-cement is to be hardened by rollers. There is a -book on this subject, elsewhere mentioned. - -It may be observed that, as long and broad timber becomes every year -more rare and valuable, artificial timber from smaller plants must -certainly take its place. - -WHITEWASH FOR WOOD is rendered more durable and glossy by the addition -of liquid glue, well stirred in. It is still further improved by the -addition of milk. This lasts so much longer than common wash that it -is in the end perhaps ten times as cheap. When well made it has been -known, when applied to the exterior of certain Government buildings in -Washington, U.S.A., to last for seven years. If colouring matter, such -as umber, be added, let the latter be mixed separately with the glue, -and very thoroughly, before it is joined to the lime. The addition of -a few eggs to the mixture will improve it. The lime prepared with the -following forms a still better and stronger wash, which is well worth -the extra expense:-- - - Glue 60 - Linseed-oil varnish 20 - -The varnish, while _hot_, is mixed with the boiling glue, and it is -to be used at once. This is (LEHNER) useful to coat and caulk casks, -especially those in which such fluids as highly rectified spirits of -wine are carried. Be it observed that the hotter the mixture is when -applied the more deeply does it penetrate, yet the less is in the end -required. - -A GOOD CEMENT FOR CARPENTERS:-- - - Slacked lime 50 - Flour 100 - Linseed-oil varnish 15 - -WOODWORK which is to be under water or much exposed to rain may be -cemented with the following:-- - - Calcined lime 10 - Flint sand 15 - Iron (powder filings) 5 - Ochre 20 - Brick-dust 20 - -The powder must be well mixed by shaking, and, just before use, to be -mixed with water. - -The following may be used for JOINTS IN TIMBERS, holes and cracks, or -for covering the surfaces, as it is an excellent protective against -wet. It may also be used for stone, &c.:-- - - Purified brick-dust 10 - Calcined lime 10 - Purified red iron ore 10 - -Work this to a paste with dissolved soda. Modifications of this -combination of soda with iron and brick-dust will readily occur to all -who have carefully studied this work. - -A CEMENT FOR WOOD:-- - - Slacked lime powder 1 - Rye-meal 2 - Linseed-oil varnish 1 - -To which burnt umber or similar powder may be added at discretion. This -cement dries slowly, but becomes very hard. It is good for filling -cracks, holes, &c. - -FRENCH GLUE FOR WOOD:-- - - Gum-arabic 1 - Water 2 - Potato starch 3-5 - -SAWDUST, as I have explained, from my own conjecture and experiment, -can be combined with cements so as to form an artificial wood, which -can be easily moulded or carved, and with which all kinds of worm-eaten -and decayed wood can be restored. I find that for this purpose LEHNER -gives the following:-- - -“Take the finest sawdust and combine it with linseed-oil varnish, -kneading the mass very carefully.” - -This, when properly combined and worked, would form a very good -artificial wood. It may be here observed, that because the experimenter -finds at a first trial that the wood is too brittle or too hard, he is -not to conclude that the _recipe_ is good for nothing. Thus, to prepare -it with, glue we should take-- - - Water 20 - Glue 1 - -First boil the glue very carefully, and stir into it the finest -wood-dust or cocoa-nut shell powder. The quality will be improved if -the latter has already been steeped for some time in a strong solution -of oak-bark or gall-apples in spirit, or, instead of the latter, water. -This disposes the dust to amalgamate with the glue. Stir the whole -thoroughly. A commoner or coarser preparation for simply repairing -is made by combining plaster of Paris, glue in watery solution, and -sawdust. Common bone-dust, plaster of Paris, and glue make a good -cement for light wood-dust. With a little glycerine it can be used for -moulding. Add a little pipeclay, and if the bone-dust be very fine the -surface will take a very high polish. Finish with oil and hand rubbing. -This composition combines well with perfectly softened and macerated -paper--not merely _soaked_--to form panels, which, however, to make -them hard, should be pressed or rolled. - -CEMENTS FOR DEALS OR BOARDS OF SOFT WOOD:-- - -I. - - Caseine 500 grams. - Water 4 qts. - Spirit sal-ammoniac 0.5 qt. - Calcined lime 250 grams. - -II. - - Glue 2 - Water 14 - Cement lime 7 - Sawdust 3-4 - -FOR SPLITS IN TREES, or fractures in the bark:-- - - Pitch or resin 50 - Tallow 10 - Oil of turpentine 5 - Spirits of wine 5 - -The resin is first melted, the turpentine then stirred in, then the -tallow, and finally the spirits. - -I have spoken of artificial wood as chiefly made of sawdust combined -with a binder such as glue. There are, however, strictly speaking, -other kinds. The first of these is made from _cellulose_, which is -disintegrated wood which still retains its fibre. It was discovered, -I believe, by accident, in New York about thirty years ago. A stick, -which fitted tightly, had been left in a cannon, when the latter was -fired off. The result was that the stick was converted into a pulpy, -fibrous mass, which was found to be admirable as a material for making -paper. This, combined with glue, makes good boards. - -Bark of different kinds is also combined in powder with glue to -make wood. In all of these mixtures, where it is desirable to avoid -brittleness or hardness, there must be an admixture of oil or -glycerine. There is generally about 20/100 of the latter to 80/100 -of sawdust, but the proportion varies according to the degree of -elasticity or hardness required. To make boards the mixture is passed -under heavy rollers, and when dry it is further treated with alum in -solution, or tanner’s infusion of oak-bark, to make it waterproof. This -is not necessary for ordinary work or repair. - -TO IMITATE CEDAR.--Take any white wood and boil it for several hours in -the following mixture:-- - - Catechu 200 - Caustic soda 100 - Water 10,000 - -This penetrates very deeply into any wood. It is a very good protective. - -TO PREPARE WOOD FOR PAINT.--When you have a board or box, &c., however -rough, and of any kind of inferior wood, first smooth the surface, if -possible by planing, or else with a rasp and glass-paper. Fill all -the holes and chinks with putty, or bread and gum, or gum and plaster -of Paris. Then, with a mixture of glue (not too stiff) and fine white -plaster of Paris, rub over all the surface to perfect smoothness, and -when quite dry remove any irregularities with finest glass-paper. Then -paint as desired. This is an approved method of repairing old panel -pictures, which were all made with such a ground of plaster and glue. - -TO REPAIR MARQUETRY OR INLAID WOODWORK.--This, as I have already said, -and will now describe more in detail, is made of different pieces of -coloured wood, glued on a panel. Take a piece of fine hard wood, such -as holly, and saw it out to exactly fit the place where pieces are -missing. Draw the pattern on it, and then outline it very neatly with -a fine pen-knife-point, so as to cut a little way into the wood, -but not _through_ it. Fill up this line thus cut with a composition -of varnish and any black powder. Then with _dyes_, not oil paint or -water-colour, but such as are made with spirit, colour the pattern, a -separate colour to every piece. The dye will sink in and grow pale; -then apply it again, and till it is of the hue desired. Polish the -whole. This is what is called Venetian marquetry. It is, very easy to -make, and produces beautiful results, quite equal to the sawed-out and -inlaid work. It is, moreover, much more durable and far less expensive. -MANDER’S dyes are used for such staining. - -Even a single inlaid figure of wood, set into a panel, as in the back -of a chair, gives a character, and apparently greater value, to the -whole. Such inlaying is easily made with a fret-saw. If we take two -thin plates of wood, one dark and one light, and saw the same pattern -out of both, we can then set one into the other, and so make two inlays -by one process. _Parquetry_ is large inlaying for floors. For this it -is well to study such forms as can be _set together_, as, for instance, -squares, diamonds, crosses, T’s and the like. - -Violins, guitars, and lutes can be beautifully adorned by the Venetian -process. As the colours do not wear away, and cannot scale off like -common inlaying, it will be seen that it is by far the best way to -decorate them. Furniture of all kinds can be ornamented in the same -way. It is peculiarly appropriate to picture-frames. It being very -little known, objects thus prepared meet with a ready sale. - -When a corner of a pane in a window, as often happens--as also to the -glass of a picture-frame or mirror--is broken away, we can easily -make or have made a small ornament which will fit into the corner and -conceal the defect, This can be made of wood, _papier-mâché_ (which is -best), or hard putty or cement. It may be gilded or painted. Windows -may be prettily ornamented in this manner, even if not broken. - -[Illustration: _Mirror with Ornaments of Papier-mâché or Wood-Paste._] - - - - -ON REPAIRING AND RESTORING BOOKS, MANUSCRIPTS, AND PAPERS - -WITH DIRECTIONS FOR EASY BINDING AND PAPER-MENDING--BOOK-WORMS - - -It happens often enough that some valuable old manuscript or early -printed work, if not destroyed as useless, is sold for a trifle because -it is torn and worm-eaten or otherwise injured. The loss to literature -from this cause has been terrible, and it is all the more so because in -most cases it was the result of sheer ignorance. - -Paper is a composition of linen, cotton, or other vegetable fibre -reduced to powder and then combined with _size_, which is a kind of -glue, paste, or binding medium. Therefore paper can be mended by using, -in the soft, macerated, or pasty form, _paper itself_--which very -simple fact appears to have been hitherto a secret from the greater -portion of mankind. That is to say, having a piece of paper with a -small round hole in it--looking as if some one had fired a shot through -it--take another piece of paper of the same quality and reduce some -of it to a very fine powder or mash it fine with a knife, combine it -with good flour-paste infused with a little clear white glue, and make -a soft paste with the powder; then, laying a porcelain tile or piece -of tin under the sheet, with a hole in it, to prevent sticking, spread -the paste, which is really soft paper, with a knife over the hole. When -dry it will be mended permanently. Observe that the pulp must be a fine -_paste_, not merely paper mixed with paste--_i.e._, lumpy and stringy, -but soft. Secondly, that a better “binder” or size than flour-paste -is one made from scraps of parchment boiled, till all the gelatine -is extracted. Take the latter and let it boil till thick. It makes a -finely glazed surface. - -Do not begin to do this with a book, but with a sheet out of which -holes have been punched. It is delicate work, and you must not expect -to succeed in it at once. But in time, with care, you will remake the -paper with great skill. There are workmen who can even reunite torn -edges in this manner so that the mending is almost imperceptible. -This is remaking paper with paper. In some cases it will suffice to -simply neatly paste a piece of paper over a torn-away space. This -may be done--as in most cases--very clumsily, or it may be performed -artistically and daintily. In the latter case, using a very sharp -and specially _thin_ bladed penknife, shave down or scrape away the -overlapping edge, and apply the paste sparingly with the point of a -camel’s-hair small brush. Before it is quite dry lay the leaf on a -smooth, hard surface, and with the penknife or a burnisher flatten -down the thinned edge to an uniform surface. This also requires a -little practice, but when learned the artist may effect miracles of -restoration. One may, and that not infrequently, buy for shillings -books which when mended sell for many pounds. - -It often happens that we find some curious little old book which has -been sadly cut or worn, almost down to the type. Take it, and with a -flat rule carefully cut out every page, leaving just a little rim of -margin. Then having obtained old paper corresponding to your text, -or good modern hand-made Dutch, using strong glue-paste or flour and -gum-arabic, or paper-paste, make borders, on which paste the old pages. -If you have old paper--there are dealers who can supply it--you may -do this so well that the juncture will be hardly perceptible. In any -case you will greatly enhance the value of the book. In this, as in -all such work, never attempt to restore anything of value till you -shall have succeeded by experimenting. This is very seldom done, and -yet books thus restored sell for a price which must make the work very -profitable. One reason, however, why we see so little of it is the -_extravagant_ price charged for all such work by the agent who supplies -it. - -The prices paid for books thus restored and mounted are extremely -high, simply because there are so few people who know how to do it -well; and yet, as any of my readers may find, the art is an easy one, -requiring only neatness and care. There are very few libraries where -such restorers might not be employed, to the very great profit of the -collection. All purchasers for libraries are continually rejecting -books because they are tattered and worn or “holey,” which could be -sent to the hospital and doctored into value. And it is, indeed, to -be regretted for the sake of the public that our great libraries have -not all shops attached where duplicates and damaged rarities restored -could be sold at fair, not fancy, prices. For it is firstly the -great librarian who sees and rejects the most books, and who could -do an immense amount of good, and greatly stimulate an interest in -collection and literature--and make money--if he would also facilitate -acquisition. The art of restoring and of mending is as yet so much in -its infancy, and is so little understood and practised, that there is -not one book in a thousand, even of _rariora_ and _curiosa_, preserved -as it might be. - -It may be worth while to lay some stress on the fact that many persons, -especially women, if they will take a little pains to experiment, can -easily make a living by thus restoring books and injured documents. -There are, indeed, many other means of earning money indicated in this -work. - -A CHEAP AND DURABLE VARNISH specially made for bookbinders is prepared -as follows:--Take coarsely powdered gum-copal, add to it oil of thyme -(_oleum thymi serpilli_) or pure oil of rosemary (_oleum rosmarini_), -sufficient to form a solution. Pour off the superfluous liquid, and mix -the remainder with sufficient alcohol to dissolve it well. In making -take only so much of the oil of thyme or rosemary as will cover the -copal, and of alcohol about eight or ten parts to the whole. Special -varnishes, and perhaps better, are known to many bookbinders, who will -sell them, or inform you where to obtain them. I know of none so good -as that of SOEHNÉE, which is, however, very expensive, costing about -ninepence per ounce. It is rather brittle, however, for pictures. - -When a book is dog’s-eared, or its leaves have been turned, if the -paper be of a thin, poor quality, its chances of restoration are better -than if it were good and stiff. In the former case damp the leaves one -by one with water in which a _little_ gum tragacanth has been infused. -This is not so much an adhesive as a mere stiffener, and is used as -such for laces. Then flatten them, putting a piece of smooth white -paper between every leaf. - -There is, I fear, nothing to be done where the reader is so utterly -devoid of all the instincts of a gentleman or a lady as to turn over -a stiff, thick, highly glazed paper to mark the place! I have just -found this done in a magnificently illustrated work from a circulating -library, and, to aggravate the offence, it was on pictured pages! I -would here remark that if every reader would keep by him a piece of -indiarubber or eraser, and obliterate, or at least render illegible, -all the scribblings made on margins, this detestably vulgar practice -would soon be at an end. - -It may be observed that to repair pages which have been torn across, -or engravings, the rent is usually _transverse_--that is, such as to -leave a small flap edge. If we take very strong gum in very minute -quantity on the point of a camel’s-hair brush, we may often succeed -with great care in perfectly reuniting the edges. Observe that in -this, as in everything, the mender should not draw his conclusions -from the first effort, which will probably be a failure, but from -frequent careful observation and experiment. There are marvellously few -people in the world who take the pains to become really good menders -of anything--excepting lace and the like--hence there are few things -mended at all except by botchers and amateurs. - -INK-STAINS can be removed from paper by laying underneath the blot a -pad of clean blotting-paper or fine muslin. Take a fine sponge, dip -it in lemon-juice, and press it gently on the stain, so as to moisten -it. Then with a clean, white, soft rag, folded into a pad, press on the -spot, and the pad, lifted off, will remove a little of the ink. Repeat -this process a few times, taking care to change the pad in your hand -every time _to a clean_ spot. Do not try to _rub_ the stain out (as -most people do), but to _draw_ the ink away or out by sucking up or by -absorption. If you simply rub or press the ink in again which has just -been drawn out, you will only make bad worse. And here I would observe -that by this process of pressing, absorbing, and changing the “sucker” -applied, you can draw appalling stains out of almost anything. You -cannot, of course, prevent chemical action or change of colour, but in -most cases this is the best process. - -It is better to begin with lemon-juice and a little salt and water -where the paper is thin. When it is strong, a mixture of muriatic acid -and water generally extracts ink. - -In a great many cases the staining fluid can be drawn out by absorption -before any chemical change in the colour of the stuff can have been -effected. Therefore it is all-important to know how to do this yourself -_at once_, and not wait till it can be sent to a dyer or scourer or -cleaner. In a few hours’ time that which could have been promptly -extracted will be past all cure. When you spill ink on paper, promptly -apply, first of all, blotting-paper, and then try absorption. If any -stain remains then, apply the acid. - -TO TAKE OUT A GREASE-SPOT.--Heat an iron (I generally effect it with a -burning cigar), and hold it as near as possible to the stain without -burning the paper. If this be well done the grease, wax, &c., will -rapidly disappear. If there are any traces left, place on it powdered -calcined magnesia for a time. This is also a good means to extract -grease, wax, or oil from cloth. Very often, where lemon-juice or acid -would ruin the colour of a cloth or other fabric, chloroform will take -out the spot and leave the colour unchanged. - -_Bone_, well calcined and powdered, is an excellent absorbent of -grease. It should be remembered that all such processes must be -renewed, for after the powder or cloth applied has received a certain -quantity of the grease or stain, it ceases to be taken in. A gentle -pressure or rubbing, after laying paper over the powder, facilitates -the absorption. - -The celebrated ATHANASIUS KIRCHER, who wrote in the sixteenth century, -has left an amusing account of how he one night, stopping at a convent -in Sicily, took a book from the library (it was STEPHANUS FAGUNDEZ’ _In -Præcep’a Ecclesiæ_)--“a new book and elegantly bound”--and spilt over -it and in it all the midnight oil from his lamp! In great alarm he sent -for quicklime, but there was none to be had. So he bade the monks bring -him some _bones_, which he quickly calcined and pulverised and applied. -And the next morning there was not a trace of a spot, only a little -smell of oil, which soon vanished. He adds, that plaster of Paris would -have done as well. - -Ascertain carefully the nature of the spot before trying to extract it. -For resinous substances use spirits, or eau de cologne, or turpentine. -Benzine extracts several substances. - -An old recipe for removing ink-stains was to take a spoonful of good -aquafortis, in which break a piece of chalk the size of a large barley -corn; add two spoonfuls of rose-water and one of vinegar. This should -be mixed in a clean glass and left to stand for several hours. It is to -be applied with a piece of new sponge, by pressure, and not too freely -nor too long. When the paper is nearly dry renew the process, and when -the ink shall have disappeared, promptly wash out the acid with pure -water and a clean linen rag. (But it is _too strong_ for many fabrics.) - -When the ink does not penetrate the paper it can be removed by erasure -with a sharp penknife, or a preparation of vulcanised indiarubber -and powdered pumice-stone sold by most stationers. When this latter -does not “bite,” its action can be aided by very slightly moistening -it. After erasure rub the spot scraped with very finely powdered -pumice-stone, and polish with a burnisher or any smooth substance. - -Even when an inkstand has been spilled over a printed or long-written -page, we can by prompt action extract the new ink and leave the old -plain as ever; but the reader who expects to work this miracle of -changing night into day must not wait till the accident happens to -first attempt to remedy it, or he will probably fail. Let him first of -all, not once but often, pour ink on some waste and worthless page, and -then experiment first with the blotting-paper, then with the dilute -acids and the padding. The time will not by any means be wasted. - -A fresh ink-spot can be easily removed from paper by rubbing it with a -finely pulverised mixture of saltpetre, sulphur, alum, and pumice. If -the spot is an old one, moisten it first a little with water. - -Ink-spots, &c., in old MSS. were sometimes ingeniously covered by -ornaments in gold or colour. - -When an entire page or many pages of a book are missing, it often -happens that, at much less expense than would be supposed, an ingenious -printer can restore the whole. There are many books for which it -would be worth while to have the type cast, for even with a page thus -restored the book may be worth ten times as much as if it were wanting. -Missing pages are often supplied by photographic fac-similes from -another copy. - -It was only yesterday, as I write, here in Florence, that I heard a -tourist declare that there was nothing worth buying to be found, and -that everything curious was snapped up at once. To which I could not -assent, never having seen so many objects as of late which I regarded -as great bargains. But they were all _dilapidated_, and the tourist -generally likes to see everything in splendid condition. To him who -can restore old books and ivories and leather-work and panel pictures, -there will be no lack of bargains for a long time anywhere. The men who -sell are not all such marvellous experts in mending up, repairing, and -forging as literary dealers in the wonderful would have us believe. If -they were so clever they would not let valuable panel pictures split -in two before their eyes from ignorance of knowing how to straighten -and tack them at a penny’s cost. There is abundance of clever forging, -of lying ivories and silver-work and sham antique leather, but of -restoration of smaller or of single objects there is very little; and -there is, as I have said, in this a vast field for every collector who -knows enough to make practical application of what is taught in this -book. It is so far from true that everything is now snapped up, that I -confidently assert that there is hardly a _bric-à-brac_ shop in Europe -in which a skilled repairer cannot find a bargain, and in most cases -several. - -It will often be of service to the mender of books to be able to -prepare parchment-paper for himself. If we take a mixture of one part -nitric acid to three of water--the proportions varying very much with -the quality of the acid and of the paper--and dip into it a piece of -soft unglazed paper, the latter will at once harden into a substance -like parchment. It should be at once washed in changes of pure water. I -may here observe that neither in making this nor anything else should -the operator be satisfied with a single experiment. - -Regarding paper, there are certain curious facts worth knowing by every -reader. Before the invention or general use of window-glass, a very -transparent kind of paper was, according to KIRCHER (_De Secretis_), -prepared as follows:-- - -Take paper from the mill, not as yet sized, and mix with it to six -parts of turpentine two of mastic. This really makes a very clear, -or at least diaphanous, medium, which may be used for temporarily -repairing broken glass windows. - -The same writer informs us that if we take fine parchment (_pergamenam -hædinum_), prepared without lime, or naturally dried, we should lay -it in water, which will just cover it, in which has been well infused -boiled honey and the white of eggs. This was used to repair coloured -glass windows. - -There is also given in the _Zauberbuch_ of JOHANN WALLBERGER, -Frankfort, 1760, a recipe for the same purpose:-- - -“Take parchment prepared without lime, and steep it in a mixture of -thick gum-arabic dissolved in water, the yolk of eggs well shaken, and -clarified honey.” - -It is worth observing, as regards these recipes from old works, that -while those founded on modern chemistry and experiment are generally -cheaper and apparently better, the former are often more _durable_ in -effect, and were, indeed, more thoroughly tested. There were a great -many parchment windows in those days, and there are none now. And in -these old works of PORTA, WECKERUS, TENZELIUS, KIRCHER, ALEXANDER OF -PIEDMONT, MIZALDUS, VALENTINE KRAUTEMANN, and many more of which I -have a large collection, there are many curious prescriptions, many of -which I have seen revived from time to time of late years as modern -scientific inventions--on which subject an interesting article could be -written. - -A weak solution of oxalic acid in water is often the best to remove ink -and other stains from strong white paper or linen. It should be applied -by gently pressing or _dabbing_ (not rubbing) with a cotton pad. As -soon as the stain is removed, dab it again with clean water. Take good -care, however, that there are no scratches or cuts on your fingers, for -if the acid gets into them it will cause great pain. - -I may here mention that the old bookbinders’ paste was made as -follows:-- - -Take a quarter of a pound of starch, steep it a quarter of an hour in -water, and stir it till it is milky. Add a pinch of alum, and boil it -once more. - -This was said to keep better than paste made from flour. (Add a few -drops of oil of cloves or carbolic acid, and it will keep very well.) -Flour can, however, be used instead of starch, and a good adhesive -be the result. A little glue very much improves it. There is a great -difference in the quality of cement made from bread, as the condition -of the latter has been changed by fermentation. - -BINDING.--Repairing books is nearly allied to _binding_, and the latter -is, in perfection, a somewhat difficult art. Yet it is not at all -difficult for a careful person to bind up many works in such a manner -that they will bear much reading, and with a little artistic skill look -very well. This may be effected as follows:-- - -When a book is stitched together, there are sewed into the back two or -more cross pieces of string or strips of muslin, which project a little -on either side, and which, by being pasted down inside the cover under -a leaf, hold the book and cover together. This is further strengthened -sometimes by another strip of muslin. When the back is firmly gummed -or pasted to the book, so as to bend with it, it is called a flexible -back, which also adds to the strength of the whole. - -[Illustration] - -If the reader will now take a simply sewn or stitched book, without -binding, and will place across its back two or more strips of -parchment, and glue them on with the strongest possible cement--mastic -being the best, but acidulated glue or flour-paste with glue, or even -dextrine-paste, will answer the purpose--and if he will again paste -up and down over these a strip just the width of the back, he will -have all that is necessary to make a strong binding, for this will -hold as well as the strings. Note that the parchment strips must first -be thoroughly wet through and macerated, or crumpled till quite soft. -Again, that when the paste is nearly dry the strip should be rubbed in. - -Next cut out two pieces of _strong_ pasteboard, each a very little -larger than the length and width of the book. These are the covers. - -[Illustration] - -Now paste the outside of the _straps_ exactly to the inside of the -covers, leaving just enough space for opening and closing. When dry, -the book should open and close easily. Then take the outer cover -of leather or cloth, which is cut in the shape indicated in the -accompanying outline, paste it well over the back, and then turn the -edges over and paste them down over the cover inside, so as to form a -narrow margin, as may be seen by examining any book. Also turn down, -before doing this, the edges at the ends of the book. The binding will -be much stronger if, after pasting the ends of the parchment strips to -the covers, we paste over them in turn good, strong pieces of paper, -close to the back, to prevent the strips from pulling up. - -If there be fly or blank leaves on the sides of the book, paste one of -each down over the inside of the cover. This will conceal the margin -and add greatly to the strength of the book. But if there be none, -you can supply them, firstly, by a method which will make your binding -even stronger than that of most books. Take a very strong piece, let us -say, of Whatman’s or any other good tough linen drawing-paper, just of -the size to cover the whole book--that is, back and sides. Cut in it -four slits, and pass the strips which are to bind the book to the cover -through, and gum them down, and then paste the fly-leaf thus added -down over the strips. But it will answer every purpose if you simply -gum fly-leaves on by a very narrow margin of “adhesive.” All of this -will become clear to any one who will carefully examine a book. And -anybody who has the dexterity to fold a letter neatly or do up a parcel -properly, can in a short time, after one or two experiments, succeed -in binding a book in this manner. I have observed that those who fail -as amateur bookbinders generally do so because they attempt too much -too soon, and aim at producing elegant masterpieces before they have -learned to manage with ease such common work as I have described. - -Though this manner of strip-binding is little known, it was, strange -to say, the very first ever practised; for, according to OLYMPIODORUS, -one PHILATIUS was the first who taught the use of _glue_ to fasten -written or blank leaves together, for which great discovery a statue -was erected to him. Binders were called among the Romans _ligatores_, -as they are still in Italy, _legatori_; and it was here, indeed, that I -myself learned the craft, as I now generally bind my own books. Those -who prepared and sold the covers for Roman booksellers were called -_scrutarii_. - -There is a very easy way to bind up pamphlets, MSS., or letters -when they have any margin for a back. If you cannot have them -stitched--which, though difficult to an inexpert, can be done for a -mere trifle--then sew them together across from side to side. Where the -pages are of great value, gum them together by a _very narrow_ doubled -or folded strip of adhesive. This done, bind as before, or else simply -paste on a cover of drawing-paper at the back, and the fly-leaves to -the sides. A great deal of loose literature, flying leaves, clippings -from newspapers, letters, &c., can in this way, at no great expenditure -of time or money, be converted into really valuable books. - -I may here observe that cloth for binding, thin leather, and even -common parchment or parchment-paper, are much cheaper than would be -supposed, and that the average cost, all expenses included, of binding -a duodecimo book in these would only be from threepence to a shilling. -Any waste parchment will serve for binding. - -Any person, however, who can emboss leather with tracer and stamp, even -though but a little, after a week’s practice, can decorate and ornament -books so as to greatly enhance their value. Nor do I exaggerate when -I say that here is a field in which any person who can draw or copy -decorative patterns moderately well might make a living. The reader -will find the fullest details as to how this is done in my _Manual -of Leather Work_. (Price 5s. London, Whittaker & Co., 2 White Hart -Street, E.C.) In the present work I can only state that it is executed -as follows:--Bind your book with cardboard in fairly thick, hard, and -firm brown leather; there is a kind made for the purpose in Germany. -Draw the pattern on it, or else draw it on paper with a crayon-pencil, -and rub it from the back on the leather. This done, go over it with -the fine point of a miniature brush in Indian ink. Dampen the leather -slightly as you work with a sponge, and mark the outline with a tracer -and stamp the ground with a matt. You may leave it brown, but if the -work be coarse, I advise painting the whole with ink or Indian ink, and -then coating it with SOEHNÉE’S varnish, No. 3. Rub this down well by -hand. - -If you can supply the design (which should always be bold and simple), -any wood-carver will, for a few shillings, execute it in _intaglio_ -on a block of wood, which should be at least one inch in thickness, -and also have a transverse piece screwed to its back to prevent its -warping. With this you can stamp off as many covers as you want. -Retouch them by hand with tracer and stamp. If blackened, and then -touched up with gilding and varnished, such books are very attractive, -and should sell well. Any person who can design, or even trace, a -pattern can have it cut on a block for a few shillings, and anybody -having such a block can print off any number of impressions in damp -leather, and retouch them with stamp and tracer, and glue them to -cardboard covers, for books or albums, and sell them at a good profit. -Yet, though this has been clearly set forth by me several times in -manuals, &c., I have never yet met with a single amateur who has -attempted it. There is as a rule far more suffering in this world from -_laziness_, inertness, and an indisposition to _try_ to do something -than from any other contaminating influences which lead to poverty. - -When a book is even woefully dilapidated, so that there is no margin -to stitch, do not despair. First separate every leaf, smooth it, and, -if necessary, dampen it with a slight infusion of tragacanth. Then, if -there is even the twentieth part of an inch of margin left, take strips -of good, tough, thin paper, and with care stitch the leaves to these -strips. For some severe cases you must use very thin transparent or -tracing paper to gum over the text, but which must be visible through -it. This, if neatly done, does not look so badly as it would seem. If -one strip be folded and used to connect two leaves, the stitching and -binding become easy. I have already described how to restore margins -and fill worm-holes. - -I think that if any person of literary habits will consider all -that is written in this chapter, and will begin to practise it with -deliberation and care, he will surely succeed, and find it a very -profitable and agreeable occupation. All of such men have pamphlets, -MSS., autographs, letters, newspaper clippings, and papers, which, -if classed and made up into book-form, would be more available for -use, and far more valuable. I say nothing of repairing old books; -it speaks for itself as an easy and lucrative employment. And it -may be observed that a young man who can thus bind and repair would -make a most valuable assistant-librarian, though the business can be -mastered very soon indeed; and it would often happen that in choosing -a secretary, where there are many papers to file or a library to look -after, or an assistant in an antiquarian book-shop--particularly the -latter--preference would be given to one who had mastered practically -what is taught in this chapter. And as on board ship the best sailor -is generally the best mender--every old tar being proverbially skilled -in repairing and having a quick eye for emergencies, even on shore--so -the one who can rehabilitate and “form” books will probably be a good -assistant in all things. - -It may often happen to a writer or copyist that he has occasion to -erase a word, and cannot write over the space lest the ink should -spread. In old times this was remedied as follows:--A very little -juniper gum, levigated to the finest powder, was rubbed over the spot -with a soft linen rag. - -In all kinds of repairing or technical work it is sometimes necessary -to draw circles when the artist has no compasses. Yet this can be done -to perfection, almost by free-hand, and very easily. Take several -sheets of paper or a blotter; lay on it the piece to be drawn on. -Take a pencil in the fingers, as is usual, rest the hand on the nail -of the little finger as a point--having previously pulled the sleeve -of his coat well up, so as to get a full view--and then with the left -hand draw or revolve the paper. In most cases a perfect circle will be -the result. This is admirable practice for learning to draw circles -entirely by free hand, as may be found by experiment. - -Paper can be made, if not absolutely fire-proof, at least deprived of -inflammability, by being steeped in alum-water, or in _oleum tartari -per deliquium_, or oil of tartar. Stationers might find a sale for such -paper. If the document which was thrown by a certain Duchess into the -fire had been thus prepared, it might have been rescued by a bystander -before it perished. - -The art of preservation, or prevention of injury, is allied to -restoration, for which reason it would be well if more people who send -books by mail would use protecting corners, which can readily be made -by anybody with a pair of strong scissors from thin sheet brass, tin, -or iron. Take a piece of metal of a rectangular shape, as follows:-- - -[Illustration] - -Then double it into a triangle over a piece of cardboard, or of wood, -exactly the thickness of the cover of the book:-- - -[Illustration] - -Very valuable books should be kept in boxes of thin metal, especially -in India. Such cases should not be made to open and shut with a hinged -lid, but with a covering, and like a cigar case. Such cases, or at -least metallic guards, should also be used when a book is wrapped -and tied in the usual manner and sent by mail. I am quite sure that -at least every other book which I have received by mail during the -past year has shown on its edges melancholy scars from its strings, -reminding one of the wounds which the heroic red Indian retained from -his bonds. A guard is simply a piece of sheet-metal, bent as follows, -once or twice:-- - -[Illustration] - -These guards are invaluable for packing books in trunks. Their price is -trifling, and in the end there would be great economy in using them. -Books should not be packed very tightly together on their shelves. It -bursts the binding, especially of modern works in boards and paper. -The old parchment flexible bindings were in every respect better, -and they could even now be made far more cheaply than is generally -supposed to be possible. I have before me a book nearly three hundred -years old, bound in skiver parchment (split, or very thin), which has -evidently been much used, yet which is still in good condition. But -parchment need not be prepared very carefully for ordinary binding, and -it could be sold for half the price charged by law stationers for what -is used to write on. In the United States one must pay much more for a -sheepskin than for a sheep, indeed in some cases three or four times -as much--that is to say, the skin as a parchment in New York costs as -much as three sheep in the Far West--and yet the expense of bringing -the skin to the East and of tanning it are in no proportion whatever to -the stationer’s profits. - -Any one who will examine an ordinary old parchment-bound book, such as -lies before me, will see at a glance why it must be more durable than -a modern binding. In the modern book the _stiff_ back rises full to -the edge, or generally _above_ the level of the sides, and is made of -muslin, paper, or at best of soft leather. Therefore in time it breaks -from pressure and friction, or wears away. The parchment or vellum had -in most cases this back-edge put back or kept down as much as possible, -and the tough covering was all in one piece. It is very true that it -is not possible to obtain plain, old-fashioned parchment now, and that -those who would have vellum, or even sheep, must pay an enormous price -for it. This would not, however, be the case long if there were as -great a popular demand for parchment binding as there now is for flimsy -muslin. Those who prefer the former will find no difficulty in having -it made for them, and in binding their books themselves according to -the directions which I have given. - -I shall in the chapter on _Papier-mâché_ show how covers for books may -be cheaply made at no great expense, which may be beautifully embossed -and are extremely durable. This is, briefly, by having a flat mould -or die, on which lay alternate coats of paper and firm paste (into -which glue and alum enter), then passing over them a bread-roller, -continually adding paste and paper till the whole is complete. When -finished, rub in black or any other colour, then rub in oil, rub again, -apply SOEHNÉE, No. 3, and finally rub by hand. This will make very -beautiful binding. - -It is much to be regretted that, although there has been of late years, -owing to machinery and patent processes, such immense production of -cheap and showy binding, as shown in photograph albums, there has been -as steady and rapid decrease in quality, strength, and durability. It -is becoming unusual, even in very expensive books, to find one which -can be honestly and well opened or is well stitched. I have, since -writing that last word, tested it with two books recently published, -one costing six shillings, the other a guinea. The latter was fairly -well put together and “held,” but was warped in the stitching and -pasting. It was “bad work.” As for the six shilling book, it cracked -_clear through to the back_ at every page which I opened, and yet I -did not open it very widely. I should say that any amateur who could -not learn to bind books better in a month or six weeks than these were -bound must be stupid indeed. The examination of a number of other books -shows that what I have said is now generally true, and that even very -expensive and pretentiously elegant works are not half so well bound in -reality as were common and cheap school-books two hundred years ago. -This I have also confirmed by examining a number of the latter bound in -parchment, which bid fair to last for centuries to come. - -Should this cheap, trashy, and showy style of binding continue, -and with it a constant rise in the price of everything made by -hand, the result will be that everything durable will be made by -“amateurs”--that is, by people who to artistic spirit unite a -certain personal independence. Owners of libraries will bind their -own books, or else employ people who will work as artists, and not -like mere machines. The vulgar and ignorant will continue to buy -showy, cheap duplicates--induced by hearing, “’Ere’s an harticle, mum, -that we’re sellin’ a great many hof”--while the cultured will prefer -the hand-made, which is not necessarily more expensive. In fact, if -the unemployed in England--or the victims of the wholesale steam -trash-maker--could be taught easy hand-work, as they all _can_ be, it -would be possible to not only vastly relieve national poverty, but we -could have a variety of articles of better quality. For it appears to -be, by some strange law, a _fact_ that, with all the improvements in -machinery, men can still make by _hand_--and well--pictures, clothes, -shoes or boots, bookbindings, and works of art generally--that is to -say, anything in which skill or character can be shown; while, on -the contrary, in all such matters machinery, instead of making any -progress, is, owing to competition, actually falling behind! Scientific -and other journals are continually boasting of new discoveries and -improvements, but despite this the jerry-built houses of three-fourths -of London, the sawed and glued cheap and vile furniture (made by -scientific steam) with which they are filled, the average quality of -everything into which skill and taste are supposed to enter, show that -this boasted “end of the century” is also rapidly coming to an end in -good taste and the quality of its work. - -He who will learn to _mend_ with care, taste, and skill, firstly -his books, will find that to progress from this to binding and to -making elegant covers is only going from A to B. The binding of the -olden time, while it was incredibly strong, vigorous, and quaint, was -extremely easy to make, as I have satisfied myself by much examination -and personal practice. The stitching was not with the weakest and -cheapest cotton-thread; still less was it with wires too thin for the -purpose; it was executed with linen pack-thread, _from the top to -the bottom of the page_, in three or four stitches, so that the book -could really be opened and bent back till the covers touched without -injury to it. All of which could be given to-day with the parchment -covers at the same price which the book now costs, and to pay the same -profit, were it not that public “taste” prefers showy trash. Beyond -good, strong _stitching_, all the _necessary_ process of binding is -very easy. It requires neatness and care, and some practice, but it is -decidedly not difficult. He who has mastered it will find that other -kinds of mending, and also the practice of allied minor arts, are -simply the succeeding letters of the alphabet. - -It is a fact, to which I invite attention, that dilettante amateurs -of books invariably understand by binding nothing more than its -refinements and easily ruined adornment, which books had better be -without. Amateurs of this class always attempt at once the most -difficult work, and generally fail. As a rule, almost without -exception, the prize specimens of modern binding seen at exhibitions -are chiefly remarkable for ornament, which will not endure handling or -rubbing, such as surface-gilding. - -Pamphlets or letters, &c., can be bound with “eyelets,” and the clamp -or punch which is sold with them. Or they may be simply gummed -together, in which case use the powerful fish-glue, which holds -perfectly. - -The easiest and most effective method of side-binding, or where leaves -are held together by passing the tie through from side to side, is -as follows:--Have by you strips of metal, say sheet-tin, one-fourth -or one-third of an inch in breadth; also small rivets or tacks. Take -two strips of the same length as the pamphlet or papers to be bound, -and strike holes in them with a brad-awl and hammer, on a solid piece -of wood, at regular distances. Then place these strips on the book, -and drive the rivets through the holes. Turn the whole round, and -laying the other side on an anvil or a reversed flat-iron, flatten -the points of the rivets so that they will hold. Any old tins, such -as are thrown away in such numbers, can be made to supply strips. A -strip of parchment or strong paper bent over to form a back can then -be pasted over the strips to improve the appearance of the volume. Any -tinman will, for a trifle, supply these strips and punch the holes -neatly for use. They should be found in every library, and ought to -be in every stationer’s. It may be observed that in inserting the -rivets or tacks you should place them alternately, one on one side -and one on the other. A lighter form of this binding is to take a -flat-headed drawing-pin, similar to those used by artists, and have a -round, flat tin or brass disc, like a thin sixpence or threepenny-bit, -corresponding to it. In the latter punch a small hole, and rivet as -before. Tinmen will also punch these discs; in fact, they often throw -away a great many cut from certain kinds of work. - -Where the leader may have a great number of books to bind, he will -find it an economy or a means to secure good work to hire a girl who -is an experienced book-stitcher to come and work for him. He can -thus be _sure_ of having his works _well_ sewed from top to bottom -with strongest linen-thread in ancient style, instead of their being -shabbily wired (and all wiring is shabby, since the thin does not -hold, and the thick bursts the binding), or still more shabbily looped -together with weak cotton-thread. This effected, he can easily do his -own binding. He may not rival a Grolier, or turn out such exquisite -“gems” as require to be kept in caskets, and are utterly unsuitable for -use or reading, and, like most “elegant and unrivalled” modern binding, -marvels of tooling and gilding. But he can most assuredly hope to bind -strongly in parchment as books were bound in the olden time, and if -he chooses to also ornament them with richly stamped leather covers, -he can in a short time learn to do the latter, as may be seen in the -_Manual of Leather-Work_. - -The great test of excellence in a book is, Can it be freely handled and -read without injury? The most careless examination of most books will -convince the reader that this test is almost unknown. The exquisitely -whitened vellum bindings of Florence and Venice, which are stained -almost with the pressure of a lady’s clean finger; the photograph -album, so beautifully stamped in leather as thin as blotting-paper, -which scratches and wears into shabbiness in a week, if often -opened--all the show-pieces of exhibitions will not endure _use_. -And it seems as if, after all the binding of this decade shall have -perished, that of the common, cheap books of the seventeenth century -will be as good as ever. - -A great number of the adhesives and cements mentioned in this book are -quite applicable to mending bindings or making paper stick to paper, -&c. The following is, however, not only a paste, but also a glaze, and -is extensively used as such on labels, boxes, and cards:-- - -Boil borax with water, and work it thoroughly into caseine till it -forms a clear, thick, and extremely adhesive cement, which is also much -used to varnish leather or muslins. - -It is often desirable to have a varnish or glaze for the covers of -books, and still more frequently a paste, which will hold very firmly -and yet not penetrate, as glue and paste very often do. - -To make such a cement, mix heavy solution of warm glue with freshly -made starch or flour-paste. Add to this one-fourth part of turpentine -and one-fourth of spirits of wine. This excellent cement is applicable -to many purposes. - -To paper walls _well_ we make flour-paste, and to every quart add -ten grammes of alum dissolved in hot water. Then wash the wall with -glue-water, and cover the paper with the paste. The alum and glue form -a combination which is leathery and insoluble, and not only arrests -decay, but clings with great force. Most wall-paper put on with common -paste decays more or less in time, and becomes simply poisonous. - -A STRONG GUM OR ADHESIVE FOR PAPER, CARDBOARD WORK, OR BINDING:-- - - -I. - -Dissolve:-- - - Gilder’s glue 100 - Water 200 - -Add to this:-- - - Bleached shellac 2 - Alcohol 10 - - -II. - -Dissolve together:-- - - Dextrine 50 - Water 50 - -Unite the two solutions thus formed; pass them through a cloth, so as -to fall into a flat mould. When dry, use by dissolving in hot water. - -AMERICAN GLAZE FOR POSTAGE-STAMPS:-- - - Dextrine 2 - Vinegar 1 - Water 5 - Alcohol 1 - -Stamps are, however, very often surreptitiously removed by means of -moisture. The following recipe renders this difficult. It consists of -two preparations, one of which is applied to the stamp and one to the -letter. It is particularly needed in America, where, according to a -statement in a newspaper, _nearly one-third_ of all the postage-stamps -are removed from letters, cleaned, and used over again. - -I. _For the Letter._ - - Chromic acid 2.5 gr. - Caustic potash 15.0 ” - Water 15.0 ” - Sulphuric acid 0.5 ” - Sulphuric copper-oxide of ammonia 30.0 ” - Fine paper 4.0 ” - -II. _On the Stamp._ - - Sturgeon’s bladder in water 7.0 gr. - Vinegar 1.0 ” - -The chromic acid forms with the glue a substance insoluble in water, -which causes the stamp not to yield to moisture. The two should be -kept in two cups, and the letter first smeared with one and the stamp -with the other. I have read of a physician who, finding that his -postage-stamps were often stolen, adopted the precaution of giving -their backs an application of croton-oil, or some similar powerful -“anti-thief-matic,” the result of which was great temporary illness in -his landlady and her family. For this recipe the reader must apply to a -chemist! - -EDER’S GUM FOR PHOTOGRAPHS.--Dissolve oxyhydrate of ammonia in vinous -acid, to one part of which add twenty of starch-paste. - -CEMENT FOR LEATHER OR PAPER IN BINDING BOOKS, &C.--Take 1 kilogramme of -wheat-flour, and make it to a paste with 20 grammes of finely powdered -alum. Boil this till a spoon will stand uptight in it. Cover the -cardboard or cover with this, lay the leather or muslin upon it, and -then with a roller press one upon the other. Leather should first be -damped. Care must be taken that the paste be not too moist; secondly, -that it is laid on very evenly and thinly. - -Engravings or texts which have had a piece torn out can be restored as -follows:-- - -Obtain a photograph from a perfect copy on corresponding paper, then -with gum set it in, so as to supply the deficiency. - -As the ravages of the _Book-worm_ form an important item in mending -books, and as there is always some interest for collectors regarding -this much talked of and rarely seen insect, I take the liberty of -reproducing from the American _Science_ of March 24, 1893, an article -on the subject. An appropriate motto for it might be:-- - - “Come hither, boy; we’ll hunt to-day - The book-worm, ravening beast of prey.” - - -THE RAVAGES OF BOOK-WORMS - -At a meeting of the Massachusetts Historical Society, held February -9, 1893, Dr. Samuel A. Green, after showing two volumes that had been -completely riddled by the ravages of insects, as well as some specimens -of the animals in various stages, made the following remarks:-- - - * * * * * - -For a long period of years I have been looking for living specimens of -the so-called “book-worm,” of which traces are occasionally found in -old volumes; and I was expecting to find an invertebrate animal of the -class of annelids. In this library at the present time there are books -perforated with clean-cut holes opening into sinuous cavities, which -usually run up the back of the volumes, and sometimes perforate the -leather covers and the body of the book; but I have never detected the -live culprit that does the mischief. For the most part the injury is -confined to such as are bound in leather, and the ravages of the insect -appear to depend on its hunger. The external orifices look like so many -shot-holes, but the channels are anything but straight. From a long -examination of the subject I am inclined to think that all the damage -was done before the library came to this site in the spring of 1833. -At all events, there is no reason to suppose that any of the mischief -has been caused during the last fifty years. Perhaps the furnace-heat -dries up the moisture which is a requisite condition for the life and -propagation of the little animal. - -Nearly two years ago I received a parcel of books from Florida, of -which some were infested with vermin, and more or less perforated in -the manner I have described. It occurred to me that they would make a -good breeding farm and experiment station for learning the habits of -the insect; and I accordingly sent several of the volumes to my friend -Mr. Samuel Garman, who is connected with the Museum of Comparative -Zoology at Cambridge, for his care and observation. From him I learn -that the principal offender is an animal known popularly as the Buffalo -Bug, though he is helped in his work by kindred spirits, not allied -to him according to the rules of natural history. Mr. Garman’s letter -gives the result of his labours so fully as to leave nothing to be -desired, and is as follows:-- - -“MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY, CAMBRIDGE, MASS., _February 7, 1893_. - -“DR. SAMUEL A. GREEN, BOSTON, MASS. - -“SIR,--The infested books sent for examination to this Museum, through -the kindness of Mr. George E. Littlefield, were received July 15, -1891. They were inspected, and, containing individuals of a couple of -species of living insects, were at once enclosed in glass for further -developments. A year afterward live specimens of both kinds were still -at work. Besides those that reached us alive, a third species had left -traces of former presence in a number of empty egg-cases. - -“Five of the volumes were bound in cloth. On these the principal -damage appeared at the edges, which were eaten away and disfigured by -large burrows extending inward. Two volumes were bound in leather. The -edges of these were not so much disturbed; but numerous perforations, -somewhat like shot-holes externally, passed through the leather, -enlarging and ramifying in the interior. As if made by smaller insects, -the sides of these holes were neater and cleaner cuttings than those in -the burrows on the edges of the other volumes. - -“The insects were all identified as well known enemies of libraries, -cabinets, and wardrobes. One of them is a species of what are -commonly designated ‘fish bugs,’ ‘silver fish,’ ‘bristle tails,’ &c. -By entomologists they are called _Lepisma_; the species in hand is -probably _Lepisma saccharina_. It is a small, elongate, silvery, very -active creature, frequently discovered under objects, or between the -leaves of books, whence it escapes by its extraordinary quickness of -movement. Paste and the sizing or enamel of some kinds of paper are -very attractive to it. In some cases it eats off the entire surface of -the sheet, including the ink, without making perforations; in others -the leaves are completely destroyed. The last specimen of this insect -in these books was killed February 5, 1893, which proves the species to -be sufficiently at home in this latitude. - -“The second of the three is one of the ‘Buffalo Bugs.’ or ‘Carpet -Bugs,’ so called; not really bugs, but beetles. The species before -us is the _Anthrenus varius_ of scientists, very common in Boston -and Cambridge, as in other portions of the temperate regions and the -tropics. Very likely the ‘shot-holes’ in the leather-bound volumes are -of its making, though it may have been aided in the deeper and larger -chambers by one or both of the others. The damage done by this insect -in the house, museum, and library is too well known to call for further -comment. Living individuals were taken from the books nearly a year -after they were isolated. - -“The third species had disappeared before the arrival of the books, -leaving only its burrows, excrement, and empty egg-cases, which, -however, leave no doubt of the identity of the animal with one of the -cockroaches, possibly the species _Blatta Australasiæ_. The cases agree -in size with those of _Blatta Americana_, but have thirteen impressions -on each side, as if the number of eggs were twenty-six. The ravages of -the cockroaches are greatest in the tropics, but some of the species -range through the temperate zones and even northward. An extract from -Westwood and Drury will serve to indicate the character of their work:-- - -“‘They devour all kinds of victuals, dressed and undressed, and damage -all sorts of clothing, leather, books, paper, &c., which, if they do -not destroy, at least they soil, as they frequently deposit a drop of -their excrement where they settle. They swarm by myriads in old houses, -making every part filthy beyond description. They have also the power -of making a noise like a sharp knocking with the knuckle upon the -wainscotting, _Blatta gigantea_ being thence known to the West Indies -by the name of drummer; and this they keep up, replying to each other, -throughout the night. Moreover, they attack sleeping persons, and will -even eat the extremities of the dead.’ - -“This quotation makes it appear that authors as well as books are -endangered by this outlaw. With energies exclusively turned against -properly selected examples of both, what a world of good it might do -mankind! The discrimination lacking, the insect must be treated as a -common enemy. As a bane for ‘silver fish’ and cockroaches, pyrethrum -insect powder is said to be effectual. For a number of years I have -used, on lepisma and roach, a mixture containing phosphorus, ‘The -Infallible Water Bug and Roach Exterminator,’ made by Barnard & Co., -7 Temple Place, Boston, and, without other interest in advertising -the compound, have found it entirely satisfactory in its effects. -Bisulphide carbon, evaporated in closed boxes or cases containing the -infested articles, is used to do away with the ‘Buffalo Bugs.’--Very -respectfully yours, - - “SAMUEL GARMAN.” - -I can remember that many years ago there was to be seen in the bookshop -of John Penington, Philadelphia, a book-worm preserved in spirits in a -vial. The manner in which this species of teredo penetrates wood and -leather as well as paper is not the least curious of its habits. - -The great amount of injury inflicted by boring-insects in books, wood, -and all weak substances is sufficient reason for giving so much space -to this subject. From a ship to a manuscript, nothing is safe from -them. - - - - -PAPIER-MÂCHÉ - -REPAIRING TOYS--MAKING GROUNDS FOR PICTURES AND WALLS--CARTON-CUIR AND -CARTON-PIERRE - - -Soft paper, when mixed with water, gum, or, better still, with -flour-paste, forms a substance which can be moulded to any form, -and which, when dry, will be as hard as cardboard. Its hardness and -durability may be increased by mingling with it many substances. - -Combined with soft leather in small fragments or with the dust of -leather, it forms what the French call _carton-cuir_. In this, or -even in its natural state--that is, paper and paste--_papier-mâché_, -as it is termed, can under pressure be made as hard as any wood. I -have seen all kinds of articles of furniture made from it. In America -there are manufactories in which pails or buckets, tubs, firkins, and -even durable boats, are thus manufactured. There is in Bergen, Norway, -a church built entirely of it mixed with lime. For certain kinds of -mending it is very valuable. - -Though not so plastic as clay, _papier-mâché_ can, with a little -practice, be moulded into any form. It consists simply of pasting piece -on to piece, pressing it meantime as much as possible with the fingers -or a wooden implement like a pestle. The pressure should be applied as -it gradually dries. Any one can thus make very hard cardboard with a -bread-roller on a board. - -If you have the cardboard cover of a book badly damaged, with even a -portion gone, it can be restored by using _papier-mâché_ in which a -solution of glue or gum has been infused. Glue it specially at the -edges. For such repairing take paper-dust or pulp, combined with -gum-arabic in alum-water solution, or simply the gum. This is easily -moulded and smoothed into any cracks or torn places. - -If _parchment_ be torn away it is easily replaced. Cut a piece to -replace the missing portion, dampen it and the edge which it is to join -till quite soft, then glue the two together, using pressure. I have -just effected this myself with a cover of which half was gone, and the -mending is hardly visible. Use the broad knife freely to press down the -edges. - -By combination with a mixture of nitric or sulphuric acid and water, -_soft_ paper becomes parchment-like and very hard. This requires -careful experimenting, for its success depends on the quality of the -acid and the texture of the paper. Very remarkable results have been -obtained from this, such as material resembling ivory, horn, and -tortoise-shell, in large blocks. - -Waste-paper is so common and cheap that _papier-mâché_ can always be -made anywhere. It is well adapted to close cracks in wood, walls, or -elsewhere; and for those who wish for an employment or amusement, it -affords endless facilities. One of these is the mending or making of -toys. - -A common mask is made as follows. On a face carved in wood and oiled -there is spread common coarse soft paper wetted, which is carefully -pressed down, and more paper and paste added, till it is of the -requisite thickness. It is then, when rather dry, taken off and left -to dry perfectly. It is then painted and varnished. Should a mask be -broken, wet it, paste glue-paper over it, and paint it again. - -_Papier-mâché_ is popularly synonymous with that which is trashy and -sham in art, simply because its capacities and applications are not -known. Thus leather-work was long despised as only affording imitations -of carved wood. But in the hands of a true artist--that is, of an -_original designer_, who applies, and not a mere artisan, who imitates -or copies--_papier-mâché_ is as much a subject for art as any other -material. It can be used in many ways, more or less allied to mending, -as are all arts. Thus paper in fine powder, or reduced to a fine -paste--or pulp--can be, with a little practice, mixed with gum and -_painted_ with a brush on a surface so as to produce relief. A very -little elevation or depression thus serves to produce grounds which -may serve to give light or shadow to pictures. Thus pastel painting -or crayon in colours rubbed in, which has always been, even in the -most vigorous hands, a weak or “softly sweet” art, may be made very -vigorous by firmly relieving and roughening the ground; for, as the -great American painter, ALLSTON, often strengthened his colours by -mixing sand with them, so pastel painting which lacks “sand” can have -it supplied by mixing it with the gum for the ground. - -To understand this process more clearly, let it be observed that, as -the illuminators of mediæval manuscripts gave relief and the appearance -of solidity to gold by making a raised surface with a powder of _gesso_ -(plaster of Paris) and clay and gum, so this principle can be carried -out to a far greater extent by giving relief to a ground. Here those of -limited views, who never get beyond the merely artisan stage of art, -will at once decry this as shamming, and as imitating effect by the aid -of modelling, and not being true art, quite forgetting that all is true -to genius, and everything more or less sham in the mere imitation. - -Having a surface, either panel or Bristol board, which latter had -better be pasted to a panel or good thick solid cardboard, begin by -taking a little gum or glue in tolerably fluid solution on the point -of a brush, and incorporating with it the paper pulp or cloth-dust to -a very soft paste, with which paint what is to be in relief. The same -effect is produced in oil by using a heavier, thicker kind of paint. -That is all the difference, one being as legitimate as the other. By -intermixing chalk or sand or clay, and by using glass-paper where the -crayon, &c., refuse to take easily, the relief adapts itself to every -substance. In this, as in every process known, the artist must at first -experiment a little, according to his materials. - -Solid sheets of fine hard paper, with strong paste between, when passed -between rollers form a kind of _papier-mâché_ which, is as hard as -wood, fire-proof, and, what is most singular, more durable than iron. -Wheels for railway carriages are often made of it, and they never warp -under the action of heat or cold, neither do they crack nor bend. You -can make this cardboard for yourself of very good quality by this -process:--Take a sheet of writing-paper--the better the quality the -better the result will be--cover it with good flour-paste in which -there is a little alum and glue and a few drops of oil of cloves, which -latter will prevent paste from turning or souring. Then lay on this -another sheet, apply another coat of paste, and when it is a little dry -or past the softer stage, yet while still capable of adhesion, lay the -sheets on a hard, smooth slab or table, and pass a roller over them, at -first gently, but eventually frequently, and with force. Add as many -sheets as necessary for the thickness required. It will be understood -that if the surface on which this sheet is formed were an intaglio-cut -die or mould, the cardboard when taken up would present a bas-relief of -it as hard as any wood, and the whole would form a panel which could be -used for the side of a box or to be set in a cabinet. If made of good -paper and firmly rolled, this panel will be in every respect equal to -wood for all decorative purposes. - -As anybody who can carve wood at all can cut moulds, and as a wooden -mould, if kept well oiled (or otherwise secured from yielding to -moisture), will serve for _papier-mâché_ and leather or wood-paste -casting, it is remarkable that such work is so very little practised -by the students of the minor arts. That such panels can be very easily -and rapidly made I know by experience; that the materials for the work -are cheap speaks for itself; and, finally, that beautiful panels for -cabinets and doors, whether made of carved wood, stamped leather, or -_papier-mâché_ bring a very good price will also be most apparent to -anybody who will go to a fashionable cabinetmaker and order them. -Thus we will say that a small plain cabinet costs £5. Put into it six -panels, really costing about 6d. each to mould, and the price will be -£10. Such pressed panels are admirably adapted for binding books, as, -when properly made and dried, they cannot warp or bend. If covered with -relief they may be made very beautiful. Simply blackened or browned, -then rubbed with oil, varnished with SOEHNÉE, No. 3, and rubbed by -hand, they are as beautiful as polished wood or leather. - -_Papier-mâché_, pulp, or paper powder can be combined with caoutchouc -or indiarubber, which latter can be itself dissolved in benzine, -camphine, sulphuric ether, and other solvent mediums, so as to form a -paste which becomes like indiarubber when dry or as it hardens. Mixed -with sulphur this forms vulcanite. Or it may be combined with white -colouring matter of almost any kind. This can be applied to mending -the broken noses of dolls, or any other wounds which these pretty -semblances of humanity often receive, their beauty being unfortunately -generally more shortlived than that of their prototypes. The final -finish of such reparation is a coat of paint. In many cases this is -better when rubbed on with the finger than when directly painted. The -reader who shall have studied this work will find no difficulty in -restoring any toy. - -I may, however, here remark that “no solution of india rubber can be -well moulded without intimate intermixture of sulphur, aided by heat -and pressure. This is a difficult process, and the amateur would do -well, therefore, to purchase rubber composition, which he may do at -any large shop in which rubber goods are made as a specialty” (_Work_, -May 21, 1892). - -[Illustration] - -It is easy to make any article of _papier-mâché_ if the mere beginning -of a form has once been shaped; because, after that is set, all that we -have to do is to gradually paste one piece of paper on, here and there, -till it is finished. This beginning is very easy if we have an object -on which to begin. Thus take a vase or cup. Oil this, and then lay on -and all around it soft, damp paper. Newspaper will do--a _soft_, white -printing paper. Then, with a broad brush, lay on paste, and apply a -second coat of paper. Press it meanwhile as hard as you can. Continue -this till the _papier-mâché_ is thick enough. When dry, take a penknife -and cut a line through from top to bottom. Scale it off, and reunite -the edges with strong glue; then paste over the line of junction a -strip of paper. Then you will have a cup. - -If it be rough, cut it smooth and use glass-paper. When finished it -may be painted or covered with wet leather, which can be worked into -relief. Or it may be made to look like ivory by the process elsewhere -described. Paper may in this process be combined with soft leather -rags; as, for instance, pieces of old gloves out of which the thread -has been taken, old chamois, bookbinders’ clippings, or the like. This -forms effectively leather. - -CARTON-PIERRE, or stone-paper, is a very useful composition, which is -very fully described by GEORGE PARLAND in _Work_, July 2, 1893. It -consists of paper scraps, in the proportion of an ordinary washing -boiler or copper one-half full of boiling water and about one-half -paper waste. Add two pounds of best flour-paste; also, in a separate -vessel, a quart of water, into which sprinkle a handful of fine plaster -of Paris. Let it stand ten minutes before mixing it. “When the paper -in the copper has become a fine pulp add the flour-paste, keeping the -whole well stirred. Fifteen minutes after add the plaster, and a few -minutes later rake out the fire from under the boiler. Have ready three -pails of fine ground whiting; pour in one pail of whiting and stir up -well, adding more whiting till the stick used to stir will stand of -itself in the mixture. Let it cool, and it will be ready for use. - -“Some firms,” writes Mr. PARLAND, “add powdered alum in the boiling -process, others add one pint of boiled linseed-oil; but if made -according to the previous directions, an excellent _carton-pierre_ will -result, which gives very fine impressions from moulds. If it be cast in -a plaster mould, the latter should have two or three coats of shellac -varnish, and then be well oiled.... In using the _carton_, sprinkle -some fine plaster of Paris on a bench, and taking a lump of the newly -made _carton_, mix it well with dry plaster, adding more plaster, as -bakers would add flour to their dough. Having worked it well in this -way until it will not stick to the fingers, with clean hands roll -pieces very smooth in the palms, or on a smooth level board, and press -each roll into the cavities and hollows of the mould, _often wetting -the edges of the carton_ in the mould before adding a fresh piece to -it. The casts must not be more than from an eighth to a quarter of an -inch in thickness, except at the outside edges of the mould.... The -casts must stand about twenty-four hours, and then be baked in not more -than 100° heat.” - -The reader who is specially interested in _papier-mâché_ will find a -series of articles on the subject in _Work_, Nos. 3, 6, 12, 17, 22, 25. - -Pipeclay, to which calcined magnesia, whiting, or baryta may be -added or omitted according to the body required, may be combined -with _papier-mâché_ and gluten, such as gum-arabic or dextrine or -flour-paste, which will form under pressure, or even by hand-rolling, -a very hard and finely grained substance, which is specially adapted -to painting pictures. Plates or _tavole_ are sold very cheaply in -Florence of _papier-mâché_, which are as hard, heavy, and glossy as -ebony. It is not generally realised that an expensive hydraulic-press -or steam-engine is not needed by the amateur to harden _papier-mâché_. -A common bread-roller, passed many times over the material, will work -it “down and in,” quite as well as direct pressure, and very often much -better. - -_Papier-mâché_ mixed and macerated with indiarubber or gutta-percha and -benzole (_vide_ Indiarubber) forms in many cases a very good substitute -for leather. It can also be combined with _flexible_ varnish to make -leather. Very valuable soles can be made, or broken ones repaired, -by taking card or pasteboard and soaking it in a hot solution of -indiarubber. These waterproofed soles, whether of cardboard or leather, -are easily prepared, as easily applied and renewed, and they will keep -the true sole from wearing out forever, if renewed. - -Singular as it seems, there are not many persons who are familiar -with the properties or texture of so familiar a substance as paper. -We know that if wetted it grows soft, but still remains, as it were, -knotty, and that when chewed it does not properly dissolve. Yet if -the reader will take a piece of thoroughly wetted paper, and knead or -macerate it with a knife for some time with gum in solution, he will -find it gradually becomes a soft paste, as flexible and as capable of -moulding as putty or clay. This is not the same as _papier-mâché_, -which consists of paper merely wet or mixed and boiled with paste, and -contains fibre and knottiness. The finely macerated paper, combined -with an adhesive, is ductile, impressionable, sets well, and readily -receives pressure on rolling, under which it becomes extremely hard. -Paper thus _completely softened_ is readily made into sheets, and -may be easily applied not only to fill up worm-holes in leaves and -completely torn-away corners, &c., but is very useful for cracks -and cavities in wood and other substances. It may be made up with -any gums, such as gum-arabic, dextrine, fish-glue, and also with -caseine, gutta-percha, varnish, and most of the substances used in -cements. Paper when thus softened and mixed with, _e.g._, fine glue -and glycerine, or with flour-paste, can be moulded and applied in -ornamental forms to any surface. - -There is this great difference between simply _wet_ paper, however wet -it may be, and that which is completely softened by maceration. The -former is always lumpy, the latter passes under the blade of a knife -like soft clay or putty. When made up with gum, glue, and glycerine, -or strong paste, it is, when dry, like light wood, but less brittle. -Kneaded with Indiarubber solution and glue, it becomes like leather, -and can be used in several varieties of repairs. Rolled into sheets, -this composition makes very good and cheap artificial leather for -hangings. To manufacture these, spread the composition with a broad -brush or dabber on a slate or marble table, and when rather dry pass -over it a wooden roller. Some practice is needed not to roll it when -too soft. If intaglio patterns are cut in the roller, the sheets will -give them in relief. It is worth noting here that a great many pieces -of old hangings sold as leather are really only made of _papier-mâché_, -or _carton-cuir_, and glue. These hangings, whether of leather or -counterfeited, can be often bought in a damaged condition very cheaply, -and can be easily restored with this composition, to great profit. When -mixed with white lead, or oil paint and glue, soft paper becomes harder -and firmer, and under pressure is as hard and heavy as any wood. White -paper with holly wood or white larch or lime-tree wood in powder, and -white gelatine--better if bone or ivory dust be added, with a little -Naples yellow (oil)--forms a beautiful cement. - -It will be seen by what I have written that cavities, holes, cracks, -and defects in most substances, including wood and leather, can be -perfectly remedied with paper in combination with glue, gum, or other -substances; and as it is always to be obtained, a knowledge of its -nature and applications cannot fail to be of value to all menders and -restorers. - -_Papier-mâché_, like all substantial or putty-like cements, involves -moulding or casting. This subject is exhaustively treated in the -_Vollständige Anleitung zum Formen und Giessen_, by Eduard Uhlenhuth; -Vienna, A. Hartleben, price 3s. On the subject of paper consult the -_Handbuch der praktischen Papier-Fabrikation_, by Dr. Stanislaus -Mierzinski, three volumes, which is not only the latest, but by far the -most comprehensive, work on the subject with which I am acquainted. -And here I may observe in this connection that if my references have -been chiefly to German works, it is because, in the minor technical -applications of chemistry to the arts, and in preparing intelligible -practical treatises on such subjects, the Germans have been, especially -of late, by far the first nation in Europe. - -I may mention that since writing the foregoing passages I purchased, -for a mere trifle, in Florence two carved heads of the fourteenth -century in walnut wood. They had suffered very much from time and -wanton abuse, their noses having been hacked off. I made a mixture of -soft paper-paste and gum-arabic, working the two thoroughly in together -with a knife-blade till the composition was as soft as butter. This -thorough maceration is essential to produce a durable body. With this I -filled up the holes, made new noses, and painted the whole with Vandyke -brown, or brown-black. In a few minutes the restoration was complete, -and the heads which had cost one franc each are now worth at least -thirty francs. I should say that the portions restored are as hard as -the original wood. - -It is not always an easy matter to reduce paper to a perfectly soft -paste, such as is called in French _papier-pourri_. A small quantity -can be mashed with a knife-blade and flour-paste or gum. A large -quantity is prepared as follows:-- - -Take clippings of paper and leave them a long time in water, which -must be occasionally changed. When quite dissolved or soft, bray the -paper in a mortar, and finally boil in very hot water. To give it -consistency, add flour-paste or gum. This makes a very fine cement, -which will receive the most delicate impression. It is invaluable for -all kinds of dry mending. - -As I have shown, it can be applied to make or mend defective leaves of -books, to fill up worm-holes in leaves, to repair drawings and pictures -on wood or canvas, and when mixed with any gum which sets hard, to -restore, add to, fill, or imitate woodwork. Under pressure and combined -with different powders it becomes as hard as ebony and fire-proof. Its -extraordinary value and general utility are as yet very far from being -much known. - - - - -MENDING STONE-WORK - -MOSAICS--CERESA-WORK--PORCELAIN OR CROCKERY MOSAIC - - -Mending or repairing _stone_, involving its imitations, is a widely -extended branch of technical science, and one which has of late years -called forth much invention. The most widely spread and ancient means -of uniting and repairing this material is mortar, or the mixture of -burned and then slacked lime with water. Lime is made most commonly -from limestone or marble. It improves in quality when carbonate of -lime in organic formation, such as sea-shells, is used; and there are -degrees of excellence in these, from common oyster-shells to others -of a finer kind, such as those with which the brilliantly white and -hard _chunam_ of India is made. In certain places mortar, when well -made, becomes with age as hard as flint. In American towns, where -anthracite coal is burned, it rots away in chimneys under the influence -of sulphurous acid with great rapidity. In the Pacific Islands, where -lime is made from delicate small sea-shells or coral, and mortar is -like a paint or enamel, a missionary has recorded that, when he taught -the natives how to make it, they whitewashed everything, even to the -children, who thus became white people. - -The misapplied word _mastic_, which suggests a gum, refers to certain -modifications of mortar into which _oil_ enters; also the oxides of -lead or zinc. “Oil forms with these an insoluble soap, which includes -or binds the other materials, forming, after one month’s drying, a very -hard substance,” which some say is as hard as stone, but which depends -entirely on the quality and combination; for I have seen so-called -_mastic_ applied to coating cheaply built houses, which cracked or -crumbled away like mere plaster of Paris. - -To thoroughly amalgamate mastics, it is usual to put their ingredients -into casks which are two-thirds filled, and then revolved by machinery. -The oil is then added. At least two days are required for the process. -The following recipes for mastics are among the best, having been -approved by LEHNER. It may here be remarked, once for all, not only -as regards mastics, but all recipes in this work, that unless the -materials indicated are of the very best quality, and the processes be -most thoroughly carried out, the experimenter cannot expect complete -success. More than this, the experimenter must not be satisfied with a -single trial. If every recipe could be at once executed by every cook, -we should find the most exquisite cookery on every table in Europe. -I once published the correct recipe for making objects of a peculiar -kind of _papier-mâché_ hardened. It was very easy to make. I had seen -specimens of the ware, and I received the recipe from the inventor. -Moreover, a great deal of money had been made by it. However, soon -after I had published it I received an indignant letter from the head -of a large manufacturing house, stating that they had tried my recipe -and utterly failed! - -FRENCH MASTIC:-- - - Quartz or flint sand, parts 300 - Powdered quicklime, ” 100 - Litharge, ” 50 - Linseed-oil, ” 35 - -PAGET’S MASTIC:-- - - Flint sand 315 - Washed chalk 105 - White lead 25 - Minium 10 - Sugar of lead in solution 45 - Linseed-oil 35 - -The paste or “dough” thus formed should be ground with horizontal -rollers in a mill, such as is used for chocolate, until all the -ingredients are _very_ thoroughly amalgamated. - -A VERY GOOD CEMENT FOR MENDING, especially where the objects are -exposed to water, whether they be of stone or earthenware, is made as -follows:-- - - Powdered glass 40 - Washed litharge 40 - Linseed-oil varnish 20 - -The powdered glass is prepared by heating glass red-hot, casting it -into water, grinding and sifting it. This powder is saturated with the -linseed-oil varnish, and heated in a kettle. This cement sets hard in -three days. LEHNER observes that glass-powder serves in such recipes to -resist the action of acids, &c., since it forms in combination on the -surface a glaze of great hardness; that is, the glass and lead form a -chemical combination. Pulverised calcined glass therefore acts not as -an “indifferent” but as a chemical ingredient. - -CASEINE, or Cheese, forms the basis of several recipes for mending -stone, as when there are holes in a block or the mortar has given way. -To prepare it for use (LEHNER), we let milk stand in a cool place, -skimming away with the utmost care all the cream. Place this on a -filter, and pour on it rain-water till it is purified from every trace -of lactic acid; then tie it in a cloth, boil it in water, and spread -it on blotting-paper in a warm place, when it will be a horn-like -substance. This will keep for a long time. To prepare it for use, rub -it in a saucer with water. - -TO MEND STONE make the following:-- - - Caseine 12 - Slacked lime 50 - Fine sand 50 - -Another recipe:-- - -Boil new cheese in water till it draws out in threads, stirring in -slacked lime and sifted wood-ashes in the following proportions:-- - - Cheese 100 - Water 200 - Slacked lime 25 - Wood-ashes 20 - -This may also be used to close cavities in trees or in wood. - -A CHEESE CEMENT FOR STONE, and for many other purposes, is made as -follows. It may be kept for a long time, and is very durable (LEHNER):-- - - Caseine 200 - Calcined lime 40 - Camphor 1 - -This must be closely incorporated and kept well corked. When it is to -be used mix it with water, and apply at once. - -The following cement was used by the Romans especially in setting -mosaics. It becomes as hard as marble, and sets with great -rapidity:--To one quart of milk add the white of five eggs, and stir in -powdered quicklime till a paste is formed. This composition may be used -to repair or make _scagliola_, which is fragments of marble or stone -embedded in a hard mass. When it sets, polish the surface with rasps, -and rub down with a rough stone, and finally polish with marble dust, -and then emery or tripoli. Beautiful slabs for tables, columns, floors, -and walls can thus be made. It is valuable for repairing. - -CERESA is allied to this. We make a basis of this or any other cement -which will _hold firmly_, and press into the surface powdered glass, -which may be fine or of any degree of coarseness. Coarse grains shine -most brilliantly; fine powder is best adapted to delicate shading. -The effect is best when mosaic stones and gold cubes are sparingly -introduced. To make the gold cubes, take two small panes of window -glass, cover one side of each with varnish or mastic cement, lay -between them gold-leaf, and join them. Very beautiful pictures can be -made in this manner. Nor is it at all necessary that they should be -finely executed for ordinary decoration. All that is needed for this -beautiful and little-known art is the cement, a quantity of glass or -stone of different colours, and a mortar and pestle. The mosaic cubes, -with those of gold, can be bought in London. - -Allied to this is an art which I believe I can claim to have invented. -It consists of breaking waste chinaware, crockery, or fictile ware -into small squares or triangles, and setting them as mosaic in -cement. The advantage of it is the cheapness of the material, and the -infinite number of shades of colour which can be selected for it. -Its disadvantage is, that it will not wear as a pavement, but it is -perfectly adapted to walls. - -A STRONG, COARSE CEMENT FOR BRICK OR STONE WORK in building is made as -follows:-- - - Slacked lime 40 - Brick-dust 10 - Iron filings 10 - Ox-blood 8 - Water 8 - -The blood is stirred as it comes from the slaughtered beast with a -broom for ten minutes to break the fibre. It should then be mixed with -the water and kneaded with the powder. Glue may be substituted for the -blood. This cement, if properly made, sets very hard and adhesively. - -FOR TILES, BRICKS, OR COMPOSITION:-- - - Slacked lime 100 - Sifted stone-coal ashes 50 - Stirred ox-blood 15 - -It may be observed that many of the cheaper cements can be employed to -form large bricks by combination with broken stone or rubble, gravel, -pebbles, brickbats, &c. Another method, called CONCRETE, is to make -cases of boards, and to form a solid wall by pouring in the mixture, -or ramming it down, according to its hardness. Thus a house is made -entirely in one piece; but its excellence depends entirely on the -quality of the cement employed, and on the care taken in building. -Simple lime mortar, if not of a superior quality, hastily formed, as I -have seen, is very apt to crack and break off. Where hydraulic cement -is cheap and good, houses can be built as firm as granite. A good and -strong cement of this kind can be made as follows:-- - - Burned lime 10 - Caseine 12 - Hydraulic cement 30 - -The proportions may be very much varied in such cements according to -their price, but generally with a satisfactory result. - -Fractures or discolorations in marble, as in statuary, are so perfectly -repaired in Florence that the juncture is not perceptible. Even dark -spots are drilled out. The process is to drill a round concave hole, -and cut the piece to be inserted so as to exactly fit as a convex -plug. It is then fastened in with transparent mastic or other clear -cement. It will be seen, on due consideration, that this is extremely -ingenious, because by it alone can a perfectly tight fit be secured. -By turning the plug in the hollow it speedily grinds itself into an -accurate plug; so when the cement is applied it can be reduced to a -minimum--in fact, by this means the line of junction is reduced to its -finest limit. - -Where a very strong cement is needed for stone-work, it can be prepared -by mixing a fine cement powder--_e.g._, Portland cement--with liquid -silicate of soda. As it dries almost at once, it must be promptly -applied. It is particularly well adapted for building under water, -since it then becomes extremely hard. Before applying it smear the -stone with pure silicate. - -The following is highly commended by LEHNER:-- - -Mending statues of gypsum or plaster of Paris is allied to stone-work. -The broken edges are washed with water till no more is absorbed and the -surface remains wet. Then stir fresh calcined white plaster of Paris -with much water to a thin paste, and continue to stir this till it is -cold. Then rapidly paint this paste on the broken edges, continuing to -press the two together till they set hard. - -It is, says LEHNER, a peculiarity of gypsum that when mixed with _alum_ -dissolved in water it takes a much longer time to harden, but is very -much harder in the end. Thus, if we let the powdered gypsum lie for -twenty-four hours in alum-water, dry it, and then calcine it again, the -powder when mixed with water sets to a stone as hard as marble. - -Plaster of Paris and alum, combined with the fine powder of calcined -glass, form a very hard and durable cement, of very general utility in -all mending of stone-work. - -For an exhaustive work on the subject of not only mending stone-work, -but also of making artificial stone and many cements, as well as -combining and adapting to use paper, cellulose, sawdust and shavings, -gypsum, chalk, glue, &c., including not only ancient but also the -most recent recipes, consult _Die Fabrikation künstlicher plastischer -Massen_, by Johannes Hofer; Leipzig, A. Hartleben, price 4s. - - - - -REPAIRING IVORY - - -Works of art in carved ivory or bone are very valuable when perfect, -yet when broken or defective they may very often be purchased for -a trifle. Yet the process of mending them or restoring the missing -portions is not difficult. - -The first thing to consider is the colour. When old ivory has only -acquired a delicate hue, as of Naples yellow, this adds to its -attractiveness; nor are the brownish shadows and marks which gather -in the angles of the reliefs repulsive. These may be left untouched, -and even imitated. But a great deal of old ivory becomes of blackish -bistre, or of a dirty, spotted brown or neutral tint, which has nothing -in common with artistic effect, and suggests, like old slums in cities, -more that is repulsive than picturesque. To clean such pieces, dissolve -rock-alum in rain-water till it is white or forms a full saturation. -Boil this, and keep the ivory in the boiling solution for about an -hour, taking it out from time to time and cleaning it with a soft -brush. Then let it dry in a damp linen or muslin rag; it will then be -cleaned. - -Ivory is often bleached by the simple process of damping, or wiping -it with water and then exposing it to the rays of the sun; which -must, however, be frequently repeated. According to LEHNER, the only -perfect and certain process by which any ivory can be cleaned is to -steep the article for some time in ether or benzole, in order to -extract any fatty matter, then to wash it in water, and finally keep -it in super-oxide of hydrogen (_Wasserstoff, super-oxide_) till it is -bleached, after which wash again in water. - -TO SUPPLY MISSING PORTIONS.--Take ivory-dust, such as can be bought of -every ivory-turner, sift it to an impalpable powder, or else levigate -or grind it down under water as fine as flour in a mortar. Then combine -this with gum arabic, in alum solution, or the silicate of potash. -Egg-shells, levigated, may be substituted for the ivory-dust, and are -even less likely to turn grey; and very fine white glue or gelatine of -the clearest kind may be substituted for the gum-arabic. - -LOUIS EDGAR ANDÉS, in his able work on Ivory, Horn, Mother-of-Pearl, -and Tortoise-shell, explains a process much like that already -described. According to him, take finely powdered bone (or ivory-dust), -combine it with white of eggs, and the result will be an intensely hard -substance, which can be turned or carved like ivory. To perfect this -the mass should be subjected to a heat of from 50° to 60° centigrade, -and then to strong pressure. Gelatine or best glue, with glycerine, is -quite as good as the white of eggs, and it may to advantage be combined -with the latter. Having very thoroughly mixed the composition, take -the broken ivory article, repair the missing portions, and fill the -cavities with the paste. Though not equal to celluloid as an imitation -of new and fresh ivory, this cement is very much like old bone and -ivory, and _after a little experimenting_ the artistic amateur may -succeed in so blending the _binder_ or adhesive with the dust as to -take casts which are almost perfect imitations of the originals. But -let it be observed in this, as in everything, one must not expect -perfect success at a first trial, as too many do. - -When the paste is dry, smooth the surface with a sharp cutter, so as to -remove any small projections, and then polish it, first with fine emery -or tripoli, then with a burnisher, finally by hand. - -If you have, for example, an old flat plate of ivory, like one of the -fourteenth century now before me, which I bought for a mere trifle -because it was broken, lay it in an exactly fitting box--a strip of tin -in a square will answer--and fill in the vacancy. The missing ornament -on the upper side can be carved, or even supplied from a hardened stamp -or mould of rolled soft bread-crumb. This bread-crumb can be made very -hard by admixture with a very little nitric acid and water. Imitation -meerschaum pipes, which are rather like ivory or bone, are made from -this composition by pressure. - -I may here mention that this ivory or bone cement, which is little -known, is admirably adapted to repair broken inlaying. There was -in Florence, in the sixteenth century, an extensive manufacture of -delicate bas-reliefs for small caskets from _lime and rice_, which -greatly resembled bone or ivory. It was extremely durable, probably -from being extremely well worked. Specimens of it bring a high price. - -A very slight infusion of Naples yellow, to which a suspicion of -brown, reduced in Chinese white, has been added, gives to the paste an -old-ivory colour. The corners and outlines may be shaded in Vandyke -brown. - -Before attempting to glue or mastic fractured ivories, they should -always be washed in the alum solution, else they will often refuse to -adhere. - -When there is a little addition of whiting and a little oil, very well -worked into the ivory paste, and it is allowed to dry thoroughly, it -may be cut or carved into any shape. - -Ivory or bone when very old becomes brittle or crumbling and falls -to powder, because certain organic substances dry out of it, leaving -chiefly lime as their residue. When the ivories from Nineveh were -brought to the British Museum the celebrated Sir Joseph Hooker -suggested that they should be steeped in gelatine. This effected a -perfect restoration. When a case occurs in which an ivory article, a -bone, or skull is so fragile that it will not bear the slightest touch -without falling to dust, it may often be saved by gently _spraying_ on -it water in which gelatine or glue has been dissolved. As the glue may -be made by boiling old gloves, and as a spray can be easily improvised, -it will be seen that excavators and openers of ancient tombs might -by this means save thousands of curious relics which are allowed to -perish. As it is certainly a species of mending or of restoration, it -is in place in this work. This is especially to be desired as to skulls -of the earliest ages, which are of inestimable value, of which we have -so very few, and of which thousands have perished which might have been -preserved in the manner which I have indicated. - -_Sprays_ for spreading perfume or medicated liquids, which can be -adapted to thin liquid glue, may be had of all chemists. But we can -effect the purpose better by taking a tooth-brush, or any brush of -the kind, wetting, and then drawing it over a dull edge of a knife or -a strip of tin. According to J. C. WIEGLEB, a Frenchman in his time -received a very large pension for this invention, which was applied -to spraying pastels. The Romans made a spray, very imperfectly, by -suddenly squeezing or throwing liquids from a sponge. - -Ivory handles to knives and forks, when loose, can be best reset by -first pouring in a little strong vinegar. When dry use acidulated glue. -A common recipe for this purpose is the following:-- - - Resin (colophonium) 20 parts - Sulphur 5 ” - Iron filings 8 ” - -Heat, and use while soft. - -In repairing ivory it is often necessary to stain it of different -colours. Most of the old works on recipes contain directions for this. -In that of RIS PAQUOT they are given as follows:-- - -First prepare a mixture of copper filings, rock-alum, and Roman -vitriol. Boil it, let it be for six days, then add a little rock-alum. -The piece of ivory to be dyed is kept in this solution for half -an-hour. _To dye Red._--Boil logwood chips or cochineal in water; when -hot add lead dross (_cendre gravelée_) about 25 grammes, keep it in the -fire till the colour has taken, then add rock-alum. This is strained -through linen, and the ivory to be dyed is put into this liquor. -_Green._--Take one quart of lye made from vine-ashes (_cendre de -sarment_), 7 grammes of powdered verdigris, a handful of common salt, -with a little alum. Boil it to one-half; as soon as it is taken from -the fire place the ivory in it, and leave it till properly coloured. -_Blue._--Dissolve indigo and potash in water, and then mix this with -a quart of vine-ash lye. _Black._--Boil the ivory in the following -composition:--Vinegar, 500 grammes; gall-nuts pulverised, 12 grammes; -nut-shells, 12 grammes. Boil down to one-half. These are all very -strong dyes, which may be used for other substances. - -“Ivory can be softened and made almost plastic by soaking in phosphoric -acid. When washed with water, pressed, and dried, it will regain its -former consistency.” Ivory-dust thus treated can be really rendered -plastic. The process requires care. - -In the _Magia Naturalis_ of HILDEBRAND, a work of the sixteenth -century, we are told that ivory can be imitated or repaired with a -cement made of powdered egg-shells, gum-arabic in solution, and the -white of eggs. Dry it in the sun. - -Allied to ivory is Horn. Deer-horn was frequently used as a material -whence to make a substance which was moulded into many forms. For -this purpose the hardest part of the horns was selected and filed or -powdered, and then boiled in strong potash lye. Thus it became a paste, -which was promptly pressed into moulds. When dry the figures were -carefully polished. Ox-horn can be treated in the same manner. When -cracked, carved horns or powder-flasks can be mended with this paste; -also with mastic and whiting. Horn in a soft state is easily coloured -by mixing with it any dye.[3] - -It has been recently complained in a leading review, in an article on -sales of ancient works of art, that imitations of antique works of -ivory are now carried to such perfection that even the learned in such -matters have been deceived. This is perfectly true, and therefore it -is the greater pity that such imitation, which is not necessarily very -expensive, cannot be extended to our great museums, the wealthiest of -which thus far seldom get beyond rough, plain plaster-casts to make -duplicates of ivory-work. The artists in imitation seem to be entirely -in the employ of the people who deliberately sell counterfeits for -genuine relics of antiquity. But, as Martin Luther or some one once -remarked in reference to adapting hymns to popular airs, “There was no -reason why the devil should keep all the good tunes to himself,” so is -there none why duplicates of thousands of exquisite works in ivory, -bone, and horn should not be better known to the world. It is possible -that, to the world at large, there is little _real_ interest in such -works; but interest will come in time with familiarity. - -_Apropos_ to ivory, or horn, there is a process of applying an -imitation of them to any kind of surface, which is, when executed with -skill, remarkably effective. It is chiefly executed in Vienna, where -it is applied to leather, plaster of Paris, wood, and wall-paper. With -variations, it is essentially as follows:-- - -Cover the ground with flexible varnish, then paint over this with light -Naples yellow, graduated as nicely to some old ivory model as possible. -It is best not to have it all too uniformly of one tone, since old work -often has its shades. The object here need not be to ape or copy old -work, but to catch what is beautiful in it. Then fill in the outlines -of the pattern, and the dots and irregularities near it, or anywhere, -with brown more or less dark. For this, study old ivory. Then varnish -with SOEHNÉE, No. 3. A great deal depends on the quality of this second -coat. Finally rub down very thoroughly with chamois and hand, and -repeat the process more than once if you want it very much like ivory. -Very extraordinary and perfect imitations of ivory, bone, worn and -glossy parchment and brown leather, wood, marble--in short, of any kind -of work of art which has been rubbed and worn smooth by hand during -centuries, can be made by this process of ivorying with alternate -layers of varnish, colour, varnish, and so on. - -When there is no relief the paint itself can be worked with wheel and -tracer, and then repainted and varnished. This is a very beautiful art, -specially applicable to book-covers, and often useful in repairing old -work. I would here repeat what I said, that the object of imitating -effects in old works of art, or in other kinds of art--which is so -staunchly repudiated by mere artisans who themselves are generally -only imitators of the designs of others--is not to make counterfeits, -but to take from age or art beautiful effects, however produced, -and apply them to work. Those who are too conscientious to execute -stencilling on a wall, or to use moulds for leather-work, would do -well to first consider whether they _know enough_ to design a really -good or admirable stencil, or an excellent mould, for it is in the -genius which originates and executes, not in the mere means, tools, and -materials employed, that art consists. Art does not depend in the least -on either making skill difficult or in rendering its methods easy; it -displays skill, but scorns the Chinese standard of mere industry. An -artist like ALBERT DÜRER would never have prided himself on only using -certain tools as being “artistic;” he would, however, have made designs -which would have forced originality and art into a photograph. There -are marvellous effects of corrugation in ancient walls, plays of light -and shade and colour and polish in rock and strand and heaps of ashes, -which LEONARDO DA VINCI knew how to catch and transfer to different -subjects, and at which perhaps the artisans of his time sneered as “not -artistic.” - -Age, which gives a certain exquisite charm to wine and words of wisdom, -has done the same to all material things, of which, indeed, it may be -strangely said that wherever it does not destroy a charm it confers -one, like moonlight, which renders nightly shadows more terrible or -else more beautiful. - -It is to be regretted that this principle, which is a very important -one, is but little understood. The manufacturers of all decorative -art work at present endeavour without exception to make everything -staringly, cruelly brand new, or else a mere copy of old work. What -they need is to draw, as REMBRANDT did, from age so much of its -peculiar charm as is adaptable to modern work. - -I have introduced these remarks because the mender and restorer of old -ivories and bookbindings and pictures, if he regards his occupation as -an art--which it really is--is peculiarly adapted to fully appreciate -them. Restoring, like copying, leads to creating new work. I think that -any person of ordinary intelligence can, with zeal and application, -learn to mend anything as described in this work, and from such mending -it is much easier to learn to make works of minor art. “Short the step -from senator to _podestá_--shorter the step from _podestá_ to king.” - -A great merit and peculiarity of ivory, as of horn, is that it is -tough and elastic, as well as of a beautiful transparent or diaphanous -quality. These characteristics have, with the exception of its graining -or texture, been well imitated thus far only in _celluloid_, which is -unfortunately too expensive for very general use, and, what is worse, -too liable to destruction. I, however, confidently anticipate that -ere long some substance will be discovered much superior to celluloid -as a substitute, and probably much cheaper and less perishable. To -_celluloid_ I may, however, add the sulphuretted preparations of -caoutchouc and gutta-percha, known as vulcanite or ebonite. These are -indeed hard, tough, and elastic to perfection, but very dark and opaque. - -LEHNER, in his work _Die Imitationen_, observes that imitations of -ivory must be varied to suit the colour and quality of originals. -This requires a study, firstly, of the adhesive or glue which is to -be used. This, when colourless, is known as French gelatine, and is -very expensive. In lieu thereof the experimenter may take best white -Salisbury glue or gum-arabic prepared with alum-water. Secondly, the -body, which may be of carbonate of magnesia, carbonate of lime, such as -powdered marble, sulphuretted lime, or powdered gypsum, chalk, starch, -or flour, white oxide of tin, zinc, sulphate of barytes or Chinese -white, white oxide of lead. In combining, _e.g._, magnesia with the -glue, an addition of ten per cent. of glycerine gives elasticity and -a horn-like clearness. To harden artificial ivory made with glue, the -objects are dipped into strong solution of alum or tannin for about -four minutes. The tannin is best made from gall-apples. Objects thus -made have an antique ivory, yellowish hue. Red chrome alkali may be -used in solution with water instead of tannin, but it gives a stronger -yellow. - -According to HYATT’S patent, artificial ivory is made by combining a -syrup made of eight parts shellac and three parts of ammoniac with -forty of the oxide of zinc. This is heated and subjected to pressure. - -CELLULOID is the best material for making artificial ivory. It is made -by the combination of cellulose or vegetable fibre in the form of -cotton-wool treated with acid; that is to say, gun-cotton and camphor. -It is sold in thin leaves, &c., which can be softened at from 100° -to 125° centigrade, so as to be moulded to any form. By infusion of -colouring matter, such as oxide of zinc, cinnabar, &c., celluloid is -made to resemble ivory, coral, or tortoise-shell. It has often been -applied to making a perfect imitation of Florentine mosaic, and of -course serves admirably to repair such work when broken. - -A very strong cement for ivory, bone, or fine wood is made by boiling -transparent gelatine in water to a thick mass. Add to this gum-mastic -dissolved in alcohol, this solution being one-fourth, and stir into -it pure white oxide of zinc till it forms a fluid like honey. This is -also of itself an artificial ivory, when prepared and dried in the -mass. Another can be made by combining diamond cement (_vide_ Glass) -with powdered ivory and a little glycerine. Also with the same, or -very strong white glue and powdered egg-shells, which latter should -have been boiled. Also white of egg, gum-arabic, a very little strong -vinegar, and levigated egg-shells. - -Another recipe for such mending or making of ivory and similar -substances is to take soft and very white paper in pulp, combined with -cotton-wool, treated with very dilute acid or _strong_ vinegar. To -this add powdered egg-shells, made into paste with a little glycerine; -amalgamate this with the paper and cotton mixture as thoroughly as -possible, and submit to strong pressure or rolling. - -CELLULOSE in any form, whether made from cotton, linen, wood, or other -vegetable fibrous substance, affords a basis which can be treated -with dilute acid to produce a horny or parchment-like substance. A -modification of this is seen in making celluloid with camphor. These -modified forms of organic creation can be combined with other organic -substances or minerals in great variety. Thus glycerine, and at times -oil of different kinds, in such admixtures confers elasticity, or a -diaphanous appearance; ivory-dust has an affinity for oil and glue; and -these all combine with parchment, boiled ivory-dust, and fibrine or -cellulose. - -Certain marine plants, such as _kelp_, yield a fibrous substance which -has very peculiar qualities, and which admits of ingenious combination. -Certain experiments and observations convince me that there is here -a vast field, as yet unexplored, in which science will yet make -discoveries and afford valuable contributions to technology. - -The reader who is specially interested in this subject may consult to -advantage _Die Verarbeitung des Hornes, Elfenbeines, Schildpatts und -der Perlenmutter_, &c., von Louis Edgar Andés; Vienna, A. Hartleben, -price 3s. - - - - -REPAIRING AMBER - -HOW TO PERFECTLY RE-JOIN BROKEN AMBER, AND TO IMITATE IT--HOW TO MELT -AMBER IN FRAGMENTS TO A SINGLE BODY - - -Amber has been admired in all ages and everywhere from its exquisite -colour and semi-transparency. Many superstitions were attached to it, -and many still believe that to carry a bead made from it is good for -the eyesight. It is principally found on the Prussian coast, off the -German Ocean, but is also picked up in considerable quantities on the -English shore. It is the gum or resin of a now extinct species of pine, -which was probably much like that in New Zealand, which produces the -gum _kauri_, which so much resembles amber. - -Some amber is yellow and clear like lemon-candy. This is extensively -imitated for cigar-holders and pipe-mouthpieces, beads, &c. Then there -is the clouded, varying from white to straw-colour, and the beautiful -golden-brown, which appears so rich in sunlight; also the dark-brown -and black. These dark-brown ambers are generally seen in old ornaments, -and are of a kind which is dug out of the earth. Light amber can be -darkened to brown by an artificial process. - -Gum _copal_, which comes from Africa, much resembles amber, but is less -beautiful and more brittle. Gum _kauri_, from New Zealand, is very much -like it. Both are used to imitate amber. - -There are not many who know how to mend amber when broken. I am assured -that the following is a trustworthy method:--Warm the pieces, dampen -them with caustic potash (_ætz-kali_), and then press them together. -When well done the joining will not be perceptible. It is said that by -this process small pieces of amber, amber-dust, &c., can be made into -blocks. - -In imitating amber, the best pieces of copal are picked out, put into -an air-tight vessel, and dissolved in petroleum, sulphuric ether, or -benzole. After being dried in blocks this is submitted to a great -pressure. As it dries the pressure is increased. - -It occurred to me many years ago that the proper way to unite copal to -a tough body like amber would be to use a tough or flexible varnish -as a binding medium. I find by the work of LEHNER on Imitations that -he has verified this by experiment. What is also important is, that -the process of hardening by pressure is by this means very much -facilitated. I should judge, by all chemical laws, that a varnish -infused with glycerine in combination with copal, kauri, or amber-dust -would, even without pressure, form in time a substance quite as hard as -amber, and much less brittle. It is to be desired that some technist -would experiment on a variety of gums in this manner, and thus _fix_ -or render permanent their beauty. There is a wide field here to be -worked. The subject of meerschaum and amber is fully treated in a work -entitled _Die Meerschaum- und Bernstein-Fabrikationen_, von G. M. -Raufer; Vienna, A. Hartleben, 2 marks. - -I may add that carving amber is a very elegant art, yielding beautiful -results. I have known a young lady, the late Miss Catherine L. Bayard, -who excelled in it. It is effected chiefly with fine files and emery -or glass paper, as, owing to its extremely brittle nature, there -is much risk for any save experts to use cutting tools. Amber is a -very expensive material, but objects made from it are of more than -proportionate value. Those who would practise carving it should begin -with pieces of copal. As I have already explained, small fragments and -the dust of both amber and copal can be melted and combined with clear -turpentine into large masses, which are even tougher than the native -gums. - -An inferior, but still very pretty, imitation of amber can be made -by combining almost any gum properly clarified and coloured; as, for -instance, gum-arabic or dextrine with gelatine (best quality white) and -glycerine. If thoroughly well combined and dried, this will wear as -well as amber. Some of the gums of fruit-trees--_e.g._, of the peach -and cherry--are very beautifully coloured and clear, and seem to be -admirably adapted to be hardened by the same process. They occur very -frequently in old books of recipes as adhesives or cements. Perfectly -clear glue or gelatine with glycerine and transparent dyes form an -excellent imitation for beads. - - - - -INDIARUBBER AND GUTTA-PERCHA - -MENDING INDIARUBBER SHOES AND MAKING GARMENTS WATERPROOF, WITH OTHER -APPLICATIONS - - -Indiarubber or gutta-percha enters into so many familiar and useful -objects that there are few people who would not like to know how to -repair them when injured. - -Like the brittle or non-elastic gums, caoutchouc (with which I include -the nearly allied gutta-percha) is greatly modified by admixture with -certain pulverised substances, which form with it a partly mechanical, -partly chemical, combination. Those who would thoroughly study the -subject in all its relations may consult _Kautschuk_ (_Caoutchouc_) -_und Guttapercha_, von Raimund Hoffer; Wien, 1892, Hartleben. - -Caoutchouc is partially soluble in carburetted sulphur, ether, pure -petroleum, or benzole, but gutta-percha is perfectly so. In this state -it may be applied as a varnish or coating for repairs, as it hardens -by exposure to the air. When mixed with sulphur and exposed to a -heat of 110° to 115° centigrade, gutta-percha becomes what is called -“vulcanised,” assuming a very light grey colour, is more elastic, and -retains this elasticity at a much lower grade than before. When the -heat is raised to (maximum) 180° the mass becomes very hard, tough, -and black, or like horn. The conditions of its toughness, elasticity, -and hardness depend upon the amount of sulphur used; as in other -combinations, the harder the material becomes the less elastic it -is--that is, the more brittle. - -EBONITE is extremely hardened caoutchouc. It is first treated with -chlorine, washed with sulphate of soda infused in water, and finally -mixed with hardening substances and submitted to severe pressure. - -As indiarubber or “gum” shoes are in general use, most people would -consider them the proper objects to begin with. To do this, first make -two separate preparations as follows: - - -I. - - Caoutchouc 10 - Chloroform 280 - - -II. - - Caoutchouc 10 - Resin 4 - Turpentine 2 - Oil of turpentine 40 - -No. I. is simply kept for a time in a bottle or tightly closed jar by -itself. No. II. is made by cutting the gum very fine, mixing it with -the resin, then adding the turpentine, and finally dissolving the whole -in the oil of turpentine. Then combine I. and II. To repair the shoe, -take a linen patch, steep it in the mixture, and place it over the -rent. When this is dry apply one or more coats. - -It may be observed that this preparation may be used not only for -indiarubber shoes, but many other objects. Applied to the soles of -leather boots, and then heated in, repeating the process a few times, -they become perfectly waterproof. This is better when the shoemaker -makes a coating of it between the two soles. I have tested this often. -The inner sole may be made by simply dissolving the indiarubber in -benzole or ether. A solution for ordinary repairing can be made by -simply steeping the indiarubber in benzine. - -Rents or holes in ordinary leather shoes or other objects can be very -well repaired in this way. A piece of leather can in this case be -substituted for the linen rag. Boots or shoes which will be very much -exposed to wet should be warmed and then soaked or permeated with a -solution of indiarubber. Preparations for the purpose can be bought of -all dealers in gum and gutta-percha. - -Cloth is generally waterproofed by steeping it in a slight solution of -caoutchouc. - -Another recipe (LEHNER) is as follows:-- - - Caoutchouc 150 - Tallow 10 - Slacked lime 10 - -This is used to cork or close bottles. To render it more resistant, -substitute pipeclay for the lime. Or if in place of either we use red -oxide of lead, it will form in time an extremely hard and perfectly -waterproof cement of great value. - -A STRONG INDIARUBBER CEMENT:-- - - Caoutchouc, about 90 - Pulverised sulphur 10 - Or from 6 to 12 of the latter. - -This is specially commended as useful to close tins containing fruits, -&c. It is simply vulcanised indiarubber. - -MARINE GLUE is a very valuable and generally useful cement. It is -so called because, being perfectly waterproof, it is used for many -purposes in ships. It is applicable not only to repairing indiarubber -or gutta-percha garments, but also to objects of metal, wood, glass, -stone, paper, or cloth; as, for instance, umbrellas, on which, when -torn, a patch or strip of silk or muslin may be gummed, which will last -as long as the rest. It is also good for waterproofing shoes. It is -sold by dealers in ships’ stores, chemists, and others. “It is a good -thing to have in the country.” - -HARD MARINE GLUE:-- - - Caoutchouc 10 - Rectified petroleum 120 - Asphalt 20 - -To prepare this, the caoutchouc should be hung in a linen bag in a -cask with a very large bung, or in a large jar, so that the bag shall -be only half immersed. This is kept in a warm place for from ten to -fourteen days, till the solution is effected. Then the asphaltum -may be melted in an iron kettle. Let the rubber solution slowly run -into the kettle over a gentle heat, and stir in the one to the other -till the mass is thoroughly preserved are put in the bag; the edge -is then turned incorporated. When this is effected pour the mixture -into moulds which have been oiled to prevent adhesion. The result is -dark brown or black thin cakes, which are broken with difficulty. The -excellence of this cement is somewhat counteracted by the difficulty -or care which must be observed in using it. To do this, put the vessel -in which it is to be melted in another or a _balneum mariæ_, as for -glue, filled with boiling water. When fluid take the kettle from the -fire and subject it directly to heat till it attains a temperature of -150° centigrade. When it is possible, heat the object to be glued to -100°. The thinner the coat and the hotter the surface the better will -it adhere, unless the objects be such as hard boards. In all cases as -strong a pressure as possible should be employed to bring the two parts -together, which should be continued till the glue has dried. Boxes -which are cemented together by means of marine glue and are also nailed -are of extraordinary strength, and may be thus made air-tight and -waterproof. Those who intend to send articles which can be affected by -sea-air, such as silks and tea, which change their colour and quality -even when packed in the tightest ordinary cases, should employ boxes -well secured with good marine glue. It is also invaluable to secure -clothing against moths, for if anything be very thoroughly dusted and -there are no moths in it, none can get in if it be enclosed in a box -rendered air-tight. - -_Apropos_ of which I would say that in America moths, which are far -more of a pest than in Europe, are effectively excluded by means of -bags of strong paper, well tarpaulined or tarred. The objects to be -over and warmed, so that it seals itself up. Strong paper bags are -better than any trunks to exclude moths, but they must always be well -gummed up. Tobacco is no protection at all against these insects. I -have even had an old woollen Turkish tobacco-bag which had been in use -ten years, and which was partly full of tobacco, almost devoured by -moths, which must have eaten no small quantity of tobacco in so doing. -Nor is camphor or any other scent half as effective as hermetic closing -in some substance which insects will not eat. - -LEHNER gives a suggestion regarding the rendering walls air-tight which -is of such remarkable practical utility that it ought to be enforced by -health laws in every house. Whenever walls have any tendency to absorb -dampness--and all have it in damp weather, especially in underground -rooms--it is _far_ more dangerous than is generally supposed to put -paper on them. This is so much the case that where workmen, from -carelessness, paste one coat of paper over another on a damp wall, -the mass in time gives out a very poisonous exhalation, so that an -instance is recorded in which several people died, one after the other, -in consequence of sleeping in such a room. To prevent this take the -following waterproof cement:-- - - Caoutchouc 10 - Washed chalk 10 - Oil of turpentine 20 - Bisulphide of carbon 10 - Resin (colophonium) 5 - Asphalt 5 - -These are combined in a large flask, kept in a moderately warm place, -and often shaken till well incorporated. The wall to be covered should -be brushed and wiped, and in some cases heated, until extremely dry. -Then, using the cement, apply the paper in the ordinary way. It will -stick with great tenacity, this being a very tight and strong glue. -All wall-paper whatever is more or less productive of malaria in damp -weather, as is the smell of a _damp_ library, or one where the scent -of old paper is rankly and offensively perceptible. Therefore every -precaution should be taken to render it innocuous. - -Even if no paper be applied, this cement is very valuable when simply -used to coat the interior or exterior of damp walls. It can, of course, -be used to repair many articles of indiarubber, and to mend shoes, tan -garments, &c. _Apropos_ of which latter I may here remark that all -persons who intend to rough it in the bush as colonists, or go into -any region where mending or getting mended is difficult--as I myself -have many a time experienced--would do well to carry a tight tin box of -waterproof glue, with which torn shoes, and very often torn clothes, -can be promptly repaired. In fact, with the aid of a little rough -stitching, or even without it, garments of leather, muslin, and even -of cloth can be made to hold together with certain cements, which will -literally bind anything. - -It is well worth while for those who propose to live in the wilderness, -wherever it may be, to know how to prepare or make indiarubber -garments. The recipe is very easily made:-- - - Gutta-percha 10 - Benzine 100 - Linseed-oil varnish 100 - -The gutta-percha is dissolved in the benzine; the solution, when clear, -is poured into a bottle already containing the varnish, and all is -then thoroughly shaken. This mixture, when spread on woven fabrics of -any kind, renders them completely waterproof. The garments can then -be cut out and “sewed;” that is, bound together with the same cement. -According to LEHNER, this cement can be used for making the soles of -shoes, and is marvellously elastic. All travellers, and assuredly all -housekeepers, should have this cement among their possessions. - -It may also happen to a traveller to find himself with an aching -hollow tooth in a region where no dentist is accessible. Should he -have with him some gutta-percha (bleached is best for this purpose) he -may combine it with very finely pulverised glass. (To _levigate_ or -powder anything as fine as flour, it must be pounded in a mortar, or on -metal or hard stone _under water_.) Then warm and thoroughly mix the -gutta-percha and glass. Make it into little pencils, which, when they -are to be used, must be dipped in hot water. This cement may be also -used for a great variety of other purposes. - -A very admirable cement, which should be found in every stable and -known to every one who owns a horse, is made as follows:-- - - Hartshorn and resin ammoniacum (_Ammoniakharz_) 10 - Purified gutta-percha 20-25 - -Heat the gutta-percha to 90°-100° centigrade, and thoroughly -incorporate it with the powdered resin. The chief use of this admirable -composition is to fill up cracks or splits in horses’ hoofs. It may -also be used for plaster on occasion. To apply it to hoofs, warm it and -spread it in with a warmed knife. It sets so hard that it will hold -nails. - -In mending or making, it may be observed that a very little indiarubber -or gutta-percha may be combined with benzole or ether, or rectified -petroleum in large amount, which soon becomes dense. Therefore, to -produce a surface or a skin, we first spread a _thin_ coat over the -object or mould, and then apply another with a broad, soft brush or -“dabber” with great care, so as to make it of uniform thickness. It is, -therefore, best to have the preparation always rather thin, and use it -at the right time, and not when it has become dense by long keeping. In -the latter case add more of the solvent. - -Glass bottles or vials containing liquids are often broken, even by -the pressure of soft objects, such as clothing, when placed in trunks. -It is therefore advisable to dip or coat them with this solution, -which forms a bag which will contain the fluid; that is, unless it be -of a nature which will soften it. I have known a bottle of hair-oil -to be packed in a valuable cashmere shawl, which was almost ruined by -its breaking, and which could have easily been prevented by this easy -precaution. - -Any apothecary will make up these recipes. - -A very curious and valuable imitation of indiarubber waterproof cloth -is made as follows:--Caseine is macerated with water and with borax to -a solution. The cloth is dipped in this, and when quite dry, again -dipped into a strong infusion of gall-apples. This is a kind of tanning. - -For exhaustive information on the subject of indiarubber the -technologist may consult _Kautschuk und Guttapercha_, by Raimund -Hoffer, Leipzig, 1892, which is, I believe, the latest and best work on -this important subject. - - - - -MENDING METAL-WORK OR REPAIRING BY MEANS OF IT - -FIREPROOF CEMENTS, WITH IRON BINDERS - - -Metal-work, especially in iron, requires so much forging and so many -appliances that it is to a certain extent beyond the ordinary mender, -who must in most cases have resort to the smith or artificer. But there -is still much within the capacity of the amateur to effect, and this I -will describe. - -One of the commonest requirements in repairing trunks and many other -objects is to make a strap or strip of metal hold either to a surface -or to itself. This is to be promptly effected by _riveting_. If the -iron band on a trunk is broken, you cannot well nail it again into its -place. A nail will not hold in the thin side, possibly of pasteboard. -To learn how to repair in such a case, take a piece of common hoop -iron, lay it on a block of wood or a board, and with a fine nail or -brad-awl and hammer knock a hole in it. Then take a rivet or any -flat-headed tack, put it through the hole, lay it with the head of the -tack down on iron or stone if possible, and then give the point a blow, -a little sideways. The result is that the point will be flattened and -the tack firmly held. The result will be the same if the rivet passes -through two thick pieces of metal. In this manner the two ends of an -iron hoop for a box are fastened. Therefore, if we take a piece of tin -or sheet-iron, put it in the trunk against the side, and bring down the -broken strip on the outside, we can, with a little care, rivet it. It -is advisable, when this is done, to paste a strong piece of muslin or -leather over the tin to prevent it from cutting anything in the trunk. -These riveted strips are _far_ better for surrounding and holding many -bundles than cords. They are better for books, because they do not -leave marks on the edges, neither do they untie nor are they hard to -fasten, requiring no knotting. - -Riveted bands, corners, or bent pieces of sheet-metal are more -generally applicable to broken furniture than is generally supposed. -The plate thus applied can generally be concealed either by chiselling -a place for it or by hammering it into the wood, and then cementing and -painting it over. - -Wire is also very useful for mending of many kinds, either in metal -or wood. To manage it we need a pair of cutting pliers or pincers, as -well as the long-nosed and flat pliers. Thus, to attach two bodies--for -instance, the two parts of a broken gunstock--begin by fastening one -end of the wire in one piece, and wind it round both, drawing it as -tightly as possible with the flat pliers. When united, fasten the other -end by driving it under the _twist_ or into the wood. This also can be -so adroitly treated that the wire, flattened with a file and hammered -down, can be concealed under paint and varnish. By means of wire passed -through holes made with long brad-awls or fine gimlets, picture-frames -can be firmly repaired. In many cases the wire should be brought round -and the ends fastened or wound together; in others, make a double ring -in one end of the wire and nail it down, then pass the wire through the -hole and fasten the other end in the same way. Many kinds of broken -implements may be thus mended. Endeavour to get strong, _flexible_ wire -for such purposes. - -Boxes containing goods will be doubly strong when protected by strips -of iron nailed round them. Hoop-iron is generally used for this purpose. - -Soldering is, however, the best and most usual means of repairing all -kinds of metal-work, and this is very far from being so difficult as -is generally supposed; indeed, a lady-writer on metal-work goes so -far as to declare that it is fascinating. As every tinker and tinman -knows how to “sodder,” and will willingly give instruction for a trifle -(children, indeed, often behold the whole process admiringly for -nothing), and, finally, as it is most unlikely that any reader of this -work should be in a place where neither tinkers nor tinmen are to be -found--for I have read that a gipsy tinker was once discovered mending -a kettle seated in the shadow of the Great Wall of China--it is hardly -necessary to describe in detail processes which any one can take in -at a glance. The principle is this:--As in cementing glass, the glue -which binds requires powdered glass to be mixed in it, so that it may -establish a quicker and closer affinity with the glass; so to unite two -metallic surfaces we must have a flux or some fusible substance as an -intermediary. For this purpose various substances, such as resin and -borax, are employed with the solder, which is a compound of metals, -which melts very easily, takes a firm hold of other metals, and sets -hard at once. There are many varieties of it, adapted to different -metals. It is generally sold in small sticks for use. - -I lay some stress on the fact that there should be some one in every -family knowing how to repair, especially in metal, because there is no -household in which there is not damage of tin and iron ware, trunks, -kitchen utensils, and often even of jewellery, which a clever youth or -young lady could easily restore. A pin is detached from a brooch. You -could repair it yourself in five minutes, at a halfpenny’s expense; -but no, it must be sent to a jeweller’s to be mended for a shilling. -It is the same with earrings and chains and bracelets and clasps and -securing-rings. When they become shaky you fasten them with thread. It -will hold for the present, of course; and then comes an advertisement -in the _Times_: “Lost--Twenty-five Pounds Reward!” All because you -never learned how to repair or solder. - -[Illustration] - -But, as ’tis never too late to mend, and no one should be a mend -I-can’t, or go begging to others to do for him what he can do for -himself, I trust that reflection on this subject will induce many to -become practical repairers. If you have a valuable coin, do not take -half the value out of it, as most people do, by boring a hole through -it. Make a simple twist and eyelet of a bit of silver wire and solder -it on the edge. Do not tie a gold chain with twine; mend it properly. -Rivet your broken scissors, and when hinges come out screw them on -again. If there were really anything _difficult_ in all this I would -honestly say so, but there is not, and people who have received some -education learn how to do it all with ease in a short time. - -A recipe for a cement to attach metal to any other substance is made as -follows:-- - - Purified flint-sand (or glass-powder) 10 - Caseine or curd 8 - Slacked lime 10 - -Mix thoroughly, and add water to a creamy consistency. - -The following for metals is also very strong:-- - - Sturgeon’s bladder solution 100 - Nitric acid 1 - -The acid is stirred in at the same time with the cement, which should -be as dense as possible, and with this mixture the surfaces of the -metal are covered. “The nitric acid is intended to make the surfaces of -the metal rough, but it has the drawback that it hinders the drying of -the glue” (LEHNER). This slowly drying is, however, a great advantage. -The same is found when it is mixed with common glue, which generally -dries too rapidly. Cements which dry rather slowly take hold the most -firmly and permanently. The acid hardens the mass by contracting the -cellular tissue. To hasten the drying, the metallic parts, which should -be very strongly compressed together, must be exposed to heat. - -A simpler method for light articles of metal is to wet the surfaces -with nitric acid for a few minutes till they are roughened, then wash -away the acid in water, and cement the metal with sturgeon’s bladder -cement. - -A special cement for zinc is made by thickening very strong dense glue -with powdered slacked lime, into which is kneaded one-tenth part of -flowers of sulphur. - -A so-called Jeweller’s Cement, which holds firmly, is the so-called -Diamond, elsewhere given; also the following:-- - - Sturgeon’s bladder 100 - Gum mastic varnish 50 - -The sturgeon’s bladder is dissolved in as little water as possible -with strong spirits of wine (equivalent to ordinary spirits). To -prepare the mastic varnish, mix finely powdered mastic with the most -highly rectified spirits of wine and benzine, and use as little liquid -as possible. The two mixtures must be then rubbed as intimately as -possible together. When carefully made this cement will serve for -anything--glass or china, &c. - -A CEMENT FOR ZINC, especially for ornaments and small work:--In -ten parts by weight of silicate of soda (solution) stir two parts -of cleansed chalk and three of zinc in powder. This is kneaded for -some time into a putty, with which defects, roughnesses, &c., can be -remedied. After twenty-four hours, when polished with agate, this -cement has all the appearance of zinc. - -It may be observed that other metals in fine powder may be substituted -for the zinc, and that with bronze powders, oxides of metals, and -indeed with all the range of painters’ colours, combinations may be -formed of infinite application in the arts. According to LEHNER the -silicate of soda should be of 33°. - -A specially strong and valuable cement, capable of many uses in -metal, wood, glass, or china, or to fasten glass to metal, is made as -follows:--Take best purified litharge, stir it with glycerine until it -becomes a thin homogeneous mass, which in less than an hour will become -a very hard mass, which is of almost universal application. It is not -affected by water, and resists the action (according to LEHNER) of -almost all acids, the strongest alkalies, as well as etherised oils and -the fumes of chlorine and alcohol. The surfaces which are to be united -with it must first be covered with pure, thick glycerine. - -It will readily occur to the reader that in or to this, as in every -recipe given in this book, modifications, alterations, and additions -can be made, of very great value, adaptable to a great variety of -substances. It is to be observed that in such cases as this, where -one cannot be sure of the exact result, it is best, _e.g._, to first -experiment with a very little finest pulverised oxide of lead with the -glycerine. - -Another form of this powerful metallic cement is given as follows:-- - - Concentrated glycerine ½ litre - Litharge 5 kilogs. - -To make a cement to fill or close joints in zinc-work:--Soak three -parts by weight of glue in water, pour off the superfluous water, -dissolve the glue in warm water, stir into it six parts of slacked -lime and one of flowers of sulphur. - -When ironwork, as, for instance, window-bars, is to be set in stone, -the following is commended as taking a firm hold:-- - - Calcined gypsum 30 - Finely powdered iron 10 - Vinegar 20 - -The following recipes, though I have found many of them in other works, -are here taken, with acknowledgment, from LEHNER, as his proportions -are invariably accurate, or confirmed by experiment. - -AN IRON CEMENT which resists heat and moisture:-- - - Clay 10 - Iron filings 5 - Vinegar 2 - Water 3 - -A VERY STRONG WATERPROOF CEMENT FOR IRON:-- - - Iron filings 100 - Sal-ammoniac 2 - Water 10 - -This in a few days will begin to turn into a hard rust. - -Another OXIDISED CEMENT, which holds like iron, is made as follows:-- - - Iron filings 65 - Sal-ammoniac 2.5 - Flowers of Sulphur 1.5 - Sulphuric acid 1 - -The sulphuric acid is diluted with water and added to the mixed powders. - -A RUST OR OXIDE CEMENT, resisting fire:-- - - Common iron filings 45 - Clay 20 - Finest porcelain clay 15 - Salt in water 8 - -Fine clay may be used in lack of the finest porcelain clay. - -AN IRON CEMENT to resist heat:-- - - Iron filings 20 - Clay in powder 45 - Borax 5 - Salt 5 - Peroxide of manganese 10 - -The borax and salt are melted in water and then quickly mixed with the -remaining ingredients, which are in a combined powder. At a white-heat -this becomes a glassy substance, which seals hermetically. - -IRON CEMENT to resist intense heat:-- - - Peroxide of manganese 52 - White oxide of zinc 25 - Borax 5 - -This is applied with silicate of soda. It must dry gradually. - -IRON CEMENT to resist heat:-- - - Iron filings 100 - Clay 50 - Salt 10 - Flint-sand 20 - -FIREPROOF CEMENT:-- - - Iron filings 140 - Hydraulic cement 20 - Flint-sand 25 - Sal-ammoniac 3 - -This powder is made into a paste with vinegar. It must dry for a long -time before being submitted to heat. - -Another cement of the same kind is as follows:-- - - Iron filings 180 - Clay 45 - Salt 8 - -This is also made up with vinegar, and must be dried for a long time. - -TO SET IRON IN STONE:-- - - Iron filings, fine 10 - Calcined gypsum 30 - Sal-ammoniac 0.5 - -Also combined with vinegar. - -When there are defects in iron castings, they may be filled up with the -following cement:-- - - Clean iron filings 100 - Flowers of sulphur 0.5 - Sal-ammoniac 0.8 - -To be mixed with water to a paste. It does not fuse nor act as a paste -until exposed to great heat. Before applying it wash the edges to -be united with liquid ammonia. Brimstone or sulphur melts iron very -promptly when the latter is red-hot, and applied to it, the iron will -drop like melted sealing-wax. - -A CEMENT FOR IRON STOVES is made as follows:-- - - Iron filings 100 - Chalk-marl 40 - Flint-sand 50 - Vinegar 20 - -This is made into a paste, which can be rendered porous by mixing with -it bristles, chopped straw, sawdust, or chaff. When the latter is -converted to coal by heat, the cement is, of course, full of cavities. -In like manner, clay for water-coolers is made light and spongy by -mixing it with salt. The salt gradually melts in the damp clay, forming -a porous substance. - -When iron doors are to be hermetically sealed at very high temperatures -the following may be used:-- - - Finest iron filings 100 - Sal-ammoniac 1 - Limestone 10 - Silicate of soda 10 - -When the iron plates about a fireplace give way the following may be -used:-- - - Iron filings 20 - Iron dross or refuse 12 - Calcined gypsum 30 - Common salt 10 - -This mixture may be combined with either blood or silicate of soda, -preferably the latter, as the former has a disagreeable smell. - -Iron filings mixed with vinegar are allowed to stand till of a brown -colour, and then driven with plugs and hammer into cavities, where they -form a rust cement. - -FOR CRACKS IN IRON POTS, &c.:-- - - Iron filings 10 - Clay 60 - -This is mixed with linseed-oil to a paste. It requires several weeks to -harden, but forms a hard cement. - -A BLACK CEMENT FOR IRONWARE:-- - - Iron filings 10 - Sand 12 - Ivory black 10 - Slacked lime 12 - Lime water 5 - -SCHWARTZ’S IRON CEMENT for holes in pots, &c.:-- - -I. - - Finely powdered glue 4-5 - Finest iron dust 2 - Peroxide of manganese 1 - Common salt ½ - Borax ½ - -To be powdered extremely fine or levigated and made with water to a -paste. Resists fire and hot water. - -II. - - Pulverised peroxide of manganese 1 - White oxide of zinc 1 - -To be finely pulverised and combined with silicate of soda. - -An important part of all metal-mending is soldering. This is based on -the principle that certain metallic compounds which fuse at a very -low heat can, however, be so brought into union with others which have -an affinity for them as by melting to unite the harder objects. Thus -bismuth, which will melt in hot water, has an affinity for lead, which -combines easily with tin and brass, &c.; as, in like manner, borax and -resin with iron. - -NEWTON’S SOLDER (LEHNER):-- - - Bismuth 8 - Tin 3 - Lead 5 - -This melts at 94.5° Celsius. - -ROSE’S SOLDERS:-- - -I. - - Bismuth 2 - Lead 1 - Tin 1 - -II. - - Bismuth 5 - Lead 3 - Tin 2 - -A METALLIC-GLASS SOLDER:-- - - Lead 30 - Tin 20 - Bismuth 25 - -The lead is first carefully melted, then the tin added, and the melted -mixture carefully stirred; the bismuth is put in last of all. - -CEMENT FOR IRON STOVES:-- - - Wood-ashes 10 - Clay 10 - Calcined lime 4 - -To be mixed with water to form a firm paste. Also applicable to holes -in trees. Clay mixed with waste-paper is also applicable for the latter -purpose (LEHNER). (Glue may be added to it.) This mixture of clay and -paper should be well mixed with sour milk. - -CLAUS’S CEMENT FOR METAL AND GLASS:--40 grammes of starch and 320 -grammes purified chalk are dissolved in 2 quarts water, into which is -stirred ½ pint solution of caustic soda. - -The most important part of mending broken metal-work is _soldering_, -and this is so difficult to practically teach by mere _writing_, while -it can be so easily learned from any tinsmith, or even tinker, that -I deem it common-sensibly best to acquire it from the latter. Those -who would study it in all its details, scientific or technological, -may do so in _Das Löthen und die Bearbeitung der Metalle_, by Edmund -Schlosser; Vienna, A. Hartleben, price 3s. - - - - -REPAIRING LEATHER-WORK - -TRUNKS, SHOES, OR IN ANY OTHER FORMS--JOINING STRAPS--MAKING CHEAP SHOES - - -Leather-work when much worn is seldom restored, and, except by a -few experts, it is generally regarded as incurable. That is to say, -that leather-work is only repaired by the same method in which it is -made--that is, by sewing--when in fact a great deal is lost which -might be saved, and much imperfectly repaired which might seem like -new by resorting to a more scientific process. And therefore, having -devoted much attention to it, I am persuaded that the worst cases may -be mended. Within a week I purchased two small folio volumes which -had been beautifully bound in black leather, embossed in deep relief, -about 1520, in a style which was then becoming antiquated. The pattern -had been cut in a wooden mould, stamped on the wet leather, and then -completely worked over by hand with tracers and matted or stamped in -the ground. But the black colour had been worn away from the relief and -turned brown, and it was otherwise dilapidated at the edges. - -I took a volume and where the surface was ragged moistened it, applied -gum-arabic in solution, and smoothed it down with an agate burnisher. -Leather treated in this way soon becomes like a paste. When it was -all even I painted it over with strong liquid Indian ink. Common ink -would have done as well. Then I varnished it over lightly with the -admirable _vernis à retoucher_, No. 3, of SOEHNÉE, which is flexible, -preservative, and does not crack. I may add for ladies that it smells -like _eau de cologne_. This dries almost immediately. It may be had -at all artists’ material shops. Finally, I rubbed it for some time by -hand. Then the binding was as good as new, yet not too new. It was -simply perfectly restored. - -I have in the introduction mentioned another work which I also -restored. This was a Madonna in high relief, very much dilapidated; -that is to say, it was of thin leather, which had been originally -made in a mould, and was accordingly puffed out, so to speak, like a -pie-crust. On the mould there had been laid a coat of muslin or cotton -fabric; this, when dry, had been very thinly covered with _gesso_ or -plaster of Paris, and on this, when dry, a thin wet leather had been -pressed. I may here note that very often the _gesso_ was then blackened -without any leather being applied, and that when thus blackened, -covered, and varnished it looked exactly like leather--an easy art, -which may be practised to profit by any one who can carve or buy moulds. - -On examining this, I found that it would be very difficult to repair -it with good leather. I found in a shop some thin black sham-leather, -such as the Japanese apparently manufacture from leather dust, made by -grinding up all kinds of leather waste to a powder. It was wretched, -rotten stuff as leather, but all the better suited to my purpose. Some -of this I cut into small bits, and with a knife soon mashed it, mixed -with gum-arabic and water, into a very smooth paste. With such a paste -one can repair any tear, roughening, or imperfection, care being taken -that the paste and leather be alike in colour. With this I filled the -hollows at the back, making the work solid; and having wetted all the -ragged edges and fractured or torn places, smoothed them down with gum -and a pen or paper knife, supplying deficiencies with the black paste. -When all was smooth and dry I applied a coat of SOEHNÉE’S varnish, and -then rubbed it well down by hand. It was quite restored. - -As this varnishing leather may sound like a heresy to artistic -leather-workers, I would ask them if they would consider an application -of tannin in solution--which is the preservative principle of leather -itself--as “inartistic.” Certainly it is not, nor is the application of -SOEHNÉE (which is more of a simple preservative than a glaze) a mere -finish for show. - -The leather-paste of which I speak has certain qualities of its -own which make it quite different from any other substance. We may -include in leather “paste” not only the mere dust made from the dried -substance, but all scraps, and also any thin leather, thoroughly -softened or macerated. Even in the latter form it is, combined with a -binder, really a plastic substance, since it can be worked into any -form with ease. Mixed with caoutchouc or indiarubber in solution, and -then dried, it is invaluable for mending boots and making waterproof -soles. As I have indicated, it is excellent for mending old books. And -here I may mention that if you have, let us say, one cover of a book -in high relief, and the other, it may be, lost or worn plain, you can -supply or make the duplicate very easily, very cheaply, and in a short -time as follows:--Take a sheet of soft, white newspaper, dampen it, and -press it on the relief. As soon as possible, taking care not to wet -the book, fill in the back of the _squeeze_ either with other coats of -wet paper, melted wax, or liquid plaster of Paris. When this is dry, -wax or oil carefully the face of the squeeze, wipe it dry, and make a -cast from it in _leather-paste_. Thus you will have a facsimile of the -relief. From a solid plaster mould, well oiled or boiled in wax, a cast -may be taken in softened or wet leather, which is even better; it sets -hard and tough. - -I may here mention that it is very unusual to see books bound in deep -relief with _hand-worked_, black, or black and gold, antique patterns, -and that such a cover, say of eight by ten inches, would probably cost -at least a pound, and be cheap at that. And yet any girl of ordinary -capacity with, let us say, fifty shillings’ worth of moulds, and two -weeks’ practice in tracing and stamping grounds, could produce from two -to four such book-covers as those before me in a day. - -There is now generally sold in furnishing or chemists’ shops a good -waterproof glue. Leather softened and then well incorporated with this -is also waterproof, and may be used to mend trunks. I have known a -torn boot to be mended in this manner, and that so well that it lasted -for a long time. Even a leather strap which is subjected to great -tugging may be restored, if cut or broken in two, by shaving the edges -obliquely, so as to sharpen them. - -[Illustration] - -Then apply glue with acid, and before it is quite dry apply pressure, -though not so great as to squeeze the glue out. Shaving across the -edges, judicious pressing together, and final smoothing are of the -greatest importance in all leather patching and piecing, because -it depends on these to make the juncture imperceptible. Very few -persons--even shoemakers--are at all aware of the degree of perfection -to which mending rents in foot-covering can be carried by the use of -waterproof glue, such as is sold by many chemists. I have worn such a -patch for months, and it was hardly perceptible. But, like every art, -it requires some practice to apply such patches properly, and I cannot -promise to any lady that she can perfectly and neatly patch a boot by -simply daubing on a piece of leather at a first trial. - -It may be noted that in such strap-joining as that which I have -described, the repair will be greatly strengthened by pasting very -thin bits of leather, or even of muslin, over the edges and pressing -them in. It is true that this cover will soon wear away, but meanwhile -the mended leather is all the while growing stronger and uniting more -perfectly. Even paper, glued and pressed on, materially aids to make -the exposed joint unite. - -And here I may say that many a lady and youth would do well to take a -few practical lessons from any shoemaker in the noble art of cobbling; -that is to say, of heeling, soleing, and patching, all of which are as -easy to learn as steps in dancing, and are even more interesting or -amusing when once mastered. It is, moreover, an art which will be of -use through life. Those who can do this will probably, if ambitious -by nature, progress to making slippers, it may be shoes; and he who -can do this may be assured that he never need quite starve to death -while human beings go shod. It is not so difficult as many think, for -I have known shoemakers of very ordinary minds, and I also once knew -a mechanical artist who learned to make a fine pair of shoes in a few -weeks. In fact, there is a living in a great many things for those who -have once learned to use their fingers. - -Few people are aware of the extraordinary durability of leather-work of -certain kinds. There are in the British Museum Roman sandals, probably -made of raw hide, but cut into pretty form, which were found in the -Thames, and which look as new as if recently made. I have seen within -a day as I write a gracefully formed pitcher of the early fifteenth -century of very solid black leather, like the old blackjacks once -common in England, which has probably passed through centuries of -use, and is as perfect as ever. Wood splits, earthenware breaks, and -metal rusts, but raw hide, or _cuir bouilli_, as set forth in the old -song of the “Leather Bottél,” seems to endure every trial. As the man -commemorated in “Æsop’s Fables” declared, “After all, there is nothing -like leather.” The reader who may be especially interested in this -easiest of all the minor arts may consult on this subject my _Manual of -Leather-Work_ (5s.); Whittaker & Co., 2 White Hart Street, Paternoster -Square, London, E.C. - -Strips of raw hide are without equal for repairing broken vehicles, -wheels, saddles, and similar articles, because they shrink while -drying, drawing everything tight, and set so hard when once dry -that what is mended is often stronger than before. I have elsewhere -mentioned that the strongest trunks in the world are made in America -from it, as they had need to be, since there is no country in the world -where the “baggage-smasher,” figurative or literal, is so much to be -feared. - -The reader who has occasion to repair anything in leather should study -the chapter of this book which treats of indiarubber and gutta-percha, -the subjects being in many respects the same. - -A strong cement for leather is made by combining gutta-percha and -_Schwefelkohlenstoff_, or bisulphide of carbon, with petroleum to a -syrupy consistency. A very good cement specially adapted to joining -leather straps is as follows:-- - - Asphalt 12 - Resin 10 - Gutta-percha 40 - Bisulphide of carbon 150 - Petroleum 60 - -The materials, excepting the _Schwefelkohlenstoff_, are put together in -a bottle which stands in hot water for several hours; when the mass has -grown thick with the petroleum add the rest, and let the whole stand -for several days, shaking it very often. If the pieces of leather to be -united are first heated and then pressed very tightly together, the -adhesion will be increased. This cement is as well adapted for glass, -crockery, horn, ivory, wood, or metal as for leather. It is admirable -for mending trunks, whether made of leather, wood, or pasteboard. - -When a trunk is made of any of these, and a hole is broken through -the side or top, take a newspaper and coat it with this cement, -applying another, till there are a dozen or more thicknesses. If, as -it gradually dries, this be pressed and hardened with a roller, or -even a round ruler, it will be much improved. Glue this into or upon -the fracture. In most cases with care it can be made as strong as -ever. Where a rib is broken it should be promptly replaced. (_Vide_ -Metal-Work.) All trunks should be covered with waterproof glue or -varnish, as it effectually protects them from exposure to the rain. -This is very rarely done, however, the result being an immense amount -of loss to all travellers. In any town where there is a chemist’s shop, -and where a bit of indiarubber is to be had, even at the stationer’s, a -waterproof cement can be at once manufactured. The easiest of these to -prepare is the following:-- - - Gutta-percha 100 - Pine resin 200 - -The resin is first melted in a pan, the gutta-percha, in very small -bits, being gradually stirred in till all is amalgamated. When used it -must be warmed again. This cement can be used for as many different -articles as the preceding. - -It may here be noted that vast quantities of waste leather from -shoemakers and bookbinders, which sell for a mere trifle, can be -utilised to make admirable waterproof carpets and wall-covers. The -leather is first soaked till soft, then smoothed out and mixed with -waterproof cement, and rolled into one flat piece. This makes a very -cheap sub-carpet for winter--better than oil-cloth, being softer. For -walls it can be pressed in moulds, gilded, or painted. If varnished -there is no unpleasant smell from it. The harder it is compressed -or rolled the more will all smell disappear. Even with rolling by -hand with a bread-roller almost all substances--for instance, paper, -cloth-rags, sawdust, leather, clay, wool, cotton-wool, when combined -with any fit adhesive or cement--can be made very hard or tough; and it -is remarkable, considering the cheapness of the materials, how little -this principle is as yet applied. - -It may be remarked that there are many people who do not know what -to do when the sole of a boot splits off or wears away and there is -no shoemaker at hand. If the heel is lost and no leather can be had, -a very good substitute can be cut from wood and cemented on. A few -tacks will make it last as long almost as leather. If a piece of sole -leather can be got, even from another old shoe, one or two layers -can be cemented on to make a sole. A short screw or nail through -three-quarters of the heel greatly aids in making the layers adhere. -This may also be done with a vice. - -In the town of Bagni di Lucca, where I now am, a pair of leather shoes -with wooden soles, such as are commonly worn by women and children, -cost only fivepence. They are, of course, rough, but still far better -than none. The sole is rudely and very easily cut, with a high heel, -from white pine or larch wood. The upper is a single piece of leather, -which only covers the front half of the foot. It is moistened and bent -into shape, and then tacked or glued on. Many people simply buy the -soles, then the leather, and make the shoes for themselves, in which -case the expense does not amount to more than twopence. In Florence -there is often added to this the back, or heel-piece, which costs -twopence more, and makes an almost perfect shoe. This art would be -worth knowing in a wild country. - -[Illustration: _Italian (Lucchese) Peasant Shoe, costing from 5d. to -8d. per pair, undecorated._] - -LEHNER (_vide_ Indiarubber and Gutta-percha) specially commends for -mending soles the composition of--Gutta-percha, 10; benzine, 100; -linseed-oil varnish, 100. It is extremely elastic and tough, and -therefore suitable to soles. Mixed with black dye, or made with japan, -it forms patent leather or polished leather. It should for this purpose -be applied with a broad brush in _thin_ successive coats, and well -dried before applying a new one. This is far superior to ordinary -blacking; it is more easily applied, and does not injure the leather so -much, because the latter is often made with vitriol, which, while it -promptly gives a shine, eats away the fibre. Boots and shoes will, in -fact, wear much longer with this coating than without it. - -This is even more applicable to a great deal of harness, saddle, and -bridle mending, and restoring sheet leather in every form; as, for -instance, waggon curtains, when worn and dry. First soften the leather, -then restore its quality, if required, with tannin or indiarubber in -solution. If very dry and exhausted, it may first be treated with -neat’s-foot oil for several days. Then sew it up, if a seam, or mend by -applying leather and the cement. If all persons who own much harness -would carefully study this subject, they would be astonished to find -what economy could be effected by judicious mending. - -It may happen that the reader may have occasion to wish to renew black, -glazed leather-work, or to make a brilliant black pattern on a brown -ground in stamped leather. I have often executed it with success. In -such a case it suffices to simply blacken the leather with ink or dye, -and then coat it with any flexible varnish; that is, one into which -glycerine or gutta-percha has been infused. Any one who can draw can -in this manner execute very beautiful work for covering walls, panels, -chests, or doors. Or flexible black varnish can be directly applied. - -LEHNER gives a recipe for attaching leather to metal, which may also be -applied to any other substance:--Cover the leather with a thin and very -hot coating of glue, press it on the metal, and then wet the other -side with a strong solution of gall-apples or tannin (_Lohe_, extract -of oak-bark) till it is thoroughly-penetrated. The tannin combines with -the glue, and attaches the leather with extreme tenacity to the metal, -&c. It is advisable to roughen the metallic surface to facilitate -adhesion. - -By combining glue (and many other adhesives) directly with the tannin -or gall nut astringent we obtain _a waterproof cement_ of great -strength, which is very useful for shoes. It is, in fact, not at -all a difficult matter, where other appliances are wanting, to make -from leather, without sewing, a soled shoe when tannin and glue are -obtainable. The same can be done with canvas. - -During the great wars in America thousands of soldiers often went -barefoot in winter-time, with abundance of horses or cattle killed -all round them, because they did not know that a strong moccasin can -be made by cutting out a piece of raw hide, piercing holes in it, and -drawing it up like a bag round the ankles, as is so commonly done -here in the mountain districts in Italy. I once astonished a soldier -in the war by suggesting this, and he declared he must try it. It -is remarkable how rarely man in an uneducated state ever _invents_ -anything, be it a myth, a tale, or a practical invention. - -If the upper leather of a slipper or shoe be cut out, it can, if wet, -be easily made to assume the form of a foot by drying it on a last, or -even on another shoe. Let the seam of the back jut or flap over the -edge, and allow full selvage for the rest to turn under the sole. The -latter may be of sole leather. If there is none, glue two or three -pieces of the leather together with the tannin cement, and roll them -over strongly. Then glue the back and the under-lap with great care. -With a little practice a fairly good shoe can be thus made. Canvas -can be used in the same way. To dwellers in the wilderness this may -be valuable information. But very pretty ornamental slippers can be -made by young ladies out of scraps of gaily coloured leather. They can -buy a pair of soles, and get the leather at a leather-dealer’s. This -is all simply substituting glueing for sewing, and strong tannin-glue -holds _quite_ as strongly as a great deal of the sewing of cheap, -machine-made shoes. It would, indeed, not be a very difficult or -expensive thing to shoe or clothe all mankind comfortably, were it not -for the fashions followed by the wealthy. - -These very cheap shoes, made with either wooden or leather soles, -and that so easily that a child can learn to manufacture them in an -hour, can be easily ornamented so as to be really attractive. Take the -leather, moisten it with a sponge, and then with a tracer, which is -like the end of a screw-driver--_i.e._-- - -[Illustration] - -draw a pattern in the damp, soft leather. When it dries the pattern -will remain. Then with a point or stamp, dot or roughen the ground. -Finally, when dry, paint the pattern black, and then varnish it. -Anybody with the least knowledge of drawing can make and sell such -ornamented shoes for a good profit, as they are as yet hardly known -to anybody. Other colours may be substituted for black, or gilding -applied. - -I have in another place shown (_vide_ Papier-Mâché) how good artificial -leather can be made by combining paper--best in pulp--with indiarubber -and benzole fluid solution. Also how soles can be made by steeping -pasteboard in the same, and how these, which are very easily and -cheaply made, can be glued on to the leather so as to protect the -latter from wearing out, for ever, if renewed. A bottle of this cement, -combined with Diamond or Turkish Cement, will in like manner repair -boots when the sole begins to split or part; and if applied when it -begins to gape, it will be closed for a long time. This is such a -practical, cheap, and easy method of making boots and shoes last, -that my wonder is that every man who goes shod, and especially every -traveller, has not a bottle of it by him. Observe that the two edges -should be well pinched or screwed together (a six-penny vice will -answer for this), and the leather first heated, though all this is not -a _sine quâ non_, but only an improvement. - -Leather thus attached by a very strong cement is quite as durable -and much pleasanter to wear than “copper toes” or iron heels, which -assimilate their wearers to horses. And it takes no longer to make and -attach a heel or a sole in this manner than to black a pair of boots, -as I have myself verified within a few hours. - -Where seams _rip out_, the best repairing is by sewing as shoemakers -do, which is not hard to learn, and I advise all young people to learn -it. But where sewing cannot be resorted to, the cement, well applied -and compressed till dry, will hold almost any break for a long time. - -I urge ladies of all classes and conditions to carefully consider this -chapter. They are more accustomed to repairing than men, and will take -to it more intelligently. As their _chaussures_ are made of thinner -leather than ours, they need repair oftener, but are, on the other -hand, so much the easier to repair. Every mother of a family will at -least profit by studying this book. - -Shoemakers’ paste, much used for shoes, belongs properly to -leather-work. It is made by boiling crushed barley to a thick mess, the -water being kept extremely hot. It is then set aside till fermentation -begins, which announces itself by an extremely offensive smell. Thence -it passes to a stage in which it is a brownish syrupy mass, possessing -great power as an adhesive. It is now taken from the fire and a little -carbolic acid added to arrest fermentation. This can be used by itself -for an adhesive; it also combines well with _indifferent_ substances, -such as powdered lime, or chalk, white zinc, ochre, clay, or umber. It -may be as well used for binding books. - -I have already given a very good recipe for reuniting broken leather -straps. I here add another from LEHNER. It is very good, but hardly -worth the very considerable extra trouble and expense as compared to -the former:-- - - Gilders’ glue 250 - Sturgeon’s bladder 60 - Gum-arabic 60 - -Reduce to bits and boil in water to a solution, to which add:-- - - Venice turpentine 5 - Oil of turpentine 6 - Spirits of wine 10 - -The strap-ends, or pieces of leather, having been thoroughly cleaned, -are now covered with the adhesive and pressed together between hot -plates, where the work must remain till cold. - -A very good artificial leather, perfectly waterproof, may be made by -covering a strip of strong paper, or, better still, one of glazed -muslin, with the gutta-percha cement. Add to this fresh layers of -cement and paper, till the requisite thickness is obtained. This is -useful for mending soles. Where the gutta-percha or indiarubber cement -is not to be had, substitute copal varnish and glycerine, or thick -turpentine varnish and a little glycerine. - - - - -TO MEND HATS, BLANKETS, AND SIMILAR FABRICS BY FELTING - - -Wool, as is well known, if put into a pair of shoes, will pack or -settle into a solid felt sole if the shoes are worn. This felt is like -cloth. The same can be done by rolling it like dough on a board with -a roller. Lay the cloth or hat to be mended so that the felt to be -made can be worked into it. Then take fine wool and clean and roll it -thoroughly, working it into the edges. It may happen many a time to a -man without a needle to succeed in mending garments in this manner. - -Waterproof glue or adhesive, such as is fully described in the chapter -on Indiarubber, may be added to facilitate the adhesion of the felt to -the cloth or felt ground. There is a peculiar art or knack of working -moistened felt into the edges of cloth, and of ironing or pressing -them down so as not to show, which can, however, be soon acquired. -In this way cloth may be glued upon cloth with very good effect. The -extraordinary tenacity and fineness of the adhesives now made, be it -specially observed, renders mending of this kind (which was impossible -a generation ago) now perfectly possible. I advise those who doubt -this to get a piece of cloth and experiment for themselves. The patch -may not be invisible, but it will look better than if botched with a -needle. Felt, however, can easily be repaired to perfection. - -Large pieces of stuff can be made by rolling slightly gummed wool, -which fact many men do not know, even when living in the wilderness, -where wool or hair may be abundant. Nothing is so common as to see -shepherds in utter raggedness where the very shreds of wool left by -their sheep on the thorns would clothe them, with a little industry. -The quality, durability, and fineness of felt depend on the quality of -the wool, and the care and skill of the operator. Many of the cheap -cloths known as shoddy are really felts. - -Felt is easily formed, because under certain conditions it seems -to have a strange tendency to form itself. The reader knows that a -string in the pocket, subjected to our every movement, will inevitably -tangle and knot itself up in the most mysterious manner; and so the -fibres of wool, if rubbed together, twine and bind themselves into -most intimate union. I earnestly advise all who expect to live where -sheep are plenty, and tailors or seamstresses few and far between, to -experiment in felt-making, and, if possible, learn from a hatmaker how -it is done. There was at one time in New York a factory where strong, -serviceable suits of felt cloth were made, and these, consisting of -coat, waistcoat, and trousers, were sold at retail for five dollars, or -one pound--I myself having seen them. - -When a piece of cloth is thus adjusted or applied to fill a hole or -mend a rent, the edges may be either simply gummed and adjusted, or -they may be treated with a mixture of felt or cloth-dust and gum. In -this case, before the adhesive is _quite_ hard, yet after it has ceased -to be soft, lay over the patch a piece of cloth of exactly the same -kind, and press it with a warm flat-iron. (_Vide_ Invisible Mending of -Garments, Laces, or Embroideries.) - -In most cases a torn woollen garment may be very well restored by -carefully sewing a piece into the hole, or by uniting the edges with -long stitches. Then make a paste of felt or dust, or short, fine -threads of the same cloth, with indiarubber cement, and work it over -the surface. With practice this can be done so neatly as to quite -conceal the mending. Pass an iron over the whole. When indiarubber -cement cannot be obtained, glue mixed with one-fourth glycerine can be -used. - -Ammonia combined with wool forms a solvent which is also a cement. I -have not experimented with it. - - - - -INVISIBLE MENDING OF GARMENTS, LACES, OR EMBROIDERIES - - -Most people are aware that there are tailors or others who are such -artists in mending that they can sew up a rent “in almost anything” -so skilfully that the tear cannot be perceived. I have myself seen -this done so admirably in fine black cloth that not only was there no -sign of a tear perceptible, but none was manifest after long wearing -the garment. This nicety is partly due to skill, but there is also a -method in it. Such mending is specially shown in Italy by Jewesses in -repairing valuable old laces, embroideries, and the like. As a very -large proportion of those who buy and sell such goods are Jews, it is -but natural that their wives and female friends should be specially -employed in mending. The process which they employ is as follows:-- - -[Illustration] - -“Thread a needle with one of your own hairs, then draw the edge of the -rent or tear together in this manner, darning it, as it were, very -finely and carefully, for it is in this that the whole art consists. - -“After this take a piece of cloth as near like to the stuff you wish -to mend as you can obtain. Lay this piece on the rent so as to cover -it, then damp it slightly, and press it down with a hot iron until the -surface looks quite even.” - -It may here be observed that, firstly, the _thinner_ the thread used, -so that it be only strong enough to hold, the less probability is there -that the repair will show. For this purpose, for extremely delicate -mending a human hair is almost invisible; for most work silk thread -will answer. It is, however, more likely to cut through the edge than a -hair, because the hair is more elastic. - -Secondly, it may be observed that the so-called darning is really a -kind of invisible weaving, and not a sewing together or a stitching -close of edges, which latter, as it always puckers up or rises, must -show the line of repair. The darning has its strength of attachment -afar off, not close to the edges; it makes, as it were, a kind of -network or a weaving together of the cloth--that is, the cloth is -woven again into one piece by an invisible thread which hides itself -in the thicker fabric. The laying down of a cloth of _precisely the -same texture_ as that mended, and then ironing it, is very ingenious, -because one of a different kind would produce a different impression. - -The friend from whom I received the above, Miss ROMA LISTER, adds -that the Jewesses do this kind of work very well, but ask a franc or -twenty-five sous for mending the smallest rent. However, when the torn -shawl is once finished you cannot see where the hole has been. - -Somewhat allied to this is the patient German method of mending -stockings by reknitting; also that of spreading strong flexible glue -on a patch of chamois. This is laid under the rent, the edges being -carefully reunited over it. I would here suggest that if the tear be -first carefully darned, even with human hair or finest silk, and the -gummed leather then applied to the reverse, the mending would endure -for a much longer time. - -There is a stitch known in Germany as _Kettenstich_, or -chain-stitch--though it is _not_ that which is generally known among -us as the “German chain-stitch.” It is peculiarly long and strong, -and will hold together the edges of even soft leather, for which -reason it is generally used in Turkey and Russia to sew together the -many-coloured pieces of leather such as we see in Kasan work--slippers -and boots--and cushions from Constantinople. This is a valuable stitch -for close, invisible mending. It is allied to the lock-stitch of the -sewing-machine. - -A great variety of fabrics can be carefully adjusted and drawn together -over a piece of strong, glazed muslin (of the same colour) covered with -waterproof glue--_e.g._, indiarubber or glue and rubber cement--so that -the mending will not be apparent. This process is very applicable to -loose skirts, or to any garments on which there is no such severe pull, -as, _e.g._, trousers or coat-sleeves. To effect these as well as all -other repairs perfectly it will be necessary to experiment a few times. -Unfortunately nearly all amateurs without exception make no experiment -till it is necessary to repair something, and then, because they very -naturally botch it, find fault with the recipe. Yet, strangely as it -may sound, there are many cases in which mending or making fabrics can -be executed far more neatly with a very strong cement, such as that -of mastic and sturgeon’s bladder, than with needle and thread, the -former actually requiring less margin to hold than the average width -of a seam, for the least possible overlap suffices to bind where the -adhesive is strong. This process of mending is little known, probably -because there has been hitherto very little general knowledge of the -immense strength and tenacity of certain cements, which have, indeed, -only been discovered of late. For all ordinary mending, in fact, glue -with glycerine, or glue and indiarubber solution in benzole, will -answer as well as the far more expensive Turkish or Diamond cement. - -If the reader will only reflect that a large proportion of all black -and glossy silks are heavily gummed, sometimes up to their own weight, -it will be understood that there can be no substance with which they -can be more appropriately mended than with cement--a fact well known -to many who employ postage-stamps or black court-plaster to heal their -rents; but as this is generally very expensive, and as any old silk -and glue or gelatine, or dextrine, answer just as well, the latter had -better be considered. - -There is much weaving of the most exquisite fabrics done in the East, -and even among savages, almost entirely by hand; that is to say, the -threads are simply attached to a rod, while the woof is worked in with -a needle. Most fabrics can be mended by an analogous process, which is -a remaking the cloth. Much depends on the proper finishing or dressing -the surface by laying on it a piece of cloth and ironing it. - - - - -MENDING MOTHER-OF-PEARL AND CORAL - - -Mother-of-Pearl is the shell of the pearl-oyster (_Avigula -margaritifera_), much admired for its beautiful texture and white -colour, in which there is a peculiar iridescence or rainbow play of -colours. The best, and by far the principal portion in commerce, comes -from the islands of the Pacific. It has risen immensely in value of -late years. Almost, if not quite, equal to it is the East Indian, from -the Sulu Islands, Ceylon, and Aden, or the Persian Gulf. An inferior -kind comes from the Eastern Mediterranean, also another from America. - -The iridescent glaze, accompanied with more or less of the mother or -solid substance, is found in a very great number of shells; _e.g._, the -Peter’s Ear (_Halyotis iris_) of the Pacific; also in common mussels, -especially the _Unio_, found in most clear streams or brooks in Europe -and America where there is not much lime. These often yield pearls of -great value. - -Mother-of-pearl can be sawed without any great difficulty into plates, -which are polished with fine sand and then with tripoli. Of late a -great deal of small furniture inlaid with squares and triangles of this -material has found its way from Turkey and Persia to London. These -pieces are simply attached with cement made of sturgeon’s bladder, -mastic, salmiac, or even glue. They can generally be obtained from -dealers in Oriental goods. ABRAHAM SASSOON, of Wardour Street, will -supply them in any quantity. - -LOUIS EDGAR ANDÉS and SIGMUND LEHNER, both experimental technologists, -have given several curious recipes for imitating mother-of-pearl. From -filing or grinding, the best mother-of-pearl shell becomes like a white -metal, which can be combined with white of egg or pure white gelatine -to a fine marble-like substance, which, however, lacks iridescence. -Broken into very small pieces, which are set in a bed of glue and -glycerine, and then covered, when dry, with another coating of the -same, we have what its inventor, LEHNEr, assures us is a very good -imitation of pearl-shell. - -But there is scaled away from a variety of shells a coating of _nacre_, -or coloured glaze, which when powdered still retains the pearly lustre. -This may be taken even from the common American oyster or all mussels. -According to ANDÉS, who refers, I think, to this, it can be laid on any -substance and covered with a gum-glaze. He also informs us that the -pearl-like inner layers of oyster-shells, or of any other kind, reduced -to powder and mixed with sturgeon’s bladder and spirits, painted on -grey paper in several coats, present the appearance of _nacre_. I have -seen specimens of such painting which were indeed very pretty, but -the pearly iridescence was rather faint. According to the author, the -pearly brilliancy is much increased by an addition of silver-bronze -powder. - -I conclude from this, not having in this instance experimented -personally, save in carving pearl, that coarse powders of the highly -coloured greenish and other _nacres_ of tropical shells, as well as -of the European mussel and some other shells, can be combined with -binding-gums of a transparent nature so as to form a very admirable -imitation of mother-of-pearl. - -I may here remark, in connection with this, that the common American -clam (_Venus mercernaria_) has a white shell of intense hardness, -which, when polished, is as beautiful as porcelain or ivory; also that -the purple spot in the American oyster-shell, from which the Indians -made a very hard and beautiful bead, might easily be drilled out for -buttons. - -A very beautiful imitation of mother-of-pearl is made in Japan. It is -not, however, iridescent. It is said to be made with rice. I conjecture -that this is rice treated with diluted acid. - -I have before me now a string of 400 imitation red _coral_ beads, price -twopence, such as are commonly sold everywhere. They are manufactured -of vermilion powder, rice-flour, and gum, and, when they are carefully -made, are extremely hard and durable, so much so that the composition -may be used to mend broken articles made of red coral. Such objects -in a fractured state are very common in curiosity shops, but the art -of repairing them seems to be as yet unknown, though it is extremely -profitable. - -Of coral, LEHNER tells us that celluloid in combination with different -substances--_e.g._, white zinc or cinnabar--can be coloured from -delicate rose to fiery vermilion, and forms a very close imitation -of coral. A very good and much cheaper imitation can be made by -preparing perfectly white paper-paste (_vide_ Papier-Mâché), and -combining it with vermilion, zinc, &c. From such artificial coral very -beautiful cups, plates, and ornaments for inlaying, beads, pendants -for jewellery, book-covers, &c., can easily be made. The colour can be -varied to turquoise, emerald, ebony, ivory, &c., by simply changing the -colouring-powders used. - -There is a very cheap and common imitation of coral made by dipping -vermicelli, twigs, &c., into a solution of red sealing-wax in spirits -of wine. This is, however, extremely brittle. White marble-dust, or -very fine white flint sand, combined with vermilion and silicate of -soda, is said to produce a very admirable imitation of coral. The -basis of levigated sand, or carbonate of lime, with silicate, can be -varied with the dyes to imitate any gems, and is invaluable for mending -pottery or stone-work. - -Coral and several other substances are also imitated by combining about -nine parts of very clear glue to one of glycerine. This is qualified -with one equivalent of white zinc or dye-stuffs. Thus the glue basis is -combined with colcothar, ochre-sepia, umber, ochre, or chrome. This is -also a valuable cement for mending a great variety of objects. - -Any fine white shells ground to powder may be combined with gum and -a very little glycerine and vermilion to make artificial coral; also -white glue or gelatine with glycerine. This may be made in quantity for -casts of all kinds of objects, such as plates in inlaid work. - - - - -RESTORING AND REPAIRING PICTURES - - - “_The restoration of disfigured and decayed works of art is next in - importance to their production._”--Field, Chromatography. - -I published in 1864 a work entitled _The Egyptian Sketch Book_, which -began with the following abridged account of how oil pictures are -cleaned:-- - -“Three young painters had often heard what the American PAGE has -proved, that by carefully peeling the pictures of certain great -artists, coat by coat, one may learn all their secrets of colour. So, -having obtained an undoubted Titian, representing the Holy Virgin, -they laid it on a table and proceeded to remove the outer varnish by -means of friction with the fingers; which varnish very soon rose up in -a cloud of white dust, and acted very much as a shower of snuff would -have done. - -“Then they arrived at the ‘naked colours,’ which had by this time -assumed a very crude form, owing to the fact that a certain amount of -liquorish tincture, as of Turkey rhubarb, or _tinct. rhabarbara_, had -become incorporated with the varnish, and to which the colours had been -indebted for their golden warmth. - -“This brought them to the _glazing proper_, which had been deprived of -the evidence of the age or antiquity by the removal of the _patinæ_, -or little cups, which had formed in the canvas between the web and the -woof. - -“The next process was to remove the _glaze_ from the saffron robe, -composed of yellow lake and burnt sienna. This brought them to a flame -colour, in which the _modelling_ had been made. They next attacked the -robe of the Virgin Mary, and having taken away the crimson lake, were -astonished to find a greenish drab. When they had thus in turn removed -every colour in the picture, dissecting every part by diligent care, -loosening every glaze by solvents too numerous to mention--including -alcohol and various adaptations of alkali--they had the ineffable -satisfaction of seeing the _design_ in a condition of crude, blank -chiaroscuro. Blinded by enthusiasm, having made careful notes of all -they had done, they flew at the white and black with pumice-stone and -potash; when, lo and behold! something very rubicund appeared, which -further excavation declared was the tip of the red--nose of King George -the Fourth! The Titian for which they had sacrificed so much was a -false god.” - -The foregoing extracts were dictated by the late HENRY MERRITT, a very -distinguished restorer and artist, the author of _Pictures and Art -separated in the Works of the Old Masters_, and other works of which I -can truly say that the name MERRITT indicates that _nomen est omen_. I -was often by him while at his work, and had the benefit of seeing the -processes employed and the progress which he made in bringing to light -the “buried beauties” of pictures by great artists. What I have since -learned in addition will be found in the following pages. - -Though it is simple and easy to describe the manner in which old -pictures in general are restored, it must be borne in mind that, as -regards a detailed and comprehensive description, the task would be the -most difficult in the whole range of repairing; for when a picture has -suffered so much that repainting is absolutely necessary, then nothing -but the skill of the original artist himself would ever do full justice -to it. In many cases we have pictures, like decayed works in wood, so -far gone that only a mere hint or sketch of the original remains, so -that they are generally deemed not worth keeping. In such cases the -restorer or repairer may very well do his best. There is, and always -will be, an immense field for every skilled repairer in this remaking -of antiques, to great profit, because there is an unlimited supply of -material, almost everywhere, wherewith to work. - -To be a perfectly accomplished restorer of pictures one should be -an expert in chemistry, and not only one very familiar with all the -styles and schools of art, and gifted with great knowledge of the -_technique_ of great artists, but also no mean painter oneself. There -is a very general, but very vulgar and stupid, popular belief that the -restoration and cleaning of old pictures is a merely mechanical art, -about on a par with house-painting as regards skill or intelligence; -but this I earnestly deny, having found, since I have practised it -myself, that it affords a wide field to ingenuity, and that the -greatest artists living--I care not who they may be--can find in -restoration tasks which would fully tax all their skill, knowledge, or -genius. - -Before proceeding to clean or repair a picture it is often advisable -for the artist to make an outline sketch of it with great care, in -order to correct and guide him in details. To do this, take very -transparent tracing-paper--the recipe for making which is elsewhere -given--then with a soft crayon-pencil, or a very black lead-pencil -(from 3 to 4 B), trace the whole. If the paper be not transparent -enough, then use thin glass, or, what is far better, sheets of mica, -gummed together at the edges, which will not break even if dropped. -Trace the picture on this with a fine brush and black oil-colour, or -any black paint which will hold. Then make a tracing from this on -transparent paper. To transfer crayon or lead pencil drawing to wood or -paper, very slightly dampen the surface of the latter, lay the tracing -on it face down, and rub the back of the latter with a burnisher or -ivory paper-knife. It will thus be perfectly transferred. This making -preparatory sketches or copies will be found in many cases extremely -useful, as training the eye carefully to the work to be done. - -It is not _invariably_ true, though a great authority on -picture-cleaning (HENRY MOGFORD) has declared the contrary--that -“pictures ... unquestionably enjoy their highest perfection at the -first moment of production.” Many artists recognise the truth that a -year, or even years, are needed to give a certain delicate tone, which -is like the ripeness of fruit, to certain pictures; and the same is -true of certain artists, though by no means in the same degree of all. -But there are many persons who can associate the mellowing tones of -age or the venerable grey of antiquity with nothing but dirt, decay, -and poverty; as was the case with an Italian marquis, who, having heard -that a distinguished artist[4] had copied an old moss-grown wall or -fragment of ruin on his estate, sent an apology to the latter, stating -that if he had known that such a distinguished person intended to copy -it he would have had it cleaned and lime-washed, not in glaring white -(he knew better than that, he said), but in light blue! So I have known -an American gentleman to be distressed at discovering the appearance -of lichen on a corner of a “spick-and-span, brand-new villa,” which -he at once declared must be cleaned and painted all over. People who -suffer from this vulgar mania of over-scouring are apt to imagine -that when they detect the least sign of age in a picture it suggests -dirt and neglect, and hurry it off to the cleaner; unless, indeed (as -is too often the case), they--with insufficient knowledge, and with -“notions generally derived from guess-work, and suggested by the usual -arrangements for taking care of other household objects”--attempt to -restore the work themselves, which has been the cause of the ruin of -thousands of great works of art. - -It may here be observed that modern pictures, owing to the hurried -processes of manufacture and the use of cheap materials in -machinery-made paints, change so rapidly that many lose half their -value in fifty years’ time. And, as if this were not enough, we -have the sulphuric acids generated by coal-fires (especially that -from anthracite coal in America, which even eats away the lime in -chimneys), as well as the deleterious effects of gas, vapours from -food, and, finally, the want of air and light in ever-curtained and -shaded rooms. - -The causes, in fact, which lead to deterioration in pictures are -almost as many as those which produce diseases in man, and in not a -few instances they will be found to be the same. These are, as I have -said, foul air or malaria, or want of fresh air, dampness, the smoke -of candles in churches, too long exposure to sunshine, the exhalations -of charcoal, sulphur, sinks, &c.; “in short, all penetrating scents -are injurious to painting, especially if it be new.” Owing to this -prevalence of gas and coal smoke in houses, allied to the bad quality -of paints, as now manufactured cheaply by machinery, it is, indeed, -considered doubtful whether any of the pictures painted during the -reign of Queen Victoria will exist in “half-visible” condition fifty or -a hundred years hence. There is, as regards them, a grand future for -the restorer. One need only look at most of Turner’s earlier pictures -to fully verify what is here asserted. - -The face of all old pictures long untouched will always be found -covered more or less with what is simply dirt; that is, dust more or -less dissolved by moisture. Now, dust consists simply of all kinds of -substances, even invisible extinct animal organisms in vast numbers. -The first step is simply to wash away this dirt with distilled or rain -water and ox-gall. Use a very soft, clean sponge, and pass it over the -picture many times. The last time wrap the sponge in a clean, white -linen or muslin handkerchief to see whether the surface is quite clean. -This and nothing more will often produce an astonishing improvement. - -The next task will be to remove the varnish. _Hot_ water attacks any -varnish, reducing it to a dry powder; but, as M. GOUPIL remarks, this -is _très hasarde_, or is very risky, because it may also attack and -dissolve anything like gum or glue in the colours. M. GOUPIL, however, -sanctions the use of cold water in cleaning even to mere abuse, in -which he is in contradiction to HENRY MOGFORD, whose work I regard as -by far the best with which I am acquainted on the subject of cleaning -and restoring pictures which I have read.[5] On this subject he says:-- - - * * * * * - -“During all operations of lining, and of picture-cleaning generally, -saturation by water is attended with disastrous effects, and the -use of it should therefore be limited to application by means of a -squeezed piece of sponge, or, what is better, a piece of buff leather, -soaked and wrung out. Water is a most dangerous enemy to pictures; -it penetrates to the priming or ground, loosens them by promoting -decomposition of the size with which they are worked, and thus lays the -foundation for their eventual disintegration and decay. Imbibed damp -will sooner or later cause the destruction of every woven material, and -while our daily experience shows its lamentable effects on the walls of -our dwellings, it will be well for us to remember that it is no less -destructive to the canvas of our pictures, and to the materials which -form its priming. - -“All the pictures of the early masters of the Italian school, and -those of Claude and William Vandervelde, which are painted on chalk -and absorbent grounds, are in the greatest danger if washed with -water. It penetrates through the small crevices which may exist in the -paint, and often totally destroys the picture. If the painting be upon -canvas, like those of the two latter-named masters, it breaks into a -thousand small lines or cracks; and if upon panel, like the pictures of -Raffaelle, Andrea del Sarto, or Fra Bartolomeo, it breaks up the paint -by scaling it off in small points of the size of a pin’s head. If the -picture, again, is of the Spanish school, and is painted upon the red -absorbent grounds and upon a rough canvas, water not only breaks the -unity of its surface, but from the canvas being of a coarser texture -than the pictures of Claude or William Vandervelde, it often penetrates -in a greater proportion, and frequently scales off pieces as large as a -sixpence, especially in the dark shadows, or where the ground has not -been sufficiently protected by a thick _impasto_ (heavy coat or ground) -of colour. At all times and to all pictures water is more or less -dangerous, unless used with the greatest caution, and then it should -only be applied by means of a piece of thick buckskin leather well -wrung out, and left just wet enough to slip lightly over the surface -of the picture. In the case of some masters, as with those we have -specialised above, the free use of water may be regarded as next door -to absolute destruction; and the warmer and drier the weather the more -active and ruinous the operation. Instances have occurred in which an -Andrea del Sarto, a Claude and a William Vandervelde, were destroyed in -a few minutes by the injudicious use of simple water.” - - * * * * * - -I have given this quotation in full, because water is generally the -first thing freely resorted to clean pictures by the ignorant. Thus I -have heard of very valuable pictures being actually given to common -servants or the washerwoman to scour clean, which was effected -with soap and hot water and sand, to the speedy ruin of the work. -Nor is it any great wonder that this should be done, when we find -in GOUPIL’S work that, while he admits that cold water “infiltrates -itself partially to the fissures of a painting and does great harm,” -he declares that “_hot_ water acts differently,” giving the impression -that it may be very freely used, and declaring that “clean cold water -harmlessly dissolves grease and dirt resulting from dust deposited by -the air.” This is true, but he does not seem, like Mr. MOGFORD, to have -fully understood the other side of the question. (_Manuel Général et -Complet de la Peinture à l’Huile_, par F. GOUPIL.) - -For first cleaning away impurities from a surface MOGFORD recommends -_ox-gall_ to be applied with a soft brush. This may be obtained in -shilling or six-penny bottles from Winsor & Newton, or any other -dealers in artists’ materials. “It is,” he adds, “an excellent -detergent, which may be freely applied without fear. It must, however, -be well washed” (_i.e._, wiped) “off with pure water, or it will leave -a clamminess on the surface that may prevent the varnish, afterwards -applied, from drying.” But a distinction must be carefully borne in -mind between _washing_ with water and letting it _soak_ into a picture -and simply wiping off the surface with a damp chamois or buckskin -or soft _old_ linen handkerchief. In fact, this latter is the first -thing to be done before slightly cleaning the surface with the diluted -ox-gall. It is very necessary that the skilled cleaner shall understand -exactly the nature of varnishes, so as to know on what he is to work. -Thus, according to the picture, he may employ “liquor potassæ, oil of -tartar, spirits of wine, pure alcohol, liquor ammoniæ fortis, naphtha, -ether, soda, and oil of spike or lavender. The very nomenclature of -these powerful agents will at once show the great risk of their being -injudiciously or carelessly employed.” - -Great care should be taken not to allow an excessive or unequal -quantity of cleaning fluid to gather in one place. Therefore all -pictures should be laid flat while being restored, as streams, for -instance of ammonia, would cut very irregularly into a surface. -With pictures of any value, the process of cleaning is always very -delicate, requiring much practice and very perfect knowledge of all the -principles of the art. - -Where the varnishes are tender and thin, such as mastic, MOGFORD -advises the use of spirits of wine; but to be sure that no harm can be -done by it, it is desirable that “the spirit, which is usually sold -at 58° of strength, should be diluted by a fourth part of water, or -by the same proportion of rectified spirits of turpentine, or it may -be used with an addition of a sixth part of linseed oil, added to the -diluted or pure spirit.” In every instance the mixture is to be “well -shaken before taken,” or applied. Care should be taken to prevent oil -from softening the paint, which it is apt to do. As a rule it is best -to begin with the lightest or brightest portions of a picture--as, -for instance, the face of a portrait--as these parts are always the -hardest. Beginning by wiping the surface with white cotton wool and -turpentine, observe if any varnish comes off on it, and as soon as it -is seen change the part of the rubber used, else you will go on simply -taking up “dirt” from one place and rubbing it into another. This is -elsewhere explained as regards cleaning cloth or absorbing ink, that we -must continually subtract from and not add again to the ground. - -“Turpentine is a counteracting medium, which instantly arrests the -action of the solvent spirit.” When all the varnish has thus been -removed, the whole may be wiped over with spirits of turpentine, and -then when dry revarnished, if nothing more be required. - -Rubbing with the fingers, or powders, or any kind of dry cleaning must -be avoided, or else practised with great care, since it produces an -effect known as _woolliness_, which will begin to show very decidedly -after some time. But when a picture has had no varnish it can only be -cleaned mechanically, as by using tripoli, pumice-stone, or whiting. -This method requires great skill. Sometimes a very fine-edged scraper -or knife is used to thin the varnish before using turpentine. - -“Solvents,” adds Mogford, “are only necessary to remove _varnish_.” -Unvarnished pictures are best cleaned by carefully wiping with buff or -chamois leather, damp, not _wet_, aided by a little powdered whiting. - -Varnish, when not on a picture, may, however, be removed by rubbing -it with the fingers, or palm, or leather, aided by powdered resin, or -rosin. For certain purposes, as to make a panel of a piano thoroughly -seasoned for heat, and, as it were, enamel it, a coat of varnish is -applied, and when dry is rubbed down smooth with pumice-powder or -resin, and this process is repeated many times. - -If pictures are painted in oil, directly on canvas, without a ground, -the paint sinks down in between the threads and lies thinly on them. -Therefore if there is rubbing on the surface the grain of the canvas -becomes very apparent. If oil-paint be laid directly on a panel of -wood, the soft parts between the hard fibres, lines, or grain shrink -away, drawing the paint with them. Old artists avoided this by laying -on a strong ground of gesso or plaster of Paris mixed with glue or -white of eggs. - -The great task in cleaning is to remove the repainting or coats of -paint which have been added by restorers. I have seen this done with -extraordinary skill by the late Mr. MERRITT, who was recommended by -RUSKIN, and who was the first and most truly artistic restorer of his -time. I can recall his cleaning the most beautiful Carpoccio which I -ever saw, and a magnificent Velasquez, both of which had been repainted -again and again, and were in such wretched condition that even the -painter of the latter had been mistaken. They bore about the same -relation when untouched and afterwards that a dirty old rag has to a -magnificent cashmere shawl. “Caustic, soap-makers’ lye, liquor potassæ, -pure alcohol, and the scraper,” remarks MOGFORD, “are the ordinary -means to take off repaints; all of them dangerous appliances if not -closely watched and used without violence or carelessness.” - -It is advisable to examine carefully the backs of old pictures for -signatures, date, or documents, all of which are sometimes pasted over -with other paper or canvas. Once, in Florence, I found in a small shop -a portrait of Charles I., but differing in many respects from any -which I had ever seen. I told the owner that it was by Vandyke, but -he insisted on it that it was by an Italian with some such name as -Guillermo or Gillonio, till I proposed that we should examine the back, -where we found, after some investigation, the name of Vandyke. At which -discovery the dealer promptly raised the price of the picture from one -hundred to one thousand francs, and it was, indeed, cheap enough at -that. A lady to whom I narrated the occurrence said, “Oh, why didn’t -you buy the picture before you told the man who painted it?” To which I -replied, “For the same reason that I did not steal a valuable ring out -of the case in the shop when his back was turned.” Much is said about -the shrewdness of dealers in antiques, but it has often happened to me -to explain to them that articles in their possession were worth far -more than they imagined; while, on the other hand, they will, surmising -that a thing _may_ be worth a great deal, charge a fearful sum for -something that is merely _cinque cento_; _e.g._, a thousand francs for -what is really dear at ten. I mention this in order that the reader may -realise (which few do) what bargains may be picked up by any one who -knows anything of art, and especially of the humble art of cleaning, -mending, or restoring, which lets us into a world of secrets even in -high art, and which is of more use to a picture-buyer than all the -high-flown æsthetic culture in all the works of all the rhapsodists of -the age. - -The preceding remarks on _cleaning_ were drawn chiefly from the manual -by H. MOGFORD, and my own experiences. I add to them those of M. GOUPIL -on the same subject. The intelligent leader will find no difficulty in -collecting and drawing his own inferences from both:-- - -“When the picture is certainly in oil, steam may be used to remove the -varnish. There is, however, the great risk of loosening the painting -from its ground.” - -But when a picture has been, instead of varnished, _glazed_ with white -of egg, we have a coating which, when old, cannot be dissolved by -water or acids; for this other and specially elaborate detergents, or -cleaners, are employed. There are few substances which so persistently -harden with time as the white of egg, as does also the yolk when boiled. - -Ordinary varnish, when dry and old, can be removed by mechanically -scraping or rubbing with fine, dry powders, such as that of resin. The -dust from the varnish itself aids in the operation. This process is -slow and tiresome, but it is very often advisable to begin with it, -after washing, as it does not injure the colours. It is needless to say -that it requires great skill, care, and experience not to “cut into the -colour.” - -It may be remarked, as regards this, that in all cases where there is a -difference of opinion between the French and English artist--as in the -use of water--we must remember that both are, or may be, in the right -as regards certain kinds of pictures. So varied are the methods of -painters that it seems to me to be by far wiser to describe different -methods than to attempt the impossible task of giving infallible rules. - -“Varnish can be removed by means of _spirits_. To effect this, lay the -picture on a table, and wet a small portion of it with spirits of -wine. After a minute or more, wash the place with clean water and a -sponge. Thus, little by little, clean the entire surface, taking care -not to injure the paint, When quite dry, apply new varnish.” - -Practised restorers, who can tell by examination and knowledge of -the methods employed by painters what they can venture on, often use -detergents which would ruin the picture if applied by a person without -experience. These are alkaline salts, such as wood-ashes or lye, pearl -and pot ashes, or salts of tartar, all of which, except the latter, are -extremely hazardous for a tyro. Salts of tartar may be safely employed -if we begin with a feeble solution, which may be gradually strengthened. - -Wood-ashes, _very_ finely sifted, are spread on the face of the -picture, and delicately, or carefully and lightly, rubbed with a soft -sponge. This must be carefully washed away as soon as the surface is -cleaned. - -Other detergents failing, borax dissolved in water may be employed. -This works slowly but surely; but, as M. GOUPIL remarks, this -_lessive_, like wood ashes, must not be left long on the colours, but -be promptly wiped away with a sponge. Lime-water will serve as well as -the solution of borax. - -Soaps of different qualities are also used for cleaning, according to -the state of the picture. It may be here again remarked that no exact -rule can be given regarding an art specially founded on skill and -experience. The beginner should first try his hand on a few common old -pictures. - -Soap made into a foam or lather with water will generally clean -a surface, however dark it may be from smoke. Let the foam settle -completely, and then wipe it clean with a damp sponge. - -Essential oils, especially turpentine, or those of spikenard, lavender, -and rosemary--of either two parts of spirits of wine to one of -turpentine, &c.--are commonly used to clean pictures. - -Pictures not varnished require great care and skill in cleaning. For -these _yeast_ with water, or flour mixed with lime-water, is employed; -also spirits of wine or vinegar. Ammonia is also used. GOUPIL mentions -that one of the most dangerous mediums for this purpose is the old one -of urine, and that it should never be used. - -When the canvas of a picture is very old and rotten, it may be replaced -by a process requiring the utmost nicety. If only certain portions are -injured, it will suffice to glue pieces of fine canvas on the back. - -To completely transfer the painting, gum over its surface two coats of -soft paper. Lay it on the face, and carefully remove the old canvas -ground. This is effected by wetting every thread till soft, and then -picking it away. A piece of pumice-stone and tweezers are also used. -When all fibres are removed, carefully glue a canvas and apply it, -pressing it well on the back of the paint. Before it is quite dry, -press the picture with a warm flat-iron, not too hot. Then remove the -paper carefully with a damp sponge and by tearing. - -To transfer a picture on wood, the back is sawn into many small -triangles or squares, which are carefully chiselled away one by one. -Then with files and scrapers approach the paint till only a thin film -of wood remains. The last remnant is wetted with a sponge, and picked -or scraped away. First, use paper on the face and restore as before. - -There is a great enemy to pictures in mould or mildew, which has -quasi-equivalents in must, dry-rot, _mucor_, or _robigo_. It is divided -by Goupil into apparent softening and actual softening or mildew. The -former is mildew or mere superficial mould; _i.e._, a light vegetation -which gathers on the surface from germs in the air. It can easily be -wiped away, and is caused by dampness. Sometimes, when long rooted, it -destroys the varnish, which must be replaced. There is also a mould -which is properly decay, or a radical destruction of fabric, for which -there is, in fact, no cure, save in renewing the canvas and retouching -the picture. - -Where a picture is painted by glazing, especially where varnish comes -in instead of body, it is apt to crack or thread like a cobweb. In time -these divisions will scale off in flakes. Wax dissolved in turpentine -is used for the light cracks. Scaling must be treated by careful -softening with oil and pressing down a warm iron. The surface must, -previous to ironing, be covered with chalked paper. - -It sometimes happens that a picture has been painted over, and I have -seen a very distinguished restorer in such case succeed in removing the -outer coat. This requires great knowledge of the chemical properties -of the paint; also of solvents, and the different methods of scraping, -absorbing, &c. Still, it can be learned with patience. Extraordinary -results have been thus obtained. It has often happened that men with -little or no knowledge of painting have fancied themselves capable of -“repairing” very valuable pictures, and so smeared them over to utter -ruin. - -Before attempting to retouch an old picture, let the restorer make a -copy of it. If he can do this very well he is qualified for his work, -and not otherwise. The fraternity of picture-cleaners and menders -may protest against this; but the vast amount--I may say the vast -proportion, meaning the majority--of good pictures spoiled by bad -retouching confirms the truth of my assertion. - -It is worth remarking in this connection that very few amateurs, -æsthetes, or “connoisseurs,” so called, appreciate the value of mere -_technique_ or practical work in art. They “swarm for the ideal,” and -that is all. The great masters were wiser than this. It would do much -good if very generous prizes on a large scale were to be paid annually -for copies of great pictures. And I would have rewards given specially -for pictures painted with colours prepared by the artists themselves -from chemically pure and unalterable materials, according to the -ancient recipes. I would like to see a society formed of artists who -would produce such work. It would certainly find buyers--in time. - -There are to be found in most curiosity shops in Italy panel pictures -of the fourteenth century, earlier or later, with gold grounds, which -can be had of all prices, from a very few francs upward. They are -without name and of no great artistic merit, but very curious and -interesting indeed as ancient relics painted “before oil,” and as -inspired with the spirit of the Middle Ages. These generally require -restoration. They were painted on wood of all kinds, very often on -deal. The surface was covered with a thin coat of gesso or plaster -of Paris, mixed with the white of egg, and on this the gilding and -paint were applied. The latter was in white of egg and fig-juice, or -encaustic--that is, wax and white of egg, which is the most ancient and -durable method known; so much so that long after every oil-painting -ever executed (if left to itself) will have disappeared, the ancient -Egyptian, Roman, or Middle Ages pictures will be as fresh as if made -yesterday. - -If a panel be warped or bent, it is straightened by damping the concave -side, and screwing to it crosspieces. If the ground be scaled away, -supply it with powdered plaster of Paris mixed with gum-water. The -repainting can be executed with water-colours mixed with white of egg, -_gouache_, or even oil in small quantities, which should be rather -rubbed in or glazed than painted in body. - -A common panel picture of the fourteenth and fifteenth century, painted -with white of egg, can be well enough restored with water-colour, or -_gouache_, and then varnished. But the colour with _gouache_ medium -will not _hold_ well, except on the gesso-ground. It is apt to scale -off from any smooth, hard surface. Therefore it is difficult to restore -them by painting on the old hard glaze. Most of the mediums which -are sold to heighten water-colours--_e.g._, Winsor & Newton’s glass -medium--will cause the colour to adhere. - -A GROUND FOR WAX-PAINTING ON POROUS SUBSTANCES was made as follows:-- - - White wax 10 - Resin 5 - Essence of turpentine 40 - -Melt the wax in a _bain-marie_, pass the solution through a linen -strainer, and lay it on in successive coats on a wall which is first -heated by a hand-furnace or brazier. To close holes in the wall use a -putty made of wax, gum-animé, resin, and whiting. - -Colours are prepared for wax-painting by grinding them with a -gluten. They are the same in substance as those mixed with oil for -oil-painting. The gluten is made as follows:-- - - Resin 1 - White wax 4 - Essence of spikenard 16 - -A harder gluten can be made by substituting copal for the gum-animé. - -There is a vast field for profitable labour in the cleaning and -restoration of old pictures, as well as of antiques of all kinds, and -thousands of young or even elder artists, whose life is a painful -struggle towards becoming known, would do well to endeavour to raise -the art of restoration to its proper place, instead of being ashamed to -descend to it. - -The restorer should make a point of studying _varnishes, oils, and -colours_, with great care. Let him read what cyclopædia articles and -books he can find on these subjects, and make all practical inquiries -from manufacturers and dealers. He should, if he intends to seriously -practise the art, study chemistry. I can imagine no better restorer -than a skilful analyst. There is a great deal yet to be learned -regarding colours, and most of it will come by the way of chemistry. -A great deal is, however, actually being revived or arriving as new -from training “the popular eye” to hitherto unaccustomed shades, tints, -and tones. During the Middle Ages, when culture was exhausted in art -and decoration, there was a marvellous development in this respect, -even in most delicate details, though much of it now seems so “loud” -or excessive to us. We have of late years learned a great deal from -China and Japan as regards subdued colours. It may be that as in -Oriental music even the tenth part of a note becomes as distinct to the -practised ear as a natural one, so these blendings and subdivisions of -hues may be as perceptible to people as the normal colours. All of this -should be carefully studied by the restorer as well as the painter. - -The restoration of a fine work of art which has become utterly dim, -wrinkled with a thousand lines, and, it may be, utterly ugly to beauty -and freshness, is so much like a resurrection or transfiguration to -new life, youth, and beauty, that poets have not failed to use it as -a simile for all that is expressive of renaissance. Thus Dean Hole, -in his Memoirs, remarks that, “as when some beautiful picture which -has been concealed and forgotten, removed in time of battle lest it -should be destroyed by the enemy, is found after many years, and is -carefully cleaned and skilfully restored, and the eye is delighted with -the successive development of colour and of form, and the life-like -countenance, the historical scene, the sunny landscape, or the moonlit -sea come out once more upon the canvas; so in that great revival of -religion which began in England more than half a century ago the -glorious truths of the Gospel were restored.” Regarded in itself, the -art of restoring beauty is both beautiful and noble, and deserves to be -regarded as such. - - - - -GENERAL RECIPES - - - RECIPE.--_The word. A formula or prescription is a_ recipe, - _derived from the Latin word_ recipe, _meaning take. An - acknowledgment of money paid is a_ receipt_, from_ receptus, _or - received. A description of the materials to be used in making a pie - is not a_ receipt, _but a_ recipe.--Familiar Errors. - -TO CLEAN WOOLLEN CLOTH.--Rub it with sal-ammoniac and water till clean, -then wash with pure water. This liquid is very useful, when any article -of clothing has been stained by vinegar, wine, or lemon, to restore the -original colour. - -An old-fashioned but excellent method of cleaning greased silk ribbons -or cloth is as follows:--Lay the ribbon on a wad or flat surface -of cotton wadding, strew on this dried clay, or calcined magnesia, -or whiting, and over this another layer of wadding. Pass over it a -flat-iron not too warm. The oil or grease will be absorbed into the -cotton. Repeat this till the cure is effected. If any spots still -remain, paint them with yolk of egg, dry the stuff in a draught of air, -and when quite hardened remove the yoke and wash with water. - -WINE-STAINS can be removed by simply _pressing_ on them pads dampened -with cold water. This method will succeed, when wiping only spreads a -stain. Salt alone is also employed. - -“When a lady’s skirt of any material has had spilt on it gravy, wine, -oil, or any _light liquid_, as distinguished from such substances as -paint, pitch, or tar, do not attempt, as is usually the case, to wipe -or wash it clean. Lay a linen sheet or even spongy white paper--wanting -this, newspapers may be used--on a table; on this spread the soiled -fabric very evenly. Then lay on the upper surface another clean white -sheet, or white muslin cloth, or napkins or towels, and press on it -till as much as possible of the fluid is sucked out. By changing -the white cloths or paper, and pressing continually, the fabric can -be very nearly cleaned. Then dust it well with calcined magnesia in -powder or whiting. Where these cannot be had chalk will answer. This -will generally absorb all that remains of the grease.”--_Notes by a -Housekeeper (MS.)._ - -“Clean, dry blotting-paper laid on grease-stains is admirable for -extraction. Apply pressure with a flat-iron or hand-roller such as is -used for bread. There are blotting-paper rollers, made for ink, which -are quite suitable for cleaning cloth; but the paper should be thrown -away the instant it has received any grease; otherwise it will only -spread the stain and make it indelible by rubbing it into the fibre of -the threads. A good soft sponge will also be found to be almost equal -to it.”--_Notes by a Housekeeper (MS.)._ - -OLD WOOLLEN OR SILK GARMENTS can be very brilliantly renewed in -the following manner:--They are steeped in sulphuric cupreous acid -(copper or blue vitriol), oxide of lead, or bismuth oxide, or simply -with their metallic oxides, and then exposed to steam, mingled with -sulphuric acid gas. Another method is to steep the stuffs simply in -a solution of sulphuric acid and copper or of oxide of bismuth. This -is slowly heated, but the heating must be qualified according to the -colour of the stuffs to be revived. The application of these requires -great care and some knowledge or experience. - -Ink for restoring inscriptions on metal of any kind, silver, zinc, or -brass:--To one part of crystallised acetic acid, oxide of copper, one -of ammonia, and half a part of soot from fir wood. Mix in a saucer with -ten parts of water. This is said to resist exposure to the weather very -well. - -A VERY VALUABLE AID TO THE RESTORER OR MENDER OF IMPLEMENTS, when it -can be obtained, is RAW HIDE. This material dries as hard as any wood -and is tougher than any textile fabric. Thus, if a broken wheel or any -portion of a vehicle is tied with a thong of raw hide, firmly drawn, -when the latter dries, shrinking a little, it holds better than iron. -Raw or untanned ox-hide or similar skin, when dried, is in fact similar -to parchment, and, like it, resembles horn in hardness. The strongest -trunks in the world are made in America from raw hide. This material, -when made into small objects, such as flasks, boxes, sheaths, or -portable ink-stands, has often withstood the wear of generations. As it -is cheap, easily moulded into form, or stamped, it is remarkable that -it is no longer used as it once was. - -LEAD-PENCIL OR CRAYON DRAWINGS can be preserved from rubbing by a light -wash of gum of any kind, diluted varnish, or even milk. The latter is -in most cases preferable. It is also preservative of handwriting, and, -like all glazes, prevents fading. - -BASES FOR BEADS and similar work can be made as follows:--Take -mother-of-pearl dust, which can be bought cheaply at a turner’s, -powder or levigate it finely, mix it with half its bulk of fine white -barley-meal, and make it up with a weak solution of gum-mastic. Also -take snail-shells, or the glaze of any large, hard sea-shells, washing -them first in strong lye to clean them. Pulverise and make up with -yolk of eggs and alum, or any other fine binder. The same can be done -with rock-crystal or pure flint. Grind it to finest powder, and make -it up with a well-incorporated mixture of the white of eggs and pure -gum-arabic. This will, when dry, become hard as a stone, and more and -more waterproof with age. - -TO PULVERISE GLASS.--First put in the fire till red-hot, then drop it -into cold water, after which reduce it in a mortar. Glass-powder thus -made, mixed with almost any cement, renders it extremely hard. It is -also mixed with paint. - -BURNISHED STEEL OR IRON-WORK can be preserved from rusting by rubbing -the article with oil of cloves or oil of lavender; also with a mixture -of turpentine, oil of lavender or cloves, and petroleum. Mercurial -ointment is commonly used for guns. - -RUST can be removed from iron by rubbing it with oil of tartar (_oleum -tartari_), using a woollen rag. - -BRASS-WARE, when it has become dull or rusty, may be renewed and made -to look like gold. Take sal-ammoniac, grind it in a mortar with saliva; -rub this on the brass; lay it on hot coals to dry it well, and tub it -with a woollen cloth. So says JOHANN WALLBERGER; adding: “With this -art a certain man did once, in Rome, gain much money, inasmuch as he -thereby did clean the brass lamps of the churches and other things of -the same metal.” There is another preparation for the same purpose -still more gold-like. It consists of sulphur, chalk, and the soot from -wood fires. But as it soon disappears, the brass should be lackered or -varnished. - -THE BEST CLEANER FOR BRASS with which I am acquainted is a German -preparation used by BARKENTIN & KRALL, Regent Street, from whom it can -also be obtained. - -A VERY STRONG CEMENT, and one good for luting, can be made by combining -sturgeon’s bladder, dissolved in spirits, with finest pulverised flint -or sand. - -GLUE, into which resin has been well infused by heat, combined with -sand or ashes or clay, forms a strong cement, useful for all kinds of -coarse work. - -A VERY GOOD, STRONG CEMENT is made as follows:--To three-eighths of a -pound of water add three-eighths of a pound of spirits and a quarter -of a pound of starch; also, prepare two ounces of good glue in water, -mixed with two ounces of thick turpentine, and stir well into the first -composition. This is a very good bookbinders’ glue. - -THE TUFA OR SOFT STONE which abounds in Italy and elsewhere is much -used when reduced to powder and burned for building. It is also useful -as a cement. An old writer says it can be brayed in a mortar, but that -“there are many who, for lack of a mortar, take old baptismal fonts out -of the churches, and in lieu of a pestle use the clapper of a church -bell.” - -A CURIOUS DECORATION may be made by drawing figures--for example, of -animals--with glue or gum on a wall surface, and then powdering it with -cloth-dust of appropriate colours. These figures can be stencilled. - -As of all repairing and restoring that of _human beauty_ is the most -important, it may be worth while to give here a few recipes, which have -held their own for centuries:-- - -TO MAKE WRINKLES AND FRECKLES DISAPPEAR.--This is more possible than is -generally supposed, and I have known a lady, a great beauty, of whom -all my readers have heard, who at fifty years of age had artificially -and miraculously preserved her face in perfect smoothness, though I do -not know by what means. The following is given by WALLBERGER:--“Take -fine, pure alum, compound it carefully with the fresh white of eggs, -and boil it gently in a pipkin, stirring it constantly with a wooden -stick or spoon till it forms a soft paste. Spread this on the face, -morning and evening, for two or three days, and you will soon see -that it is free from wrinkles and freckles, and marvellously fair and -pleasant to view. Frivolous souls may carry the sinful misuse of such -beauty to their own account; the virtuous hold in horror all such -deeds” (_Zauberbuch_, 1760). - -LEMON-JUICE or the salts of lemon, or lemon-juice and salt, are of -great service in whitening the hands and causing freckles to disappear. - -GUM-BENZOIN DISSOLVED IN SPIRITS may be had of every apothecary. Pour -a few drops into a wine-glassful of warm water, and it will form a -milk-white emulsion, which is a perfect and harmless cosmetic for the -face, and serves as a delightful soap in washing. This is the _lac -virginis_ so much used two centuries ago. - -EAU DE COLOGNE mixed with water forms a white emulsion, which is much -superior to any soap for delicate hands. It forms a perfectly harmless -cosmetic for the face. Even a few drops of it in a basin of water -will have a good result. Too much of it, or of any wash, will have a -contrary effect, and dry the skin. If the mouth be rinsed with this -emulsion of _eau de cologne_ and water, it will purify the breath, and -that for a long time if used as a gargle. - -A STRONG MARKING-INK, or black dye, which will resist much exposure -to the weather, is made as follows:--Take gum-arabic 10 lbs., logwood -liquor (specific gravity 1.37) 20 fluid oz., bi-chromate of potash 2½ -oz., with water sufficient to dissolve the bi-chromate. Dissolve the -gum in one gallon of water, strain, add the logwood liquor, mix, and -let the mixture stand for twenty-four hours; then stir in rapidly the -bi-chromate solution, and add a little nitrate of iron and fustic acid. -If too thick, thin with lukewarm water. - -A VERY HARD CEMENT can be made by digesting fluor spar for some time -in sulphuric acid, adding magnesium sulphate and stirring calcined -magnesia into the mixture. - -A RED CEMENT FOR IRON OR STONE OR LUTING is made of red lead and -litharge in equal parts mixed with concentrated glycerine to the -consistency of soft putty. When dry it is water and fire proof. - -SILICO ENAMEL is a thin liquid glaze, finer than varnish, which is -easily applied to all polished metals, as well as other substances. -It may be obtained in bottles, price one shilling, with brush, of the -Silico Enamel Company, 97 Hampstead Road, London, N.W. - -LIGHT-COLOURED GLOVES may be cleaned by rolling bread-crumb over them; -also with indiarubber. Also by means of benzine. Several patent washes -for this purpose are now sold. - -CLEANING MARBLE.--“If ‘Sculptor’ will get some salts of wormwood, -and dissolve in warm water, then mix with whiting into a moderate -paste, and apply to stone or marble, and let it remain upon either -for twenty-four hours--and if not successful the first time, apply -again--he will draw all stains out of marble, and clear all lichen -either from sandstones or oolitic stones. Thoroughly wash the stone -with a strong soap (say, of Hudson’s No. 2 soap powder) and lukewarm -water, and, when thoroughly dry, give a coat of sulphuretted oil. He -can make his own oil. Boil in a bath one quart of linseed-oil for one -hour, with half-a-pound of flower of sulphur gently and continually -stirring same; then take off fire and let cool; then pour oil from -sediment, using oil upon stone. No lichen will hurt his stone if out -exposed to the air, for the rain will wash all clean every time. I -have cleaned several statues with nothing but Hudson’s No. 2 and -water.”--_Work, April 2, 1892._ - -CALCINED MAGNESIA, or calcined and powdered bone, laid for some time on -simply oiled or greased marble, which has first been well washed with -soap and water, will often extract the stain. For ink use oxalic acid -in weak solution with water. - -GUM-DEXTRINE, or gum substitute, is made from roasted flour. It forms, -mixed with water, a gum not much inferior to gum-arabic, for which it -is, as the name denotes, a substitute. It is very extensively used in -many manufactures, and may be obtained of any chemist. It sometimes -happens that it is too brittle after drying, and does not hold. In such -case add four or five drops of glycerine to a teacupful of the dextrine -in solution. - -MOUTH GLUE (MUNDLEIM) OR SOLID CEMENT.--This is sold by stationers in -thin, flat sticks or tablets, and is used by wetting and rubbing it, -chiefly for paper. It is made as follows for labels:-- - - Sturgeon’s bladder 25 - Sugar 12 - Water 36 - Carbolic acid - -The sturgeon’s bladder is first dissolved, the sugar then added, also -a few drops of carbolic acid, which causes it to set more firmly, and -also to resist mould in dampness, induced by the presence of sugar. -This cement is applicable to glass, wood, or metal. Like the following, -it has the advantage of being always ready to use, and requires no -boiling. If it becomes too hard to use freely, let so much of it as is -required steep for a time in water. Many think, from merely dampening -it in the mouth when it is hard, and using it immediately, that it is -a very weak adhesive, which is a mistake. A great deal of that sold by -the stationers is, however, of very inferior quality, and made with -very common glue. - -MOUTH GLUE IN TABLETS:-- - - Transparent glue, No. 1 24 - Sugar 13 - Gum-arabic 5 - Water 50 - -The glue, sugar, and gum are boiled in the water until a drop let fall -on a slab hardens. It is then rolled and cut into flat cakes. - -TO MEND OR MAKE MEERSCHAUM PIPES.--Dissolve caseine in silicate of -soda; stir into the cement fine calcined magnesia. By the addition of -meerschaum powder a close imitation of meerschaum in the mass can be -made. - -TURKISH CEMENT of the strongest kind, and such as is used to attach -gems to metal, is made as follows:-- - - Sturgeon’s bladder cement 30 - Mastic (best) 2 - Gum-ammoniac 1 - Spirits of wine 10 - -The sturgeon’s bladder, shredded, is dissolved with spirits of wine -while remaining in a warm place; the gum is also dissolved in spirit -and mixed with the sturgeon’s bladder; the whole must be then carefully -and slowly boiled to a syrup. Close with a cork, as it is sure to gum -tightly. - -TO IMPROVE CORKS.--When bottles contain substances which adhere to -the _cork_ and _harden_, the latter should be first steeped in oil or -vaseline, or boiled in a mixture of both. - -ARMENIAN CEMENT.--This is much like Diamond and Turkish cements:-- - - I. - - Sturgeon’s bladder 600 - - II. - - Gum-ammoniac 6 - Mastic 60 - -The sturgeon’s bladder is dissolved in spirits of wine separately, the -gum-ammoniac and mastic also, but with a minimum of spirit; the two are -then combined. - -A cement which will resist the action of spirits of wine will often be -very valuable, as when large lids are to be fastened to jars containing -anatomical preparations. One is made as follows:-- - - Cleaned manganese powder 20 - Soluble silicate of soda 10 - -This must be freely used to make the cover adhere. When in time it -shall become brittle, coat it over with a thick solution of asphaltum -in turpentine or petroleum. - -TO SEAL BOTTLES very securely, roughen the opening or mouth with a file -or glass-paper, drive in a hard cork till half-an-inch below the top, -and then seal it with silicate of soda mixed with marble-dust. - -CHLORIDE OF ZINC added to silicate of soda and oxide of zinc forms a -very good cement, which will resist most influences. - -BREAD macerated with glue or gelatine, with a little glycerine, makes -an admirable substance for artificial flowers, casts, medallions, &c. -If worked with gum-arabic and a little alum, or dextrine, or common -mucilage, we shall have the same result. It can also be worked with -thin varnish or gutta-percha cement; also with diluted sulphuric or -nitric acids to produce a hard substance. It may here be observed that -_bread_ is for certain work far superior to flour or starch paste, -since the combination with _yeast_ causes a development of cellular -tissue, the result of which is a firmer and more wax-like substance. I -was led to observe this at first, not from what I read of the action -of acids on bread, but from observing the bread-flowers made by the -Italian peasantry to adorn images of saints. I believe that in these -there is a little vinegar mixed. They are quite wax-like. The bread -used should be soft household bread, of course well kneaded with -the acid and colours. Bread-paste would probably combine well with -indiarubber in solution. - -Of late, German illustrated newspapers have published patterns of small -ornamental dishes made of dough or bread, intended to receive conserves -of fruit and other edibles--the dishes themselves not being intended to -be eaten. - -Soft bread with a little varnish or any ordinary gum and a little -glycerine, well worked, makes an admirable filler for cracks in wood. -Combined with any gum, or even with tragacanth or peach or cherry -gum, and lamp-black (or liquid Indian ink), it forms a cement which -resembles ebony. The more thoroughly it is macerated the harder it -will be. Casts of panels, &c., made with this are really beautiful. -Rub with oil and the hand after it is quite dry. Add a few drops of -glycerine and alum in solution to prevent cracking, or, better, a -_little_ indiarubber. Soft rye bread hardens to a rather tougher -cement than wheat. Bread cement makes an admirable ground for gilding -or painting. Bread macerated with lime and white of egg forms a very -hard composition like ivory. Bread, glue, and glycerine, _ditto_. - -HORSE-CHESTNUT PASTE.--This is called a cement, but it is properly a -paste like that of flour. Horse-chestnuts are generally neglected, but -they can be profitably utilised for paste, which admits of the same -combinations as flour. - -WASTE TEA-LEAVES from which the tea has been extracted can be macerated -with gum and treated as rose-leaves to form artificial ebony. Carefully -separate all the hard portions. - -GUM FOR GENERAL USE, like gum-arabic:-- - - Common sugar, by weight 12 - Water 36 - Slacked lime 3 - -Stir the lime into the warm solution of sugar and water. Keep it -boiling and stir it often for one hour. Pour off the liquid from the -lees of the lime. This gum also admits of modifications. One of these -is the well-known SYNDETIKON, which is made as follows:--To fifteen -parts of the sugar and lime solution add three of good glue, leaving -them to soak for twenty-four hours; warm gradually, and frequently -stir, till the glue is dissolved. Then let it boil for a few minutes. -This makes a good plain cement, which serves to unite paper, leather, -glass, or porcelain. It, however, spots or changes colour in paper, &c. - -A GENERAL CEMENT, which may be used for joining metal and glass, stone, -tiles, &c., is thus made:-- - - Plaster of Paris 21 - Iron filings 3 - Water 10 - White of eggs 4 - -THE GENERAL MENDING CEMENT so commonly sold consists of nothing but-- - - Gum-arabic 1 - Plaster of Paris 3 - -This must be mixed with water when used. It does not, however, resist -the action of hot water. - -A CEMENT WHICH RESISTS ACIDS is made as follows:--Indiarubber is -dissolved in double its weight of linseed-oil, and kneaded to a dough -with white bolus. Should the cement harden too quickly, add to it a -little litharge. - -INDIARUBBER CEMENT FOR CHEMICAL APPARATUS:-- - - Indiarubber 8 - Tallow 2 - Linseed-oil 16 - White bolus 3 - -This does not resist high temperature, but is good against acids. - -SCHEIBLER’S CEMENT FOR CHEMICAL APPARATUS:-- - - Gutta-percha 2 - Wax 1 - Shellac 3 - -SOREL’S CEMENT.--This consists of oxide of zinc combined with its -chloride. The chloride of zinc is in a heavy, syrupy form, which, -combined with the white oxide, sets very hard. It is chiefly used for -filling teeth, but is also applicable to making medallions and other -objects of art. For this latter purpose it is mixed with powdered -chalk, pulverised glass, &c. The process of preparing and combining -the ingredients of this cement is, however, so tedious that it is most -unlikely that the ordinary repairer will care to attempt it; the more -so as there are many preparations far superior to it. - -GLUE FOR TAPESTRY, &c.:-- - - Flour-paste 100 - Alum water 3 - Dextrine-paste 5 - -This may also be applied in many ways. - -TO LUTE STILLS, &c.:-- - - Glue in powder 20 - Flour 10 - Bran 5 - -To be well mixed with water. - -As alum cannot be affected by petroleum, it is used to fasten rings to -petroleum-lamp holders. These are lined with alum which has been melted -by heat. Alum melted forms a strong cement for glass and metal. - -PASTE FOR WALL-PAPER.--Ten parts of flour are made into common paste; -add one of glue boiled in hot water; add to the whole one-twentieth -part of white of egg. This holds very firmly. Paste made with flour and -gum-arabic, &c., does not mould or turn sour if it be mixed with a few -drops of oil of cloves or carbolic acid. - -CLAY MORTAR.--Where lime cannot be had, a very good mortar for chimneys -may be made by mixing clay with common molasses. This is said (LEHNER) -to resist the action of heat when well dried. - -Another fireproof cement is made as follows:-- - - Clay 40 - Flint-sand 40 - Slacked lime 4 - Borax 2 - -This is mixed with a very little water. It is used as a wash, and -should, when dry, be heated by fire. - -LOG CABINS and houses built with wood are, in America, often swarming -with vermin to a degree which would seem incredible. In all such cases -the joints and cavities should be well packed and plastered with -cement--lime if possible--and then whitewashed. Rat-holes should be -plugged with stones or gravel and then cemented. - -ZEIODELETH.--Vessels of wood, iron, stoneware, or of moulded cement, -are often eaten away by the action of acids and alkalies. To prevent -this they are in Germany coated with a composition called _Zeiodeleth_. -In its simplest form this is simply sulphur mixed with _very finely_ -sifted flint-sand, or else ground glass, chinaware, or stone. Of this -thin plates are also made to coat such vessels, or even to form them. - -MERRICK’S ZEIODELETH:-- - - Sulphur 20 - Glass-powder 40 - -BÖTTGER’S ZEIODELETH (LEHNER):-- - - Powdered flint 90 - Graphite 10 - Sulphur 100 - - -I. - -A FLUID PASTE is made by pouring into a porcelain jar 5 kilogrammes -of potato-starch with 6 kilogrammes of water and 250 grammes of white -nitric acid. Keep the whole in a warm place for forty-eight hours, -stirring it frequently, and then boil it till syrupy and transparent. -Add a little water, or sufficient to make it fluid enough to be -filtered through a closely woven towel. - - -II. - -Dissolve 5 kilogrammes of gum-arabic to 1 of sugar in 5 quarts of -water, adding 50 grammes of nitric acid; warm to boiling, and then add -No. I. The result is a perfectly fluid adhesive, which will not mould, -and dries on paper with a glaze. It is adapted for postage-stamps, -marking over impressions, and fine stationery. - -DURABLE FLOUR-PASTE FOR STATIONERS.--Take good flour-paste, adding -to it while boiling one-tenth part of clear liquid glue, to be well -stirred in. Add a few drops of carbolic acid or oil of cloves. Keep it -corked in wide-mouthed, large vials. - -DRY CEMENT, OR TRAVELLERS’ GLUE:-- - - Glue 600 grms. - Sugar 250 ” - -The glue must be of the best quality, and perfectly melted in water, -as usual, and the sugar stirred in. It is then steamed away until it -becomes hard when cold. To use, place it in hot water, when it at once -liquefies. This is specially used for paper. - -COATING TO PROTECT TREES FROM INSECTS:-- - - Colophonium (resin) 100 - Common soap 100 - Tar 50 - Whale-oil 25 - -Smear the trunks of the trees with this. It may also be put on sheets -of brown paper to catch flies. - -CEMENT FOR FILLING.--Take fresh curd (caseine), and knead it with water -to a putty. It can be used in this state for many purposes. To greatly -harden it, add one-twentieth of its weight in lime, and more or less of -some indifferent substance, such as chalk, calcined magnesia, oxide of -zinc, and colouring matter. This sets so hard that it may be used to -make casts or many small works of art. - -FRENCH GLUES.--Two very excellent glues used in France are the _colle -forte de Flandre_ and that of _Givet_. GOUPIL recommends as the best -glue, where a very superior article is required, one made of equal -parts of the two. Break them up, let the pieces remain fifteen hours -in water, then boil for two hours in the _bain-marie_, or glue-kettle. -After a time the glue will settle and become clear. Add, if needed, a -little water from the _bain-marie_. - -TO GIVE A SATIN GLOSS TO PAPER.--Paint with a broad, soft brush on -the paper with a solution of hypo-sulphite of barium (chemically -expressed by BaS_{2}O_{3}). It may be laid on by itself or mingled with -a colour. It is used sometimes by bookbinders. This may be applied in -water-colour pictures to the imitation of silk or satin. - -GOMME LAQUE, or shellac, also gelatine glue, is sold in thin leaves. To -prepare it, put into a _bain-marie_ twenty parts of the gum to one of -flowers of sulphur, stir it well, and add a little lukewarm water. It -may be made into little bars by hand; let them cool, and warm them when -required for use. - -A VERY GOOD CEMENT, which, according to FRED. DILLAYE, is both fire -and water proof, is made as follows:--Take half-a-pint of milk, as -much vinegar, mix them, and take away the whey. Add the white of five -eggs to the curd, mix the whole well, and add so much finely sifted -quicklime as will form a paste. - -SNAIL CEMENT.--It is said that snails or slugs, mashed, form a strong -and hard glue. This is probable; also, that it would combine with -powdered quicklime, or carbonate of lime in powder, to set very hard. - -TO MEND MARBLE use shellac in leaves, mixed with white wax. - -TO MEND ALABASTER use gum-arabic mixed with powdered alabaster. This is -also useful for many other purposes. - -A CEMENT useful for many purposes, also as a ground for painting, is -made as follows:--Take barley and soak it in six equivalents of water -for several days, or till the barley expands or sprouts. Throw out -the barley, after pressing it. This gives a glutinous liquid, which, -combined with pipeclay and white soap, sets hard. It is improved by -adding the powder of calcined bone. Barley water may also be used -in many other combinations. Gum-arabic and thin glue, dextrine, and -fish-glue may be used in its place. - -A STRONG CEMENT FOR HORN OR TORTOISE-SHELL:-- - - Glue (fluid) 1½ - Sugar-candy 3 - Gum-arabic ¾ - -The two latter to be dissolved in six parts of water. - -ANOTHER FOR THE SAME:--Take strong lime-water; combine it with new -cheese. The latter is to be mixed with two parts of water, so as to -form a soft mass. Pour into this the lime-water, but see that there is -no solid cheese in it. This will form a liquid which can be used as a -cement. - -CAT-GUT, which is, however, made from the intestines of sheep, &c., is -of great service in some kinds of repairing, owing to its strength. It -can be made into very small cord, which will sustain a man. - -Very strong cords for fishermen are also said to be made by taking -silkworms just before they spin, cutting them open, and using the -silk, which is then found in a solid, longish lump, and which can be -artificially drawn out into any shape. It is probable that the silk in -this state could be thinned and applied in combination with fibre to -produce useful results. It is also probable that this substance, or the -silk _en masse_, could be used for mending silk fabrics in many ways. -It could be produced very cheaply, because the greatest expense in -manufacturing silk is the reeling, winding, and spinning the thread. - -An incredibly strong and serviceable silk is spun by the _elm-worm_, -which can be raised in any quantities wherever elm-trees abound. This -is much cultivated in China, and it is said that garments made of its -silk descend from father to son. It is several times larger than the -silkworm, and survives even the severe winters of Canada. It would be -much easier to raise than the delicate _bombyx_, or common silkworm. It -is worth noting that a man can carry easily in his pocket fifty yards -of cat-gut or elm worm silk cord strong enough to sustain his weight, -which is very useful for travellers to know, since it is useful to mend -harness or tether horses. - -TO SOFTEN HORN.--This material can be softened so as to bend in hot -water. It requires long boiling. According to Geissler, a horn can be -moulded to shape by steeping the horn for two or three days in half a -kilogramme of black alicant, 375 grammes of newly calcined lime, and -2 litres (two full quarts) of hot water. Should the mixture assume a -reddish colour it is all right; if not, add more alicant and lime. -After the horn has been moulded, dry it in well-dried common salt. Horn -shavings and filings are made into a paste, which hardens by being -in a strong solution of potash and slacked lime, in which it becomes -jelly-like and can be moulded. This must be subjected to pressure to -expel the moisture. By adding a little glycerine its brittleness is -much diminished. - -ARTIFICIAL BONEWORK.--Reduce the bone or ivory to a very fine, -flour-like powder, mix it very thoroughly with the white of eggs, and -a very hard and tough mass will be the result. This can be turned -and highly polished. This is improved in hardness and quality by -grinding the mass again and subjecting it to heat and pressure (_Die -Verarbeitung Hornes, &c._, von Louis Edgar Andés; Vienna, 1892). - -TO PROPERLY DUST CLOTHES.--The following extract on cleaning garments -is taken from my forthcoming work, entitled _One Hundred Arts_:-- - - * * * * * - -“The obvious way to remove dust from a coat--as some take evil out of -children (_vide_ NORTHCOTE’S _Fables_)--is by whipping or beating with -a stick. This, indeed, effects the purpose, but it speedily breaks the -fibre of the cloth. Therefore in Germany, as in Italy, a little _bat_ -plaited of split cane or reeds is employed to exorcise the demon of -dust, known as _Pāpākeewis_ to the Chippeways. But better than this is -a small _whisp-broom_. Half a century ago this simple contrivance was -only known in the United States and in Poland. - -“Whip the garment with the _side_ of the soft whisp, and as the dust -rises to the surface brush it away. If the reader will try this on any -coat, however clean it may be, he will be astonished to find how much -dust he will extract or raise. - -“All the dust which thus lies hidden in cloth, when it comes to the -surface, acts as _grit_ or powder insensibly but certainly, and helps -to wear away the surface whenever it is touched. That we take in dust -every time we go out will appear from inspecting a silk hat. Again, -the dust on a coat, &c., every time it is rubbed by the cleanest hand, -takes in grease, which in time aids in spoiling the surface. In fact, -half the wear-out of all cloth is due to dust alone. - -“Therefore, if we _carefully_ dust our clothes with a whisp, every -time we take them off, fold them with care, and lay them in a drawer, -they will last much longer than they do. Pure air free from dust is -as conducive to the well-being of coats as to that of their wearers, -and Dominie Sampson uttered more truth than he imagined when he -observed that the atmosphere of his patron’s dwelling was singularly -preservative of broadcloth.” - - * * * * * - -In proof of this it may be observed, that as a sandblast attacks some -substances exclusively, so dust or grit injures certain fabrics and not -others, and that the latter are all known as the more lasting fabrics. - - - - -INDEX - - - Accuracy and care required in making cements, 28 - - Adding art to arts, 47 - - Alabaster, to mend, 249 - - ALLSTON, the painter, 123 - - Alum as a base, 6 - - Amber, repairing and imitating, 156-158; - carving amber, 158 - - American cement, 240 - - American glaze for postage-stamps, 113, 114 - - ANDÉS, LOUIS EDGAR, 207, 252; - varnishes, 4; - on ivory and bone, 144, 155; - on working horn, 149 - - Arabic, gum, cement of, with vinegar, 37 - - Avoiding excess in cementing, 31 - - - Badly bound books, 108 - - BAER, J., catalogue on glass, 44 - - Bark, powdered, combined with glue, 82 - - Barley cement, 249, 250 - - Bases for beads, &c., 234 - - BAYARD, MISS CATHERINE L., 158 - - Bell made of a bottle, 49 - - Bent leaves in books, or dog’s ears, 89, 90 - - Benzoin, gum, or _lac virginis_, 236, 237 - - Binding books, 97-100 (_illustrations_), 97, 98 - - Blood in cements, 6 - - Blowpipe, the, 17, 36 - - Boats or canoes made from shavings, 52 - - Boiling china in milk, 19 - - Bone, calcined, 92; - artificial, 251 - - Bookbinders’ varnish, 89; - glue, 235 - - Books, repairing and restoring, 86-120 - - Book-worms, 115-120 - - BÖTTGER’S cement for pavements, stone slabs, &c., 29; - acid-proof cement, 247 - - Bottles, cracked, how to mend, 26, 37; - to close (a cement), 44; - to cork or seal them firmly, 161; - to seal, 241 - - Brass-ware, to look like gold, 234, 235 - - Bread cement, 241-243 - - Bread in cements, 8 - - BREWSTER, Sir D., 37 - - Brickwork tiles, how to repair, 28 - - Burnished steel or iron work, 234 - - - Canes and bows made of shavings, 54 - - Caoutchouc, indiarubber, gutta-percha, 2, 4, 126, 127, 159 - - Cardboard or pasteboard as hard as wood, how to make, 124, 125 - - Carpenters’ cement, 79 - - _Carton-cuir_, 121 - - _Carton-pierre_, or “stone-paper,” to make, 128 - - Caseine or cheese in cements, 6, 27, 40, 41, 137, 138 - - CASTELLANI, Signore, 48 - - Cat-gut, 250 - - Cedar, to imitate, 83 - - Cellular tissue, cause of hardening in organic substances, 9, 10 - - Celluloid, or artificial ivory, its raw materials, manufacture, &c., - by Dr. F. BOCKMANN, 9, 152, 153 - - Cellulose, 9; - how discovered and made, 82; - to prepare it with acid, 154 - - Cement, or adhesive, definition, 1; - for broken glass or china, 23-49; - for glass, china, leather, &c., 34; - for wood, 76-83; - for horses’ hoofs, 166, 167; - to attach metal, 173, 174 - - Ceresa, or mosaic in powder, 29, 138 - - Chalk, 2 - - Chamois-leather in repairs, 203 - - Chemical apparatus, cement for, 244 - - Chestnut, horse, paste, 243 - - China, broken, porcelain, crockery, majolica, terra-cotta, brick and - tile work, 12-32 - - Chinese transparent vases, a lost art rediscovered, 47, 48 - - Chloride of zinc cement, 241 - - Cholula, vase from, 13, 14 - - Chrome glue, 26, 34 - - _Chunam_, or Indian shell-lime, 24, 134 - - Circles, to draw, 103 - - Clamps, or strips of sheet-iron or wire, 67 - - CLAUDE and VANDERVELDE, 216, 217 - - CLAUS’S cement for metal and glass, 182 - - Clay and molasses mortar, 246 - - Closing wine-bottles, old method, 48, 49 - - Cloth-dust on gum in decoration, 236 - - Cloth, waterproofed, recipe for, 161; - felt, how to make, 199, 200 - - Clothes, to properly dust and keep clean, 252, 253 - - Coarse cements for brick, &c., 139 - - Cobbling and shoemaking, 187, 188 - - Cologne, eau de, 237 - - Concrete, 140 - - Copal, gum, 157 - - Coral, imitation of, 209 - - Corks, to improve, 240 - - Cracking of seasoned wood in America, 50 - - Cracks in furniture, filling, 67 - - CRANE, WALTER, 24 - - Crockery, 17, 18 - - Crockery or china, mosaic made from broken fragments, 139 - - Cups and vases of _papier-maché_, how to make (_illustration_), 172 - - - DAVIDOWSKY, F., on glue and gelatine, 4 - - Decayed wood, to restore, 63 - - _Decorator, The_, 73 - - Defacing books, 90 - - DELILLE, alleged inventor of wiring porcelain, 18 - - Deterioration in pictures, causes of, 214, 215 - - Dextrine, or _Leiokom_, 7; - gum, 238 - - Diamond cement, 41. (_Vide_ Turkish) - - DILLAYE, F., 32 - - DILLAYE’S cement, 249 - - Dirt in old pictures, its nature, 215 - - Domes or arched roofs, building, 64 - - DRAKE, Sir W., 47 - - Drawers, to put handles to, 62; - shrinking of them, 62, 63 - - Dry cleaning, 220 - - DÜRER, ALBERT, 151 - - Dusting broken china, 31 - - - Earthenware tubes, how to lute, 27 - - Ebonite, 160 - - Ebony, repairing or imitating, 66, 67 - - EDER’S gum for photographs, 114 - - Eggs in cements, 5 - - “Egyptian Sketch-Book,” 210 - - Elmworm silk, 250 - - Embossing leather, 100 - - Engraving and etching glass or china, 38 - - Erasures in paper, 103 - - Essential oils in cleaning pictures, 225 - - Etruscan vases repaired, 15 - - Excess of cleaning and ignorance as to effects by age, 214 - - - Fastening broken furniture, 60, 61 - - Fictile or ceramic ware, 12 - - FIELD, “Chromatography” 210 - - Fillers for wood, 69 - - Fire-proof paper, 103 - - Floors laid with shavings, 53 - - Flour and starch paste, 4, 5 - - Flour-paste, to make a strong, 112 - - Flowers made from wood-shavings and plaster of Paris, glue, &c., 68 - - Fluid paste, 247 - - Flour spar cement, 237 - - Flux, vitreous or metallic, 17 - - Forgeries in antiques, 94, 149 - - French glue for wood, 80 - - French glues, 248 - - Furniture, cheap and bad, 58 - - Furniture-making, 72 - - - GARMAN, SAMUEL, 116 - - Garments, invisible mending of, 202-205 - - Gelatine and vinegar cement for china, 25 - - General cements, 244 - - GERNER, RAIMUND, _Die Glas Fabrikation_, by, 34, 35 - - Gesso-painting, 24 - - Glass-mending, with allied processes, 33-49; - old proverb on, 33 - - Glass-powder, 136; - how to prepare, 27 - - Glass, to pulverise, 234 - - Glazed or patent leather, how to make, 193 - - Glaze-mediums, 228 - - Gloves, how cleaned, 238 - - Glue, 4; - and lime cement, 41; - for coarse work, 235; - waterproof, 186 - - Glycerine, in cements, 6; - with glue, 68 - - _Gomme laque_, or shellac, 249 - - GOUPIL, F., Manual of Mending, 32, 64, 218, 222, 225 - - Grease-spots, to remove, 92 - - GREEN, Dr. SAMUEL A., on book-worms, 115 - - Grinding off fractures in glass, 48 - - Ground for wax-painting, 228, 229 - - Grounds of pictures, 221 - - Guards for mending broken fictile wares, 31, 32 - - Gum for general use, 243 - - Gum-mastic, 16, 22 - - Gum (or starch), 2, 3 - - Gutta-percha and oil cement for mending soles, 192 - - Gutta-percha cement for leather, 189 - - Gypsum, 6 - - - Hard cement for all wood, 80 - - Harness, saddle, and bridle repairing, 193 - - Hats, blankets, &c., to mend by felting, 199-201 - - Heating wood before glueing, 60 - - HEIGELIN, Professor, exhibition of flowers made from shavings, 68 - - Hide, raw, 189 - - HILDEBRAND, WOLFGANG, on liquid glass, 7, 35, 148 - - HOFER, JOHANNES, 142 - - HOFER, RAIMUND, on indiarubber, 159, 168 - - Holding together broken china while mending, &c., 17 - - Holes in leather repaired with linen, 161 - - Horn, to mould or soften, 148, 251 - - HUBBARD, ERNST, “The rendering Valuable of Refuse Wood,” by, 69 - - HYATT’S patent ivory, 153 - - Hydraulic lime, 8 - - - Ignorance, general, as to cleaning pictures, 212 - - Imitation indiarubber cloth, 167 - - Imperfect work, 107, 108 - - Indiarubber, applied to soles of shoes, 161; - or vulcanised cement, 162 - - Indifferent substances, 6 - - Ink-stains, to remove, 90-94, 96 - - Inserting pieces in china, &c., 19, 20 - - Iron cements to resist heat, 177, 178 - - Iron doors of furnaces, how to seal hermetically, 179 - - Iron in cements, 6 - - Iron strips and bands in repairing, 171 - - Iron, to set in stone, 178 - - Iron ware, or block cement, 180 - - Ironwork, setting a cement for, 176 - - Italian peasants’ shoes (_illustration_), 192 - - Ivory, repairing and imitating, 143-155; - cleaning, 143, 144; - imitations, 144; - staining, 147, 148; - softening, 148 - - - Jewellers’ cement, 43. (_Vide_ Turkish) - - Jewellers’ or Diamond cement, 174 - - Jewesses, repair of embroidery by, 202 - - _Joco-Seriorum Naturæ et Artis_, - 1670, story from, referring to broken pottery, 20, 21, 35. - - Join, to, glass and metal, 43 - - Joints in timbers, holes and cracks, how to close, 80 - - JUNEMANN, F., _Die Fabrikation des Alauns_, 6 - - - Kaleidoscope, folding, how to make a, 37, 38 - - Kauri, the gum, 156, 157 - - Kelp, 154 - - _Kettenstich_, for German chain-stitch, 204 - - KIRCHER, ATHANASIUS, 92, 95 - - Knotting, patent, 72-74 - - KOPPE, J. W., on glycerine, 6 - - KRALL, BARKENTIN &, brass-cleaner, 235 - - KRATZER, HARRMANN, on liquid glass, 8 - - - Lacquers, 34 - - LAYARD, Sir AUSTIN, 47 - - Lead pencil or crayon drawings, to protect, 233 - - Leather, artificial, 196, 198 - - Leather, durability of, 188, 189 - - Leather-glue, 197 - - Leather-Work, Manual of, 111 - - Leather-work, repairing, 183-198 - - LEHNER, 2, 5, 7, 9, 26, 28, 29, 31, 34, 40, 44, 77, 79, 80, 135, 136, - 141, 144, 152, 157, 193, 197, 207, 208 - - LELAND, CHARLES G., quotation from, 50 - - Lemon-juice to whiten the hands, 236 - - Lime, 5, 24, 134 - - Lime cement for glass, 43 - - Liquid acid glue, 59, 60; - recipe for, 81 - - LISTER, MISS ROMA, 203; - MS. of Recipes, 65 - - Litharge cements for many uses, 175 - - LUTHER, MARTIN, 149 - - Luting cement, 235 - - Luting or closing chemical apparatus, &c., cements for, 30 - - - Magnesia, calcined, to extract stains, 238 - - Majolica, 13, 15, 16 - - Malleable glass, 38 - - _Manuel Général du Modelage_, 64 - - Marble, fractures, &c., in, 140; - how to clean, 238; - to mend, 249 - - Marine glue, hard glue, recipe and description, 162, 163 - - Marking-ink, 237 - - Marquetry, or inlaid wood, repairing, 71, 72, 83-85 - - Mastic, 19, 135, 136; - French mastic, 136 - - Materials used in mending, 1-11 - - Meerschaum pipes, to mend or make, 240 - - Mending cloth with indiarubber, 165-168 - - Mending furniture, 74-76 - - Mending or repairing defined, 1, 2 - - MERRICK’S acid-proof cement, 246 - - MERRITT, HENRY, 211, 221 - - Metal, to attach leather to, 193 - - Metal-work, mending, 169-182 - - Metallic corners for books (_illustrations_), 104-106 - - Mica, leaves of, how to prepare them for windows, 47 - - MIERZINSKI, Dr. STANISLAUS, on the manufacture of paper, 132 - - Minor ingredients in cements, 10 - - Mirror with ornaments (_illustration_), 85 - - MOGFORD, HENRY, 213, 218, 219-222 - - Mosaics, 134 - - Mother-of-pearl and coral, mending, 206-209; - how imitated, 207; - from rice, 208 - - Mould or mildew in pictures, 226 - - Mouth-glue, or solid cement, 239, 240 - - Musical glasses of different kinds, 39 - - Musical instruments repaired with shavings, 54, 55 - - - Neutral substances in cements, 6 - - - Oil, as a basis, 2; - combination, 3; - softening paint, 219 - - Old recipes for mending crockery, 23 _et seq._ - - OLYMPIODORUS, 99 - - “One Hundred Arts,” a book by the Author, 38 - - Ornamenting panes for windows, and doubling them, 44 45; - beautiful and varied effects, 46 - - Ornamental work made of shavings, 56, 57 - - Ox-gall in cleaning pictures, 218 - - Oxidised cement, 176 - - - PAGE, the American painter, 210 - - Pages in books, to repair when torn, 90, 91, 94 - - PAGET’S French mastic, 136 - - Pamphlets, binding, 100 - - Panel pictures, repairing, with shavings, 57; - fourteenth century, in distemper, &c., 227 - - Panel, warped, how to straighten a, 228 - - Panels of artificial wood, 81; - cements for, 82 - - Paper and wood-shavings, 52 - - Paper, its composition, 86, 87; - repairing damaged paper, 86, 87 - - Paper-leather, 129, 130 - - _Papier-mâché_, or softened paper, 106, 121-133; - articles made from, 121; - moulding, 121, 122 - - PARACELSUS, 35 - - Parchment paper, how to prepare, 95, 96 - - Parchment, repairing, 122; - artificial, from paper, 122 - - PARLAND, Mr., 128 - - Paste of starch or flour, 10 - - Paste, leather, the same mixed with indiarubber, 185; - use and preparation, &c., 186 - - Paste, bookbinders’, 96; - shoemakers’, 197 - - Patches, inserting, 201 - - Patterns cut from wood-shavings (_engraving_), 51-53 - - Pavements, to repair different kinds, 28 - - Peat, 78 - - PHILATIUS, the inventor of book-binding and glue, 99 - - Pictures, restoring, 210-230; - glazed and scaling, how to treat, 226 - - Plaster of Paris, alum, and glass cement, 141 - - Plugging teeth with indiarubber, 166 - - Polytechnic cement and imperial liquid glue, also KEYE’S cement, 39 - - Porcelain, 18 - - Potatoes as cement, &c., 9 - - Pots, cracks in iron, 180 - - Prepare, to, wood for paint, 83 - - Process of restoring worn and injured binding of a book, and of a - bas-relief in leather, 183-185 - - Proper paste, the, for wallpaper, waterproof, 164, 165 - - Pulp, paper, 130-133 - - Putty, 33, 34, 69 - - - RAUFER, G. M., on meerschaum and amber, 158 - - Raw hide, 233 - - Recipe, old, for repairing glass, 36, 37; - definition of, 231; - general, 231-253 - - Red cement for iron, 237 - - Reliefs cut in brick, 29 - - Repainting old pictures, 226, 227 - - Repairing wood with paper-pulp, 132 - - Resin or pitch, 2, 3 - - Restoring fragments of engravings, &c., 115 - - Rice and lime cement, 145 - - RIMMEL, bookseller in Oxford Street, 40 - - Ringing or sounding glasses by blowing on them, 39 - - RIS-PACQUOT, M., 18, 29, 147 - - Riveting sheet-metal, 169, 170 - - Roller, use of the, 54 - - Roman and Hungarian pottery, &c., 12 - - Roman cement, 24; - for fine mosaics, 138 - - Rosewood stain, 74 - - Rubbing in colour, 14 - - RUPRECHT, KARL, on egg substances and albumen, 5 - - RUSKIN, 221 - - Rust, how removed, 234 - - Rust or oxide cement, 177 - - - SALLE’S cement for glass, 44 - - Satin gloss for paper, 248, 249 - - Sawdust (_vide_ also Wood-paste or artificial wood), 80 - - SCHEIBLER’S cement, 244 - - SCHLOSSER, EDMUND, on soldering and metal-work, 182 - - SCHWARTZ’S iron cement, 180 - - Scissors, cutting glass with, 48 - - Scraping varnish, 223 - - Screws, to be dipped in oil or boiling wax, 67 - - Seams, to repair, 196 - - SEDNA, LUDWIG, on wax, &c., 7 - - Sewing or stitching books, 109 - - Shoes, easily made, 194, 195; - indiarubber, to repair, 160 - - Side-binding, 110 - - Silicate of soda, or liquid glass, 7, 20; - with colour, 29, 33, 35 - - Silico-enamel, 237, 238 - - Silk or woolen cloth, to clean, 232, 233 - - Silks, black, gummed, 205 - - Silkworm gum, 250 - - Silver bands, 20 - - Snail cement, 249 - - Soaps in cleaning pictures, 224 - - Solder, NEWTON’S and ROSE’S, a metallic glass, 181 - - Soldering, 171, 172, 180, 181 - - Soles, wooden, for shoes, 191 - - SOREL’S cement, 244 - - South Sea Bubble, 58 - - Spirits of wine to remove dry varnish, 219 - - Splicing broken rods, spars, &c. (_with illustration_), 61 - - Spraying, to restore crumbling substances by, 146, 147 - - Staining or colouring wood, 69, 70 - - Stains, grease, wine, oil, to remove, 232 - - Stationer’s paste, 247 - - Statues, mending, of plaster of Paris, 141 - - Steam, to clean pictures by, 223 - - STEVENS’ and MANDERS’ wood-stains, 70 - - Stills, to lute, 245 - - STOHMANN, classification of cements, with LEHNER’S extension of it, 2, 3 - - Stonework, mending, 134-142 - - Stopper, glass, filed to shape, 48 - - Stoves, cement for, 179, 182 - - Strips or braces on panels, &c., 61, 62 - - Strong adhesives for paper, &c., 113, 114 - - Strong cement, for glass, wood, or stone, 42; - for porcelain, glass, &c., 26, 136 - - Strop, leather, how to mend a, 186, 187 - - Sturgeon’s bladder or fish-glue gum, &c., 5, 32, 42 - - Syndetikon, 243 - - - Tapestry glue, 245 - - Tarred or tarpaulin paper-bags, 163 - - _Tausendkünstler_ of 1782, 23 - - Tea-leaves, 243 - - Terra-cotta, 12, 13, 15 - - To preserve the contents of bottles when broken, 167 - - To protect wood under water, 79 - - Tortoise-shell or horn, cement for, 250 - - Toys, mending, 122, 123 - - Tragacanth, gum, 8 - - Transferring pictures, 225 - - Travellers’ glue, 247 - - Trees: bark, splits or cavities in, 82; - to protect, 248 - - Triangles of tin, &c., used to fasten panes of glass, 35 - - _Tribune_, the New York, 60 - - Trunks, mending, 190 - - Tufa cement, 235 - - Turkish or diamond cement, 19, 41, 42 - - Turpentine, a counteracting medium of solvent spirit, 220 - - - ULENHUTH, EDUARD, on moulding, 131 - - - VANDYKE, picture by, 222 - - VAN HELMONT on liquid glass, 7 - - Varnish, 3, 34; - to remove, 216-220 - - Veneers, 51, 53 - - Venetian marquetry, 71 - - Venetian glass, 36 - - _Venus mercernaria_, or American clam, 208 - - Vermin in wooden dwellings, 246 - - VINCI, LEONARDO DA, 151 - - Vinegar, commonly made from sulphuric acid, 60 - - Vitreous paint, 40 - - - WAGNER, R., on liquid glass, 7, 8, 35 - - WALLBERGER, JOHANN, _Zauberbuch_, 96, 234-236 - - Wall-paper of wood, used in America, 69 - - Wall-paper paste, 245 - - Wall-paper with common paste poisonous, 165 - - Walls rendered air-tight (recipe), 164 - - Warped or curved wood, and how to flatten it, 61, 62 - - Washing broken china for repairing, 31 - - Water in cleaning pictures, 216-218 - - Waterproof carpets and wall-covering made from waste-paper, 191 - - Waterproof cement, 194 - - Wax in cements, 7 - - White of egg glaze, 223 - - Whitewash, to make equal to paint, 79 - - WIEGLEB, J. C., quotation from, 1, 147 - - Windows, stained glass, works on the subject by A. W. FRANKS, OWEN - JONES, WESTLAKE, &c., 40 - - Wine-stains, to remove, 231, 232 - - Wire, for mending china, 19; - in repairing, 170, 171 - - Wire-mending, 62 - - Wood-ashes in picture-cleaning, 224 - - Wood-Carving, a Manual of, by CHARLES GODFREY LELAND, 70 - - Wood-paste, or artificial wood, 63 _et seq._; - houses can be made of it, 64 - - Wood-shavings in mending and making, 50-57 - - Woodwork, repairing, 58-85 - - Woollen cloth, to clean, 231 - - _Work_, a scientific journal, 129 - - Worms in wood, to exterminate, 72 - - Wrinkles and freckles, 236 - - - _Zeiodeleth_, 246, 247 - - Zinc, a cement for, 174, 175 - - ZWICK, Dr. H., on lime and mortar, 5; - in _Hydraulischer Kalk und Portland Cement_, 8 - - -THE END - - - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[1] _Ceresa_ is the setting of powdered glass of different colours in a -cement bed. Mosaic cubes are often combined with it. - -[2] _Vide_ “Wood-Carving,” by CHARLES GODFREY LELAND, F.R.L.S., M.A. -(London, Whittaker & Co., 5s.), for a chapter on this subject. - -[3] For fullest details as to the treatment of horn, the reader may -consult _Die Verarbeitung des Hornes_, &c., by LOUIS E. ANDÉS, in which -he will also find full details as to dyeing ivory. - -[4] The late W. W. STORY, the sculptor and man of letters. - -[5] “Handbook on the Preservation of Pictures,” by HENRY MOGFORD; -twelfth edition, revised. London: Winsor & Newton, 1s. - - -[Transcriber’s Note: - -Obvious printer errors corrected silently. - -Inconsistent spelling and hyphenation are as in the original.] - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of A manual of Mending and Repairing with -diagrams, by Charles Godfrey Leland - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MENDING, REPAIRING, WITH DIAGRAMS *** - -***** This file should be named 61786-0.txt or 61786-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/6/1/7/8/61786/ - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Wayne Hammond and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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