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text-indent: 0em; font-weight: bold; - line-height: 1.5; margin-top: 3em; } - .ph1 { text-indent: 0em; font-weight: bold; font-size: xx-large; - margin: .67em auto; page-break-before: always; } - .ph2 { text-indent: 0em; font-weight: bold; font-size: x-large; margin: .75em auto; - page-break-before: always; } - .double {border-style: double; } - .center {text-align: center; } - - h1.pgx { text-align: center; - clear: both; - font-weight: bold; - font-size: 190%; - margin-top: 0em; - margin-bottom: 1em; - word-spacing: 0em; - letter-spacing: 0em; - line-height: 1; } - h2.pgx { text-align: center; - clear: both; - font-weight: bold; - font-size: 135%; - margin-top: 2em; - margin-bottom: 1em; - word-spacing: 0em; - letter-spacing: 0em; - line-height: 1; } - h3.pgx { text-align: center; - clear: both; - font-weight: bold; - font-size: 110%; - margin-top: 2em; - margin-bottom: 1em; - word-spacing: 0em; - letter-spacing: 0em; - line-height: 1; } - h4.pgx { text-align: center; - clear: both; - font-weight: bold; - font-size: 100%; - margin-top: 2em; - margin-bottom: 1em; - word-spacing: 0em; - letter-spacing: 0em; - line-height: 1; } - hr.pgx { width: 100%; - margin-top: 3em; - margin-bottom: 0em; - margin-left: auto; - margin-right: auto; - height: 4px; - border-width: 4px 0 0 0; /* remove all borders except the top one */ - border-style: solid; - border-color: #000000; - clear: both; } - </style> -</head> -<body> -<h1 class="pgx" title="header title">The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Awakening of the East, by Pierre -Leroy-Beaulieu</h1> -<p>This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States -and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no -restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it -under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this -eBook or online at <a -href="http://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you are not -located in the United States, you'll have to check the laws of the -country where you are located before using this ebook.</p> -<p>Title: The Awakening of the East</p> -<p> Siberia—Japan—China</p> -<p>Author: Pierre Leroy-Beaulieu</p> -<p>Release Date: February 3, 2020 [eBook #61310]</p> -<p>Language: English</p> -<p>Character set encoding: UTF-8</p> -<p>***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE AWAKENING OF THE EAST***</p> -<p> </p> -<h4 class="pgx" title="credit">E-text prepared by Richard Tonsing<br /> - and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team<br /> - (<a href="http://www.pgdp.net">http://www.pgdp.net</a>)<br /> - from page images generously made available by<br /> - Internet Archive<br /> - (<a href="https://archive.org">https://archive.org</a>)</h4> -<p> </p> -<table border="0" style="background-color: #ccccff;margin: 0 auto;" cellpadding="10"> - <tr> - <td valign="top"> - Note: - </td> - <td> - Images of the original pages are available through - Internet Archive. See - <a href="https://archive.org/details/awakeningofeast00lero"> - https://archive.org/details/awakeningofeast00lero</a> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p> </p> -<hr class="pgx" /> - -<div class='titlepage'> - -<div> - <h1 class='c001'>The<br /> Awakening of the East<br /> <span class='large'><em>SIBERIA—JAPAN—CHINA</em></span></h1> -</div> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c002'> - <div>BY</div> - <div><span class='xlarge'>PIERRE LEROY-BEAULIEU</span></div> - <div class='c002'><em>With a preface by</em></div> - <div><span class='xlarge'>HENRY NORMAN</span></div> - <div><em>Author of</em></div> - <div>“<span class='sc'>People and Politics of the Far East</span>,” “<span class='sc'>The Real Japan</span>,” <span class='fss'>ETC.</span></div> - <div class='c002'><em>NEW YORK</em></div> - <div><span class='large'>McCLURE, PHILLIPS & CO.</span></div> - <div><em>M C M</em></div> - </div> -</div> - -</div> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c003'> - <div>Copyright, 1900,</div> - <div>By <span class='sc'>McClure, Phillips & Co.</span></div> - <div class='c004'>First Impression, November, 1900</div> - <div>Second Impression, January, 1901</div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='pbb'> - <hr class='pb c004' /> -</div> -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_v'>v</span> - <h2 class='c005'>PREFACE<a id='r1' /><a href='#f1' class='c006'><sup>[1]</sup></a></h2> -</div> - -<p class='c007'>M. Leroy-Beaulieu’s work appears in English at a singularly -appropriate moment, and I believe that those who know -most about the Far East will be the warmest in its praise. -Its personal observations are acute, its statistics have been -conscientiously gathered and carefully collated, they are -scrupulously restricted to the particular matters they are -intended to illuminate, while most valuable of all is the -author’s political sagacity, and the detachment, so to speak, -of his attitude as an observer and investigator. If one may -say so without offence, this is rare in a writer of M. Leroy-Beaulieu’s -nationality. A Frenchman is usually so good a -Frenchman that he cannot divest himself, even for an hour, of -the preferences and prejudices of his own land and race. -When, however, you do find a Frenchman who by temperament, -research, and travel has attained to a cosmopolitan -impartiality, then nobody dwells in so cool and clear an -atmosphere as he. The present volume, I venture to say, is -<span class='pageno' id='Page_vi'>vi</span>an example of this, for if there were no name on the title-page, -and the word ‘we’ were not used of the French people, it -would be impossible to discover the writer’s nationality from -his work. Hypercriticism might perhaps remark that M. Leroy-Beaulieu -is just a little too ready to welcome as fact malicious -little anecdotes directed against ourselves, such as the ingenious -fiction that the British admiral saluted the Japanese admiral’s -flag outside Wei-hai-wei before sunrise in order that the guns -should awaken the sleeping Chinese seamen to a sense of their -peril, not to mention his ready acceptance as typical of the -‘insatiable British public’ of the amusing boast of some unnamed -English newspaper that we might, if it pleased us, build -a railway from the mouth of the Nile to the mouth of the -Yang-tsze. But, on the whole, he probably approaches as near -to the ‘impartial spectator’ of an old-fashioned philosophical -hypothesis as it is given to anybody in this prejudiced world to -do; and assuredly the brilliant ability with which he has -analyzed and summarized national and international situations -of the greatest delicacy and complexity speaks for itself.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Beyond question the future of the Far East is the gravest -matter before the civilized world to-day. For many generations -the Eastern Question caused Sovereigns to turn restlessly in -their beds and diplomatists to start at a footfall; but, as Lord -Rosebery was quick to point out, there arose not long ago a -Far Eastern Question much more embarrassing, much more -complicated, much more pregnant with disaster. It presents -itself at this moment under three chief aspects: the approaching -completion of a Russian continuous line of railway from -Europe to the China Sea, the frontier of Korea, and the gates -of Peking; the startling entry of Japan into the comity of -peoples as a great naval, military, and civilizing power; and -the course of events which has led to the occupation of the -Chinese capital by the allied forces of eight nations. It is -precisely with these three topics that M. Leroy-Beaulieu deals, -and there will be no need to recommend them to the earnest -<span class='pageno' id='Page_vii'>vii</span>attention of British readers if the latter realize—as they should—that -behind the third there looms without doubt the appalling -spectre of a European War.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The Trans-Siberian Railway has been greatly hindered by -the Chinese rising in Manchuria. For practical purposes it -can hardly be said to exist beyond Irkutsk, for although the -line is completed as far as Stretensk, there is yet a lack of -rolling-stock, and the dreary voyage by steamers of different -draughts down the Shilka and Amur rivers to Khabarofsk, -where the line to Vladivostok is met, deprives the railway -route as yet of all its advantages over the sea-route from Europe. -The last passengers who came from Vladivostok to Moscow -before the interruption of traffic spent thirty-eight days on the -journey, and it will have been noticed that by far the larger -part of the reinforcing Russian troops, horses, and <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">matériel</span></i> -were despatched to the Far East from Odessa, no small portion -in British transports. The Manchurian section of the great -railway has from the first, even in times of peace, presented -great difficulties of climate, lack of supplies, and hostility of -the native population, but now a considerable part of the work -executed has been destroyed, the Russian forces have not yet -succeeded in clearing the country of the Chinese troops and -irregulars, a large garrison will have to be maintained to -protect the works in hand, and a long delay over the original -estimated dates of completion is inevitable. All this, however, -is nothing but a question of date. In national strategic enterprises -of this kind Russia works with speed and tenacity. -What has been destroyed will be built more solidly than -before; it is even probable that recent events, as they will -undoubtedly give Russia a freer hand, will enable her to -secure a shorter, and therefore more effective, route from her -Siberian line to China. It will not, in any case, be many -years before Port Arthur and Peking will be within a fortnight’s -railway journey of Moscow. Before then that railway will have -developed agricultural and mineral wealth along its route to a -<span class='pageno' id='Page_viii'>viii</span>degree undreamed of by those who have not studied its prospects -on the spot, and it will be defended and served by every kind -of protective and paternal legislation. Moreover, when need -arises, every mile of the line, every station and warehouse and -water-tank, every station-master, every engineer, every conductor, -every patrolling convict, every locomotive, every -carriage and every waggon, will be placed by a stroke of the -pen at the absolute disposal of the Minister of War, while -every railway in European Russia will be called upon to supply -whatever may be lacking. Russia has one great advantage -over other countries in times of crisis—private interests cease -to exist. It must not be forgotten, also, that the Trans-Siberian -Railway is only one of Russia’s great strategic lines -towards the East. Before it is finished, her Trans-Caspian -Railway, which is already not only a military, but positively a -commercial success, will be joined to it, and will have brought -the frontiers of Persia and Afghanistan, and another frontier of -China, within a week of the military centre of European -Russia. Whether from the point of view of intercommunication, -of commerce, or of diplomacy and arms, no single -development so significant and so far-reaching in its consequences -has occurred in the modern world.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The second aspect of the Far Eastern Question is at last -happily appreciated by all. The ‘child of the world’s old age,’ -Japan, has grown to manhood. It is exactly eighteen years—the -age at which Sovereigns attain their majority—since Count -Inouye first proposed to the sixteen treaty Powers—including -Peru and Hawaii!—that Japan, in return for certain concessions -to foreigners, should be endowed with a measure of judicial -autonomy. Great Britain, to her honour be it ever remembered, -led the way in this, and Japan is now a nation as independent -as ourselves—the first Oriental people to be placed absolutely -on a par with the conquering and jealous West. In no respect -has she shown herself unworthy of the faith placed in her. In -art alone has she retrograded, but that will not be held a -<span class='pageno' id='Page_ix'>ix</span>special reproach to her by those among us who look back six -centuries for their artistic inspiration. In finance, in law, in -science, in education, in manufacture, she has already attained -a higher level than many so-called civilized nations, and she is -progressing fast. In directions unfortunately still more calculated -to compel the respect of other peoples—a very powerful -army and navy, perfectly equipped, admirably disciplined, and -instinct with the magnificent courage of the old feudal warriors—her -advance has taken the unthinking world by surprise. But for -her prompt and unselfish action in China, and the large force -which her first-rate military system enabled her to despatch -without delay, Europe and America would to-day be mourning -the most horrible massacre of modern history. At this -moment Japan and Great Britain are the only nations striving, -and, if necessary, probably ready to fight, to keep China independent -and undivided, open to the trade of all the world -on equal terms, without selfish reservations on the one hand, -and without trembling before party recriminations on the -other.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The Far Eastern Question, however, holds the stage at this -moment by its third aspect. China, the eternally unoriginal, -has repeated herself once more, as every student of the Far -East has foreseen she would. This time the repetition is extraordinary -exact, as a reviewer of the new edition of Lord Loch’s -‘Personal Narrative’ of 1860 has just pointed out. ‘It is impossible,’ -he says, ‘to read it without being struck by the resemblance, -down even to details, between the situation in -China and that of exactly forty years ago. Then, as now, a war -party led by an Imperial Prince was in the ascendant; a war -was forced on European Powers by a gross breach of a solemn -treaty, two Ambassadors on their way to Peking being fired on -and obliged to return; the armies of those Powers had to march -on the Chinese capital; the Chinese authorities in the provinces -were frantic in their eagerness to negotiate so as to stop -the advance of the allied army on the capital. Li, then only a -<span class='pageno' id='Page_x'>x</span>provincial Governor, had his little proposals for settling everything -to his own satisfaction. The Emperor had fled from the -capital, and the lady who is now Empress Dowager had fled -with him, and in many other respects history is just now -repeating itself with curious fidelity.’<a id='r2' /><a href='#f2' class='c006'><sup>[2]</sup></a> But forty years ago -there was no occupation by eight nations, and no five great -Powers endeavouring to checkmate one another’s plans. -Indeed, there was then no Far Eastern Question at all. But -though we have changed, China remains the same. Her -rooted hatred of foreigners, her treachery, her lies, her sickening -cruelty, her utter inability to reform herself, to eradicate -corruption, to form an army or a navy—to be, in a word, a -nation—remain precisely as they have always been. Writers -with no first-hand knowledge of China have not unnaturally -fallen into the error of thinking that because small-bore rifles -and Krupp guns have been found in the hands of the Chinese -troops, who have used them with effect in beating back for a -time foreign forces, therefore China has at last laid to heart -the lessons of her defeat by Japan, and has become a military -Power to be reckoned.<a id='r3' /><a href='#f3' class='c006'><sup>[3]</sup></a> It is a complete misapprehension. -The Boxers fought recklessly, like the Mahdists, from a -belief in their own magical invulnerability; but the regular -troops hardly even attempted to withstand a foreign attack in -anything like equal numbers, except from behind strong walls, -and not always then. Describing the capture without a shot -or a blow of several forts and magnificent guns, that had never -been fired since they were bought, an eye-witness says: ‘Only -the most complete demoralization, utter rout, and headlong -<span class='pageno' id='Page_xi'>xi</span>flight of the Chinese could explain the abandonment of such -valuable guns, gear, and equipment.’<a id='r4' /><a href='#f4' class='c006'><sup>[4]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c008'>I dwell upon this point because there is great danger of it -being overlooked at the present crisis—by some from ignorance, -by others from design. As the missionary said to M. Leroy-Beaulieu, -‘Those who most despair of China are those who -know her best’; and the author’s own conclusion that ‘any -reform from the inside is out of the question, no matter from -how high the initiative starts,’ is the conviction of all students -of China, except those who have never been within ten thousand -miles of her coast. This very weakness, coupled with her -malleability, even to the profession of arms—witness the gallant -conduct of the Chinese Regiment from Wei-hai-wei under its -British officers—is the kernel of the danger of the present -situation, for the nation that should be free to organize China -would be a menace to the rest of the world. Those who aim -at conquest are therefore playing for a high stake, and their -inspiration is more cogent than that which urges others to the -defence of mere trading opportunities. The course of the -coming century depends upon the result of this trial of statesmanship. -Woe betide England if her leaders fail her now!</p> - -<div class='lg-container-r'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>HENRY NORMAN.</div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_xiii'>xiii</span> - <h2 class='c005'>CONTENTS</h2> -</div> - -<table class='table0' summary='CONTENTS'> - <tr> - <th class='c009'></th> - <th class='c010'> </th> - <th class='c011'><span class='small'>PAGE</span></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012' colspan='2'>INTRODUCTION</td> - <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_xv'>xv</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr><td class='c013' colspan='3'><em>PART I.—SIBERIA</em></td></tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <th class='c009'><span class='small'>CHAPTER</span></th> - <th class='c010'> </th> - <th class='c011'> </th> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'>I.</td> - <td class='c010'>THE ORIGINS OF RUSSIAN EXPANSION IN SIBERIA AND THE NATURAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE COUNTRY</td> - <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_1'>1</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'>II.</td> - <td class='c010'>THE LAND OF SIBERIA AND ITS INHABITANTS</td> - <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_9'>9</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'>III.</td> - <td class='c010'>AGRICULTURAL SIBERIA AND THE RURAL POPULATION</td> - <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_17'>17</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'>IV.</td> - <td class='c010'>MINERAL RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES</td> - <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_27'>27</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'>V.</td> - <td class='c010'>SIBERIAN COMMERCE AND THE TRANSPORT OF TEA</td> - <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_31'>31</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'>VI.</td> - <td class='c010'>SIBERIAN TOWNS</td> - <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_38'>38</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'>VII.</td> - <td class='c010'>IMMIGRATION</td> - <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_43'>43</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'>VIII.</td> - <td class='c010'>MEANS OF COMMUNICATION IN SIBERIA</td> - <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_56'>56</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'>IX.</td> - <td class='c010'>THE TRANS-SIBERIAN RAILWAY</td> - <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_64'>64</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'>X.</td> - <td class='c010'>THE RAILWAY THROUGH MANCHURIA</td> - <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_71'>71</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'>XI.</td> - <td class='c010'>THE ALTERED RELATIONS BETWEEN EUROPE AND THE FAR EAST RESULTING FROM THE TRANS-SIBERIAN RAILWAY</td> - <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_76'>76</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr><td class='c013' colspan='3'><em>PART II.—JAPAN</em></td></tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'>I.</td> - <td class='c010'>THE ORIGIN AND PAST HISTORY OF JAPAN</td> - <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_81'>81</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'>II.</td> - <td class='c010'>JAPAN AND THE REVOLUTION OF 1868</td> - <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_97'>97</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'>III.</td> - <td class='c010'>MODERN JAPAN</td> - <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_110'>110</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'>IV.</td> - <td class='c010'>JAPANESE INDUSTRY</td> - <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_118'>118</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'>V.</td> - <td class='c010'>RURAL JAPAN</td> - <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_125'>125</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'>VI.</td> - <td class='c010'>DEVELOPMENT OF JAPANESE COMMERCE</td> - <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_135'>135</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'>VII.</td> - <td class='c010'>THE FINANCES OF JAPAN</td> - <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_143'>143</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'>VIII.</td> - <td class='c010'>THE DOMESTIC POLITICS AND PARLIAMENT OF JAPAN</td> - <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_154'>154</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'>IX.</td> - <td class='c010'>JAPAN’S FOREIGN POLICY AND HER MILITARY POWER</td> - <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_164'>164</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'>X.</td> - <td class='c010'>THE FUTURE OF WESTERN CIVILIZATION IN JAPAN—RELATIONS BETWEEN JAPANESE AND FOREIGNERS</td> - <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_171'>171</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr><td class='c013' colspan='3'><span class='pageno' id='Page_xiv'>xiv</span><em>PART III.—CHINA</em></td></tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'>I.</td> - <td class='c010'>THE CHINESE PROBLEM</td> - <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_183'>183</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'>II.</td> - <td class='c010'>THE CAPITAL OF CHINA</td> - <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_188'>188</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'>III.</td> - <td class='c010'>THE COUNTRY IN THE NEIGHBOURHOOD OF PEKING—NUMEROUS SIGNS OF THE DECLINE OF THE EMPIRE</td> - <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_198'>198</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'>IV.</td> - <td class='c010'>THE LITERARY AND MANDARIN CLASS—PRINCIPAL CAUSES OF THE DECADENCE OF THE EMPIRE</td> - <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_204'>204</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'>V.</td> - <td class='c010'>THE CHINESE PEOPLE AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS</td> - <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_212'>212</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'>VI.</td> - <td class='c010'>FOREIGNERS IN CHINA—THE ATTITUDE OF THE CHINESE TOWARDS WESTERN CIVILIZATION</td> - <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_228'>228</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'>VII.</td> - <td class='c010'>THE POSITION AND WORK OF FOREIGNERS IN CHINA</td> - <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_234'>234</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'>VIII.</td> - <td class='c010'>CHINA AND THE POWERS</td> - <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_242'>242</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'>IX.</td> - <td class='c010'>RUSSIA, FRANCE, AND ENGLAND IN THE FAR EAST IN 1895–97</td> - <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_253'>253</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'>X.</td> - <td class='c010'>CHINA AND THE POWERS 1897–99—‘SPHERES OF INFLUENCE,’ AND THE ‘OPEN DOOR’</td> - <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_266'>266</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'>XI.</td> - <td class='c010'>THE FUTURE OF CHINA—MAINTENANCE OR PARTITION OF THE CELESTIAL EMPIRE?</td> - <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_276'>276</a></td> - </tr> -</table> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_xv'>xv</span> - <h2 class='c005'>INTRODUCTION<a id='r5' /><a href='#f5' class='c006'><sup>[5]</sup></a></h2> -</div> - -<p class='c007'>This book is the result of personal observations made in the -course of a journey through Siberia, China, and Japan, lasting -over a year, and is supplemented by information derived -chiefly from official and carefully collated documents. Asia, -the largest of the five Continents, is still the most densely populated; -but after being the cradle of civilization, it has been for -many centuries dead to all progress. It is in the awakening of -this vast Continent through the influx of men and ideas from -the West, by the application of modern science to the exploitation -of its wealth, that consists the phenomenon which we -are witnessing at the present time, and to the examination of -which the author devotes the following pages.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The effect of European action in Asia does not, it is true, -date from our time; it began as soon as the Asiatic invasion -of Europe had ceased. In the sixteenth century, whilst the -Russians were settling in Siberia, we find the Portuguese landing -on the coasts of India, China, and Japan. For a long time, -however, the influence of the West was merely superficial. -By the middle of the nineteenth century it had scarcely reached -India and a few points on the coast of Asia Minor; all the rest -of Asia remained obdurate. Siberia was almost a desert, unexplored, -without any communication with the outer world; -China a stranger to all progress; and Japan hermetically sealed. -Thus, all the temperate zones of Asia, those best suited to the -white race, as well as those inhabited by the most numerous, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_xvi'>xvi</span>industrious, and vigorous populations, regarded from whatever -point of view, were fifty years ago completely outside of -European influence. At this moment two facts of vital importance -have become prominent, which have been passed -over almost unnoticed by European nations, greatly preoccupied -by other questions. In 1854, Japan began to open -her ports to foreigners; and Russia, descending almost simultaneously -from the glacial solitudes of the Okhotsk Sea, -seized, at the expense of China, the banks of the Amur, thus -coming into actual contact with the Celestial Empire, which -hitherto she had only reached through deserts, advanced -her frontier up to the boundaries of Korea, and acquired a -port on the Pacific (latitude 43°), free of ice nearly all the year -round. This was the moment when that awakening of Northern -and Eastern Asia began which has become more and more -active, especially during the last ten years.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Immediately after the conquest of the Province of the Amur, -Count Muravief-Amurski, one of the prime movers in the -expansion of Russia, foresaw under what conditions the Muscovite -Empire could make its power felt in the Far East, and -suggested the construction of a Trans-Siberian Railway, which, -thirty years later, was undertaken by Alexander III. In building -it, his main idea was to open a strategic route to facilitate the -passage of his troops into China. The Trans-Siberian Railway -was thus constructed far less in the interests of the country it -traversed than for those of the countries at its opposite extremities. -But it was presently discovered that the southern -portion of Siberia through which the line runs possessed a -climate scarcely more severe than that of Manitoba and of the -far west of Canada, an equally fertile soil, with even better -irrigation and still greater mineral wealth, the development of -which was only prevented by the complete absence of any -means of communication.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Now Siberia, instead of being shut off from the rest of the -world, will be traversed by one of the most frequented routes -<span class='pageno' id='Page_xvii'>xvii</span>in the universe, and its southern zone will become one of the -richest possessions of the white race. The Russian peasants -have a natural tendency to emigrate, and since the abolition -of serfdom have been invading Siberia in great numbers, -and rapidly settling there. More than 200,000 emigrants -arrive there every year, and the births greatly outnumber -the deaths, so that the population of the Asiatic domains -of the Tsar is annually increased by more than 300,000. -Russian colonization doubtless has its drawbacks, the most -serious among which are lack of capital and absence of -education and enterprise among the labouring classes. In -spite of this, one fact remains: thanks to the Trans-Siberian -Railway, a numerous white population is already occupying -the whole North of Asia, from the Urals to the Pacific, -and thus Russia can meanwhile make the full weight of her -power felt in the Far East, which will certainly prove of incalculable -benefit to the advance of modern civilization throughout -Asia.</p> - -<p class='c008'>While Siberia was being colonized, and the Trans-Siberian -Railway was assuming definite shape, Japan was accomplishing -her extraordinary transformation. In 1854 the Powers, -under threat of bombardment, forced open the gates of this -feudal State, whose customs differed from ours more than those -of any other Asiatic country, and the entrance to which was -forbidden to foreigners under pain of death, and which for -ten years was the scene of numerous outrages against them. -Forty-five years later new Japan deals on a footing of -equality with the European Powers; its admission to the -number of civilized States is signalized by the suppression -of the extra-territorial privileges of the Europeans, and it -has become a centre of great industry, whose cotton stuffs -compete in China with those of India, America, and Great -Britain. European steamers supply themselves from her -coaling-stations; her foreign commerce amounts annually to -£44,000,000 sterling; her soil is intersected by 3,125 miles -<span class='pageno' id='Page_xviii'>xviii</span>of railway; a crowd of little steamers, often native built, ply -along her coasts, whilst regular lines of steamers fly her flag -in the ports of Europe, America, and Australia; her fleet is -the most powerful in the Pacific; her army, which crushed -China five years ago, formed the bulk of the international -troops that recently marched to the relief of the foreign Legations -threatened by the Chinese. Before these realities the -scepticism of those who have so long jeered at these Asiatics -playing at being Europeans must perforce turn to admiration.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Many people, however, find it difficult to believe in the -durability and the sincerity of Japan’s transformation. Without -concealing from ourselves that the prodigious work which has -been accomplished in Japan has sometimes been premature, -that imitation of Europe has occasionally been pushed to excess, -that it has even been directed in some points where it would -have been wiser to have remained faithful to national traditions, -we believe—as one of the best informed Japanese we have ever -met assured us—that the great wind from the West which is -blowing upon this country has come to last. We find this -conviction confirmed both by observation of the Japan of -the present and in the lessons taught by her past. Where -the changes have been carried too far, certain unassimilated -and unessential scoriæ will be eliminated, but the better part -of the work will remain and a new Japan be the result, in many -points similar to Europe in the scientific and material sense of -civilization—profoundly modified and brought nearer to the -West, yet differing from us from the social and moral point of -view. In short, we have confidence in the future of Japan, if -she only takes the lessons she has received to heart, and if -she be not over-proud of being the ‘Great Britain of the Far -East,’ and is not carried away by a spirit of aggrandizement -that may exhaust her resources. The prudent policy which -she appears to have adopted in the face of the present crisis -in China is, however, of a character well calculated to reassure -her friends.</p> - -<p class='c008'><span class='pageno' id='Page_xix'>xix</span>The study of the Chinese problem closes this volume. The -Celestial Empire, so far from being revivified like its neighbours, -has resolutely made no concession to Western civilization. -As long as China had only to trouble over the intermittent -and not far-reaching action of Western Powers, -distracted by a thousand other cares, and whose commercial -activity found outlets in other directions, she had not much -difficulty in maintaining her isolation.</p> - -<p class='c008'>From the moment, however, when she found herself face to -face with near and powerful neighbors, rejuvenated nations, -from whose eyes her incurable weaknesses were not screened -by the illusion of distance, she was destined, if she did not yield -with a good grace, to be swept along by the torrent of innovation -which she has so long and so vainly sought to resist. Japan, -by her victories in a war which was in reality a war of Western -Science <em>versus</em> Chinese Routine, a war of Progress against -Stagnation, in 1895 forced open the gates of China. If she had -not done so then, undoubtedly Russia would have achieved -the same work a few years later, after the construction of the -Trans-Siberian Railway. The Middle Kingdom no longer -frightens the world by its vastness, and those innovations which -it abhors are now thrust upon it by foreigners; thus has -been brought about a situation pregnant with political and -economical consequences still further complicated by the -rivalries of the European nations vying with each other to -realize a transformation from which they hope to reap enormous -advantages.</p> - -<p class='c008'>We have also endeavoured in this book to note down -the salient features of the present position, the knowledge -of which may serve to throw a light on the future of the -Celestial Empire. Firstly, by recalling the detestable Government -imposed upon China by the all-powerful class of <em>literati</em>, -who remain petrified in their stubborn pride, incurable -routinists, and hostile to progress; then, in contrast to the -decrepitude of this Government, the vitality of the people, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_xx'>xx</span>whose undeniable defects are compensated by an endurance, -perseverance, and commercial ability of the highest order; the -attitude of this people towards Europeans and their civilization, -the part hitherto played by the latter, their trade in the ports, -and the quite recent beginnings of great industries in these -very ports; the concessions for various undertakings granted -during the last four years to these very Europeans who are at -last emerging from the few acres in which they had hitherto -been penned at infrequent points along the coast or on the -banks of the Yang-tsze, and who are abandoning their exclusive -devotion to trade in order to carry out a system of real colonization -by applying Western methods to the realization of the -wealth of China; and finally the disquieting spectacle of the -Powers in rivalry around this decrepit Empire, on which none -dare lay a too heavy hand lest it crumble away and they lose -the best pieces, which each of them dreams eventually of -annexing.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Since this book was published in France, in April this year, -a particularly grave crisis has arisen in China. The most -violently reactionary faction in the Court of Peking has seized -the reins of power and has headed a movement for the extermination -of the foreigner; the regular army, making common -cause with the fanatical adherents of secret societies, has besieged -in their Legations the Ministers of all the nations, and -has opposed the onward march of the troops despatched to -their relief; hundreds of missionaries and thousands of native -Christians have been butchered throughout the Empire, and -everywhere, even in the Treaty Ports, the security of Europeans -has been menaced. These appalling events have, it would -seem, taken Europe quite unprepared, although warnings were -not wanting. A perusal of a file of the Hong-Kong and -Shanghai newspapers will easily prove that great uneasiness -prevailed as far back as last spring, if not in the Legations, at -any rate in the Treaty Ports.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The present crisis will, it is true, not be a matter of much -<span class='pageno' id='Page_xxi'>xxi</span>surprise to those who have studied China. The reader will -notice several passages in this book in which we are reminded -of the necessity of proceeding with the utmost caution in introducing -progressive measures into the ancient Empire, if we -wish to avoid an outbreak culminating in a sanguinary upheaval -and the possible collapse of that worm-eaten structure. It -would appear, however, in fact, that during the past three -years the ill-advised action of Europe has done everything -to bring about such a disaster.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Too numerous railway and mining concessions, preliminary -works commenced simultaneously in a great number of localities, -without sufficient regard for the superstitions of the natives, -the invasion by foreign engineers and foremen with overbearing -manners, could not but irritate the Chinese, and prepare the -ground for agitators and agents of the secret societies and -(unemployed) literati who swarm everywhere. The violent -action of Germany at Kiao-chau, followed by the seizure of -many points on the coast by the other Powers, readily induced -the Court and literati to believe that the Foreign -Powers intended to partition China, and treat her as a conquered -country.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The governing classes among the Chinese have little patriotism, -as we understand it, but they tremble for their salaries -and privileges, and, in common with the populace, they -beheld with horror the prospective violation of their ancient -customs. They could not therefore be expected to repress -with any energy disturbances with whose authors they were in -cordial sympathy. Again, the dynasty of foreign origin which -reigns in China is now worn out and tottering; it knows that -any concession made to the foreigner will be turned to its disadvantage, -that the best means of recovering prestige is to -pose as the enemy of the Western civilization; it has even to -fear that any great opposition on its part to popular prejudice -may one day lead to its being swept away.</p> - -<p class='c008'>What wonder, then, that under the rule of the old Dowager -<span class='pageno' id='Page_xxii'>xxii</span>Empress—an energetic Sovereign, perhaps, but ignorant, like -the harem recluse she is, and, moreover, passionate, like most -women—the Court viewed benignly the organization known -as the <em>I-ho-chuan</em>, almost literally, ‘League of Patriots,’ -which we call ‘Boxers,’ who first spread themselves over Shan-tung, -where the foreigners had displayed the greatest brutality -and tactlessness! The creatures of the Empress, narrow-minded -and brutal Manchu princes, mandarins of an ultra-reactionary -type, who, having never been brought into contact -with Europeans, are ignorant of the latter’s strength—all these -people whom the Palace revolution in September, 1898, exalted -to power, and who exercise it without control since the exile -of Li Hung-chang to his distant Viceroyalty of Canton, have -not learned how to observe the precautions which at one time -guided that wily old fox.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Imperial edicts have favoured the Boxers, ‘those loyal subjects -who cultivate athletics for the protection of their families, -and who bind together different villages for the purpose of mutual -protection.’ In this association, affiliated with other secret -societies, it was sought to discover a prop for the dynasty -both at home and abroad. Arms were procured from Europe, -intended either for the rebels or the regular army, and then, -as always happens with feeble Governments in times of trouble, -it was found impossible to stem the torrent so easily let loose, -and increasing violence soon got the upper hand. The -Empress even appears to have been overwhelmed by factions -more reactionary and fanatical than herself—factions at whose -head stands Prince Tuan, father of the recently adopted heir-presumptive.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Such is the genesis of the present crisis. What are to be -the consequences? They would be very grave if the chiefs of -the movement hostile to foreigners removed the present Emperor -to some distant place, and refused to negotiate on anything -like reasonable terms, or if, leaving him in the hands of -the Europeans, they should raise a competitor against him. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_xxiii'>xxiii</span>The Emperor, whose accession to the Celestial throne is, in any -case, according to Chinese ideas, irregular, and who has exasperated -the mandarins by his attempts at reform, would thus -run a great risk of being considered a usurper, both in the eyes -of the people and the literati. What could the Powers do in -such a case? We hardly dare dream of such a laborious, -costly, and deadly undertaking as would be an expedition -five or six hundred miles from the coast into the heart of a -country like China, devoid of good means of transport, and -where a large European army would find existence difficult. -Besides, in the midst of complete anarchy and civil war, the -Powers, whose union is already so unstable, would be forced -to interfere, with the risk of irreparable disputes arising between -them all at the finish.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Even if the Court should come to terms and no competition -for the Empire arise, the situation in China will -none the less present great difficulties. The installation in -Peking of an Emperor surrounded by councillors approved by -the West and watched by a foreign garrison, which would be -the most desirable end of the present acute crisis, would not -suffice to restore order throughout the Empire. All the elements -of agitation are now at boiling-point, and it is even to be -feared that ere the allies are able to act vigorously on the -offensive, the anti-foreign movement will have gained ground -in the provinces. The prestige of the Manchu dynasty, -greatly damaged already, will be still further lowered when -the Emperor is exhibited as the puppet of the West. Ambitious -aspirants of all sorts, Chinese patriots inimical to both -Manchu and foreigner, even legitimate representatives of the -ancient Ming Dynasty, will all of them seek to profit by this -state of things, and, fishing in troubled waters, cause thereby -a general recrudescence of insurrection, fomented by the secret -societies. Will the Chinese Government succeed in repressing -them by its own forces? This is not at all certain, and in that -case will Europe charge herself with all the political, military, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_xxiv'>xxiv</span>and financial risks involved in the exercise of such an avocation -and become the police of China?</p> - -<p class='c008'>It will perhaps be said that if the Manchu Dynasty can no -longer maintain itself, it may be best to leave it to its fate -and allow it to be replaced by another. A new, popular, and -strong Government would then appear upon the scene, which -would find it easier to observe the engagements imposed -upon it.<a id='r6' /><a href='#f6' class='c006'><sup>[6]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c008'>But apart from the fact that this new Government might -perhaps be very hostile to foreigners and difficult to bring -to reason, the Manchus are not yet stripped of all power, -and their overthrow would not be effected without a devastating -civil war, lasting probably many years. Europe is -now too much interested in China to encourage such a catastrophe.</p> - -<p class='c008'>On the other hand, nobody desires the partition of the -Celestial Empire. To begin with, the chief eventual rivals are -not ready: Russia has not completed her Trans-Siberian Railway; -England is hampered with her interminable war in South -Africa; the United States, with a large portion of its population -opposed to outside extension, insists that no part of the Middle -Kingdom shall be closed to them—in other words, that it shall -not be dismembered; Japan has not completed her armaments; -her finances require careful attention, and she feels, besides, -that she cannot act alone. France has every reason for averting -a partition, in which her share (the provinces adjoining -Tongking) would be a very poor one; and finally, the present -insurrectionary movement should prove to the world—including -Germany, who took so indiscreet an initiative at Kiao-chau—that -it would not be easy to govern the Celestials after -<span class='pageno' id='Page_xxv'>xxv</span>European methods, and that the mere task of establishing order -in a large colony carved out of China might be beyond the -strength even of the European Powers.</p> - -<p class='c008'>This being the case, the only policy possible for all countries -is to abandon for the present their personal aims, and to -endeavour in unison to patch up the Manchu system. To -depart from this line of action is to proceed to disaster. But -the Powers will have to display some wisdom for a few years -to come if this bolstering process is to have the least chance -of success. The Court and the populace of the capital should -be given a not-easily-forgotten lesson: let the instigators of -the proposed murders of the ministers be delivered up and -made to pay for their cowardly conduct; if necessary, even -let their bodies be left unburied, which, in the eyes of the -Chinese, is the most terrible of all punishments; let the old -Empress be exiled if it should appear necessary to remove her -from power. But after all this is done, let the legal order of -succession be respected. While putting pressure on the Court -to appoint moderate or even slightly progressive men to the -head of affairs, avoid a too direct and a too evident interference -in the selection of rulers, which would be perilously inadvisable. -On the one hand, the Powers would soon cease to act in -unison, each considering such and such a grand mandarin -more or less its friend and such another its enemy; and on -the other hand, the men chosen would lose all authority, as -they would be looked upon as agents of the foreigners. Against -this, it is absolutely indispensable that Peking and Tien-tsin -should be occupied during several years by a strong garrison, -otherwise it will be said that the foreign soldiery have departed -through fear, and that the permanent fortification of -Ta-ku should be forbidden.</p> - -<p class='c008'>These last measures doubtless involve certain inconveniences, -granting the difficulty of maintaining harmony between the -various Powers, but if they should be neglected the lesson -would risk being too soon forgotten, as were those of 1860 and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_xxvi'>xxvi</span>1894–95; moreover, they would provide a means of permanent -pressure on the Chinese Government.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Nevertheless, if it is important to strike hard at the centre, -the more reason have we to refrain from any act calculated to -lower in the provinces the prestige and the authority of a regime, -the sources of whose weakness are already numerous. The -threat of popular risings will continue one of the serious -dangers of the position in the Far East; to avoid them, we -must not seize upon the first incident that arises as a pretext -for demanding concessions, the extortion of which disturbs -and estranges the mandarins, whilst their execution irritates -the people. If we do not accept such a course, we run the -risk of creating permanent anarchy. The surest way of obtaining -tranquillity in China would be a formal, or at any rate a -tacit, international understanding binding the Powers for some -years not to support at Peking any demand for a concession as -long as the greater number of railways now under construction -are not completed. That would, moreover, enable European -capitalists, who have not been very eager to take up Chinese -loans, to ascertain the value of their investments in the Middle -Kingdom. We believe that the business and practical sense so -highly developed in the Chinese will induce them to become -reconciled to the material side of our civilization, but by multiplying -simultaneously in every direction preliminary works, say, -for railways, we annoy them and wound their susceptibilities -before giving them a chance to appreciate the advantage of -our innovations, not to mention the economical disturbance -arising therefrom.</p> - -<p class='c008'>In conclusion, although patriotism is at a low ebb in the -Middle Kingdom and the military spirit still lower, we might, -by worrying the Chinese too much, end by creating the one -and resuscitating the other. In any case, if the Chinese make -bad soldiers—chiefly because they have detestable officers—they -are first-class rioters. Wherefore any idea of dividing -China, either now or at some future time, seems to us ill-advised. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_xxvii'>xxvii</span>Passing events will have taught a useful lesson, -should they bring Europe to abandon once and for ever this -fatal idea. It was very wisely said in the English Parliament -during the present crisis that ‘China must be governed by the -Chinese and for the Chinese,’ which does not mean that it -should be governed against the foreigners. Let us hope that -all Europe will frankly take to heart this sagacious remark.</p> - -<div class='lg-container-r'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>PIERRE LEROY-BEAULIEU.</div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='section ph1'> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c003'> - <div>THE</div> - <div>AWAKENING OF THE EAST</div> - </div> -</div> - -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_1'>1</span> - <h2 class='c005'><em>PART I.—SIBERIA</em></h2> -</div> - -<h3 class='c001'>CHAPTER I.<br /> <span class='large'>THE ORIGINS OF RUSSIAN EXPANSION IN SIBERIA AND THE NATURAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE COUNTRY</span></h3> - -<p class='c014'>Antiquity of Russian expansion in Asia, which is contemporary with that of -Western Europe in the New World—Analogy between the North of -Asia and the North of America—The three natural Zones of Siberia—Their -climate, extent and capabilities—The Polar Zone is absolutely -sterile and uninhabitable—The Forest Zone—The Meridional Zone, -which is both cultivable and colonizable.</p> - -<p class='c007'>No sooner had Russia shaken off the yoke of the Tatars which -weighed upon her for three centuries, and left its mark so -deeply impressed as to be still visible, than, reformed and -united, she began to expand beyond her natural confines. In -this she only imitated the example of Spain, which a short -time previously had been delivered from the Moors and united -under the sceptre of Ferdinand and Isabella. Being essentially -a continental country, without easy access to the sea, and -having no difficult frontier to bar her expansion to the East, -Russia turned her attention in that direction, and, defeating -her old masters, annexed the Tatar kingdoms of Kazan and -Astrakhan. This conquest extended her frontier to the immediate -neighbourhood of the Ural Mountains. In the second -half of the sixteenth century Tsar Ivan the Terrible found -<span class='pageno' id='Page_2'>2</span>himself possessor of vast but sparsely-peopled regions, at a -great distance from his capital, and extremely difficult of direct -administration.</p> - -<p class='c008'>It is a remarkable coincidence that under these circumstances -an organization should have been formed in Russia -almost spontaneously with others of the same kind which were -to prove of such great utility in the West—<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">i.e.</span></i>, a great colonizing -company, under Imperial charter. The Strogonofs, very rich -merchants, who had extended their sphere of trading operations -as far as the basin of the Kama, the great affluent of the -Volga, addressed in 1558 a petition to the Tsar, in which they -demanded a concession of the lands in that region, promising -at the same time, in consideration of the grant, to build a -city, develop the resources, and defend the country against -the attacks of savage tribes. Ivan the Terrible acceded -to their request, accorded them divers trading privileges, and -conferred upon them the right to administer justice and to -levy troops. Thus was organized a regular chartered company -analogous with the East India Company and with those more -recently formed in South Africa and on the banks of the Niger. -The company in question began the conquest of Siberia.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The Strogonofs, once established on the Kama, experienced, -as generally happens when a civilized people finds itself in -contact with barbarous tribes, the necessity of extending -further eastwards at the expense of their Tatar neighbours, -if only to protect themselves from their depredations. In 1581 -the Tsar gave them permission to employ a celebrated Cossack -pirate, Ermak Timoféef,<a id='r7' /><a href='#f7' class='c006'><sup>[7]</sup></a> who seized the city of Sibir, or Isker, -then capital of Khan Kuchun, the principal Tatar chief of -Western Siberia. Six years later the present city of Tobolsk -rose on the site of Sibir.</p> - -<p class='c008'>We will not attempt to narrate the history of the conquest -of Siberia, which strongly resembles the taking of North -America by French pioneers at about the same time. When -the Tatar tribes of the West had been driven towards the -Southern Steppes, the Cossacks encountered little opposition -from the poor hunters and fishermen whom they found in the -district. In summer these Cossack adventurers navigated -the rivers in canoes, whilst their winters were spent in block-houses, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_3'>3</span>or <em>ostrogs</em>, surrounded by palisades not unlike the forts -erected by the Hudson Bay Company. Soon they became -very numerous, being attracted from the more civilized parts of -Russia by the growing profits of the fur trade. In 1636 they -had reached the mouth of the Yenissei, and a year later arrived -on the banks of the Lena. In less than two years—that is, in -1639—they had discovered the shores of the Okhotsk, and fifty -years later the whole continent had been traversed from end to -end. In 1648 the Cossack adventurers Alexief and Dezhnief -doubled the eastern extremity of Asia, and arrived at Kamtchatka, -and in 1651 the Ataman Khabarof established himself -on the Amur, where he discovered other adventurers, who had -already descended this river in 1643. At this juncture the -Russians found themselves face to face with the Manchus, who -had just conquered China, and notwithstanding the heroic -defence of their fortress at Albazine on two occasions, they -were obliged in 1688 to abandon the middle and lower basins -of the Amur to the Sons of Heaven in accordance with the -treaty of Nertchinsk, a territory which they only reconquered -from the degenerate Chinese in 1858.</p> - -<p class='c008'>To the west as well as to the east of Siberia the Russian -frontiers remained scarcely altered until about the middle of -the present century. It was only in 1847 that the Tsar’s -troops were able to cross the arid zone of the Kirghiz Steppes. -The policy of Peter the Great was directed towards Europe, -and his dream was to extend Russia towards the West by the -conquest of Constantinople—a fact which accounts for the -extinction of zeal on the part of Russia with respect to her -Asiatic possessions, which were now treated merely as penal -settlements or as fields for scientific investigation, whenever -the Sovereigns took it into their heads to become specially -interested in such matters. The increase of Imperial authority -and the more regular organization of the State had in the -meantime subdued the adventurous and enterprising spirit of -the Cossacks, and that particular class of men, half soldiers, -half brigands, who had proved themselves such hardy pioneers -at an earlier epoch, now disappeared, and in the middle of -the eighteenth century Siberia was opened as a field of colonization. -In spite of the many obstacles which the system of -serfdom in Russia placed in the way of peasant emigration, in -1851 the population of Siberia had reached 2,400,000, a figure -which, although not very large considering the immensity of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_4'>4</span>the country, was in excess of the population of Canada at the -same period, which numbered only 1,800,000 souls. From -this point of view the Russians had no reason to be ashamed -of their colonization, and, as a matter of fact, have none to-day. -According to the census of January, 1897, there were -5,731,732 Siberians living on a territory of 4,812,800 square -miles, whereas in 1891 there were only 4,833,000 Canadians -inhabiting the 3,721,800 square miles known as the Dominion. -The density of the population of Northern Asia is not much -inferior to that of British North America, and it must not be -forgotten that the conditions of life in Siberia are greatly -inferior to those of Canada.</p> - -<p class='c008'>A comparison of the natural conditions existing in the -northern regions of the old and the new world shows that -they are nearly identical. Both consist for the most part of -vast expanses of flat country, often covered with magnificent -forests, and quite as frequently barren. Siberia, like Canada, -is irrigated by noble rivers, which under a milder climate -would constitute a superb network of intercommunication; -but unfortunately both countries are hampered by an extremely -rigorous climate, which imprisons these fine rivers during -many months of the year under an impenetrably thick coating -of ice. In the north of Siberia as well as of Canada the -country is so intensely cold as to render agriculture impossible. -That part, therefore, of both countries which is capable of -exploitation is of extremely limited extent, consisting both in -Russian Asia and in British North America of a ribbon-like -zone some 3,720 miles in length and from 250 to 300 in width.</p> - -<p class='c008'>If Siberia resembles Canada in some things, it must be confessed -that the latter country has every advantage in point of -beauty and position. In the first place, Siberia is more to the -north; that portion which approaches nearest to the Equator is -situated about 43° latitude—that is to say, a little more to the -north than the extreme south of Upper Canada, and, being on -the Pacific, it is most distant from European Russia, whereas -the corresponding part of Canada is the nearest to England, -and washed by the Atlantic, the St. Lawrence, and the great -lakes. On the other hand, that part of Siberia which is closest -to Russia is covered to the south by barren steppes or by -mountains which confine the centres of civilization between -54° and 57° latitude. Moreover, whereas the coast of Canada -on the Pacific enjoys a much milder climate than the country -<span class='pageno' id='Page_5'>5</span>situated on the other side of the Rocky Mountains, the regions -of Siberia which border the Great Ocean are just as frigid as the -rest of the country. The heights which separate the basin of -the Amur from that of the Lena are not sufficiently elevated to -form a barrier against piercing north winds, and the Japanese -Archipelago interposes itself between the coast and the warm -waters of the Black Current, which plays the same part in the -Pacific as the Gulf Stream in the Atlantic. Thus it happens -that the climate of Trans-Baikalia, where the rivers which, -when united, form the Amur take their source, is one of the -most rigorous in Siberia, and the sea is covered with ice in the -port of Vladivostok, which lies in the same latitude as Marseilles, -whereas, opposite on the American coast, seven degrees -northward, the winters of British Columbia are not more severe -than those of Holland or the West of Germany.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Notwithstanding its terrible climate, Siberia is not entirely -uninhabitable; indeed, even on the borders of the Arctic -Ocean humanity is represented by a few aboriginal Polar -tribes, who wander from place to place in sledges drawn by -dogs, and usually followed by a numerous herd of reindeer. -The white man, however, cannot endure the conditions prevailing -in the extreme north, and it is therefore necessary -with a view to colonizing that one must learn to distinguish -between the different parts of Siberia.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The country has been judiciously divided into three zones, -which are, proceeding from north to south, the Tundra (or -Arctic Moss) Zone, the Great Forest Zone, and lastly the -Agricultural Zone; the south and south-west of the last-named -includes the steppes, as well as the Altai and Sayan -Mountains. It would be impossible to trace a line of exact -demarcation between these different zones, for the transition -is extremely gradual; but, speaking generally, the land situated -north of 63° and 64° latitude is barren of all vegetation excepting -mosses and lichens. The subsoil is eternally frozen, but -the surface thaws in summer very slightly, thereby turning -the country into one vast marsh. The rivers remain frozen -during nine months of the year. Under these circumstances, -cultivation is out of the question. To the south-western -limit of this zone, at Beriozof on the Obi, the medium temperature -all the year round is 5° C. below zero, and in winter -it goes down to 23°. The average in summer is 13·5°, and -that of the hottest month 18°, which is about the same as -<span class='pageno' id='Page_6'>6</span>the heat in Paris in July; but the warm weather lasts so short -a time as to be useless for agricultural purposes. To the -east the climate becomes rapidly severe, and at Verkhoyansk, a -village situated in the Yakutsk district, latitude 67°, one of the -coldest regions in our hemisphere is reached. The average -throughout the year is 17° C. below zero; during the three -winter months it is 47°, and in January 49°. The minimum is -about 68° below zero. What characterizes this dreadful region -is that to the extreme cold in winter succeeds a very short but -relatively warm summer. The medium thermometrical reading -during the warm season is 13°, which rises to 15° for the month -of July, during which the mercury sometimes rises to 25° in -the shade. The difference between the temperature of the -warmest and the coldest months of the year is about 64°, that -is to say, four times what it is in Paris. It is very remarkable -that in whatever direction you go from Verkhoyansk, even -northward, the climate becomes less rigorous, thanks to the -comparative mildness of the winter. As to the summer, it -scarcely merits the name, falling to 9° and even to 3° C. on the -borders of the Arctic Ocean.</p> - -<p class='c008'>In such unfavourable conditions, it is not surprising that -the 1,600,000 square miles which comprise the Tundra Zone -only support between 60,000 and 80,000 inhabitants, mostly -Samoyeds, Ostiaks, Chuckchis, Lamuts, and other miserable -Arctic tribes, among whom live, or rather vegetate, a few -Russian officials and a fairly numerous group of exiles. The -reindeer, whilst serving as a means of transport, is also used as -food, and its hide furnishes the natives with clothing. There -is no other domestic animal excepting the powerful Polar -dog which drags the sleighs. Whether this part of Siberia -will ever become of any ultimate use is at present hard to say, -but we may take it for granted that it will only be through the -discovery of a mineral wealth, the existence of which is unknown -at the present time, that the Polar Zone of Siberia will ever -attract even a temporary settlement of colonists.</p> - -<p class='c008'>To the south of the Tundra begin the Great Forests. At -first the trees are sparse and stunted, and only an experienced -botanist can recognise the distinctive characteristics of the -larch; the trees, however, become loftier as the climate -moderates and the summer lengthens. The larches, firs and -pines rise to a great height, and become at last so thick as to -prevent the sun drying the damp soil of the Taiga, or primeval -<span class='pageno' id='Page_7'>7</span>forest. The banks of the rivers are invariably covered by -immense marshes, the most extensive of which are those to be -met with in the neighbourhood of the Obi and the Irtysh. -When the snow begins to melt, the inundations extend to -considerably over six miles on either side of the ill-defined -river-banks. The climate of this region is extremely severe, the -winters frightfully cold, but the summers fairly warm. The -frost lasts only seven instead of eight months; the subsoil, -however, is eternally frozen, and agriculture is only possible in -certain spots and demands constant attention. It is evident, -however, that this zone, which covers about 2,320,000 square -miles, that is to say about half Siberia, will never be able to -support a dense population; still, with its great forests it is -much more valuable than the more northern or Polar regions. -If it is possible to prevent these Siberian forests from undergoing -the same process of devastation which has befallen those -of Northern America, they may become of enormous value. -Moreover, there exist in their midst some very important gold-mines, -especially near the Yenissei and in the basin of the -Olekma, one of the tributaries of the Lena, not a few of which -are already being satisfactorily exploited. There is therefore -hope that in due time these vast regions now covered with -forests and marshes may be able to support a much larger -population than the actual one, which does not exceed 700,000 -souls, mostly Russians and natives.</p> - -<p class='c008'>If we abstract from the total extent of Siberia the -1,600,000 square miles of Tundra, and the 2,320,000 square -miles of forest land, there remain nearly 900,000 square miles -which form the cultivable zone, the only one which will ever be -capable of supporting anything like a dense population. This -region is not perceptibly distinguishable from that of the -forests by any marked change in the landscape, unless it be to -the west, where the great green trees that usually flourish in -milder climes form an agreeable contrast to the everlasting -pines and firs. Then, again, the presence of cereals is very -noticeable, the late summer being of sufficient length to -enable wheat, barley and oats to ripen. So long as the seed -remains under the snow it matters little how intense the cold -may be above; but when once the snow melts it becomes -absolutely necessary for the heat to be sufficiently great during -a prolonged period to enable the grain to germinate, and above -all it is necessary that the autumnal frosts should not occur -<span class='pageno' id='Page_8'>8</span>before the corn has had sufficient time to ripen. At Nertchinsk -in Trans-Baikalia the winter is often much more rigorous than at -Beriozof on the Obi, and yet corn ripens in the neighbourhood -of the first-named town, for the simple reason that the temperature -between May and September, although not many degrees -higher, remains equable much longer. It is rather to the -brief period during which the sun has any power than to the -intensity of the heat or the excess of cold that may be attributed -the difficulty of rendering these extreme northern regions of -any agricultural value. Notwithstanding that the cultivable -zone of Siberia is so extremely limited, it covers an area five -times the size of France and equal to half the cultivable sphere -of Russia in Europe, which is also afflicted with glacial and -sterile zones. This more fortunate section of Siberia may, and -doubtless will, offer for a long time to come an admirable field -for Russian emigration.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_9'>9</span> - <h3 class='c001'>CHAPTER II<br /> <span class='large'>THE LAND OF SIBERIA AND ITS INHABITANTS</span></h3> -</div> -<p class='c014'>Siberia a prolongation of Russia in Europe—Marked resemblance in -scenery and climate between the two countries—Insignificance of the -indigenous population, especially towards the West—Facilities of colonization—Preponderance -of the Russian element in the agricultural -zone—Indigenous elements: Polar tribes diminishing; Mongol population -increasing, but much more slowly than the Russian—Asiatic -immigration to the east of the cultivable zone—Heterogeneous elements -imported from Europe—Jews and Raskolniks.</p> - -<p class='c007'>After crossing the beautifully wooded valleys and the chain -of hills known as the Ural Mountains, the traveller arrives at -Cheliabinsk, situated in the Great Plain, and can scarcely -believe that 1,200 miles of railway separate him from Moscow, -so striking is the resemblance between the scenery around -him and that of Central Russia, notably in the Governments -of Tula and Riazan. In the open spaces rise tufts of -delicate verdure, beyond which, here and there, appear the -gray outlines of some village, consisting of rows of wooden -houses surrounded by fields. The only striking difference -between the appearance of this country and Central Russia -consists in the predominance of the birch between the Ural -and the Obi. For nearly 1,200 miles no other tree shades the -absolutely flat country. It is the same with the wild flowers, -among which I noticed the <em>Kaborski tchaï</em>, with its long pink -spiral blossoms, which recall those of the digitalis. It is not -surprising that a Russian territory bearing such a singular -resemblance to the mother country should prove attractive -to Russian emigrants. The winter here, however, is undoubtedly -both longer and colder; the summer is a little hotter, -and the mosquitoes much more troublesome; but, on the other -hand, land is freer, and the peasant is no longer confined -<span class='pageno' id='Page_10'>10</span>in the very narrow space granted in the old country to -his father at the time of the emancipation of the serfs, -and which, at his death, he has been obliged to share with -his brothers. If one is surprised to notice during the first few -days’ journey by the Trans-Siberian Railway so few villages, -the reason is not far to find. The line passes a little to the -south of the colonized region, and borders the insufficiently-watered -steppes where the Kirghiz graze their cattle. From -time to time the traveller perceives in the plain the circular -huts and even the tents of these nomads, and not unfrequently -at the stations he may meet with a number of them, with their -beady black eyes, their yellow complexions, and their closely-shaven -heads contrasting picturesquely with the fair locks and -long yellow beards of the red-shirted Mujiks. A little to the -north, after passing the Obi, the Kirghiz disappear, although -the town of Tomsk still possesses a mosque, said to be the -most northern in the world.</p> - -<p class='c008'>It is estimated that these Tatars do not exceed 90,000. The -majority profess Islamism, whilst a few have been converted to -the Orthodox faith, and a smaller proportion still remain -pagans. Only a fraction dwell in the towns. Besides this -Tatar tribe, some 20,000 Mongols, called Kalmucks, inhabit -the Altai Mountains. In the north may still be found other -aborigines of a very inferior type, known as Ostiaks. They are -supposed to be of Finnish origin, and do not exceed 40,000 in -number, and are exclusively engaged in hunting and fishing. -It is stated that at one time they were fairly civilized, but they -have been gradually driven back by the Russians into the -Arctic and sterile regions, and have become decimated by -drink and other vices, the unfortunate result of contact with a -superior race. Further north of the forest-line and the -Tundra region wander a few Polar tribes called Samoyeds, -who, owing to the extremely arid nature of the soil and the -rigour of the climate, have never come into contact with -European civilization. There are about 20,000 of them, and -owing to the unfavourable social and climatic conditions under -which they exist, it is not likely that they will increase. The -purely Russian population, to whom the agricultural zone -almost exclusively belongs, forms about nineteen-twentieths of -the 3,356,000 inhabitants of Western Siberia, which itself -contains three-fifths of the population of all Siberia.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The richest section of the Government of Tobolsk consists -<span class='pageno' id='Page_11'>11</span>of a narrow band of land running between the marshes of the -northern regions and the sterile steppes of the southern. At -Tomsk this cultivable zone widens when it passes the Obi, and -the character of the scenery changes to pleasant hills and valleys, -in which latter the earth is still sufficiently thick and rich to -entirely cover the rocky formation below. The leaf-bearing -trees are finer, and are interspersed with splendid specimens of -Siberian fir and the extremely picturesque Siberian cedar-tree. -Occasionally these trees group themselves together, and form -a sort of wood or plantation; at other times they grow singly -along the roadside, being thus cultivated in order to supply -sleepers for the railway or as superior fuel. The fields are -full of beautiful flowers, and the general appearance of the -country is that of a fine park, forming a very agreeable contrast -to the monotonous Barabinsk Steppe, with its infrequent and -stunted birches. The plateau which stretches between the -two rivers Tom and Chulym, affluents of the Obi, at a height -of between 800 and 900 feet above the level of the plain, is -extremely fertile, the vegetation being most varied, and the -whole region is vastly superior in point of picturesqueness to -any hitherto visited. The valley of the Yenissei, dominated -to the east by mountains and traversed by the magnificent -river, is extremely beautiful. The water runs rapidly, is remarkably -clear, and in more than one place the majestic stream -widens to over 1,000 yards.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Once the traveller has passed the Yenissei, he leaves the -tedious plains behind him, and finds himself among pleasant -hills and valleys, which are rapidly becoming highly cultivated. -The post-road, which crosses from the west to the east, from -Tiumen, at the foot of the Ural, to Stretensk on the Amur, -sometimes follows the course of the rivers, and at others rises -to a considerable height above them. On either side rise -veritable walls of gigantic Siberian pines, with red trunks, -sombre verdure, interspersed by magnificent larches of a -lighter shade of green and of more regular shape, and by -fir-trees and cedars, whose cones contain those little seeds which -the Siberians are so fond of chewing. On the banks of the -more important rivers, and at every ten to twenty miles’ distance, -the traveller now passes numbers of little towns and villages, -surrounded by arable land, which form, however, but very insignificant -oases in the midst of these interminable forests. It is, -however, along this post-road, in the valley of the Yenissei, and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_12'>12</span>on the banks of two or three other rivers, that almost the entire -population of Central Siberia is concentrated. Here, as elsewhere, -the Russian element predominates; for out of the -570,000 inhabitants of the government of Yenissei there are -not more than 50,000 natives, who, moreover, live principally -in the forests to the north.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The population of the Government of Irkutsk includes about -500,000 inhabitants, of whom 100,000 are Buriats, mostly -shepherds and farmers. They were originally Mongols, and -still practise Buddhism, and live principally on the slopes of -the Sayan chain of mountains, which runs close to the Chinese -frontier. To the east of the great Lake Baikal, which is 440 -miles in length by 30 to 60 in width, and which by reason of its -mountainous shores recalls the lakes of Scotland, is a region -that contains the only really beautiful scenery in Siberia. This -section of the country has always entertained close relations -with China. Trans-Baikalia in former times supplied the -Emperors at Peking with their finest game. The whole district -of the Verkhne-Udinsk, comprising the basin of the Selenga, -the principal affluent of the Baikal, is frequently and not inappropriately -called Russian Mongolia. On the summit of the -Ahmar Dabam, a chain of mountains which dominates Lake -Baikal, I perceived for the first time a fetish-tree with its -branches bedecked with parti-coloured rags. On the eastern -slope I also discovered a Lamasery. The scantily cultivated -plateau to the north, which is watered by the Vitim, a tributary -of the Lena, was, it appears, not populated at the time of the -arrival of the Russians, and even to-day it only contains a few -villages peopled by wretched Mujiks. This region before the -annexation of the right bank and of the lower valley of the -Amur was used as a sort of military encampment. At the -present time it is governed by a military régime, whose administration -is concentrated in the hands of a Governor, invariably -a general in the army. Of the 670,000 inhabitants, -one-third are natives, one-third peasants, or inhabitants -of its gloomy little towns, and the other third consists -of Cossacks, who are only distinguishable from the peasants -by wearing a yellow band on their caps and trousers. Instead -of paying taxes, they have to submit to certain military obligations. -Although they are Cossacks by name and by race, -they possess none of the brilliant military qualities which distinguish -their European kinsmen. The two territories annexed -<span class='pageno' id='Page_13'>13</span>by Russia in 1858 at the expense of China, the Province of -the Amur, and the southern portion of the Littoral Province—the -only one which is of the least value—are scarcely inhabited, -and were even less peopled at the time of the arrival of the -Russians, when they possessed not more than 10,000 Manchus, -and about as many natives, engaged in hunting and fishing, -and belonging to several declining tribes. The Manchus have -remained and are prospering; the other tribes are gradually -passing away. Some 20,000 or 30,000 Korean and Chinese -emigrants have settled in the neighbourhood of Vladivostok. -The Russian immigration, however, forms at least five-sixths -of the 112,000 inhabitants of the Province of the Amur, and -more than two-thirds of the 214,000 of the coast province, of -whom 30,000 natives live in the Arctic regions, where the -whites leave them in peace. The newly-acquired Chinese -territory includes at least 140,000 Russians out of the 175,000 -inhabitants. It must, however, be remembered that this -remarkable majority is mainly due to the concentration of -troops which has taken place since the Chino-Japanese War, -which so profoundly modified the political condition of the -Far East.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The following table is formed from official sources—chiefly -from the census taken on January 28, 1897, and marks the -area and the total population of the nine Siberian provinces:</p> - -<table class='table1' summary=''> - <tr> - <th class='btt bbt c015'></th> - <th class='btt bbt blt c016'>Square Miles.</th> - <th class='btt bbt blt c016'>Total Population.</th> - <th class='btt bbt blt c016'>Natives and other Asiatics.</th> - <th class='btt bbt blt c016'>Area of Agricultural Zone, Square Miles.</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Tobolsk</td> - <td class='blt c017'>536,600</td> - <td class='blt c017'>1,438,655</td> - <td class='blt bbt c017' rowspan='2'>180,000</td> - <td class='blt bbt c017' rowspan='2'>270,800</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='bbt c015'>Tomsk</td> - <td class='bbt blt c017'>328,000</td> - <td class='bbt blt c017'>1,917,527</td> - - - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Yenissei</td> - <td class='blt c017'>987,400</td> - <td class='blt c017'>567,807</td> - <td class='blt c017'>45,000</td> - <td class='blt bbt c017' rowspan='2'>193,400</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='bbt c015'>Irkutsk</td> - <td class='bbt blt c017'>280,800</td> - <td class='bbt blt c017'>501,237</td> - <td class='bbt blt c017'>100,000</td> - - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Yakutsk</td> - <td class='blt c017'>1,535,900</td> - <td class='blt c017'>283,954</td> - <td class='blt c017'>250,000</td> - <td class='blt c017'> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Trans-Baikalia</td> - <td class='blt c017'>229,800</td> - <td class='blt c017'>669,721</td> - <td class='blt c017'>200,000</td> - <td class='blt c017'>139,200</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='bbt c015'>Amur</td> - <td class='bbt blt c017'>172,900</td> - <td class='bbt blt c017'>112,396</td> - <td class='bbt blt c017'>18,000</td> - <td class='bbt blt c017'>104,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Littoral</td> - <td class='blt bbt c017' rowspan='2'>741,400</td> - <td class='blt c017'>214,940</td> - <td class='blt bbt c017' rowspan='2'>70,000</td> - <td class='blt bbt c017' rowspan='2'>147,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='bbt c015'>Island of Sakhalin</td> - - <td class='bbt blt c017'>25,495</td> - - - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='bbt c016'>Total</td> - <td class='bbt blt c017'>4,812,800</td> - <td class='bbt blt c017'>5,731,732</td> - <td class='bbt blt c017'>863,000</td> - <td class='bbt blt c017'>854,400</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p class='c008'>The southern agricultural region of Siberia, in contradistinction -to the frozen zone to the north, is mainly inhabited -<span class='pageno' id='Page_14'>14</span>by European settlers. The proportion of these over the -native population is greatest in the west, and decreases towards -the east, where, however, it still remains superior by about -two-thirds, so that we need not hesitate to conclude that -out of the 5,000,000 people living on this long strip of land, -more than four million and a half are of European origin. -Nevertheless, it must not be forgotten that the indigenous -Mongol and Turki population, which is immensely superior to -the poor tribes of fishermen and hunters who wander about -the northern zone, does not diminish, but continues to increase, -much less rapidly, however, than the Russians, who are constantly -being reinforced by emigration. Fortunately the -feeling between these two distinct elements is excellent; the -Russians, being of Oriental extraction, do not hold those racial -prejudices which are so marked among the Anglo-Saxons. -The religious question, which is of course an obstacle to any -attempt at a fusion between the Orthodox and the Buddhist -population, is also not very intense or intricate. The -Russian is essentially tolerant, in opposition to his Government, -which is the reverse. The Orthodox emigrants have -no objection to a Pagoda or a Lamasery being erected alongside -of their own churches and monasteries. I remember -seeing, while travelling, from Cheliabinsk to Omsk, the Metropolitan -of the last-named town, who happened to be in the -train, get out at a certain station to visit a church which was -being built, and to bestow his benediction upon a crowd of -Mujiks who had assembled for the purpose of receiving it. -Whilst the ceremony was in progress, a few feet further on five -Tatar travellers had stretched their carpets, and, with their -faces turned Meccawards, were going through the elaborate -gymnastics connected with Mussulman devotion. The Mujiks, -who were crowding forward to kiss their priest’s hand, never -dreamt of disturbing the Mohammedan worshippers, but -watched them quite respectfully. I doubt very much whether -in any part of Europe three centuries ago, when the populace -was not more developed in the intellectual sense than are these -poor Mujiks, such a scene of tolerance could ever have been -witnessed. The Russian Government accords the utmost liberty -to its subjects in Asia in matters of religion. The origin of -Russian official intolerance in Europe is in the main purely -political, and if it considers Buddhists and Mussulmans in -Siberia less objectionable than Catholics and Protestants, it is -<span class='pageno' id='Page_15'>15</span>simply because the followers of these divergent creeds are the -representatives of former and very dangerous enemies, and are, -moreover, perpetually endeavouring to impose their doctrine -upon anyone with whom they come into contact.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The Russian colonization of Siberia has been carried out -without the aid of any other European nationality. There are -only a few hundred other Europeans settled in the country, -the greater number of whom are French people. I was much -amused at the little station at Sokur, about nine leagues from -the Obi, to find a buffet kept by a Frenchwoman, a peasant -who had married a Bessarabian, and who had only been in -Siberia a year, after having, however, spent several in Southern -Russia. Her buffet was arranged with a greater degree of -taste and comfort than those in charge of the Russians, who, -however, keep everything scrupulously neat and clean. The -worthy lady had forgotten her fluent French, but had not yet -acquired fluent Russian. At Tomsk I fell in with another -Frenchwoman, who kept a bookshop, and in nearly all the -towns along the great post-road at Irkutsk, Blagovyeshchensk, -Khabarofsk, and Vladivostok, I found French shopkeepers, -some of whom had been thirty years in the country. They -seemed to entertain a distinct preference for photography.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Now that Siberia is at last thrown open to civilization, -foreigners will, of course, become much more numerous, and -already many engineers are to be found in various parts of the -mining districts; but for all this, I do not think that at any -period the Russian colony will be greatly influenced thereby.</p> - -<p class='c008'>We may, therefore, conclude that, from the ethnological -point of view, as well as from the geographical, Siberia is -merely a prolongation of Russian Europe, or of what is known -as Greater Russia. It is true that a few heterogeneous -elements exist of the same sort as those to be met with in -Russia itself: Poles and Germans from the Baltic provinces, and -the descendants of exiles, or even exiles themselves; and thus -it comes to pass that in all the larger towns, at Tomsk, -Krasnoyarsk and Irkutsk, Catholic and Lutheran churches -abound. On the other hand, there are synagogues in nearly -all the secondary towns. Israel is fully represented in Siberia, -and the little town of Kainsk between the Omsk and the -Obi is popularly known as the Jerusalem of Siberia. There -are also about 100,000 Raskolniks, followers of a reform -which took place in the liturgy of the Orthodox Church in the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_16'>16</span>seventeenth century. This, however, is, needless to say, a -purely Russian contingent. The Raskolniks exist in every part -of Siberia, but in the province of the Amur they form about a -tenth of the population, and are also very numerous in Trans-Baikalia. -They are mainly the descendants of people belonging -to this particular sect, who were originally exiled from -Russia in the eighteenth century. Their chief peculiarity -consists in their love of temperance and horror of every sort of -innovation. Nothing would induce them to take even a cup of -coffee or tea. In our time the members of certain curious -sects, that of the Eunuchs, for instance, are exiled into Siberia, -and confined to a village in the territory of the Yakutsk, in the -Tundra Zone. According to the belief of these eccentric -persons, Napoleon I. was a reincarnation of the Messiah, and -they believe he rests in the sleep of death on the shores of -Lake Baikal until a time when an angel shall awaken him and -place him at the head of an amazing host destined to establish -the reign of God in all parts of the world. The Raskolniks, -owing to their temperate habits and their industry, are generally -considered to be a very valuable element in the population of -the country.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_17'>17</span> - <h3 class='c001'>CHAPTER III<br /> <span class='large'>AGRICULTURAL SIBERIA AND THE RURAL POPULATION</span></h3> -</div> -<p class='c014'>Enormous preponderance of the rural and peasant population in Siberia—Siberian -Mujiks—Their rude and primitive manner of life—Excellent -quality of the land, and backward methods of cultivating it—Mediocre -and irregular manner of raising cereals—The necessity and difficulty -of improving agricultural operations—The absence of large and enterprising -ownership in Siberia a disadvantage.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Siberia resembles Russia not only in the matter of its immensity, -its loneliness, the duration of its winters, monotonous -expanse of its plains and enormous forest lands, but -also in the leading characteristics of its peasantry; but in -Asia and Russia these seem accentuated, possibly by reason -of the peculiarity of the surroundings among which they are -compelled to live. Even more than in Russia is this class of -the people essentially rural; the exploitation of the gold-mines -is the only other industry of any importance, and it employs -relatively few people in comparison with its yield.</p> - -<p class='c008'>In Siberia great landlords are conspicuous by their absence. -The only nobles mentioned by the official statistics are a few -functionaries whose lands will be found on the other side of -the Ural, and the only rich people in the country are the -merchants residing in the towns, who occasionally add to -their incomes, mainly derived from trade, by a certain interest -in mining speculations. Some of these worthy people build -themselves handsome country houses, but they do not take -much interest in agriculture. A few concessions of land were -made in the middle of the century, but they have long since -passed out of the hands of their original owners into those of -the Mujiks, to whom they have been ‘let,’ but these do not -appear to care about their prosperity. All the rest of the land -<span class='pageno' id='Page_18'>18</span>belongs either to the Government or to small farmers, who rent -it from the Crown.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The Siberian peasant lives exactly as do his brethren in -Russia, in villages or hamlets. Isolated houses are rare, the -agglomeration of dwellings being an absolute necessity of the -conditions of that collective and communal proprietorship -which prevails throughout the Tsar’s dominions. A Siberian -village is, therefore, a reproduction of a Russian village. On -either side of the road is a succession of low, one-story -houses built of dark wood, and separated from each other by -yards, at the back of which are the stables. The appearance -of these dwellings is exceedingly dreary, for they are invariably -built of rough wood, blackened by age. Occasionally, however, -some few planks are painted a vivid white. The usual doleful -aspect of these villages is sometimes enlivened, especially in -the larger ones, by the presence of a brick church, with -cupolas painted a vivid green. In the hamlets these chapels -are only outwardly distinguished from the rest of the <em>isbas</em> by -an iron cross.</p> - -<p class='c008'>If anything, the general appearance of these Siberian -villages is even more dreary and depressing than that of their -counterparts in European Russia, where the houses are often -gaily painted. Here they are built entirely of unhewn wood, -like the log-huts of the Far West. Then, the few domestic -animals to be seen wandering about the roadway are not -reassuring, for the dogs look like wolves, and the enormous -black pigs like wild boars. Nevertheless, I am of opinion that -the Siberian peasant is better off than his Russian brother. -His <em>isbas</em> are certainly more spacious, although, to be sure, six, -seven, and even ten, persons are usually crowded into two or -three tiny rooms, the immense stove in the centre of which, in -winter, is usually used as a bedstead by the entire family, whereby -whatever air otherwise might be admitted is hermetically -excluded. For all that, I have never seen in Siberia any of -those miserable hovels to be found in Russia, but undoubtedly -the manners and customs of the Siberian peasants are even -more primitive than those of the Russians. They possess less -knowledge of hygiene and cleanliness, and are absolutely -ignorant of everything calculated to render life in the least -degree agreeable or rational. During the six winter months -the Siberian keeps his house rigorously shut, excluding even a -breath of air; in summer he does the same, for the double -<span class='pageno' id='Page_19'>19</span>windows of the two or three very small sleeping-rooms -are never opened on any pretext. These Siberian peasants -are, moreover, astonishingly lazy and apathetic. Their only -pleasure in life consists in dreaming away the time whilst -smoking their pipes, and in drinking <em>vodka</em>, not to enliven -themselves, but simply to get dead-drunk. Whilst the men -are at the public-house the women stand by their open doors, -listless and gossiping, indolently watching their fair-haired -children, who, with only a red shirt on, fabricate the time-honoured -dirt-pies of universal childhood in the mud or else -roll about in the dust. Work is limited to what is absolutely -indispensable, and the Siberian peasant is much happier doing -nothing than in working to obtain what his fellows in other -countries would consider the necessaries of life, but which he -looks upon as ludicrously superfluous. Every village possesses -a herd of cows, which you may watch in the early morning -hours straggling off to the pastures, driven along by two or -three old men or urchins, and although you can always get -excellent milk, butter is very scarce, and cheese unknown. As -to a garden, even for the cultivation of necessary vegetables, I -have never seen one in the hundred villages I have visited, -excepting, indeed, in Trans-Baikalia, where I perceived one or -two attached to the <em>stanitsas</em> belonging to some Cossacks. It is -not because vegetables will not grow, but because the peasants -will not cultivate them. In the towns in the Amur district, -such as Blagovyeshchensk, Khabarofsk, and a few others, vegetables -are to be obtained, but even these are brought over by -the Chinese from the opposite bank of the river.</p> - -<p class='c008'>In addition to laziness, the Siberian peasant adds the most -surprising obstinacy, which is not precisely a bad quality, when, -as in the case of the English, it serves to increase their dogged -activity; but in Siberia it is simply another incentive to do -nothing. Once a Siberian peasant has made up his mind to -play <i><span lang="it" xml:lang="it">dolce far niente</span></i>, no power, Divine or human, will induce -him to budge. I have often heard Europeans say that Siberia -is the only country where you cannot get work done even for -money; and this is perfectly true, for on certain holidays it -matters little what you may offer, you will not get a coachman -to take you a five-mile drive. The Siberian would rather lose -money than earn it against his will.</p> - -<p class='c008'>If inertia is happiness, then the Siberians must be the -happiest people on earth. They disdain progress and would -<span class='pageno' id='Page_20'>20</span>rather die than better their condition. Their motto is, ‘What -sufficed for our fathers is surely good enough for us,’ and this is -the invariable answer a peasant will give you if you venture to -suggest any sort of change for the better in his condition. His -favourite texts from Holy Scripture are those which flatter his -habit of intellectual stagnation, those which preach resignation -and abstention, but certainly not those which teach action and -effort. ‘He who is contented with little will not be forgotten -by God,’ was the text I once saw stuck up in the waiting-room -of one of the dirtiest stations in Trans-Baikalia. It struck me -as being particularly appropriate, both to the place and the -people. The prevailing lack of energy and perseverance, which -has been noticed by travellers in every part of the Tsar’s -Empire, seems to me to be one of the radical characteristics of -the Russian nature. It may possibly derive its origin from the -influences of Tatar blood, which was so largely infused among -the lower classes of Russians from the thirteenth to the sixteenth -century at the time of Tatar domination. Then, again, -it must be remembered that extreme cold, like extreme heat, -produces apathy, especially upon the men, who are thereby condemned -to remain for many months inactive, and whose minds, -owing to their excessive ignorance, are a blank.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Siberian peasants are supremely ignorant. In 1894 the -Government of Tobolsk, the most progressive of any in respect -of education, numbered only 19,100 children frequenting the -schools out of a population of 1,400,000 souls. In the towns -the proportion of scholars was 4·63 per 100, but in the country -districts it did not rise to 1·05. One must not, however, be -too severe on the Siberians for showing so poor an educational -result, for we must not forget the enormous distance between -village and village, and the difficulties of obtaining schoolmasters, -owing mainly to the excessive ignorance in which the -lower orders of Russians are plunged. Notwithstanding the -very considerable progress which has been made in this direction -in the last few years, there is probably no country in the -world where reading and writing would be of greater advantage, -for during at least one-half of the year the Siberian has -literally nothing to do but to think, or, better, to dream, his -life away.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Serfdom has never existed in Siberia, which accounts for the -Mujiks having a much more independent air than their brethren -in European Russia. They have, however, in common with -<span class='pageno' id='Page_21'>21</span>these latter, that peculiar sort of charity which has been well -called the ‘pity of the Slav.’ It is, however, not an active -virtue, but a sort of dreamy pitifulness which induces these -poor people to help each other, but does not prevent them -from being exceedingly suspicious of strangers. They will, -however, invariably leave on the sill outside their windows a -hunk of bread or a jug of milk for the benefit of some escaped -convict or some wretched outcast. Unfortunately, however, -the extreme ignorance and the innate laziness of these people -prevent their extracting from the soil much that, at a very -small cost of labour, would greatly increase both their wealth -and their comfort.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The soil of Siberia is exceedingly rich. The famous -<em>tchernozium</em>, or black earth of Southern Russia, covers a great -part of the Meridional Zone of the provinces of Tobolsk and -Tomsk. The upper valleys of the Obi and the Yenissei, -sheltered from the north winds, enjoy a milder climate than -the plains, and are excellent for the growth of all sorts of -cereals. On the borders of the Angara, the great tributary of -Lake Baikal and on that of the Lower Amur, and its tributary -rivers and its affluents, which are marshy, there are enormous -tracts of extremely fertile land, but the methods of cultivation -are of the most primitive. Then, again, the vast majority of -the rural population obstinately refuses to work in the fields. -All along the great postal highway, which stretches from the -Ural to the Amur, and beyond to Kiakhta, the manner in which -the peasants earn their living is considerably modified. They -exist by trafficking along this main road, along which pass -manufactured goods imported from Europe, which are forwarded -to Central Siberia, the great caravans of the tea merchants, the -gangs of exiles, and lastly the ordinary travellers. As this -road is the only one which goes from west to east, it is very -animated. Even in summer, when the traffic is not so active—the -tea caravans only pass in winter—I have rarely seen fewer -than 100 transports of one sort or another per day. Although -every postmaster is obliged to keep no fewer than forty horses, -and each carriage rarely requires more than three, occasionally -it is impossible to secure a conveyance, and one is obliged to -ask the peasants for assistance, which they are very ready to -afford, making you pay from three to four roubles (six to eight -shillings) for a relay of twenty-five <em>versts</em> (sixteen miles), a sum -which, if they see that they have to deal either with somebody -<span class='pageno' id='Page_22'>22</span>who is in a great hurry, or with a wealthy traveller, they persistently -increase in the most barefaced manner. In winter -the transport of tea also enables them to make considerable -sums of money.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Thus it is that the country folk in these latitudes neglect -agriculture, considering it merely as an accessory. In the -neighbourhood of the villages you will find a few fields and -pastures, where the cows, horses, and sometimes a few black -sheep, are sent out to graze under the care of two or three boys -or old men, or sometimes without any shepherd at all. A -wooden barrier prevents their escaping into the neighbouring -forest.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The number of horses in Siberia is very great. In the -government of Tomsk in 1894 there were 1,360,000 horses to -a population of only 1,700,000, that is to say, 80 horses per -100 inhabitants. In the government of the Yenissei the -proportion is over 90 per 100 inhabitants, and the same -proportion prevails in the government of Irkutsk. Almost the -only other country where there are almost as many horses as -men is, besides Russian Central Asia, the Argentine Republic, -where there are 112 per 100 inhabitants. In the United -States there are but 22, and in France only 7. The proportion -of horned cattle is also very considerable, being about -60 per 100 inhabitants, rising in Eastern Siberia, in Tobolsk -and Tomsk, to 80, whereas in the Yenissei and Irkutsk districts -there are about 3 beasts per family. The greater part of these -are cows. Bullocks are very scarce, not being employed either -for food or burden. It is only along the Kirghiz Steppes, in -the country traversed by the Trans-Siberian railway between -the Urals and Omsk, and the region immediately below this -line, that milk is used. The rain falls in this region very -slightly, and the land is not cultivable, but purely arable, and -as the Kirghiz are extremely capable herdsmen, the results are -very satisfactory, and they export their cattle largely into -Russian Europe, and even beyond. I remember coming -across a train full of bullocks which were being conveyed to -St. Petersburg, and I know of at least one large house in -Moscow which receives weekly from the little town of Kurgan, -situated on the railway line, many thousands of pounds of -butter, a great part of which is exported thence to Hamburg.</p> - -<p class='c008'>If one wishes to become acquainted with the real Siberian -farmers, one must leave aside the highroads and plunge -<span class='pageno' id='Page_23'>23</span>into the country. True, the villages become much less -numerous, but then they are surrounded by more extensive -fields. In those districts which were first colonized in the -Government of Tobolsk some rather thickly-peopled places -are occasionally to be found, especially in the northern steppe -between 55° and 58° latitude. In the Government of Tomsk -a more inhabited region will likewise be met with to the south -of the zone of the immense but well-wooded marshlands; but -in this province, as in that of the Yenissei, the southern -portion, instead of being covered by sterile steppes, contains -the magnificently wooded valleys of the upper Obi, the -Yenissei, and their affluents, which very naturally attract the -greater number of Russian emigrants.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The agricultural resources in the districts of Barnaul, Biisk, -Minusinck and Kansk, are extremely rich, and, besides excellent -land, splendid water, and a relatively mild and agreeable -climate, there are a variety of minerals. More to the east, -if we wish to avoid the ever-silent desert, or the <em>taiga</em>, we -must, on leaving the highroad, enter some of the valleys at the -foot of the mountains on the Chinese frontier, on the borders -of which the whole population is at present concentrated. -The aspect of this region, however, differs very little from that -crossed by the post-road between Irkutsk to the great -prison of Alexandrof, where we behold fine wheat-fields and -herds of cattle wherever there is an opening in the thick but -marshy woodlands. Excepting for the extent of the cultivated -lands which surround them, the appearance of the villages, -however, does not change in the least. There is never a -vestige of a garden or of any sort of verdure near the houses, -unless, indeed, it be a few flowers growing in pots, which are -never arranged on the ledge outside the window, but in the -interior, and form, together with a few icons and the portraits -of their Imperial Majesties, the only attempt at ornamentation -indulged in by the inhabitants of these essentially comfortless -and inartistic dwellings.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The only crops of the least value in Siberia are those of -the various cereals, of which about 150,000,000 bushels are -harvested, mostly in the western part of the country, which is -not only the most thickly populated, but also the freest of -forests.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The rest of Siberia, that is to say, the provinces watered by -the Amur and the territory of the Irkutsk, which are very thinly -<span class='pageno' id='Page_24'>24</span>peopled, does not produce a total of more than 5,500,000 -bushels. Wheat, generally sown in spring, and oats form -each about 30 per cent. of the total cereal product of Siberia. -The balance is made up of rye, barley and buckwheat. The -arable land has to undergo, especially when first reclaimed -from the steppe, the usual process of preparation, manuring, -etc. The Siberian peasants have not acquired even the most -rudimentary knowledge of agricultural science, and, consequently, -often have to abandon their farms. On the other -hand, in certain favourable regions, in the Governments of -Tobolsk and Tomsk, where the earth is exceptionally rich, the -pastures have gone on fairly well for over a hundred years -without any sensible diminution in the excellence of their grazing -properties. However, land is so abundant in Siberia that often -the peasants, when they find after they have reclaimed it that -its productive qualities decrease, rather than be bothered with -a repetition of the processes of manuring, etc., pack up their -traps and migrate elsewhere, literally, to ‘fresh woods and -pastures new,’ where probably the foot of man has never trod.</p> - -<p class='c008'>In Siberia, as stated already, great land-owners are non-existent. -The soil is, therefore, exclusively in the hands of the -peasants, but up to the present the <em>mir</em> collective communal -property-ship, as is found throughout Russia, is quite exceptional, -and then only in the more sparsely peopled parts of the west. -Since 1896, however, the Government has decided to introduce, -if not practically, at least theoretically, the <em>mir</em> principle as -it exists in European Russia. Nevertheless, in Siberia the -commune is not supposed to possess property, but simply to -hold it on the principle of usufruct, the whole land belonging -to the Crown. In those parts of the country which are nearly -uninhabited the <em>zaïmka</em> system still holds good, whereby a -peasant, although he may be a resident in a village, is allowed -to build himself a hut on the steppe or in the forest where he -passes the summer, and where he can cultivate and even -enclose one or two large fields which are supposed to belong -to him, and which he can sell or give away as he pleases, and -which, in point of fact, he owns by right of being the first -occupant; but this system is only provisional. With the -increase of population it gives place to another, whereby the -peasant is not considered an absolute proprietor, but only for -so long as he chooses to cultivate his land properly. From -the moment he ceases to comply with this condition another -<span class='pageno' id='Page_25'>25</span>man can take his land. Everybody is allowed to cut hay in -the prairies where he likes, and the pastures and woods are -common property. On the other hand, it is forbidden to -enclose any forest or pasture-land.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The climate of Siberia is naturally opposed to the cultivation -of cereals, which have to struggle against droughts, autumnal -fogs, and late and early frosts. During the last ten years some -very interesting meteorological observations have been made at -Irkutsk, whereby it has been discovered that July is the only -month in which it never freezes. Then, again, in the government -of Tobolsk, and to the west of that of Tomsk, in addition to these -climatic drawbacks, the crops are often devastated by myriads -of <em>kobylkas</em>, a sort of locust or grasshopper which comes from -the Kirghiz Steppes. Under these circumstances, agriculture -in Siberia may well be said to be an even more arduous way -of earning a livelihood than it is in Russia proper. It not -unfrequently happens that the crops fail utterly, and during -the last ten years it has been noticed that these disasters are -mainly due to increasing impoverishment of the soil. The -irregular condition of the crops is all the more disastrous in -Siberia because of the lack of means of communication -which impedes the easy transport of corn from one district to -another, and results in enormous fluctuations in prices, that -often spell ruin to the unfortunate peasants. The introduction -of the railway to Irkutsk occasioned a notable reduction in the -price of bread in Eastern Siberia, but, on the other hand, the -principal line, unfortunately, transports agricultural products -from Siberia to the region of the Volga.</p> - -<p class='c008'>But a matter which is even of greater importance than that -of intercommunication are the extremely antiquated methods of -cultivation which the peasants insist upon retaining. In the first -place, their notions of preparing the reclaimed soil for culture -are absolutely barbarous. All they do is to scratch up the -immediate surface of the earth with a sort of plough which -dates from the Iron Age, and then sow their crop. When the -field is exhausted, which, not having been properly manured, -it very soon is, it is abandoned for a period of years until it -recovers some of its reproductive qualities. With improved agricultural -implements the earth could be more deeply ploughed, -and at a very little distance beneath the surface it is almost invariably -extremely rich. The question is how to induce the -peasants to change methods which have been handed down to -<span class='pageno' id='Page_26'>26</span>them from their ancestors through the ages. It is of course -much to be regretted that in Siberia there exists no great land-owners -wealthy enough to introduce modern improvements, and -thus teach their humbler neighbours the value of progress by -practical illustration; but until means of communication are -facilitated and improved it will be difficult to induce men of -wealth and education to settle in a country which, however -naturally rich it may be, is, to say the best of it, exceptionally -unattractive. Even in Russia, where so many noblemen, owing -to the great losses which they sustained at the time of the emancipation -of the serfs, have abandoned their lands to the peasants, -and have retired to the larger towns, there are yet to be found -men who have had the courage to face reverses, and who have -taken their estates in hand on scientific principles, introducing -the latest improvements in agricultural implements, and thereby -have influenced for the better the peasantry by even inducing -some of them to abandon their primeval methods of agriculture. -This desirable state of affairs, however, cannot exist in -Siberia, at least for the present. Then, again, there is another -advantage which would accrue from the presence of rich land-owners -in Siberia, namely, contact with persons of superior -education and culture, which in the end would doubtless affect -the peasantry for the better. In Russia the peasantry form a -compact body which, by reason of its singular position in the -social sphere, is absolutely unable to receive or absorb any -influences from the more educated classes. This is a state of -affairs which it is highly desirable should cease in the Asiatic -colonies, where at present it is even more strongly marked -than in Russia itself. The problem of the future of Siberia is -the possibility and feasibility of inducing important land-owners -to settle in the country.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_27'>27</span> - <h3 class='c001'>CHAPTER IV<br /> <span class='large'>MINERAL RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES</span></h3> -</div> -<p class='c014'>Importance of the Siberian mines—The gold-mines—Insufficiency of -organization principally due to unfavourable climatic influences—Railway -extension would bring about an increase in the value of the mining -industries—Silver, copper, and iron mines.</p> - -<p class='c007'>However productive Siberia may eventually become, it can -never solely depend for its prosperity upon its agricultural -resources. Happily, the subsoil is richer than the upper crust, -on account of the great abundance of ore of various kinds -which it conceals. The gold and silver mines, however, alone, -up to the present, have been worked to any extent, although a -few of the iron mines have been slightly exploited. Even in -the case of gold, however, only the alluvial mines have been -touched in those valleys where gold exists, and nowhere have -the rock veins been opened. More can hardly be expected -in a country which is nearly destitute of the proper means -of transport; hence the extreme difficulty of conveying the -necessarily heavy and elaborate machinery required for -the extraction of the gold from the rock. Then, again, -the rock ore is only to be found at great distances from -inhabited centres in unexplored forests and mountainous -regions. The diggings, on the other hand, are much easier, -demanding no other implements than a sieve and a spade. -The siftings have been exploited in great numbers from end to -end of Siberia, their takings proving, since 1895, equal to two-thirds -of the gold product of the whole of the Russian Empire, -the fourth largest gold-centre in the world, coming immediately -after the United States, Australia, and the Transvaal. The -amount of gold abstracted from the Siberian mines since 1895 -amounts to not less than £5,000,000, and this figure, high as -<span class='pageno' id='Page_28'>28</span>it is, is, in all probability, much under the mark, the miners -very often retaining a good deal of their findings for themselves. -The Government is the only buyer of Siberian gold. It has -the right to claim on purchasing the gold from the miners -between 15 and 20 per cent. of the ore. This system of taxation -is extremely pernicious, since it tempts the miners, as -already stated, to conceal the real amount of their takings. -An increase in the surface tax would compensate for the suppression -of the official claim upon the net product, and would -put an end to a great deal of fraud. I have been assured that -a reform in this sense may soon be expected. The enforced -obligation of selling to the State becomes, in the long-run, exceedingly -irksome to concessionaires, because it forces them to -send their gold to a great distance, to the laboratories at Tomsk -and Irkutsk, where the official agents analyze it to determine -its value, whereas, of course, it would be much simpler to send -it direct to Europe, and there sell it to speculators who would -promptly pay the price demanded. Another drawback in the -present system is that the miners have often to wait a long -time for ready cash, which is absolutely necessary to them in -their business. Sometimes the Government keeps them waiting -until their gold has reached St. Petersburg, and they are -ultimately obliged to discount it according to the very high -tariff rates prevailing in Siberia. The transport of the metal to -Europe by the State is as expensive as it is troublesome, since -it has to be conveyed to Moscow and St. Petersburg in charge -of a military escort. I have on several occasions seen between -the Yenissei and Lake Baikal carts bringing gold from the -mines, escorted by three or four soldiers ready to fire on the -least signs of possible attack. Another drawback to the -Siberian mining industries are the primitive implements used -in abstracting the ore from the soil, which, as M. Levat, a distinguished -engineer, very truly observed to me, were of a sort -that apparently dated from the days of Homer. Under these -circumstances, it is the custom in Siberia to work the surface -of the mine only, and after enough ore has been extracted -from it, to abandon the place entirely.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Owing to the geological formation of the country, the more -important Siberian mines will not be found, as in California, -on the mountain slopes, but at depths covered by marshlands. -Their exploitation, therefore, is much more costly, as it is -necessary before commencing operations to cart away an -<span class='pageno' id='Page_29'>29</span>immense quantity of the upper surface of the earth. Hence it -happens that if a mine is disturbed at the surface, and then -abandoned by the miners, it is, so to speak, spoilt, as any -attempt to work it again in all probability will result in disappointment. -For this reason, many excellent mines in the -basin of the Obi and of the Yenissei have been already exhausted, -and the centre of the mining industry in these regions -has been transferred to the banks of the Amur and the Lena, -and this notwithstanding the many difficulties the miners have -to face, as the soil hereabouts is invariably frozen for about -twenty yards in depth, and work can only be pursued for about -120 consecutive days in the year. The miners’ salaries, too, -are exceedingly high. In the diggings at Olekma, an affluent -of the Lena, wages are 3s. 4d. per diem, that is to say, double -what they are on the Yenissei, and eight times as much as in -the neighbourhood of Semipalatinsk, where the Kirghiz workmen -receive only fivepence. Notable progress, however, has -been made in these regions during the last few years, as the -mines are gradually leaving the hands of adventurers and small -associations, to be concentrated in those of important companies, -financed by the richer Siberian merchants, and even by -large Russian firms. The great mining company of Olekma -extracted in 1880 £1,000,000 worth of gold, and maintained -its reputation at £680,000 in 1896, proving this mine to be -one of the richest in the world. With the introduction of -proper means of transport, and, above all, a liberal reform in -the legislation, doubtless the Siberian mines would become -infinitely more valuable than they are at present.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Already European capitalists are paying attention to Asiatic -Russia, and one or two important groups of French mining -engineers during the past three years have been inspecting -those parts of the country which are said to be richest in ore. -I was never more surprised than to find on board a boat on -the Amur two English engineers, whose acquaintance I had -made in December, 1895, in the far-away goldfields of the -Transvaal. All that the mines of Siberia need to become of -enormous value are sufficient capital and up-to-date methods -of working them. The silver mines of Nertchinsk, which in -old times had an unenviable reputation as the site of the most -terrible Siberian penal settlement, are now of little value. On -the other hand, copper, iron, and coal-beds are distributed in -great abundance in various parts of the country, and seem to -<span class='pageno' id='Page_30'>30</span>constitute its principal and most permanent source of wealth. -The copper mines have not been exploited at all, but are -known to exist in the Upper Yenissei, in the districts of the -Minusinsk, celebrated throughout Siberia for its agricultural -prosperity; others may be discovered more to the west, on the -Irtysh. Iron is found in great quantity in the western regions, -in the Altai Mountains, on the borders of the Yenissei, and in -the valley of the Angara, and to the east in Trans-Baikalia, -where its iron mines have been fairly well exploited, but hitherto -not on any considerable scale. Coal will certainly be found in -considerable abundance in the western plains, and in the last -few years a vast coal area has been found, beginning about -150 miles south of the Trans-Siberian line near the town of -Kuznetsk, and extending to the Upper Obi. In 1887 a new -and still larger field was discovered at about 80 miles east of -Tomsk, and, moreover, close to the railway line. At the extremity -of Siberia, near Vladivostok, and, consequently, close -to the sea, other coal-beds have been opened of late.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Siberian industries are at present very limited, and consist of -a few unimportant distilleries, breweries, brick-kilns, match -manufactories, etc. It is therefore evident that for some long -time to come the inhabitants will be compelled to devote their -attention and energies to the development of the natural products -of the soil. All new countries are forced to do this in -the first stages of their civilization, and since the United States, -New Zealand, and Australia failed in manufactures in their -earlier days, Siberia may surely content herself by following in -their wake.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_31'>31</span> - <h3 class='c001'>CHAPTER V<br /> <span class='large'>SIBERIAN COMMERCE AND THE TRANSPORT OF TEA</span></h3> -</div> -<p class='c014'>Special character of trade in Siberia—Importance of the tea transport—Kiakhta—The -annual arrival of tea at the Irkutsk Customs-house—Road -followed by the tea caravan—Dilatory and expensive methods -of transport—Comparison between the land road viâ Kiakhta and the -sea-route viâ Odessa—Other articles of commerce, exportation of -cereals, etc.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Commerce is much more important in Siberia than either -agriculture or manufacture, and forms the basis of all the -great fortunes that have been made in the country. Siberian -commerce is mainly concerned with transport, and if we -except the traffic in gold by the Government, the only other -objects of export are cereals and furs. The importation, -on the other hand, is very limited, consisting merely of manufactured -articles necessary for the material comfort of a very -scanty and primitive population, whose wants are correspondingly -few. The commerce of the country would be infinitesimal -were it not that nearly all the tea consumed in Russia -passes through Siberia.<a id='r8' /><a href='#f8' class='c006'><sup>[8]</sup></a> Tea in Russia occupies even a more -important position than it does in England. The average -Russian takes between a dozen and fifteen cups per day, and -he will not travel without his tea, tea-pot, and his sugar, and -the <em>samovar</em>, a sort of glorified kettle, is never absent from -every table in Russia, and is always full of hot water ready to -moisten the leaves of the plant that comforts but does not -intoxicate. The Russians make their infusion very weak, -pouring the boiling water a great many times over the same -leaves. The peasantry, unlike the English of the lower classes, -who like their tea very strong, use the same leaves over and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_32'>32</span>over again until the decoction ends by being only straw-coloured -water. This explains the fact that whilst the Russians drink -three times as much tea as the English, the quantity of it -imported into Russia is at least two-thirds less than that which -China and India send annually to Great Britain.</p> - -<p class='c008'>It was by the overland route that the Russians first came in -contact with the Chinese somewhere towards the end of the -seventeenth century, and their commerce with the Celestial -Empire continued until the middle of the present century exclusively -overland. Almost all the tea which enters Russia has -to pass through the town of Kiakhta, about 180 miles south-east -of Irkutsk as the crow flies, but 430 miles by the postal-road, -which is only used during two short periods of the year, -the first in December and the second in spring, when, owing -to the quantity of ice on Lake Baikalia, navigation is impossible. -During the rest of the year the tea is transported across -the lake, in winter on sledges, and in summer by steamers, -whereby not less than 93 miles are gained. Occasionally, -as, for instance, on the banks of the Solenga, the road rises to -about 4,000 feet above the level of Lake Baikalia. Here the -scenery becomes extremely fine, and the traveller obtains -between the branches of the magnificent trees glimpses of the -beautiful lake far below, forming a very welcome change to the -monotony of the plain in which the caravans spend the greater -part of their journey. Kiakhta consists of three parts: the -town of Troitskosavsk, about two miles north of the Russo-Chinese -Frontier; the town of Kiakhta proper, which is -on the immediate frontier, but on Russian territory; and separated -from the last only by a strip of neutral ground a hundred -yards wide is the Chinese town of Maimatchin. Troitskosavsk -is the most important of the three, and offers an exceedingly -agreeable aspect to the traveller who has been obliged to climb -up the reverse side of the steep and barren hill overlooking the -town. The houses lining the road are of wood, comfortable, -and painted a light colour. Even the lateral streets are well -kept, and it is, taking it for all in all, the cleanest town I have -seen in all Siberia. One soon realizes that the tea trade -supplies the whole population with ample means of earning a -livelihood, and also that the wealthy take an interest in their -town. On one side of the road, for instance, is the communal -school, built out of funds originally intended for the erection -of barracks, but, soldiers not being required, the place was -<span class='pageno' id='Page_33'>33</span>converted into a school, munificently supported by the merchants -of the city. The children pay a small entrance fee. Opposite -stands another very large educational establishment, also supported -by voluntary contributions.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The dwellings of the principal tea merchants are situated at -Troitskosavsk, whose population numbers quite 7,000 souls; -but it is at Kiakhta,<a id='r9' /><a href='#f9' class='c006'><sup>[9]</sup></a> on the frontier, that the tea-leaves are -manipulated. The two towns are linked by an excellent road, -which passes between desolate-looking sand-hills, sparsely -covered with wretched fir-trees. The blue outline of the -mountains of Mongolia closes in the horizon to the south. The -houses of the wealthier inhabitants are painted white, as is the -church, the interior of which is extremely rich with massive -silver candelabras and a gorgeous <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">iconostase</span>. Beyond a group -of <em>isbas</em>, where the workmen dwell, and half hidden by the -cupolas of the church, stands the vast but very low one-storied -building of the Tea Warehouse. Such is Kiakhta, through -which passes annually into the Russian Empire from 40,000,000 -to 60,000,000 pounds of tea, costing, before the Custom duties -are paid, between £1,500,000 to £2,000,000. The following -are the figures obtained from the tea registers during the last -five years, kindly supplied to me by the authorities at Kiakhta.</p> - -<table class='table1' summary=''> - <tr> - <th class='btt bbt c018'>Year.</th> - <th class='btt bbt blt c018'>Weight of Tea.</th> - <th class='btt bbt blt c018'>Value of Tea.</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c019'>1892</td> - <td class='blt c020'>42,596,500 lbs.</td> - <td class='blt c019'>£1,672,143</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c019'>1893</td> - <td class='blt c020'>43,123,250 〃</td> - <td class='blt c019'>1,659,134</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c019'>1894</td> - <td class='blt c020'>51,086,900 〃</td> - <td class='blt c019'>1,932,318</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c019'>1895</td> - <td class='blt c020'>52,439,500 〃</td> - <td class='blt c019'>2,043,086</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='bbt c019'>1896</td> - <td class='bbt blt c020'>55,369,200 〃</td> - <td class='bbt blt c019'>2,128,402</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p class='c008'>The tea begins to pour into Kiakhta in winter from the -month of November to February. In December it is not at -all an uncommon thing to see as many as 5,000 boxes delivered -<span class='pageno' id='Page_34'>34</span>daily. The total number of boxes of tea which passed the -Customs in 1896 was 412,869.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The tea harvest in China takes place generally in spring, -the first gathering of the leaves occurring in April, the fourth and -the last in June. The latter is compressed into bricks, is of -very inferior quality, and bought only by the poorer people. -The great tea-market is Hankow on the Yang-tsze. All the -great Russian houses have representatives who arrive here -annually to purchase, and expedite the tea either by sea, viâ -Odessa, or overland by Kiakhta. We must not, however, -imagine that caravan tea, which the Russians consider to be the -finest, is all carried overland. Far from it, but then the purchasers -are not supposed to know this, as there exists a prejudice to -the effect that tea which travels by water is thereby deteriorated, -which is nonsense, since all tea must perform a journey by -water of greater or less length. Even that which is destined -for Kiakhta is sent by boat to Tien-tsin, whence it has to -ascend the Pei-ho on junks, and it is only packed on the -camels’ backs at Kalgan, at the foot of the Great Wall. Thence -it has to perform a journey of not less than 900 miles across -the desert before it reaches Urga, the sacred town of Mongolia, -which is situated at a distance of 160 miles south of -Kiakhta. Transport can only take place in the month of -October, when the roads begin to get hardened by the first -frosts, and the camels have returned from the pasture lands -where they pass the greater part of the summer. These -camels are hired from the Mongolians, and there is great -competition among the merchants to secure them, the Russians -endeavouring to obtain the greater number of beasts before -anybody else so as to secure the first crop of tea. A certain -quantity of tea is also brought to Kiakhta on little Mongolian -carts, which invariably return home carrying with them three -pieces of wood, an article which is almost valueless in Siberia, -but very dear in China, where it is resold at a profit.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The camels are unloaded at Kiakhta, and the wicker-boxes -or baskets, each containing from 100 to 160 pounds of tea, are -divested of the light covering of camel’s hair which sufficed to -protect them during the journey across the Desert of Obi, where -rain is almost unknown. For the rest of the journey through -Siberia it is necessary to screen them with a waterproof covering -made of camel’s hide, the hair being turned inwards. Whilst -the process of enveloping the boxes is proceeding it is almost -<span class='pageno' id='Page_35'>35</span>impossible to bear the intolerable stench. The tea, compressed -into bricks, each weighing two pounds and a half, is -next sorted, dusted, and those which have been in any degree -damaged are separated from the rest and sold at a low price. -Then the whole of the tea, be it in leaf or brick, is packed on -the sleighs and conveyed, as already stated, across country, -partly by water, partly over the routes already described. At -Irkutsk, however, the Custom-house officers examine a few of -the cases, and stamp the rest with a leaden brand, and the -caravan is allowed to proceed to its destination.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The earlier teas which arrive are conveyed by sledge to -Irbit, a town on the eastern slopes of the Ural, but beyond -the confines of Siberia, and in the Government of Perm. -Between February 1st and March 1st Irbit is the scene of an -immense fair, which attracts merchants from all parts of Siberia. -The principal goods dealt in are Chinese tea, furs from the -north and east, and light manufactured articles from Russian -Europe. The total sold in the year 1880 amounted to -£5,286,000, which has been considerably exceeded since.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The principal tea caravans do not arrive in the region of the -Obi before the beginning of April, the sleighs proceeding very -slowly, and the stoppages by the way being frequent. Boats -convey the fragrant merchandise between Tomsk, Tura, and -Tiumen, terminal stations on the Ural Railway, whence they -are conveyed to Perm. Here they are shipped up the river -Kama, and finally embarked on the Volga and taken to Nijni-Novgorod, -the chief centre of the tea trade in Russia. Thence -the railways distribute the merchandise over the empire. The -results of the tardier crops arrive at Irkutsk, where they are -embarked on the Angara and conveyed by boat to the meeting -of that river with the Yenissei, where, as it is impossible to -ascend the latter, the rudely-constructed boats in which it has -hitherto performed the journey are broken up and sold for -firewood. By this road only 330 miles are performed by -land to Tomsk. Some of the merchants, in order to avoid -as much as possible the overland route, take a much longer -one by water viâ Uliasutai, a city in Western Mongolia on -the Upper Yenissei. The above will suffice to give the -reader an idea of some of the exceptional difficulties which the -tea merchants have to encounter in conveying their very perishable -freight across Northern Asia into Russia, the journey -taking not less than a year from the date of the gathering of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_36'>36</span>the leaves. The following official data, registered in 1893, of -the expense incurred in conveying a single pood, or thirty-six -pounds (English), of tea from Han-Keou to Nijni-Novgorod -will suffice to afford a fair notion of the great cost of transport.</p> - -<table class='table2' summary=''> - <tr> - <th class='c010'></th> - <th class='c021'>£</th> - <th class='c021'><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">s.</span></i></th> - <th class='c022'><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">d.</span></i></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c010'>From Han-Keou to Kiakhta viâ Tien-tsin and Urga</td> - <td class='c023'>0</td> - <td class='c023'>15</td> - <td class='c011'>5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c010'>Manipulation at Kiakhta and transport to Irkutsk</td> - <td class='c023'>0</td> - <td class='c023'>6</td> - <td class='c011'>4</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c010'>From Irkutsk to Nijni (by sledge to Tomsk, water to Tiumen, railway to Perm, and thence by water)</td> - <td class='c023'>0</td> - <td class='c023'>12</td> - <td class='c011'>9</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c010'>Insurance from Tien-tsin to Nijni, 2¼ per cent</td> - <td class='c023'>0</td> - <td class='c023'>1</td> - <td class='c011'>10½</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c010'>Interest on capital</td> - <td class='c023'>0</td> - <td class='c023'>3</td> - <td class='c011'>2</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c010'> </td> - <td class='c023'><hr /></td> - <td class='c023'><hr /></td> - <td class='c011'><hr /></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c024'>Total</td> - <td class='c023'>£1</td> - <td class='c023'>19</td> - <td class='c011'>6½</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c010'> </td> - <td class='c023'><hr class='double' /></td> - <td class='c023'><hr class='double' /></td> - <td class='c011'><hr class='double' /></td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p class='c008'>On the other hand, the same quantity of tea transported -from Hankow to Nijni, viâ the Suez Canal and Odessa, and -thence by train to Nijni, costs only thirteen shillings. From -these facts it can easily be understood that the great commerce -of Kiakhta is purely artificial and abnormal, and exists simply -thanks to the enormous difference between the Custom-house -duties at Odessa and those at Irkutsk. At the former place -the duty is £3 6s. per pood, or thirty-six pounds, for all kinds -of tea, whereas at Kiakhta it is only £2 on leaf tea and -5s. 4d. on brick. The insignificance of this latter tax is very -important, because brick tea is the only sort which is used in -Siberia east of the Volga, the greater part of the leaf tea being -forwarded to Russia. On the other hand, notwithstanding its -many inconveniences, the tea transport across Russia is a most -important factor in Siberian existence, since it furnishes the -means of livelihood to thousands of people living along the -great postal-road, and indeed is a sort of subvention which the -Russian tea-drinkers pay to Siberia, and one which the Government -very wisely keeps up by maintaining the high tariff at -Odessa. It is interesting to follow the increasing value of a -pood (thirty-six pounds) of tea on its way from Irkutsk to Nijni. -On entering Siberia at the former place from China it only -costs £2 5s. By this time it is already paying the cost of its -transport from Hankow, the expenses of insurance, etc., costing -about £1 3s., the Custom-house duties amount to about -£2, that is, £3 2s. credit, and the transfer thence to Nijni -will add about thirteen shillings to its value; so that when we -take into account an interest of three shillings on the capital -employed we find that a product which cost less than ten -<span class='pageno' id='Page_37'>37</span>roubles where it grew and where it was first purchased, by the -time it reaches the market costs forty-eight roubles, nearly five -times its original value. On the greater part of the leaf tea -which passes through Odessa, the Russian pays on every pound -of tea at 3s. 2d. he purchases 1s. to the Treasury. The -total amount of Custom-house duties paid on tea at Irkutsk -amounted in 1896 to £1,050,361.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Independently of tea, the land commerce between the Russian -Empire and China is, comparatively speaking, insignificant, and -rarely exceeds £265,000. The principal object of import -is Russia leather, and the chief article from China is a very -light but strong sort of silk, much worn in Siberia during the -summer. For the rest, the trade between Siberia and Russia -consists mainly in cereals and flour, but it is difficult to obtain -exact statistics on account of the many lines of communication -which have been recently opened since the introduction -of the railway.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_38'>38</span> - <h3 class='c001'>CHAPTER VI<br /> <span class='large'>SIBERIAN TOWNS</span></h3> -</div> -<p class='c014'>Scarcity of towns and their slight importance—Their administration and -commerce—Resemblance to the towns in the Russian provinces—Introduction -of telephones and electric light—Intellectual progress—University -at Tomsk—The drama at Irkutsk—The crisis through -which these towns are passing.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The absence of large manufactures doubtless accounts in a -measure for the fact that Siberia, according to the census of -1897, only contains eleven towns inhabited by over 10,000 -souls. Eight of these (including the two cities of Tomsk and -Irkutsk, which have each 50,000 inhabitants) are situated on -the postal-road which passes from the foot of the Ural to -Tiumen, to terminate on the shores of the Pacific at Vladivostok; -Omsk is situated somewhat to the south of the old -postal-road, at the point where the Trans-Siberian Railway -crosses the Irtysh; Tobolsk, the old capital of Siberia, which -has greatly declined in our day, is built at the meeting of the -Irtysh and the Tobol, and also close to the junction of the two -great highroads. Barnaoul, on the Upper Obi, is the only -Siberian town of any importance which is not within easy reach -of either the railway or the postal-road, but then it has the -advantage of being situated in the centre of the most highly -cultivated part of the country. There exist, also, a number -of other small towns, situated on the two main arteries and in -the more fertile valleys. All of them are centres for the distribution -of manufactured articles imported from Europe, and -also depots whence the products cultivated in their neighbourhoods -are collected and expedited. All these towns are seats -both of administration and commerce, and the local capitals -are always, with the sole exception of Tobolsk, the biggest -<span class='pageno' id='Page_39'>39</span>towns in the district, and contain the dwellings of the officials -and other functionaries, which add greatly to their handsome -appearance. In the region of the Amur and the Littoral -garrisons have been introduced, which lend considerable animation -to the place. At Vladivostok in 1895 the Russian -population consisted of 2,780 civil servants, 189 exiles, 555 -functionaries and priests (including their wives and children), and -10,087 officers and soldiers with their families. At Khabarofsk -the official element is still more preponderating. With the exception -of Blagovyeshchensk, situated at the meeting of the -Amur and the Zeya, which owes its prosperity to the neighbouring -gold-mines, the towns of Eastern Siberia are nothing more -or less than camps or huge villages like Chita or Nertchinsk, -with very low <em>isbas</em>, or wooden houses, prodigiously broad -streets, vast open spaces, the whole dominated generally by the -enormous white mass of some official edifice or other.</p> - -<p class='c008'>In the west, however, between the Ural and Lake Baikal, -towns exist in the European sense of the word. It cannot -be said, however, that they are remarkable for their monumental -beauty, but they possess a certain measure of picturesqueness, -and bear a striking resemblance to the provincial -towns of Russia proper, such as Saratof or Samara, or some -quarters of Moscow itself. The houses are nearly all built -of black wood like those peppered all over the country, and -are built on either side of the long streets at a little distance one -from another, and rarely, if ever, embellished by a garden or -any attempt at external decoration. The streets cross each other -at right angles, and are made as wide as possible, on account of -the numerous fires, against which every precaution has to be -taken, and people are actually requested not to smoke on the -great wooden bridge which crosses the Angara at Irkutsk. In -certain wealthier quarters of the towns a story is usually added -to the houses, which are painted white, gray, or some other -conspicuous colour. Occasionally one comes across a stone -building two or three stories high, usually either the shop of -some rich merchant or official, or else a museum, hospital, -gymnasium, college for boys or school for girls, or sometimes -an immense barracks.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The appearance of these dwellings when grouped together on -the hill-tops, as at Omsk, is agreeable, especially so as they are -interspersed with the bright-coloured cupolas of the churches. -As to the latter, they are innumerable. There is literally -<span class='pageno' id='Page_40'>40</span>one at every corner. Standing at the centre of the cathedral -square at Irkutsk, I was able to see no less than seven at a -glance. They are all exactly alike, usually painted blue or -rose-colour, surmounted by one big cupola, and surrounded by -a lot of smaller ones brightly gilt or silvered, and produce -an excellent effect in the sun or on a clear moonlight night. -Internally they possess all the barbaric splendour of Russian -churches, and are a blaze of gilt icons and crystal chandeliers.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Take them for all in all, Siberian towns are far pleasanter to -visit than one might imagine. The streets, as a rule, possess a -wooden pavement, but after a heavy rain they are very apt to -become impassable. A gentleman at Tomsk once assured me -that on one occasion when the snow melted a bullock was -drowned in the surging mass of water rolling past his door. -But, after all, the streets of Chicago and New Orleans are not -very well kept, and where the climatic variations are so extreme, -it is doubtless almost an impossibility to keep the streets in -anything like proper order. Otherwise, the telephone is to be -found in all the more important towns, and when the visitor -looks up and sees such an amazing number of wires stretching -across the streets from pole to pole, he might readily imagine -himself in America. The electric light has also been introduced -even at Tomsk and Irkutsk. Means of locomotion have by no -means been neglected, and you can hire a quick-going little -Russian cabriolet for twenty kopecks, or sixpence the fare! -What astonishes one most, however, is that, as in Russia, there -is scarcely any movement in the streets of these towns, notwithstanding -that they are centres of a very active commerce.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Education has made considerable progress in the towns of -Siberia, and the wealthier classes are not behindhand in assisting -the Government in this direction. At Tomsk a University -has recently been established in an immense and very handsome -edifice, which contains at present some 500 students. -Admission has been wisely rendered much more easy than it -is in Russia, and it is expected that before long a faculty of -Law will be established, in which the students will be able -to study the new legal reforms which Alexander II. introduced -some years ago into the judicial system of Russia. -Other professorial chairs will be introduced before long in -addition to that of Medicine, which is already very well -attended. The library contains over 200,000 volumes, the -greater part gifts from private benefactors, and not a few of the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_41'>41</span>rarer editions of French and English classics must have -originally belonged to libraries dispersed at the time of the -French Revolution. A number of comfortable houses have -been built in the park attached to the University (only a very -short time ago virgin forest) for the benefit of students, who -can there receive board and lodging at a very moderate price. -In addition to the University, another huge educational -establishment, an Institute of Technology, is in progress of -construction. Tomsk, although it is somewhat out of the way -for commercial purposes, appears to me destined to become -before long the intellectual centre of Siberia.</p> - -<p class='c008'>All the Siberian towns possess a theatre. The one at Tomsk -was built by a rich merchant some years ago, and during the -winter months two permanent troupes give on alternate nights -representations of opera and drama. Troupes of Russian -actors occasionally visit Siberia, and I remember once seeing -two artists, who enjoy great popularity at Moscow, give at -Krasnoyarsk a representation in Russian of Shakespeare’s -‘Taming of the Shrew,’ and on the following evening an excellent -performance of ‘Madame Sans-Gêne.’ These plays were -attended by large and highly appreciative audiences. At Irkutsk -there is a really magnificent theatre capable of accommodating a -thousand persons, the erection of which cost not less than -£32,000. It was built entirely by public subscription, at the -head of the list being the Governor. The prices of admission -are—stalls 6s. 8d. in the front row; 2s. 2d. in the back seats; -1s. in the first row of the second gallery, and 6d. in the third. -These latter are the cheapest seats in the house. Unfortunately, -of late years, the wealthier classes show a distinct -tendency, thanks to facilities of travel, to spend their money in -Russia, and even in Paris, and the rich merchants are no longer -inclined to dazzle the Siberians by a somewhat barbaric -display of their wealth. At Moscow and Petersburg, doubtless, -they find a greater variety of amusements, and no need, in -order to spend their money, to follow the example of a certain -Siberian millionaire who used to wash his chamber-floor with -champagne. Other times, other manners. If the principals -go to St. Petersburg, their representatives remain behind, and -although they are unable to make any very ostentatious -display, nevertheless, they contrive to live comfortably. The -position also of the officials, owing probably to the increased -facilities of communication and the spread of education, has -<span class='pageno' id='Page_42'>42</span>lost a good deal of its former importance, and governors of -provinces, who were in days of yore kings or demigods, are -no longer looked upon with any sense of awe, everybody -being aware that they receive their daily orders by telegraph -from St. Petersburg. Irkutsk, which in former times was the -capital, is now only a large provincial city. The grand old -Siberian hospitality is disappearing rapidly, and there are not -wanting, even in Siberia, old-fashioned people who curse the -Trans-Siberian Railway, which is destined sooner or later to -revolutionize the manners and customs of Northern Asia.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_43'>43</span> - <h3 class='c001'>CHAPTER VII<br /> <span class='large'>IMMIGRATION</span></h3> -</div> -<p class='c014'>Causes of Russian emigration to Siberia—Its increasing importance—Absolute -necessity for State intervention in the colonization of Asiatic -Russia—Roads followed by the emigrants—Land concessions—Provinces -towards which they direct themselves—Colonization of the -Province of the Amur and the Littoral—Vladivostok—Chinese, -Koreans and Japanese—Exiles and convicts—Conditions for the development -of Siberia—Favourable and unfavourable elements—Necessity -of employing foreign capital.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The immigrants who arrive in Siberia are almost without -exception peasants. According to the census taken last -January, there were in Russian Europe, exclusive of Finland -and Poland, whose inhabitants rarely, if ever, emigrate, only -94,000,000 inhabitants scattered over a surface of 1,875,000 -square miles, that is to say, fifty inhabitants per square -mile. One would imagine, therefore, that there was ample -space for all the subjects of the Tsar in his European territories; -but the great northern Governments of Arkhangelsk, Vologda, -and Olonetz, which occupy over a quarter of this area, and in -which agriculture is almost impossible, do not contain more -than 2,000,000 inhabitants in 540,560 square miles. Then, -again, a great number of the Governments situated to the -north of Moscow consist of only very inferior marshlands, -and are but poorly populated, and, what is more, seem unlikely -ever to improve. The majority of the inhabitants of -the empire are therefore concentrated in the south, where the -population is relatively dense, especially in the Governments of -Kursk, Penza, Tambof, Orel, Voronej, and notably so in Little -Russia, which is all the more remarkable when we consider -that these regions are exclusively agricultural, and that the -methods of farming are still very primitive. Notwithstanding, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_44'>44</span>however, the rapid development of industry in Russia, many -years will pass before these regions will be capable of supporting -a population equal to that of Central or Western Europe, -where the natural conditions are more or less identical. It is -not therefore very surprising that a fraction of the population of -Russia should go in search of better climes, and direct itself -towards Southern Siberia, a more attractive and fertile country -than Northern Russia.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Emigration, it must be borne in mind, is but a small item in -the natural causes of the increase of the Russian population. -The annual excess of births over deaths rises to about 1,500,000 -in the whole of the Empire, and is from 1,100,000 to 1,200,000 -in European Russia (Poland and Finland always excepted). -The emigration towards Asia has up to 1895 scarcely exceeded -a tenth of this figure, and does not even now reach more -than a fifth or a sixth. According to an official work published -at the end of 1896, the ‘Statesman’s Handbook to Russia,’ -we find that during 1887–95, 94,000 families, forming an aggregate -total of 467,000 persons, established themselves in -Siberia. The average therefore would be about 52,000 souls -per annum, but the last few years have witnessed a visible -increase. The above figures do not apparently include -emigrants who are destined for Central Asia (general Government -of the Steppes and Turkestan), to which the total rarely -exceeds 10,000 per annum. According to information received -direct from Siberia, about 63,000 emigrants arrived in 1894 -over the Ural from European Russia. On the other hand, -3,495 entered Siberia by sea, landing in the great Littoral -Province on the Pacific. Lately the emigration movement -has become much more active, and we should not be far out -of our reckoning if we estimated the number of emigrants -into Siberia for the years 1897 and 1898 as about 200,000 for -each year. The number of persons who seek permission to -leave Russia for Siberia is becoming greater every year. Many, -however, are discouraged and even refused the necessary -papers, so as to avoid burdening the newly-settled country with -a superfluity of people who generally arrive without a penny in -their pockets. It is natural in a country where the peasantry -are still so primitive and ignorant as in Russia that the Government -should closely watch the movements of emigrants, who -might, on finding exaggerated promises and illusions dispelled, -become troublesome and even dangerous. The following is -<span class='pageno' id='Page_45'>45</span>the manner in which these matters are generally organized -in European Russia. When several families belonging to a -<em>volost</em> express a wish to emigrate they are requested to determine -in what part of Siberia they desire to establish themselves. -If the applicants are deemed suitable, two of their -number, selected as delegates, visit the parcel of land which has -been allotted to them, and on returning they are able to inform -their friends as to the exact nature of the place to which they -are destined. Formerly, the emigrants were allowed to choose -their own land, which, as they were almost invariably very inexperienced, -was usually quite unsuited to their requirements, -and they either went further afield or, disgusted, returned -home. In order, therefore, to prevent a recurrence of this unsatisfactory -state of affairs, the sensible system of sending on -two delegates or pioneers has been established.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The method selected by emigrants entering Siberia was, until -quite recently, to ascend the Kama, and take the Ural Railway -at Perm for Tiumen; thence, at this terminus, they embarked -either on the Tobol, the Irtysh, or the Obi for Tobolsk, which -used to be a great rendezvous for the emigrants. In 1893 the -Siberian Railway had not reached Omsk, and out of 63,000 -emigrants, 56,500 had entered Asia by the Tiumen, and 6,500 -only had taken the Trans-Siberian Railway to Kurgan. Among -the first, 36,500 followed the waterway which I have just -described, and 20,000 performed the journey in carts. To-day -the greater number are transported by the railway to the station -nearest to the town selected for their future residence, or to the -extreme limit of the line, if they are going farther east. There -they are obliged to take the <em>telega</em>, a sort of Russian cart, -shaped like a trough, on four wheels. I have often met on the -highroads in Siberia long lines of these carts, each containing -several persons, men, women and children, with their labouring -tools and household belongings. The scene is very picturesque, -especially towards evening, when the worthy folk encamp on -the highroad: the men unsaddling the horses, the women going -to the well for water, and the children playing about, whilst -some old man, seated on the wayside, reads the Bible out aloud -to a group of eager listeners. Sometimes the journey exhausts -the resources of the family, and I have seen in Trans-Baikalia -a caravan of Little Russians come to a full-stop for want of -money, and the good people, encamped on the highway, -quietly awaiting the arrival of the district Immigration Agent, to -<span class='pageno' id='Page_46'>46</span>obtain from him the supplies necessary to enable them to -continue the journey. Emigrants who travel by <em>telega</em> from -their old home in Europe to the new one in Asia often -consume as much as a whole year in the journey from Little -Russia to the Amur, albeit the travellers frequently spend as -many as three months at a time working on the railway, in -order to add a little to their scanty supply of cash.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The majority of the emigrants arrive in spring. In the -principal towns on the route refuges have been organized for -their shelter. A number of these are to be found at Cheliabinsk -at the foot of the Ural. I visited that at Kansk, the -centre of a much-frequented region in the Government of -Yenissei. Twenty <em>iourdis</em>, or enormous huts, built on the -model of those used by the Kirghiz and from ten to twelve feet -in diameter and nine feet in height, with an extinguisher shaped -roof covered with camel’s hide, were here erected for destitute -emigrants. A spacious hospital, kitchens and a Russian bath -were at the time nearly completed. A winter habitation with an -immense stove had also been erected, but there are not many -emigrants travelling during the worst months of the year. All -these buildings are of wood, after the fashion of most Russian -houses, and seemed fairly comfortable. Three young women -from the town acted as voluntary nurses attached to the hospital.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Emigrants who come from the same district in European -Russia are as a rule grouped together in the same village, and, -as far as possible, everything is done to prevent the crowding -together of people who come from divergent provinces, which -might give rise to trouble. Thus, the officials always endeavour -to avoid mixing the ‘Little Russians’ with the ‘Great Russians,’ -and never to introduce new-comers into villages already -inhabited by old Siberians, who do not look upon emigration -in a very favourable light, for the simple reason that formerly -they could occupy as much land as they liked and redeem as -much of it as they chose, whenever their own fields became -exhausted, and they could, moreover, even tramp off in another -direction in quest of better land if the spirit moved them so to -do. The arrival of a great number of new people has naturally -put an end to these irresponsible movements, and consequently -given rise to a great deal of discontent.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The following are a few rules which have been adopted -recently for the formation of fresh settlements, on the <em>mir</em> -system of Russian collective communal proprietorship, which -<span class='pageno' id='Page_47'>47</span>the Government has decided to introduce into Siberia. Fifteen -dessiatines (37 acres) are given gratuitously to each man, and -a sum of 30 roubles (about £3 1s. 8d.) can, if necessary, be -advanced to each family immediately. Formerly it was -necessary to await authorization from the Government at -St. Petersburg, even for this small amount, before it could be -paid, but, now, happily, it has been decided to leave the matter -in the hands of the functionary who is placed at the head of -the Immigration Bureau of the district, whereby a great deal of -trouble and misery is avoided. Other sums of money can be -advanced from time to time up to £9 10s. if the applicant is -deemed worthy. Theoretically this money ought to be repaid -at the end of ten years, which, needless to say, it rarely, if -ever, is.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Of the 63,000 persons who arrived in Siberia from over the -Ural in 1894, the majority, 38,000, settled in the Government of -Tomsk, 17,000 proceeded to the Amur, 3,800 to the Steppes, -2,100 to the eastern Governments of Yenissei and Irkutsk, and -2,100 to the Government of Tobolsk. These figures do not -include the 3,495 who entered the Littoral Province by sea. -The region which appears to attract the most emigrants is that -of the Upper Obi and its affluents, including the regions of -Barnaoul, Biisk, and Kuznetsk in the Government of Tomsk. -In these sheltered valleys, which descend from the Altai range, -the climate is relatively mild and the land excellent. After this -comes the region of the Amur, where the emigrants are -almost exclusively Little Russians, who generally established -themselves in the region extending along the Lower Zeya to -the east of Blagovyeshchensk and the Bureya. The climate, -however, is much colder than in the Government of Tomsk, -and although the richest part of the Amur has been selected -for the principal centre of colonization, the damp is excessive -on account of its proximity to the great water and to the very -thick forests which cover almost the whole country. The -valleys, even on the borders of the Amur and its affluents, are -often inundated, and always marshy, and have, moreover, up -to the present resisted all attempts at cultivation. The -plateaux to the north of the Stanovoi Mountains possess a -better kind of soil, and form a more favourable zone, -although even here cereals have a tendency to produce, -much to their detriment, a superabundance of weeds. The -Government, which, for political reasons easily understood, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_48'>48</span>has hitherto assisted colonization in the basin of the Amur, has -refused until quite lately to extend the movement to the region -of the Yenissei, being possibly under the impression that an -excessive scattering of the new population ought as much -as possible to be avoided. Now that a considerable part of -the richer lands of Tomsk is occupied, it has been deemed -advisable to make an advance towards the east; therefore, in -1896 19,000 colonists were settled in the Government of the -Yenissei, notably in the districts of Minusinsk, on the upper -river, which enjoys nearly the same advantages as the Upper -Obi, and Kansk more to the east, which is now the most -active centre of settlement. The Government of Irkutsk, -which apparently contains a lesser supply of likely land, will -doubtless attract official attention later on.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Settlers who have been for some considerable time in -Siberia appear generally satisfied with their lot, and although -they may not endorse the optimistic affirmations of the -official world, the majority of their villages appear more prosperous -than those they abandoned in Russian Europe. It -could hardly be otherwise if they worked hard, since they are -allotted abundance of good land and a small pecuniary -advance to assist them with preliminary expenses. Nevertheless, -a number of them return to Europe every year. In 1894 -as many as 4,500 went back, and, I fancy, if the truth were -known, a great many more. I once asked an official in charge -of the emigrants at Kansk, a very amiable, well-informed man, -who takes a great interest in his duties, why so many of these -good people wanted to go home again. He replied that not a -few peasants emigrated into Siberia under the illusion that they -would be much better off, and not have to work so hard, but -when they found that they had to labour as hard as ever, they -soon got tired, packed up their traps, and returned home. -Others complain of the climate, not so much, as we might -imagine, of the winter as of the summer, when the mosquitoes -are a perfect plague. Some suffer from home-sickness, -especially the women, who regret their former surroundings, -and who by incessant complaints and lamentations end by -worrying their husbands to return. This, however, is not -peculiar to Siberia or to the Russians, for it has even been -noticed in the United States, where young colonists are often -obliged to give up their farms because their wives find an -isolated country life insupportable.</p> - -<p class='c008'><span class='pageno' id='Page_49'>49</span>In the greater part of Siberia the population, as we have -already observed, is exclusively Russian. The native element -may almost be described as non-existent. From the ethnological -point of view, the region from the Obi to the Yenissei is -already, and tends to become more and more so, a prolongation -of European Russia. In the government of the Amur it is, -however, otherwise, for the Russians have to face a native -population, and the colonists who have come from the -European dominions of the Tsar find themselves obliged to -compete with a rather formidable Asiatic contingent. On this -side the centre of Russian influence is at Vladivostok, a town -which was only founded about forty years ago, but which the -Trans-Siberian line will eventually lift to extreme importance. -The only shadow in the picture is that during three or four -winter months the harbour is covered with ice. The noble -bay, which the English formerly named after Queen Victoria, -and which the Russians have now placed under the patronage -of Peter the Great, is one of the most magnificent in the world, -in which the whole Russian fleet could easily find shelter; but, -unfortunately, although it is in the same latitude as Toulon, -it freezes very easily.<a id='r10' /><a href='#f10' class='c006'><sup>[10]</sup></a> For this reason Vladivostok may suffer -considerably from the greater attractions of Port Arthur, which -is even better placed at the head of the line of communication -towards the Celestial Empire, and is, moreover, free from ice -the whole year round. Nevertheless, the town will remain the -seat of many important military establishments, which are -already in existence, and which it would be exceedingly expensive, -and by no means easy, to remove elsewhere.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Splendidly situated at the head of a peninsula about twelve -miles long, separating two deep bays, whose shores, however, -are absolutely sterile, Vladivostok faces the principal and the -more eastern of the two ports, which happens, also, to be the -safest. The town contains a number of stone houses several -stories high, built on the rather steep sides of the hills, and -presents quite an imposing appearance, especially after the -little wooden-housed towns in the interior of Siberia. Although -it lacks the extraordinary animation of its contemporaries, -Vancouver, Tacoma, and Seattle, for instance, on the other -side of the Pacific, its streets are the liveliest I have seen -between Moscow and Nagasaki. It soon becomes evident -<span class='pageno' id='Page_50'>50</span>that one is in the Far East here. The streets are crowded with -pigtailed Chinese in blue, with Koreans in white, and Japanese -in their national costumes. Among these Asiatics move soldiers -and sailors, so that the European civilian costume is scarcely -represented at all, and the majority of those who do wear it -are Japanese. The day after my arrival happened to be the -feast of St. Alexander Nevsky, one of the great Russian holidays, -which coincided with a Chinese festival, so that the whole place -was a blaze of Celestial bunting, gold-edged yellow triangular -shaped flags, emblazoned with heraldic dragons, far out-numbering -those of the Russians. Figures confirm the impressions -of experience, and the following show the manner in which the -population of Vladivostok was subdivided in 1895:</p> - -<table class='table1' summary=''> - <tr> - <th class='btt bbt c020'></th> - <th class='btt bbt blt c018'>Men.</th> - <th class='btt bbt blt c018'>Women.</th> - <th class='btt bbt blt c018'>Total.</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>Nobles</td> - <td class='blt c019'>290</td> - <td class='blt c019'>228</td> - <td class='blt c019'>518</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>Priests and their families</td> - <td class='blt c019'>19</td> - <td class='blt c019'>18</td> - <td class='blt c019'>37</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>Russian civil population</td> - <td class='blt c019'>1,691</td> - <td class='blt c019'>1,089</td> - <td class='blt c019'>2,780</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>Soldiers and families</td> - <td class='blt c019'>9,232</td> - <td class='blt c019'>855</td> - <td class='blt c019'>10,087</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>Exiles and families</td> - <td class='blt c019'>117</td> - <td class='blt c019'>72</td> - <td class='blt c019'>189</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>Other Europeans</td> - <td class='blt c019'>46</td> - <td class='blt c019'>26</td> - <td class='blt c019'>72</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>Japanese</td> - <td class='blt c019'>676</td> - <td class='blt c019'>556</td> - <td class='blt c019'>1,232</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>Chinese</td> - <td class='blt c019'>5,580</td> - <td class='blt c019'>58</td> - <td class='blt c019'>5,638</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='bbt c020'>Koreans</td> - <td class='bbt blt c019'>642</td> - <td class='bbt blt c019'>177</td> - <td class='bbt blt c019'>819</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='bbt c018'>Total</td> - <td class='bbt blt c019'>18,293</td> - <td class='bbt blt c019'>3,079</td> - <td class='bbt blt c019'>21,372</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p class='c008'>In 1895 the population had considerably increased, mainly -in consequence of the barracks and of the increase of Russian -and Asiatic emigration. It has been observed that since the -Chino-Japanese War the Koreans have developed a distinct -tendency to establish themselves on Russian soil.</p> - -<p class='c008'>As in California and Australia, the Chinese who arrive in -Vladivostok do so without bringing their wives. They are -mainly engaged as workmen, domestic servants, boatmen, etc. -When they have amassed a small fortune they return home. -Many of them, indeed, pass the winter in Shan-tung, in the -neighbourhood of Chi-fu, of which latter place they are nearly -all natives. The Japanese are, likewise, engaged in petty trade, -and a considerable number of them are hairdressers. It is also -whispered abroad, and pretty freely, too, that not a few of them -are spies. A high code of morals would condemn the manner -in which the majority of the Japanese here gain their livelihood. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_51'>51</span>As to the Koreans, being very strong, they are better -adapted for hard work, and have supplied a number of hands -on the railway. They are more numerous in the environs of -Vladivostok than in the town itself—and they are highly appreciated -by their employers, the administration affording them -small allotments on account of their industrious and peaceful -habits.</p> - -<p class='c008'>It is not only at Vladivostok that the influence of the Far -East appears, but throughout the entire government of the -Amur. From the moment one enters Trans-Baikalia one is -brought into immediate contact with the Mongol tribe of the -Buriats. As already stated elsewhere, the Yellow Race predominates -in this region, and throughout Trans-Baikalia the -followers of Buddhism form about a third of the population—in -1895, 190,003 out of 610,604. Advancing towards the East, -and leaving aside the older Russian possessions in order to -enter the provinces annexed in 1857, we find that the territory -of the Amur contains 21,000 Manchu Buddhists out of a -population of 112,000 according to the census of 1897. These -Manchus were about the only occupants of the country at the -time of its annexation, and not a few have remained subjects -of the Chinese Empire. Opposite to Blagovyeshchensk there -is a large Chinese village, whence almost every morning a -number of people bring fruit and vegetables to the Russian -town.</p> - -<p class='c008'>In the territory of the Littoral, in that broad zone which -extends from 42° to 70° north, it was estimated in 1895 that -the Russians exceeded 110,000 in a population of 152,000, -the rest being composed of 23,000 natives, 18,000 Chinese, -Koreans and Japanese, and about 1,000 Jews. According to -the census taken in 1897, the population has very considerably -increased. It records 214,940 inhabitants, but these have not -been subdivided into classes, and, moreover, the European -immigration has not been very considerable in the last two -years. A curious observation has been made as to the preponderance -of the male sex over the female, there being -147,669 men as against 67,261 women. The reason for this is -not far to seek, and is mainly due to the fact that the Russian -immigrants generally arrive with their families, whereas the -military element, exceeding 40,000 in the Littoral Province, -and the Chinese are not encumbered with women-folk. -Khabarofsk, essentially a garrison town, and the capital of the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_52'>52</span>government, has out of a population of 14,932 only 3,259 -women. Its appearance is, therefore, quite martial, and its -picturesqueness is considerably improved by the presence of a -number of Chinese junks in the harbour, that, as is the case -at Blagovyeshchensk, Sydney and Melbourne, bring excellent -vegetables from the fertile kingdom of the Son of Heaven. -Apart from the troops, the Koreans, the Chinese and the -Japanese form at least a quarter of the population of the -Littoral, and, combined with the natives, reach a total which is -only slightly overtopped by the Russians. There are not -wanting those who disapprove of this high proportion of the -Yellow Race in the three territories forming the Government of -the Amur, but without any justifiable reason. The Buriats, -for instance, are by no means a decreasing element in the -population, and the Russians are distinctly prolific, whereas -the Chinese immigration, if it ever takes place on any considerable -scale, will have to cross the Desert of Gobi, an obstacle -which will delay it for a long time to come. In the other -two territories, the indigenous population, mostly fishermen -and hunters of a very primitive sort, is undoubtedly visibly -diminishing, excepting in the ice-bound regions of the Okhotsk -and Behring Straits, whither, too, Manchus, Chinese and -Koreans are flocking in considerable numbers. All these -Asiatics are hard-working, live upon less than the Russians, -and are much more industrious and often hire from the -European immigrants strips of land which they cultivate with -much better results. The small trade of the towns is almost -entirely in the hands of the Yellow Race. Although the -Chinese immigration is more or less of an ephemeral nature, -it is very likely to become exceedingly numerous, especially -in the towns and their suburbs, and might in the course of -time render the competition of the Whites extremely difficult, -and necessitate interference on the part of the Russian -Government to limit the sphere of Chinese labour. In any -case, it is quite certain that if Manchuria, as a consequence -of the introduction of the railway, ever comes under the -dominion of the Tsar, it is highly improbable that its so doing -will increase the immigration of the Russians, mainly on -account of the surprising activity of the Chinese in colonizing -this part of their empire. At the present time the Government -is more preoccupied with the European than with -the Asiatic immigration, and, whereas it never refuses a grant -<span class='pageno' id='Page_53'>53</span>of land to the Koreans, it very frequently does so to the -Europeans, excepting by special and exceptional favour. I -am obliged to admit that the Government has, as a rule, been -very indulgent towards the French, several of whom have -obtained grants at Blagovyeshchensk, although a refusal was -given to a Frenchman to buy land notwithstanding that he -had lived in the country for over thirty years. As to the gold -mines, their exploitation is only granted to Russian subjects. -The whole country east of Baikalia, that is to say, the Government -of the Amur, is at present freed from paying Customs -duties, excepting on spirits, tobacco, sugar and other articles -which in Russia pay excise duty. This part of Siberia is never -likely to become attractive to Europeans of other nationality -than the Russians. On the other hand, undoubtedly, in the -course of time, European capital will be much employed in -this part, and some enterprising merchants and engineers may -even eventually establish themselves in the country, which will -surely prove to its interest, and not to its detriment.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Independently of voluntary immigrants, Siberia used to receive -annually a great number of political and other exiles and convicts. -By a <em>ukaz</em>, issued in 1899, Tsar Nicholas II. put a stop to -the old and cruel system of exiling suspects and convicts into -Siberia,<a id='r11' /><a href='#f11' class='c006'><sup>[11]</sup></a> which ought undoubtedly to result in much good; -for when a country begins to be thickly peopled with free immigrants -it is unwise to continue to use it as a penal settlement. -These exiles may be divided into two principal groups: firstly, -political, often very honest and amiable people, such as -students who have taken part in a manifestation hostile to -the Government; Poles, compromised in recent insurrections; -Catholics and Protestants who have displayed too much zeal -in the affirmation of their religious opinions; and Raskolniks, -whose peculiar theological opinions have already been described. -The second category includes less estimable people: youths -of good family of by no means irreproachable character, who -have been sent to meditate on their shortcomings for a certain -number of years, and repent of their follies at their leisure on -the pleasant banks of the Obi or the Yenissei; and certain -functionaries of good family who have been guilty of appropriating -money officially entrusted to them. Of these unfortunate -<span class='pageno' id='Page_54'>54</span>people, those who have been guilty of minor offences -are sent to Western Siberia, where they often obtain employment -as servants and coachmen. On the other hand, those -who have committed graver offences, and who have been -condemned to hard labour, undergo their punishment in -Eastern Siberia, in Irkutsk, Yenissei, or in Trans-Baikalia, and -must remain there. Inveterate criminals, murderers, and -escaped galley-slaves, are sent to the island of Sakhalin, opposite -the mouth of the Amur, where, even at the expiration of their -terms, they are obliged to end their lives. Those political -exiles who are not punished for grave offences are also relegated -to the west, where the climate is fairly temperate. The graver -the charge and the heavier the sentence, the farther are they -sent eastward, even to the icy territories of Yakutsk, Verkhoyansk, -Nijne Kolymsk, and Ust-Yansk. To these regions -are also relegated the members of the strange sect of Eunuchs. -The majority of these people, unless indeed they are very -gravely compromised, after being obliged to reside three, or -even ten, years in a village, are allowed to settle in a town, to -go freely all over Siberia, and even at the expiration of a certain -number of years to return to Russia. They not infrequently -make themselves extremely useful. Many Poles become innkeepers, -and I know of one at least who is a Doctor of Law, and -who speaks excellent French. At Irkutsk one can get good -beer, a beverage elsewhere execrable, a boon entirely due to -the enterprise of an exile from the Baltic provinces. In -the extreme north not a few exiles employ their time with -scientific and meteorological studies. Here I may observe that -I have never seen any of the exiles in Siberia ill-treated, and -even the chain which some of them are obliged to wear did -not seem to me very heavy. The great prison of Alexandrofsk, -near Irkutsk, is admirably managed, its rules being very mild. -Nevertheless, I must confess that I only visited what the -officials chose to show me. All I can say is that, according to -my experience, if there are exiles who are habitually badly -treated, they must be very few in number. Of course, I can -say nothing in extenuation of the system of transporting a -young man or even a young woman to languish in a dreary -village buried in the depths of a forest or the Tundra, merely -because they happen to have taken an over-prominent part in -some political or students’ demonstration.</p> - -<p class='c008'>One curious fact connected with this system of Russian -<span class='pageno' id='Page_55'>55</span>transportation is that the wives and children of the exiles are -often authorized to follow the condemned man, which they -very frequently do, although in some cases the law considers -the marriage bond annulled by the mere act of condemnation, -the unfortunate exiles being considered civilly dead. The -families of these poor people often endure such terrible privations -that local committees have been founded, under the -patronage of the authorities, to assist them. In 1894, in the -five Governments of Tobolsk, Tomsk, Yenissei, Irkutsk, and -Yakutsk, 15,000 exiles and their families arrived.</p> - -<p class='c008'>In a single and not particularly favourable year, the population -of Siberia was increased by about 85,000 persons, of whom -about 66,495 were free immigrants. The natural increase was -almost equally great, rising, according to the statistics, to -78,000, exclusive of the Littoral Province, which, if taken into -account, ought to raise the population by 80,000. On a population -which we may estimate at 5,300,000 at this period, there -must have been about 250,000 births, that is 47·5 per 1,000, -and 172,000 deaths, or 32·4 per 1,000. The birth-rate, therefore, -is exceedingly high, and the death-rate, when the conditions -of the country are considered, certainly not abnormal. In -1898 the immigration, owing to the opening of the railway, was -greatly increased, to the extent even of 200,000 souls. It is -not therefore a lack of population which is ever likely to affect -the future of Siberia. The natural resources of the country -can be justly compared with Canada, which it exceeds in size, -and also, to a slight extent, in population; but the difference -between the two countries, in point of economic development, -is very great. What is wanted in Siberia is less the creation -of a great number of complex industries, for which the country -is not yet ripe, than the introduction, as already stated elsewhere, -of up-to-date methods of exploiting the natural resources -of the country, which can only be borrowed from foreign -countries, and it will only be by opening wide its doors and by -receiving strangers without jealousy or unwarranted suspicion -that Russia will ever be able to obtain from her gigantic enterprise -in Trans-Siberia a return worthy of the great wealth of a -country which must eventually be placed on the same footing -as any other in point of civilization and progress.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_56'>56</span> - <h3 class='c001'>CHAPTER VIII<br /> <span class='large'>MEANS OF COMMUNICATION IN SIBERIA</span></h3> -</div> -<p class='c014'>Absolute insufficiency of the present means of transport—Coaches and -sleighs—The tarantass: price, length and conditions of travelling by -this means of locomotion—Navigation—Scheme for penetrating into -Siberia by the Arctic Ocean and its recent success—Absolute necessity -of more railways.</p> - -<p class='c007'>In order to form a fair idea of the revolution which the Trans-Siberian -Railway is likely to bring about in the economical and -political conditions of Northern Asia, it will be as well to glance -at the actual conditions of the present means of travel and -transport in the country. The most rapid means of locomotion -at the disposal of travellers only yesterday, as it were, was -in summer the stage-coach, and in winter the sleigh. Twenty -years ago, to go to Vladivostok (6,000 miles distant) the -traveller took the coach at Kazan, on the Volga, the journey -occupying not less than two months in the more favourable -season, when a coat of snow, as solid as marble and as smooth -as velvet, replaces the usual mud and slush on the Siberian -roads. Later on, with the progress of navigation and the construction -of a railway across the Urals, the starting-point for -this journey was removed further on to the most eastern point -touched by the steamboats, in the basin of the Obi at Tomsk. -In summer this route shortened the journey viâ Krasnoyarsk, -Irkutsk, and Chita about 1,875 miles, at the end of which one -reached the Amur, where navigation recommenced. Since -1896 the Trans-Siberian has passed Tomsk, and now the -starting-point of the road journey has gone gradually farther -afield, and is now daily receding more to the east.</p> - -<p class='c008'>In the summer of 1897 the railway had already reached the -little town of Kansk, about 160 miles beyond the Yenissei, and -it was here, or at the Kluchi station, some 65 miles further on, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_57'>57</span>that one hired a coach. It is, however, wiser to buy one’s -tarantass, in order to avoid the trouble of unloading luggage -at each stage, and, again, the coaches hired out by the postmasters -are much less comfortable.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The station-master at Kluchi, to whom I had been recommended, -like many other subordinate officials in Siberia, -was an exile, who in better days had been a captain in the -artillery, and, moreover, the cashier of his regiment. One fine -day, in a fit of over-generosity, he unluckily lent a sum of -money, abstracted from the cash-box, to a comrade who had -lost very considerably at the gaming-tables. Fate avenged the -regiment in the shape of an inspector, who inopportunely -arrived upon the scene, examined into affairs, and forthwith -ended the military career of the unlucky officer. After fourteen -years’ exile in Siberia this indiscriminately good-natured -individual has become chief inspector of a little railway-station, -and adds to his small income by letting out tarantasses to -travellers. He sold me for £18 the best of his vehicles, -which, I was assured, had recently been used by a distinguished -official, but, nevertheless, I had to get rid of it, when I took -the steamer on the Amur two months later, for about £7.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Jules Verne, in ‘Michael Strogoff,’ has introduced and -popularized the tarantass. It is a vehicle without springs, with -a body about six feet long, like a trough supported on three -broad planks of wood, and mounted upon two very low -axles nine to ten feet apart. An immense hood protects -the back part of the carriage from the rain, and by buttoning -the leathern apron fixed to the front, one can keep -one’s self almost hermetically screened from the weather. -The tarantass, if it is not particularly comfortable, has the -advantage of being very strong. It possesses nothing in the -shape of a seat, and one is obliged to lie full-length on a litter -of hay or upon the luggage, unless, indeed, from time to time, -in order to change position, one cares to sit on the edge of -the vehicle or else alongside the coachman. The horses are -supplied by the postmasters at the rate of three kopecks, or -three farthings, per verst for each horse, and, moreover, one has -to pay a fixed tax of about fivepence per horse at each relay. -The team consists usually of three horses, and the relays are -found at a distance of about sixteen miles apart. The expenses, -therefore, for this short distance amount to about five -shillings, inclusive of a tip to the coachman, so that there -<span class='pageno' id='Page_58'>58</span>is not much to complain of in that respect. The same tariff -applies in winter, but in the intermediary seasons, from -March 5 to May 15, and from September 15 to December 1, -when the thaw sets in and the roads are very heavy, a -fourth horse is needed, and the expense is increased about -one quarter. I used frequently to ask Siberians how many -miles could be performed in this sort of vehicle. Of course, -almost everybody gave me a different answer. One high -official in Tomsk informed me that it could undertake as -many as 400 versts in twenty-four hours. ‘Do not imagine -you can go more than from sixty-five to eighty,’ said the -station-master, and as it was he who had sold me my tarantass, -I came to the conclusion that his rather dismal prognostic was -the true one. As a matter of fact, everything depends upon -the condition of the roads, and also as to whether the traveller -has supplied himself with a <em>podorojne</em>, an official document -usually granted to Imperial couriers and to high officials, and -which enables its possessor to avoid being detained at the -various stations on the road. Fortunately, as I had one of -these documents, I was able to make between 90 and 120 -miles in twenty-four hours.</p> - -<p class='c008'>I cannot describe the scenery by the way as particularly -interesting. The road cuts through the forests of pines and -larches, and is, as a rule, fairly well kept, and about as broad -as the best of our national routes in France. From time to -time the wall of verdure opens out to give way to a clearing, -along which one perceives rows of wooden houses, indicating -the existence of some village or other, the name of which is -printed on a post, that also supplies information as to the -number of inhabitants of each sex. One soon gets tired of the -beauty of the trees, and, to be truthful, also of the rather -monotonous convoys of <em>telegas</em> loaded with merchandise, -waggons with gold, escorted by soldiers, and of the interminable -caravans of emigrants. As one passes the Baikal the -road becomes less and less frequented, and more and more -monotonous and dreary, especially in the dismal steppe, with -its stunted growth, through which flows the Vitim, an affluent of -the Lena. The road now meanders through marshy prairies, -and is merely indicated by the line of gray telegraph-posts -stretching off towards the horizon.</p> - -<p class='c008'>In order to break the intolerable monotony of these very -long journeys, it is usual to invite one or two other travellers -<span class='pageno' id='Page_59'>59</span>to share expenses, and these are not difficult to find, for the -Russians are naturally sociable and quite free from stiffness or -conventionality. I was rather surprised on one occasion to -find the wife of an official in Trans-Baikalia who, to join her -husband, had performed the journey from Vladikavkaz, 4,000 -miles by rail and 1,000 miles by road, in the company of an -officer with whom she was only slightly acquainted. The -Russians were not more astonished at this than Americans -would have been. The general insecurity of the country is -probably responsible for the ease with which people make -acquaintances. Those who like to deal in horrors are by no -means behindhand in relating appalling stories of travellers -who have been waylaid by escaped convicts and murdered in -the heart of the forest. ‘Have you your revolvers?’ asked the -postmaster, on the evening of my first journey in my tarantass, -and just as we were about to start. ‘Three travellers were -assassinated on this relay only fifteen days ago,’ continued he, -and then he gave us a horribly detailed account of the circumstances. -I had no revolver with me, and never had any -reason to need one, and I rather doubted the authenticity of -these gruesome stories. The real danger which travellers in -Siberia have to encounter is that of having the rope which -attaches their luggage to the back of the tarantass artfully cut -and their portmanteaus carried off. Accidents are rare, as the -tarantass is generally very strongly built. It is somewhat -alarming, however, when at the head of a steep incline, to -watch the coachman exciting his horses into a gallop by the -wildest gesticulations, but one soon learns that the danger in -this case is merely apparent.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Considerable patience is certainly needed on these Siberian -journeys, for the roads are often appallingly bad, especially -when the inundations set in after a thaw, when even the -bridges are carried off by the torrents. Then, again, what is -particularly exasperating is the passive air of resignation -assumed by all concerned, postmaster and coachman, and -even by one’s travelling companions. Accustomed as these -people are to live in a climate in which the forces of Nature -defy the ingenuity of man, they are very apt, especially as they -have nothing on earth else to do, to shrug their shoulders at -the inevitable, and to avoid with supreme skill troubling -themselves about the ways and means of bettering things. I -remember on one occasion, after having been assured at -<span class='pageno' id='Page_60'>60</span>Kiakhta and Chita that if I persisted in continuing my journey -I was exposing my life, being landed in a ford into which one -of the wheels of the tarantass stuck. To extricate it, we had -to work for over an hour in the cold water and in the dim -dawn, and even then we were only able to do so with the help -of two Buriats who were passing that way, and who lent us -their horses to assist us in getting out of this unpleasant fix. -With the sole exception of this mishap I had very little to -complain of. It is in the post-stations, however, that one’s -patience is put to the test and that one realizes the force of a -truism made by a certain English author, who began a book -on Siberia with the following singular aphorism: ‘In Siberia -time is not money.’ One crosses the threshold of these rather -doleful-looking houses, which become more and more lugubrious -as one advances eastward, with a feeling akin to dread.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The postmaster is almost invariably to be found seated in -front of a very dirty register, and generally grunts out his -answers to your inquiries as to whether he has any horses -ready, ‘You will have to wait two or three hours, possibly until -the next morning,’ after which pleasant piece of information -you pass into the common waiting-room, usually furnished -with a few chairs, two or three tables and one or two old sofas. -On the wall hang an ikon or so, the inevitable portraits of their -Majesties, and a few frames with the usual printed instructions -and regulations. Then comes a sort of glorified bill-of-fare, -from a perusal of which you learn the names of a number of -succulent dishes, but, unfortunately, the last line informs you -that the postmaster is only obliged to supply you with black -bread and hot water, the last article being intended to make -tea, with which, together with sugar, every traveller supplies -himself before starting. Nearly always, however, one finds -excellent eggs and milk. It is wise in travelling in Trans-Baikalia -to take a supply of preserves, which you can procure -in any large Siberian town.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The travellers, however, whom one meets in these resorts -are generally exceedingly friendly, very willing and even eager -to share their provisions. Seated round the great copper -samovar, conversation becomes cordial and intimate, everybody -calling each other, regardless of age or sex, by their Christian -names, ‘Nicholas Petrovitch,’ ‘Paul Ivanovitch,’ ‘Elisabeth -Alexandrovna,’ and so forth. Constantly, when on the journey, -one often falls in with the same people, and thus acquaintance -<span class='pageno' id='Page_61'>61</span>soon ripens into intimacy. But, although these gatherings -round the samovar are very agreeable, and enable one to study -the pleasanter qualities of the Russian people, it is not advisable -to pass the night in any of the hostelries along the road, for all -the insecticide powders ever invented will not insure a quiet -night.</p> - -<p class='c008'>However interesting, therefore, a cross-country journey -through Siberia may be, it is not exactly of the kind one would -recommend for a pleasure trip, although many Russian ladies, -even of the highest rank, frequently undertake it, but I do not -recommend it to delicate people. When supplied with a -<em>podorojne</em> and the weather is fine the journey is pleasant -enough, but it must not be forgotten that it takes seven weeks -to go from the Ural to Vladivostok. In winter the journey by -sleigh from the Volga takes two months, but if it takes so long -for a traveller, what must it be for merchandise! Commerce, -therefore, on account of the backward condition of the land routes, -is obliged in Siberia to make use of the splendid watercourses, -but even these are paralyzed during seven months of -the year by thick coatings of ice, and, what is still worse, they -all flow towards an ocean eternally blocked by icebergs.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Recently some very hardy experiments, crowned so far with -partial success, have been made to penetrate to the heart of -Siberia by the Polar Sea when navigation is free during certain -weeks of the year. It will be remembered that it was by the -White Sea that European commerce, represented by an -Englishman named Chancellor, first entered Russia in the -sixteenth century. It is therefore not to be wondered at that -attempts have been made to penetrate into Siberia by the -mouths of the Obi and the Yenissei, which are situated at no -greater distance than 1,000 to 1,200 miles from the northernmost -part of Norway, where the sea is always free from ice. -M. Sidorov, a Russian gentleman of ample fortune, in the -middle of the present century, devoted himself to carrying -out this scheme, and notwithstanding that he was discouraged -by the leading scientists of the day, who considered -it impracticable, he promised a very ample reward to the -captain of the first ship which should enter the Yenissei. Two -expeditions, attempted in 1862 and 1869, failed; but in 1874 -an Englishman named Wiggins, captain of the <em>Diana</em>, succeeded -in passing the Straits of Kara, which separate Novaya -Zemlya from the continent, on the frontiers of Europe and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_62'>62</span>Asia, and thus was able to effect a passage into the estuary of -the Yenissei. More successful attempts were made in the -following years, and in 1878 iron, groceries, machinery, and -other articles, were landed at the mouths of the Obi and the -Yenissei. In 1887 an English company was formed to carry -on a regular service at the close of each summer between -England and the North of Siberia, but unfortunately the first -year was not successful, the goods not being of a profitable -character. On the succeeding voyage the vessel could not pass -the Straits of Kara, and had to return home. Subsequently a -new company was formed, but with disastrous results. These -ineffectual attempts, however, did not discourage the English, -and the scheme for navigating the Arctic Ocean was reassumed -on a larger basis in 1896, when three steamers entered the -Yenissei and ascended that river to Turukhansk, about 600 -miles from its estuary, where their goods were transferred to -large barges and conveyed to Krasnoyarsk. The merchandise, -which included seven steam-engines, was sold for a fair profit. -This English company has now installed an agency at Krasnoyarsk, -and the Russian Government, in consideration of the -great services which it has rendered at great risk in attempting -to create a regular service through the Arctic Ocean into -Western and Central Siberia, has reduced the customs duties -on all goods introduced by it by one-half, and indeed has -completely abandoned its claims on a number of articles such -as grocery and machinery. Moreover, so pleased has the -Russian Government been by this courageous attempt that it -has granted some very valuable mining concessions on this -river. In 1897 six English steamers returned to Turukhansk, -and quite a fleet of them was directed to the mouth of the Obi, -hitherto somewhat neglected on account of the shallowness of -the water. Moreover, an attempt has recently been made to -create an export trade between Siberia and England, and a -cargo of corn brought by the company’s barges to the point -where their ships are anchored was soon afterwards happily -transported to Europe. In 1898 the same company met with -identical success. Thus far this enterprise has been very -fortunate. Needless to say, the Kara Sea and the straits which -border upon it are, up to the beginning of August, blocked with -ice, concentrated there by the different currents, and the -season during which navigation is possible lasts only from six -weeks to two months, between August and September. The -<span class='pageno' id='Page_63'>63</span>ships used in this particular service must leave Europe a little -beforehand, so as to await at the Straits of Kara a favourable -opportunity to penetrate to the mouth of the rivers, ascend -them, discharge and recharge, and start again as quickly as -possible. The time is exceedingly limited during which the -barges can transport their cargoes into the interior and reascend -the Siberian rivers ere these are frozen over, and this -especially is the case on the Yenissei, whose currents, even at -Krasnoyarsk, are not more than six miles an hour, attaining, however, -twelve miles between Krasnoyarsk and Yenissei. Therefore -it is impossible to perform more than seventy to eighty -miles a day, and it must be remembered that between Turukhansk -and Krasnoyarsk the distance is about 1,000 miles, and -that in the beginning of October navigation is suspended. -Under these conditions it is not likely that more than one -service a year can ever be organized, although possibly, when -the peculiarities of the icy regions of the Kara Sea are better -known, it might be otherwise. It should also be mentioned -that the vessels engaged in this particular trade have not been -built expressly for it, but are ordinary cargo-boats, which can -be engaged during the rest of the year trading in pleasanter -climes. If the present company establishes itself definitely it -will be extremely fortunate, not only for the town of Krasnoyarsk, -but for the whole of Siberia, which will thus be able -to export, by a very cheap route, the excess of its harvests and -perhaps also some of its superb wood, and receive in exchange -from Western Europe manufactured articles and machinery, -hitherto exclusively supplied from Moscow. Therefore the -opening of the Trans-Siberian Railway, combined with the -passage of navigation through the Arctic Sea, will necessarily -benefit Asiatic Russia very considerably, and help that country -to obtain freer communication with the rest of the world, -and thereby enable it eventually to become completely -modernized.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_64'>64</span> - <h3 class='c001'>CHAPTER IX<br /> <span class='large'>THE TRANS-SIBERIAN RAILWAY</span></h3> -</div> -<p class='c014'>Origin of the Trans-Siberian Railway—At first considered only from the -strategic and political point of view—Completion of the Ural Railway—Project -of utilizing the navigable routes to unite Russia to the -Amur—Difficulties encountered owing to the severity of the climate—Alexander -III. in 1891 decides to lay a line between the Ural and the -Pacific, and determines the conditions of its construction—The various -sections of the line and its deviations across Manchuria—Condition of -the works in 1892, and the speed with which it has been constructed—Russia -now possesses (1900) a line of mixed communication by -train and boat passing from the Ural to the Pacific, and in 1904 a -complete line will pass directly from the Ural to Port Arthur, a -distance of over 4,130 miles—The monster ferry-boats in course of -construction to convey passengers across Lake Baikal—The success of -the enterprise.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The idea of making an overland road from Russia to the Far -East and the Pacific probably germinated in the fertile brain of -Voltaire, who, in a letter to Count Schuvarof, dated Ferney, -June 11, 1761, said ‘that it ought to be possible to travel from -Russia direct to China without having to cross any considerable -mountain pass, just as one can go from St. Petersburg to Paris -without leaving the plain.’ The matter was even more -practically defined, nearer our own time, by Count Mouravief-Amurski, -who, after he had annexed the province of the Amur -to Russia, favoured the idea of building a Trans-Siberian railway, -and, in the meantime, encouraged the creation of a postal -highroad from the Urals to the Amur, which, he considered, -would greatly strengthen Russian prestige on the shores of the -Pacific.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The Trans-Siberian Railway, it may be remarked, was not -originally designed merely in the interests of Siberia, but as a -means of uniting Europe with the rich countries of the Far -<span class='pageno' id='Page_65'>65</span>East, in such a manner as to avoid the necessity of passing any -length of time in the rude and sparsely-peopled intermediary -territories. Even after the project was definitely accepted by -Alexander III., the political and strategical considerations of -the problem were deemed of far greater importance than the -commercial; but presently it transpired that Siberia was not -quite the forlorn country hitherto imagined, but that it possessed -certain resources of great value, which might easily be -developed, provided rapid communication with the rest of the -empire was organized.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The first step in the right direction was the construction of -the Ural Railway, opened in 1880, which united Perm on the -Kama with Tiumen on the Tobol, a river flowing into the -Irtysh. The increasing necessity of developing the important -gold and iron mines in the Urals was doubtless the principal -motive why this line was completed; but presently it proved -to be of vast importance to the rest of Siberia, since, by -combining the river with the land routes, it became possible, -at least during five or six months of the year, to reach Tomsk -in a relatively short period.</p> - -<p class='c008'>At that time it was thought the opening of this trunk line -would be detrimental to the scheme of a complete Trans-Siberian -railway, for once the junction of the navigable tributaries of -the Obi with those of the Volga was accomplished, it was -deemed desirable to connect Russia with its possessions in the -Far East by uniting in the same manner the basin of the Obi -with that of the Yenissei, and finally the latter with the affluents -of the Amur, and so with the Pacific. A railway from the Obi -to the Yenissei was not thought necessary, a canal being all -that was required. In 1882, therefore, the construction of a -canal was undertaken between the Ket, a tributary of the Obi, -and the Kass, an affluent of the Yenissei, the distance not -being more than 126 miles. The canal in question, which -traverses a series of virgin forests, when completed, unfortunately, -however, did not realize expectation. To the east -of the Yenissei its promoters encountered formidable obstacles -from the ice and from the numerous rapids that disturb the -current of the Angara, and all attempts to ascend that river -have hitherto failed.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Notwithstanding these difficulties, the enterprising engineers -hoped to the last to be able to modify some of them, but have -not succeeded in so doing. Thus, it soon became evident -<span class='pageno' id='Page_66'>66</span>that if any practical means of communication was to exist -between Russia and the Pacific, it could only be by some -method independent of climatic irregularity. The late Tsar, -Alexander III., very readily understood that the mixed rail -and river system, with its many inconveniences of loading and -unloading, and its ice blockades, was, comparatively speaking, -useless. Hence the great encouragement and assistance which -his Imperial Majesty gave to the creation of the Trans-Siberian -Railway, in which he took the deepest interest, being quite of -opinion that its completion was of vital importance to the -improvement and well-being of an immense section of his -Empire. In less than eight years from the day he signed the -Imperial decree authorizing its immediate execution trains -began to run over 3,300 miles, uniting the upper region of the -Amur with Europe and the lower section of that river with the -Pacific. Without entering into further particulars of the -various routes proposed and subsequently given up, suffice it to -say that at present the excellent idea of creating a line running -along the shores of Lake Baikal from Irkutsk to Misofsk has -been temporarily abandoned, and that a short line of forty-four -miles between Irkutsk and Listvenitchnaya now runs to the -western shores of that lake, where the trains will ere long be -shunted directly on board ferry-boats built on the well-known -American system, and thus travellers will be able to continue -their journey to the Far East without leaving the train.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The Trans-Siberian Railway between Cheliabinsk and Vladivostok -now includes a main line some 4,125 miles in length, -plus two branch lines, one 104 miles and the other 410 miles -in length, which unite with the Upper and Lower Amur.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The Western Siberian Railway was finished in 1895; the -Central Siberian and the section between Irkutsk and Baikal -in 1898. Trains can now run over 2,152 miles of rail. The -478 miles of the Ussuri line, of which 67 miles belong to the trunk -line, were not opened until 1897. The many difficulties of the -Trans-Baikalian line, which somewhat retarded its completion, -having been overcome, it was inaugurated quite recently, -whereby 2,814 miles out of the total 4,125 miles were rendered -free for traffic. The line to Ussuri was finished three years -ago, and the rail having been laid between Onon and Stretensk, -the Russians have now (1900) a complete land and river system -of intercommunication to the Pacific.</p> - -<p class='c008'>For some years past a number of Russian officers and engineers -<span class='pageno' id='Page_67'>67</span>have been quietly exploring Manchuria, with very interesting -results. In 1895 the Chinese Government, after the Chino-Japanese -War, accorded, as a token of gratitude to Russia for -her share in the combined intervention with France and -Germany in her favour, the privilege to build a railway through -this important province, and, moreover, to occupy the country -during its construction, the better to protect both works and -workmen. This circumstance brought about a great modification -in the original route of the Trans-Siberian line. The -section in the Amur from Stretensk to Khabarofsk was -abandoned and replaced by a Trans-Manchurian Railway -which leaves the station at Onon, 104 miles east of Stretensk, -to rejoin the original line at Nikolsk, about 67 miles from -Vladivostok, and thus has a mixed route of rail and river been -created which brings Europe and the Pacific into direct -communication during the summer months. The train now -conveys travellers from the Ural to Stretensk; thence by boat -to Khabarofsk, whence the line continues uninterruptedly to -Vladivostok. As to the great Manchurian line, it cannot be -completed, even according to the letter of the concession, before -1904, so numerous and so very great are the natural and other -obstacles which have to be overcome. A notable modification -has, however, already been made in the original plan. -Vladivostok is now no longer to be the main terminus, which will -be transferred to Port Arthur, 530 miles further south. The -advantages to commerce to be derived from this project will -doubtless soon and amply compensate for the extra labour and -expense.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The great difficulties of constructing the Trans-Siberian -Railway were mainly due to its abnormal length. Whereas -the Americans had only 2,000 miles to cut in creating their -line between the Mississippi and the Pacific, the Russians thirty -years later had to lay down more than 4,000 miles of rail in -order to reach the same ocean from the Ural. Otherwise -their difficulties were very much less formidable than those -which at times nearly baffled even the ingenuity of the -Americans. Happily there are no Rocky Mountains or Sierra -Nevada in Siberia to traverse at a great height, but only -comparatively low ranges like the Yablonovoi, or ‘Apple-Tree -Mountains,’ so-called from their rather dumpy shapes. Then, -again, although Siberia is at present not more densely inhabited -than was the Far West from 1860 to 1870, it contains no such -<span class='pageno' id='Page_68'>68</span>desolate regions as the plateaus of Utah and Nevada. It may, -therefore, be safely affirmed that from the engineering point of -view the task was a comparatively easy one, although the line -has to pass over an exceedingly varied country after leaving the -Ural, and through interminable plains, to reach the undulating -regions between the Obi and the Yenissei, where it ascends -a chain of hills at an altitude of not less than 2,000 feet on the -road from the Yenissei to Irkutsk. On the eastern shore of -the Baikal the railway gradually ascends to an altitude of not -less than 3,500 feet above the level of the water, whence it -descends in rapid zigzag into the valleys of the Ingoda and -the Chilka, cuts the abrupt spurs of some very high mountains, -and passes into marshlands where, by the way, the engineers -have had to overcome their greatest obstruction, mainly due -to the unstable condition of the soil. When, therefore, we take -into consideration that between the Amur and the Ural there -is not a single tunnel, we may safely conclude that, if it were -not for its enormous length, this now famous line has not been -from the engineering point of view as arduous an undertaking -even as have been, for instance, some of the much shorter -lines nearer home, across the Alps and the Cevennes.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The bridges, on the other hand, are very remarkable and -numerous, and some of them required great skill in their -construction, since they span the more important rivers of -Siberia, which, with the exception of those in the basin of the -Amur, invariably flow due north. There are four principal -bridges, of which two cross the Irtysh and the Obi respectively, -each 2,750 feet in length; the other two span the Yenissei -and the Selenga, and are about 3,000 feet in length. These -four bridges were exceedingly costly, necessitating the erection -of stone piles of prodigious strength, capable of resisting the -shock of the enormous masses of floating ice. The minor -bridges, some of them 700 to 900 feet in length, are very -numerous, but, beyond the difficulty of fixing them firmly a -great distance on either side of the rivers, owing to the marshy -nature of the soil on the immediate banks, it needed no -superlative skill on the part of the engineers who superintended -their erection.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Altogether the most remarkable feature of the line will be -the manner in which the trains are eventually to be transported -across the Baikal, the largest lake in Asia. In America and in -Denmark the system of running a train on to a monster ferry-boat, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_69'>69</span>crossing considerable expanses of water, has now been -in practical use for many years; but the distances hitherto -have never exceeded seventy miles. The Toledo, Ann Harbour, -and Northern Michigan Railroad possesses a service of ferry-boats -that convey the trains across Lake Michigan, a distance -of about seventy miles. The <em>Père Marquette</em>, the biggest ferry-boat -in the world, so-called in honour of the celebrated Jesuit -missionary and explorer, is 344 feet in length by 54 feet in -width, and possesses four lines, whereby it can carry thirty -freight cars and sixteen very up-to-date passenger corridor -carriages. The difficulties to be surmounted with respect to -Lake Baikal are happily less than those to be encountered on -Lake Michigan. The distance from shore to shore, to begin -with, is considerably less. Between Listvenitchnaya, otherwise -the ‘Larches,’ to Misofsk is only forty miles. Notwithstanding -the excessive cold, the Baikal does not freeze until quite late -in January, on account of its great depth, 4,200 feet, of which -2,900 feet are below the level of the sea, forming a prodigious -volume of water which takes a very long time to freeze, and an -almost equally long time to thaw, for its temperature rarely -rises, even in summer, above 5° C. During eight months of -the year Lake Baikal is free and navigable, and it is believed -that two crossings a day, always in the same channel, may -eventually reduce the thickness of the ice in winter.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The building of these enormous ferry-boats has been entrusted -to a well-known American firm.<a id='r12' /><a href='#f12' class='c006'><sup>[12]</sup></a> They are to be -larger than the <em>Père Marquette</em>, and provided with special -contrivances for cutting the ice as they force their passage -through it, and they are, moreover, intended to go at the rate -of thirteen and a half knots an hour in free water, and four -knots when cutting through the ice. The passage will take -nine hours in winter and about two and a half hours in summer. -Unfortunately, storms are very sudden and frequent on Lake -Baikal, and, moreover, in summer travelling is often impeded -by dense fogs, and it occasionally happens that boats are -detained for hours and even days at a time before they dare -venture across. It will certainly be very unpleasant for the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_70'>70</span>passengers to be kept for many hours at Listvenitchnaya or -Misofsk waiting for the weather to clear. However, they can -take heart of grace; for not so very long ago they might have -been detained for days at some out-of-the-way post-house, in -company with a regiment of most unpleasant and unnameable -bedfellows!</p> - -<p class='c008'>The difficulties of obtaining workmen for building this -railway were not so great as might have been expected, thanks -to the nomadic habits of the Russians, who think very little of -leaving their wives and belongings at home, and going hundreds, -even thousands, of miles away in search of employment. Then, -again, there were already a considerable number of workpeople -to be obtained on the line itself; for, as already stated, the -population of Siberia is concentrated on the old postal-road, -which runs in many points parallel to the railway. Convict -labour was not greatly used, and when it was it proved unsatisfactory, -and was soon more or less abandoned. The line, -however, has taken an unusually long time to finish, because -the only season during which work can be carried on in Siberia -lasts but six months; but this probably proved attractive to the -Russian and Asiatic workmen, as it gave them ample time, -when the ground was thickly covered with snow, to return to -their cabins and indulge in those day-dreams so dear to them -and to all Orientals.</p> - -<p class='c008'>It is difficult to estimate the exact cost of the line, but it -was at first reckoned at over £40,000,000 sterling,<a id='r13' /><a href='#f13' class='c006'><sup>[13]</sup></a> of which -unfortunately a considerable percentage was absolutely wasted, -if not worse. Grave charges have been brought against a great -number of people in connection with this line, and doubtless -with reason; for it must not be forgotten that the notions of -honesty entertained in Asiatic Russia are apt even now to be -distinctly Byzantine. However, be this as it may, Russia can -be congratulated upon having completed a brilliant achievement, -which no other nation, except perhaps England or -America, would have dared to undertake, especially in so short -a time.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_71'>71</span> - <h3 class='c001'>CHAPTER X<br /> <span class='large'>THE RAILWAY THROUGH MANCHURIA</span></h3> -</div> -<p class='c014'>Concessions granted by China to construct the Manchurian Railway—The -East Chinese Railway Company and its statutes—Method of construction -and utilization of the waterways—Military and political -advantages—Branch to Port Arthur—Rapid progress already made.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The completion of the Manchurian Railway will take place -in a few years, and if there has been an apparent delay in its -construction, it must not be forgotten that the harder work had -already been finished on the Trans-Siberian line when the plans -for the Chinese scheme were only just drawn up, and also that -the obstacles to be overcome in Manchuria are infinitely greater -than any that presented themselves in Siberia. These obstacles -are mainly the result of the natural formation of the soil. As -to the alleged political difficulties, they are very unimportant, -although the line does pass through a Chinese province.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Notwithstanding that it was nominally conceded to an -anonymous society, the line is absolutely in the hands of the -Russian Government, to confirm which statement we have -only to study the statutes of the East China Railway -Company, which were drawn up by the chief promoter, -M. de Witte, and formulated by the Russo-Chinese Bank -between August 26 and September 8, 1896, after the signing -of the Convention between the Russian and the Chinese Governments. -According to these statutes, which were approved of -by the Russian Government on December 4 to 16, 1896, -and published in the <cite>Messager Officiel de l’Empire</cite>, ‘the -shareholders must be either Russians or Chinese. The concession -lapses at the end of eighty years from the day of the -opening of the completed line. The bonds can only be issued -on demand, and then only with the consent of the Russian -<span class='pageno' id='Page_72'>72</span>Minister of Finance. The Russian Government guarantees -payment of the interest and the redemption of the bonds. -The company is managed by a committee, comprising a -President and nine members, of whom one is Vice-President, -divided between Peking and St. Petersburg. The President is -chosen by the Chinese Government only; the other members -of the committee are usually elected at a general meeting of the -shareholders. The chief duty of the President is to watch -over the interests of the Chinese Government. The Vice-President -is supposed to interest himself exclusively in the -management of the company. The Russian Government has -a right to superintend the progress and development of the -works, both during the period of construction and of exploitation. -The Russian Minister of Finance has, moreover, the -right to ratify the nominations of the Vice-President, chief -engineer, and of all other officials, and to approve or otherwise -of any modifications which may be suggested during the -construction of the line.</p> - -<p class='c008'>These and other regulations, to which we need only allude, -prove the preponderating influence of Russia in the undertaking, -and we should, moreover, remember that the majority -of the shares are in the hands of the Russian Government. -It is therefore obvious that the Chinese President is but a -mere figurehead, and that the whole enterprise is exclusively -Russian. As a matter of fact, the only important reservation -made in the interests of China is the following: ‘After -a lapse of thirty-six years from the date of the completion -of the line, the Chinese Government will have the right to repurchase -it, and to assume all the responsibilities of the said -company.’ If China does not avail herself of this right of -repurchase, she will not enter into possession of the line and -its dependencies until the conclusion of the eighty years from -the date of its inauguration originally stipulated, under which -circumstance she will certainly have a very long time to wait. -The statutes also declare that the works must begin not later -than August 16 to 28, 1897, and that they must be finished in -six years, that is to say, in 1903, but, as a matter of fact, it is -not likely that everything will be ready by that time, owing to -the many obstacles the engineers have to overcome.</p> - -<p class='c008'>According to a project accepted in 1897, the Manchurian -line from Onon to Nikolsk will be 1,200 miles in length, of -which 890 miles will pass through the Celestial Empire, and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_73'>73</span>310 miles through Russian territory. The total distance by -rail from Cheliabinsk to Vladivostok will be 4,072 miles instead -of 4,640, as stated in the original scheme, including the 40 -miles across Lake Baikal.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Chinese Manchuria is composed of the two basins of the -Sungari, the great affluent of the Amur, which joins this river -between Blagovyeshchensk and Khabarofsk, and of the Liao-ho, -which flows into the treaty port of Niu-chwang in the Government -of Pe-chi-li. Between these two basins lies a zone of -steppes, quite destitute of water, an eastern prolongation of the -great Desert of Gobi, and 130 miles in width. To the east of -the north and north-west of Manchuria rises a chain of lofty -mountains, which separate the valleys of the Amur and its -tributaries, the Argun and the Ussuri, from the great inland -and very marshy plain watered by the Sungari and its tributary -rivers.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The new line will, after leaving Onon, have to cross a lofty -chain of mountains south of Trans-Baikalia, 265 miles in -length, at a height of over 3,000 feet, and then descend into -the valley of the Argun, to finally enter an absolutely deserted -mountainous region, unexplored until the arrival of the engineering -mission, some 130 miles long. Thence it will have to be -carried over a height exceeding even the 3,000 feet above -mentioned, and for another 330 miles will run at a height -varying between 300 to 600 feet above the level of the Sungari -plain, to again rise to 1,950 feet in order to cross another lofty -range before redescending to Nikolsk, which is 130 feet above -the level of the sea. To the difficulties thrown in the way of -rapid progress by the great height and precipitous nature of -the Manchurian Mountains must be added those created by -the unstable condition of the soil, which, according to some -travellers of my acquaintance who have explored this district, -consists of one immense lake of mud. Fortunately, however, -it seems that at about three or four feet below this objectionable -surface exists a solid bed of gravel, which may afford an -excellent foundation for the line. These unfavourable conditions -were at first deemed so insurmountable that at one -time many pessimists were of opinion that it would be wiser -to abandon the Manchurian scheme altogether, and return to -the original plan of passing through the valley of the Amur. -The Tsar, however, held firm to his purpose, and the order -was promulgated by His Majesty in 1898 to forthwith undertake -<span class='pageno' id='Page_74'>74</span>the construction of that portion of the line between Onon -and the Argun situated in his own territory. The waterways -in Chinese territory have been utilized precisely as those in -Siberia. In order to ascend the Sungari a number of flat -steam-tugs were ordered from Newcastle-on-Tyne. They -are unusually shallow, only drawing two feet of water, are -supplied with engines of 500 horse-power, and intended to -convey the rails. These are brought from Europe, viâ Vladivostok, -over the Ussuri line. I remember in September -being at Iman, where the Vladivostok line reaches the Ussuri, -and watching with great interest one of these immense boats in -process of reconstruction. I cannot help thinking, however, -that the Argun would be better for the transport of heavy -railway material than the shallow Sungari.</p> - -<p class='c008'>If the Russian Government so promptly determined to carry -out the construction of the Manchurian Railway, it was rather -on account of important political considerations than of any -shortening of the route. This railway, it must be borne in -mind, passes at less than 330 miles from the extreme north -of the Gulf of Pe-chi-li, whereas by the Amur line the distance is -double, and even then, after arriving at Vladivostok in order -to reach Pe-chi-li, an unexplored and uninhabited mountainous -district which extends north of the Korean Frontier would -have to be passed. From the plain of the Sungari Russia can -easily send troops to Mukden and Niu-chwang, and if necessary -even to Peking, whereas from Vladivostok she would find -it very difficult, if not absolutely impossible, to transport them -by land, and, moreover, there she is by no means complete -mistress of the sea.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Vladivostok already contains a number of important maritime -establishments, the harbour is excellent, and in case of a war -with Japan it would be a most important point of vantage. -Russia, however, calculates that by means of the Manchurian -Railway she will be able to transfer the Trans-Siberian terminus -five degrees south of Vladivostok, to Port Arthur, whereby she -dominates the Gulf of Pe-chi-li and both the land and sea -routes leading to the Chinese capital. This scheme has been -absolutely decided upon since 1898. The branch lines which -unite the harbours of Port Arthur and Talien-wan to the -nearest point of the East Chinese Railway, close to the -town of Kirin, are being pushed on as actively as possible. -Thousands of tons of rail, as well as a number of railway-engines, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_75'>75</span>have already arrived from France and America at -Port Arthur and Niu-chwang, and another branch of the -Russian Railway is being laid in the direction of this last-named -port. The branch from Port Arthur is about 530 -miles, so that the total length of the Trans-Siberian line will not -be greatly increased by this deviation, which will bring it to a -full-stop at the extremity of the peninsula of Liao-tung, on the -shores of a sea which is always free of ice. The total increase -in the expenditure will not exceed £5,000,000.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_76'>76</span> - <h3 class='c001'>CHAPTER XI<br /> <span class='large'>THE ALTERED RELATIONS BETWEEN EUROPE AND THE FAR EAST RESULTING FROM THE TRANS-SIBERIAN RAILWAY</span></h3> -</div> -<p class='c014'>The distance between Europe and the Far East by the Trans-Siberian—Diminution -of the time and expense of the sea-route—China and Japan -within two weeks of Paris and London—Luxury and comfort on board -the Far East express—The difficulty of transporting merchandise, -which must remain much more expensive than by the sea-route—Importance -of the Trans-Siberian Railway as a means of diffusing -civilization in the Far East.</p> - -<p class='c007'>As already stated, between 1904 and 1905 at the latest, a continuous -railroad will bring Europe in touch with the shores of -the Pacific. The distances between Paris, Berlin, and London, -and Vladivostok and Port Arthur are as follows:</p> - -<div class='lg-container-b c025'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>5,852 miles from St. Petersburg, viâ Moscow.</div> - <div class='line'>6,370 miles from Berlin.</div> - <div class='line'>7,044 miles from Paris.</div> - <div class='line'>7,104 miles from London, viâ Dover and Ostend.</div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c008'>European expresses would traverse the longest of these -distances in one week; but it must be remembered that it is -not at present possible for trains to run over the Siberian -Railway at such high speeds as from forty to fifty miles an -hour. These are only possible upon the very substantial lines -of Western Europe, and are indeed much in excess of what is -achieved by the American Trans-Continental trains, once they -cross the Mississippi, or by the Canadian Pacific, the speed on -which between Montreal and Vancouver rarely exceeds twenty-five -miles, and even this relatively low rate cannot be expected -at first on the Trans-Siberian Railway. The rails are very light, -especially on the first or western sections, and the whole railroad -is, in many places, as is often the case in America, rather -<span class='pageno' id='Page_77'>77</span>primitively constructed. It is therefore calculated that the -Far East express, the weekly <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">train-de-luxe</span></i>, which is to be -organized as soon as the line is completely finished,<a id='r14' /><a href='#f14' class='c006'><sup>[14]</sup></a> will -take not less than twelve days to perform the journey between -London or Paris and Vladivostok and Port Arthur, which will -not necessitate a greater speed than twenty miles an hour -over the Siberian lines. When, however, the system is better -managed and placed on the same footing as that of the -Canadian Pacific, the journey may possibly be performed in -a few hours under eleven days. The Trans-Siberian route will, -once it is opened, be incomparably the shortest route between -Europe and the Far East. It takes from Vladivostok to the -Japanese ports of Nawoyetsu and Niigata on the Japanese Sea, -a distance of about 480 miles, about forty hours by steamer. -From thence, about 280 miles of rail, traversed in fifteen hours, -will bring the capital of the Mikado within two and a half days -from Vladivostok, and about fifteen days from Paris. On the -other hand, the Chinese line, which is now being reorganized -by an English company between Peking and Tien-tsin, and -from thence to Shan-hai-kwan at the foot of the Great Wall, is -being extended to Niu-chwang, where it will join the Russian -lines, and thus the journey from Paris and London to Peking -can be performed in between thirteen and fifteen days. Shanghai, -the principal port of China, is distant 575 miles from Port -Arthur, and can be reached in two days, and thus Hong-Kong -will be only seventeen days’ journey from London. It now -takes thirty-four days at least to get from Paris or London to -Yokohama viâ the Suez Canal, and twenty-one viâ Canada, -and certainly not less than twenty-eight days to reach Shanghai -by either route. Twenty-five days are required to get to Hong-Kong -viâ Suez, and thirty viâ America, and although this port -is situated in the tropics, it could be reached much more expeditiously -viâ Siberia than round by India. The Marseilles -steamers touch at Saigon after a voyage of twenty-three days, -but it is not probable that they will be able to compete in the -matter of speed with the Trans-Siberian Railway. The capital -of Cochin China, however, marks the extreme limit of this -sphere; but all places situated to its north and east—Japan, -Tonkin, China, and the Philippines—can be brought immeasurably -nearer to Europe than was certainly ever imagined by -<span class='pageno' id='Page_78'>78</span>Voltaire when he wrote his letter to Count Schuvarof. It is -therefore evident that, even if the maritime companies do their -utmost to increase the speed of their boats, they will never be -able to convey travellers to Peking, Hong-Kong, Shanghai, -Tokio or Manila, in anything like the short space of time -taken by the Trans-Siberian.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Another great advantage of the Trans-Siberian line is the -diminution of the expense, which will be considerably less than -that charged by the steamers. The price of a first-class passage -from Marseilles to Hong-Kong, Shanghai, or to one of the -Japanese ports, is uniformly about £70, to which must be -added another £5 for travelling expenses from London to the -starting-point. Viâ Canada the expense is about the same, -whereas by crossing Siberia it will cost something like half. -The Russian tariff is an extremely reasonable one, especially -for great distances, and it is calculated that the prices from the -German frontier to Vladivostok or Port Arthur will be by the -ordinary trains about 11 guineas first class, and £5 third. By -the <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">train-de-luxe</span></i> from the Russian frontier to the end of the -journey it will be £18. To these expenses must, however, -be added those which are always inclusive on board ships, but -never on the trains—such as food, service, etc., which, however, -are never alarmingly high on the German or Russian -lines. If we add to the above the price of the ticket from -Port Arthur to Shanghai, £6, to Hong-Kong, £12, it is clear -that the cost of the journey will be about £32 from Paris to -North China and Japan, and £40 to Southern China—in a -word, half what is charged at present.</p> - -<p class='c008'>A rather alarming question arises as to how people will be -able to endure the inevitable fatigue of passing twelve days -continuously in a railway-carriage. Habit is second nature, -and although there is no other line in the world of such great -length, nevertheless countless Americans think nothing of -spending a week or ten days constantly travelling by train. It -must be remembered, too, that the carriages intended for this -line will be built expressly, and contain every conceivable comfort -and modern improvement. A long corridor down the -centre of the compartments will enable passengers to take -exercise; and, needless to say, everything will be arranged for -the comfort of the sleeping department, and for the heating of -the carriages in winter. Already those lines which have been -opened in Siberia are supplied with restaurants providing very -<span class='pageno' id='Page_79'>79</span>good food, and usually under the management of a Japanese, -whose head cook is well skilled in the concoction of cosmopolitan -dishes, and whose waiters leave nothing to be desired -in point of cleanliness and civility. Even now, in out-of-the-way -stations, where, a few years ago, the foot of man had never -trod, travellers who have exhausted their store of novels may -find a bookstall fairly well supplied with current fiction and -guide-books.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The Russian Government, however, in its zeal for the comfort -of Trans-Siberian travellers, has made arrangements for the -installation of a super-excellent restaurant, a well-stocked -library, and, in short, of all those many luxuries hitherto which -are the joy and boast of Americans. One cannot expect the -comfort of a first-class liner in a narrow, box-like train; but -then we must remember that the passengers on board these -floating palaces have to endure many miseries in the shape of -sea-sickness and the numerous ills which invariably accompany -a journey through the Torrid Zone. There can be no question -as to the superiority of the Trans-Siberian route to the Pacific -over the Canadian, inasmuch as the latter includes two long -sea-journeys. In summer the Trans-Siberian line will be undoubtedly -very pleasant, and even in winter the carriages can -be kept warm, and, moreover, there need be no fear of an unexpected -visitation from an avalanche as there is in Canada. -And thus, in the course of a few years, the irrepressible globetrotters -of the two worlds, as well as the business man, to whom -‘time is money,’ will find a new and rapid means to reach -countries which distance and the difficulties of travel have -hitherto placed beyond the reach of only the most enterprising -or of those who do not mind a very long sea-voyage. From -the purely commercial side of the question, however, there can -be no doubt that a very long time may elapse before the Trans-Siberian -Railway can compete with the sea route in transporting -heavy merchandise to and from the Far East, and the -great commercial centres of Europe and Asia. Still, certain -lighter articles—silk and tea, for instance—can certainly be -brought in fair quantities, viâ the Siberian line, at a reasonable -price. One of the great advantages of the line will be the -facilities it offers for forwarding letters to and from China, -Japan, etc., in considerably less than half the time now taken.</p> - -<p class='c008'>As to the social transformation which must inevitably result -from the constant passage of so many people belonging to the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_80'>80</span>highly civilized nations of the west, through a country hitherto -so backward as Siberia, it may well be summed up as incalculable. -That Russia will specially benefit by the creation of -a line which she has built at an enormous cost is but just, -and, moreover, surely the reward for her courage and enterprise. -At the same time, civilization will also find a common -interest in the amazing difference which so important a factor -must inevitably create in the history of progress in the Far -East.</p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_81'>81</span> - <h2 class='c005'><em>PART II.—JAPAN</em></h2> -</div> - -<h3 class='c001'>CHAPTER I<br /> <span class='large'>THE ORIGIN AND PAST HISTORY OF JAPAN</span></h3> -<p class='c014'>Different opinions respecting Japan and the reforms which have been -carried out in that Empire within the past few years—Necessity of -understanding something of Japanese history in order to appreciate -the recent transformation in the country—Origin of the Japanese—Early -history—The Mikados—The Japanese adopt Chinese civilization -between the fifth and eighth centuries of our era—Inability for -the Japanese to accept certain Chinese institutions—Decline of the -absolute power of the Mikados—Military government adopted in the -twelfth century—Japanese feudalism—Increase of power among the -feudal lords in the fourteenth century—Civil wars and anarchy in the -fifteenth century—Order re-established and the Government centralized -through the action of the great military chieftains at the end of the -sixteenth century—Foundation of the dynasty of the Tokugawa -Shoguns—Europeans in Japan in the sixteenth century—The Japanese -accept our civilization with enthusiasm—Rapid spread of Christianity—Reaction -in the seventeenth century—Purely political causes—Persecution -of Christians and the expulsion of foreigners—Japan isolated -during nearly two centuries.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The absolute isolation which Japan preserved for over three -hundred years and her systematic rejection of any attempt at -the introduction of even a ray of Western civilization, is not, -it must be confessed, without fascination for all who take -interest in the history of a people who, during the last -thirty years, have become so popular and so progressive as -the Japanese. Suddenly, and without any explicable cause, -the country, which was as carefully sealed to the outer world as -the enchanter’s famous casket, was thrown wide open, not only -to admit, but even to court, foreign progress, science and -civilization, and now Japan has definitively accepted without -<span class='pageno' id='Page_82'>82</span>any hesitation the most absolute changes and audacious innovations -in her political and social systems, and has effected a -transformation in her manners, ideas, and customs, not to -mention costumes, such as has never before been achieved by -any other nation in so brief a space of time.</p> - -<p class='c008'>At first Europe watched this extraordinary evolution with -interest, not unmingled, however, with scepticism, finding it -difficult to take seriously what might in the end prove but a -passing fashion or the result of caprice. Many, indeed, felt -anxious lest the introduction of modern civilization into a -country so deliciously quaint and fascinating as Japan might -destroy the charm of a population of artists, and, moreover, do -irreparable damage to that exquisite art for which it is so -justly celebrated. For many, Japan ought to have remained -the land of lovely china, of rich lacquers, of <em>kakimonos</em>, <em>musmes</em> -and chrysanthemums. Indeed, who could be expected to -believe that the home of the <em>geisha</em> and of all sorts of dainty -delights, of dwarf trees and liliputian tea-gardens, could -possibly acclimatize the smoky industries, the strict militarism -and the matter of fact judicial and political systems of our -humdrum civilization? As well expect such a transformation -in a world of butterflies and glittering dragon-flies as in the -Empire of the Mikado. One eminent writer declared that -‘the Japan of to-day is but a bad translation’; and yet another -says: ‘I find Japan a sort of anæmic dwarf. I know that she is -of antediluvian antiquity, but for all that I cannot help thinking -this little old mummy, bedecking herself in the trappings -of Western civilization, supremely ridiculous.’ This was the -opinion held not only by casual visitors to Japan, but also by -not a few who had lived for years in the country, and who -were never happy excepting when contrasting the solid qualities -of the Chinese, their circumspection, their prudence, and their -profound attachment to ancient customs, with the intense -vanity and frivolity of the Japanese.</p> - -<p class='c008'>What could not be achieved by twenty-five years of hard -work and peaceful progress in the way of convincing Europe of -the earnestness of her intentions Japan did in less than six -months by her military successes. When Europe beheld the -triumphant achievements of the Mikado’s army, she had to -confess that Japan was not quite the butterfly she had -imagined, and began to study with greater attention the -remarkable work which had been accomplished in that Empire. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_83'>83</span>But the wonderful progress made in Japan during the last -half of this century would not seem so extraordinary were -the history of the Land of Flowers and its people better -known. By the light of the past, the Revolution of 1868, -which led to the suppression of the feudal system in Japan, -and to the opening of the ports throughout the country, -becomes clear and sequent.</p> - -<p class='c008'>In the fifth century of our era Japanese history begins to -assume definite form, and the chronicles of the Kojiki and the -Nihongi, which were written in the eighth century, cease to -record mythological events and to deal with those purely -human. Since that date the ancestors of the present Emperor -have been ruling sovereigns over the two meridional islands -Kiu-Siu and Sikoku, and the south-western section of the -great Island of Hondo. According to tradition, they had -already been reigning princes for over a thousand years, and -their history, like that of almost every other great dynasty, -stretches back into the night of time, when the world was -peopled by gods and demigods. The first Emperor, Jimmu-Tenno, -was a grandson of Amaterasu, Goddess of the Sun, -herself a great-granddaughter of the gods Izanaghi and -Izanami, who were the actual founders of Japan. We next -learn that Japan sprang direct from the hands of the gods, -whereas all the other countries of the world, even those from -whom she is pleased to accept modern civilization, originated -through the evolution of natural forces. Jimmu-Tenno having -alighted on this earth from heaven on the island of Kiu-Siu, -passed thence viâ the Inland Sea to Hondo, where, after -conquering ‘people of the same race as his own subjects,’ -who inhabited these parts, he subdued the whole of the western -part of the island, even to the zone of the central forests, ‘which -were peopled by barbarians.’ In the year 660 <span class='sc'><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">B.C.</span></span>, he established -himself in the province of Yamato, where they pretend in our -day to have discovered his tomb. It is from this very early date -that the Japanese begin their history. Jimmu-Tenno was succeeded -by several generations of Mikados, of whom the first -seventeen were centenarians, who lived between a hundred and -a hundred and forty years each. In those distant times, the gods, -it seems, took the same personal interest in Japanese affairs as -they condescended to do in those of the Trojans. The history, -however, of Japan, in its legendary period, like that of most -other countries, is exceedingly sketchy and contains nothing of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_84'>84</span>a positive character until the year 200 <span class='sc'><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">A.D.</span></span>, when an Amazonian -Empress, who rejoiced in the rather startling name of Jingo, -headed a successful campaign against the Koreans.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Contemporary historical research has resulted in clearing -away a good deal of the mist which shrouded in a veil of mystery -the primitive history of Japan. It would seem, however, for -instance, that some centuries before our era the Mongolian -pirates indulged in frequent incursions upon the western coast -of the country in much the same unpleasant manner as did, -some thousand years later, the Normans in Europe. After -exterminating the natives, who were not numerous, they -established themselves, together with their wives and families, -in the island of Kiu-Siu. Later on, an illustrious chief, who -turns out on closer acquaintance to be none other than -Jimmu-Tenno, of legendary fame, crossed over to the great island -and ‘found it peopled by inhabitants of the same race as -himself’; hence it becomes evident that there were two distinct -migrations from the mainland of the ancestors of the actual -Japanese, a fact confirmed in a double cycle of heroic legends, -one of which deals with the island of Kiu-Siu and the other -with the province of Idzuma, situated on the west coast of -Hondo, an island opposite Korea.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The Japanese, therefore, form a part of the great family -scientifically known as the Uralo-Altaic, which includes the -Finns, the Hungarians, the Turks, the Mongols and the -Koreans. The different branches of this family appear to be -less closely united than are those of the white race, but on the -other hand, their languages, which are distinctly agglutinant, -have certainly a common origin. It should be remarked that -the Chinese do not form part of this group, constituting a -family quite apart, whose language is distinctly monosyllabic -and rhythmic. Their handwriting, however, was adopted by the -Japanese between a thousand and twelve hundred years ago, -as were also a number of words describing objects which up -to that time were unknown to them, and probably introduced -from China. If it is an undoubted fact that the Chinese and -Japanese belong to the Yellow Race, the link which unites -them is quite as remote as that which exists between a Frenchman -and a German on the one hand, or an Arab and a Kabyle -on the other. A superficial analogy between the Chinese and -the Japanese must not mislead us. The very sparse indigenous -race which the Korean immigrants found upon the south and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_85'>85</span>south-west of Japan were of the same family as the Ainos of -our time, of whom some 15,000 still linger in Yezo, the great -southern island of the Archipelago; and, moreover, they belonged -to the same race as the Ghilaks of the Amur, and the -tribes to the north-east of Siberia. These Ainos, who exist -by hunting and fishing, are considered to be the hairiest people -on earth; they are mere savages, quite as dirty in their habits -as the Japanese are clean. They had in all probability little -or nothing to do with the formation of the actual population.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The civilization of the ancient Japanese until the fifth or -sixth century of our era was, it seems, most primitive. Writing -was unknown, and the people were but just emancipated from -the Stone Age, their knowledge of the use of metal being very -limited. They owned a few domestic animals, the horse and -the dog, and also poultry. They cultivated rice, millet, barley, -two sorts of peas, and in addition to these cereals the sea and -the rivers supplied them with fish, and the forests with flesh. -They apparently ate more meat than do their descendants of -the present day, a fact due, of course, to the introduction of -Buddhism, whose followers are, or should be, vegetarians. As -to their houses, they were of wood and extremely simple.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The Shinto religion, which has become once more the State -religion, has a mythology formed out of legends dealing with -the generation of the gods who preceded the advent of the -Imperial family. Out of the eight hundred myriads of divinities -only some half-dozen are now venerated. Among these is -Amaterasu, Goddess of the Sun, and ancestress of Jimmu-Tenno. -The spirits of the deceased Mikados and of certain heroes are -known as <em>Kami</em>, ‘superior beings,’ and are honoured by this -title, as are also the ancestors of each family. Beyond this -Shintoism recognises neither dogma nor ethics. A writer of -the last century thus apologizes for this easy-going creed. ‘It -was,’ says he, ‘invented by the Chinese, because they are a very -immoral people; but in Japan morality is not needed, since the -Japanese have only to act according to the dictates of their -hearts to do well. To obey the Emperor, who is the descendant -of the gods, and almost a god himself, and follow one’s natural -inclinations, are the only precepts imposed upon its followers -by Shintoism, and a pilgrimage to the nearest temple once a -year the only kind of divine service exacted. There are no -public ceremonies, excepting an occasional hieratic dance performed -by young girls. In the wooden temples roofed with -<span class='pageno' id='Page_86'>86</span>bark, which are supposed to reproduce the habitations of the -primitive Japanese, there are no ornaments, no sculpture, and -no representations whatever of the Divinity. The priests, who -wear no distinctive costume, and who lead the lives of ordinary -citizens, occasionally don a rich garment with long flowing -sleeves, go to the various temples and perform certain very -simple rites in the presence of a mystic mirror to be found in -every temple, a facsimile of one given by the Goddess of the -Sun to her grandson Jimmu-Tenno, as an emblem of purity. -A white horse will also sometimes be seen within the precincts -of the temples. The only sacrifice is the offering of fruits, fish, -wine, and rice, accompanied by the recitation of certain prayers -in the ancient Japanese language; this is, it must be confessed, -an exceedingly primitive cultus, but it was the only one known -in Japan until the sixth century, at which epoch began the great -development of Chinese civilization in Japan, originally introduced, -however, by the invasion of Korea by the Japanese -armies at the commencement of the third century. The Korean -envoys who brought the annual tribute to their Japanese -conquerors eventually became the pioneers of civilization -among the more primitive race which had overcome them. -They brought into the country, for instance, in the year 284 -the art of writing. Possibly this date is erroneous and ought -to be 400, the period when, according to a very ancient tradition, -the first mention of medicine is made in the national history, on -the occasion of the grave illness of the then reigning Mikado, -who was cured by a Korean physician. Then followed the -silkworm, and the mulberry-tree, the arts of spinning and -weaving. Finally, in 552 the first image of Buddha appeared, -and eventually led to the introduction of the religion of Sakyamuni.</p> - -<p class='c008'>From this period until the beginning of the seventh century -there was a perfect invasion of the arts, customs, and opinions, -religious, social, and political, of the neighbouring continent. -Then was for the first time displayed that ardour which is so -peculiar to the Japanese, and, if I might so say, also of that rage -for civilization—true, it was then only Chinese civilization—which -characterizes them at the present day.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Buddhism triumphed without formidable opposition, and at -the beginning of the seventh century there were not less than -forty-six temples and 1,385 priests or Buddhist monks in -Japan. The Chinese calendar was adopted, the language, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_87'>87</span>writing and literature of China were studied with enthusiasm. -Ambassadors and special missions were sent to the continent -to examine on the spot the religion, the arts, the industries -and also the government of the Chinese and their political and -judicial system. Thus it so came to pass that feudalism was -introduced centuries before it was imposed upon Europe after -the fall of the Roman Empire. At the death of the Empress -Suiko in 628, under whose reign all these reforms took place, -Japan was completely remodelled after the image and likeness -of China. The remarkable feature about this transformation -is its resemblance to the revolution now in progress. It was -effected without the least opposition or violence. The methods -used then were the same as those which are being employed -to-day: the sending forth of missions and the employment -of foreigners by the Government to study and introduce -everything that was likely to improve the country and its -people. Above all, there existed a universal goodwill and -eagerness to stimulate the advance movement. Japan, therefore, -by her wonderful powers of assimilation, was suddenly -converted from a barbarian to a civilized country. Nevertheless, -however deep-rooted was the influence of China, it -did not interfere with the architecture and the art of the -Japanese, which remained distinct. The good sense of this -able people taught them to distinguish between the different -elements in the civilization which they were introducing, to -reject those which did not suit them, and to transform others -which were better fitted to their inclination. A reaction, -however, set in between the eighth and the eleventh centuries -which enabled the Japanese to recover sufficient of their -identity and yet retain most of the innovations in their -industries, agriculture, and fine arts, in the culture of which latter -they eventually surpassed their masters. The new religion -suited them admirably, and it remains to this day much less -corrupt in Japan than it is among the Chinese themselves. -The official and administrative system introduced from China, -being opposed to the natural bent of the Japanese mind, was, -however, soon rejected, and they returned to their own, which -suited them better.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The mandarinate was never acclimatized, and the principle -of heredity always remained in force. The divers degrees of -dignity, at first twelve in number and then nineteen, were -never given, as in China, to individuals, but to families as -<span class='pageno' id='Page_88'>88</span>hereditary titles. The position, for instance, of Prime Minister, -or <em>Kwambaku</em>, became hereditary in a great family of the -Court, that of the Fujiwaras, from which, moreover, according -to tradition, the Empress was invariably selected. Then began -to manifest itself that very peculiar trait in the history of Japan -of real authority very rarely being vested in the hand of the -man supposed to exercise it. The Mikado, who, from the -ninth century onwards, was invariably a child, and abdicated -in youth to retire into a monastery, is supposed to reign and -yet never govern. This was the beginning of a system of -Imperial self-effacement which lasted over a thousand years. -Presently we discover that the hereditary <em>Kwambaku</em> also -exercises no authority, which is exactly the opposite of what -took place in Europe in the Middle Ages, where, if a Sovereign -retired into privacy, his Prime Minister was pretty certain to -become forthwith correspondingly prominent. In the Middle -Ages, at an epoch when Europe was engaged in fighting -and slaughtering, the Court of Kioto was a centre of art, -pleasure and poetry, in which, however, authority was completely -set aside.</p> - -<p class='c008'>In the meantime, feudalism established itself in the country. -Side by side with the effeminate aristocracy of the <em>kuges</em>, -certain nobles descended from collateral branches of the -Imperial family, and who in their time had occupied great -official positions, both in the provinces and in the capital, leaving -subalterns to fulfil their duties, now formed themselves into -a military and territorial aristocracy, and, whilst profound peace -reigned in the greater part of the country, carried on a war -against the Koreans in its south-eastern limits, and against the -Ainos, who had been driven back to the north of Hondo, -in the north-east. The custom imported from China by the -Japanese of separating the civil from the military functionaries, -combined with a genius for heredity, led in the course of time -to the creation of many great military families, under whose -authority or lead clans of soldiers grouped and gradually -separated themselves from the rest of the population. The -chiefs of these clans in due time became, especially in the tenth -century, in the north and eastern provinces, independent, so -that by degrees their influence during the two succeeding -centuries in the Government was paramount, and the Court -of Kioto was the object of perpetual dissensions between two -great military families, the Taira, and the Minamoto, both -<span class='pageno' id='Page_89'>89</span>descendants of Emperors of the eighth and ninth centuries. -They had each a claimant to the Imperial throne, who was -invariably an infant. A Taira, Kiyomori, governed Japan from -1156 to 1181 in the position of Prime Minister. He ordered -the Minamoto family to be massacred; one or two of its -members, however, escaped, among them Yoritomo, the son of -the chief. In due course of time this Yoritomo created a -revolution in Kwanto in his own favour. Upon learning of the -death of Kiyomori he straightway marched upon Kioto in -company with his bastard brother, Yoshitsune, who had escaped -from a monastery to which he had been relegated. Between -them they seized the capital and proclaimed a child of -seven years of age Emperor in the place of the Mikado -Antoku, who was not much older, and who was carried off by -the Taira to the island of Kiu-Siu. The great naval battle of -Dan-no-ura, won by Yoshitsune in 1185 at the mouth of the -Inland Sea, completed the ruin of the Taira, who, together -with their Emperor, were nearly all slain in the disaster to their -fleet, which made Yoritomo master of Japan.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Yoritomo behaved with the utmost ingratitude to his brother -Yoshitsune, who had so largely contributed to his success. -He ordered him never to appear again at Court, and sent a -group of assassins to pursue him to the farther end of the -island. His life was frequently saved, thanks to the shrewdness -of the giant monk Benkei and the devotion of the dancing-girl -Shidzuka. The adventures of the brave Yoshitsune and -his death by suicide has supplied Japanese literature with a -number of interesting and picturesque legends not unlike those -which delighted our ancestors in the Middle Ages.</p> - -<p class='c008'>After these events, the feudal system was firmly established -in Japan for over seven centuries, and we hear no more of -Chinese methods of administration. This is mainly due to the -warlike character of the Japanese people and to the increasing -power of the feudal chiefs, who had naturally, in order to -maintain their reputation, to keep the country in a perpetual -ferment of political or civil war. The striking difference -between the feudal system in Japan and that which existed -contemporaneously in Europe is that the Japanese ruler was -never the Sovereign. He was called the Shogun, or Sei-i-tai-Shogun, -literally, ‘General charged with the duty of subjugating -the barbarians.’ This title was first bestowed upon -Yoritomo in 1192. It was the Shogun’s duty to govern. In -<span class='pageno' id='Page_90'>90</span>theory he was responsible to the Emperor, whose humble -servant he was supposed to be. As a matter of fact, the -Mikado had long since ceased to interfere in the government, -and lived in the palace of Gosho at Kioto in the midst of -luxury, his generals and ministers paying him no other respect -than that of mere ceremony.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The new power of the Shogunate instituted by Yoritomo -was not long before it also became attenuated. In 1198, immediately -after the death of its founder, his father-in-law, Hojo -Tokimasa, seized the reins of government, and in 1219 the -posterity of Yoritomo was already extinct. The supreme -authority was by this time definitely vested in the family of -the Hojo, whose chief took the title of Shikken, or Regent, -and chose and dethroned the Shoguns, usually children, at his -pleasure, selecting them either from the Imperial family or from -that of the Fujiwaras. The period during which this curious -regime lasted is perhaps the most brilliant and the most prosperous -in the history of Japan in the Middle Ages; but -eventually Japan fell into a sort of feudal anarchy, bearing a -close affinity to that which existed in Germany at the same -epoch. The power of the Hojos was finally broken in 1334, -thanks to the combined action of the feudal lords, aided by a -Mikado named Go-Daigo, who happened for once to be possessed -of some energy. The executive, however, did not -remain long in the hands of this Emperor. His chief lieutenant, -Ashikago Takauji, rose up against him, obliged him to -flee from his capital, and replaced him by another member of -the Imperial family, at the same time electing himself Shogun. -From 1337 to 1392 Japan had two rival dynasties of Mikados. -Notwithstanding these disturbances, the Court of the Shoguns -Ashikagas was very often extremely brilliant, both from the -literary and the artistic point of view. During the fifteenth -century civil wars raged again, and the authority of both -Mikado and Shogun consequently dwindled into insignificance. -In the provinces the warriors, known as <em>samourai</em>, gradually -became hereditary, recognising no authority but that of their -feudal lords, the daimios. The country became poor, the -population rapidly dwindled, and all the arts except that of -the armourer tended to disappear. The opening years of the -sixteenth century beheld Japan in a pitiable plight indeed, the -population decimated by terrible epidemics and earthquakes, -as well as civil wars, and such was her condition that she might -<span class='pageno' id='Page_91'>91</span>have been compared to France after the Hundred Years’, or -Germany after the Thirty Years’, War. When St. Francis -Xavier visited the country in 1550 he was appalled by its -misery. It was a far cry then from the Japan of his days to -the Cipango, the golden land of promise so greatly vaunted by -Marco Polo three centuries earlier. The feudal system in -Japan, however, had been of great use in forming the character -of the people; it preserved in them those virile qualities so -conspicuously absent among the Chinese.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The close of the sixteenth century witnessed the decline and -fall of feudalism throughout the Empire, which led to the re-establishment -of centralization. This was due to the energy of -three great military chiefs, Nobunaga, Ieyas, and Hideyoshi, -the first of whom was descended from the Taira and the second -from the Minamoto, and therefore both were essentially aristocratic. -The third, however, was about the only personage in -medieval Japan who ever rose from the ranks to occupy a -towering position in the State. Ota Nobunaga, after having -considerably aggrandized the very small principality which he -had inherited from his father, interfered in the quarrels of a -succession of Shoguns, and deposing in 1573 the last Ashikaga, -seized the Government as Prime Minister, and compelled the -daimios to obey him. He curbed the encroachments of the -Buddhist monks, who had accumulated during the long period -of the civil wars immense landed estates; but at last, hemmed -in by his many enemies, this remarkable man ended his career -by disembowelling himself, an unpleasant but evidently popular -method of committing suicide with the Japanese.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Hideyoshi, who from groom had become principal lieutenant -to Nobunaga, extinguished all further spirit of resistance on the -part of the feudal barons. Once Japan was united, he wished -to establish its power beyond the limits of the Empire, and for -this purpose sent an expedition into Korea, which, however, -only resulted in ruining that country, thanks to the quarrels -and dissensions which took place between the Japanese -generals, some of whom were Christians and others Buddhists.</p> - -<p class='c008'>At the death of Hideyoshi in 1598, the power of the daimios, -even that of the great princes of the south-west, Choshiu and -Satsuma, was already much attenuated, and everything was -ready for a change similar to that which took place in France -under Louis XI. It led to the quasi-independence of the lords -being suppressed in favour of a feudality of a purely domestic -<span class='pageno' id='Page_92'>92</span>character. The principal factor in this change was Tokugawa -Ieyas, who had been one of the chief generals of Nobunaga -and Hideyoshi. Placed by this last at the head of the council -of the regency, which had to exercise power during the -minority of his son Hideyori, Ieyas was not long before he -quarrelled with his co-regents. Assuming the command of an -army, recruited in the north and the east of the Empire, he -in 1600 defeated at Sekigahara the united forces of the clans -of the south and the west, and thus made himself master of -Japan. Instead of a purely ephemeral sovereignty, he founded -a dynasty and a régime which lasted for 250 years, as the result -of his ability and that of his son and grandson. Before proceeding -further in detailing the political and social organization -of this interesting country, it will be well to pause and consider -an event of supreme importance which took place in the sixteenth -century, and the effect of which explains much that is -now happening. I refer to the period of the great Portuguese -colonization, when that now small kingdom had annexed vast -possessions in the Indies, and had added new ones in Cochin -China and in the south of China to her Empire.</p> - -<p class='c008'>In 1542, three Portuguese, who had taken passage on board -a Chinese junk, were wrecked upon the southern coast of -Japan. Among the other passengers happened to be a Chinaman, -who volunteered as interpreter. He seems, however, to -have entertained for foreigners the same contempt as that in -which they are held by his compatriots in this year of grace -1900. He described the Portuguese to the Japanese as people -who were very little better than savages, who did not know how -to write Chinese, and as being, moreover, profoundly ignorant -of the art of eating their food with chopsticks. We may -conclude, therefore, that these worthy Portuguese did not -produce a very favourable impression. In 1545, the navigator -Fernan Mendez Pinto arrived at the little island of Tanegashima, -to the south of Kiu-Siu, and was well received by the -feudal lord of that district. The powerful Prince of Bungo, -father-in-law to the Lord of Tanegashima, having heard of the -strangers, invited them to his capital in the north-east of Kiu-Siu, -and entertained them very handsomely. Pinto was so -favourably impressed by all he saw that two years later he -returned to the same spot, carrying off with him two Japanese -fugitives from justice. They had the fortune of being converted -to Christianity by St. Francis Xavier, and served him as interpreters -<span class='pageno' id='Page_93'>93</span>when the renowned Jesuit missionary landed on -August 15, 1549, at Kagoshima, the capital of the Prince of -Satsuma. The earliest converts were a few relatives of the interpreters. -The Prince received the saint very favourably, and -the Princess insisted upon him composing for her benefit a -summary of the Articles of the Christian Faith, together with -the translation of the principal prayers. St. Francis immediately -edited a Japanese version of the Catechism and a translation of -the Credo. Unfortunately, in the course of time the Prince of -Satsuma was much offended by certain Portuguese sailors, who, -probably on account of the obstacles they encountered in the -attempt, refused to land in his dominions, and betook themselves -and their merchandise further on to those of his -rivals. Greatly annoyed at their behaviour, the prince now -ordered the missionaries to quit his dominions. St. Francis -obeyed and proceeded to the capital of the Prince of Bungo, who -was highly delighted to see him, and assisted him in a number -of ways to found churches and missions, so that when the great -missionary left Japan in 1551, Christianity was fairly established -in the country. Presently Japan was inundated with Portuguese -missionaries, sailors, and merchants. The Japanese, -with an eye as much to business as to social improvement, -encouraged this influx of strangers in the hope of its leading -to a profitable commerce being established between -the two countries. The Jesuits, too, whose influence the -Japanese quickly recognised, were treated with the utmost -cordiality and respect. So great was the Japanese power of -assimilation, that Mendez Pinto tells us that, having made a -present of an arquebus to the Prince of Tanegashima, that -potentate caused it to be imitated, and very soon afterwards -the navigator was shown six weapons exactly like his own. A -few months later there were 30,000 distributed in the province -of Bungo, and 300,000 throughout the country. These figures -may be taken with a grain of salt; nevertheless, there must have -been a very firm foundation for the story. In 1582, forty years -after the arrival of the Portuguese, artillery played a great -part in the Battle of Shigutake, one of Hideyoshi’s greatest -victories.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Whether material or spiritual motives were at the bottom of -the rapid progress made by Christianity at this period it would -be difficult to say. Princes, literary men, priests, even Buddhists, -rich and poor alike, presented themselves in hundreds to -<span class='pageno' id='Page_94'>94</span>receive baptism, and even Nobunaga, if he did not actually -profess the new religion, at any rate favoured its propaganda. -At the time of his death in 1582 there were fully 600,000 converts -in the centre and the south of Japan; half the daimios -in the island of Kiu-Siu had embraced Christianity, together -with the greater part of their subjects; the Prince of Tosa, in -the island of Sikokou, and many daimios in the centre and -west of the great island had also been baptized. There were -not less than 200 churches, some of which were even situated -in the capital of the Empire. In Nagasaki, which in 1567 had -become the centre of foreign commerce, there was scarcely a -pagan left. In 1582 an embassy, sent to Rome by the Princes -of Bungo, Arima and Omura, was solemnly received by Pope -Sixtus V. It afterwards proceeded on a tour through Portugal, -Spain, and Italy. Although Hideyoshi apparently did not -display the same enthusiasm for Christianity as did his neighbours, -nevertheless, their number continued to increase; and -during the last ten years of the sixteenth century it is believed -there were over a million converts to the Roman Church out -of a population of between eight or ten millions, a marvellous -record for fifty years’ missionary labour. Unfortunately, it was -not to last long, although, to be sure, the brief epoch of its -success was marked by a material progress quite as astonishing -as the spiritual, for, with the religion of the Europeans, the -Japanese had adopted a great many of their arts and industries. -Tobacco, for instance, began to be cultivated, and boats built -on European models transported Japanese trade as far afield -as the Gulf of Mexico. Strangers could travel from one end -of the country to the other without fear of being molested by -the natives, and St. Francis Xavier had every reason to say -that the ‘Japanese nation was the delight of his heart.’ Presently -Hideyoshi became alarmed lest the system of government -which he had formulated might eventually be overthrown -through the missionaries and by possible religious wars occasioned -by so abrupt a change in the opinions and ethics of an -entire nation. He feared lest the admission into the country -of so many merchants and missionaries might not be the -prelude to another invasion of a hostile character, resulting in -the conquest and annexation of Japan to some European -power or other. It is even said that a Portuguese captain was -sufficiently imprudent to inform Hideyoshi that the King, his -master, had the intention of sending priests into the dominions -<span class='pageno' id='Page_95'>95</span>of the Mikado with the object of ultimately landing troops, -who, aided by the native Christians, should effect his overthrow. -Whether these words were ever spoken or not is uncertain, but -they were undoubtedly the expression of the thoughts of contemporary -European Sovereigns, a fact which the Japanese -soon learnt when they came to be a little better acquainted -with the proceedings of the Portuguese in India. In a word, -the suspicions of the Japanese rulers were awakened, and even -the brilliant services rendered by the Christian General Konishi -could not efface them, and the impression was further increased -by the rivalry which existed between the Jesuits and the Franciscans, -and also between the Portuguese, the Spaniards, the -English and the Dutch, who were perpetually accusing each -other of most malevolent designs. In 1587 Hideyoshi issued an -edict ordering all missionaries to leave Japan within twenty-four -days, which, however, remained a dead-letter until 1597, when -it was put into force—in consequence of the imprudence of the -Spanish Franciscans, who began preaching in the open air, and -even in the streets of Kioto, which resulted in a riot and in seventeen -native Christians being put to death at Nagasaki. Ieyas -continued the persecution throughout 1614, as did his son and -grandson, who, between them, contrived to extirpate Christianity -in every part of the Empire before 1638. For years the inhabitants -of Nagasaki were condemned to trample upon the Crucifix -in the presence of the authorities, and even as late as 1868 -placards were still to be seen stuck up in the streets offering -rewards for the denunciation of members of the ‘forbidden, -lying, and corrupt sect.’</p> - -<p class='c008'>The immediate result of this persecution, which was extremely -severe, was the exclusion from Japan of all outside -influence, for the foreigner and Christianity had become in the -eyes of the Government a moral, social, as well as political -dissolvent. The evil conduct of the European sailors, who, -even according to the statement of the missionaries themselves, -had carried off women and children in great numbers, to sell -into slavery at Manila or Macao, and their dissolute behaviour -generally, cast opprobrium upon the religion which they professed, -and thus it came to pass that the Japanese accused the -Christians of not practising the ethics they taught, but, on the -contrary, of giving a bad example by their disrespect to parents, -superiors, and to all in authority.</p> - -<p class='c008'>In 1609 and 1611 Ieyas granted the Dutch the right of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_96'>96</span>trading all over the island, but his son, Hidetada, being -suspicious of their good intentions, closed all harbours to -them, excepting those of Hirado and Nagasaki in the island of -Kiu-Siu, and, furthermore, prohibited the Japanese from -leaving their country under any pretext. From 1637 the -Dutch and the Chinese alone were authorized to trade in -Japanese waters, and then only through the port of Nagasaki. -Confined within the narrow limits of the island of Deshima, -condemned to submit to the most abject humiliations, and -never allowed to go ashore excepting once a year on a special -mission to Yedo, when they conveyed presents to the Shogun, -before whom they had to crawl upon their hands and knees, -the agents of the Dutch East India Company entertained with -Japan commercial relations of the scantiest kind. With this -sole exception, Japan, which had acted in so liberal a manner -towards foreigners, became in a short time a sealed book to -the outer world.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_97'>97</span> - <h3 class='c001'>CHAPTER II<br /> <span class='large'>JAPAN AND THE REVOLUTION OF 1868</span></h3> -</div> -<p class='c014'>Progress demoralized in Japan under the Shoguns Tokugawa—Imperial -Court, Mikado and <em>kuges</em>, feudal society, Shogun, Daimios, <em>samourai</em>, -and people—Foundation of the political régime—Military preponderance -of the Shogun—Seclusion of the Mikado—Divisions among the -Daimios—Exclusion of strangers—Artistic development and economy—Progress -of civilization—Decline of the Shogunate—Position of -Japan in the middle of the nineteenth century—Foreigners begin to -re-enter the country in 1854—Scandal created by the opening of the -ports—The Court and the clans in the south-west provinces hostile -both to Western civilization and the Shoguns—Fall of the Shogunate—Restoration -of the Mikado and introduction of European civilization.</p> - -<p class='c007'>We have already seen that the Emperor, or Mikado, was -deprived of all authority, and retained only the outward -attributes of his Imperial dignity. He dwelt in his palace of -Gosho surrounded by 155 <em>kuges</em>, or noble families, all of whom -were descended from the Imperial house, but whose duties -were merely ceremonial. In order to prevent any possibility -on their part of the <em>kuges</em> interfering with him, Ieyas reduced -the Court to absolute poverty. He fixed the civil list of the -Mikado—according to custom, in kind—at 9,000 <em>kokus</em>,<a id='r15' /><a href='#f15' class='c006'><sup>[15]</sup></a> or -44,550 bushels of rice; as to the <em>kuges</em>, many of them lived in -the most straightened circumstances. To still more completely -isolate the Mikado the feudal princes were never on any -pretext allowed to enter Kioto.</p> - -<p class='c008'>These princes, or daimios, who were the leaders of the -military order, of whom the Shogun was the chief, were divided -into five classes, according to their precedence and importance: -firstly, the three great Gosanké families, who reigned over the -provinces of Owari, Kii and Mito, and were descended from -<span class='pageno' id='Page_98'>98</span>the three elder sons of Ieyas: they enjoyed the privilege of -electing from amongst their number the Shogun in case of the -failure of direct heirs; secondly, the sixteen <em>kokushu</em> daimios, -whose ancestors possessed their fiefdoms before the elevation -of Ieyas, which he had considerably reduced as a punishment -for their having taken up arms against him, and whose revenues -ranged between 750,000 and 5,000,000 bushels; thirdly, the -nineteen <em>kammong</em> daimios, who were the immediate relatives -or vassals of the Tokugawas, and descendants of Ieyas’ -favourite generals, among whom he distributed the fiefdoms he -had confiscated from his enemies: they were eventually the -chief supporters of the Shogunate, being, however, not so rich -as the above, possessing only between 50,000 and 1,600,000 -bushels of revenue; fourthly, the 88 <em>tozamma</em> daimios; and -fifthly, the 110 <em>foudai</em> daimios, who were not infrequently -cadets of one of the two preceding classes. They possessed -an income of at least 50,000 bushels, but rarely more, and -their estates were proportionally small. Nevertheless, there -were eight <em>tozammas</em> and sixteen <em>foudais</em> who enjoyed between -them a revenue of 500,000 bushels, and, who, when united, -were sufficiently powerful to be very troublesome.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Next came the <em>samourai</em>, forming about a twentieth of the -entire population of the Empire. They were a distinct military -class under the daimios, and were distinguished by wearing, -even in infancy, the two swords Ieyas called the ‘living soul -of the <em>samourai</em>.’ Excepting in one or two principalities at -the extreme south, notably at Satsuma, they were never agriculturists, -but, despising all manual labour, lived on salaries paid -by their chief. Exceedingly brave and punctilious in all points -of honour, they were addicted to vendetta, and added to their -other peculiarities the ferocious custom of <em>hara-kiri</em>, which -obliged them on the least insult to disembowel themselves -with a small sword, an unpleasant rite into which they were -initiated when still very young. They were ever ready to shed -their blood for their prince and fanatically attached to their -clan. It was from them that the troops, as well as all the -minor officials in the various principalities, were recruited. -The <em>samourai</em> were not only military, but literary, and corresponded -to our professional classes, and their opinions only -had the slightest influence on the affairs of the country. -When a <em>samourai</em>, for some reason or other, found himself -without a master, either because he had been expelled from -<span class='pageno' id='Page_99'>99</span>his service or his lord had been deprived by the Shogun of -his titles and estates, he sometimes turned <em>ronin</em>, or knight-errant, -more often than not a brigand, and occasionally a -redresser of wrongs, but as a rule a fellow capable of the worst -sort of crime as well as of the most heroic acts of chivalry. -In times of trouble these <em>ronin</em> were wont to form themselves -into bands and offer their services to a popular prince, and -when accepted, their opinion and influence sometimes became -of considerable weight.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Nineteen-twentieths of the population consisted of the <em>heimin</em>, -or commoners. Of this class the peasantry was by far the -most numerous and esteemed. Next came the artisans, then -the merchants, for be it remembered that feudal Japan, like -feudal Europe, held trade and tradesmen in supreme contempt. -Finally the two classes of pariahs, the <em>eta</em>, or ‘dirty people,’ -who followed the profession of leather-dressers, tanners, curriers, -knackers, grave-diggers, etc., then the <em>hinin</em> (not men), and the -beggars.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Only on certain rare occasions, when a daimio wished to -increase the number of his men-at-arms, and recruited some of -his <em>samourai</em> from the <em>heimin</em>, or, again, when a <em>ronin</em>, tired of -vagabondage, embraced some trade or other and contrived to -lose himself among the people, were the barriers between class -and class ever broken down, and thus society in Japan remained -strictly confined within its narrow boundaries for over two -centuries. Notwithstanding these restrictions, the country -enjoyed during this period a profound peace and great prosperity. -Both Ieyas and Iemitsu understood to perfection how -to apply the maxim, ‘Divide in order to reign,’ whereby they -broke up the influence of the daimios, which, when united, -might have proved formidable. This they contrived to do by -isolating them from the Imperial Court, and creating between -them divergences of interest, and by fermenting among them -a spirit of hatred and jealousy. Ieyas had not dared dispossess -all his adversaries after his victory, but he confiscated a part at -least of their domains, out of which he created a number of -fiefs, which he distributed among his allies and soldiers. The -descendants of these, the <em>kammong</em> and <em>foudai</em> princes, being -ever at war with the <em>kokushu</em> and the <em>tozamma</em>, obtained protection -from the Shoguns by establishing a common bond of -interest, being fully aware that the downfall of the Tokugawas -would be sure to involve their own.</p> - -<p class='c008'><span class='pageno' id='Page_100'>100</span>A danger undoubtedly presented itself to the south-east -of the Empire, for here the domains of the <em>kokushu</em> princes -of Choshiu, Satsuma and Hizen and others nearly as powerful -formed a continuous line of territory, and consequently a storm -rising in that quarter might have been fatal to the Shogunate; -but so long as these great vassals received no support from -a foreign power, the military preponderance of the Shogun -was safe. This state of affairs eventually gave rise to a -rigorous exclusion of foreigners. Divided among themselves, -isolated from all external influences, deprived of all communication -with the Court, the daimios in due time lost a great deal -of influence in their own principalities. By virtue of the -Sankin law, promulgated in 1635 by Iemitsu, and solemnly -ratified by the Mikado, they were compelled to sojourn at least -one year out of two at Yedo, and to leave their women and -children during the following year in that capital as hostages. -In this manner their initiative was enfeebled, and as they were -obliged in great part to leave the administration of their own -affairs in the hands of subordinates, they soon became mere -idlers, under the constant supervision of a swarm of spies, who -reported to the Shogun any attempt on their part to resist his -authority, or to conspire against him. Notwithstanding its -many drawbacks, this administrative system, although it unquestionably -weakened the political character of the Japanese, -was in the long-run, by securing a prolonged peace, exceedingly -beneficial to the country, especially as regards the development -of art and literature, and it is from the period of the Tokugawas -that dates all that is finest in Japanese architecture, painting, -sculpture, lacquering, including the temples of Nikko and the -noblest specimens of Satsuma faience. In the meantime civilization -had made rapid progress, and the intellectual influence of -China upon Japan was paramount. The Chinese classics, -formerly neglected by the Japanese, were now, thanks to the -initiative of Ieyas, studied with ardour both at the Court of -his successors and at that of the Mikado, and were even publicly -taught in the ever-increasing number of schools. And thus it -came to pass that when the Europeans returned in 1854 they -found Japan more completely under the influence of Chinese art -and literature than had their ancestors in the sixteenth century.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The causes which brought about the revolution of 1868, -which resulted in the suppression of the Shogunate and of -feudalism, and in the rapid introduction of European civilization, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_101'>101</span>were quite as important and as deeply rooted in the hearts -of the people of Japan as were those which led to the French -Revolution in 1789, which, it will be remembered, had been -brewing for a very long time before its eventual outbreak. -Politically, the decadence of the Shogunate commenced in -1652, after the death of Iemitsu, and especially at the beginning -of the eighteenth century, when the Tokugawas began gradually -to decline, precisely as had done the various dynasties that had -preceded them. Surrounded by a brilliant court and enlightened -patrons both of arts and letters, the Shoguns disdained -occupying themselves with public affairs, which they -left in the hands of the Gorogio, a council composed of five -<em>foudai</em> daimios and their subordinates. This substitution of a -rather effete bureaucracy for the old but energetic feudal -system soon inspired the great vassals with a hope of being able -to overthrow their former masters. They perceived that it was -easy to pick a hole in the Shogunate from the doctrinal point -of view, even in the name of those very Confucian theories -upon which they had the pretension to base their supremacy. -As a matter of fact, although the system of paternal government -extolled by the illustrious Chinese philosopher is by no means -opposed to feudalism, when closely examined into, it shows -that there was no place in it for the Shogunate, since it does -not admit of any intermediary between the father and his -children.</p> - -<p class='c008'>At the same time, in the eighteenth century a whole college -of literary men and a distinct school of literature rose, -whose principal object was the study of the ancient texts, to -collate, publish, and interpret them, whereby certain political -and religious conclusions were arrived at, tending to prove -that the only legitimate power in Japan was the autocracy of -the Mikado, the descendant of the gods, and the only true -religion Shintoism, and that patriotism, moreover, demanded -the restoration of the ancient political and social organization -which had existed in the Empire long before the introduction -of Buddhism, feudalism, and of Chinese ideas in general. If -these theories did not interest the people, they certainly, and -very effectively, created a breach between the literary classes -and the <em>samourai</em>, on the one hand, and the Shogunate and -its supporters, who by this time had become not only unpopular -with the productive classes of the nation, but were -even looked upon in the light of a tax, against which the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_102'>102</span>people very naturally rebelled, failing to see why they should -be called upon to support an idle and otherwise useless caste.</p> - -<p class='c008'>In 1700 the Government, financially embarrassed, was compelled -to diminish the number of charges imposed upon it by -the feudal system, and to increase taxation, whereupon the -merchants deemed it prudent to conceal the exact amount of -their fortunes, and the peasants, who paid their lords a third -or a half of their harvests, were not infrequently ransomed by -the <em>ronin</em>. Under these circumstances the feudal system could -no longer endure, since it was now brought into contact with a -society richer and better organized than itself, and thus it -became impossible for the Japanese Government to prevent -the penetration into the Empire of European ideas, which -filtered through the one port, Nagasaki, left partially open for -the benefit of the Dutch. From the eighteenth century onwards -certain young <em>samourai</em> were always to be found at this -port endeavouring to place themselves in contact with the -Dutch. The Shogun Tzunayoshi (1650–1709) pretended not -to notice what was happening, although his Government was -ostentatiously endeavouring to repress any kind of intercommunication -between the natives and foreigners.</p> - -<p class='c008'>It appears that medicine was the first science which excited -the interest of the youthful Japanese students. They at first -managed to obtain from the Dutch some books, containing -anatomical plates, which both interested and surprised them -on account of the great difference which existed between the -figures represented in these works and the fantastic theories -invented by the Chinese doctors. At considerable risk, for the -laws on the subject were extremely severe, they secretly experimented -upon a corpse, in order to compare the results -with the anatomical sketches they had obtained from Europe. -This led to their procuring a Dutch treatise on anatomy, which, -with great difficulty, they translated into Japanese, spending -sometimes as much as a whole day upon a single phrase. -Before the end of the eighteenth century several Dutch-Japanese -dictionaries were compiled, and a good many -European works were translated and published privately, and -read with all that ardour which fear of persecution ever engenders.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Before the commencement of the present century these -studies produced practical results, and the country was peppered -with furnaces and windmills built after Dutch models. It led, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_103'>103</span>also, to the introduction of several novel industries, which were -evidently inspired by some occult European influence. However -feeble these beginnings may have been, both European -and modern Japanese writers attach a great importance to this -early initiation of a certain number of able and learned men to -at least one of the languages, and to some of the sciences of -the West. It prepared the way for many ardent advocates of -European civilization to influence the Japanese to accept -European ideas. This was the impression conveyed to me at -Tokio by that very able gentleman Mr. Fukuzawa, the editor -of the most important newspaper published in Tokio, the <cite>Jiji -Shimpo</cite>, or ‘Times,’ who is also founder and director of one of -the largest free schools in Japan. He himself had studied -Dutch between 1840 and 1850, when quite a young man, and -showed me a book translated from the Dutch and published in -Tokio in 1770. ‘The days,’ said he, ‘of the old régime in -Japan were counted when in 1854 the Americans forced my -country to open her ports, and the Shogunate, which had -become exceedingly unpopular, undermined on all sides, -crumbled to the dust.’</p> - -<p class='c008'>The situation of Japan in the middle of the nineteenth -century was therefore not unlike that of France on the eve -of the Revolution; but, fortunately, above the honeycombed -Government, doomed to fall at the first serious outbreak of -popular displeasure, Japan possessed the Imperial dynasty, a -power universally respected, all the more so because it was -so completely exempt from interference in public affairs; -towards it every heart turned in the hour of trouble, and the -remarkable reforms were accepted in its name as proceeding -from a Sovereign who ruled by Divine right. In 1853 -an event occurred which more than any other tended to the -overthrow of the Shogunate. An American squadron, consisting -of four men-of-war, under the command of Commodore -Perry, appeared in the Bay of Yedo with the object of presenting -a letter from the President of the United States to the -Shogun demanding the conclusion of a treaty of commerce and -the opening of the ports. It was in vain that the Bakufu (the -Government of Yedo) tried to induce the Commodore to -proceed to Nagasaki and to employ the mediation of the -Dutch and Chinese. Perry replied that he would only accord -a few months for the delivery of the answer he demanded, and -promised to return and fetch it in the following year. The -<span class='pageno' id='Page_104'>104</span>Government of Yedo was taken by surprise, and feeling that -it was impossible to resist the importunate and imperative -strangers, and alarmed at the grave consequences which might -result from the opening out of the country, addressed a circular -to the daimios detailing the facts and asking their advice. Some -of them suggested the opening of only one or two ports for a -limited time, say three or four years, as an experiment, but the -greater number—Prince Mito, chief of the house of Tokugawa, -at their head—were of a contrary opinion, and counselled that -no concession should be granted, and that the country should -forthwith arm itself and prepare for resistance. Nevertheless, -when Perry returned some time afterwards, a treaty was signed -permitting the opening of the two ports of Shimoda and -Hakodate, and, moreover, granting permission for the establishment -of an American consulate (1854). This official took -up his residence in 1857, just as France, England, and Russia -had frightened the Shogun by a naval display into granting -them like privileges, which were still further augmented by a -new convention promulgated in 1858.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The prolonged isolation in which the feudal lords of Japan -had hitherto lived had filled them with a horror of all things -foreign, so that the concessions made by the Shogun very -naturally produced an extraordinary fermentation among the -military classes, who considered all these privileges bestowed -upon the barbarians as so many outrages to the national dignity. -The Imperial Court was not less scandalized. When the -Mikado first heard of the arrival of so many Westerners on the -sacred soil of Japan, he ordered public prayers to be said at -Ise, the most holy temple in Japan, and presently a secret -understanding was arrived at between the Court of Kioto and -the clans in the south-west, who, although they were perfectly -sincere in their detestation of the strangers, nevertheless thought -this incident afforded an excellent chance for satisfying their -hereditary rancour against the Tokugawa and a possibility of -annihilating their power. When confronted by these dangers, -the Shogun endeavoured to shirk his responsibility, and turned -to the Mikado, asking him to confirm the treaties which he -had himself concluded. A statesman of great energy and of -progressive tendencies, Ii-Kammon-no-Kami, now determined -to intimidate the Mikado and obtain from him at any cost the -desired signature, which under such circumstances at another -period would have been a mere formality. But this able man -<span class='pageno' id='Page_105'>105</span>was assassinated in 1860 by the <em>ronin</em>, who, in accordance -with Japanese usage, presently published a patriotic declaration -justifying their crime. Needless to say, the Shogun, in -his vain attempt to reconcile both parties, fell to the ground, -like the man in the proverb who sought to seat himself between -two stools. The audacity of his adversaries increased, and the -Imperial Court and the daimios began to interfere without the -slightest hesitation in the affairs of State. In 1862, against -all precedent, the Prince of Satsuma, in going to Yedo, passed -by Kioto, and undertook to escort thither a <em>kuge</em>, who was -carrying Imperial despatches to the Shogun, and invited him -to appear before the Emperor. The Bakufu now found itself -so absolutely powerless that it was obliged to submit to all -demands, including destitutions and reintegrations of dignitaries, -together with the permission for the daimios to leave -Yedo with their families; and thus was the first step taken -towards the ultimate ruin of the time-honoured Shogunate.</p> - -<p class='c008'>For the first time in two hundred and thirty years a Shogun—a -minor—went up to Kioto in March, 1863, preceded by the -Regent. The Mikado left his palace, and, contrary to secular -etiquette, went in solemn state to the temple of the God of -War, where he bestowed the sword of honour upon the Shogun -as the ensign of supreme command with which he was to expel -the barbarians. The Shogun’s second visit to Kioto in 1864, -on the other hand, witnessed his complete abasement; for the -Court no longer accepted his decrees, and refused him any -further control over their finances. In a word, from being -master he had now become servant. Amongst those who immediately -surrounded the Emperor, there were still many who -revolted at the idea of his being allowed to occupy himself -with the government of the Empire, and their so doing gave -the rebel clans in the south-west time to reorganize themselves. -After a short attempt at revolt, they soon came to the -conclusion that further dissensions would only play into the -hands of their enemies, and from 1865 the majority of the -<em>samourai</em> had joined a general conspiracy which it was -hoped would result in the ruin of the already crumbling -Shogunate. Still, the cry of ‘Death to the barbarians!’ was -not so easily suppressed, and hatred of the foreigner remained -for some time yet extremely fierce among the masses. -The governing classes, however, who had been brought into -contact with Europe, began to see that it was useless resisting -<span class='pageno' id='Page_106'>106</span>its power, especially after Kagoshima, the capital of Satsuma, -was bombarded in 1863 by a British squadron as a punishment -for the murder of Mr. Richardson by the Prince’s escort. The -daimios and their councils no longer closed their eyes to the -existing condition of affairs, and recognising the uselessness -of resisting Powers which were armed with such formidable -engines of war, they changed their policy as by magic, -loaded the foreigners with honours, opened their ports to -them, and even made preparations to place the Japanese army -under the same régime as that of civilized nations. This -conduct was not wholly disinterested, for they were shrewd -enough to perceive the commercial advantages which might -ultimately accrue to them as a reward for their liberality. The -Court followed their example, and two years after having -issued an order to ‘sweep the strangers from the soil of Japan’ -as if they were so much dust, the Emperor ratified the treaties -of 1865 at the demand of the Shogun, who had come to Kioto -with 70,000 men to suppress the open revolt of the Prince of -Choshiu.</p> - -<p class='c008'>This struggle between the Tokugawa and a subordinate -vassal was their last and supreme effort to regain power. Unfortunately -for them, they were crushed in the attempt, and -their military prestige was for ever destroyed. The Regent -Hitotsubashi, who succeeded the young Shogun, who died on -September 19, entertained no illusions as to the gravity of his -position. He was by this time firmly convinced that it was -absolutely necessary radically to modify the constitution of the -country, and feeling certain that it would be useless any longer -to resist so powerful and popular a wave of progress, he determined -to associate himself with the new ideas, in the hope -thereby of preserving some measure of his family’s former -influence. He therefore entreated the Emperor to summon a -council of the principal daimios, who accordingly assembled at -Kioto in 1868, with the result that they one and all advised the -Emperor to allow the centralization of the Government to take -place at once, as being absolutely necessary to the welfare of -the country. The Prince of Tosa, one of the chiefs of the -south, addressed a letter to the Shogun, in which he informed -him of the results of the meeting, and that they had acknowledged -the supremacy of the Emperor. Hitotsubashi, seeing -that resistance was of no further avail, sent in his resignation, -which was accepted, with the condition, however, that he should -<span class='pageno' id='Page_107'>107</span>continue to direct public affairs until after the general assembly -of all the daimios. The southern clans, fearing that the Tokugawa -might still be able to recover their power, made a bold -move, and attempted to seize the person of the Mikado. On -January 3, 1868, the Imperial seal was stolen, and a decree -issued handing over the guardianship of the palace to the -<em>samourai</em> of Satsuma, Hizen and Tosa. On the following day -the Shogunate was formally abolished. Hitotsubashi retired to -Osaka with his army, where, trembling lest he might fall into -some trap skilfully prepared by his enemies, and refusing to -listen to any overtures, even the offer of a high position in the -new Government, he marched with his men on Kioto; but the -unfortunate Shogun was now treated as a mere rebel, and when -he beheld the troops of the hostile clans carrying the embroidered -standard of the Mikado, he realized that he was -betrayed by his own people, and fled by sea to Yedo, where he -surrendered unconditionally to Prince Arisugawa, commander -of the ‘Army of Punishment,’ The princes of his family were -the first to rally round the Emperor; others of his partisans -struggled for a brief time with an adverse fate, but were finally -overcome, and thus a revolution which began with the cry of -‘Down with the foreigners!’ and was provoked by the daimios -and the <em>samourai</em>, the representatives of feudalism, against the -authority of the Shogun, ended in the destruction of feudalism, -and in the definite introduction into Japan of Western civilization.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Soon afterwards, when the Imperial Court began to better -understand foreign manners and customs, the <em>kuges</em>, the more -intelligent among them, from being antagonistic became their -staunchest friends and supporters. Presently the mass of the -people, following the lead of their superiors, enthusiastically -accepted the new idea that Japan could no longer live isolated. -Their rulers had the distinct merit of understanding that in -order to become the equal of the Western nations, if only from -the simple point of view of material progress, it would not suffice -for Japan to borrow their cannons and their guns, or even their -military training, an experiment which had signally failed -with other Oriental Powers; but that if Western civilization -was to be of the least good to Japan, it was absolutely necessary -to accept it in all its branches, civil, industrial and commercial, -as well as military. The promoters of the movement, the -ministers and agents of the great lords, had no more interest in -<span class='pageno' id='Page_108'>108</span>maintaining feudalism than had, after the Revolution, the -inferior clergy and squires in the Government of France before -1789. The first step in the suppression of feudalism was the -abolition of the privileges of the <em>samourai</em>, who might, had -they been allowed to retain them, have become troublesome.</p> - -<p class='c008'>In 1876 the carrying of the two swords, their erstwhile distinguishing -insignia, was prohibited. The stipends which they -had previously received from their lords, and of which the State -had possessed itself, were capitalized, and the territorial revenues -of the daimios, which were at first compensated by annual -pensions, were transformed in the same manner. These -changes, which were undoubtedly beneficial to the bulk of the -population, nevertheless brought about a great deal of misery, -by throwing a number of people who had hitherto enjoyed all -the privileges of fortune into humble circumstances. The -peasantry benefited most by the new form of Government, and -became, without having to pay anything, in a very short -time owners of the land which they had hitherto only held -as tenants, and, moreover, no longer obliged to pay a tribute -to their feudal lords, but only a small tax to the Central Government. -Needless to say, there was considerable resistance on -the part of the two millions of people whom these new laws -deprived of privileges which they had enjoyed for centuries, -but these were easily and speedily suppressed. From 1869, -in order further to mark the rupture between the old and the -new order of things, the residence of the Emperor was transferred -from Kioto to Yedo, now known as Tokio. In 1872 -the first Japanese railway was opened between the new capital -and Yokohama. The old-fashioned <em>samourai</em> were at first -dreadfully scandalized when they saw the Emperor, against -all precedent, driving about among the lower classes in an open -carriage. But the invading wave was too strong for resistance, -and presently a number of <em>samourai</em> of their own accord, -especially in the capital, gave up the custom of wearing the -two swords. Yet another flicker of the old spirit, however, -reappeared in 1877, when the clan of Satsuma rose and -endeavoured to oppose the introduction of so many innovations. -This rebellion was suppressed by Marshal Saigo, who -lost his life in the affair, leaving, however, behind him a name -still universally venerated in Japan. In 1889 Viscount Mori, -a Japanese statesman of very advanced opinions, was stabbed -by a fanatic on the day of the proclamation of the new Constitution. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_109'>109</span>At present no one in Japan, be he statesman or simple -citizen, unless, indeed, he chance to be some fanatic or other -under the influence of the Buddhist priests in some out-of-the-way -district, dreams of disturbing the pleasant relations which -exist between the native population and foreigners. After the -repression of the rebellion in Satsuma the new Government -was definitively consolidated, and the country fully launched -on the road to complete Europeanization. In 1889 the Parliamentary -system was introduced, and we shall presently see -with what success. It is therefore not saying too much to -assert, before we proceed further, that the wonderful revolution -which has taken place in our day in Japan is not ephemeral, -and that it has now gone too far to be in any danger of reaction. -It is, moreover, quite in accord with the antecedents and the -intellectual spirit of this remarkable people, and therefore -likely not only to become permanent, but even progressive.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_110'>110</span> - <h3 class='c001'>CHAPTER III<br /> <span class='large'>MODERN JAPAN</span></h3> -</div> -<p class='c014'>Japan the country of contrasts—The port and town of Nagasaki—The -navigation of the Inland Sea—Junks and steamboats—Yokohama—Its -population and commerce—Tokio—The telephones and electric -lights—The houses and the streets—The people and their costumes—Means -of transport at Tokio—Jinrikishas and tramways.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The moment the traveller enters the harbour of Nagasaki he -finds himself surrounded by the most extraordinary contrasts. -In the first place, the scenery is quite charming: the mountains -are a delightful green and are thickly draped with foliage, from -which peep out a number of pretty little wooden houses, whose -windows are replaced by sliding paper-panels. The sea is -dotted with rocky islands covered with those picturesque -Japanese fir-trees whose outline is as varied as it is graceful. -Here and there rise from the water curious little fishing-sheds, -the delight of the amateur photographer, which add -considerably to a landscape which looks for all the world like -an animated picture off a Japanese screen. One can scarcely -believe that it is all real, and certainly not that it was at one -time the scene of a terrible tragedy: yet such it was, for from -one of the neighbouring islands in 1638—yclept Pappenberg—several -hundred Christians were cast into the sea. Presently -we see rising in the background a tall chimney with its -streaming cloud of smoke, and the noise of machinery in -motion grating upon our ears reminds us somewhat unpleasantly -that modern civilization has at length penetrated into -Japan, and the better to emphasize this fact, our steamer is -presently surrounded by a fleet of ugly coal-barges, and a -sudden turn brings us face to face with the ships and flags of -all nations—British, French, German, Russian, and American.</p> - -<p class='c008'><span class='pageno' id='Page_111'>111</span>On the other side of the bay, in the docks recently constructed -by the Mitsubishi Company, workmen are busy building -a 5,000–ton vessel. Not far distant, on the southern slope -of the hill overlooking the town, is the European quarter, -situated in the midst of delightful gardens. The elegant -steeple of the Catholic church rises sharply from among the -pine-trees, and contrasts favourably with the massive and very -ugly building—an eyesore on the pretty scene—that disagreeably -emphasizes the very bad taste of the American missionaries, -as also the absolute tolerance which the Government of the -Mikado accords to all denominations in a country where, not -so very long ago, so great was its exclusiveness that even the -shipwrecked were put to a cruel death. As I gazed upon -this charming scene, I could not forbear picturing to myself -how it must have looked fifty years ago when a solitary Dutch -vessel landed its tiny cargo for the benefit of a few foreign -merchants imprisoned in the artificial island of Deshima, the -only spot where they were allowed to live, and even then subjected -to many vexatious humiliations.</p> - -<p class='c008'>In forty-five years Nagasaki has become the chief coaling -port on the Pacific, and as safe for Europeans—perhaps safer—than -many a seaport in Europe itself. Steamers do not -remain long at Nagasaki, where they only touch to coal, but -passengers have time to land for a few hours and visit the -town. Happily, the inhabitants have retained their national -costumes, but the men have unfortunately adopted our very -ugly headgear, and flourish in every variety of bowler and -yachting hat. In the shops one soon perceives the march of -civilization, for they are full of articles imported from all parts -of the world, as well as others imitated from European models, -improved upon, in the artistic sense, by the natives. You can -buy books by all the leading authors almost as cheaply as -in Paris or London, as well as oil-lamps, gas-stoves, photographs -representing recent Japanese battles with the Chinese, -looking-glasses (which were absolutely unknown in Japan until -quite recently), and little terrestrial globes, the sight of which -latter reminded me of an anecdote related by a missionary -when I was in China. At the beginning of the Chino-Japanese -War, the Viceroy of a certain province asked the -Reverend Father to show him where Japan was located, and -he had the pleasure of pointing out to His Excellency, for the -first time in his life, the exact place whence came the warriors -<span class='pageno' id='Page_112'>112</span>with whom his Government was then at war. The Japanese -are very proud of their victory over their colossal neighbour, -and have placed some of the cannon which they took from -her in the principal Shinto temples in the city.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Twelve hours after leaving Nagasaki you pass into the great -Inland Sea, or heart of Japan, to effect an entrance into which -in 1863 required the combined efforts of the fleets of England, -France, Holland, and the United States. Now every great -steamer that trades in the Pacific is free to weigh anchor in -this glorious harbour, which, however, is never open at night -on account of the many dangers to navigation in the Strait of -Shimonoseki, which, by the way, is only a mile wide. As we -passed through it, I perceived quite close to the southern shore -no less than six immense steamers, anchored off the port of -Moji—rapidly becoming a rival to Nagasaki—up to which the -trains bring coal from the mines situated some miles inland. -On the summit of the long range of hills a number of huge -cannon stationed at intervals testify that the coasts of Japan -are by no means unguarded.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Everything has been done by the Japanese Government to -facilitate navigation in this rather dangerous Inland Sea, which -was so hermetically shut to foreigners a half-century ago. In -1895 there were over 149 light-houses, built either by the -State or the local authorities, admirably placed at intervals -along the coast of Japan, the majority, of course, being erected -along the shores of the Inland Sea, which, it must be remembered, -contains not less than 5,000 islands. These light-houses -are all the more necessary because, although the scenery of this -magnificent expanse of water is very beautiful, the currents are -exceedingly strong and dangerous, and the shoals, moreover, -very numerous. An amazing number of little Japanese -steamers of from 80 to 200 tons, and even less, constantly -carry passengers to and fro between the various ports and -towns on these innumerable islands. Mingling among these -are still to be seen a few old Japanese junks, which, however -picturesque, are not of much use in these go-ahead days, -and are rapidly disappearing. Their shape is now only retained -by a few fisher-boats. As a matter of fact, it is no -longer legal to build vessels after the old Japanese model, -excepting on a small scale, as in fishing or pleasure boats. -Such a decree as this would, in any other country, have caused -some unruly expression of public opinion; but in Japan it was -<span class='pageno' id='Page_113'>113</span>otherwise, and the people very reasonably accepted a change -for the better in the time-honoured form of their sea-craft. -After twenty-four hours, of which one or two were passed at -Kobe, we left the Inland Sea behind, and almost immediately -afterwards beheld for the first time the peak of the celebrated -Fusi-yama volcano, rendered so famous by Japanese engravers. -Twenty-eight hours after leaving Kobe we entered -the harbour of Yokohama, which is within fifty minutes’ rail -of Tokio, the capital.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Yokohama was, before the enfranchising of the ports, a -miserable little fishing village containing about a hundred -houses. It was opened to foreign commerce in 1858 in the -place of Shimoda, which was thought to be badly situated. It -is a town of 170,000 inhabitants, having sprung up after the -mushroom fashion hitherto deemed peculiar to America, and is -the third largest port in the Far East, being alone surpassed -by Hong-Kong and Shanghai; but its streets appear much -less animated than those of the last-named ports. The Bund, -the principal thoroughfare by the sea, always seems rather -deserted. On the other hand, on the hill above, to the south -of the concession, is the European quarter, which is full of -delightful houses, surrounded by lovely gardens. There are -about 1,800 foreigners of various nationalities, exclusive of -Chinese, settled here, a good half being English. The port is -very spacious and commodious, and the biggest ships ever -built can anchor quite close up to the quay. The total value -of the exports in 1896 was £6,169,600, the imports £7,280,400, -making a total of £13,450,000, or about half the foreign commerce -of Japan, which, during the same year, reached the -very important figure of £28,500,000.<a id='r16' /><a href='#f16' class='c006'><sup>[16]</sup></a> But this brand new -town is not particularly interesting, and the traveller will do -well to hurry on to Tokio.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The capital of Japan is the largest town in Asia, and the -seventh in the world. On December 31, 1895, it was reputed to -contain 1,268,930 souls, and must by this time, owing to the -rapid increase of its population, have attained 1,400,000. It is -spread over an enormous space, much larger than that occupied -by Paris. The reason why it covers such an amazing extent is -that everybody lives in his own house, which is never more than -one story high, and then, again, nearly every house has its little -<span class='pageno' id='Page_114'>114</span>garden. Under these conditions, it is, therefore, not surprising -that such an enormous population requires unlimited space -in which to accommodate itself. Moreover, Tokio contains -a great many open spaces, and, odd to relate, most of these -are to be found in the centre of the town in the neighbourhood -of the Imperial Palace. These ‘building sites,’ -if one might so call them, were formerly occupied by the palaces -of the great daimios, the majority of which were surrounded -by bastions, supported on a cyclopean stone wall rising from -a deep moat. When the daimios first received permission to -leave Tokio, a few years before the downfall of the old -Government, they retired to their castles in the provinces, and, -at the abolition of the feudal system in 1872, their lands -became, as we have seen, the property of the State. On the -site of several of them immense public buildings have been -erected after the European fashion, among which are the -palaces of the various Ministries, and also the Parliament -House; but many other wide, open spaces are still waiting to -be utilized, and, being weed-grown and disorderly, produce a -distinctly dreary effect. The old ramparts, planted with pine-trees, -which surrounded most of them, are still standing, and -one, embracing the immense park of the Imperial Palace, is -used as a public promenade. As you walk along it, and look -towards the palace itself, it is difficult to believe that you are -in Japan, everything is so very European, and on the other -side the waste land contains a perfect forest of telegraph and -telephone poles, which affirms, and very forcibly, too, that our -civilization is distinctly the reverse of picturesque.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Telephones, telegraph, electric light, gas, petroleum lamps, -etc., are now as plentifully used in Tokio as they are in any -English or American town. It is most amusing to notice as -you pass along the streets, when the paper screens which form -the façade of most of the houses are removed, the artisans -seated at their <em>tatamis</em>, working by the light of an Edison lamp. -When they cannot afford electricity or gas, the Japanese use -petroleum exclusively, but not without some considerable -risk to the safety of a city entirely built of wood. Since a -Japanese house contains next door to nothing in the way of -furniture, and that even in the houses of the rich all valuable -objects of art are usually kept in an iron safe, and only exposed -on state occasions, a fire does not matter so much as it would -in a London mansion or a Chicago ‘sky-scraper.’ A few -<span class='pageno' id='Page_115'>115</span>cushions, coverlets, and household utensils, which are to be -found in every house, are soon put outside the doors, so that -the inhabitants have very little to fear, for their house is only -one story high, and the whole façade consists of paper screens, -which slide into one another when required. The only people -who really have anything to fear from fire are the retail -merchants, whose shops, of course, are well stocked. Fires -are of very constant occurrence, and people are not at all -surprised to wake up in the morning to hear that some hundred -houses have been burnt down during the night.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The authorities at present avail themselves of fires in order -to widen the streets and improve their sanitary condition. -They are now as a rule much straighter and wider than any to -be found in most other Oriental cities, and even, for the matter -of that, in the towns of Southern Europe, and although they -have no side-walks, they are much cleaner than any you will -find in China or Siberia, or, indeed, in most cities of the -United States. Possibly on account of the immense size of -the city, they are nothing like so animated as the streets of -Peking or Tien-tsin, and are much less picturesque than one -might have been led to expect, for the Japanese, both men and -women, after they have reached their tenth or twelfth year -dress very plainly in neutral colours, blue, gray and brown -prevailing. The women, however, enliven the scene by their -bright-hued waistbands and huge bows. As to the children, -especially on holidays, they wear the most vivid colours. -Sometimes you can trace upon their tiny persons an entire -landscape, and at others enormous bunches of flowers dashed -upon a background of scarlet China crape, which decorate -their exceedingly small figures. Their heads are generally close-shaven -when they are infants, but as they grow older the -dignity of age is marked by that funny zone of stiff black hair -which adds so much to the comical appearance of a Japanese -doll. Another peculiarity about these youngsters is that a -smaller one generally hangs on to the back of another so -tightly as to suggest a big barnacle. It is indeed amusing to -watch a little lady of between five and six years of age carrying -her still smaller brother on her back literally from morning to -night, never appearing in the least degree incommoded by what -to children of other nationalities would be a most uncomfortable -position. The little boy accommodates himself to all the -various movements his sister may make. If she tumbles, he -<span class='pageno' id='Page_116'>116</span>tumbles, and if she gets up, up gets he, and it would really -appear as if the younger child formed an integral part of the -elder’s body. European children who are brought up in Japan -fall into this singular habit quite as naturally as the Japanese, -who can fall to sleep in a position which would, one imagine, -have kept awake one of the famous Seven Sleepers of Ephesus.</p> - -<p class='c008'>European costume has undoubtedly made some inroad -throughout Japan, but fortunately not to the extent originally -anticipated. Japanese ladies, who first adopted European -fashions with enthusiasm, at present have nearly returned to -the delightful way of dressing invented by their ancestresses, -so that during the three months I spent in Japan I only once -saw a Japanese lady dressed <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">à la Parisienne</span></i>. The European -costume is now only to be seen at Court on state occasions, -where, it should be observed, the old Japanese Court dress was -not only very ugly and extremely heavy, but most uncomfortable. -A few years ago an order was given that all the officials, -little and great, should wear, when on duty, frock-coats and -straight trousers, but this edict is no longer in force. Nevertheless, -it has become the fashion for Japanese officials of rank -to attend their offices in European costume, but here again -there are already exceptions. English hats of all sorts and -shapes, Tyrolese, bowler, sailor hats, and German caps, are -universally worn by men in every class. Some young gentlemen, -with pretensions to fashion, are adopting the tailor-made -garments of Bond Street and the Rue de la Paix, and although -this is regrettable from the æsthetic point of view, it must be -conceded that our dress is much better adapted for the exigencies -of our modern life than the loose, long-sleeved garments of the -Japanese.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The <em>kago</em>, or palanquin, has absolutely disappeared from -Tokio, and is now only to be found in the mountain districts, -its place having been taken by the jinrikisha. It is now so -well known in Europe, thanks to Japanese exhibitions, that all -I need say is that it is a very small carriage supported by two -very tall wheels, and pulled along by a runner. The jinrikisha -is not, as many imagine, of Japanese origin, but due to the -inventive genius of a foreigner, who made a fortune out of his -invention. It is now used throughout the whole of the -Far East; but Japan remains the land of its predilection, -mainly on account of the extraordinary swiftness and skill of -the native runners, who are unsurpassed in this respect in any -<span class='pageno' id='Page_117'>117</span>other part of the East. There are at the present moment -about 200,000 of these quaint vehicles in various parts of the -Empire, of which about 40,000 are in Tokio. As a rule they -can only seat one person, but a few are built to convey two -passengers, exclusively Japanese; for the jinrikisha is not yet -built that would accommodate a couple of Europeans, even -ladies. The lowest fare is 2½d.; by the hour, 5d.; and for the -half-day, 1s. 3d. These are the prices exacted from Europeans, -but the Japanese pay considerably less.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Independently of the jinrikisha, Tokio possesses a few omnibuses, -and a line of tramways uniting the two stations of Shimbashi, -the terminus of the Western, and Uyeno, that of the -Northern Railway. The extreme length of this tramway is nine -miles, and the fare is 1½d. all the way. The tramcars are driven -by horses, and the number of seats is not limited, people being -allowed to stand up in the middle as in the United States. -In 1895 the company conveyed fifteen million and a half -passengers, paying a return of thirty-five per cent. on a capital of -about £45,000. An electric tramway is now under consideration. -One improvement Tokio certainly stands in need of, -and that regards its lighting. Here and there you may come -across an electric lamp or so; but the principal street illumination -invariably proceeds from those big Chinese lanterns, -lighted by petroleum lamps, which hang outside the shops, -which, fortunately, remain open until quite late; but when the -shutters are up in most of the wooden houses one passes by, -the darkness is quite Egyptian, unless, indeed, it happens to -be a moonlight night. Doubtless, in the course of a very little -time, Tokio will be as well lighted as any other highly-civilized -city.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_118'>118</span> - <h3 class='c001'>CHAPTER IV<br /> <span class='large'>JAPANESE INDUSTRY</span></h3> -</div> -<p class='c014'>Japan the Great Britain of the Far East—Osaka, the centre of Japanese -industry—Great and small industries—Increase of certain industries -hitherto unknown in Japan: glass and match manufactories, breweries, -etc.—Employment of children—Scale of wages—Length of labour -hours—Cotton-spinning—The larger industries—Recruiting of workmen -and women from the rural districts—Abuses denounced by the -press—Increase of wages throughout Japan.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Nothing delights the Japanese more than to hear their Empire -compared to Great Britain, and when we come to think of -it there is a certain analogy between the Archipelago of the -Rising Sun in the Far East and the British Isles in the -West; but the Japanese hope that this resemblance will not -end in a mere geographical comparison, but extend to their -maritime, commercial and industrial development. To their -credit, be it said, they are really working very hard to attain -their ideal. One has only to visit Osaka, the Manchester of -the Mikado’s Empire, to realize the amazing progress made by -the Japanese in the last quarter of the century. This city, -which has a population of about half a million souls, is situated -midway between Kioto and Kobe, about thirty miles distant, -which respectively contain 340,000 and 150,000 inhabitants. -About six and a half miles further on is yet another industrial -centre, Sakai, with a population of 50,000. This region, which -slopes gradually to the Inland Sea, may be described as the -heart of Japan, being its main centre of commercial, agricultural -and industrial activity, and it is the chief tea-market of -the Empire. It was also until 1869 near the political centre; -for Kioto was from the end of the eighth century the capital of -the Mikados, who removed their Court thither from Nara, where -they had previously resided for several centuries.</p> - -<p class='c008'><span class='pageno' id='Page_119'>119</span>Industries on a large scale have only been recently introduced -into Japan, among the earliest being that of cotton-spinning, -established in Osaka in 1882. Before the arrival of the -Europeans, and even up to 1880, nearly all the minor trade -of the country was divided up into a number of small workshops -scattered all over the country. A few large silk manufactories -existed, however, in the more important towns, and at Kioto -there were some fairly important paper factories, and <em>saké</em>-distilleries -(wine made from rice); but these were not numerous, -and only engaged a very few hands. The official statistics for -1894 disclose the existence of 4,732 families manufacturing -the various ceramic products for which Japan is famous, employing -about 23,726 people; 4,407 families, giving employment -to 14,092 artisans, engaged in the manufacture of lacquer-ware; -81,652 matting and straw-plaiting factories; and lastly -600,444 families working 820,585 looms. From this we see -that what might be termed the minor industries of the -country are very numerously represented. In these small -and independent workshops are produced all those numerous -Japanese articles that enjoy a European popularity which -they are not likely to lose for a very long time to come, -Japan having a monopoly in the production of an infinite -number of toys, articles of furniture, paper fans, umbrellas, -boxes, screens, and knick-knacks of every description; and it is -fortunate it is so, on account of the density of the rural -population, and the exceeding smallness of the farms, which -are easily cultivated, leaving their proprietors a great deal of -leisure on their hands, which they wisely employ in making -those countless pretty things that in Europe go by the name of -‘Japanese fancy goods.’ These small workshops now carry on -nearly all the art industries of the country, but no Japanese city -is now without its tall chimneys, rising quite as conspicuously -and unpicturesquely in their suburbs as they do in Europe.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Northward of the cyclopean stone ramparts of the old castle -of Osaka stands the enormous Mint, one of the finest establishments -of the sort in the world, to the east of which is the -Arsenal, where the Japanese turn out all the cannon and -guns necessary for the use of their army. At night the -horizon is crimson with the ruddy glow of the cotton-mills -and other numerous factories. Most of these industries have -only been lately introduced into the country, and the fathers -of many of those who are engaged in them had no idea even -<span class='pageno' id='Page_120'>120</span>of their existence. The Japanese, for instance, until quite -recently, had no conception of the art of glass-blowing. To-day -there are several very important glass factories doing a first-class -trade at Osaka, glass being now much needed on account -of the prevailing use of petroleum lamps, and many people are -beginning to use glass in place of the paper screens which have -hitherto served the Japanese as windows. Breweries have -been established in various parts of the country, and the -principal at Osaka produces admirable beer, largely exported, -even as far as Vladivostok and Singapore. Brushes of every -description, too, are now manufactured in Japan, and exported -in great quantities to the United States. I had the -pleasure of inspecting one of these brush manufactories at -Osaka, which employed 300 men, women and children on the -premises, and 900 others in its various branches in the suburbs. -I experienced some little difficulty at first in gaining admittance -on account of my nationality, and I had even to take an oath -that I would not divulge any of the secrets of the trade. This -precaution was due to some fear that I might possibly introduce -their economical system into France, and thereby do -them considerable mischief in the way of competition. A -curious fact connected with this particular trade of brushmaking -is, that the necessary pigs’ bristles and bone have to -be imported, for the excellent reason that St. Anthony’s pet -animal is practically non-existent in any part of the Empire, so -that the Japanese confine themselves to carving the handles for -the infinite number of brushes which they manufacture, and -in putting the bristles into the variety of objects that require -them. Osaka likewise contains a number of iron-foundries -and ship-yards, in which nearly all the small steamers which -ply between the islands are constructed. Unfortunately the -harbour of Osaka is a very bad one, and, indeed, might almost -be described as non-existent, the entrance to the river being -very sandy, and the exit seaward hopelessly narrow and exposed -to east winds. For this reason the majority of the goods -manufactured at Osaka are exported viâ Kobe, where nearly -all the great English and American steamers touch, and which -is an admirable port. The formation of a large harbour at -Osaka was begun in 1899, at a cost of something like -£2,000,000, assured by a loan of £1,700,000, issued by the -town, in addition to a considerable subvention from the State. -A new industry has recently been introduced at Osaka, that of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_121'>121</span>jute carpet-making, which is likely to become very important, -an enormous number of very cheap and very pretty carpets -having already been exported to the United States and still -more recently to England, where, on account of their excellent -patterns, durability and extreme cheapness, they have suddenly -become extremely popular. The present Exhibition at Paris -will no doubt introduce them into France.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The Japanese copper and tin industries have only recently -been created, and at present do not employ more than eighty -hands. The silk industries are entirely concentrated at Kioto. -Mats and other straw goods, which form a very important item -of Japanese export, are exclusively made in and about the same -city. Undoubtedly the two most important of the modern -Japanese industries are cotton-spinning and match-making. -In 1889, 10,165,000 gross of matches, costing £184,000, were -produced. In 1894, the figures stood at 18,721,000 gross, -valued at £406,800, since when this industry has gone on -increasing by leaps and bounds. Matches, as may well be -imagined, are very cheap throughout the country, and you can -buy two boxes containing each about sixty for five rin, or a -half-sen, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">i.e.</span></i>, half a farthing.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Nothing can be more interesting than a visit to one of these -great match factories, which exclusively employ women and -children, the latter being sometimes under six years of age. -Wages, when compared with those of Europe, are very trifling, -the highest average being 15 sen, or about 3¾d., per diem. -Some of the girls get a little more for pasting on the labels, -which requires considerable skill, and the women who put -the matches in the boxes are paid 4½d. Very clever workwomen, -who by the sheer delicacy of their touch are able to -tell to a match, without the trouble of counting them, how -many go to a box, are paid 7d. Some objection has been -made to the employment of so many infants, but their mothers -do not seem to object, for in the first place the children -add a farthing or so to the general fund, and in the second -they are able to keep them about them, which no doubt saves -them much anxiety. Very few men are engaged in these -match manufactories. The match-boxes are nearly all made -by the workpeople at home in their off-hours, and also in -certain workshops set apart for their manufacture. Japanese -matches are exported in great quantities to Hong-Kong, China -and India.</p> - -<p class='c008'><span class='pageno' id='Page_122'>122</span>The cotton looms are located in stone buildings erected on -Manchester models, and employ many thousands of hands. -The following Custom-house statistics will give an excellent -idea of the progress of this industry:</p> - -<table class='table1' summary=''> - <tr> - <th class='btt bbt c020' rowspan='2'></th> - <th class='btt bbt blt c018' rowspan='2'>Importation of Raw Cotton into Japan.</th> - <th class='btt bbt blt c019' colspan='2'>Spun Cotton.</th> - </tr> - <tr> - - - <th class='bbt blt c018'>Exportation from Japan.</th> - <th class='bbt blt c018'>Importation into Japan.</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class='c020'></th> - <th class='blt c018'><em>Tons.</em></th> - <th class='blt c018'><em>Tons.</em></th> - <th class='blt c018'><em>Tons.</em></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>1894</td> - <td class='blt c019'>64,071</td> - <td class='blt c019'>2,067</td> - <td class='blt c019'>9,350</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>1895</td> - <td class='blt c019'>84,739</td> - <td class='blt c019'>2,362</td> - <td class='blt c019'>8,661</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>1896</td> - <td class='blt c019'>99,108</td> - <td class='blt c019'>7,677</td> - <td class='blt c019'>11,810</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='bbt c020'>1897 (10 months)</td> - <td class='bbt blt c019'>117,710</td> - <td class='bbt blt c019'>20,274</td> - <td class='bbt blt c019'>7,185</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p class='c008'>From the above it will be remarked that Japan, in a relatively -very short time, from being almost exclusively an importer -of cotton goods, now exports them to foreign markets, and -with good results. The Custom-house declared in 1898 -£1,109,600 worth of cotton, or 20,269 tons of exports, and -£734,400, or 7,185 tons of imports. The statistics of the -Japanese Cotton Spinners’ Union record the following figures:</p> - -<table class='table1' summary=''> - <tr> - <th class='btt bbt c019'></th> - <th class='btt bbt blt c018'>Mills.</th> - <th class='btt bbt blt c018'>No. of Looms.</th> - <th class='btt bbt blt c018'>Workmen.</th> - <th class='btt bbt blt c018'>Workwomen.</th> - <th class='btt bbt blt c018'>Production of Spun Cotton.</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c019'> </td> - <td class='blt c019'> </td> - <td class='blt c019'> </td> - <td class='blt c019'> </td> - <td class='blt c019'> </td> - <td class='blt c019'><em>Tons.</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c019'>31 Dec., 1890</td> - <td class='blt c019'>30</td> - <td class='blt c019'>227,895</td> - <td class='blt c019'>4,089</td> - <td class='blt c019'>10,330</td> - <td class='blt c019'>18,798</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c019'>31 Dec., 1895</td> - <td class='blt c019'>47</td> - <td class='blt c019'>580,945</td> - <td class='blt c019'>9,650</td> - <td class='blt c019'>31,140</td> - <td class='blt c019'>68,106</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c019'>31 Dec., 1897</td> - <td class='blt c019'>61</td> - <td class='blt c019'>839,387</td> - <td class='blt c019'>13,447</td> - <td class='blt c019'>43,367</td> - <td class='blt c019'>97,435</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='bbt c019'>31 Oct., 1898</td> - <td class='bbt blt c019'>61</td> - <td class='bbt blt c019'>1,233,661</td> - <td class='bbt blt c019'>13,447</td> - <td class='bbt blt c019'>43,367</td> - <td class='bbt blt c019'>97,829</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p class='c008'>Nearly half of this cotton is manufactured at Osaka, the -rest at Kobe, and at Okyama, on the Inland Sea, to the west, -and at Yokkaichi, Nagoya and Tokio, to the east. The conclusion -of the late Chinese War gave a great impulse to the -cotton industries in Japan, and necessitated the construction -of new and much larger establishments, and the enlargement -of those already in existence, so that it is calculated that -before long over a million and a half looms will be in activity -in various parts of the country. These very important industries, -it must be remembered, are not subsidized by foreign -capital, or under the direction of foreigners; they are purely -<span class='pageno' id='Page_123'>123</span>and absolutely Japanese; up to the present, however, nearly -all the plant has been imported from England and America.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Until 1897 employers of labour had a good deal of trouble -in obtaining workmen. The townspeople, being engaged in a -great many small industries of their own, were not willing to -abandon them for work which was not likely to prove as remunerative -as their own; in consequence of this the country -districts had to be ransacked for hands, and nearly all the girls -employed in the factories of Osaka are the daughters of small -farmers. They are lodged and boarded by the various companies -in buildings erected expressly for the purpose, a percentage -being deducted from their wages for their keep. Certain -abuses having arisen in their management, a leading -local newspaper, published in English, but really owned and -edited by Japanese, in 1897 called attention to the same in -a series of articles, violently attacking the working organization -of the Osaka cotton-mills. The lodgings of the workwomen -were, it was stated, exceedingly unhealthy; and as to the -morals of the women employed, the less said about them the -better. Then, again, the agents who engaged these young -women were accused of doing so under false promises, and it -was said they even went so far as to intercept their correspondence -with their homes. The editor furthermore condemned -in the severest terms the employment of extremely young -children.</p> - -<p class='c008'>These articles attracted a great deal of attention, and contained -doubtless a certain amount of truth, not unmingled, -however, with considerable exaggeration. The Japanese -employers of labour are, it should be remarked, after all in very -much the same position in which our own were some fifty or -sixty years ago. As to the moral tone of the workgirls, it is -doubtless neither better nor worse than it is in the great manufacturing -centres of Europe and America. At Moscow a -manufacturer informed me that the morals of his workgirls -were very bad, and at Shanghai another gentleman related to -me things on the same subject best left unpublished. The -working hours are not longer in Japan than they were in Europe -thirty or forty years ago. They never exceed twelve hours a -day, from which half an hour must be deducted for the midday -meal. Nevertheless, it is excessive, especially when we -remember that the week’s work is divided into two parts, one -half the hands working all night and the other all day, so that -<span class='pageno' id='Page_124'>124</span>the looms are never at rest. Then they have only two off-days -in the month, on the first and the fifteenth; and there are -only four special holidays in the year, the three first days in -the New Year, and the Emperor’s birthday. Even the first and -the fifteenth are not observed if there is a press of work. If -these hours appear too long, it must not be forgotten that the -Japanese workman, like his brother worker in the South of -Europe, does not labour with the intensity that distinguishes -the Englishman or the American. As to the employment of -women, they are only engaged in the match factories, and their -work is of the lightest.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Nevertheless, attention in Japan is being directed towards -these two very important questions, which will, doubtless, -sooner or later, receive proper attention and be modified. -Wages are already rising, as the workpeople begin to understand -their worth and their own interests, and to know how to protect -them. A danger to which the Japanese industries are -exposed is undoubtedly due to a diminution of capital, the result -of over-production after the late war, which brought about -much the same phase that occurred in the commercial history -of Germany after the Franco-German War. However, the -financial crisis of 1898 and the competition recently created -at Shanghai have created a certain degree of anxiety concerning -the immediate future of Japanese industry; but, on the other -hand, the magnificent results obtained in such a surprisingly -short time, and the courageous manner in which this industrious -people have overcome the many difficulties which beset them in -the earlier stages of their career, must not be forgotten.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_125'>125</span> - <h3 class='c001'>CHAPTER V<br /> <span class='large'>RURAL JAPAN</span></h3> -</div> -<p class='c014'>Predominance of agriculture in the economic existence of Japan—Density -of the rustic population in the plains and lower valleys—Importance -of the Japanese fisheries with respect to the food supply of the people—Principal -crops: rice, tea and mulberry-trees—Absence of domestic -animals—Returns of Japanese agriculture—Small holdings—Japanese -peasantry, their vegetarian or ichthyophagian diet—Their dwellings—Position -of women—Their extreme cleanliness, politeness and good -nature—Cost of living—Amelioration of peasant life in Japan after -the Restoration—Spread of Western civilization and instruction among -them.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Notwithstanding the rapid industrial development which has -recently taken place in Japan, the greater proportion of the -population is still essentially rural, and derives, if not all, at -least the greater part of its means of subsistence from the soil. -Petty industries, however, abound and materially assist this -hard-working people to add to their very small incomes. Along -the indented coasts of the islands, and on the shores of the -Inland Sea, innumerable little villages will be found, whose -inhabitants depend entirely for their subsistence upon the -fisheries, but notwithstanding their importance, Japan may be -described as an essentially agricultural country. It is, also, -the cultivation of the soil which supplies the raw material of -the silk, still one of the staple export industries, and also of -another very important article of exportation, tea. On a total -export in 1896 of £11,650,000 worth of Japanese products, tea -represented £637,200, rice £795,100, raw silk cocoons and silk-ravel -£3,166,600. If we add to these figures about £4,700,000 -worth of miscellaneous products, or 14 per cent., and add also -about £1,200,000, or 4<a id='t125'></a> per cent., of raw or unprepared produce, -we shall find that the aggregate value of agricultural products of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_126'>126</span>all kinds reaches the respectable figure of £5,950,000, more -than half that of the total export. Notwithstanding their importance, -the area devoted to the culture of the tea-plant and the -mulberry-tree is relatively small as compared with that devoted -to rice, which is the staple article of food of the whole of the -Far East. The extensive culture of this latter accounts for the -peculiarity often noticed in Japanese landscapes, that you never -see any of those gentle hill-slopes which are so familiar in -France. The hills rise abruptly from the stagnant waters, and -seem cut into three or four broad step-like terraces, possibly -the result of the action of the water which inundates the rice-fields. -When I was in Japan, in the autumn, the rice harvest -was just over, and the country would have looked very dismal -on account of the drab colour of the muddy soil, divided up -like a chess-board into regular squares, from which the rice -had been recently cut, and now covered by a thin layer of dry -weeds, had it not been for the peculiarly elegant shapes of -surrounding heights which are shaded by those delightful firs -so familiar to us in old Japanese prints. The lace-like curtains -of bamboo clustering here and there added also to the variety -and charm of the scene, which was further enhanced by the -numerous cryptomerias, whose superb foliage contrasted vividly -with the brown and the red of the maples that are invariably -planted around the charming little temples dotted about in all -directions. In the hilly districts the beauty of the trees breaks -the monotony of the rice-fields and of the reclaimed wastelands, -but in the plains and valleys there is not one to be seen, -every inch of land being most carefully cultivated.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The rural population of Japan is marvellously dense, incomparably -more so than in any part of Europe. On an area but -little greater than that of Great Britain and Ireland, Japan -contains 42,270,620 inhabitants, that is to say, 284 souls per -square mile, including the large southern island of Yezo, which -is very sparsely peopled. Not taking this very extensive island -into account, it will be safe to state that the population of -Japan is twice as dense as that of France, and only equalled by -that of Belgium, an absolutely industrial country, whereas at -least 80 per cent. of the Japanese live in the country. Certain -provinces, Shiko and Sitama, for instance, to the north-east of -Tokio, respectively boast of 604 and 709 to the square mile, -although the capital cities of these two provinces contain respectively -only 26,000 and 20,000 inhabitants. The island of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_127'>127</span>Shikoku and the province of Kagawa, on the other hand, which -possesses only one large town, Takamatsu, with 34,000 inhabitants, -has a population that reaches the phenomenal figure of -998 souls to every square mile. In only thirty-six out of forty-six -Japanese provinces, exclusive of Yezo, are there less than -250 inhabitants to the square mile, and in only four, three of -which are at the extreme north and one at the south, is the -population less crowded than in most parts of France. The -following statistical table shows the population, with its relative -density:</p> - -<table class='table1' summary=''> - <tr> - <th class='btt bbt c020'></th> - <th class='btt bbt blt c018'>Square miles.</th> - <th class='btt bbt blt c018'>Population.</th> - <th class='btt bbt blt c018'>Density per square mile.</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>Nippon, Northern</td> - <td class='blt c019'>30,556</td> - <td class='blt c019'>6,455,287</td> - <td class='blt c019'>191</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>Nippon, Central</td> - <td class='blt c019'>37,028</td> - <td class='blt c019'>16,368,995</td> - <td class='blt c019'>442</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>Nippon, Western</td> - <td class='blt c019'>20,922</td> - <td class='blt c019'>9,523,168</td> - <td class='blt c019'>453</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>Island of Shikoku</td> - <td class='blt c019'>7,113</td> - <td class='blt c019'>2,929,639</td> - <td class='blt c019'>412</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>Island of Kiu-Siu</td> - <td class='blt c019'>17,037</td> - <td class='blt c019'>6,524,024</td> - <td class='blt c019'>384</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='bbt c020'>Hokkaido, or Yezo</td> - <td class='bbt blt c019'>36,734</td> - <td class='bbt blt c019'>469,507</td> - <td class='bbt blt c019'>13</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'> </td> - <td class='blt c019'>149,390</td> - <td class='blt c019'>42,270,620</td> - <td class='blt c019'>316</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='bbt c020'>Formosa</td> - <td class='bbt blt c019'>8,995</td> - <td class='bbt blt c019'>2,041,809</td> - <td class='bbt blt c019'>228</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='bbt c020'> </td> - <td class='bbt blt c019'>158,385</td> - <td class='bbt blt c019'>44,312,429</td> - <td class='bbt blt c019'>272</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p class='c008'>Even more remarkable than the population is the small -area of cultivated land required to support such an immense -number of people. Japan is an extremely mountainous -country, and although the plains and valleys, especially in the -east and south, are admirably cultivated, and the rice-fields -occasionally cover hills that slope so close to the sea as not -to allow of the existence of even a small fringe of cultivable -land, the mountain ranges in the interior are still -covered with forests, and even the northern part of the great -island, where the land is excellent, is quite uncultivated. -According to recent statistics, about one-fifth of the total -surface of the country has been reclaimed and subdivided into -a remarkable number of small farms and tenements. The -forest lands, on the other hand, cover 88,632 square miles, of -which 28,544 square miles belong to private owners, 51,834 -square miles to the State or to the various provinces, and -8,254 square miles are Crown lands. The remainder of the -island is occupied by moors, uncultivated tracts of land, extremely -<span class='pageno' id='Page_128'>128</span>extensive in Yezo, where the forests are of vast extent, -and where only 1,269 square miles of land repay cultivation. If -we leave aside the northern island, and only take into consideration -the land occupied by 99 per cent. of the Japanese population, -we discover that, exclusive of 67,571 square miles of -forest land, only 21,234 square miles provide food for 42,000,000 -people, whereas in France there are about 56,917 square -miles devoted to cereals alone, and if we add potatoes, vineyards -and other edibles, we arrive at a total of 75,889 square -miles for a population much inferior to that of Japan; moreover, -France imports provisions very largely from other -countries.</p> - -<p class='c008'>In England and in France, as in most other European -countries, very extensive and superior pasture lands are set aside -for the forage of domestic animals intended for food. In Japan -there is nothing of the sort. On the highroads you will meet -peasants dragging their own carts and waggons, and if you -travel by any other means than the railway, it will be in a -jinrikisha hurried along by human runners, or in a palanquin -carried on men’s shoulders, rarely, if ever, in a carriage or on -horseback. Sheep and goats are absolutely unknown in the -Empire, but I am assured there are a few pigs, although I -never saw any. A European who had lived many years in -Japan assured me he had travelled for twelve hours by rail -without seeing a bullock or a cow; in the west, however, I -myself have often met with cattle. The scarcity of animals is -one of the peculiarities of Japan which most surprises the -traveller. Statistics confirm this impression, for they give only -a return of 1,097,000 head of cattle and 1,477,000 horses.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Doubtless this singularity may be attributed to the predominance -of the Buddhist religion, which prohibits the eating -of flesh, notwithstanding which the Japanese are not above -relishing a fowl, although poultry is nothing like as abundant -as it is in our villages. The very great quantity of fish -eaten doubtless accounts for this enormous population being -able to exist in so mountainous a country on such an -abstemious diet. The various fishing industries for 1894 returned -produce valued at £2,740,000. We have already -mentioned the countless fishing villages which send out a fleet -of not less than 600,000 of those graceful one-sailed junks -that sometimes seriously impede the progress of the numerous -steamers in the Inland Sea. The secondary and very rocky -<span class='pageno' id='Page_129'>129</span>island of Awaju does not contain a single town, but nevertheless -can boast of a population of 198,000 inhabitants, spread -over an area of only 220 square miles, subsisting entirely on its -fishing industries.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The importance of the fisheries does not prevent Japanese -agriculture from taking a foremost position, and it must be -admitted that farming must have reached a high degree of perfection -if the limited space allotted to it can support such a -dense population, a fact all the more remarkable when we -remember that Japan imports very few articles of food. It -is true that in many places there are two crops yearly, -although rice has only two harvests in the southern island of -Shokoku; in many other places, in November, as soon as this -has been gathered, the earth is manured again and sown with -barley, or <em>daikon</em>, a kind of monster turnip. The following -statistics of 1895, which give the extent of cultivated land and -the nature of the various products, will serve to illustrate how -relatively great these are when compared with the area of land -in cultivation.</p> - -<table class='table1' summary=''> - <tr> - <th class='btt bbt c020'></th> - <th class='btt bbt blt c018'>Area in Acres.</th> - <th class='btt bbt blt c018' colspan='2'>Produce.</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>Rice</td> - <td class='blt c019'>6,821,694</td> - <td class='blt c019'>195,612,321</td> - <td class='c020'>bshls.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>Barley</td> - <td class='blt c019'>1,600,632</td> - <td class='blt c019'>33,830,173</td> - <td class='c020'>〃</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>Rye</td> - <td class='blt c019'>1,649,390</td> - <td class='blt c019'>34,377,074</td> - <td class='c020'>〃</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>Wheat</td> - <td class='blt c019'>1,096,257</td> - <td class='blt c019'>19,470,855</td> - <td class='c020'>〃</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>Peas and azuki</td> - <td class='blt c019'>1,318,779</td> - <td class='blt c019'>17,701,808</td> - <td class='c020'>〃</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>Millet</td> - <td class='blt c019'>848,282</td> - <td class='blt c019'>18,633,157</td> - <td class='c020'>〃</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>Buckwheat</td> - <td class='blt c019'>422,928</td> - <td class='blt c019'>5,891,613</td> - <td class='c020'>〃</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>Sweet potatoes</td> - <td class='blt c019'>586,478</td> - <td class='blt c019'>1,865,709</td> - <td class='c020'>cwts.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>Potatoes</td> - <td class='blt c019'>56,727</td> - <td class='blt c019'>18,598,076</td> - <td class='c020'>〃</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>Colza</td> - <td class='blt c019'>374,072</td> - <td class='blt c019'>4,932,246</td> - <td class='c020'>bshls.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>Cotton</td> - <td class='blt c019'>148,649</td> - <td class='blt c019'>471,978</td> - <td class='c020'>cwts.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>Hemp</td> - <td class='blt c019'>51,431</td> - <td class='blt c019'>102,967</td> - <td class='c020'>〃</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>Indigo</td> - <td class='blt c019'>114,999</td> - <td class='blt c019'>579,298</td> - <td class='c020'>〃</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>Tobacco</td> - <td class='blt c019'>88,185</td> - <td class='blt c019'>279,870</td> - <td class='c020'>〃</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>Mulberry-trees</td> - <td class='blt c019'>675,972</td> - <td class='blt c019'>279,870</td> - <td class='c020'>〃</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='bbt c020'>Tea</td> - <td class='bbt blt c019'>123,404</td> - <td class='bbt blt c019'>635,979</td> - <td class='bbt c020'>〃</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p class='c008'>The absence of domestic animals obliges the Japanese to -have recourse to novel methods of manuring the land. The -rice-fields are strewn with green grass, freshly cut in openings -in the forests and on the mountain sides, which, when covered -with muddy water, speedily decomposes; to this lime is sometimes -<span class='pageno' id='Page_130'>130</span>added. Excrements of all kinds are also largely employed -in all fields except those devoted to the cultivation -of rice, and along the coast-line fish manure is much -used.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Everywhere, excepting in Yezo, the cultivation of rice preponderates, -especially in the northern part of the principal -island, mainly because the climate is elsewhere too cold to allow -of any other crop being sown during the winter and spring. -Barley and wheat are grown mainly in the centre of the great -island of Nippon, rye in the western parts of the same -island, and also in the two southern islands of Shikoku and -Kiu-Siu, the last-named of which produces sweet potatoes in -abundance. These were originally imported from Java to Satsuma, -and are still called <em>Satsuma-imo</em>, or Satsuma potatoes. -Tobacco, which was introduced by the Portuguese in the -sixteenth century, and which is universally used all over the -islands, being one of the few customs the Japanese have retained -from their first contact with Europeans, is cultivated -everywhere, except, perhaps, in the north. The mulberry-tree -grows exclusively in the mountainous regions of the -centre, and only in very small quantities in the north. Tea -will be met with, on the other hand, only in the plains, and at -the foot of the lower ranges of hills. From the windows of -the train which passes from Tokio to Kioto, and principally -in the environs of this last-named town, as also of Osaka and -Nara, one sees extensive tea-plantations lifting their deep, green -foliage from the rice-fields.</p> - -<p class='c008'>As may well be imagined, owing to the smallness of his -tenement, the Japanese peasant is by no means rich, and has to -live on very little. In the plains he subsists mainly on rice -boiled in water, precisely as do the workpeople in the towns, a -little fish seasoned with <em>soy</em>, or Japanese sauce, flavours this -very simple menu, which also includes a few eggs, and occasionally -a chicken, a little game, or a wild duck. In the -mountains, where the people are very poor, and rice is considered -a luxury, barley and millet are sometimes substituted. -The fisher-folk replace this almost exclusively vegetarian diet -by the produce of their work. Even among well-off people -in the towns the principal dish at dinner consists of boiled -rice. During meals the usual drink is hot <em>saké</em>, which the -guests offer each other in little cups with a good deal of polite -ceremony. This very weak form of brandy is distilled from -<span class='pageno' id='Page_131'>131</span>rice, and about 150,000,000 gallons of it are consumed annually. -The other great Japanese drink is green tea.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The Japanese peasantry usually live in small villages, -separated from each other only by a few hundred yards. -Sometimes, however, their houses are built in little groups of -four or five, but it is extremely rare to find a peasant’s cottage -quite isolated. Nothing can exceed the simplicity of the -construction of these habitations, which only differ from those -of the townspeople by their lofty and heavy thatched roofs, -which usually contain a granary, and are supported by very stout -wooden pillars, rising from a heap of stones placed on the bare -ground, without any attempt at a foundation. Those walls only -which support the gable are solidly built with clay kept together -by a bamboo lattice. The two principal façades stand back -about a yard inside the pillars, and consist of paper screens -which slide backwards and forwards. At night, or in stormy -weather, these screens are replaced by wooden shutters. The -whole front is thrown wide open when the weather is fine or -there is a ray of sunshine, so that passers-by may have a full -view of the interior. It is this curious fashion of living in -public which most strikes the traveller who arrives in Japan -from China, where you cannot even see what is going on in the -outer courtyard, and is one of the chief characteristics that -differentiate the Japanese from all other Orientals. Another -very striking feature is the scrupulous cleanliness which reigns -in these dwellings, whose only furniture are <em>tatamis</em>, or thick -straw mats, which cover the floor of the whole house, excepting -a space immediately opposite the door where visitors are -expected to leave their boots and slippers.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The total absence of furniture, added to an equal lack of -heating apparatus and to the non-existence of any means of -shutting out cold and draughts, at first gives one an impression -of extreme discomfort, but it must not be forgotten that when -the Japanese adopted Chinese civilization they rejected three -things: chairs, coverlets, and stoves. The Imperial palaces at -Kioto would make one of our humblest cottages, so far as -furniture is concerned, appear quite luxurious. At Hirashima, -a town of 100,000 inhabitants, the principal hotel is kept by a -Japanese, and although lighted by electricity and possessing a -telephone, the guests are expected to sit upon the floor, and only -to warm the tips of their fingers at the two or three little scraps -of burning embers in the <em>hibachi</em>, and in the morning, although -<span class='pageno' id='Page_132'>132</span>it may be freezing, they have to perform their toilet in the -open courtyard. When I was in this city I visited the house -occupied by the Emperor during the Chinese War, and was -shown his study, which contained merely an arm-chair, a few -other chairs, and by way of stove only a <em>hibachi</em>, of exquisite -workmanship, it is true—black lacquer worked over with -gold.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The emptiness of a Japanese peasant’s home is, therefore, -no sign of extreme poverty, and although we may describe him -as poor, as his capital is extremely small, there is no reason to -describe him as destitute. In summer he is dressed as lightly -as possible, and in winter as warmly, always in deep blue, in -contrast to the light blue affected by the Chinese. The men -wear a pair of trousers, or rather a tight-fitting pair of drawers -that reach to the ankles, and an ample vest with pagoda -sleeves. The women, on the other hand, wear one or two -skirts reaching half-way down their legs, and gaiters or stockings -without feet, the whole made of cotton or dark-blue linen -and joining the <em>tabi</em>, or little shoe, which ascends above the -ankle.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Japanese women enjoy greater freedom than any other women -outside Europe. They may come and go wherever and -whenever they like, and chatter with whom they choose. -Whereas in China you never see a woman in a tavern, in Japan -you very frequently see only women. At an inn you are -always received by the wife of your host and by a whole -troop of young girls, who serve you, and keep you company. -The women, when they have finished their household -duties, which are very slight, share with the men the -labour in the fields; and I remember seeing in the neighbourhood -of Kioto a woman with a child on her back helping her -husband to drag a waggon along. One is astonished to perceive -with what persistent good-humour these small but very -hardy people perform their very heavy work. In the midst of -the trying labours of the rice-fields, with their feet benumbed -by the cold mud during the harvest, which is gathered in -November, they are invariably gay and happy. Doubtless -that which contributes most to their cheerfulness is the fact -that they are far ahead of the corresponding class in any other -country in the matter of artistic instinct. There are very few -of them but preserve some curiosity in bronze or lacquer, -which has been handed down by ancestors, and which, of all -<span class='pageno' id='Page_133'>133</span>the scanty heirlooms, is the one thing most valued. They are, -moreover, passionately fond of nature.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Every season of the year has its flowers, wild or cultivated, -from the plum-trees in February to the deep, red-leaved maples -in November, and every district has some particular spot celebrated -for the beauty and abundance of this or that flower. -Thither the whole neighbourhood goes in gay crowds to enjoy -and admire them. In that season of the year when they have -less to do, the peasants, who are indefatigable walkers, under -the pretext of a pilgrimage, go incredible distances to visit some -beautiful site, or a famous temple, usually surrounded by magnificent -trees. Then, again, their domestic industries supply -them with a great deal of light work, which tends to render -their existence less monotonous than it otherwise might be. -In order to give my readers an idea of the cost of living in -Japan, I copy from the <cite>Japan Times</cite> the following table of the -expenses of the family of a schoolmaster in the province of -Rikuzen, in the north of the principal island.</p> - -<table class='table1' summary=''> - <tr><th class='c013' colspan='4'><span class='sc'>Expenses for Three Persons—Husband, Wife, and Infant of from Six to Seven Years of Age.</span></th></tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <th class='c026'></th> - <th class='blt c027'>£</th> - <th class='blt c027'><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">s.</span></i></th> - <th class='blt c027'><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">d.</span></i></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c026'>3 <em>to</em> (1 <em>to</em> = 4 gallons) 3rd quality rice</td> - <td class='blt c028'>0</td> - <td class='blt c028'>9</td> - <td class='blt c028'>2</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c026'>Vegetables and fish</td> - <td class='blt c028'>0</td> - <td class='blt c028'>3</td> - <td class='blt c028'>0</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c026'>House linen</td> - <td class='blt c028'>0</td> - <td class='blt c028'>3</td> - <td class='blt c028'>0</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c026'>Rent of house</td> - <td class='blt c028'>0</td> - <td class='blt c028'>1</td> - <td class='blt c028'>7½</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c026'>Lighting and heating</td> - <td class='blt c028'>0</td> - <td class='blt c028'>1</td> - <td class='blt c028'>6</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c026'>3 <em>sho</em> (1 <em>sho</em> = ⅖ gallon) 2nd quality soy (sauce)</td> - <td class='blt c028'>0</td> - <td class='blt c028'>0</td> - <td class='blt c028'>10½</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c026'>Tea</td> - <td class='blt c028'>0</td> - <td class='blt c028'>0</td> - <td class='blt c028'>7</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c026'>Writing materials</td> - <td class='blt c028'>0</td> - <td class='blt c028'>0</td> - <td class='blt c028'>7</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c026'>Education of child</td> - <td class='blt c028'>0</td> - <td class='blt c028'>0</td> - <td class='blt c028'>5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c026'>Baths every three days</td> - <td class='blt c028'>0</td> - <td class='blt c028'>0</td> - <td class='blt c028'>5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c026'>Taxes</td> - <td class='blt c028'>0</td> - <td class='blt c028'>0</td> - <td class='blt c028'>3½</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c026'>Footgear</td> - <td class='blt c028'>0</td> - <td class='blt c028'>0</td> - <td class='blt c028'>3½</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c026'>Extras</td> - <td class='blt c028'>0</td> - <td class='blt c028'>0</td> - <td class='blt c028'>11</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c026'> </td> - <td class='blt c028'><hr /></td> - <td class='blt c028'><hr /></td> - <td class='blt c028'><hr /></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c018'>Total</td> - <td class='blt c028'>1</td> - <td class='blt c028'>2</td> - <td class='blt c028'>8</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c026'> </td> - <td class='blt c028'><hr class='double' /></td> - <td class='blt c028'><hr class='double' /></td> - <td class='blt c028'><hr class='double' /></td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p class='c008'>Or, in other words, about £1 3s. for the month. To this -must be added £1 10s. a year for clothing, making a total of -£15 2s. for the year. These figures were compiled in 1897, -when the price of provisions had considerably increased. It -must, however, be stated that they exceeded the salary of the -unfortunate teacher, which has not been raised, and is only -£1 a month.</p> - -<p class='c008'><span class='pageno' id='Page_134'>134</span>The peasantry have certainly benefited by the abolition of -the old form of government, and Western civilization is even -now commencing to penetrate among them. They light their -dwellings with petroleum, and, although their notions of the -value of time are exceedingly simple, nearly all of them possess -a watch or a clock. Most have adopted European caps or -hats, and none of the men shave their heads as they did in -olden times; moreover, they never express the least opposition -to the encroachments of modern civilization, but, on -the contrary, invariably display curiosity and a great desire -to try experiments. Public education is theoretically obligatory, -and about 80 per cent. of the boys and 40 per cent. of -the girls attend schools, where they are taught to read and to -write about 100 Chinese characters, as well as the two syllabic -Japanese alphabets, in addition to one or two other general -things. The schoolmasters, having been too hastily recruited, -may have been educated too much on the old-fashioned -Chinese lines; but, nevertheless, modern ideas are making -headway, and in the course of time will undoubtedly carry the -field.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The Japanese people, even in the country, are definitely on -the road to progress. It would be unwise to change everything -from the night to the morning as by the touch of a magician’s -wand, but undoubtedly the first impulse has been given, and -has met with no resistance. From the agricultural point of -view, there can be no question that the Japanese have much to -learn, not so much with respect to those products which they -already cultivate, but to the introduction of others besides the -all-prevalent rice. These reforms will be very difficult to -bring about, for the obvious reason that the small farmers -only accept changes with extreme caution; but in the course -of time they will have to be introduced, especially when we -reflect that the population of Japan increases at the rate of -300,000 souls per annum, and the extent of territory which has -been reclaimed and is in cultivation is so small in proportion -to the density of the population.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_135'>135</span> - <h3 class='c001'>CHAPTER VI<br /> <span class='large'>DEVELOPMENT OF JAPANESE COMMERCE</span></h3> -</div> -<p class='c014'>Progress of Japanese commerce in the last fifteen years—Remarkable -increase of exports and of the importation of raw material—Importation -of capital in the form of machinery for native manufactories—Countries -interested in Japanese commerce—Japanese merchants -accused of occasionally producing inferior articles and not fulfilling -their contracts—The reasons for the excess of imports over exports in -the years 1894–98.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Nothing can better illustrate the rapid progress made in -Japanese commerce during the last thirty years than the -development of her import and export trade, which is regularly -recorded in a pamphlet published by the Japanese -Minister of Finance, both in Japanese and English, entitled -the ‘Monthly Return of the Foreign Trade of the Empire of -Japan,’ which gives the fullest particulars respecting the commercial -operations of the month, as well as a résumé of what -has recently transpired. Each spring a complete volume is -issued which supplies further details, and gives a table showing -the commercial status throughout the preceding year. According -to the figures given in this document, which are extremely -accurate, the exports in 1898 attained the unusually high figure -of £16,570,000, and the imports £27,700,000, making a total -of £44,270,000. The following table displays very clearly the -prodigious advance made in Japanese commerce during the -thirty years included between 1868 and 1898.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The figures in the original document are, of course, given in -Japanese currency, but, for the convenience of English readers, -they are here rendered by their equivalent in English money, -taking the yen at two shillings, the rate it has held for a -considerable time past.</p> - -<p class='c008'><span class='pageno' id='Page_136'>136</span><span class='sc'>Japanese Foreign Commerce.</span></p> - -<table class='table1' summary=''> - <tr> - <th class='btt bbt c019'></th> - <th class='btt bbt blt c018'>Imports.</th> - <th class='btt bbt blt c018'>Exports.</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c019'>1868</td> - <td class='blt c019'>£1,070,000</td> - <td class='blt c019'>£1,550,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c019'>1879</td> - <td class='blt c019'>3,300,000</td> - <td class='blt c019'>2,820,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c019'>1884</td> - <td class='blt c019'>3,220,000</td> - <td class='blt c019'>3,400,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c019'>1889</td> - <td class='blt c019'>6,620,000</td> - <td class='blt c019'>7,020,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c019'>1894</td> - <td class='blt c019'>12,170,000</td> - <td class='blt c019'>11,330,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c019'>1895</td> - <td class='blt c019'>13,870,000</td> - <td class='blt c019'>13,620,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c019'>1896</td> - <td class='blt c019'>17,170,000</td> - <td class='blt c019'>11,780,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c019'>1897</td> - <td class='blt c019'>21,930,000</td> - <td class='blt c019'>16,310,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='bbt c019'>1898</td> - <td class='bbt blt c019'>27,700,000</td> - <td class='bbt blt c019'>16,570,000</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p class='c008'>By studying the statistics published in this official pamphlet, -we find that out of £3,581,200 of indigenous articles exported -from Japan in 1883, £2,713,900 were of a purely agricultural -character, and only £242,200 represented articles manufactured -in the country. This last class consisted only of the various -articles included among the ancient art industries of Japan: -£54,400 worth of ceramics and pottery, £54,300 of lacquer, -£26,100 of paper fans, umbrellas, and fancy goods generally, -etc. The silk industries did not even attain the comparatively -low figure of £9,000. Five years later, in 1888, the situation -was entirely changed. The export of indigenous merchandise -exceeded £6,489,100, of which only 68·6 per cent. instead of -76·4 per cent. represented agricultural produce, 3 per cent. -instead of 3·4 per cent. forestries, 5·2 per cent. instead of 6·7 -per cent. of the total amount fisheries; on the other hand, the -various minerals had risen from 6·7 per cent. to 11·2 per cent., -and manufactured goods rose from 6·8 per cent. to 11·8 per -cent. Japan also exported £350,000 worth of copper and -£300,000 worth of coal. The silk manufactories exported silk -goods to the extent of £168,000, and all the art industries, -with the sole exception of the lacquer, which remained stationary, -rose very considerably in value. To these figures must be -added the returns of certain other commercial products of a -kind totally unknown in Japan a quarter of a century ago—matches, -for instance, of which £74,000 worth were exported.</p> - -<p class='c008'>A glance at the following figures will show of what the -Japanese export trade during the last three years was composed, -and the nature of the goods.</p> - -<table class='table1' summary=''> - <tr><td class='c013' colspan='5'><span class='pageno' id='Page_137'>137</span></td></tr> - <tr><th class='c013' colspan='5'><span class='sc'>Principal Exports from Japan in 1895, 1896, 1897 and 1898.</span></th></tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <th class='btt bbt c026'></th> - <th class='btt bbt blt c027'>1895.</th> - <th class='btt bbt blt c027'>1896.</th> - <th class='btt bbt blt c027'>1897.</th> - <th class='btt bbt blt c027'>1898.</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c026'>Raw silk and cocoons</td> - <td class='blt c028'>£4,800,000</td> - <td class='blt c028'>£2,880,000</td> - <td class='blt c028'>£5,560,000</td> - <td class='blt c028'>£4,200,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c026'>Silk ‘ravel’</td> - <td class='blt c028'>290,000</td> - <td class='blt c028'>280,000</td> - <td class='blt c028'>300,000</td> - <td class='blt c028'>270,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c026'>Tea</td> - <td class='blt c028'>820,000</td> - <td class='blt c028'>640,000</td> - <td class='blt c028'>780,000</td> - <td class='blt c028'>820,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c026'>Rice</td> - <td class='blt c028'>720,000</td> - <td class='blt c028'>790,000</td> - <td class='blt c028'>610,000</td> - <td class='blt c028'>590,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c026'>Camphor</td> - <td class='blt c028'>150,000</td> - <td class='blt c028'>110,000</td> - <td class='blt c028'>130,000</td> - <td class='blt c028'>120,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c026'>Cuttle-fish</td> - <td class='blt c028'>100,000</td> - <td class='blt c028'>110,000</td> - <td class='blt c028'>140,000</td> - <td class='blt c027'>?</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c026'>Coal</td> - <td class='blt c028'>760,000</td> - <td class='blt c028'>890,000</td> - <td class='blt c028'>1,150,000</td> - <td class='blt c028'>1,520,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c026'>Copper</td> - <td class='blt c028'>520,000</td> - <td class='blt c028'>550,000</td> - <td class='blt c028'>580,000</td> - <td class='blt c028'>730,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c026'>Tissues and silk handkerchiefs</td> - <td class='blt c028'>1,530,000</td> - <td class='blt c028'>1,200,000</td> - <td class='blt c028'>1,320,000</td> - <td class='blt c028'>1,600,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c026'>Sewing cotton</td> - <td class='blt c028'>100,000</td> - <td class='blt c028'>400,000</td> - <td class='blt c028'>1,350,000</td> - <td class='blt c028'>2,010,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c026'>Spun cotton</td> - <td class='blt c028'>240,000</td> - <td class='blt c028'>230,000</td> - <td class='blt c028'>260,000</td> - <td class='blt c028'>260,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c026'>Matches</td> - <td class='blt c028'>470,000</td> - <td class='blt c028'>500,000</td> - <td class='blt c028'>560,000</td> - <td class='blt c028'>630,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c026'>Mats and straw goods</td> - <td class='blt c028'>480,000</td> - <td class='blt c028'>530,000</td> - <td class='blt c028'>640,000</td> - <td class='blt c028'>630,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c026'>Fans and screens</td> - <td class='blt c028'>80,000</td> - <td class='blt c028'>100,000</td> - <td class='blt c028'>120,000</td> - <td class='blt c027'>?</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='bbt c026'>Pottery</td> - <td class='bbt blt c028'>200,000</td> - <td class='bbt blt c028'>200,000</td> - <td class='bbt blt c028'>180,000</td> - <td class='bbt blt c028'>200,000</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p class='c008'>Altogether the chief manufactured articles exported in the -year 1895 were valued at £4,000,000; three years later they -rose in value to £6,300,000.</p> - -<p class='c008'>At the present moment goods which were absolutely unknown -in Japan in 1850 are exported from that country all -over the East from Korea to Singapore; and Japanese cotton -goods, the raw material for which has to be imported from -India, compete with Chinese materials of the same class, the raw -material for which is obtained from the same country. Needless -to say, Japanese silks and mats can be procured in every part -of the world, and their coal, though inferior to the Welsh, -being greasy, emitting great quantities of smoke and burning -away quickly, is very cheap, and is supplied to all the steamers -touching at the ports of the Far East from Korea to the Straits -of Malacca. In the meantime, those industries for which -Japan has always been noted have not diminished in importance. -It must, however, be confessed that this branch of -industry has decreased both in quality and beauty, the result, -doubtless, of hasty and purely commercial production. If, -however, very fine work is not produced so much as it was -formerly, cheap Japanese artistic goods, ceramic and otherwise, -flood the markets of the civilized world. A curious -fact connected with the actual condition of Japanese export -trade is the remarkable extension and increase in value of what -<span class='pageno' id='Page_138'>138</span>might be called the new industries, of which by far the most -important are those connected with cotton.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Meanwhile, the import trade has lately been considerably -altered. Fifteen years ago Japan imported sugar and petroleum -only. In 1897 raw cotton was introduced to the value of -£4,300,000. If we add to this £100,000 worth of wool, -£93,400 of pig-iron, £47,700 of steel, and one or two other -minor items, we have a return of £5,900,000, or 23 per cent. of -the entire imports; the food imports during the same year -were also 23 per cent. The increase in the value of these latter -in 1897, which stood at £5,900,000 as against £3,400,000 in -the previous year, is due to the failure of the rice crop, which -necessitated the importation of 3,800,000 cwt. of rice, valued -at £2,180,000. A certain quantity of rice, between £400,000 -and £800,000 worth, has to be imported annually from Korea -and Indo-China, in order to counterbalance the amount of -Japanese rice of the first quality exported to Europe and the -United States. Besides rice, the import of sugar has reached -the high figure of £1,980,000, and petroleum, of which -61,000,000 gallons were imported in 1897, £766,700.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Imported manufactured goods may be divided into two -distinct classes, the first including articles of domestic use or -consumption, and the second those which tend to extend the -various industries of the country, and which in a sense constitute -a certain proportion of capital. In the first category may -be placed spun goods, both cotton and woollen, and watches; -in the second, machinery, wrought iron and steel, rolling-stock -and other materials for the railways.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Woollen industries did not exist in Japan until recently, for -the simple reason that sheep were not introduced until after -the opening of the ports to Europeans. In 1897, woollen -goods were imported to the value of £133,700, and textile -fabrics to £1,020,000; while watches, which were never seen -in Japan until 1850, are now in general use, and in 1897, -305,894 of these necessary articles were imported and retailed -at an average of about 12s. each.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The second class of manufactured articles imported into the -Empire in 1897 includes £830,000 worth of wrought iron, -£1,360,000 of machinery and boilers, £510,000 of locomotives -and railway carriages and trucks, £330,000 of rails, and -£200,000 of other railway stock, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">i.e.</span></i>, 15 per cent. of the total -imports. This rapid development, which compares very favourably -<span class='pageno' id='Page_139'>139</span>with the two preceding years, 1896 and 1895, is mainly -due to increased activity in railway construction since the -Chinese War, and also to the rapid commercial expansion -throughout the Empire.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The following table shows the manner in which Japanese -foreign trade was shared among the various nations in 1896:</p> - -<table class='table1' summary=''> - <tr> - <th class='btt bbt c020'></th> - <th class='btt bbt blt c018'>Exportation from Japan.</th> - <th class='btt bbt blt c018'>Importation into Japan.</th> - <th class='btt bbt blt c018'>Total.</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>Great Britain</td> - <td class='blt c019'>£900,000</td> - <td class='blt c019'>£5,920,000</td> - <td class='blt c019'>£6,820,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>United States</td> - <td class='blt c019'>3,150,000</td> - <td class='blt c019'>1,640,000</td> - <td class='blt c019'>4,780,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>China</td> - <td class='blt c019'>1,380,000</td> - <td class='blt c019'>2,130,000</td> - <td class='blt c019'>3,510,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>Hong-Kong</td> - <td class='blt c019'>2,000,000</td> - <td class='blt c019'>910,000</td> - <td class='blt c019'>2,970,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>British India</td> - <td class='blt c019'>450,000</td> - <td class='blt c019'>2,250,000</td> - <td class='blt c019'>2,700,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>France</td> - <td class='blt c019'>1,900,000</td> - <td class='blt c019'>770,000</td> - <td class='blt c019'>2,670,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>Germany</td> - <td class='blt c019'>300,000</td> - <td class='blt c019'>1,720,000</td> - <td class='blt c019'>2,020,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='bbt c020'>Korea</td> - <td class='bbt blt c019'>340,000</td> - <td class='bbt blt c019'>510,000</td> - <td class='bbt blt c019'>850,000</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p class='c008'>Japan also carries on a very extensive trade with other -countries besides those above mentioned, among them Switzerland, -Asiatic Russia, Italy, Australia, the Philippines, Cochin China, -Canada, etc., but in no case does it exceed £400,000 -annually. The relative high figures of the business transacted -between Japan and Hong-Kong is due to that port being a -centre whence goods are distributed to other countries. One -striking feature of the above table is the preponderance of the -trade between Japan and England, from which country she -derives all her cotton and linen goods, as well as nine-tenths of -her machinery and wrought iron (nails excepted), and more -than half of her woollens—in a word, the immense majority of -all the manufactured commodities imported into the country. -Germany sends machinery, cloth, almost all the iron nails, -alcohol, sugar and paper; Belgium and Russia export manufactured -articles into, but take almost nothing from, Japan. -The principal French import is <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">mousseline de laine</span>, valued at -£570,000, which is almost a French monopoly. About a -fifth of the goods imported from America consists of machinery -and wrought metals; the rest includes petroleum, raw cotton, -flour and leather. The United States, France, and lastly Italy, -are Japan’s principal customers for raw silk, as well as for her -light spun silks. Five-sixths of the tea grown in Japan goes to -America and the rest to England. China, Korea and India -<span class='pageno' id='Page_140'>140</span>take almost all the Japanese matches, while the coal will be -found distributed along the whole of the Asiatic Coast of the -Pacific. Copper goes to Hong-Kong, Germany and England, -and rice, camphor, matting, straw and art goods are distributed -all over Europe and the United States.</p> - -<p class='c008'>This brilliant picture of Japanese commercial prosperity has, -unfortunately, its shady side. Many complain that the articles -manufactured in Japan are not up to the mark in point of -excellence and finish. As is generally the case with Orientals, -they start well and make their first batch of goods admirably, -but the quality soon falls off, probably the result, not so -much of negligence, as of over-hasty production, due to competition. -There can be no question that these and other -complaints are not unfounded, and many intelligent Japanese -are the first to acknowledge and deplore them. As an instance -in point, matches are not nearly so well made as they used -to be. Many complaints have also been made as to the -increasing inferiority of a certain class of silk goods known as -<em>haboutaye</em> and of the silk pocket-handkerchiefs, of which an -enormous quantity are exported, with the result that the exportation -of these last-mentioned necessary articles fell from 1,855,000 -dozens in 1895, to 1,157,000 in 1897. On the other hand, there -is a distinct increase in the export of <em>haboutaye</em>. Nevertheless -many thoughtful people have watched this deterioration in the -excellence of the new Japanese industries with some alarm, -and not a few manufacturers who have had their attention -drawn to the matter have already mended their ways. The -same complaint might be made of goods manufactured in -certain parts of Europe, notably in Germany, where cheap and -showy articles are fabricated in superabundance, but Japan -would do well to maintain her reputation as high as possible -as a producer of all that is best in the market.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Still graver is the charge brought against Japanese merchants -of occasional lapses from a high standard of honour, and of -availing themselves of the slightest possible pretext to avoid -fulfilling the letter of their contracts, in which they contrast -unfavourably with the higher class of Chinese merchants, -whose reputation for integrity and for a strict adherence not -only to their written, but also to their verbal promises, is -well known, with some degree, possibly, of exaggeration. It -is as well to recall in this connection that the Japanese were -until quite recently a feudal and military people, who despised -<span class='pageno' id='Page_141'>141</span>trade in all its branches, and those who were engaged in its -pursuit were not considered any the better for being honest. -In China, on the other hand, it has ever been otherwise, the -merchants, after the literati, being looked upon as the most -honourable class in the Empire, whereas the military were -invariably despised, being recruited from the lowest ranks of -society. Ideas have certainly been considerably modified in -Japan in the last thirty years; still, the majority of the -merchants are of the same class as their predecessors when -they are not their immediate descendants; therefore, we should -not be surprised if they retain some of their traditions it were -better they were without. In a word, since the Restoration -of 1868 the Japanese have done their best to get rid of the -prejudices of feudal times, but although these are fast disappearing, -some of their after-effects still remain.</p> - -<p class='c008'>It has always been extremely difficult to induce Orientals to -understand the value of time, and in this particular the -Japanese are still on a par with their neighbours. Foreign -merchants have the greatest difficulty in persuading their -Japanese correspondents that a few days’; nay, a few hours’ -delay in the transaction of business and in the despatch of goods -often leads not only to much inconvenience, but to absolute loss.</p> - -<p class='c008'>One of the chief desires of the Japanese at the present time -is to see their export commerce pass from the hands of -foreigners, who hold it, into their own; but they may rest -assured that until they improve their business habits they will -not succeed in carrying out their object in this direction.</p> - -<p class='c008'>It has been noticed that during the three years 1896, 1897 -and 1898 the Japanese imports have been immensely in -excess of their exports. This is probably due to the necessity -of obtaining plant in great quantities for the immediate increase -of the many new industries that have sprung up all over the -country in so short a time. This financially has undoubtedly -resulted in a distinct loss to the nation. The Chinese War -indemnity brought a good deal of gold into the country, but -the greater part of it has been expended in augmenting the -navy and in the purchase of war materials. Fortunately, trade -throughout Japan in 1899 was distinctly flourishing, thanks -mainly to the abundance of the crops in the preceding year, -and also to a curb having been put on exaggerated industrial -activity, whereby, as already intimated, the imports were in -excess of the exports, and the danger of a crisis in this direction -<span class='pageno' id='Page_142'>142</span>was averted. This extraordinary commercial development in -so remarkably short a period reflects the greatest credit upon -the Japanese people, but we must not expect that it will continue -progressing without encountering occasional checks, and -there are not a few thoughtful people who foresee that the -Japanese factories will soon have to compete very seriously with -those which have been recently erected in the free ports of -China. In this respect it may be remarked that salaries have -risen at Shanghai, as well as at Osaka and Tokio. The acquisition -of the island of Formosa will probably before long -enable the Japanese to cultivate cotton and other tropical -produce on their own territory, which will, of course, be a -great gain to them.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_143'>143</span> - <h3 class='c001'>CHAPTER VII<br /> <span class='large'>THE FINANCES OF JAPAN</span></h3> -</div> -<p class='c014'>Flourishing condition of Japanese finance on the eve of the war with China—Present -Japanese financial problem the result of the important -military, naval, and public works undertaken by the Government at -the close of the war—Enormous expense of this programme, demanding -a loan of £24,000,000—Gradual method of paying off this debt in -nine instalments—Impossibility of floating the loan on the home -market, all Japanese capital being locked up in the various newly-created -industries—Debts incurred in connection with the programme -of expansion, whereby the ordinary Budget was doubled—Progressive -scale of taxation from the present date until 1905—Absolute necessity -of augmenting certain taxes—Projected imposition of increased taxation, -especially upon land and on beers, wines, and spirits—Taxation -as compared with the population of Japan and other countries—Prospects -of Japanese finance.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Before the war with China, Japanese finance was in a most -brilliant condition, and the fiscal year April 1st, 1893, to March -31st, 1894, the close of which preceded hostilities by only a few -months and which is the last of which accurate accounts have -been published, showed a return of £8,588,300 ordinary and -£315,913 extraordinary revenue, making a total of £8,904,213, -as against £8,458,187 expenditure, the surplus being £446,026, -which on a Budget of £10,400,000 was a very creditable but by -no means an exceptional result. As a matter of fact, there had -been only one deficit, that of 1891–92, resulting from the -exceptional expenses incurred by the nation through the -disastrous effects of the earthquake of 1891, one of the most -terrible on record even in Japan, where these dreadful visitations -are of very frequent occurrence. The whole financial tendency -of the preceding years is summed up in the statement that -at the beginning of the year 1896–97 £3,900,000, derived from -accumulated surpluses, was at the disposal of the Treasury, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_144'>144</span>although £2,300,000 had already been withdrawn from this -reserve fund to help in defraying the expenses of the war.</p> - -<p class='c008'>On the other hand, the National Debt at this period was -not higher than £28,350,000, of which £1,570,000 was paper -money in circulation. It had therefore diminished since -1890–91 by £2,300,000, of which £1,450,000 was due to the -withdrawal of the paper money. These notes had been issued -at a period when the new regime was not firmly established, -the insurrection at Satsuma still to be suppressed, and the -Government unable to obtain cash, even at a very high rate -of interest. In 1881 the premium upon silver, the standard -currency, had risen to 70 per cent., thanks to the energy of -Count Matsukata, the very able Minister of Finance. It fell -to 9 per cent. by 1884; in 1886 par was reached. The paper -money of the State and the national banks was gradually -withdrawn and replaced by notes of the Bank of Japan, payable -at sight. In brief, if we compare the figures of the Debt and -the Budget with those of the population, 41,500,000, we can -only envy the financial situation of Japan on the eve of the war.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Although the expenses of the Chino-Japanese War, which -were partly covered by the indemnity obtained from China and -partly by a public loan, undoubtedly checked the progressive -prosperity of the country, they had nothing whatever to do with -the present financial problem, which has been created by the -magnitude of the military, naval, industrial, and commercial -enterprises undertaken by the Japanese Government since the -close of the war. Between 1895 and 1896 the Government -decided to double the strength of the army, by raising the -number of divisions from six to twelve (exclusive of the Imperial -Guard), and it will now thus muster 150,000, as against 70,000 -to 75,000 on a peace footing, and 500,000, instead of from -270,000 to 280,000, in time of war. The fleet is to be increased -from 43 vessels of 78,000 tons, <em>plus</em> 26 torpedo-boats, without a -single cruiser, to 67 men-of-war, of which 7 are first-class battleships, -with a displacement of 258,000 tons, besides 11 torpedo-boat -destroyers and 115 torpedo-boats. The creation of -numerous arsenals and fortifications will eventually complete the -programme, but beyond these War Office expenses, very considerable -sums have been spent in the construction of railways, -extension of telegraph lines, creation of new ports, subventions -to the mercantile marine, and in the establishment of a second -University at Kioto. The plan of railway extension which -<span class='pageno' id='Page_145'>145</span>was decided upon in 1893 by the Diet must be completed -according to contract in 1910. The other measures for the -augmentation of the army and navy were included in the -programme of the Ito Cabinet, which the Chambers accepted -immediately after the signing of peace. This extra expenditure -is to be disbursed in ten instalments from 1896 to 1906, and -some further amendments and additions were made during the -Parliamentary Session of 1896–97. The expenses entailed by -these extensive schemes, together with the railways, are tabulated -below:—</p> - -<table class='table2' summary=''> - <tr> - <td class='c010'>Navy and arsenals</td> - <td class='c011'>£22,650,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c010'>Army</td> - <td class='c011'>8,220,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c010'>Fortifications</td> - <td class='c011'>940,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c010'>Other military expenses</td> - <td class='c011'>680,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c010'>Railway construction</td> - <td class='c011'>7,980,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c010'>Increase and improvement of lines</td> - <td class='c011'>2,650,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c010'>Telephones</td> - <td class='c011'>1,280,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c010'>Construction of ports</td> - <td class='c011'>790,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c010'>Defence against floods</td> - <td class='c011'>1,970,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c010'>Subventions to banks</td> - <td class='c011'>2,060,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c010'>Creation of a tobacco monopoly</td> - <td class='c011'>820,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c010'>Subventions to various industries, commerce, agriculture, and other public works</td> - <td class='c011'>1,460,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c010'> </td> - <td class='c011'><hr /></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c024'>Total</td> - <td class='c011'>£51,500,000</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p class='c008'>Of this amount £32,495,670 was for War Office expenses, -and £19,005,406 was intended for the very extensive commercial -enterprises.</p> - -<p class='c008'>In 1893 a loan was voted to be issued as and when required -to entirely cover the expense of the new railway lines. -The indemnity was £30,000,000, <em>plus</em> £4,100,000 as compensation -for the retrocession of the Liao-Tung Peninsula, -imposed upon Japan by the Russian, French, and German -Governments. This latter sum, as well as the first instalment, -£7,500,000, of the indemnity was duly paid into the Japanese -Treasury on November 8, 1895; the remainder was to be -paid by regular instalments on May 8 of each year until 1902. -China, however, availed herself of a clause allowing her to -pay off the debt at once, and thus escape interest charges, -which she did on May 8, 1898. Japanese statesmen had -anticipated this act of the Chinese Government, and did -not count upon more than £34,100,000. Of this sum -£8,000,000 had been debited to the war account, leaving a -balance of £26,100,000. In addition to these amounts, the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_146'>146</span>Treasury held the accumulated surpluses, which, on April 1, -1896, attained £3,900,000, to which £500,000 must be added -as the surplus in the Budget of 1896–97. The difference -between the total of these receipts and the anticipated expenses -was to be balanced by a loan known as ‘the loan for State -enterprises.’ The following table exhibits the assets for this -programme of expansion:</p> - -<table class='table2' summary=''> - <tr> - <td class='c010' colspan='2'>Chinese indemnity<a id='r17' /><a href='#f17' class='c006'><sup>[17]</sup></a></td> - <td class='c029'>£26,100,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c010' colspan='2'>Surpluses of previous Budgets</td> - <td class='c029'>4,400,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c010'>Railway loan,</td> - <td class='c009'>£7,980,000</td> - <td class='c029' rowspan='2'>21,480,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c010'>Loan for State enterprises,</td> - <td class='c009'>£13,500,000</td> - - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c010'> </td> - <td class='c009'> </td> - <td class='c029'><hr /></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c024'>Total</td> - <td class='c009'> </td> - <td class='c029'>£51,980,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c010'> </td> - <td class='c009'> </td> - <td class='c029'><hr class='double' /></td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p class='c008'>The expenses being £51,500,000, there would thus remain -a surplus of nearly £500,000, thanks to the favourable result -of the fiscal year 1896–97.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Apart from this financial scheme, however, there was still a -war charge which had not been foreseen. It had at first been -believed that the island of Formosa would be self-supporting, -an illusion which was soon dispelled, and the Government had -therefore to grant this new acquisition for a period of years a -subvention from the Imperial Treasury of about £600,000, -to obtain which various receipts officially described as extraordinary, -such as voluntary contributions and restitutions, sales -of State lands, and interest on divers funds had to be drawn -upon. These receipts generally averaged £200,000, and by -the year 1905–6, the time fixed for the conclusion of the expansion -programme, will have furnished between £1,500,000 and -£1,800,000; for the remainder it will be necessary to have -recourse to a loan, and supposing that during this period the -subvention of the Japanese Budget to Formosa, which must -necessarily diminish year by year, rises to about £4,000,000, -another loan of between £2,000,000 and £2,500,000 will -have to be raised. Japan would therefore have to borrow about -£24,000,000 from 1896–97 to meet the extraordinary expenses -she had undertaken. On the other hand, when these were met, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_147'>147</span>her ordinary Budget still remained greatly augmented by the -necessity of maintaining an army and navy double what they -were before the war.</p> - -<p class='c008'>This being the case, two important questions presented -themselves. In the first place, was it possible to raise without -difficulty a loan of £24,000,000, and from whence was it to be -obtained? In the second, was the country sufficiently rich, -once the scheme was executed, to maintain this increased -expenditure, and by what means would it be able to obtain -fresh resources to pay current expenses? The first question -contained the principal difficulty. Not only did Japan need -to borrow £24,000,000, but she had to borrow most of this -without loss of time. Naturally, the Administration decided -to carry out with the least possible delay the essential -parts of the programme already determined upon, especially -those connected with the national defence, and the Budgets -of 1896, 1897, and 1898 were therefore most heavily charged -with the extraordinary expenses. The extraordinary Budget -of the first year reached £10,300,000, that of the second -£14,200,000, that of the third £6,000,000. In no case, -however, could the surpluses of the previous Budgets and -the part already paid out of the indemnity (which was -£20,600,000, of which £8,000,000 had been handed over to -the War Office) have sufficed to provide such large amounts. -It was therefore necessary to borrow in 1896–97 £1,830,000, -in 1897–98 £6,880,000, while in 1898–99 a further issue of -£4,500,000 had to be made. Now the grave situation which -arose was this: the issues of 1896–97 were readily taken up -by the public, but in 1897–98 only a third of the sum needed -could be obtained, because the conditions of the market were -too unfavourable and disposable capital was lacking. Whereas -in the summer of 1897 £4,000,000 of a 5 per cent. Japanese -loan was floated on the London market at par, the Government -offered the Japanese people bonds bearing the same interest at -94, but they were not placed without much difficulty.</p> - -<p class='c008'>All the capital in Japan is locked up either in previously -contracted State loans or in the innumerable commercial -enterprises which have sprung up in the country during the past -few years. When we remember that nine-tenths of the -£40,000,000, at which the National Debt stood after the war, -is in Japanese hands, and that it is with their own money -that they have constructed railways and established new industries, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_148'>148</span>there is no ground for surprise at this lack of ready -capital. In view, however, of the evident impossibility -of placing a domestic loan for the sum required, two alternatives -remained: a foreign loan, or a reduction to more modest -proportion of the programme of expansion.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The result of an appeal to foreign capitalists would no doubt -have proved successful if the attractive interest of from 5 to -5¼ per cent. had been offered. Japan offers excellent security. -Her finances have hitherto been admirably managed, and her -liabilities do not appear to be in excess of the capabilities of -her people. Nevertheless, the project of a foreign loan seems -to have met with serious opposition from many eminent -people in Japan, which arose from a twofold cause: first, fear -of compromising the independence of the country by supplying -foreigners with a pretext for interfering in the internal affairs of -the Empire, in case there was any difficulty in fulfilling obligations; -and, secondly, the national pride, which regarded it as -humiliating for Japan to become indebted to Europe. This -latter motive was doubtless the most powerful, but it rested -upon an altogether exaggerated notion of national dignity. -What all the great Powers of the world, except, perhaps, -France and England, have done, Japan might do without -sacrificing her dignity. The Japanese Government, after long -hesitation, in which it perhaps missed the most favourable -opportunity, decided in June, 1899, to issue a 4 per cent. loan -on the London market at the rate of 90 francs. The high rate -of issue did not greatly tempt the public, but that part of the -loan not then subscribed will be gradually issued and advanced -by the banks which undertook the issue, and thus the Japanese -Treasury will find itself in possession of sufficient funds to -proceed with its programme until money is more plentiful at -home. In the meantime, so far as concerns the honourable -intentions of the Japanese to fulfil their obligations, we may -rely with safety upon their natural high sense of honour, and -rest assured that they will do everything in their power to meet -their obligations. Moreover, the resources of Japan, which I -will briefly analyze, appear sufficient to enable the country to -meet without much difficulty the interest on the loans as well -as the permanent expenditure resulting from its greater national -importance.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Let us, to begin with, review the principal items in the -revenue as tabulated in the Budget of 1897–98:</p> - -<table class='table2' summary=''> - <tr><td class='c013' colspan='2'><span class='pageno' id='Page_149'>149</span></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>Land tax</td> - <td class='c029'>£3,870,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>Income tax</td> - <td class='c029'>190,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>Tax on drinks</td> - <td class='c029'>2,990,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>Tax on tobacco</td> - <td class='c029'>310,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>Registration</td> - <td class='c029'>750,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>Tax on sales, contracts, etc.</td> - <td class='c029'>590,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>Customs</td> - <td class='c029'>660,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>Various duties</td> - <td class='c029'>490,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>Posts and telegraph</td> - <td class='c029'>1,210,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>Profits of the State railways</td> - <td class='c029'>540,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>Crown land products</td> - <td class='c029'>290,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>Other items</td> - <td class='c029'>250,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>Receipts from Formosa</td> - <td class='c029'>810,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'> </td> - <td class='c029'><hr /></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c024'>Total</td> - <td class='c029'>£12,950,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'> </td> - <td class='c029'><hr class='double' /></td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p class='c008'>This Budget is higher by one-half than that of 1893–94, the -total of which we have already given, and whose ordinary -receipts did not quite reach £8,600,000. This increase results -from four causes: (1) better returns from the public services—railways -and posts; (2) a slight increase in the revenue from -taxes whose rate has not changed, and also in the Crown lands; -(3) the establishment of two new taxes on registrations and sales, -contracts, and other commercial deeds, the aggregate value of -which increased the revenue by about £1,200,000; (4) the -reorganization of the tax on drink, increased by £1,150,000, -and of that on tobacco, in consequence of this product having -been converted into a monopoly, the effects, however, of which -were not felt in 1897–98, for it only came into force in January, -1898. To these we must add the receipts from Formosa, which, -unfortunately, are not net receipts. The total revenue for the -fiscal year 1897–98 was £12,950,000, and exceeded ordinary -expenses by £600,000; but these figures will undoubtedly be -greatly augmented when the programme of expansion is completed. -It is calculated that by the year 1904–5 the ordinary -expenses will stand as high as £17,300,000, in order to meet -which it will be necessary to raise another £4,400,000 by -increased taxation.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Taxation in Japan has a natural tendency to increase. -During the years 1887–94 the annual rise was between 1¼ and -1½ per cent. at a time, when it was not affected by any unusual -excitement. This was before the war. Assuming that -it only advances at the rate of ¾ per cent., it is expected that -by the year 1904–5 the increase will add £500,000 to the -£9,800,000 of 1897–98. On the other hand, the Customs -<span class='pageno' id='Page_150'>150</span>tariff, which was kept exceedingly low by the treaties with -foreign Powers, has risen in consequence of the revision of -these treaties, and, it is hoped, will produce an increase of -£600,000. The tobacco monopoly will also, it is anticipated, -produce £800,000 per annum, an absolute increase of -£500,000 on the existing returns. There remains, therefore, -£2,800,000 to find, which will doubtlessly be obtained from -the increased receipts of the posts, telegraph, and telephones, -and by the extension of the State railways now in -existence, and the exploitation of those in process of construction.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The recent excessive activity in commercial circles has -suffered a check of late, a halt not very surprising after -such a forced march. In the meantime, there is some risk -that the returns of the posts and railways may not increase -as rapidly as the more sanguine anticipate, for the new railways -are not likely to prove as profitable as those already in -existence, which pass through richer regions. During the -interval 1892–96 the net railway returns to the State, without -including any remarkable increase in the lengths of their lines, -was doubled. By the year 1904 it is calculated that there will -be 1,250 miles of rail instead of the 600 in 1897, which it is -estimated will yield an increase of £550,000 upon the present -returns. As to the posts, telegraph, and telephones, whose rough -receipts were augmented by about 80 per cent. during the last -four years, there is every reason to believe that they will in -1904–5 be £850,000 above what they are at present. Thus we -have £1,400,000 added to the necessary £2,800,000. The remaining -£1,400,000 will have to be taken from various other -sources of taxation. The question now arises: Will the country -stand further taxation without protest? The answer seems to -me reassuring. The land tax before the Restoration and even -to the close of the seventeenth century, as can be verified by -reference to many important historical documents, was seven -times more burdensome than it is at present, and was paid in -kind—in rice, or other kindred products—and yielded to the -daimios and the Central Government 147,000,000 bushels of -rice per annum. At the price fetched by rice in 1897, when -the harvest returned a fair average, the land tax should now -represent about a sixth of this amount, and the total -Budget of £17,300,000 anticipated for the year 1894–95 only -claimed 93,100,000 bushels. If we add to these all the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_151'>151</span>provincial and communal Budgets, we find not more than -127,400,000 bushels of rice. It is therefore untrue that the -Japanese are not better off to-day than they were under the old -regime. Since the introduction of the present financial conditions -and the abolition of the feudal system, prices have increased -enormously. From 1887 to 1897, according to the -Monthly Returns published by the Bank of Japan, on the returns -of about forty principal products of the Empire, we find that -they have increased in value by no less than 73 per cent. -Salaries have augmented even to a greater extent, and the population -has risen 4,000,000, so that an addition of 45 per cent. -upon the taxes leaves the taxpayer less heavily burdened than -before. The most important of all these taxes may strike us -as distinctly heavy, but we must not forget that in former times -it was the only form of taxation. In those good old days nine-tenths -of the population lived in the country, which was divided -up among the daimios, the peasantry being their tenants; but at -the abolition of the feudal system the peasants, under the new -law, became proprietors, without having to pay a fraction either -to their former masters or to the Government.</p> - -<p class='c008'>In 1896 the agricultural produce of Japan was valued at -£62,600,000, exclusive of the produce of the fens, which, -however, is very important. The land taxes, therefore, at -£3,800,000 are only 5·6 per cent., and the local land tax 2·8 -per cent. of this total. All this is not excessive.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Finally, the land tax includes £352,500 derived from the tax -on urban building land, which pays £1 12s. per acre, only four -times as much as the rice-fields, and should easily return from -£200,000 to £300,000 more. As regards the total of the -land tax, it was decreased by one-sixth in 1877; an equivalent -increase would bring in a return of about £600,000 more, and -this could be effected without much inconvenience, owing to -the general increase in the value of property. The tax on <em>saké</em>, -the principal drink of the country, was raised in 1897 about -one-half. It would bear augmentation, as at present it pays -5d. per gallon on a drink which is worth 1s. 3d. a gallon. In -general, the Japanese financiers prefer to raise existing taxes -rather than establish new ones. If we study the question -from another point of view, and examine how best to increase -Japanese taxes, let us consider the Budget as it will be -five years hence, after the necessary taxes already mentioned -have been added to it. Of the £17,300,000 of the Revenue, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_152'>152</span>£3,400,000 will be derived from Crown lands, railways, and -posts, £850,000 from Formosa, and £13,000,000 from monopolies -and taxes paid by Japan proper. The population, -increasing as it does at the rate of 350,000 to 400,000 souls -a year, will have reached 45,500,000, contributing to the -State at the rate of £13,000,000, or about 5s. 9d. per head, -which does not seem to us excessive when compared with -what is paid by people of other countries. A Frenchman, for -instance, pays £3, an Italian £1 12s., a Russian 12s. 9d., an -Egyptian 16s. 9d., and a Hindu 3s. 9d. I have not selected -these nationalities haphazard, but because each of them has -some special characteristic in common with Japan, especially -Egypt, essentially an agricultural country. I do not think that -anybody can maintain that an Italian, as a rule, is five or six -times richer than a Japanese, or an Egyptian three times, or -that the 130,000,000 of Russians, 20,000,000 of whom are -Asiatics, possess incomes double the average to be found in -Japan, and there is no doubt an immense inverse difference -between a Hindu and a Japanese. Bearing in mind these -facts, one must certainly conclude that the amount which the -Jap will pay to his Treasury is considerably lighter than that -obtained from almost every people in the Old World. With -regard to the National Debt, five-sixths of which is held -by natives, at the present moment it does not exceed -£40,000,000, but it will reach its maximum in 1901, when it -will stand at £49,930,000. The annual repayment stands at -present at £720,000, but will increase to £1,000,000 in 1903, -and go on augmenting, so that by 1938, unless fresh obligations -are incurred beyond those already in view, Japan will be free -of debt.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The financial difficulties confronting Japan at the present -moment are therefore not so formidable as they appear. In -1899 the Chamber increased the land tax, which it had previously -very persistently refused to do. At the same time it -raised the tax on <em>saké</em> and on the posts. The Budget of ordinary -receipts was therefore advanced to £19,000,000. This -figure may appear excessive, but it shows a surplus of -£4,000,000 on the actual expenses, a fact which indicates the -intention of the Government to pay off as soon as possible the -extraordinary expenses of the Ito programme, which means -that these increased taxations are to be considered merely as -temporary. They may possibly impede commerce at first, a -<span class='pageno' id='Page_153'>153</span>thing which, unfortunately, cannot be helped, but, at any rate, -the future will be considerably benefited thereby. The finances -of Japan have, happily, always been managed in a highly satisfactory -and prudent manner, and if the Empire carries out the -present plan of expansion, and does not embark on any fresh -schemes involving further outlay, Japan seems to have found -a clear way out of the transient difficulties which at one time -weighed upon her finances.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_154'>154</span> - <h3 class='c001'>CHAPTER VIII<br /> <span class='large'>THE DOMESTIC POLITICS AND PARLIAMENT OF JAPAN</span></h3> -</div> -<p class='c014'>Present social organization—The nobles, or <em>kwazoku</em>; the <em>shizoku</em>, or -ancient <em>samurai</em>; and the <em>heimin</em>—Equal civil rights for all citizens—Preponderance -of the <em>samurai</em> in politics since the Restoration—Survival -of the clan spirit—Japan governed during the past thirty -years by the Choshiu and Satsuma clans—Creation in 1889 of a Constitution -modelled on that of Prussia—Parliamentary struggles against -Cabinets governed by Southern clans—Frequent crises and dissolutions—A -Ministerial crisis in Japan—Efforts of the Chamber to impose -Ministerial responsibility and to replace the Government of clans by -that of parties—Signs of improvement in the working of the representative -system—Its prospects in Japan.</p> - -<p class='c007'>We have now to study the least praiseworthy of the many -institutions borrowed from Europe by modern Japan, that -relating to the home politics of the country, which are very -unsettled. Since 1889, when the Mikado, in fulfilment of the -promise made to his people at the Restoration, first granted a -Constitution analogous to that of Prussia, the Chambers have -been dissolved not less than five times. A constant antagonism -has existed between the representatives of the people -and the various Cabinets which have succeeded each other; -and if we except the time of the Chinese War, when the -patriotism of the Japanese was so intense as to absorb even -party feeling, we shall find that no Cabinet has been able to -dispose of an important majority. In order to understand this -state of affairs, we must recall the manner in which the Restoration -took place, bearing in mind the actual social organization -of Japan, and also the fact that the clan instinct has survived -both class prejudice and feudal privileges, which were suppressed -without the least opposition or regret.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Twenty-five years have now elapsed since the abolition of -the old regime, and in the meantime the feudal system has been -<span class='pageno' id='Page_155'>155</span>replaced, primarily by a centralized and absolute monarchy, and -now by Parliamentary representation modelled on the European -plan. The eighty odd historical provinces have become forty-five -departments, each administered by a Prefect. The people -are, however, still divided into three distinct classes: the -aristocracy, or <em>kwazoku</em>, formed of a fusion of the ancient -daimios with the <em>kuges</em>, or Court nobles, and of the <em>shinkwazoku</em>, -or newly ennobled persons (in all 644 families, consisting -of about 4,162 persons); the <em>shizoku</em>, or ancient -<em>samurai</em> (numbering 432,458 families, or 2,049,144 persons); -and finally the <em>heimin</em>, or commoners; but apart from the -predominance of the nobility in the composition of the Chamber -of Peers<a id='r18' /><a href='#f18' class='c006'><sup>[18]</sup></a> no privileges have been granted either to them or to -the <em>shizoku</em>: their duties are exactly the same as those of -any other members. From the social point of view we shall, -however, very soon find that far less exclusiveness exists in this -country, where feudalism was in full force only so recently as -thirty years ago, than we should in many in Europe, where its -abolition dates back in some instances several centuries. A -Japanese gentleman recently said to me: ‘In Japan we never -dream of asking a person the first time we see him to what -class he belongs.’ I dare say some time-honoured privileges -still linger in their inner circle, and that a few old-fashioned -noblemen do consider themselves superior to the <em>heimin</em>, but -they take great care not to display any such feeling. One -meets members of the Japanese aristocracy in every public -resort and place of amusement, and they mingle without the -least hesitation with the rest of the public. I remember one -day at Tokio being present at a wrestling match, a very -favourite sport with the Japanese. Someone pointed out to -me Prince K⸺, the President of the House of Peers, seated -among the crowd on one of the steps of the ring. The -Marquis H⸺, the descendent of a great family of daimios, -was also present, as well as the Marquis Tokukawa, who is an -ardent admirer of the sport and belongs to the family of the -Shoguns, to have merely looked upon a member of which a -generation or so back would have cost a man of the people his -life. These gentlemen appeared to thoroughly enjoy the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_156'>156</span>entertainment, and evidently thought very little or nothing at -all of their former exclusiveness.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Although the highest positions in the Government are open -to all, they have hitherto always remained in the hands of the -<em>samurai</em>. Just as immediately after the Restoration, so to-day -the country is governed by members of this very numerous -and intelligent gentry. All the successive Ministers, the -majority of whom have been ennobled, even made <em>kwazoku</em>, -have sprung from its ranks. The same may be said of all -the high officials, and, with very few exceptions, of the majority -of the smaller employés of the Government, even down to -the very police agents and the vast majority of the military -and naval officers. This is not surprising when we remember -that the <em>samurai</em> constituted before the Restoration not only -the military, but also the student and literary class. Even -now the greater number of the students at the University are -recruited from among them, and as a proof that a sort of -special respect is still entertained for them, they form the -majority of the members of the Lower House, although they -only possess one-twentieth of the voting power of the country. -The mass of the Japanese people may be described as caring -very little about public affairs; and it is, after all, perhaps as -well that the political and administrative affairs of such a new -country should be in the hands of a distinct and cultured -class. This is, however, merely a transitory state of affairs, not a -privilege. It is already observed that the proportion of the -<em>heimin</em> in all public offices, even in the army, tends to increase -rapidly.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The only marked feature of the former regime which still -survives the many social changes that have recently taken place -in Japan is the clan spirit, which is as strong to-day as ever. -The bond which united the followers of a former feudal prince -among themselves still subsists, although the prince himself -may have fallen almost to the level of his clansmen. The -men who have up to the present governed modern Japan -have always belonged to southern clans, especially to those of -Choshiu and Satsuma; the two others, Hizen and Tosa, are -less united, and although certain important political personages -are of their number, they have had to fight their way -to the front rather by dint of hard work than through any -clan influence. The influential combination formed by the -first-named clans, and unitedly known as the Sat-Cho, holds in -<span class='pageno' id='Page_157'>157</span>its hands the reins of administration, rules the army, and makes -its influence felt even more strongly in the navy. Their politics, -however, are not quite identical. Those of the Satsuma, for -instance, are usually believed to be rather more conservative -and authoritative than otherwise, and it is from its ranks that -are recruited the majority of the military party. The men of -the Choshiu, on the other hand, are more progressive and more -subtle, but they are also accused of being too fond of money. -The chiefs of these clans appear to understand each other -sufficiently well to establish a sort of balance of power between -themselves, occasionally collaborating in a Cabinet, at other -times succeeding each other as distinct Ministries. In the -rank and file there is considerable rivalry, positions and -honours being more liberally distributed among the followers -of those in power. During the earlier part of my visit to Japan, -under the last Premier, Count Matsukata, the Satsuma clan -was in the ascendant, and to give some idea of its influence -all I need say is that the Minister of Finance, the President -of the Council, the Minister of Foreign Affairs, the Home -Minister, and the Minister of War and Marine—in short, the -five most important Ministers out of eight—were of their -number, and a sixth was a prominent member of the Choshiu, -their allied clan. Now the provinces of Yamaguchi and Kagoshima, -which are the home of these two clans, contain only -one out of the forty-two million inhabitants of the entire -Empire. It is therefore not surprising that people in other -parts of the country should complain of having so small a share -in the Government. Imagine France ruled exclusively for -thirty years by Provençaux! It would only be natural that such -a state of affairs should lead to great dissatisfaction throughout -the Republic.</p> - -<p class='c008'>So long as Japan remained an absolute monarchy, in which -the Legislature was concentrated within a narrow circle, the -Choshiu and Satsuma Ministries succeeded each other without -any noisy opposition; but when in 1890 Parliamentary -Government was established, an immediate collision occurred -between the Lower Chamber, which is composed of representatives -from all parts of the country,<a id='r19' /><a href='#f19' class='c006'><sup>[19]</sup></a> and the Cabinet, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_158'>158</span>dominated by the Sat-Cho combination. Although according -to the Constitution, analogous to that of Prussia, the Ministers -are not responsible to the Chambers, but to the Emperor alone, -and although the Budget of the current year, if the finance -bill is not voted in due time, becomes by law that of the following -year also, the irreconcilable opposition which manifested -itself from the beginning greatly embarrassed the first Matsukata -Ministry in 1891 and 1892, and the Ito Ministry which succeeded -it. This latter, whose plans for the extension of the -Navy were obstinately rejected by the Chamber, twice dissolved -it: in December, 1893, and again in May, 1894. After the war -patriotic feeling ran so high that people cared very little about -the Government and its measures, and projected laws were -adopted without the least opposition; but when affairs began -to settle down it was otherwise. In 1897 and 1898 there were -two dissolutions, and in the latter year the Ministry in power -was the ninth since December, 1885, and the seventh since the -establishment of the Parliamentary system. This gives an -average of about two years for each Cabinet, and even less -for the Chamber, of which not one has yet attained its legal -term.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The reason for this persistent conflict is due in the first place -to the popular assembly being hostile to the Government of -the clansmen, and in the second because it is displeased that -the Ministers are not responsible to it. Whilst professing the -greatest respect for the Emperor, the Chamber considers that -the Government should possess a Parliamentary majority in -<span class='pageno' id='Page_159'>159</span>order to retain power. It, moreover, complains of a certain -lack of respect, Ministers rarely troubling to appear before -it, and that it is seldom, if ever, addressed by any but high -functionaries, appointed Government Commissioners for -matters within their several departments. In a word, there -exists considerable friction in the popular assembly against -this state of affairs, which reduces it to the position of a mere -debating society.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Now, all successive Cabinets have resolutely refused to -consider the Lower Chamber in any other light, which gave -rise to some curious incidents during the Ministerial and -Parliamentary crisis of December, 1897, and January, 1898, -which I had the good fortune to witness. The Cabinet, persuaded -that the majority was hostile to it, determined to avoid -even the semblance of dependence upon the Chamber, and -therefore did not wait for the passing of a vote of censure, -but dissolved the Chamber and offered their own resignation -to the Emperor, to whom alone they considered themselves -responsible.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Consequently, on December 24th the Emperor, according -to custom, came in person to read the Speech from the -Throne to the two united Chambers, who forthwith voted -the usual answer. These two documents were very short, and -the second, containing merely protestations of respect and -loyalty, was unanimously adopted. On the morrow, scarcely -had the order of the day been read and certain financial -projects of the Government presented, than the doyen of the -Chamber, Mr. Suzuki, asked leave to speak, and proposed the -amendment, so as to enable the House to discuss a vote of -censure. This amendment, which did not come as a surprise, -being unanimously passed, the same gentleman returned immediately -to the tribune and read out the following resolution, -‘That the Chamber of Deputies declares it has no confidence -in the present Ministry,’ whereupon somebody presented a -folded paper to the President, who silenced the speaker by -announcing that he had just received an Imperial rescript, the -tenor of which he informed the Chamber was as follows: -‘In virtue of Article 3 of the Imperial Constitution, We hereby -ordain that the Chamber of Deputies be dissolved forthwith.’ -The House rose, having met for only seven minutes, -and simultaneously the Upper House was prorogued. Two -days later, on the 27th, the Emperor received the resignation -<span class='pageno' id='Page_160'>160</span>of Count Matsukata and his colleagues. On the evening of -the same day the Marquis Ito, who had already twice been -Premier, in 1886–88 and in 1892–96, and who is certainly the -best known living Japanese statesman, was summoned to the -palace. At first he hesitated about accepting the leadership -of the Government under such very difficult circumstances, -especially with respect to foreign affairs, Japan being at that -time at the acute stage of her Chinese question, while home -matters were embarrassed by several economical and financial -obstructions of a very serious character, but nevertheless, the -Marquis finally accepted. After ten days’ fruitless negotiations, -he was obliged to give up his difficult task; but he was -able, however, by the 12th of January to compose another -Cabinet containing some excellent names, but it was a clan -Ministry, including four Choshius and two Satsumas. In June -he was obliged to dissolve Parliament, and the Ito Cabinet -had to give way to another, formed under the Presidency -of Count Okuma, a statesman of very progressive views, which -may be described as the only genuine Parliamentary Cabinet -Japan has yet known. The new Cabinet was not composed -from a single party, but by a coalition of the two already -existing, and leagued against the clans. It lasted but a short -time, and towards the end of 1898 the Satsuma and Choshiu -parties returned to office under the Premiership of Marshal -Yamagata.</p> - -<p class='c008'>As in the case of the clans, the parties are formed of -groups of persons and interests. They have no defined programmes, -but are constantly changing their views, and are mere -cliques surrounding one or two influential politicians who -aspire to replace the clan in office merely for the sake of the -advantages to be obtained, and to be able to distribute posts -among their relatives and friends. In the Parliament which -was dissolved in 1897 by Count Matsukata the most important -of these groups was that of the ‘Progressives,’ including -some 90 to 95 members out of 300; then came the -‘Liberals,’ with about 80 adherents; then the ‘National -Unionists,’ 25 to 30; and, lastly, some twenty other subdivisions, -besides the ‘Independents.’ The Progressives are -more consistent, possibly because they have only been in existence -since 1896. The Liberals, although the oldest group, have -almost completely lost their influence and cohesion during the -last two or three years.</p> - -<p class='c008'><span class='pageno' id='Page_161'>161</span>If you question a Japanese about the programmes of these -different parties he will give very vague answers, and, for -the matter of that, they are hardly distinguishable one from -another. The demands presented by the Progressives to Count -Matsukata in the autumn of 1897 were formulated in the -vaguest terms, and confined to generalities, such as reforms in -the administration, a magnanimous system of government, etc. -The National Unionists are somewhat conservative in their -tendencies, but their programme is also extremely nebulous. -On one point, however, everybody seems agreed, and that is a -horror of any attempt to increase taxation, and not even the -most seductive of projects will induce the Chamber to budge -an inch in this direction—an economical consistency which is -a distinct virtue considering the youth and inexperience of the -Japanese House of Representatives.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The influential politicians do not form a part of the Chamber, -nearly all of them having been ennobled, and, what is more, -with one exception, they are not avowed chiefs of any -party. If Count Itagaki, an old Radical, is the official leader -of the Liberals, Count Okuma, by far the most original statesman -in the Empire, does not profess to be the leader of the -Progressives, although he is extremely intimate with them. -Neither does Marshal Yamagata openly declare his influence -over the National Unionists. This action on the part of those -who in any other country would be popularly known as leaders -of the various parties undoubtedly weakens the influence of -the several groups in the Japanese Parliament. As to the representatives -of the two clans in power in the House, needless -to say, the feeling of clanship carries all before it, even party -interests. Three Satsuma deputies who belong to the Progressives -immediately withdrew when this party in a preliminary -meeting declared opposition to the Matsukata Ministry.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The men of the Southern clans have now governed Japan -for over thirty years, and governed her well. The able and -energetic statesmen of the first days of the Restoration have -been succeeded by others of equal ability, and of the same -school. They are surrounded, however, by a bureaucracy -which existed in Japan even in the days of the last Shoguns, -and closely resembles that of Prussia, which, although arrogant, -is highly educated and progressive. They are supported -by a powerful and well-disciplined army, a navy whose -officers are for the most part members of the same clans as the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_162'>162</span>Ministers, and the heads of the Civil Service. These men -have led their country happily through a series of unexampled -changes, transforming her from a feudal to a modern State -administered on advanced principles. They have placed her -in an excellent financial position, they have covered her -with military glory, and have assured her a period of extraordinary -prosperity and economic development. These observations -force themselves upon the impartial spectator who -visits Japan with the object of studying the remarkable progress -she has made in so surprisingly short a time.</p> - -<p class='c008'>It is impossible not to feel some anxiety lest affairs should -be wrenched from the hands of such experienced statesmen as -those of the Satsuma and the Choshiu clans, only to be -scrambled for among the groups into which the Chamber is at -present divided. This, however, need not make us despair -of the success of Parliamentary Government in Japan. We -must not forget that the British Parliament was not shaped in -a day, and that in all countries in which this particular form of -government has been accepted many years have had to elapse -before it attained anything approaching perfection, and it is -but natural that Japan should go through the same experience. -To be just, however, considerable progress has lately been -made in the right direction. The parties which possess -any kind of adhesion have occasionally participated more or -less directly in the Government. Marquis Ito brought Count -Itagaki into the Cabinet of 1895, and at the end of his Ministry -was himself supported in the Chamber by the Liberals. Then, -again, in 1896 Count Matsukata came into power in company -with Count Okuma, favoured by the Progressives. Throughout -the whole of the Session of 1896–97, thanks to their support -and to that of the secondary groups, the Government possessed -a decided majority which did honour to the political -acumen of the Ministers and to the wisdom of the members. -Unfortunately, in the autumn of 1897 the Progressives grew -tired of a Cabinet which did not fulfil its promises, and withdrew, -carrying with them Count Okuma; but this attempt -showed on the one hand that the Government had recognised -the importance of an understanding with a party, and on the -other that such an understanding possessed some staying power. -Since the month of October, 1898, the Yamagata Ministry has -had to deal with a very reasonable Parliament, which has unhesitatingly -passed those laws which were required to extricate -<span class='pageno' id='Page_163'>163</span>the country from its financial difficulties, and also divers -measures necessitated by recently concluded treaties with European -Powers. All this seems to indicate that under certain grave -circumstances the Japanese Parliament is quite capable of -rising to the occasion, and possesses the great quality, as I have -said once before, of a spirit of economy often, unfortunately, -absent from the more experienced Parliaments of Europe. -If the Japanese Parliament ever returns to its old turbulent and -boisterous humours, and insists upon governing instead of controlling, -and if its irreconcilable Opposition incurs the risk of compromising -the interests of the country, it is not at all improbable -that the Constitution may be seriously embarrassed by a series -of crises, but at present there is not much chance of exceptional -measures creating any serious trouble. If the voters of Japan -are apt to display an over-exuberance at elections, this is due -in the main to the fact that they are new to their business, and -moreover they form but a very small proportion of the population. -The masses are absolutely indifferent to political -agitation. The newspapers, which are read in the towns, make -but slight reference to politics, and are mainly filled with -gossip, novels and anecdotes, while to the vast majority of the -people the Emperor is still a demi-god, and the last thing the -commercial classes would approve would be a series of riotous -scenes in the Chamber.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_164'>164</span> - <h3 class='c001'>CHAPTER IX<br /> <span class='large'>JAPAN’S FOREIGN POLICY AND HER MILITARY POWER</span></h3> -</div> -<p class='c014'>The military forces of Japan—The part they may play in the Far East—Japanese -army and navy—Excellent qualities and sound instruction of -the troops—Remarkable power of organization displayed during the -war with China—Importance of a Japanese alliance for the Powers -interested in China—The feeling of Japan towards foreign countries—Her -conservative policy in China since the war—Her policy hostile to -Russia and favourable to England—The Korean Question—Motives -which might lessen her feeling of hostility towards Russia—Japan the -champion of the integrity of the Celestial Empire.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The Japanese Parliament having voted the necessary funds for -carrying out the programme of military, naval and economic -expansion which was formulated by the Government after the -Chino-Japanese War, the Empire will have, as we have already -seen, without mentioning new railways and other public works, -an army of 150,000 men on a peace footing, instead of from -70,000 to 75,000, and will be able to send into the field 500,000 -men instead of from 270,000 to 280,000 men. Her fleet will -be increased to 67 men-of-war, of 258,000 tons, 11 torpedo-boat -destroyers, and 115 torpedo-boats, instead of the 33 vessels -of 63,000 tonnage and 26 torpedo-boats she had before the war -with China.</p> - -<p class='c008'>It is not expected that the completion of this programme -of defence will take place before 1905 as regards the navy, -and 1903 with respect to the army. As the matter stands, -however, more than half the work is finished. Of the -£21,300,000 voted to defray the expenses of the augmentation -of the navy, which includes arsenals, docks, etc., it was -stipulated that £13,300,000 was to be disbursed before -April 1st, 1899, and £3,400,000 more between that date -and April 1st, 1900. The lengthy opposition made by the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_165'>165</span>Parliament with regard to the raising of taxes and foreign loans -possibly may have retarded the works a little, especially those -which have been executed in Japan; but the foreign orders -have been fulfilled, and the Mikado’s navy is now in possession -of nearly all the new vessels contracted for. The completion of -at least three out of the five arsenals is also far advanced. The -same may be said of the army. Of the £7,900,000 demanded -for its increase, £4,200,000 was spent before April, 1896, and -£1,000,000 between that date and April, 1900. It may be well -to remind my readers that when everything is completed the -army will consist of twelve divisions instead of six, exclusive -of the Imperial Guard. Three of these new divisions were -completed when I was in Japan in 1898.</p> - -<p class='c008'>What constitutes the great importance of the Japanese factor -in the Far East, and consequently throughout the world—the -question of the Far East dominating all others—is that her -military and maritime forces are on the spot. The Japanese -navy would be respectable under any circumstances, for it is -equal to that of either Italy or Germany; but it should be -remembered that the Western nations cannot leave their coasts -and their colonies unprotected, and consequently can only -send a secondary portion of their maritime force, otherwise -scattered throughout the world, into Chinese waters. It follows -therefore that no other European Power, excepting perhaps -England, could bring into these waters in case of war a fleet -in any way comparable with that of the Mikado.<a id='r20' /><a href='#f20' class='c006'><sup>[20]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c008'>What has been said of the naval power may be repeated with -still greater emphasis of the military. It is needless to recall -the difficulties to be overcome in transporting, notwithstanding -the immense size of vessels now in use, even a single army -corps to the Far East, the long and minute preparations -necessary for such an enterprise, or the perils that are likely to -be encountered, unless the sending Power is absolute mistress -of the sea. Japan, thanks to her railways and Inland Sea, can -now in a few days concentrate her whole army where no hostile -vessel dare pursue it, in the island of Kiu-Siu, 125 miles from -the coast of Korea, barely 500 miles from the mouth of the -Yang-tsze-Kiang, a distance equalling that between Marseilles -and Algiers, and 625 miles from the Bay of Pe-chi-li, and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_166'>166</span>940 miles from the entrance to the Pei-ho, the river which -flows to Peking. It could, therefore, in a few days after the -declaration of war land in China and especially in Korea such -a force as no European Power, excepting Russia, once the -Trans-Siberian line is finished, could introduce in so short a -time.<a id='r21' /><a href='#f21' class='c006'><sup>[21]</sup></a> Since her fleet can easily protect her own territory, she -need keep only a part of her reserves at home.</p> - -<p class='c008'>We have already seen that in the struggle with China, Japan, -with her naval and military forces, easily overcame that rather -contemptible enemy. It was evident that in this campaign -the Japanese displayed remarkable organizing ability, and that -the whole working of the delicate machinery of transports, -ambulances, commissariat, etc., was admirably managed. This -is a great point in their favour, especially when we remember -that a similar compliment could not be paid to many a -European expedition sent out against enemies less redoubtable -than the Chinese. Even the English, after observing the -manœuvres of the Japanese squadron during the Chino-Japanese -War, did not hesitate to praise their excellence; and the -military attaches who followed the Korean and Manchurian -campaign expressed themselves equally impressed by the -Japanese army.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The courage of the Japanese cannot be questioned. They -have proved it in their long and bloody feudal wars, and, again, -only twenty years ago, during the insurrection in Satsuma. Their -patriotism is equally sincere, for they are the only Orientals -among whom this sentiment exists, and with them it easily -rises to fanaticism. The endurance of their troops is extraordinary. -The subjects of the Mikado are unquestionably the -best pedestrians in the world; and it needs no strain on the -imagination to realize what must be the excellence of the -infantry of a country whose peasantry use no cattle to draw -their waggons, and who pass their winter months in making -pilgrimages to distant sanctuaries in their own and in neighbouring -provinces.</p> - -<p class='c008'>In Japan two men think nothing of dragging a jinrikisha -sixty miles in twelve hours, taking only two for rest, and recommencing -their journey the next day quite fresh. A Japanese -battalion has been known to march twenty-five to thirty miles -in a day, knapsack on back, without leaving any stragglers -<span class='pageno' id='Page_167'>167</span>behind. The instruction of the soldiers—cavalry, perhaps, excepted—is -excellent, and they learn very quickly. I have -watched the manœuvres of some recruits who had only been -six weeks in the regiment, and, although they had never in -their lives been in European dress before, they wore their -uniforms much more easily than many of our young soldiers. -The Japanese are, moreover, excellent shots.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The raw material of the Japanese army is, therefore, exceedingly -good. It is provided with first-class guns and cannon, -and as the navy is composed of vessels built by the best -builders in Europe and America, according to the latest -models, it goes without saying that the artillery is worthy of -the vessels which convey it. The staff may possibly not attain -the same high standard as the rank and file, but this is difficult -to pronounce upon, the data not being sufficient to assist us in -forming a correct opinion. It seems, however, that it has been -accused of lacking decision, and also of being too much under -the influence of academic and technical theories, not paying -sufficient attention to the exigencies of modern warfare.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Be this as it may, it is very probable that in the case of Japan -going to war as the ally of a European Power, these defects -would be much modified if they listened to the advice of -their friends. In addition to the above, we must not forget to -add that Japan is the only country of the Far East which works -important coal-mines, and that two of the principal of these are -situated in the island of Kiu-Siu, quite close to that part of the -coast nearest Korea and China, and that she is, moreover, at -the present day mistress of the Pescadors, a strategical point -which Courbet valued very highly, situated in the middle -of the China Sea. It will thus be easy to estimate of what -value the co-operation of this nation would be to those Powers -who are interested in the Middle Kingdom.</p> - -<p class='c008'>It is, therefore, necessary to know something of the feeling -entertained by Japan towards the Sick Man of Peking, as well -as towards the various doctors assembled round his bed, -thinking less of the patient’s recovery than of the eventual -division of his legacy. So far as China is concerned, -Japan is undoubtedly favourably disposed towards her, and -since the war she has had no warmer, and, it may be added, -no sincerer friend than her late enemy. If Japan had -been allowed a free hand, she would undoubtedly have reorganized -China to her own profit, but possibly Europe, in -<span class='pageno' id='Page_168'>168</span>preventing this, displayed considerable acumen, for her so doing -might in the long-run have proved dangerous. Next to being -able to reform China herself, Japan would like her to undertake -her own reformation, and place herself in a position to maintain -her autonomy, so as not to fall a prey to the European -Powers.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The Ministers of the Mikado are very naturally somewhat -alarmed at the thought that their country may soon be the only -one in the whole world inhabited by a non-European race -that maintains its independence, and they cannot forbear asking -themselves how long this independence may be allowed to -last, all the more so since Japan is in immediate contact with, -numerically speaking, the most powerful State in the world, the -colossal Russian Empire, which borders upon China. Might -not Japan under these circumstances be constantly menaced -by so formidable a neighbour? Doubtless she would be able -to resist an invasion, but at a terrific sacrifice—for to conquer -Japan it would be necessary to exterminate many millions of -Japanese. In any case Japan’s foreign influence would be at -an end, especially in Korea, which she has several times conquered, -and upon which she still cherishes pretensions that -date over 2,000 years. Even from the purely economic side -she would suffer greatly; for her principal commercial outlet, -China, might be closed to her for good.</p> - -<p class='c008'>These are the principal reasons which oblige the Japanese -to remain the devoted friends of the Chinese Empire, and at -the same time the adversaries of Russia, who, they believe, -wishes to absorb China, and thereby dominate, if not the -whole, at least the north, of the Asiatic Continent, and which -compel them to throw in their lot with England. This latter -Power does not aim at the political annexation of China; she -only wishes to obtain additional facilities for her commerce and -concessions for public works, and has therefore no intention -whatever of surrounding the Celestial Empire by a formidable -ring of Custom-houses. Undoubtedly Japan has had good -reason to seek an alliance with England, and we need not be -surprised at her distrust of Russia, which, having deprived her of -the fruits of her continental conquests in 1895, three years later -annexed them herself. As to England, her interest in obtaining -the co-operation of Japan is so self-evident as only to need -a passing allusion. Through her friendship with Japan she -could obtain what she wants, not only in the Far East, but -<span class='pageno' id='Page_169'>169</span>elsewhere, a large and well-organized army that, owing to an -unquestionable supremacy on the sea, the result of the combination -of two formidable fleets, could be easily and safely -transported to the neighbouring continent.</p> - -<p class='c008'>May there not, however, be certain other reasons which -might eventually induce not so much Great Britain to break -off her Japanese alliance as Japan to sever her side of the -compact and ultimately extend her hand to Russia? There -is ground for the belief that such a proposition does exist, since -there are Russophiles at Tokio and Japanophiles at St. Petersburg. -Is it not, moreover, rather imprudent to oppose the -progress the Tsar’s Empire is making on the continent? -It is, after all, an irresistible force resulting from the very -nature of things, and therefore it were perchance wiser to be -rather with Russia than against her. Then, again, it should -be remembered that Russia displayed her goodwill towards -Japan by leaving her a free hand in Korea, not, however, until -after she had seized Port Arthur. True, the situation created -in Korea by the compact of April, 1898, was precarious; and -possibly, when once her position in the Far East is consolidated -by the completion of the Trans-Siberian line, the -Tsar’s Government may rescind the concession which it has -signed and occupy the peninsula. But even if we admit that -this contingency is a possible one—and it is by no means -absolutely certain that Russia does entertain any such project—Japan -may still hope for compensation elsewhere in -the centre or south of China round the province of Fu-kien, -where she has already made her influence felt, as also at -Borneo. Russia might also give certain tariff guarantees, and -might it not be to her interest, less urgently, perhaps, than in -the case of England, to secure the co-operation of Japan in -case of conflict? And, finally, is Great Britain a very safe -ally? May she not be simply using Japan for her own ends, -thrusting her forward only perhaps to abandon her when she -is committed? Will she lend assistance to a commercial -rival?</p> - -<p class='c008'>These are arguments which are not without their influence -at Tokio, where the difficulty of opposing a solid and durable -barrier against the encroachments of Russia on the continent -is fully appreciated, and where there certainly exists a feeling of -distrust, not only of the English, but of all other Europeans. -Political and military interference in continental affairs has -<span class='pageno' id='Page_170'>170</span>never resulted otherwise than in weakening an insular power, -and much as the subjects of the Mikado may desire Korea, it -should not be forgotten that, however great Japan’s interests -may be in that direction, she may easily renounce her pretensions -on <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">terra firma</span></i> if she were offered some material and -tangible compensation elsewhere. It has been said that Japan -had cast a longing eye on the Philippines, and certain signs -led many to think that at one time she had played with the -rebels in those islands much the same part enacted by the -United States in Cuba; but now America has seized upon -these islands, and has also annexed Hawaii, another spot -coveted by Japan. Unfortunately, Japan has come too late -into the world to possess colonies, and must therefore content -herself with the solitary Formosa, which, however, is a possession -by no means to be despised.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Still, even now, Japan does not lose all hope of eventually -obtaining a footing upon the continent; but, providing that -others do not handle China too roughly, she has no intention -of interfering with her neighbour, certainly not to menace her -integrity. She wishes only to consolidate her by augmenting -at the same time her own influence, and would not intervene -even if she thought the Celestial Empire were in danger. From -the point of view of international politics, Japan is certainly a -conservative element; but in the day of struggle, should it -ever occur, she is destined to weigh very heavily in the scale, -not only in the solution of the question of the Far East, but -also in the problem which rises behind it—that of supremacy -in the Pacific, which will one day be fought out, not between -the Whale and the Elephant, but between the Elephants of the -Old and the New Worlds—that is to say, between Russia and -the United States. But whatever may be the events which will -eventually transpire, Japan apparently does not wish to precipitate -a struggle, provided only that the maintenance of the <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">status -quo</span></i> is not threatened by others.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_171'>171</span> - <h3 class='c001'>CHAPTER X<br /> <span class='large'>THE FUTURE OF WESTERN CIVILIZATION IN JAPAN—RELATIONS BETWEEN JAPANESE AND FOREIGNERS</span></h3> -</div> -<p class='c014'>Questions which are raised by the recent evolution in Japan—Can the -Japanese assimilate the civilization of peoples of a different race?—Precedents -and analogies—Up to what point does Japan wish to -resemble Europe?—Character and degree of the changes which have -taken place in Japan from the social, political, and economical point -of view—Adaptation of Western institutions in Japan—Feeling of the -Japanese towards foreigners—The revision of treaties with foreign -Powers—The absolute necessity for Japan to enter into intimate -relationship with the rest of the world if she wishes to retain her -newly-acquired civilization.</p> - -<p class='c007'>To one who has studied Japan on the spot, a very serious -question presents itself for solution, one of vast importance, -not only to the inhabitants of that island Empire, but to the -entire human family, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">i.e.</span></i>, Will the evolution which this country -has undergone prove permanent and not likely to collapse at a -given moment, bringing with it the ruin of the State? In a -word, the question is, whether it be possible for a people so -suddenly to assimilate the old-established and elaborate -civilization of another race. Let us, to begin with, remember -that the Japanese have already afforded precedents proving that -they possess powers of assimilation in a rare degree. From the -third to the sixth century of our era they introduced Chinese -civilization into their dominions, and from the ethnographic -point of view, whether the Japanese belong to the Mongol or -to the Malay family, they are not so far removed from the -Chinese as the whites; nevertheless they are quite as distinct -from them as are the Aryans from the Semites, and as the -French or the Germans from the Arabs. The example of Russia -is perhaps less marked, because more intimate affinities unite -the Slavs to the Western races, and yet the Russians are the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_172'>172</span>least Slav of any of the Slavs, being in reality for the most part -Finns who have submitted to Slav influences. The Finns are -related to the Mongols, and Muscovy, moreover, was under -the Tatar yoke for three centuries, a dominion which has left -a very profound impression on the race. Peter the Great’s -enterprise was therefore not an easy one. The principal -objection, however, which can be brought against the example -of Russia is that her evolution was never completed, and did -not influence the lower strata of society sufficiently for it to -become completely Europeanized. Hungary offers a better -field of investigation in this direction, for the peoples who -originally invaded her were distinctly Oriental, but now this -country has become absolutely European, the result probably -of an intimate connection between its inhabitants and their -neighbours. But beyond these facts, there is one point which -we should not overlook. Our own civilization is not the -monopoly of one race, but was constructed by the concurrence -of many people. It results directly from Roman and Greek -civilization, and through these from Phœnician and Egyptian. -The Egyptians, needless to say, were a branch of the Hamites, -the most degraded white race of our time; the Phœnicians, on -the other hand, were Semites, and it was another Semitic -race, the Arab, that during the Middle Ages held the light -of civilization, and transmitted to us the inheritance of -antiquity, after having widely extended its scientific uses. The -whole history of our civilization, therefore, protests against its -having ever been at any time monopolized by the Aryan -branch of the white race.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Modern ethnography, based upon recent linguistic and -anthropological discoveries, has shaken to its foundations those -notions concerning the white races which were universally -accepted in bygone times. We no longer hold that it was from -the high plateau of Asia that swept those tribes who eventually -peopled Europe, but that they radiated from the centre of -Europe herself. Far from forming the majority of the inhabitants -of the Continent, the Aryans, if that term still preserves -its meaning, are but one of its elements. They have mingled -everywhere in variable quantities among the different hordes of -Finnish and other races who have overrun our continent. -The varied formation of the skulls which has been observed -among the different inhabitants of a single country corresponds -with the predominance of one or other of these original -<span class='pageno' id='Page_173'>173</span>elements, with the result that the unity of race which has -hitherto been imagined to exist among all Western peoples is -now proved to be chimerical.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Whatever truth these theories may contain, they are nevertheless -subject to frequent modification, but it seems impossible -with the present facts to sustain <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">à priori</span></i> that one race -cannot assimilate the civilization of another. No doubt the -Japanese differ more completely from the Europeans of the -West than do the Russians, or even the Arabs, or than they -themselves do from the Chinese; but once the unity of the -human race is admitted, this becomes a mere question of degree -of parentage. Must we, therefore, draw a line of degree -between peoples beyond which the transmission of the civilization -of the one cannot penetrate to the other, even as the -French law fixes a limit to the transmission of inheritance? -Nothing short of experience can solve the question. For the -matter of that, the phenomenon is constantly taking place before -our eyes, and if there be a people who might attempt it with -hope of success, it is surely the Japanese, who to exceptional -intelligence and remarkable powers of assimilation add a great -spirit of enterprise and an uncommon energy.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Japan cannot be compared for a moment with China; for, -much younger than her Celestial neighbour—since she received -her civilization at her hands at a period contemporary -with the fall of the Roman Empire, when the annals of China -reached as far back into the night of time as those of Egypt—she -has not had time to fossilize herself in sterile admiration of -the past, and she has never adopted that mandarinate which -China considers one of her chief glories, but which is in reality -slowly ruining her. Above all, like Europe in the Middle -Ages, she has submitted to the virile influences of the feudal -system, and, therefore, there is no reason <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">à priori</span></i> why she -should not succeed in her enterprise. Whether or no Japan -wishes to convert herself on every point into an absolutely -Europeanized nation, and a Western European nation at that, -is another question which demands close attention. Possibly -it is an exaggeration to say that the promoters of the remarkable -series of reforms which have lately been effected in Japan -had ever an eye to so complete a transformation. The first -reform which engrossed their attention was undoubtedly to -place their country, which had so suddenly broken through her -ancient tradition of isolation, on a military, naval, and an -<span class='pageno' id='Page_174'>174</span>economical basis, that would enable her to treat as an equal -with any of the other nations of the world. The Japanese are -the only Oriental people who have understood the conditions -necessary to attain this aim. Japan discerned that by accepting -a military and economic position equal to that of any -European country, she was also obliged to undergo immense -changes in every department of her national existence, and she -unflinchingly faced her new position, resolved to accomplish -every sort of transformation in order to place herself on a firm -footing.</p> - -<p class='c008'>It seems to me that Japan has solved the difficult question -as to which were the changes she ought to undergo. The fact -that she has accepted the entire programme of European -civilization, barring a few domestic usages, certain traditions of -family existence and religion, speaks for itself. The religious -question is one of the most interesting and curious phases of -Japanese experience. Until the present day history has always -demonstrated that the first act of a people which desired to -model itself upon another was to adopt its religion, and in Japan -itself 1,500 years ago Buddhism paved the way for the advent -of Chinese civilization. In the sixteenth century, at a time -when she was first brought into contact with Europeans, Christianity -played an important part, and soon made many -proselytes. To-day it is otherwise. The Mikado, it is true, -does not prevent his subjects from embracing Christianity, but -he does not encourage them to do so. Most probably this is -the result of the fact that religion is no longer the foremost -factor in Western civilization, and is somewhat veiled by important -scientific discoveries and material improvements, and, -whether rightly or wrongly, there can be no question that the -spirit of the century pretends to solve political and social -problems outside of the sphere of religion.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The Japanese have evidently arrived at the conclusion that -it was unnecessary to effect a transformation in an order of -ideas which the Europeans themselves apparently consider -accessory. If one day they find that they have made a mistake, -it probably will not take them long to change their minds; -but for the present they have preferred to rally round the -popular idea, neutrality of the State in matters of religion and -freedom of conscience to all, and this allows them to retain -Buddhism and Shintoism as the religion of the immense -majority of the people.</p> - -<p class='c008'><span class='pageno' id='Page_175'>175</span>From the civil point of view, on the other hand, they have -introduced many European reforms. Japanese society formerly -resembled in many ways that of ancient Rome, especially with -respect to the constitution of the family. The new civil code -which has been carried into effect is more in accordance with -modern ideas, and modifies the excessive habit of adoption, -diminishes the power of the head of the family over his married -children and his younger brothers, and raises somewhat the -position of women, who were already freer in Japan than in -any other Oriental country. But it also permits, in accordance -with Japanese traditions, very slight difference to exist between -legitimate and illegitimate children, and on this point, as on -that of divorce—whether for good or otherwise I do not -consider myself called upon to judge—it shapes itself very -much on the same lines as does modern legislation elsewhere. -The personal status, therefore, of a Japanese is very much the -same as that of a European, and the laws relating to property -have for a long time been identical with our own. As to the -penal code, it is one of the most moderate in the world, and -the death sentence is only passed in cases of crime against the -Emperor.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Politically speaking, the Japanese have gone further still, -and have given themselves a Constitution analogous, as -already stated, to that of Prussia. It may perhaps be queried -whether they were wise in accepting so entirely our representative -system; but undoubtedly within the last eight years -Parliamentary life in Japan has made rapid strides, and, indeed, -is neither better nor worse than it is in many a European -country. The parties do not come to stay long, and their -programmes are very confused. The relation between the -clans and the provinces plays a very conspicuous part in the -Parliamentary existence; but, for the matter of that, so they -do in Italy and elsewhere. Even if it has been a rather premature -experience, nevertheless Parliamentary Government in -Japan seems likely to stay. The numerous provincial and -communal assemblies carry out their business fairly well, -although, to be sure, there are whispers of a slight amount of -corruption—but where is it otherwise? One of the happiest -traits of Japanese evolution is that there appears little probability -of its ending, like the great Russian transformation -under Peter the Great, in the creation of two distinct classes, -separated by an insurmountable barrier. There is no serfdom -<span class='pageno' id='Page_176'>176</span>or anything to maintain the Japanese peasantry in the same -position of inferiority as the Russian mujik, and the mass of -the nation unhesitatingly follows the lead of its chiefs.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Refined by from twelve to fifteen centuries of civilization, -the subjects of the Mikado are much better educated than were -those of Peter the Great, and therefore can march with far -greater assurance on the road to progress. While the smallness -of the country and the density of its population, concentrated -for the most part on the coast-line, are likewise -aids to the rapid penetration of new ideas, still further assisted -by a well-organized system of primary instruction and a military -service, it is, however, rather from the material point of view -that the change has been most striking and rapid.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Without returning to the matter of the extraordinary rapidity -of the increase of industry, there is one subject connected with -it which I cannot forbear dwelling upon, and that is the excessive -ability with which the Japanese have succeeded in -organizing certain public services introduced from the West in -such a manner as to place them within the reach of even the -poorest. In many European colonies the high tariff of the -rail and postal services deters the natives from using them; but -in Japan it is otherwise. There you pay on the railway ¾d. a -mile first class, ½d. second, and ¼d. third, which latter is used by -the majority of the people, and the total returns for 2,290 miles -of Japanese rail, notwithstanding these low rates, reached in -1895 £1,878,600 (of which £1,179,600 were paid by travellers), -as against £766,300 for expenses, the profits being £1,112,300, -or about 10 per cent. upon the outlay capital, which was -£11,649,200. The post is also extremely cheap in Japan, -½d. being charged for letters and ¼d. for post-cards. In -1896–97 503,000,000 objects passed through the post-office, of -which 263,000,000 were post-cards, 122,000,000 letters, and -87,000,000 newspapers. The preponderating number of post-cards, -which surpasses that of letters, is strikingly in contradistinction -to what one observes in every other country, and is -a proof of the economical habits of the people and of their -appreciation of this cheap method of correspondence. The -enthusiasm with which the population profits by all the innovations -introduced from the West is a convincing proof of the -very slight resistance which the implanting of our civilization -receives. Yet another favourable sign is the exceptional -number of students in the new universities and public schools -<span class='pageno' id='Page_177'>177</span>of all descriptions. Practical science, law, and medicine attract -the majority of the students, and already many of them have -attained marked success in their several careers. As an example, -I may mention that it was a Japanese who discovered the -microbe of the bubonic plague. The Japanese are sometimes, -and possibly with some truth, accused of lacking the inventive -faculty; but those peoples who are from many points of view -at the head of civilization at the present day, the English -and the Americans, are not those among whom the power of -invention is exceptionally prominent. It is in France or in -Germany that the principles of nearly all modern discoveries -have been found, but it is in England and the United States -that their application has been perfected. No one, however, -can refuse the Japanese this latter gift, and they unquestionably -possess an almost excessive faculty of attention to minute -detail. Possibly they have not so far materially assisted in -advancing science, and surely it is somewhat premature to -pronounce judgment on this subject; but with good technical -teachers—and everything points that they will have them—they -can certainly soon acclimatize European civilization in -their country, precisely as they did in days of old that of China, -but only on the condition that they keep themselves well in -touch with Europe.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Their principal danger, however, seems to me to consist in -their attempting to isolate themselves too much, and to believe -that they have learnt everything that can be taught them, and -consequently have no further use for their masters. Perhaps, -too, in certain cases they have got rid only too quickly of the -services of foreign functionaries and councillors. Throughout the -whole of the eighteenth century Russia, so to speak, modelled -herself on the German plan, and Japan would also do well not -to forget too hastily the advice of Western teachers. Already -a certain amount of negligence is noticeable in the post-office -and on the railways, whose systems are occasionally dislocated by -many irregularities and also by a certain carelessness, usually -attributed to excess of work or to the breakdown of machinery, -but which is more probably due to the inexperience of the -public servants of the entire hierarchy. The fact is, Japan -does not at present value the most characteristic feature of -modern civilization—punctuality; but, to be just, when we -consider the indolent habits of Asiatics in general, we should -not be surprised at this, rather the contrary. It would, however, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_178'>178</span>be well for the Japanese, until they have got thoroughly -trained to an appreciation of the value of time, to retain -officials who will remind them of its importance.</p> - -<p class='c008'>It may also be added that in the commercial development -considerable inexperience and too great zeal in every branch, -industrial, financial, and commercial, has been displayed: in -the over-rapid increase, for instance, of banks and companies -of all kinds, in the mismanagement of new societies, and in -the abuse that has frequently been made of credit. All these -things are new to Japan, and they have occasionally not been -treated as they should have been. We have bestowed so -much praise on the economical development of the country -that we may surely be allowed to observe that much has been -done too quickly. But this has been the case in all new -countries, in the two Americas, as well as in Australia, and -one must not therefore be too severe on Japan in this respect, -but also not surprised if it occasionally results in the paralysis -of business and even in an occasional crisis. As often occurs, -a rise in salaries accompanied industrial expansion, and proved -very inconvenient to export industries, all the more so as these -are for the most part mainly nominal, and prices rose almost -immediately. During the last two years an inverse movement -has taken place, and we must do the Japanese the justice to -say that when they saw the danger they displayed considerable -sagacity, and both the Government and the public expressed a -wish to limit their desire for expansion. If there were serious -economic difficulties in Japan in 1897–98, they seem now to -have passed away; they were but the result of over-activity, and -the present outlook in the Mikado’s dominion, although not -as brilliant as it was immediately after the war, is once more -normal.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The transitory troubles of the Empire of the Rising Sun will -not, in our opinion, become very grave if the Japanese thoroughly -understand that it is to their interest rather to increase their -contact with foreigners than to limit it. Since 1889 there has -existed in Japan a reactionary movement against strangers, -which apparently reached its culminating point in 1896, and -now seems gradually diminishing. It is sincerely to be hoped -that this feeling of suspicion will absolutely disappear. One -of the numerous reasons which contributed to raise a certain -hostility against Europeans was their attitude with respect -to the renewal of the treaties. This important question, which -<span class='pageno' id='Page_179'>179</span>so closely concerned the relations between the Japanese and -foreigners, has now been settled, and if Japanese statesmen are -well inspired, the solution that has been arrived at should -greatly enhance the true interests of their country.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Almost immediately after the Restoration, the Government -of the Mikado expressed the desire to revise the treaties concluded -between it and the foreign Powers during the last -years of the old regime. What it most desired was to abrogate -the extra-territorial privileges granted to strangers, and to -render them responsible to the native tribunals. It also hoped -to re-possess itself of the right to modify the Custom-house -tariff, which was very low, not with a view to protection, but -in order to augment the revenues. In exchange for these concessions -Japan offered to open the country to Europeans, to -allow them to reside and to establish their industries anywhere -outside of the five ports in which they had hitherto been confined. -Joint negotiations were opened with the seventeen -Powers who had signed the treaties on several occasions, but -without favourable results, and the check they received in 1897 -greatly irritated public opinion in Japan. The Government -then decided to negotiate separately through the intermediary -of its representatives in Europe. The first success was with -England, by the treaty concluded in 1894; the other nations -followed suit, and the new treaties were enforced on July 17th, -1899.</p> - -<p class='c008'>For several years, however, a change had taken place in -public opinion in Japan, and many people began to think that -it might be as dangerous to completely open the country -to foreigners as to grant them privileges of proprietorship. -‘They are much richer than we are,’ said they, ‘and will buy -up all our lands and strip us of our resources, so that in time -we shall cease to be masters in our own house.’ On the other -hand, the Europeans began to make an outcry at the thought -that they would be obliged to submit to Japanese jurisdiction, -which, although founded on the European system, might be -misapplied by the Yellow people, who were still barbarians, -and who might use it to make the existence of foreigners in -Japan intolerable. Both views of the case were exaggerated, -and rendered the task of the various diplomatists an exceedingly -difficult one. Diplomacy, however, carried the day, not without -sacrificing the proposed absolute equality of rights between -Japanese and foreigners.</p> - -<p class='c008'><span class='pageno' id='Page_180'>180</span>The new treaties accepted the Japanese desideratum respecting -the suppression of consular tribunals and European -municipalities, but foreigners were, in their turn, to renounce -proprietary rights. The English treaty thus summarizes the -principal concessions granted: ‘All members of the principal -contracting parties may carry on any wholesale or retail -business, in any sort of product, manufactures and merchandise, -personally or by their representatives, individually or through an -association, either with other foreigners or with natives; and -they shall have the right to possess, let or occupy houses, -shops, manufactories and other premises as they deem necessary, -or to hire lands, to live therein, or to engage therein in -business, by conforming themselves to the laws, and the police -and Custom-house regulations of the country, as if they were -natives thereof.’ This gave rise to considerable controversy. -It confirmed the right of foreigners to possess, let or occupy -houses and divers places of business, but on the other hand, it -only allowed them to rent land, which according to Japanese -law can only be hired on short leases of between thirty and -fifty years, as the case may be, which is, of course, a great -hindrance to the installation of any important industry.</p> - -<p class='c008'>This apparent contradiction formed the subject of an agitated -controversy carried on by the English papers printed at the -various ports, which pointed out with rather thoughtless -acrimony that the new treaty was only intended as a blind to -deprive foreigners of their extra-territorial liberties. They -forgot that outside of property and of the leasehold system the -Japanese code contains another method of tenure, called -‘Surface Right,’ whereby the purchaser of a piece of land has -the right to everything that is on the surface thereof (excepting -the crops), that is, to plant or cut down trees and to build -thereon. One can purchase the surface of the land in accordance -with Japanese law for as long a period of time as one -likes, a thousand years even, either on payment by instalments -or complete purchase. For any enterprise which is not purely -agricultural this purchase is equivalent to absolute possession -of the land.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Foreigners can thus establish industries in Japan, and it is -therefore to the interests of the Japanese to encourage them so -to do. Private individuals, as well as the Government, ought -to do everything they can to attract foreign capital, but this -can only be done in the case of industrial enterprises by allowing -<span class='pageno' id='Page_181'>181</span>foreigners to take the direction of affairs. I have been -asked whether it is not possible to induce foreign capitalists to -lend their money on sharing terms to Japanese companies as -they do to the American railways, without taking any part in -the direction, but I am afraid this is a hope the Japanese -would do well not to entertain. Whether it be through prejudice -or otherwise, it is quite certain that Europeans will do -nothing of the sort, and the Japanese seem to be aware of the -fact, and several railway companies have modified their statutes -in order to admit a clause whereby foreigners can become -shareholders; but as the Japanese possess all the land over which -the lines run as well as the stations, I do not think that this -proposition can be legal. It is, therefore, to be regretted that -public opinion has not insisted upon a concession of the right -of proprietorship being bestowed upon foreigners.</p> - -<p class='c008'>It is, however, not improbable that before long the Legislature -may get over this difficulty by deciding that in companies -constituted according to Japanese laws, and registered in -Japan, the members, though they be foreigners, become thereby -Japanese citizens, and can also be absolute land-owners. However, -on all points the Japanese Government, supported by Parliament -and public opinion, has taken the necessary precautions -to apply the new treaties in the most liberal manner possible. -If there have been some unfavourable verdicts pronounced -in the Japanese tribunals in the short time they have been in -existence, these have generally been revised on appeal. The -greater experience gained by contact between the Japanese and -Europeans, and the wish to see foreign capital collaborating in -the development of the resources of the country, will doubtless -suggest, little by little, new measures calculated to smooth -down any feeling of irritation between the native and the -foreign population. If there still exists a feeling of hatred -of the foreigner among individual fanatics, a certain ill-will -in the lower and more ignorant class of the people, some abuse -of authority among inferior officials, the Government of the -Mikado is too sagacious to allow any flagrant cause of annoyance -to disturb European residents, which would soon -be resented by their respective Governments and might even -lead to the scattering of the fruits of thirty years’ progressive -effort.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Japan has already done much, but especially because she -has done so much in so short a time, and because the immense -<span class='pageno' id='Page_182'>182</span>majority of her inhabitants had no idea thirty years ago of -European affairs, and therefore have no means of comparison, -they are apt to exaggerate their progress, however marvellous it -may be, and consequently they are not in a position to notice -that certain European importations come to them slightly -deteriorated. Foreigners act the part of critics, and even if -their criticism is sometimes severe, it is nevertheless useful. -The functionaries and the young men who are sent on foreign -missions also fulfil the same critical office, and this is an -additional reason why the Government is so wise in maintaining -these missions. Unless, indeed, from time to time the new -civilization which has been imported in Japan is refreshed at -its primary source, it will soon run a risk of losing strength, -and, for the matter of that, any people, even European, that -isolated itself too much and became absorbed in self-admiration, -would inevitably deteriorate. It is not belittling the extraordinary -progress so rapidly accomplished by the Empire of the -Rising Sun to say that it can only be perfected if the people -of that wonderful country remain in contact with the inhabitants -of Europe and America.</p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_183'>183</span> - <h2 class='c005'>PART III.—CHINA</h2> -</div> - -<h3 class='c001'>CHAPTER I<br /> <span class='large'>THE CHINESE PROBLEM</span></h3> -<p class='c014'>Actual position of the Far Eastern Question—The Sick Man of Peking—The -wealth of his heritage—The immense resources of the soil and -subsoil of China, the latter of which is still virgin—The results which -may be expected from the opening up of China—Change in the -attitude of the Powers towards the Celestial Empire since the -Japanese victories revealed its weakness—The origins of the Far -Eastern problem.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The decisive victory which Japan obtained over China five -years ago revealed to the civilized world the existence in the -East of Asia of another Sick Man, an even greater invalid -and infinitely richer than the better known patient at Constantinople. -Four times the size, and twelve or fifteen times -more densely peopled than the Ottoman Empire, China -contains a much smaller proportion of deserts, her resources -are greater and far more varied, and her inhabitants are not -only more industrious, but more peaceful and apparently much -easier to govern. Therefore, at the end of the nineteenth -century—when the material wealth of a country is of far greater -importance than its historical memories, and men are more -eager to discover fresh openings for enterprise, new lands to -cultivate, or mines to exploit than relics to preserve or peoples -to liberate—Europe abandons the bedside of the Grand Turk -to occupy herself with her chances of inheriting far greater -riches from the Son of Heaven. The Sick Man on the shores -of the Bosphorus may be afflicted with some dreadful convulsion -or crisis in his illness, but the nations pretend not to -perceive his contortions, and joyfully welcome any evidence of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_184'>184</span>even a feeble return to health; in a word, they only seek to -prolong his existence. If the preservation of peace in Europe -has its share in this attitude, the wish not to be disturbed in -the work which she pursues in China has also its share in the -position which Russia and more than one other Power have -assumed with regard to the Chinese Empire.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The fact is, the nations have promised themselves a booty -in the Middle Kingdom as precious as it is easy to obtain. -China from this point of view is worth a great deal more than -Turkey, or even Africa, which Europe has so eagerly sought to -divide. Although less extensive than the Dark Continent, -China is much more thickly peopled, and the climate is less -unhealthy, access easier, the rivers more navigable, and the -soil far more fertile. The patient and laborious Chinese will -eventually facilitate the exploitation of the wealth of their vast -territory, which is more than can ever be expected from the -barbarous, ignorant and indolent peoples of Africa.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The resources of China are greater than those of Africa, -and many of them are still absolutely undeveloped. The -Chinese peasants, moreover, are among the best agriculturists -in the world. As evidence of this assertion, it should be remembered -that, by the perfection of their method of cultivation, -they extract from the soil of their plains sufficient to enable -their rural population to multiply in a manner unknown in the -Western world. Certain provinces in the Valley of the Yang-tsze-Kiang—Shan-tung, -Hu-pe, Kiang-su, and others—in spite -of their being purely agricultural, are as densely peopled as -Belgium, and we may further observe that, as is the case -throughout the Far East, wherever rice dominates, the mountain -regions are almost uninhabited. If the soil is admirably cultivated, -the subsoil, on the other hand, is absolutely neglected, -and only an insignificant quantity of coal is extracted from the -immense coal-beds which cover over 40,000 square miles on -the banks of the Yellow River, in the plains of Hu-nan, and -under the terraces of Shan-si, which, together with those equally -important in the basin of Shan-tung, were so highly extolled -by the celebrated traveller Richthofen. The coal-beds in -Central China appear to be even more extensive, and the carboniferous -basin of Sze-chuan, where there is also petroleum, -covers an area equal to half France. The coal-beds of -Hu-nan are also very considerable, and minerals are equally -abundant. The copper-mines of Yunnan are so rich as to have -<span class='pageno' id='Page_185'>185</span>proved one of the chief inducements that attracted the French -to Tongking. Mines of precious ore are known to exist -in many other places, but, notwithstanding their very ancient -civilization, the Chinese have scarcely touched the wealth -beneath their feet. In this respect they have proved themselves -inferior to the classical nations of antiquity, and have -left their riches to be garnered by foreigners.</p> - -<p class='c008'>We can form some idea of the development of which China -is susceptible by considering the example of two other Asiatic -nations placed in much the same conditions—British India and -Japan. India, with all her dependencies, is about a sixth -larger than China proper, but contains only about three-quarters -of the number of her inhabitants; yet although her -subsoil is much less rich and her population far more indolent -than the Chinese, she carries on double the trade with Europe -that the Chinese Empire does. Japan, nine times smaller and -nine times less peopled than China, but reformed by an -enlightened Government and by the introduction of European -methods, has seen her commerce rise in thirty years from -£5,000,000 to £44,000,000, more than three-quarters higher -than that of her enormous but stationary neighbour.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Unfortunately, an imbecile Government, as corrupt as it is -absurdly exclusive, impedes the progress of China with far -greater obstinacy than do the prejudices of her people. So -long as the illusion lasted as to the power of this unwieldy -Empire, no one ventured to tear from it by force what it was -imagined could be obtained by persuasion, and the nations -resigned themselves to permit the immense resources of the -interior to remain untouched, contenting themselves merely -with the opening of a few ports to commerce. But in 1894 -the brilliant victories of the Japanese revealed to an astonished -world the weakness of the colossus, its corruption, and utter -incapacity to regenerate itself; hence the reason why the -Chino-Japanese War may be rightly considered one of the -greatest events in contemporary history. From it dates the -change in the attitude of the foreign Powers towards the -Celestial Empire. They now command where formerly they -begged, and have mustered up courage to force the Son of -Heaven to put a price on the treasures of his Empire, or else -to allow them to do so in his stead. If they have not already -divided up his territory, they mortgage portions of his provinces, -and obtain mining, railway, and all sorts of other concessions. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_186'>186</span>In the eyes of the Powers China is no longer a country to be -counted with as a probable ally, but merely one which they -may one day reduce to vassalage.</p> - -<p class='c008'>In 1895, after the conclusion of the war, Russia inaugurated -the new policy with respect to China. She was at that time -the only European nation that seemed to have any idea -of the weakness of China, and was already preparing, by -the construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway, to play an -important part in the Far East. Germany, France, and -England in 1897 obtained the ‘leases’ of various strategical -points on the coast and the recognition of what they were -pleased to call ‘spheres of influence.’ Russia now returned to -the game, and Japan also took a part in the struggle. From -the middle of 1898 a lull has occurred, which recent events, -however, have disturbed and proved that the Far Eastern -problem is far from settled. It would certainly have surprised -men who were living at the beginning of this dying century if -they had been told that it would close before the Grand Turk -was driven out of Europe, and yet the destinies of Eastern -Asia are even now far from being determined. The problems -which rise round the future of the Celestial Empire are neither -less grave nor less complicated now than they ever were. -Although China is infinitely less heterogeneous than Turkey, -she runs the same dangers from internal disturbance; for she -is governed by a foreign dynasty and honeycombed by secret -societies. The Central Government is feeble and without -cohesion. On the other hand, the rivalry which exists between -the European Powers, to whom should be added the United -States and Japan, is not less active in the East than it is in -the West of Asia. The only, but still enormous, result which -has been more or less definitely obtained consequent upon the -events of the last five years—the end of the isolation from -Europe in which China has hitherto existed, and her being -brought for the first time since the beginning of her history -into contact with a civilization which has developed quite independently -of her own—creates a situation of the intensest -interest. If the lack of military qualities among the Chinese -and the insufficiency in numbers of the Japanese renders the -Yellow Peril, comparatively speaking, little to be feared from -the war side of the question, many people, and among them -the most enterprising representatives of European civilization, -the Americans and Australians, are greatly exercised over the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_187'>187</span>matter from the economic point of view. It would, however, -be presumptuous to attempt to prophesy what would be the -consequences of the dissolution of the Chinese Empire -through internal disorder, or of its partition amongst the -Powers in consequence of an international treaty, or after -a war which would be sure to become universal, or even of the -reawakening of this oldest State in the world by the introduction -of Western ideas and methods, or finally of a struggle between -the White and the Yellow races; but it is comparatively easy, -now that the question poses itself for the first time, to determine -its multiple elements, to study the relative position of -its diverse factors, the near prospect of their action, and the -situation of the patient round whose sick-bed eagerly press -the many doctors and heirs of so wealthy an invalid as China.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_188'>188</span> - <h3 class='c001'>CHAPTER II<br /> <span class='large'>THE CAPITAL OF CHINA</span></h3> -</div> -<p class='c014'>The coasts of Pe-chi-li and the mouth of the Pei-ho—Ta-ku and Tien-tsin—From -Tien-tsin to Peking by rail—Peking: the Forbidden, Imperial, -Tatar and Chinese cities; the walls, streets, houses, shops and monuments—Behaviour -of the natives towards foreigners—Decadence of -the capital and of the whole Empire.</p> - -<p class='c007'>If one enters China from Eastern Siberia by the Gulf of -Pe-chi-li after a long voyage round the Korean Peninsula, -the first impression of the Celestial Empire is distinctly unattractive. -The contrast between the shallow waters where -the vessel casts anchor, some miles distant from the mouth -of the Pei-ho, and the noble port of Vladivostok, or the -enchanting Bay of Nagasaki, with its verdant shores and -blue waters, enlivened by the picturesque sails of the fishing-junks, -is, to say the least, extremely depressing.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Nearly all the ports of the Celestial Empire are thus formed, -and can only be entered during a few hours of the day. Even -the mouth of the great Blue River is encumbered with shoals, -and its famous rival, the Yellow River, in its lower basin, -is divided up into such a multitude of channels that meander -through the marshy lands as to interrupt all direct navigation -from the sea. The Gulf of Pe-chi-li, which may be described -as the port of Peking, although situated closer to the Equator -than the Bay of Naples, or the mouth of the Tagus, seems, -with its choked-up estuaries, its storm-beaten shores, its fogs -and icy coat in winter, thoroughly typical of China and her -traditional inhospitality, and her eagerness rather to repulse -than to invite the stranger within her gates. From the -anchorage outside the bar it is difficult to discern the lowlying -coast; and the first objects to attract attention are mud -forts, mud houses in mud villages, and mud heaps marking the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_189'>189</span>graves in the cemeteries. This uninviting place is Ta-ku, -beyond which, a little higher up, at Tang-ku, the Pei-ho -ceases to be navigable for vessels of any tonnage. On landing, -a surprise awaits you—the railway. Commenced by Li Hung-chang, -for the purpose of transporting the coal from his -mines at Kaiping, a few miles to the north-east, branches -have been added, and since the summer of 1897 it takes -the traveller to Peking viâ Tien-tsin. An hour and a half -after leaving Tang-ku, I alighted at the former town amid a -mob of noisy coolies, who pounced upon me and my luggage. -We crossed the Pei-ho in a sampang instead of the ordinary -ferry-boat which conveys the Celestials, packed together like -sardines in a box, and stuck, apparently immovably, in the -most extraordinary postures. From the landing-place, we were -trotted in a jinrikisha drawn by a Chinaman through the Rue -de France, up Victoria Road to the Astor House, an American -hotel kept by a German; opposite it is a garden, over which -a white flag with a crimson circle in its centre, the emblem -of the Rising Sun, announces that the garden and the house -belong to the Japanese Consul. Thus was I first initiated to -the cosmopolitanism of a foreign concession in the Far East.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Tien-tsin is the biggest open port in North China and the -third in rank in point of activity and commerce in the whole -Celestial Empire. It is, moreover, an immense Chinese city -of nearly a million inhabitants, but its European concession is -very inferior to that of Shanghai, and as a native city it is -of little interest in comparison with Peking, Canton and many -other towns. It is from here that travellers used, in former -times, to begin the disagreeable journey to the capital, either -on horseback or by junk up the Pei-ho. The river route -was usually performed partly by sail and partly by oar, but -occasionally the boat had to be towed by men. The junks -took two or three days to ascend the sinuous course of the -river. Sometimes, however, when the wind was to the north, -and the shoals numerous, the journey occupied from four to -five days before Peking was reached. Now the daily express, -which speeds along at the rate of twenty miles an hour, takes -three hours and fifty-three minutes to cover the ground which -separates Tien-tsin from the station at Peking.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The country through which it passes is very flat, and it is -only just before arriving at its terminus that the blue outline -of some rather high hills come into sight towards the north-east. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_190'>190</span>In the month of September, when the rains are over -and are replaced by a drought that lasts until the end of -winter, the environs of Tien-tsin, including the cemetery, are -entirely under water, and as we looked from the train window, -we could see a coffin floating about, and another like gruesome -object stuck on the embankment of the line, which led us to -reflect that, though the Chinese make such a fuss over their -ancestors, they apparently care very little for their graves. The -inundation at first stretched as far as the eye could see. -Presently the land began to peep out. If you expect to find -the soil from which the waters have just retired uncultivated, -it will only be an evident proof that you know very little -about the indefatigable industry of the Chinese agriculturist, -and the great care and skill which he brings to his task. All -that emerges has already been carefully sown, even down to -the very brink of the water, and at a few steps from the -limits of the inundation, the future harvest which has sprang -up under the hot September sun from the moist but rich -soil begins to make its appearance. The mud villages now -succeed each other rapidly, and presently the traveller reaches -an admirably cultivated country where not an inch of soil is -wasted, and where the wheat and sorghum fields are alternated -by kitchen gardens and orchards.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The temporary station at Peking, built of planks and -galvanized iron, stands in the midst of this landscape. Very -little is to be seen of the high walls of the city, which are -almost entirely hidden by trees, and by a slight rising in the -land. Nothing indicates that the gates of the capital of the -oldest Empire in the world are so near. In order to traverse -the mile which separates the station from the entrance to -Peking, it is necessary to exchange the most highly perfected -of human conveyance for the most barbaric. The Chinese -are unwilling that the stranger should dispense, in order to -enter their most holy capital, with a thorough jolting in their -national carriage, unto which the Siberian tarantass may be -compared as the most luxurious of vehicles. Two enormous -wheels, covered with iron and garnished with a triple row -of nails, support this shapeless waggon, which is protected by -a blue awning, and is dragged along by two mules harnessed -one in front of the other. Whilst the driver sits in front -under the awning, the hapless traveller has to accommodate -himself on the floor, with his legs stretched out in front of him. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_191'>191</span>Now begins the torture, for one is literally jolted about against -the wooden sides of the cart like a pill in a box. Presently the -wheel goes over a huge stone, only to fall into a deep hole, or -stick in a rut. Meanwhile, the diabolical waggon behaves in a -most abominable manner, to the unutterable agony of its -wretched inmate, who lives in terror of being either precipitated -into the mud, or of having his brains knocked out by the -collapse of the whole structure. Of this latter catastrophe -there is little or no likelihood, for about the only good quality -this appalling conveyance can boast of is solidity: nothing -could break it. About twenty minutes after leaving the station -a high battlemented wall, surrounded by a mud-filled moat, is -reached. Next, you pass over a bridge, beyond which a gate -admits into a sort of half-moon surrounded by walls, beyond -which is yet another gate admitting to the city proper, where, -after another hour’s jolting, the unhappy traveller alights at a -hotel in Legation Street kept by a Frenchman.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Although not the most ancient city in the Celestial Empire, -Peking is an epitome of the rest of China, together with its -ancient civilization and its present stagnation and decadence. -It belongs to a very different type from the cities of Europe, or -even of the Moslem world, and the sight of its immense wall -and successive enclosures, which divide it into four distinct -parts, reminds one of Nineveh or Babylon. In the centre is -the ‘Forbidden’ or ‘Purple City,’ about a league in length -from north to south, and a quarter of a league in width, containing -the palaces of the Emperor and Empress Dowager, -and the gardens and the residences of a swarm of parasites -numbering, it is said, between six or eight thousand persons, -inclusive of guards, concubines, eunuchs, functionaries, gardeners -and other attendants upon the Imperial harem. The -only Europeans who are allowed to cross the sacred threshold -of the Purple City are the members of the Diplomatic Corps, -to whom the Emperor gives audience on New Year’s Day, -as well as since quite recently on the occasions of their arrival -or taking leave. Around the Purple City extends the Imperial -City, its walls painted pink, which in its turn is surrounded -by the Tatar City, a rectangle of 4 miles in length, by 3 -miles in width, whose sides face the cardinal points. Its -colossal walls are 50 feet high, and at their summit are -50 feet wide. Their external fronts consist of two strong -brick walls, rising from a substructure of stone. The interior -<span class='pageno' id='Page_192'>192</span>is filled up with earth, and the summit, covered with flagstones, -forms a walk bordered by embattled stone parapets. Bastions -project outwards, and huge pavilions built of brick, pierced -with many balistraria, and coated with highly varnished -coloured tiles, ornament its four corners and gates. It rises -only 99 feet above the ground, beyond which height it is -never allowed to build, lest the flight of the good spirits might -be inconvenienced thereby. This magnificent rampart, which -to the north-east and to the west rises abruptly from the midst -of the country, Peking having no suburbs, presents a most imposing -aspect; and it is not less impressive when beheld from -any one of the half-moons, which are very vast, and are built -before the various gates, but which, owing to the height of the -embattled walls which surround them on all sides, each of -which is surmounted by a massive brick pavilion, look like -wells.</p> - -<p class='c008'>To the south of the Tatar City is a group of less imposing -walls surrounding the lengthy rectangle which includes the -Chinese City, the commercial part of Peking. The broad -street that intersects it from north to south, and cuts it into -two equal parts, especially close to the Tsieng-Men Gate, by -which you pass into the Tatar City, is the most animated -artery of the city. In the central walk, paved with magnificent -flagstones, not one of which is now in its right place, and -which apparently only serve as stumbling-blocks to pedestrians, -and are covered with mud a foot deep in summer, and by a -pestilential dust in winter, circulate in the utmost confusion -the ever-present waggons, already described, palanquins, sedan-chairs, -whose colours vary with the dignity of the owner, chairs -drawn by mules, men riding on small Manchurian ponies, -indefatigable asses, which are the best means of locomotion in -the place, enormous one wheeled barrows, coolies struggling -under the burden of huge baskets filled with fruit, vegetables, -and other comestibles, fixed to the end of a very long pole -slung across their shoulders—all this busy world bustles along, -filling the air with shouts and cries of every kind, from the -croaking of the porters to the stentorian shouts of the waggoners. -Occasionally a long string of huge two-humped camels, a cord -running from the nostrils of one animal to the tail of the other, -and led by a Mongolian urchin, adds to the incredible confusion. -All this crowd, together with beasts and vehicles, has -to content itself with what, under ordinary circumstances, would -<span class='pageno' id='Page_193'>193</span>be a very broad roadway, if at least a third of it were not encumbered -by a sort of permanent open-air fair, carried on in -rows of booths, some of which are used as restaurants, others -as shops of every description. These booths turn their backs -to the middle of the street, and thus hide the line of shops -beyond, of which, from the centre of the road, you can only -perceive the enormous and innumerable signboards hanging -from a veritable forest of gaily-painted poles.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Beyond the Tsieng-Men Gate is situated the Beggars’ Bridge, -always thronged by groups of wretches clamouring for alms -and ostentatiously displaying the most appalling mutilations, -with all kinds of loathsome diseases added to their sordid -misery to excite compassion. The narrow side-walks, which -are bordered on the one hand by booths, and on the other by -big shops, are filled by a motley gathering of small shopkeepers, -each plying his business in the open-air barbers, -hairdressers, and fortune-tellers, among whom the crowd has -no little difficulty in threading its way. Here you see men in -light-blue blouses, with long pigtails; Chinese ladies with their -hair dragged back magpie-tail fashion, who balance themselves -painfully as they go along on their tiny deformed feet; Tatar -women, whose hair is puffed out on each side of their faces, and -who, like their Chinese sisters, stick a big flower behind their -ears. Not being crippled by bound feet, like their less fortunate -Chinese sisters, these women strut along with as firm a step as -their high-heeled clogs will permit. Their faces are bedaubed -with rice-flour, and their cheeks painted an alarmingly bright -red. Children with their heads shaved in the most comical -manner, dotted about with little tufts, that have a very funny -appearance, being cut according to the taste or caprice of -their parents, also run about. Among the well-clad children of -a better class are others, stark-naked, looking for all the world -like small animated bronzes, so dark and warm-coloured is -their polished skin. In order to avoid being mobbed, one -has occasionally to seek refuge in a shop, which usually opens -on to the street, and is without windows. In the back the -shopkeepers are peacefully seated behind their counters smoking -long pipes, whilst exhibiting their goods and listening to the -bargainings of their customers. These shops are always very -clean, and the goods are arranged with great order and even -considerable taste. A bowl with goldfish, or a cage full of -birds, adds not a little to the charm and peacefulness of the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_194'>194</span>scene, which is peculiarly refreshing after the noise and dirt of -the streets.</p> - -<p class='c008'>All the great arteries of Peking are equally filthy and closely -resemble each other, excepting that not one of them can equal, -either in the size of the shops or wealth of their contents, -the famous High Street that leads to the Tsieng-Men Gate. -In summer, after the rains, a coating of mud some two feet -and a half deep covers both road and footpath, which when -the weather dries again is converted into thick clouds of -dust. The sideways, always lower than the central road, are -usually filled by pools of green water, whence arises the most -horrible stench of decayed vegetables and rotting carcases of -animals, in addition to the accumulated offal of the neighbouring -houses. The wonder of it all is that the entire population -of Peking has not long since been swept away by some -appalling epidemic.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Leaving aside the few broad streets, one frequently comes -across immense open spaces, whose centres are generally -occupied by a huge dunghill. The narrow little streets that -branch out in all directions can be divided into two classes—those -which border on the three or four principal commercial -thoroughfares, which, like them, are lined with shops, but are -scarcely broad enough to allow of the passage of a single cart, -although they are thronged from morning to night by a seething, -noisy crowd; and the silent and deadly dull private streets, -where the dwelling-houses are to be found. On either side -runs a gray wall, whose monotony is broken at intervals by -a series of shabby little doors. If any one of these happens -to be open, one can only perceive from the street a small -courtyard a few feet square, and another dead wall, beyond -which is the inner courtyard, shut off from all observation, -and on which open all the windows of these singular dwellings, -not one of which is more than one story high, and always -protected by a gray double-tiled roof, usually ornamented at -the four corners by some grotesque stone beast or other, but -never turned up at the ends as are invariably those of the -temples and the monuments. There is no movement whatever -in these streets. A few children play before the doors, a dog -or so strays about in the road, and now and again a coolie or -an itinerant merchant, with two baskets suspended from a pole -across his shoulders, breaks the silence by a shrill cry; sometimes -a donkey or a cart passes along but fails to enliven the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_195'>195</span>deadly quiet of the street, which is so still and monotonous -that one might almost imagine one’s self in a village instead of -in one of the most populous cities in the world.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The scene changes entirely when Peking is seen from the -heights of the walls which form the only agreeable promenade -in the capital, to whose summits ascends neither the mud nor -the stench of this dirtiest of cities. The eye wanders pleasantly -over a forest of fine trees, for every house has one or two in -its courtyard, and barely a glimpse of the offensive streets is -to be had: only the gray roofs of the little houses; and thus -Peking looks for all the world like an immense park, from -whose midst rise the yellow roofs of the Imperial Palace, and -to the northern extremity of the city, a wooded height called -the Coal Mountain, surmounted by a pagoda.</p> - -<p class='c008'>As to monuments, there are very few in Peking worth the -seeing, and into these foreigners are never allowed to enter. -Twenty-five or thirty years ago visitors were admitted into a -great number of the temples: that of Heaven, which is now -being restored, and where the Emperor goes annually to make -a sacrifice, and the Temples of the Sun, the Moon, and of -Agriculture, and they were even allowed to peep into the -Imperial Gardens; but since the entry of the Anglo-French -troops into Peking, in 1860, the Chinese have been very -reticent with respect to their monuments, doubtless a consequence -of the salutary lesson they then received, which they -are philosophical enough to endeavour to forget, as all wise -folk should do things that wound their pride. To-day the -people affect to believe the official story invented on that -occasion to save appearances, wherein it was stated that the -Emperor Hien-feng, instead of fleeing before the allies, -merely went on a hunting excursion in his park at Johol in -Mongolia. Their usual insolence towards foreigners had completely -returned, to be modified, however, so soon as they heard -of the successes of the Japanese, and they were seized with -absolute terror at the prospect of beholding the Mikado’s -army marching through their gates.</p> - -<p class='c008'>When I was in Peking in the autumn of 1897 Europeans -were very rarely insulted in the streets. Before the War it was -otherwise, and I myself, like many another, did not escape the -impertinence of the Chinese at Canton. All the same, they took -good care to close their monuments to the inspection of the -‘foreign devils,’ and the only temple now open for our inspection -<span class='pageno' id='Page_196'>196</span>is that of Confucius, an immense but rather commonplace -hall with a steep roof supported on pillars painted a vivid -red. Foreigners are also permitted to visit the place where -the literati undergo their examinations. It consists of some -thousands of little cells lining several long, open corridors, -wherein the unfortunate candidates for law and medicine are -shut for several days while they answer the questions set them. -Then there is the old Observatory, wherein are two series of -highly useful instruments. The first dates from the time of -the Mongol Dynasty in the thirteenth century, and lies scattered -half buried among the weeds at the bottom of the courtyard; -the second series is less antiquated, having been made under -the direction of the Jesuit Verbiest, who was astronomer to the -Emperor of China in the early part of the seventeenth century. -They are shown on the walls. After seeing these thoroughly -up-to-date astronomical instruments, one has visited all there -is to be seen in the Imperial city of Peking.</p> - -<p class='c008'>It must be confessed, however, that walking in the streets, or -at the foot or on top of the enormous walls, is far more interesting -and instructive than visiting temples and palaces. At -every step the observer is struck with the activity and energy of -the Chinese people in contradistinction to the systematic stagnation -of its governing classes, and he soon comes to the conclusion -that China is in a state of decadence strongly resembling -in many details that of the Roman Empire at the time of the -invasions of the Barbarians. This erstwhile magnificent capital -is now only the shadow of its former self. The number of its -inhabitants, 700,000 to 800,000, is gradually decreasing, and -many houses are already in ruins. Some of the best streets, -which must at one time have been splendidly paved, are now -almost impassable, the result of neglect; drains, which at one -time were covered in, now run open through the streets, and -are choked up by nameless deposits which are never removed, -and even immense blocks of the celebrated walls are occasionally -allowed to crumble to ruin. Now and again an effort to -repair them is started, but as half the money intended for the -work usually remains in the hands of the officials and contractors -it is never well done, great care being taken not to -do the repairs thoroughly, for fear of preventing fresh disaster -and losing a chance to do it all over again. On the other hand, -on the rare occasions when the Emperor betakes himself and -his court to some summer residence or other, or to make a -<span class='pageno' id='Page_197'>197</span>sacrifice at one of the temples, things are furbished up a bit, -to make him believe that his capital is well looked after. The -ruts and the mud-heaps in the streets through which the procession -passes are hidden under a thick coating of sand, and -everything likely to offend the eye of the Son of Heaven is -covered over; even the miserable booths which encumber the -streets are removed, and the half-moons in the rampart have -their walls painted white, but only so high as the Imperial -eyes may be lifted as His Celestial Majesty passes by, lolling -back indolently in his magnificent palanquin.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_198'>198</span> - <h3 class='c001'>CHAPTER III<br /> <span class='large'>THE COUNTRY IN THE NEIGHBOURHOOD OF PEKING—NUMEROUS SIGNS OF THE DECLINE OF THE EMPIRE</span></h3> -</div> -<p class='c014'>From Peking to the Ming Tombs and the Great Wall of China—The -temples in the hills—Striking neglect of monuments and public works—Remains -of ancient and well-paved highroads, now replaced by -wretched ones, which are only temporarily repaired when the Emperor -or the Empress Dowager passes—The manner in which useful works -are neglected in China, and her treasure wasted.</p> - -<p class='c007'>A tour in the environs of Peking, to the Great Wall and to -some of the temples built on the hills to the west of the town, -confirms the bad impressions received in the city. This excursion -occupies between three and four days, and can be performed -with relative comfort, and in ordinary times without the least -danger. A ‘boy,’ that is to say, a domestic servant—a -combination of guide, interpreter, valet and cook, and who is -often, by the way, a very expert disciple of Vatel—a donkey and -donkey-boy, a waggon, drawn by two mules, and a waggoner, -are the staff necessary for this journey, which is usually performed -partly on foot and partly on donkey-back. This suite -may be considered somewhat numerous, but no other human -being but his own master would get a Chinese donkey to budge -a step forward, and the same may be said of the mules. As -to the ‘boy,’ he is the indispensable party into whose hands -you must trust yourself absolutely, even to the extent of -handing over your purse, so that he may settle your accounts -at the various inns and give the expected backsheesh to the -servants or to the guides and bonzes in the temples. Needless -to say, he perfectly understands how to take care of himself -in the matter of reserving for his own benefit the ‘squeezee,’ as -they say in pigeon-English. All Europeans who travel in the -Far East are obliged to have a retinue, which adds to their importance, -and in which every man has his particular function -<span class='pageno' id='Page_199'>199</span>to fulfil, and will not undertake the least share of his fellow-servants’ -work.</p> - -<p class='c008'>On leaving Peking by the Northern Gate, one crosses a sandy -and barren space, occupied in the thirteenth century by a part -of the town, which has now disappeared. Then come some -outlying towns, mainly inhabited by merchants, succeeded by -the admirably cultivated plain which extends from the north of -Peking to the foot of the hills. It is more barren to the south, -and trees only grow close to the villages, which are invariably -surrounded by groups of weeping-willows. In this region the -soil and the climate are too dry to allow of the cultivation -of rice, but a crop of winter wheat is obtained, and I have seen -it sown, and even appearing above the ground, in the month -of October. It does not freeze in the very dry earth, although -the thermometer falls twenty degrees, and the snow is never -very deep. This crop of wheat is harvested during May. -Presently you see fields of sorghum, millet, the staple food of -the people in these parts, and also of buckwheat. On all sides -the peasantry are hard at work, usually alongside strong -waggons, better built than those of the Siberian mujiks, and -drawn either by two mules or two horses, or sometimes by -three little donkeys. In the villages you can sometimes see -the grain thrashed or the long leaves of the sorghum being -bound in sheaves, which when dried are made into mats and -screens. The women help in the latter work, which invariably -takes place close to their doors, for they are never seen in -the fields. The roads are generally very bad, but have not -always been so. Many of the bridges are still in a superb condition, -although the fine flagstones with which they are paved -are in a shocking condition. Others, however, are in absolute -ruin, and the rivers which they once spanned have consequently -to be forded. Everything points to the fact that we -are passing over a once magnificent highroad, and effectively -it leads to the Tombs of the Mings, which explains why it -was built in such a sumptuous manner by that Dynasty, as -well as the state of abandonment into which it has fallen -since it has come into the hands of the Manchus, who dethroned -the Mings in 1644.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Very few places that I have ever visited have produced upon -me a greater impression of grandeur than the amphitheatre -formed by the lofty hills on whose last slopes stand the Tombs -of the thirteen Emperors of the Ming Dynasty. Each of these -<span class='pageno' id='Page_200'>200</span>monuments is formed of an aggregation of buildings shaded by -magnificent trees, that present a striking contrast to the usual -gray barrenness of Chinese hills. The broad road which leads -to them, once paved but now in ruins, passes under a superb -triumphal arch into the silent valley, which seems deserted, -although in reality it is highly cultivated; the little villages -clustering at the foot of the heights, too, are, as a rule, difficult -to make out. After passing under numerous elegant gateways, -supported by winged columns, we at length arrive at a gigantic -alley of colossal monoliths, representing figures of animals and -monsters alternately sitting and crouching, and statues of -famous legislators and warriors. Roads radiate towards each -of the Tombs, of which I only visited that of the first Ming -Emperor who reigned in Peking.</p> - -<p class='c008'>After having passed through a high wall by a porch with -three badly-kept gates, we crossed a spacious courtyard planted -with trees, and presently entered the great hall. Before the -whole length of the façade extends several flights of marble -steps with exquisitely sculptured balustrades. The hall itself is -not less than 200 feet long by about 80 feet wide and 40 feet in -height. It is nearly empty, and at first you can only perceive -the forty gigantic wooden columns, each formed of the trunk of -a tree, that support the roof, and which two men cannot -embrace. These columns are said to have come from the confines -of Indo-China. In the midst of them, half hidden away, -is a small altar, ornamented with a few commonplace china -vases, which are crumbling to pieces and full of dust. Beyond -the altar, enclosed in a sort of tabernacle, is the tablet inscribed -with the deceased Emperor’s name in three Chinese characters. -His body lies beyond, at the end of a gallery a mile long, -which penetrates straight into the heart of the hill, but is walled -up a short distance from the entrance, which one reaches -through two courtyards separated by a portico. From the lofty -tower that rises over this entrance, the walls of which, by the -way, are embellished with names which numerous Chinese and -a few Europeans have been vulgar enough to scratch on the -walls with the points of their knives, the view includes the whole -semicircle of hills, as well as all the Tombs, which, by reason -of the very simplicity of their design, create an impression -of extreme grandeur. Their erection must have cost as great -an amount of labour as that which was bestowed by the -Egyptians upon the sepulchres of their Pharaohs.</p> - -<p class='c008'><span class='pageno' id='Page_201'>201</span>The Great Wall of China is another colossal undertaking, in -order to reach which you take the high road to Mongolia that -passes through the Pa-ta-ling Gate at the extremity of the pass -of Nan-kow. This highroad, which for centuries has been -daily traversed by long caravans of camels, engaged in the -traffic between Mongolia, Siberia, and China, was formerly -paved with blocks of granite, of which no trace is now to be seen, -either on that part of the road in the little town of Nan-kow, or -in the difficult mountain pass, and the traveller may therefore -conclude that they have either been used in the construction -of houses or washed away by some torrent. Nan-kow is a -walled town, like almost all those in the neighbourhood of -Peking, including the curious old suburb of Chao-yung-kwan, -over one of the doors of which there is an inscription in six -languages, one of which has not yet been deciphered. Everywhere -on the mountain sides towers and picturesque ruins of -fortifications manifest how great has ever been the fear of the -Chinese of the Tatars and Mongols, for protection against -whom the Great Wall was built. It is divided into two parts, -the inner and the outer wall, the first of which extends for -nearly 1,560 miles, from Shan-hai-kwan on the Gulf of Pe-chi-li -into the Province of Kan-su on the upper Yellow River. -Built two hundred years before our era, needless to say, it -has been often repaired and rebuilt. Near the sea it is constructed -of stone, but brick has been used on the inland portions. -In thickness it varies from 16 feet to 20 feet, and is about the -same in height, but to the west it is nothing like so lofty.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The inner wall, which dates from the sixth century, was -almost entirely reconstructed by the Mings in the sixteenth -century, and is 500 miles long. This is the wall to be seen -from Pa-ta-ling, passing over the hill, and then proceeding -right and left to climb in zigzag fashion to the very summit of -the mountains. It is constructed after the model of the walls of -Peking, on a substructure of stone, with two rows of brick battlements. -The top is paved, and forms a roadway 11 feet in -width. Its height varies, according to the irregularity of the -land, between 12 feet and 20 feet, and at about every 300 feet -there are towers twice the height of the wall, also surrounded -by bastions and battlements. Although less imposing than the -Wall of Peking, the Great Wall of China does not deserve -the flippant remarks that have been made about it. Against an -enemy unprovided with artillery, and horsemen like the Mongols -<span class='pageno' id='Page_202'>202</span>and Tatars, it must have presented a very serious obstruction, -and if occasionally they have been able to scale it, it has -generally resisted every attempt at invasion. Although it has not -been used under the present Dynasty, which is of Tatar origin, -it has remained, thanks to the care bestowed upon it in -former times, one of the best preserved monuments in China.</p> - -<p class='c008'>It is otherwise with the greater number of the temples -scattered over the hills, which stand amidst groups of magnificent -trees, whose green foliage contrasts so pleasantly with -the gray, barren hills which the Chinese, like all other peoples -of the Far East, never cultivate. Visitors are pleasantly received -in the temples near Peking, some of which are used -as summer residences by European diplomatists tired of being -shut up in the city, whose pestilential miasmas occasionally -reach even their houses, although they are surrounded by -parks. Some of them are only wooden structures, with dwellings -for the bonzes surrounding courtyards on to which open -the various sanctuaries. The use of wood in the Far East for -building purposes does not prevent a certain display of magnificence -and art, and the Japanese temples at Nikko and many -other places are marvels of richness and beauty, although they -are entirely built of wood. Unfortunately, unless they are very -carefully looked after, they are naturally apt to deteriorate much -quicker than stone buildings. Needless to say, the Chinese -temples are in a very dilapidated condition. I cannot say that -I was impressed by the amazing collection of Buddhas, some -life-size, others colossal, some gilded and others painted, no -two of which are said to be exactly alike; or by the crowd of -horrible monsters with ferocious faces and abominable gestures -who guard the entrances to these temples. They one and all -filled me rather with disgust than with the slightest impression -of awe. This degenerate Buddhism is very different from that -which exists in Ceylon, and among certain Japanese sects. -The only traces of the original character of the religion, or at -any rate of the land from which it sprang, are to be found in -the lovely stone pagoda of the Pi-Yuen-Sse, whose style is -pure Hindu, and contains some exquisite bas-reliefs representing -scenes in the lives of Sakyamuni and his saints, or, -again, in the even more beautiful sculpture to be admired in -the Temple of the Yellow Tower.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The Summer Palace, which, by the way, was not a genuine -Chinese building, but erected under the direction of the Jesuits -<span class='pageno' id='Page_203'>203</span>in the eighteenth century in the style of Versailles, has not -been rebuilt since its destruction by the Allies in 1860, and all -access to its ruins has been prohibited. Not far distant is the -summer residence of the Empress Dowager, surrounded by -magnificent gardens. The road which leads to it is well kept. -For the matter of that, as the Empress was about to make a pilgrimage -to a neighbouring shrine at the time I passed that way, -all the roads were being tinkered up for her advent. Hundreds -of coolies were working under the direction of mandarins of the -second or inferior rank, with the white or gold button, who -were dashing on horseback hither and thither, giving orders -and generally superintending so that all irregularities were -rapidly disappearing under cartloads of sand. These costly -repairs were, however, only ephemeral.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The Chinese Government never hesitates about wasting -money on trivialities. On one occasion, a river happening to -upset certain arrangements in one of the Imperial gardens, -it was, at enormous cost, drained from its bed, and allowed -to inundate and ruin hundreds of farms belonging to the -unfortunate peasants. On another occasion, with a view to -worthily celebrating the sixtieth birthday of the Dowager -Empress, the money intended for the reorganization of the -army in Pe-chi-li was squandered on processions, illuminations, -and fireworks. Whenever money is needed for anything but -the gratification of the greed and vanity of the Court officials, it is -never forthcoming; and every traveller who has been to China -will corroborate what I have said concerning not only the -neighbourhood of Peking, but also of Canton and Shanghai. -The highroads have practically ceased to exist, and the bridges -are rapidly crumbling to ruin. The Imperial canal, one of the -most magnificent works of past generations, which goes from -Hang-Chow to Tien-tsin, a distance of over 940 miles, and -unites the Blue, the Yellow, and the Pei-ho Rivers, and also -the capitals of the middle provinces, whence are obtained the -best provisions, is now at many points choked up with sand and -stones, and in others it is only a few inches deep, and can only -be used for local traffic. China of to-day is but a shadow of -what she has been, for her sole object in existence is to deceive, -and her administration is rotten to the core. This decadence -dates centuries back, but it culminated five years ago, when an -Empire of 400,000,000 inhabitants was obliged to humble itself -to a nation ten times its inferior in population and resources.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_204'>204</span> - <h3 class='c001'>CHAPTER IV<br /> <span class='large'>THE LITERARY AND MANDARIN CLASS—PRINCIPAL CAUSES OF THE DECADENCE OF THE EMPIRE</span></h3> -</div> -<p class='c014'>The literati or governing class—How it is recruited from the mass of the -people through examinations—Bachelors, Masters of Arts and Doctors—Enormous -number of candidates—The functionaries exclusively -selected from the literati—Most of the posts sold—The syndicate for -the exploitation of public offices—The gravest defect of the system, -the examinations, the subjects selected being merely exercises in -rhetoric and memory about an immense quantity of nonsensical -matter supplied by the Chinese classics and ancient annals—Abortive -attempts to introduce small doses of Western science into these examinations—Superstitions -of the literati—This stupid system of examination -the principal cause of Chinese isolation—Complete disappearance -of the military spirit resulting from the same fatal cause—Hostility -and contempt entertained by the literati against all European -progress—Difficulty of suppressing or reforming the mandarinate.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The curse of China and the main reason why her remarkable -people, who once deserved to be compared with the ancient -Romans, have sunk to the degraded condition in which we -find them at present, is the mandarinate, which she has the -misfortune to consider one of her chief glories. It is this -corrupt and antiquated system that is destroying the Celestial -Empire. It has often been observed that nations generally -have the Government they deserve, and it is undoubtedly -true that the administration of China is, in a measure, the -logical result of her geographical situation and singular history, -to which might be added the peculiar character of her people. -On the other hand, there is no question that the worst traits of -the national character are accentuated in the mandarin class -which governs the country, and saps its activity and energy.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Theoretically, the Chinese Government is based on paternal -principles; as a matter of fact, it is entirely in the hands of -the class known as ‘literati,’ from whose ranks all the State -<span class='pageno' id='Page_205'>205</span>officials, or mandarins, are recruited; and if we wish to understand -the primary causes of the misgovernment of the Celestial -Empire, we must become thoroughly acquainted with the origin -and manners of the mandarins, who are not hereditary, but -recruited from the mass of the people in the most democratic -manner in the world by means of public competitive examinations. -These examinations confer three honorary degrees, -which might be likened to those bestowed by our Universities: -Bachelors, Masters of Arts, and Doctors. The degree of -Bachelor is competed for in each district (there are sixty districts -per province), and that of Master of Arts in the eighteen provincial -capitals; that of Doctor, on the other hand, is only to be -obtained in Peking. One may imagine the esteem in which -these degrees are held by the people when I mention that in -1897, when I was at Shanghai, no less than 14,000 candidates -came up for examination at Nanking, with only 150 honours to -be distributed amongst them. It is considered a great honour -for a family to include a literate amongst its members, and his -obtaining his degree is celebrated throughout the entire province -which enjoys the privilege of being his birthplace. Should he -be fortunate enough to obtain his laureate at Peking, he is welcomed -on his return to his native town as a veritable conquering -hero. It is quite true that, in order to pass his examination, he has -to go through an amount of physical suffering and patient -endurance which would deter any but a Chinaman from the -attempt. Each candidate is shut up for three whole days -in a box-like cell four feet square, in which he cannot -even lie down, with no other companions than his brush, -paper and stick of Chinese ink; and barely an examination -passes without some student or other being found dead in his -cell. According to popular rumour, it is said that the all-pervading -corruption penetrates even into these cells, and that -not a few candidates succeed less through their merits than -through the golden gate; and it has even been observed that -the sons and near relatives of existing high functionaries are -pretty sure to pass; but as a rule, however, it seems that merit -generally obtains its reward. It is, however, after the examinations -that begin the real difficulties of those who are not rich -and are without influential friends. One might naturally expect -that after the trouble, fatigue, and expense of the examination -were over, some post or other would surely be forthcoming -to recompense the efforts of the candidate; but the contrary -<span class='pageno' id='Page_206'>206</span>is the rule, and many a man has had to wait a lifetime before -obtaining the reward for which he has striven so hard. Nevertheless, -those students who seem to possess exceptional ability -generally push themselves forward in the following manner: a -syndicate has been formed which advances the funds necessary -to assist the aspirant in mounting the first rung on the ladder of -fame, and to help him further, until he is in a position to return -the money borrowed, either in cash or kind, with a very handsome -interest. The idea of exploiting public offices as a -sort of commercial concern is, to say the least, ingenious, and, -what is more, it seems to be occasionally exceedingly remunerative. -On the other hand, the expense and the intrigue that -such a pernicious system must necessarily involve can better -be imagined than described. As an instance in point, I was -assured that the position of Tao-tai or Governor of Shanghai, -worth, for not more than three years, a salary of 6,000 taels, -or £900, a year, was recently bought for over £30,000.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Even worse than the purchase of public offices, and the -favouritism shown at examinations, are the subjects chosen for -competition, which are exclusively selected from Chinese -classical and scholastic literature. The works of Confucius, -those of his disciples, of Mencius and of other philosophers who -enlightened the world two thousand years ago, and a mass of -quaint lore derived from the ancient Chinese chronicles, form -the subject of these extraordinary examinations, and the students -have to learn some hundred volumes as nearly as possible by -heart, memory being the one thing most highly prized by the -Board of Examiners. The student is expected to quote -certain extracts word by word as they appear in the books, -and his examination papers must, moreover, be embellished by -a great quantity of quotations—the more the better. An -elegant style is obtained only through acquaintance with as -many of the 60,000 Chinese characters as possible, from which -the student is expected to make an appropriate selection, and, -as each sign means a word, and not a few of these are almost -unknown, and only to be found in some hidden corner of an -ancient volume, the waste of time is appalling. The preparatory -instruction, therefore, simply consists in cramming the wretched -candidate with a knowledge of as great a number of signs or -characters, and quotations from the Celestial classics, as -possible. One of the most curious features of the Chinese is -that, although everybody knows how to read and write a little, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_207'>207</span>no one can do so perfectly, for the simple reason that no -Chinaman has ever been known to completely master the -voluminous alphabet of his country. The most ignorant has -acquired some ten or a dozen characters relating to his trade, -and sufficient for his purpose. When a man has mastered -6,000 or 8,000 he is considered learned, and, when we come -to think of it, there must be very few ideas that cannot be -expressed by so many thousands of words. Many of the -higher literati manage to acquire even 20,000 words, and -the state of the mind of that man may safely be left to the -reader’s imagination, especially if we reflect that he must -have passed his entire youth studying by rote thousands of -signs only distinguishable from one another by the minutest -strokes, and in acquiring a prodigious amount of obsolete -knowledge from classical books and annals whose authors -lived in remote antiquity. Of late years a slight modification -has been introduced in the shape of certain concessions to -what is officially called the ‘new Western culture.’ To the -usual questions selected from the works of Confucius and other -philosophers have now been added the identification of names -mentioned in modern geography, and since the Chino-Japanese -War the examiners at Nanking ask their candidates some very -grave and informing queries in astronomy, as: ‘What is the -apparent diameter of the sun as seen from the earth? and what -would be that of the earth as seen from the sun or from some -other planet?’ The following sage question is typical of -the intellectual condition of both examiner and examined: -‘Why is the character in writing which represents the moon -closed at the bottom, and the one which represents the sun -left open?’</p> - -<p class='c008'>In the capital of a province near Shanghai the learned -examiners wished to encourage the study of mathematics, and, -accordingly, prizes were offered for competition and a solemn -circular sent out to encourage young men to take part in the -examination. Some young fellows, who had been educated in -the missionary schools, solved most of the problems offered -fairly well, and in accordance with the rules of modern elementary -education. Others, on the other hand, who were better -acquainted with the Four Books and the Five Great Classics -than with Western geometry, made the remarkable discovery -that the problems were explained in an old work written many -centuries ago, with the result that they simply copied word by -<span class='pageno' id='Page_208'>208</span>word the fantastical solutions therein formulated, and, of -course, carried off the prizes. In the following year one of the -professors of a foreign missionary college asked leave for a -competent European teacher to be included in the examining -committee in order to assist in the preparation of the papers -and to pronounce a verdict upon the answers sent in. Needless -to say, the demand was refused and the questions were -sent out without the least attempt to insure their being loyally -answered. Among the questions asked at a competitive -scientific examination in Chekiang in 1898 were the following: -‘How are foreign candles made, and in what consists -their superiority over those manufactured in China?’ ‘Name -the principal ports touched at by the steamers running between -Japan and the Mediterranean.’ ‘To which of the new sciences -and methods which people are endeavouring to introduce -should the greatest importance be attached?’ ‘Write an essay -on international law.’ Comment is needless.</p> - -<p class='c008'>These foolish innovations, of course, do not change the fundamental -scholastic and rhetorical character of Chinese examinations, -and the usual themes for the compositions remain -identical. Here are two examples quoted by Mr. Henry -Norman: ‘Confucius hath said, “In what majesty did Chun -and Yu reign over the Empire, as though the Empire was -as nothing unto them!” Confucius hath said, “Yao was -verily a great sovereign. How glorious he was! Heaven -alone is grand, and Yao only worthy to enter it. How exalted -was his virtue! The people could find no words wherewith to -qualify it.”‘<a id='r22' /><a href='#f22' class='c006'><sup>[22]</sup></a> This was the theme that had to be developed -by many a flower of rhetoric. It is only through the study of -these books, written twenty centuries ago, and encumbered by -parables and affected maxims, and of ancient annals crammed -with fantastic legends believed in as absolute facts, that are -selected the members of the class who are expected to govern -China!</p> - -<p class='c008'>The result of this method of education was exemplified as -late as 1897, two years after a war which had brought the -Celestial Empire within an inch of ruin, when a censor, one of -the highest officials in the Empire, addressed a document to -the Emperor, wherein he protested against the concessions -made to the inventions of the Western barbarians, which he -<span class='pageno' id='Page_209'>209</span>did not hesitate to qualify as calculated to disturb the peace -of the dead. Instead of constructing railways, he gravely -insisted, it were wiser to offer a handsome reward to the man -who should recover the secret of making flying chariots to be -drawn by phœnixes which certainly existed in the good old times. -A little time previously a member of the Tsung-li-Yamen had -lifted his voice to protest against the various railway embankments -and the nails that studded the lines, which, he believed, -were likely to inconvenience and wound the sacred dragons -who protect the cities of the Empire, and who dwell beneath -the soil. The strange superstitions of the <em>feng-shui</em> geomancy -dealing with the circulation through the air of good and evil -spirits, and with the prescribed height to which buildings may -be erected, and the exact positions of doors and other like -grave matters, which, it seems, unless they be properly attended -to, are apt to upset and offend the flying spirits in their progress -through space, exercise a greater empire over the minds -of Chinese officials in the very highest places than matters -which we should consider of the greatest importance.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The fact that the mandarinate is recruited from the democracy -renders it even more pernicious than if it constituted a -hereditary aristocracy, for, as it stands, nobody has any interest -in overthrowing it. The most intelligent people try to enter -it, and it attracts all the most gifted men in the Empire, but -only to corrupt them. The literary class enjoys an enormous -prestige, and the poorest man lives in the hope of seeing his -son one of its learned members. It, therefore, does not excite -any of that hatred usually provoked by caste privilege, and -thus does not stand the least danger of being upset. On -the other hand, the condition to which it has reduced the -Celestial Empire is a condemnation of the system of examination -for Government office, and many a Western State might -do well to study this question and to take its lesson to heart. -That its effects have been more accentuated in China than -elsewhere is undeniable, being the result of diverse historic -and ethnographical circumstances peculiar to that nation. The -Chinese reached a high state of civilization long before our -era, and being more numerous and intelligent than their neighbours, -so soon as they were cemented into one compact -nationality they proceeded to subjugate Indo-China and -Korea; and so it came to pass that China had no dangerous -foes to disturb her, Japan being isolated in her island Empire, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_210'>210</span>and she was separated from India by a formidable mountain -barrier and from the West by immense deserts. From that -time the Chinese had nothing to trouble them, and had but -to live in quiet admiration of the labours of their ancestors, -who were the authors of the perfect peace which they enjoyed, -and thus little by little they accustomed themselves to look -upon them as superior beings and as types of perfection. -More advanced than any of their tributary subjects, and having -nothing to fear from competition, they became lost in self-admiration, -or, rather, in the admiration of those who had -made their country what it was, and ended by believing that -no further progress was either necessary or possible, and thus -are now absolutely non-progressive.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The isolation and the want of emulation in which China has -existed for so many centuries have destroyed whatever energy -and initiative she might otherwise have possessed. It should be -remarked, however, that the Roman Empire was in very much -the same condition, and for the same reason, at the time of the -invasion of the Barbarians, and that outside the moral revolution -effected by Christianity—which, by the way, only obtained its -fullest developments by the overthrow of the Empire—no further -progress was being made. The sterile admiration of bygone -greatness, therefore, is the foundation-stone of the doctrines of -Confucius. The Chinese people, who are essentially practical -and positive, and less given, perhaps, than any other in the -world to study general questions and lofty ideals, soon deteriorated -under so retrogressive a system, and eventually lost -all sight of the origin of many of their most important institutions. -Religion and morals were reduced to mere rites and -ceremonies that only conceal the emptiness of Chinese civilization, -and so the nation came to the conclusion that the one -thing in this world worth the doing was to save appearances, -and conceal corruption beneath a flimsy mask.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The isolation of China and her superiority over her neighbours -produced another very grave consequence—the ruin of -that martial spirit which has obliterated all idea of duty and -sacrifice. The military mandarins are despised by their civil -colleagues, and their tests consist almost exclusively of physical -exercises such as archery and the lifting of heavy weights. -‘One does not use good iron to make nails, nor a good man to -make a soldier,’ says the Chinese proverb, and thus it is that -the Chinese army is recruited from a horde of blackguards -<span class='pageno' id='Page_211'>211</span>and plunderers, whose only good qualities are their contempt for -life and physical endurance, which might under proper management -turn this raw material into an excellent army.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The Celestial Empire is quite as incapable of resisting -the advance of modern civilization as it is of assimilating it. -From the literati who govern the land nothing is to be expected, -for they will neither learn nor forget anything. Their prejudices -are so strong as to prevent their accepting any great -movement of reform, even if it were in their interests, and -in the stagnant position in which China is at present, aided -by the lack of intercommunication between the provinces, -the mandarins do exactly as they please. The <cite>Peking Gazette</cite>, -the official paper, described quite recently in the most glowing -terms the suppression of a revolt, showing at the same time -the expenses incurred and the rewards offered to those who -had aided in its suppression. The real truth of the story -was that no revolution whatever had taken place in the district -mentioned, and the only unusual event which had occurred was -the pursuit of a runaway thief by three soldiers. Such an -instance could not possibly occur in a well-regulated State, and -naturally the men who profited by the lie will not be very -desirous of a change in so profitable a system. ‘Those who -despair most of China are those who know her best,’ once -said a missionary to me; and his words have been confirmed -by nearly every traveller in the Far East with whom I have -spoken on the subject. No reform can be expected in the -country from within, and a proof in point will be found in -the history of the Palace Revolution of September 9th, 1898. -The question, therefore, which presents itself is whether -external pressure can be brought to bear on China with a view -to reforming her Government without causing the dislocation -of the Empire.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_212'>212</span> - <h3 class='c001'>CHAPTER V<br /> <span class='large'>THE CHINESE PEOPLE AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS</span></h3> -</div> -<p class='c014'>Great antiquity of China’s national existence—Stagnation of her organization -as well as of her social, religious and administrative institutions—Unity -of Chinese civilization notwithstanding varied surroundings, -differences of language and of racial origin, it being much more inflexible -than that of the Western world—Some of the principal -characteristics of the Chinese—Love of false appearances—Gulf that -divides the theoretical from the practical in all matters of Chinese -administration—Corruption of the Chinese Government and its determination -to impede progress—Lightness of the taxes—The mass of -the people apparently happy under distressing circumstances—The -good-humour and liveliness of the Celestials—Pity said to be absolutely -excluded from the Chinese character—Why the Chinese make bad -soldiers—Organization of the family and position of women—Vices of -the Chinese: love of gambling, opium, filthy habits and superstitions—Their -better qualities—The people themselves not in a state -of decadence—Primary effects of contact with Western civilization.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The Chinese are at one and the same time the most numerous -and the longest existing nation in the world. The annals of -the Celestial Empire date as far back as those of Egypt, and -twenty centuries ago, when States which now rule the earth -were in process of formation, China, having undergone several -evolutions, was already constituted as she is to-day. The -Chinese have never been subjected to any of those marked and -repeated changes which, during the last two thousand years, -have so profoundly modified the social organization and the -manners and customs of other countries; and even the introduction -of a new religion did not produce in the East anything -comparable to the revolution which, at about the same time, -occurred in the West through the spread of Christianity. -Buddhism did not modify the Chinese people, but the -Chinese people modified Buddhism after their own image and -likeness, without, however, permitting the doctrines of Sakyamuni -<span class='pageno' id='Page_213'>213</span>to exercise the least influence over their character, or -change an iota of their ideas concerning life and morality, -which were determined by Confucius and other sage Celestials, -being in reality derived less from the meditations of philosophers -or the inspiration of prophets than from the intuitive instinct -of the race. The institutions of China have not altered the -mental habits or method of life upon which they profess to be -modelled, any more than has the theoretical principle of family -existence altered the Imperial Government; for the Chinese -even now often qualify their high officials by the endearing -epithets ‘father’ and ‘mother.’ Political revolutions have not -made a deeper impression upon the fossilized organization of -the Chinese Government, than has religion on the character -and manners of the people. The various dynasties that have -succeeded each other have changed nothing, although some -of them have been of foreign origin: the Mongolian in the -thirteenth century and the Manchurian in our own time; but -they effected no variations in the system of Government, and -only placed certain functionaries to watch over the mandarins, -precisely as the Tatar marshals are instructed to spy upon the -officials of nowadays.</p> - -<p class='c008'>China has always been governed after Chinese methods, and -although she has occasionally been conquered by foreigners, she -has invariably absorbed them into her own civilization, and -obliged them to observe her traditions. The Chinese care -very little about the future, the greatness or the independence -of their country; but they cling with extraordinary tenacity to -their old manners and customs, and thereby offer a striking -contrast to their neighbours the Japanese, who, notwithstanding -their intense patriotism, will make any sacrifice, even that of -religious principle and most cherished tradition, if they think -that they may thereby benefit their Empire. The Japanese -have almost the same conception of patriotism as Europeans, -but not so the Chinese, with whom this virtue is merely a racial -affair, which in the hour of danger invariably proves of little -or no avail, especially against adversaries of a kind never -previously encountered.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Does there exist, beyond this intense love of old customs -and of an immutable civilization, any bond of union among -the three or four hundred millions of human beings who -constitute the population of China?<a id='r23' /><a href='#f23' class='c006'><sup>[23]</sup></a> At first sight no people -<span class='pageno' id='Page_214'>214</span>could possibly appear more thoroughly homogeneous than the -Chinese; but it is not necessary to stay long among them -to perceive that even from the physical point of view there are -certain racial differences which make it more difficult at first -to note the dissimilarity which separates their race from our -own. Even more striking are the diverse dialects spoken in -the Empire, several of which are not mere patois, but distinct -languages, rendering it impossible for a native of Canton or -Foochow to make himself understood at Peking; and in -many provinces these idiomatic peculiarities are very interesting. -In Fo-kien no less than three patois are spoken—the -Amoy, Swatow, and the Foochow, which are utterly different -from each other. Between the cities of Peking and Tien-tsin, -scarcely thirty leagues apart, there is already a marked difference -in the matter of dialect. It is also a noteworthy fact -that very little sympathy exists among the Chinese from different -provinces, who keep aloof from each other even when circumstances -oblige them to live in the same town. Very marked, -too, are the divergent characteristics and temperaments observable -between the inhabitants of the North and those of -the South, the former being much the most energetic and enterprising, -but at the same time more hostile to foreigners. The -Central Government is almost unknown by the multitudes outside -of Peking, and it would be a comparatively easy task to -raise an army in one part of China to fight against the inhabitants -of another.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The question may now be asked whether China, which covers -an area equal to that of Europe, and is even more thickly -peopled, is less homogeneous than our own Continent. Does -there exist between the various Chinese provinces the same -differences that mark each of the nations that in the aggregate -form Europe? From the geographical and climatic point of -view it is evident that the difference is not very great, although -China possesses very high mountains only on her Western -<span class='pageno' id='Page_215'>215</span>frontier, and her plains are much more extensive and continuous. -But from the ethnical point of view it would be an -exaggeration to state that there is much analogy between China -and Europe, since the former is certainly much the more homogeneous. -The different countries of our Continent are inhabited -by peoples who are only remotely related to each other, and -who are merely united by the ties of a common civilization, -whereas amongst the subjects of the Son of Heaven the ties -are much stronger and the physical resemblance is more -marked. I am, of course, speaking of the inhabitants of China -proper only—of the eighteen provinces, to which might be -added a nineteenth, Ching-king, or Southern Manchuria, now -in process of colonization by the Chinese. The various -tributary peoples belonging to the Celestial Empire, such as -the Mongolians, the Thibetans and the Turki in Eastern -Turkestan, are absolutely distinct from each other and from -the predominant race; but although the dependencies which -they cover constitute two-thirds of the surface of the entire -Empire, they only form a twentieth of the entire population, -and do not share in its Government.</p> - -<p class='c008'>It should be observed that the absence of any sympathy -between the inhabitants of the different Chinese provinces might -have been found quite recently exemplified in Europe, not -merely between nation and nation, but between province and -province in the same country, and that linguistic variations are -still noticeable even in the most homogeneous countries. -History is full of instances of intestine troubles which have -existed in nearly every European nation, and it is but thirty -years since the Germans were at war with each other.</p> - -<p class='c008'>I have often heard related the misadventures of two -Celestials, natives of different provinces, who, whilst travelling -in Europe, met one day only to discover that their sole -means of making themselves understood was by speaking -English. But does not this story recall the recent Slav -Congress in Austria, whose debates had to be held in German -in order that they might be followed by all the delegates? -The existence of patois and dialects results from the inhabitants -of certain districts having neither the time nor the money to -go beyond their village further than the nearest market-town. -Then, again, education in China does not tend, as in Europe, -to produce unity of language, since its writing is quite independent -of pronunciation, and the innumerable letters of its -<span class='pageno' id='Page_216'>216</span>alphabet represent, not sounds, but ideas. The lack of any -spirit of patriotism may be largely attributed to this state of -absolute isolation, to which may be added a general and very -profound ignorance. But patriotism as we understand it is, -after all, a matter of modern sentiment, therefore not to be -looked for in so antiquated a nation as the Chinese.</p> - -<p class='c008'>It matters little whether there be a common origin or not, -since our notions of race are very difficult to define, and modern -anthropological and ethnographical discoveries tend more and -more towards the acceptance of the theory of the existence -of distinct races. Whereas the patois of the ten northernmost -provinces are merely dialects of the Manchurian languages, -those of the south, especially of Fo-kien and Canton, are totally -different, and apparently confirm the theory that the Chinese -invaders who came from the north-east found the land already -inhabited by a people whom they assimilated, precisely as they -are doing in our time in Manchuria, and as did the Romans -in ancient Gaul.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The entire population of China, excepting a few obscure -mountain tribes, the remainder, possibly, of the autochthones -of the South, whatever their origin, have for centuries moulded -themselves on a civilization that penetrates far deeper into the -details of every-day life than any known in Europe. The -result is a greater uniformity among the people who have -adopted it than will be found among men who follow a less -rigid code that permits of greater latitude and affords a freer -scope for the exercise of individuality. Many peculiarities in -the Chinese character appear at first contradictory, even to -those who have lived long in the country, and who assert that -no European can ever thoroughly understand a Chinaman -because his mind is so differently constituted.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The most striking characteristic of the Chinese, says Mr. -Arthur H. Smith, an American missionary who has lived -twenty-two years in China, in his admirable book ‘Chinese -Characteristics,’ is their remarkable manner of ‘facing’ a -thing. To save appearances, or to ‘face’ a difficulty cunningly -rather than boldly, is the endeavour of the inhabitants of the -Kingdom of the Son of Heaven, and is the key, moreover, to a -great many other matters that might otherwise appear incomprehensible. -Every Chinaman considers himself an actor, -whose public words, acts, and deeds have nothing in common -with reality. The most praiseworthy and even the most innocent -<span class='pageno' id='Page_217'>217</span>of actions, unless it be performed in a certain way, -will only cover its author with shame and ridicule. If a fault -is committed, the guilty party is expected to deny it with the -utmost effrontery in spite of convincing evidence, and on no -account must he confess himself guilty, even if he is obliged to -repair the injury done. From the highest to the lowest, the -Chinese entertain a profound respect for shamming. A boy -caught stealing will slip the coveted object up his sleeves, -stoop down and pretend to pick it up, and with the smile of -an angel present it to his master, saying, ‘Here is what you -have lost.’ A little over a hundred years ago the mandarins -who were escorting Macartney, the English Ambassador, into -the presence of the Son of Heaven, profited by his ignorance of -their language to place over his carriage an inscription to the -effect that it contained ‘the Ambassador bringing tribute from -the Kingdom of England,’ and thus kept up the fiction of the -universal sovereignty of their lord and master.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Undoubtedly the observance of a certain amount of etiquette -is both useful and praiseworthy, and so considered by all -civilized nations; but Chinese etiquette is the most punctilious -and complicated that was ever imagined, and never on any -account to be neglected for a single instant. This excessive -attention to outward forms, which, if they be but observed, -may conceal any kind of iniquity, explains the fact that in -China there is a deeper gulf between theory and practice than -in any other country in the world. That it has always been so -may be questioned, but at present the morals of Confucius -have long since been lost in a code of etiquette which defines -virtue as consisting in the observance to the letter of the three -hundred rules of ceremony and the three thousand regulations -of conduct, without paying the least attention to the spirit -in which they were originally formulated.</p> - -<p class='c008'>It is in the system of Government in China that the contrast -between precept and practice becomes most evident. -As Mr. Henry Norman remarks with hardly exaggerated -severity, ‘Every Chinese official, with the possible exception -of one in a thousand, is a liar, a thief and a tyrant!’ -Examples confirming this assertion are very numerous, and -even the celebrated Li Hung-chang cannot be included in the -list of those officials who are noted for their honesty, since he -had to disgorge a great part of the immense fortune he had -accumulated—twenty millions, it is reputed—to save his head -<span class='pageno' id='Page_218'>218</span>during the Chino-Japanese War, when he had to purchase -the goodwill of many Court dignitaries, eunuchs and others, -notwithstanding which, money matters still occupy a great deal -of his attention. I had the honour while I was at Peking to -dine at the French Legation in the company of this exalted -personage, on the occasion of the visit of the Admiral commanding -the French Fleet in the Far East and several officers -of his staff. Li conversed through the intermediary of an -interpreter named Ma, to whom he spoke in the Fo-kien, his -native dialect; it appears he speaks Manchu very badly. He -put to each of the guests several polite questions usual among -Orientals, inquired after their rank, their age, and invariably -wound up his courteous inquiries by asking: ‘Well, and what -is your salary?’ With us the income of an official is a matter -of very little importance, but with the famous mandarin it was -the essential.</p> - -<p class='c008'>For centuries the administration of China has been as corrupt -as it is to-day, but for all this it has never driven the people -to rebellion. It is true that occasionally there are local agitations, -whose chiefs go so far as to pounce upon offending -representatives of authority and convey them to the capital of -the district, or province, to demand their degradation, which -is more often than not accorded—a fact which inspired an -English paper at Shanghai to descant on the ‘democratic -manner in which the Chinese participate in their government.’ -Oppression tempered by revolt is the rule which prevails in the -Celestial Empire, but there is no fear of a general revolution -against so degenerate a system. This administrative machine, -however, which appears to us to be so detestable, only impedes -progress, but does not affect the population, which is accustomed -to routine habits hundreds of years old, and has not -the remotest idea that a reform is either necessary or practicable. -When an enterprising man wishes to introduce even -the most insignificant of modern trades, he invariably attracts -the attention of the mandarins, to whom he is obliged to apply -for permission to carry on his novelty, and will only obtain it -after much bribery and a promise to pay such a huge percentage -on his profits as to render the returns of his venture -too insignificant to be worth his continuing it. But for the -uncomplaining and unprogressive, who have nothing to do -with administrative affairs, life in China flows easily and quietly -enough. The taxes are very light, especially for the peasantry, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_219'>219</span>who live by what they harvest in their fields, or for the workpeople, -whose wants are very small They fall, however, heavily -upon commercial transactions and the transport of merchandise, -are a great impediment to commerce, and though they -never affect them directly, for their poverty is far too great to -permit of their buying anything, they contribute indirectly to -keep the inferior classes in a state of abject poverty. According -to the investigations of Herr von Brandt, former German -Minister to Peking, and a man who has studied China profoundly, -the land tax in China reaches £5,250,000, being -about 3s. per acre in the North, with a maximum of 13s. in -the South. This is not much when we consider the intense -activity of Chinese agriculture, which extracts from the soil -almost everywhere two harvests annually. The total of the -Budget, according to the same authority, reaches 100,000,000 -taels, or £15,000,000. Other authorities estimated it as high -as £24,000,000, but even this is not excessive. The following -is Von Brandt’s account of the different sources of revenue of -the Chinese Empire:</p> - -<table class='table2' summary=''> - <tr> - <td class='c010'>Inland Revenue</td> - <td class='c011'>£5,250,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c010'>Treaty port Customs (obtained by the International Customs Service)</td> - <td class='c011'>3,450,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c010'>Right for transit in the interior (<em>likin</em>)</td> - <td class='c011'>1,800,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c010'>Native Customs and tax on native opium</td> - <td class='c011'>1,500,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c010'>Salt tax</td> - <td class='c011'>1,500,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c010'>Sale of titles and honorary distinctions</td> - <td class='c011'>750,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c010'>Tribute of rice</td> - <td class='c011'>450,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c010'>Licenses, etc.</td> - <td class='c011'>300,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c010'> </td> - <td class='c011'><hr /></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c024'>Total</td> - <td class='c011'>£15,000,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c010'> </td> - <td class='c011'><hr class='double' /></td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p class='c030'>The public revenues, gathered by the provincial treasuries, are -sent on to Peking after deduction of the amount necessary for -the requirements of the district. It is stated that only a third -of these receipts is disposable for the needs of the Central -Government.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The mass of the Chinese people endure, therefore, without -much discontent, a Government which in ordinary time weighs -very lightly upon them, that meddles very little in the affairs -of their villages or communes, always very strongly constituted -in the Far East, and, above all, never disturbs their -ancient customs. Exceedingly poor, and only able to live by -dint of hard work, and having a very severe struggle for life, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_220'>220</span>the people have no time to waste on philosophical reflections, -and, moreover, possess no standard of comparison to assist it -to judge of the hardness of its fate. In addition to this, we -must not forget that the Chinese are endowed by nature with -an excessive spirit of conservatism and a patience and perseverance -quite beyond praise, to which must be added a -jovial good-humour that enables them to endure an existence -which to the people of any other country would appear intolerable. -Peasants and workpeople alike have no hope of -ever seeing their humble condition improved, and their prospective -existence is one of absolute monotony, entirely passed -in sowing and reaping, in carrying heavy burdens, in the -turning of looms, or in labouring the earth, without having, -excepting on a few feast-days, a moment’s rest, save what is -absolutely necessary for meals and sleep. None the less, they -always seem very happy, complain very little, and thoroughly -enjoy their few pleasures, and apparently absolutely ignore their -troubles.</p> - -<p class='c008'>This happy spirit of resignation explains why the Chinese, -notwithstanding their poverty, are one of the most contented -people in the world, and, consequently, one of the happiest; -but, unfortunately, they are exposed from time to time to -dreadful calamities: an inundation, an epidemic, or a bad -harvest, which brings about inevitable misery and famine -to the entire population, who are left without any resources -because their work has not been sufficiently remunerative to -enable them to put anything by for a rainy day. Not a year -passes without a dreadful calamity occurring somewhere or -other in the immense Celestial Empire, causing the deaths of -hundreds of thousands of people, so that, notwithstanding the -astonishing number of children born, the population apparently -does not increase. Here, then, we have a striking application -of the doctrines of Malthus; for in this society, into which no -ray of progress is admitted, men multiply quicker than their -means of subsistence, but natural calamities re-establish the -balance by annually overwhelming a prodigious number of -men, women and children.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The exaggerated sense of conservatism and the improvidence -of the administration are in part responsible for the occurrence -of these grave calamities, which are generally accompanied by -a recrudescence of that chronic piracy and brigandage which -is peculiar to China, being the sole means of gaining a livelihood -<span class='pageno' id='Page_221'>221</span>left to many ruined wretches. Sometimes, however, the -agents of the Government, after having done nothing either -to prevent a catastrophe or to mitigate its consequences, increase -it in times of famine by their avidity in seizing the rice, -and thus provoke a rebellion, as happened in 1898 at various -parts of the Yang-tsze-Kiang. But beyond these cases, in -which the authorities are manifestly guilty, the Chinese people -submit with the utmost resignation to calamities which they -foresee and consider as merely natural, and which, when they -happen, barely ruffle their habitual placidity. Death to such a -people cannot have the same terrors it has for us.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Europeans are of all the civilized peoples of the earth those -who complain most of life, but yet who hold most dearly to it. -The people of the Far East, the Chinese as well as the Japanese, -on the other hand, consider it least. Indifference to death -seems to be with them almost a physical characteristic, the -result of the singular insensibility of their nervous system. -With respect to this last, we have plenty of evidence. The -doctors in the European hospitals where natives are treated -relate with amazement how their patients undergo the most -painful operations without a murmur and without the necessity -of having to resort to anæsthetics. In every-day life, too, the -same curious apathy is to be observed in the extraordinary -facility with which they can fall asleep whenever they choose, -even in the midst of the most awful din and noise, and they -can, moreover, remain for hours in one position without -making the slightest motion. The reverse of the medal is -that, although they are so indifferent to their own sufferings, -they are without the slightest feeling for those of others, and -can watch the writhing agony of a human being without expressing -the least horror or sympathy. The dreadful custom -of binding the feet of women in such a manner as to push the -heel forward and double up the toes under the sole of the -foot, inducing a sore that is never healed, is but one out of -many examples of Chinese cruelty. The various and horrible -tortures inflicted by the judicial tribunals are another illustration -of the same dreadful instinct. The idea of bargaining -with a person in danger of death, or with a man who has -fallen into the water before attempting to rescue him from -drowning, are things which would never suggest themselves to -a European, but they come naturally to the Chinese.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The little value in which human life is held in the Far East -<span class='pageno' id='Page_222'>222</span>is exemplified by the frequency of suicide, merely to vindicate -a point of honour which in many parts of Europe would be -settled at the point of the sword. The <em>hara-kiri</em> is not restricted -to Japan, or to the upper classes of Chinese society. -A Chinaman, even of the lowest order, will commit suicide -out of vengeance, spite, or even through what he considers a -matter of honour. Sacrifice of life is common even among -women, if we may believe the following narrative extracted from -a Chinese newspaper:</p> - -<p class='c008'>‘One day a sow belonging to a certain Madame Feng, having -done some slight injury to the door of a certain Madame Wang, -that lady forthwith demanded compensation with interest, which -was refused, whereupon Madame Wang announced her intention -of committing suicide. This dreadful threat proved altogether -too much for Madame Feng, who there and then determined -to beat her enemy with her own weapon by flinging herself -into the nearest canal.’<a id='r24' /><a href='#f24' class='c006'><sup>[24]</sup></a> Suicides are by no means rare among -the upper classes of the literati, and quite recently a censor, -a high functionary who possesses the privilege of addressing -petitions to the Sovereign, awaited the passing of the Imperial -cortege and then killed himself as a political demonstration, in -order to add weight to a memorial he had presented concerning -some promise of the Government which had not been -fulfilled. The innumerable public executions form a pendant -to the equally numerous cases of suicide.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The reader may be somewhat surprised that a people fearing -death so little should make such bad soldiers; but, after all, -however lightly a man may hold his life, no one sacrifices it -unless it be for some ideal or other. If the Celestials care so -little about existence, they care still less for the grandeur of -their country, patriotic feeling being absolutely absent from -their nature. During the French campaign in Formosa it was -no uncommon thing to see Chinese prisoners refuse to do tasks -which they considered beneath them, and which they could -only be induced to perform after having seen the heads of a -few of their comrades fall under the sword. These very people -who prefer death rather than derogate from their dignity are the -same who have often been seen throwing down their arms on -the battlefield. It is but fair to add that it is the military -mandarins or officers who generally give the signal for a stampede. -Possibly, if commanded by other officers, the Chinese, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_223'>223</span>with their wonderful power of enduring privation and callousness -for death, would eventually form an admirable army -which, even if it were unable to defend China against foreign -Powers, would certainly prove a valuable ally to one or other -of them.<a id='r25' /><a href='#f25' class='c006'><sup>[25]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c008'>The practice of infanticide, especially of female infants, is -another example of the different ways in which the Chinese -and Europeans regard life and family ties. With us the love -of parents for children is often greater than that of children -for their parents; but in China it is quite the reverse. According -to Confucius, filial piety was the noblest of virtues, -indeed, the fountain-head of them all, and it is the one which -his compatriots still practise most assiduously. Among the -lower orders, however, this virtue is confined to the support -of parents; but this is a duty never neglected. Among the -twenty-four famous examples of filial piety is mentioned the -case of a man who, at the very moment that he was about to -bury his little three-year-old girl alive because he could not -afford to keep her as well as his old mother, had his infant -saved by the unexpected discovery of a treasure purposely -placed in the intended grave by a good genie, who was eager to -reward so beautiful an instance of filial piety. A still greater sin -against this virtue is that of not possessing male posterity; for -then the family becomes extinct, and the ancestors are deprived -of those sacrifices to which they have a right, and which it is the -first duty of every well-thinking man to offer them at regular -intervals. Marriages are contracted very early, and there is -no stronger evidence needed against a wife to obtain her divorce -than that she has not had a son. The doctrine of filial piety -as it is understood by the Chinese, and the worship of ancestors, -which is its highest expression, have their good as well as their -bad side. It forms the principal mainstay of that useless -system of admiration of an irrevocable past in which everything -is supposed to have been better than it can possibly be to-day, -and which of necessity turns the people of the Celestial Empire -from all desire for progress, because to do so would be an -outrage to an ancestry whose wisdom can never be surpassed.</p> - -<p class='c008'>If this belief produces unfortunate social consequences, it -<span class='pageno' id='Page_224'>224</span>at the same time serves to consolidate family ties; but ever -so it is pernicious, especially with respect to the condition -of women. The lot of Chinese women is certainly not a -happy one. Lodging rather than living with her husband, -under his parents’ roof, the young wife is never allowed to see -her own family, excepting at certain fixed periods prearranged -by custom. In their earlier years married women in China -are exposed to the caprices and rebuffs of a shrewish mother-in-law, -who is the tyrant of the family, and whose humble -servants the daughters-in-law are expected to be. For all -this, they enjoy a certain amount of liberty, for they are neither -cloistered nor veiled; but they very rarely leave their house, -a state of semi-seclusion which does not prevent their morals -being often very indifferent. ‘In a district near mine,’ an -American missionary at Fo-kien assured me, ‘there are very -few husbands who are not deceived by their wives; and in the -one which is under my direction the state of morality, or rather -of immorality, is pretty nearly the same.’ Theoretically speaking, -adultery in a Chinese woman is considered a very grave crime. -As for the husband, he is not expected to practise fidelity. The -average Chinaman delights in obscenity, and revels in improper -stories and jests; and when he has a little money to spare, -spends it very freely in the loosest company. Those places of -entertainment where Venus reigns supreme are not, as in -Japan, situated in the best and most brilliantly lighted quarter -of the town, for such of my readers who have visited Canton -may possibly remember to have had pointed out to them the -‘flower-boats’—floating constructions two stories high, whose -internal decorations are of the most magnificent.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The national vice of the Chinese, however, is gambling, and -it is one very few of them can resist. In his interesting -monograph on Peking, Mgr. Favier tells us how the beggars in -rags will stake their last scrap of clothing. Certain fanatics -will stake their wives and children, and men have been known -to wager away their finger-joints. A young Christian, who was -an inveterate gambler, on one occasion staked and lost his wife, -who was only twenty years of age, for the large sum of 15s. -The missionary paid the debt and returned the young woman -to her mother. A few months afterwards she rejoined her -husband, and, adds the author, with the authority of his thirty-eight -years of missionary life in China, ‘in all probability he -has staked and lost her again.’</p> - -<p class='c008'><span class='pageno' id='Page_225'>225</span>Intemperance, on the other hand, is extremely rare; but -those who would be drunkards in Europe, Mgr. Favier assured -me when I was in Peking, are opium-smokers in China, where -he estimates that about one-fifth of the population of the towns -give themselves over to this horrible practice. In the country -districts the number is very much less, and another missionary, -who lives at Fo-kien in Southern China, estimates it at not -more than five per cent. The habit of opium-smoking is very -widely spread among the upper classes and the literati; but its -effects are not so pronounced among the rich as among the -poor, who, by reason of bad diet, are less prepared to resist -its effects, especially as they generally indulge in this vice in -their leisure hours in the most dreadful dens, and, moreover, -smoke a very inferior quality of opium. A young man who -begins to indulge in this pernicious habit in his twentieth year -usually shuffles off this mortal coil before he is twenty-two. -The vices of the Chinese do not particularly shock foreigners -who live among them, for they are not obliged to see them; -but it is otherwise with their universal and repellently filthy -habits and intense love of all kinds of horrible noises, which -they indulge in on every possible occasion, be it a sad or -merry one, a marriage or a funeral, at festivals as well as at -fires. What exasperates a European, however, more than anything -else are the vulgar superstitions which replace among the -Celestials the spirit of religion, which is quite absent, and which -constitute another hindrance to progress. Their strange ideas -with respect to <em>feng-shui</em>, or geomancy, often upset the least -attempt at introducing any improvement even in European concessions -or in such cities as Hong-Kong and Singapore. Then, -again, the disposition of the Chinese mind does not admit of -general or abstract ideas, and repudiates all sense of the ideal, -and, in a word, is sterilized by such absolute materialism as to -shock even the most cynical of Europeans. Take them for all -in all, therefore, the Celestials may be described as a not particularly -seductive or sympathetic people, all the less so as their -ugly appearance is not compensated for by the charm of -manner which renders the Japanese so agreeable and which -enables them to gild even their vices.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The Chinese, however, have certain great qualities which -are not precisely amiable, in spite of their extreme politeness, -a matter rather of ceremony than of sincerity. These qualities -are of a serious nature: patience, perseverance, hard work, the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_226'>226</span>greatest aptitude for commercial pursuits, industry, economy, -singular resistive power, and respect for parents and old age, -to which may be added a remarkably contented frame of mind. -Therefore, even if the Chinese Government presents every -indication of decadence, it would be unjust to say the same of -its energetic and hard-working subjects. Unquestionably the -Government is not the only thing that needs reforming in -China. There is the secular habit of always looking to the -past for a type of perfection, which produces a certain atrophy -of the Chinese intelligence, depriving it of all elasticity, originality -and power of invention, and making it only capable of -servile imitation, lacking even discernment—a fact which is -admirably illustrated in the well-known story of the tailor to -whom a European sent an old pair of breeches in order that -he might copy them. This he did so conscientiously that he -cut a hole in the exact place where there had been one in the -well-worn pair which had been entrusted to him. In the same -order of ideas is an instance supplied me by the Jesuit Fathers -at Sicawei, near Shanghai, who showed me some drawings -executed by young Chinese students, intended for the plates -to be introduced in a publication on the fauna of the Far East. -They included some drawings of the skeletons of animals, which, -however, were disfigured, notwithstanding the entreaties of the -Fathers, with certain accidental blots and marks that appeared -upon the models. It is not impossible to induce the Chinese -to learn new habits, but it is almost impossible to induce them -to correct those which have been bequeathed to them by their -ancestors. It is possible to teach them how to work modern -machinery, but no power, human or divine, could teach a -Chinese carpenter to work otherwise than he has been trained -to do. At the orphanage at Sicawei, under the direction of -the Jesuits, I was shown over the carpentry department, and -was surprised to find each bench occupied by only one workman. -The Father who showed me over the school informed -me that it was absolutely impossible to induce two workmen -to occupy the same bench. The younger orphans saw the -older children and the adults who had remained in the service -of the mission working thus, and insisted upon doing likewise.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The awakening of any sense of originality or invention in -the mind of this people, by whom these qualities have been lost -for the simple reason that they have been systematically trained -to look backwards rather than forwards, will be a work of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_227'>227</span>centuries, and only brought about by prolonged contact with -the peoples and ideas of the West, and this contact is only -now beginning. Before it produces its full effects upon the -race it will doubtless do so upon the land of China itself, if -permission can only be obtained to exploit the great natural -wealth which lies undisturbed beneath the soil of this enormous -Empire, and is thus lost to humanity. If the work -of developing the economic resources of China be undertaken -in a spirit of selfish interest, it will nevertheless very considerably -ameliorate the lot of the Chinese people, if only by extending -their field of activity, which is now limited to agriculture -and small industries. It will allow them, for example, -to exploit the subsoil, which is as much neglected in the -Celestial Empire as the soil itself has been perfected by -exceedingly skilful farming. If, as we believe, the great industries -resulting from modern scientific discoveries have really -contributed to better the condition of the people of Europe, -surely their introduction into China should be most beneficial -to the inhabitants of that vast Empire.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_228'>228</span> - <h3 class='c001'>CHAPTER VI<br /> <span class='large'>FOREIGNERS IN CHINA—THE ATTITUDE OF THE CHINESE TOWARDS WESTERN CIVILIZATION</span></h3> -</div> -<p class='c014'>Concessions successively made by China to foreigners after the Wars of -1842, 1858–60, and 1895–98—Increasing tension between the Chinese -and Europeans in consequence of the latter desiring to extend their -action—Refusal of Europeans to conform to Chinese usages—Frequent -breaches made by them against the rules and traditional customs of -the Chinese—Contempt in which Western civilization is held by the -Chinese notwithstanding their acknowledgment of its power and -material advancement—This hostile spirit more marked among the -literati, who direct public opinion, than among the people.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The position of foreigners in the Middle Kingdom has -been defined by various formal conventions, the first of which -was the Treaty of Nanking, signed between England and China -after the war of 1842, known in history as the Opium War. -This was followed in 1844 by other treaties upon the same -subject with France and the United States, and still later with -other nations; in 1858 the treaties of Tien-tsin, which were -concluded with France and England after a short war, but -which were not ratified until 1860, after a much more serious -campaign and the entry of the allied troops into Peking, greatly -ameliorated the condition of foreigners in the Celestial Empire. -Lastly, in 1895, the treaty of Shimonosaki, imposed upon China -by victorious Japan, gave fresh facilities to foreign commerce. -It is a characteristic fact, however, that no serious concession -has been obtained from China until after a disastrous war, the -Government of Peking never ceding to persuasion, only to -force.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Since the sixteenth century Europeans have been able, as -the Arabs and Malays had before them, to carry on commerce -<span class='pageno' id='Page_229'>229</span>with Canton without being molested, simply because they did -not show any intention of extending their commerce further. -But in the second quarter of the present century they became -more numerous and exacting, and tension began to -manifest itself. The pride of the Westerners, who were more -than ever convinced of the superiority of their civilization, -and whose progress at home was making giant strides, burned -to impose their ideas upon the whole world, and thereby -wounded the equally great pride of the Chinese, stubbornly -attached to those very ancient customs so haughtily -despised by the barbarians, as they were pleased to call us. -The port of Canton, consecrated by tradition as the exchangemart -between foreigners and natives, no longer sufficed for -European ambition, and a clamour was raised to get rid of the -twelve merchants, or <em>hongs</em>, to whom the Chinese Government -had conceded the monopoly of trading with the outer world. -The foreigners, moreover, demanded the right to deal with -whomsoever they pleased, and refused to submit any longer to -the arbitrary taxation and treatment to which they had hitherto -been subjected by the local authorities. These demands and -others of a similar character, which appear to us perfectly -reasonable, were considered exorbitant by the Chinese. To -our incessant protests they answered exactly as they had done -twenty—nay, fifty—years before, that we wished to compel -them to do in their own country exactly as we chose, whereas, -considering that we were their guests, the contrary should be -the case, and that we ought to submit to their ways, however -objectionable they might seem to us, and even contrary to the -interests and development of our commerce. This is precisely -what Europe to-day, as then, refuses to admit, unless the -Chinese very considerably mend their ways, being of opinion -that so vast a country has no right to refuse to allow its -wealth being exploited for the benefit of humanity, and that -if it cannot, either through want of goodwill or of the -necessary means, turn it to account itself, it should allow -others who possess implements perfected for the purpose to -use them. In short, Europe demands the right not only to -trade, but also to exploit, and she intends to have it, whatever -may be the consequences.</p> - -<p class='c008'>This radical difference in looking at the same thing is the -origin of every difficulty that exists between the Powers and -the Celestial Empire. The peoples of the West, once they -<span class='pageno' id='Page_230'>230</span>have made up their minds that a thing is likely to further their -interests, insist upon its being carried into effect whether the -Chinese like it or not, and care very little whether they offend -the prejudices or even the sanctity of Chinese tradition. It -is not merely in matters of commercial transactions that -foreigners behave thus, but also with regard to religion. We -profess the most profound admiration and respect for those -men who at the risk of their lives bring the Gospel to those -who know it not, and who sacrifice everything in the hope of -saving souls, and we are thoroughly convinced of the vast -superiority of the teaching of Jesus Christ over that of Confucius. -Christianity, however, upsets not only the traditions, -but also the foundations of Chinese society. No Government -of Europe would tolerate a religion which advocated polygamy, -and that of the United States rigorously opposes the spread of -Mormonism. We must not therefore be surprised if the -Chinese do not behold with a friendly eye a religion which -opposes their great doctrine of the cultus of ancestors, and if -they consider it nothing short of sacrilege and well calculated -to overthrow morality and law, and infinitely worse from their -point of view than polygamy is from ours. The employment -of female missionaries by certain Protestant sects is -another scandal, and the sight of young women living under -the same roof as men who are not their husbands gives rise -in their minds to a train of thought the reverse of edifying. -It matters little that the worship of ancestors is but mere -outward form, and that the lives of the missionaries are without -any reproach: ancient traditions and customs are violated, and -to these the average Chinaman holds far more tenaciously than -he does to the truths they conceal.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The utter disregard paid by Europeans to even the most -cherished customs of the Chinese, and the vast difference -which exists between the two civilizations, together with the -sense of superiority which both peoples with perfect good faith -entertain for themselves, is doubtless at the bottom of that -bitter feeling of contempt that causes every Chinaman to -despise as well as to hate the intruders. They look upon -them as so many barbarians, although Article 51 of the Treaty -of Tien-tsin officially ordained the proscription of the particular -character describing foreigners by this objectionable word. -Our most complicated and wonderful scientific instruments are -not considered by the Chinese as criterions of our superiority, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_231'>231</span>and they recognise us to be skilful workmen and clever -jugglers, but otherwise only vulgar and ill-educated fellows, -and our lack of acquaintance with their ancient lore and -literature brings a smile of pity and contempt to their bland -countenances. They attach little or no importance to our -inventions. ‘I quite understand,’ said Prince Kong to a -foreign Ambassador who had just explained to him the theory -and practice of railway travelling, ‘that in Europe you should -employ iron rails to transport you from one end of your -country to another. Here we obtain the same effect with our -waggons. We may not travel so expeditiously; but, then, we -are never in such a hurry.’ This quaint observation was spoken -twenty-five years ago, but it might easily be made to-day: the -condition of mind which inspired it is identical and unchanged.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The Chinese may bow to our power, but it does not inspire -them with the least awe. They entertain for us about the same -agreeable sentiment that the traveller does for the footpad who -suddenly puts a pistol to his head and demands his money or -his life. And as this same ill-used traveller, in order to avoid -a repetition of the assault, if he has to pass that way, procures -the same arms as his aggressor, so the Chinese now and again -appropriate some of our weapons of defence without knowing -how to use them; but, nevertheless, they remain thoroughly -convinced as to the superiority of their civilization. There -can be no doubt that if they were left to themselves, and -European influence and pressure suddenly ceased, the Chinese -would quickly pull up the telegraph-poles and the few miles of -rail which with infinite patience and trouble have been laid, -close their ports, and efface every trace of the detested innovations -of the ‘barbarians.’</p> - -<p class='c008'>This would naturally be the act of the Government. As to -the people, it will continue to use the facilities introduced by -Western civilization. The boats which ply along the coasts -and up the Yang-tsze-Kiang are crowded with native passengers, -who apparently enjoy the trip, and who pay the better share of -the profits made by the various steam navigation companies, and -the trains between Tien-tsin and Peking are always crowded. -The Chinese also know perfectly well how to appreciate -European administration, and three hundred thousand Chinese -live upon the French, English, and American concessions at -Shanghai, two hundred thousand at Hong-Kong, which was -<span class='pageno' id='Page_232'>232</span>only inhabited by a few fishermen before the English occupation, -and all the large towns belonging to the European -colonies in the vicinity of China—Vladivostok, Manila, Saigon, -Singapore, Batavia—are practically Chinese towns. They -like to have their property and their commercial interests protected, -and strongly object to being exploited and harassed as -they are under their own Government. At the time of the -occupation of Manchuria by the Mikado’s troops, an English -missionary who had long resided in the country assured me -that the Chinese were very glad to escape from the ‘squeezee’ -system, and from the many vexations to which they had been -subjected by the mandarins, and were amazed to see the -Japanese pay for everything they required.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The Chinese are not, therefore, unappreciative of our civilization, -and since we afflict them with our presence, they think it -wise to profit by the material advantages which we have introduced -among them; but, with few exceptions, doubtless they -would prefer the loss of these advantages to our company, -and they never cease to despise us. From the moment that -they can read they go to their old books as to a fountain-head, -whence they drink intoxicating draughts of pride and vanity, -and of profound contempt for all that is not of the wisdom of -Confucius.</p> - -<p class='c008'>After all, it is not by means of the ignorant classes, but -through the initiative of a few thinkers, that progressive ideas -gradually filter into a country and reform it. Unluckily, in -the Chinese Empire, owing to a defective system of education, -the very class which ought to benefit their fellows—the -literati—is precisely that which is the most obstinately retrogressive.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The gross superstitions, too, which are entertained by the -people in the interior of China against foreigners form another -barrier to an advance movement. That the lower classes -should believe that the missionaries pull out the eyes of little -children and use their bowels as the ingredients of infernal -and magical concoctions, or that our doctors spread the pest -whenever we want a war, is not much to be wondered at, for -the same things have been repeated in Astrakhan and in some -of the Russian provinces whenever there has been a rumour of -an epidemic. But what is really very grave is that the literati, -who are so all-powerful in China, foster these superstitions, -and even spread them broadcast among the people in order -<span class='pageno' id='Page_233'>233</span>the better to keep up the feeling of hatred which they ought to -attenuate. At the bottom of all the risings against the missionaries -are the mandarins and the literati. The great influence -which these men exercise over the people, and their abhorrence -of Western civilization, is the real cause why no progress has -hitherto been made in the Chinese Empire.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_234'>234</span> - <h3 class='c001'>CHAPTER VII<br /> <span class='large'>THE POSITION AND WORK OF FOREIGNERS IN CHINA</span></h3> -</div> -<p class='c014'>The privileges of foreigners in China—The open ports and the concessions—Great -extension of privileges granted to foreigners by the treaty -of Shimonosaki (1895)—Opening of fresh ports—Facilities conceded -to commerce, and the right of establishing factories in the Treaty -Ports—The speedy effects of these concessions—Silk industries—Chinese -workmen: rise in their salaries—Prospects of Chinese -industry—Fresh concessions granted in 1898—Opening of the waterways—Railways -and mines—Great expectations resulting from these -additional treaties—The <em>likins</em>, or native Custom-houses—Their -oppressive exactions—Slow development of foreign commerce in -China—Necessity for Europeans to penetrate into the interior and -take their affairs into their own hands—Chinese resistance to this proposal.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Foreigners who live in China, with the exception of the -missionaries, are at present penned up in the twenty-six open -ports, to which may be added six other towns or markets, -situated on the frontiers of Indo-China, assimilated to the free -ports, but doing a very limited trade. In each of these so-called -open ports<a id='r26' /><a href='#f26' class='c006'><sup>[26]</sup></a> spaces have been let on long leases, or -<span class='pageno' id='Page_235'>235</span>even sold to foreign Powers—England, France, the United -States and of late years even Germany, who has acquired a -concession at Tien-tsin, where, by the way, Japan also has one. -Although these concessions are on Chinese territory, they are -considered as so many small republics, independent of the -native authorities, and administered by Europeans, who reside -there under the protection of their Consuls, who hold both -judicial and executive powers. In these ports, protected by -European law, is concentrated the whole foreign commerce of -China.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The appearance of these treaty ports varies according to -their importance, from the few houses surrounded by walled-in -gardens, built on the sands of Pakhui to the flourishing cosmopolitan -port of Shanghai, whose aspect is admirably calculated -to flatter the vanity of Europeans. Once the bar of Wusung -is passed, after some hours’ journey down the Blue River, whose -shores are covered with monotonous rice and cotton fields, the -traveller might easily imagine that he was in Lancashire, so -great is the number of factory chimneys that come into sight. -The landing-place, or Bund, the principal thoroughfare of the -town, which follows the quay, is lined on the one side with -trees, and on the other by magnificent houses, built in the -European fashion, the offices of the principal banks, steamship -companies, etc. The other streets, inhabited by Europeans, -although not very straight or broad, run either parallel to -the Bund or else meet it at some point or other. Further -inland is the Chinese quarter (within the concession), with -its open shops, monstrous and gaudy signboards, and its -fragile paper lanterns, fairly well kept, however—thanks to -European supervision—and forming a marked contrast in this -respect to the other native quarter beyond the concession, -which is absolutely filthy. Once outside the town, we cross the -cricket-field, the racecourse, the lawn-tennis court, and reach -Bubbling Well Road and other wide avenues, fringed with the -beautiful villas, surrounded by gardens, belonging to the wealthy -European residents.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Before the Chino-Japanese War foreigners only had the right -<span class='pageno' id='Page_236'>236</span>to carry on their commercial undertakings in the open ports, -and had to have a passport in order to travel in the interior. -Isolated as much as possible from the native population, they -could traffic with the Chinese only on the condition that they -never attempted to alter any of the native methods of production, -or introduced any European innovations, or endeavoured -to exploit a single one of the innumerable natural -resources of the country.</p> - -<p class='c008'>On the other hand, nothing was to be expected from private -initiative or from the Government, which latter would unquestionably -have vetoed any improvement, and only reluctantly -permitted, on account of its political value, the creation of -the telegraph-line connecting Peking with the extremities of -the Empire. In 1877 the Europeans had actually to pull up -the rails laid down on the short line between Shanghai and -Wusung, and though the Chinese since 1889 have pretended -to consider the construction of a line from Hankow to Peking, -it has only been with the object of misleading the Europeans. -No progress is possible in China under these unfavourable -conditions, and the antiquated methods of the natives continue -to hamper all commercial and financial prosperity.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The treaty of Shimonosaki, signed in 1895 at the close of -the war between China and Japan, effected some very important -changes in this respect, and in virtue of the most-favoured-nation -clause, inserted in the treaties with the Powers, -opened out a better prospect for foreigners of every nationality, -who were thus able to benefit by the advantages conceded -to the Japanese. Article 6 of this important document -stipulated the opening of several new ports, and permits steam -navigation along the coasts and up the rivers and canals -leading thereunto. It goes on to declare that foreigners -may visit the interior to purchase or sell merchandise, and that -Japanese subjects may establish depots for the same wherever -they like without paying any extra tax, and erect factories of -all sorts in the Chinese open towns and ports, and import -into China all kinds of machinery on payment of a fixed -tariff. Goods manufactured by Japanese subjects on Chinese -territory should be placed on the same footing with respect -to inland and transit duties and other taxes, charges, and -facilities for warehousing, etc., in the interior, as goods imported -into China by other foreigners, and enjoy the same -privileges.</p> - -<p class='c008'><span class='pageno' id='Page_237'>237</span>This clause is of very great importance, since it permits -the combination of highly-perfected European machinery and -cheap Chinese labour in the production of articles the raw -materials for which, especially silks and cotton, can be obtained -in the immediate neighbourhood of the free ports. The clause -above cited may appear at first somewhat extraordinary, and -in any other country but China it would be superfluous to -stipulate that goods manufactured in the country itself should -not be treated with less consideration than similar articles imported. -But the Japanese negotiators understood their men, -and are perfectly aware that if they had not inserted these -special clauses, the advantages obtained would have been annulled -by the Chinese authorities by a system of arbitrary -taxation and other vexatious measures.</p> - -<p class='c008'>No very long time elapsed before the advantages of Article 6 -of the Shimonosaki Treaty were made strikingly evident. In -three years’ time an entire district of Shanghai was occupied -by not less than nine large cotton factories, working 290,000 -spindles, which in 1898 were increased to 390,000, and close -to them presently rose some thirty silk factories, which, in due -time, will be considerably increased both in numbers and importance. -In the other ports this industrial impulse has not -yet been much felt, except at Tien-tsin, where a woollen factory -has lately been established. In that great centre of industry, -Shanghai, a certain falling-off has been observed in this extreme -briskness, due to over-production, and also to a very -legitimate desire to watch the results of industries already -existing before launching into further speculations. Then, -again, there was a fear that wages might presently rise to an -exaggerated extent.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The labour market of China is undoubtedly enormous, but -the supply does not respond as readily to the demand as in -Europe, because the distances are great and the means of -communication correspondingly few and difficult. However, -the labourers living on the banks of the Yang-tsze, who are -called ‘Water-fowls,’ constantly flock into Shanghai in search of -work. They belong to that class of poor creatures who crowd -the great Chinese cities, and whose only home is their sampang, -in which an entire family accommodates itself in a space that -would barely suffice for a single European. One can see their -floating huts moored alongside the <i><span lang="es" xml:lang="es">arroyos</span></i> that furrow the -suburbs of Shanghai. Once they begin to earn a little, they -<span class='pageno' id='Page_238'>238</span>build a hut on shore, using up the material of their old boathouse, -until they can erect something better by way of a dwelling. -Salaries are distinctly rising in Shanghai, and when I -was there in 1898 the factories were wrangling over their workmen -and women—who are in the majority—in consequence -of certain enterprising but unscrupulous managers of rival -firms intriguing, by offers of higher wages, to induce the -most skilled to leave their employers and come to them. The -quality of the labour at Shanghai appears to be satisfactory, at -least, so say the different managers, and in the manufactories -which I visited I noticed that everything was scrupulously -clean and orderly, quite as much so as in any average -European or American factory of the same class. The workgirls -do not live, as in Russia and Japan, and, indeed, as they -did formerly in England and in other manufacturing countries, -in a building near the place of business set apart for the -purpose, and at the expense of the firm, but at home with their -own families. Many of them are married women, and a great -number, instead of leaving their little girls over ten years of -age at home, request that they may be employed, so as to -remain under their supervision. They are usually engaged on -very light work, such as shifting the cocoons in the boiling -water for the weavers. In the silk factories I visited they were -allowed half an hour every day for what was known as ‘school,’ -during which some senior workwoman—the mother or the -elder sister—taught them the rudiments of their work. This -system is excellent, and the managers declare themselves highly -pleased with it, as it is likely to train good workers.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The working hours at Shanghai in the silk factories are -usually from six in the morning to six in the evening, including -an hour and a half for meals. In the silk manufactories the -little girls earn 1¼d. per day at first, which is increased to 2½d. -after a short time. A clever workwoman gets about 9d. In -1891–92 the wages in the same factory, which was then on a -very small scale and under a Chinese name, were about 30 per -cent. less. In the larger factories the children got 2½d. a day -and the women from 6d. to 7d. During the first few months -that elapsed after the signing of the Treaty of Shimonosaki -salaries were on an average about 5d. As exchange has not -varied much since then, the rise is very considerable. ‘The -women and children now working in the better factories here,’ -says the British Consul at Shanghai in his Report, 1897, ‘can -<span class='pageno' id='Page_239'>239</span>now earn from 10s. to 30s. a month, which is quite a fortune -for people who in the native factories rarely make more than -4s. a month, although they work hard all day!’ The same -Report observes that in certain branches of industry the -Chinese workwomen earn more than would the same class in -Italy. The under-manager who took me round one of the -Shanghai factories, a Peruvian by birth, and, I fancy, a coloured -man by origin, judging from his curly hair and high cheekbones, -told me that in his boyhood in Peru he had earned 2½d. -a day at the same business, which is what is paid to child-workers -in Shanghai.</p> - -<p class='c008'>It is, therefore, a distinct mistake to imagine that China is -destined to remain the land of low salaries. Some considerable -time may elapse before wages reach the high figure -obtained in Europe, but there is every prospect that in the -course of time a very considerable rise will take place, especially -as industry improves, and the demand for skilled labour increases. -The Celestials are pretty sure to look after their own -interests in the matter by forming trades unions. Strikes are -not unknown either in China or Japan.</p> - -<p class='c008'>These facts tend, I think, to dissipate, if not entirely, at any -rate in part, the illusion about the famous ‘Yellow Peril’ which -has so greatly disturbed certain worthy people. That ‘peril’ -seems to me to be still remote, for, even if the people of the -Far East did succeed in producing nearly all the articles which -they now import from Europe, it would necessarily follow that -the trade in them, being infinitely greater than it now is, -would increase their profits likewise very considerably. It is -equally certain that the first effect of the introduction into -China of European industries must lead, as it already has done, -to the bettering of the condition of the Chinese labouring -class, both by augmentation of wages and consequent improvement -in manner of living. If, therefore, European export -trade may apparently suffer from the manufacturing of goods -hitherto imported by the Chinese, such as cottons, for instance, -matters will balance themselves eventually for the simple -reason that, the richer the Chinese get, the more they will buy. -Japan has already shown how the introduction of machinery -has created a new branch of import of great value.</p> - -<p class='c008'>In order to realize these brilliant prospects, several very -drastic alterations in the present position of affairs are -needed. The permission, granted at the instance of Great -<span class='pageno' id='Page_240'>240</span>Britain in 1898, allowing European navigation on the inland -waters of China, and the concessions for the creation of -railways and exploitation of mines, may subsequently lead to -very remarkable results, but up to the present they have not -been entirely successful. Industrial activity is still limited to -the free ports and their immediate vicinity. The reasons for -this state of affairs are worth examining, especially as they illustrate -the determined opposition of the Chinese authorities to -all measures of reform, and also indicate many points against -which Europeans should complain.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The Chinese Custom-house duties were determined according -to the treaties as much as possible 5 per cent. <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">ad valorem</span></i>. -They may therefore be safely described as comparatively light, -and are collected with great regularity for the Imperial Government -on the European system by a staff admirably organized -by Sir Robert Hart.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The undesirability of exposing foreign merchants to the -arbitrary and corrupt methods of Chinese Custom-house -officials led to the formation of an international staff of officers, -which works perfectly and gives universal satisfaction. On the -other hand, the great native firms are most scrupulously honest -in all their transactions, having discovered from experience -that ‘honesty is the best policy,’ and European merchants can -only praise their way of transacting business. It is, therefore, -neither on entering nor leaving China that difficulties occur, -whether for importation or exportation. The trouble arises -in the transport between the open ports and the places of consignment -or expedition; the principal grievance arises through -the system of <em>likin</em>, or of inland Customs, whereby an arbitrary -and variable scale of taxation is exacted on goods passing -through towns or over the frontiers of the various provinces, or -even at certain determined places on the highroads and rivers. -This pernicious system is a great drawback to the expansion of -European trade, and gives rise to endless bother and expense.</p> - -<p class='c008'>‘Let us suppose,’ said a gentleman, thoroughly acquainted -with commerce in the Far East, at a meeting of the London -Chamber of Commerce in 1898, ‘that a train going from -London to Newcastle had to be stopped three or four times on -the way, so that goods might be overhauled and examined by -officials whose main object is to extort as much as they can in -their own interests, and who value goods arbitrarily at sight. -Imagine, for instance, a consignment of skins getting damaged -<span class='pageno' id='Page_241'>241</span>by the rain through careless packing, and on being weighed -found heavier than declared in the invoice: the result is, that -the luckless owner is charged, not according to the increased -weight, but <em>fined</em> according to his personal property, say £50 -or; £100 on £1,000! Or, finally, what would become of -British trade if we had to put up with <em>likin</em> officials, one of whom -examines goods once in every three days, and another announces -his intention of only doing so when ten trains have arrived?’</p> - -<p class='c008'>There is a remedy for the <em>likin</em> system, and that is a ‘transit -pass’; but more often than not, as with most things in China, -this is merely a theoretical improvement. On payment of a -sum equal to half the original entry duty, all imported goods -should be considered free of inland duty. But this regulation -does not work, and no one avails himself of it, since the -Chinese very ingenuously manage to evade it by charging ‘a -duty on arrival at destination,’ which comes to the same thing.</p> - -<p class='c008'>It is not therefore surprising that, with all these drawbacks, -in addition to a very rudimentary monetary system, Chinese -commerce only attains £50,000,000, of which £27,200,000 -represents imports, which is very small when one considers the -enormous size of the country and its great wealth. The half -of this commerce is divided up between four articles: -£8,000,000 cotton and £4,800,000 opium (imported), and -£8,000,000 silk, and £5,000,000 tea (exported). The last -figures are inferior to what they formerly were, Indian tea -having greatly affected Chinese tea as far as England is concerned. -Its preparation still follows the old system, and its -lasting quality is distinctly inferior to Ceylon and other teas -grown in India. This is another example of the vast importance -of introducing into China better and more scientific methods.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The export trade of China must inevitably remain very -limited so long as foreigners are prevented from penetrating -into the country and directing the exploitation of its resources. -Whilst it was a mere matter of opening a few ports, the -Chinese Government made no very serious opposition; but -only the realization of its incapacity to resist pressure induced -it to permit the introduction into the Celestial Empire of -foreign capital, machinery, and industrial methods. Well may -we ask, Can the Sick Man of Peking endure such violent treatment? -Will he not succumb to the very powerful remedies -that are being administered to him, and thereby fulfil the secret -wishes of those who are anxious for his legacy?</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_242'>242</span> - <h3 class='c001'>CHAPTER VIII<br /> <span class='large'>CHINA AND THE POWERS</span></h3> -</div> -<p class='c014'>The Question of the Far East unexpectedly brought to an issue by the -defeat of China—Foreign misconception of Chinese power, and the -amazement of European diplomacy at its collapse—The new state -of affairs created by Japanese victories—The aims of the various -Powers in the Far East and their policy—England seeks an ally against -Russia—Her sudden change of policy in 1895—She abandons China -for Japan—Russia covets the whole of Northern China—Japan’s wish -to conquer the Celestial Empire—The treaty of Shimonosaki—Opposition -of Russia to Japanese policy—Russia becomes the interested -protectress of China—The convention between the three Powers, -France, Germany, and Russia—Attempt to bring about a reconciliation -between China and Japan—Substitution of a powerful Russian -influence for that of England.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The Chinese Question presents many difficulties, not only -because the details are extremely complicated and the rival -pretensions which it has created difficult to reconcile, but -because of the unexpected manner in which it was thrust on -the attention of Europe, at a time when diplomacy had no -ready remedy.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The present position in the Far East is not the result of a -gradual chain of events, but of the absolute surprise created by -the unexpected results of the Chino-Japanese War. No doubt -the collapse of China in 1894 was only the last act in a long -drama of decadence, but it revealed to astonished Europe -the utter incapacity of China either to reform or to defend -herself, a fact for which we were quite unprepared. Japan -alone knew the truth, and profited by her knowledge of her -colossal neighbour’s almost incredible weakness. Russia had -suspected it, but was not sufficiently convinced to venture on -carrying her conviction into effect. Thanks to the astuteness -of the Chinese and their remarkable aptitude in all arts of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_243'>243</span>deception, and the effect mentally created by the prodigious -multitude of her population—between three and four hundred -million souls—China had systematically fooled both Governments -and public alike, who shared the same illusion as to her -power. Certain events had, it must be confessed, conspired -to maintain this illusion, notably the bold resistance which -the French army had met in Tongking, under, no doubt, -peculiar circumstances, but, nevertheless, such as induced -people to forget, at least for the time, the facile victories of -the Allies in 1860. Certain far-seeing writers—Mr. Henry -Norman and Mr. Curzon, the latter one of the most brilliant -young statesmen of the United Kingdom—had indeed realized -that under a smooth surface there existed in China amazing -weakness and corruption. But they preached in the desert. -The war had only just broken out, when one of the best-informed -organs of the English press, the <cite>Spectator</cite>, stated: ‘We -think the weight of opinion is with those who believe, as we -do, that, if necessary, China could organize a most formidable -army.’ This was the illusion universally entertained in Europe, -and, strange to relate, shared by the majority of foreigners living -in the Far East.</p> - -<p class='c008'>By dissipating these illusions and exhibiting to the world the -truth concerning China’s decrepitude, the Japanese victories -produced almost the effect of an earthquake. European diplomacy -had foreseen that the war was likely to give rise to trouble, -and Lord Rosebery even proposed to the Powers at the beginning -of the conflict to come to an understanding with a view of -stopping hostilities; but if the Queen’s Prime Minister feared -that complications in Korea might lead to Russian intervention, -the other Powers were not less unfavourably disposed to -see a naval demonstration in Chinese waters in which England -should take the lead. It was therefore resolved that European -diplomacy should remain inactive and watch proceedings, -everyone believing that Japan would soon be expelled from -Korea, and that both the Japanese and Chinese fleets, weakened -in one or two naval battles, would collapse altogether from -sheer lack of combatants. When, however, the Chinese forces -were annihilated in the autumn of 1894, Europe was taken -aback with amazement, so great was her surprise, not to say -consternation. By the spring of 1895 the Powers had recovered -from the shock they had received, but their policy had consequently -to be changed with respect to a Power which they had -<span class='pageno' id='Page_244'>244</span>believed to be formidable, but whose weakness was now revealed.</p> - -<p class='c008'>England, with perhaps excessive frankness, turned her back -on her old ally China. At the beginning of the conference -she had been the champion of the Celestial Empire, and -the newspapers related at the time a curious incident which -happened before Wei-hai-wei, which the Japanese squadron -was about to attack. The British fleet upset their plan by -saluting Admiral Ito, contrary to all precedents, before sunrise, -whereby the sleeping Chinese were warned of their danger. -On more than one occasion the English did not hesitate to -threaten the Japanese, especially after the latter had fired on -a British merchant ship conveying some Chinese troops.<a id='r27' /><a href='#f27' class='c006'><sup>[27]</sup></a> -There was no mistaking the peremptory tone of England -when she gave the Japanese to understand that she had no -desire to see the war extend to Shanghai and the region of the -Yang-tsze.</p> - -<p class='c008'>But the battle of the Yalu and the taking of Port Arthur in -one morning by the troops of the Mikado opened the eyes of -the Cabinet of St. James’s. What Britain desired in the Far -East was, on the one hand, a political prop, and even a military -one, if necessary, against the Empire of the Tsar—‘a bolt to -fasten the door against the ambitions of Russian expansion,’ -to use the significant expression of Herr von Brandt, and, on -the other, a wide opening for her commerce and capital. Once -convinced that Japan, firmly established in Korea and on the -northern coast of the Gulf of Pe-chi-li, would become a far more -efficacious ‘bolt’ than China, England began to favour the -Japanese, and at the same time to advise the Chinese Government -to abandon Peking, and establish itself nearer the centre -of the Empire. If the Middle Kingdom was no longer a useful -ally, it might still become a splendid prey, a field of extraordinary -economic activity, so that the transfer of the capital to -some point on the banks of the Yang-tsze accessible by sea—to -Nanking, for instance, would have placed China at the mercy -of the supreme mistress of the seas. The English, moreover, -fully intended to force China to open her ports, and their -commercial superiority and the influence which they have -<span class='pageno' id='Page_245'>245</span>already established over the peoples in the Far East would -soon have enabled them to profit largely by this revolution.</p> - -<p class='c008'>If, however, the consequences of the Chinese defeat were -realized in London, they were no less so in St. Petersburg, and -subsequent events proved that Russian diplomacy was equal to -the occasion. The Government of the Tsar had beheld the -war with quite as much displeasure as England, and would -have preferred the Far Eastern Question remaining in abeyance -until the termination of the Trans-Siberian Railway. The object -pursued by Russia in the Far East is, it should be remembered, -absolutely opposed to that of England, and concentrates itself -on the one issue—the securing of open sea. The vast Empire -of the Tsars possesses no port in Europe, where the ‘keys of -the house’ are in the hands, so to speak, of other Powers, and -England barred her way to the south fifteen or twenty years ago -in Afghanistan and Beluchistan. In the Far East somewhere -in the middle of the century Russia contrived to descend from -the Polar Sea of Okhotsk and to advance at the expense of -China as far as Vladivostok; but this port remains closed for two -months on account of the ice, and Russia has always considered -her provinces of the Amur and of the Littoral merely in the light -of temporary stations, whence she intended on some future and -favourable occasion to push her way further south. Between -1880 and 1886 it was reported that she was about to obtain -a concession somewhere in the Bay of Korea, or even in the -isle of Quelpart, which is in the strait separating that country -from Japan. A little later she seemed to covet Port Arthur -or Talien-wan, which are free of ice, and are situated at the -extremity of the peninsula of Liao-tung, which would provide -her access to an open sea at the back of Korea and other -advantages. At the narrow entrance to the Gulf of Pe-chi-li -and only 50 miles from the opposite coast of Shan-tung, are -ports which offer great advantages as naval stations, whence a -rapid transport fleet could easily convey troops in twenty-four -hours to Ta-ku, and thence in four days’ march to the Chinese -capital. Once established at Port Arthur, and having plenty -of elbow-room in Pe-chi-li, Russia could exercise over the -Chinese Government, in its present capital, even a more irresistible -pressure than could England have done had she been -able to induce the Imperial Court to transport itself to the banks -of the Yang-tsze.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Unquestionably the dreams of Russian aggrandizement have -<span class='pageno' id='Page_246'>246</span>become much more ambitious since she has discovered how very -weak the Sick Man of Peking is. She no longer seeks an open -port on the Pacific, but apparently pursues her object, unostentatiously -however, towards the complete domination of -the Middle Kingdom, especially over her vast dependencies -in Turkestan, Mongolia, and Manchuria—in a word, over the -whole of North China. And as the Muscovite temperament is -ever a dreamy one, who knows but that on the shores of the Neva -the heir of Peter the Great does not already picture himself -on the throne of the Sun of Heaven, commanding the latter’s -multitude of subjects, who are accustomed to submit to a -foreign yoke, and might obey the Tsar as unresistingly as they -did Ghengis Khan, even as to-day they pay homage to a degenerate -Manchu, and as indeed they would have done to the -Mikado, had not Europe put a stop to further advances on the -part of the Japanese? The Mikado, too, who had been driven -into the war by the repeated insolence of the Chinese and also -by the justifiable desire to protect his commercial interests in -Korea, may also, when intoxicated by his surprising successes, -have entertained the thought that it might be possible for him -one day to annex China. If this war had taken place fifty, or -even twenty-five, years ago, when Europe paid less attention to -foreign affairs, it is probable that the Manchu Dynasty would -have been replaced by that of Japan. Possibly then the -‘Yellow Peril’—the military ‘Yellow Peril’—which to-day is -but a mere chimera, might have become a very evident reality. -The Japanese, after having thoroughly reorganized and disciplined -the Chinese army, might at a given moment have let -loose its innumerable hordes upon the Western world; but -if in 1895 they had allowed themselves for a moment to dream -of placing their Emperor upon the throne of Peking, the -Japanese were not allowed to indulge in this pleasant vision -for long, and were soon made to feel how intently and jealously -their movements were watched by European diplomacy.</p> - -<p class='c008'>By the treaty of Shimonosaki, signed April 2, 1895, the -Celestial Empire granted to her conquerors all their demands, -recognising at the same time the independence of Korea, and -allowing Japan, whose troops still occupied that country, a free -hand. If this treaty had been ratified as it was originally -drawn up, Russia would have had to renounce for a long time -to come all hope of possessing an outlet to the open sea, and -would certainly have had to see her influence substituted by -<span class='pageno' id='Page_247'>247</span>a rival at Peking, who would have reorganized China possibly -in a hostile spirit. She could not allow this, but she dared -take no initiative by herself, fearing lest she might suddenly -find herself confronted by England and Japan. She, -therefore, before the signature of the treaty of peace, placed -herself in communication with France and Germany, and -endeavoured to make those Powers understand that the installation -of Japan on the coast was as detrimental to their interests -as it was to her own. She successfully converted them to her -way of thinking, and on April 22 the three Powers addressed -a Note to the Mikado, couched in the most courteous terms, -begging of his Majesty to renounce his pretensions over the -peninsula of Liao-tung, the establishment of his authority in -that country being likely to create a permanent danger to the -peace, not only of the Far East, but of the whole world. At -first the Mikado, so it seems, was determined to resist at any -cost, and to refuse to yield. His Government cast an eye -towards England, to see if her support could be counted -upon; but at that time the Cabinet of St. James’s had not -made up its mind whether it would openly espouse the cause -of Japan or not. Possibly it was influenced by the absolutely -anti-Japanese feelings entertained by the vast majority of English -subjects living in the Far East, and it is also by no means improbable -that she did not wish to assist a Power that might -eventually become a dangerous rival to her own commercial -supremacy. Perceiving at last that England would neither join -the three great Powers nor back the Mikado in his pretensions, -the Government of Tokio very wisely consented, at the time -bearing great ill-feeling towards England, who now found herself -isolated in the Far East. Nevertheless, resentment against -Russia was so powerful, and the feeling of alarm entertained by -the two insular Powers at the spectacle of the progress made -by Russia so great, that in a short time a reconciliation was -effected between them.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The intervention of what is known in the Far East as the -New Triple Alliance resulted in consequences quite as grave -and durable as the war itself. Its immediate effects dominated -the politics of the Far East until the end of 1897, and even -now continue to do so. The essential features of the new situation -were the substitution in China of Russian influence, now -become all-powerful, for that of England, the antagonism which -has risen between Russia and Japan, and the friendly feeling -<span class='pageno' id='Page_248'>248</span>which now exists between this last Power and England. The -mandarins and the Court of Peking, whilst never ceding an -iota of their pride or their firm belief in the superiority of their -civilization, were, nevertheless, obliged to admit the irremediable -weakness of the military power of the Celestial Empire. If -the majority did not care much for China as their country, they -one and all considered her to be their prey, and consequently -required a protector against the Japanese, and they proceeded -from Legation to Legation in quest of one; as their situation -was desperate, they were obliged to take what they could get, -and, Russia being agreeable, they accepted her friendly offer, -even though their new ally might eventually become a domineering -master. This gave them time, and they counted upon their -cunning, when a favourable opportunity presented itself, to set -the Powers by the ears. Probably at heart they entertain less -dislike for the Muscovite Empire than for any other European -country, and, indeed, China has less friction with the Russians -than with any other nationality. Russia can enter the Celestial -Empire over her land frontier through countries very thinly -populated by inhabitants not of Chinese race, who are not -hostile to strangers; whereas the other Europeans coming by -sea are brought into immediate contact with the turbulent -crowds of the seaport towns, where the least act of imprudence -may give rise to grave incidents. Moreover, the subjects of -the Tsar exhibit a greater degree of forbearance than the -peoples of the West. They do not experience that innate -contempt for men of colour, they are more tractable to the -habits of the countries in which they establish themselves, and -are not so forward in protesting against petty annoyances. The -Orthodox Church, too, scrupulously abstains from all propaganda -in China, and the Russian Legation is therefore spared -those delicate questions concerning the rights and the wrongs -of missionaries which so greatly irritate the Chinese. All this -facilitates the substitution of Russian influence for that of the -English.</p> - -<p class='c008'>We must, however, seek for the causes which induced France -and Germany to enter, under the Russian auspices, into an unexpected -alliance outside the question of the Far East. The -harmony that exists between these two Powers is due to their -desire to gain the good graces of the Tsar. Rivals in endeavouring -to please him, they both answered all proposals -which came from St. Petersburg favourably. Germany had no -<span class='pageno' id='Page_249'>249</span>political interests in the East of Asia, and France only those -of secondary importance connected with Indo-China, and therefore -these nations never hesitated to regulate their line of -conduct in the Far East in accordance with their political -aspirations in Europe, and, the better to please Russia, forthwith -modified their previously somewhat hostile attitude. During -the war both Powers had been more or less favourable to -Japan.</p> - -<p class='c008'>This change of conduct involved a considerable sacrifice, -especially in the case of France, and signified the rupture of -her old friendship for Japan, whose army had been formed by -a French military mission, and whose battleships and arsenals -had been in great part constructed and organized by Frenchmen, -services which the Japanese recognised shortly after the -victory of the Yalu by sending to the eminent naval engineer, -M. Bertin, the grand cordon of the Order of the Rising Sun. -France had not obtained great advantages from this friendship, -but if she did not do so, it was more or less because she did not -wish it, for it is certain that the alliance of the Mikado was -offered to her in 1884 on the condition that she conveyed to the -coasts of Pe-chi-li a Japanese army corps, intended to march -on to Peking. France had also the right to expect after the war -some commercial advantages, notably some important commercial -orders to her great industrial firms, for the renovating -of the fleet, much damaged by the war. By placing herself on -the side of China, whose friendship might have been useful, -the more so as she was a neighbour, although she was constantly -wrangling with her, France gave up an alliance with -the one country in the Far East which represents progress and -has a future, and, what is more, she literally pushed her into -the arms of England, who may one day make use of her -against the French.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The sacrifices made by Germany were less important, for she -could not expect in the Far East any considerable advantages. -To begin with, she had seized the opportunity to play a political -part on a stage where she had never appeared before, but -being much more commercial than France, she had more to -gain from the concessions which China would be obliged to -make, and she could thus include this vast market in the -sphere of her industrial activity and commercial enterprise. -By mixing in the affairs of the Far East the youthful German -Empire only obeyed the instinct of foreign expansion which -<span class='pageno' id='Page_250'>250</span>obliges her to watch over her political and commercial interests -in all parts of the world.</p> - -<p class='c008'>On the other hand, the action of the three Continental -Powers presented considerable danger, aggravated as it was by -the warlike intentions of the commanders of the Russian fleet. -A rumour certainly existed in 1896 in the Far East, and, moreover, -has since been confirmed to me by most credible witnesses, -that between April 25, the day on which the Note of the three -Powers was presented, and May 5th, the date on which the -representatives of Japan announced their acquiescence, Admiral -Tyrtof, who commanded the Russian fleet and who has since -become Minister of Marine, invited Admiral de la Bonninière -de Beaumont to proceed with him to meet the Japanese fleet -at the risk of provoking a collision, in which the latter would -inevitably have been crushed. The presence of mind of the -French Admiral, who evaded the invitation by protesting that -he had received no instructions from his Government, and -therefore delayed matters as long as possible, prevented an -aggression which might have resulted in dreadful consequences, -and led to a massacre in Japan itself of Russian and French -residents, and, moreover, might have brought about extremely -grave international complications. Who knows, too, but that -public opinion in England might have been offended by such -an act, and that on the morrow of an easy victory over the -Japanese the Allies might have found themselves face to face -with the British fleet?</p> - -<p class='c008'>It is certain that by taking sides with Russia in a question of -only secondary interest to herself France incurred the grave -risk of a war not only with Japan, but with England, a war -in which her stake was far greater than that of Russia or of -Germany, and the consequences of which she would have been -obliged to bear alone. Fortunately, the prudence of Admiral -de Beaumont smoothed over the angry feeling of the Russian -commanders, which, however, manifested itself once more on -May 8, 1895, the date on which the ratifications of the treaty -of peace between China and Japan were to have been exchanged. -On that day the Russian fleet was stationed in the -roads off the Chinese port of Chefoo, at the entrance to the -Gulf of Pe-chi-li, opposite Port Arthur, where the exchange of -ratifications was to have occurred, ready for fight in case Japan -refused her acceptance, in which case it was agreed between -the admirals to oppose the Japanese near Ta-ku, at the mouth -<span class='pageno' id='Page_251'>251</span>of the Pei-ho, close to Wei-hai-Wei, where their fleet was -anchored. Alongside of the Russian fleet were two German -cruisers, representing the German navy in the Far East; but -Admiral de Beaumont steamed away, leaving only at Wei-hai-Wei -the <em>Forfait</em>, thereby showing very clearly that he had no -intention of taking part in a superfluous demonstration, which -would only have resulted in increasing the irritation of Japan -against the three Powers.</p> - -<p class='c008'>These warlike demonstrations presented a singular contrast -to the extremely courteous tone of the Notes presented to Japan -by the Russian, French, and German ministers. They had the -effect of convincing Japan that she had in the future to count -with the lasting hostility of the Tsar, and that the secret desire -of the Government of St. Petersburg was not only to prevent -her establishing herself on the Asiatic Continent, but also -eventually to completely annihilate her. By a curious right-about-face, -Japan now turned towards China, who received her -overtures favourably. The fact was that at Peking the pretensions -of Russia had created great alarm, and Li Hung-chang -opened his heart to the Japanese Consul at Tien-tsin, and -begged the Cabinet of Tokio to give a conciliatory answer with -respect to the question of Liao-tung, and solve it in a friendly -manner, and thereby avoid increasing the responsibilities which -weighed upon his shoulders. The Chinese Government, he -added, was entirely at the mercy of the Russians, and could only -be saved by Japan.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Was this intended on the part of the old diplomatist as a disguised -offer of service? It is impossible to say. One thing -only is certain—the Tsung-li-Yamen proposed that the Japanese -minister, M. Hayashi, should negotiate directly, and offer as a -compensation for Liao-tung not an indemnity, but an alliance -with China and a concession for the railway to be built between -Tien-tsin and Peking. The Government of the Mikado was -inclined to accept this solution, but the three Continental -Powers—that is to say, Russia—did not view the matter favourably. -They wished, for better security—that Japan should not -be bound to China only, but that the retrocession of Liao-tung -should not be subjected to clauses calculated to prolong -matters, and, above all, a cessation of the continuance of the -Japanese occupation of Korea. They therefore insisted that -the matter should be settled at once by the payment of a supplementary -indemnity of 30,000,000 taels, or £4,500,000, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_252'>252</span>payable on November 18th, 1895, the Japanese evacuation to -take place within three months.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Japan was obliged to accept these propositions by an -exchange of Notes signed on the 19th October, and she, moreover, -agreed to withdraw her troops from Korea immediately. -The attempt at a reconciliation and an alliance with the -Celestial Empire had failed; but since then the language of -the Japanese press and of many of her statesmen proves that -at Tokio this idea has not been entirely abandoned, and if -they have not been able to confiscate China to the advantage -of the Mikado, the Japanese wish to see her placed in a position -to resist the pressure of other Powers and to exist by her own -resources. On the payment of the indemnity, Japan endeavoured -to obtain from China a formal promise that she would never -cede to any other Power the territories which she had been -obliged to restore. But Russian influence was already too -firmly established, and the promise was refused. The new -political line of conduct which the European Powers and -those which had at first come to her assistance were about to -follow with respect to China was now openly developed. If -the Setting Sun had more worshippers now than the Rising -Sun, it is assuredly not the result of any sentiment of -chivalrous disinterestedness—quite the contrary.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_253'>253</span> - <h3 class='c001'>CHAPTER IX<br /> <span class='large'>RUSSIA, FRANCE, AND ENGLAND IN THE FAR EAST IN 1895–97</span></h3> -</div> -<p class='c014'>The immediate results of the war—Issue of an important Chinese loan—Russia -becomes guarantee for China, and in return obtains the right -to construct the Manchurian Railway—Ability of Russian diplomacy -in Korea—Faults and abuses of the Japanese in that country—Revolution -in the Korean palace at Seoul—The King of Korea under the -protection of Russia—Preponderance of Muscovite influences in the -Far East at the beginning of 1897—Important advantages obtained by -the Tsar’s allies—Apparent disinterestedness of Germany—Treaty -with France signed on June 20th, 1895—Energy of the French -Minister—French protectorate over the Catholics of the East—Efforts -made by England in 1896 to regain her influence at Peking—Anglo-Chinese -Convention, February 4th, 1897—Opening of the West River -to European navigation—A few fresh concessions granted to France in -1897.</p> - -<p class='c007'>In the events which have transpired in the Far East since the -War, and which have led to the present situation, two distinct -phases mark the violent aggression of Kiao-chau. The first -extends from the spring of 1895 to the autumn of 1897, and is -that in which the Powers, after having come to China’s -assistance, obtained from her concessions in return for their -good offices, whilst pretending moderation in their demands.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Altogether, the most important consequence of the War was -the establishment of a heavy foreign debt. Hitherto China -had only contracted in Europe insignificant loans of a few -millions of francs. During hostilities her foreign indebtedness -rose to £7,000,000, a mere trifle, and, moreover, the lenders -were in possession of excellent security; but the War -Indemnity and other urgent expenses necessary for the rehabilitation -of the country mounted up to £48,000,000, so -that now the interest on this debt, taking the rate at 5 per -cent., would absorb £2,400,000, and, by adding the arrears -<span class='pageno' id='Page_254'>254</span>of already existing loans, this figure would attain about -£2,800,000, equivalent to nearly the whole of the Customs -revenue. The Customs duties are paid in silver, but it would -be absolutely necessary to stipulate, if a considerable loan is to -be floated on the European market, that the interest should be -paid in gold. The question, therefore, very naturally arises -whether, in view of so small a margin, the fluctuations in the -value of silver, which have already caused the <em>hai-kwan</em> taël to -fall from 6s. 7d., its value a quarter of a century ago, to 2s. 10d., -the average rate since 1897, will not sooner or later result in -the Customs receipts proving insufficient to cover the payment -of the arrears. Nobody in his senses would dream of lending -money to China on the mere security of her general resources, -and she would, consequently, be obliged to assign to her -creditors new securities, and place in their hands the administration -of new branches of revenue. On the other hand, -stripped of about £2,800,000 from the total revenue, which -the most optimistic estimate gives at £24,000,000, she would -have to look for new channels to add to her income, either -by increasing the taxes, or by permitting foreigners to exploit -the resources of the country, conceding to them railway and -mining concessions on the basis of leases or joint profits. -The first proposal ran the risk of unpopularity; the second -was more tempting, but it meant the introduction into the -country of that very Western civilization which the Chinese -Government had opposed with all its might for the last fifty -years.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The monetary difficulties of the Celestial Empire brought -about a renewed interference by Europeans in her affairs, if -only in the collecting of the taxes, and, also, a sort of financial -embargo, the dangers of which are sufficiently manifest in -countries like Egypt. The Government of Peking was well -aware of this, and, therefore, spared no effort in obtaining a -reduction on the £34,500,000 War Indemnity, and even attempted -to arrive at an understanding with Japan respecting the -retrocession of Liao-tung without supplementary disbursement.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The great importance of this money question was nowhere -better understood than at St. Petersburg, and one cannot help -admiring the boldness and ability of the policy pursued by -Russia. That countries like France and England, literally -overflowing with money, should have ventured to secure a -preponderating position in China by means of financial -<span class='pageno' id='Page_255'>255</span>manœuvrings is not at all to be wondered at; but that Russia, -already heavily indebted with a public foreign debt amounting -to over £240,000,000, should have been shrewd enough -to subject China to a sort of vassalage, through the pecuniary -services she rendered her, was indeed a masterly achievement.</p> - -<p class='c008'>M. de Witte, the Tsar’s Minister of Finance, who devised -this remarkable scheme and conducted it to a triumphant -issue over the head of the Minister for Foreign Affairs, -exhibited throughout the rarest political ability and foresight -combined with business acumen. Russia was unable to lend -China money, but she was willing to become her guarantor, -and thus enable the Celestial Empire, backed by the -principal banks of Paris, where Russian funds were at their -height, to float a loan of £16,000,000 at 4 per cent. issued -at ninety-four—that is to say, at the same issue price at which, -before this security was granted, the French and German -financial houses had offered to raise a loan at 5 per cent. -The annual interest to be paid by China, thanks to Russian -intervention, was thus reduced by a fifth, whereby the Celestials, -although they obtained a bargain, at the same time committed -a grave political error.</p> - -<p class='c008'>In accepting a foreign Power as guarantor, the Chinese -Government rendered itself responsible to that Power only, -and placed her financial and, above all, her political independence -in far greater peril than she could have done had -she negotiated directly with individual capitalists of various -nationalities, whose pressure, in case of non-payment, would -have been considerably weakened by the inevitable differences -which would subsist between their Governments. This danger -seems to have been thoroughly understood at Peking, where -the necessary documents were not signed until the expiration -of the last day’s delay granted by Russia, and then only under -extreme pressure, because the Chinese Government had -evidently failed to find assistance elsewhere.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The Government of St. Petersburg, well pleased with this -success, proceeded to strengthen its policy in China by further -financial operations, and with the assistance of the Bank of -Russia next created the Russo-Chinese Bank, Parisian financiers -supplying the greater part of the capital, but leaving the direction -of affairs almost exclusively in Russian hands. The -Comptoir d’Escompte transferred its agencies in China to -Russia, and the new bank established at the same time branches -<span class='pageno' id='Page_256'>256</span>at Peking, Tien-tsin, Shanghai, and Hankow. Since then this -bank has continued to be the principal agent of Russian influence -in China, and undoubtedly it was at first almost entirely -through its mediation that Russia negotiated the concession of -the East Chinese Railway, which enabled her to continue her -Trans-Siberian Railway southward through Manchuria, thus -shortening the original line by several hundred miles, and -enabling it to pass within 350 miles of the Gulf of Pe-chi-li. -Russia, moreover, obtained the authorization to protect the -works by her own troops, whereby she made herself mistress of -Manchuria, whence she was able to dominate Peking until -events allowed her to occupy Liao-tung.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Whilst she was amply paid for her services by China, Russia -made herself no less active in Korea. The Japanese, who had -occupied that country, perpetrated error on error. They had -attempted to impose upon the Koreans with great abruptness -the most varied and radical reforms. Many of these were -possibly useful enough, but they ought to have been introduced -with discretion; others were unnecessary, and greatly irritated -the people by wounding their most cherished customs and -traditions. The Koreans, although not particularly clean in -their habits, are invariably clad in white, are, moreover, addicted -to smoking very long pipes, and to rolling their hair up into a -huge chignon, which they surmount by an enormously broad-brimmed -hat, whose crown is so small that they are obliged to -fasten it to their heads by a long string. The Mikado issued a -sumptuary law against long pipes, chignons, and wide-brimmed -hats, and, moreover, ordered that the traditional white robe -should henceforth be replaced by the dark-blue one usually -worn by the Japanese. It is said that this unfortunate incident -was the result of a conviction that Koreans, being obliged to -hold their pipe with one hand, and to balance their enormous -hats with the other, could never become hard workers. Be -this as it may, the Japanese sentinels at the gates of Seoul -made life unendurable to the unfortunate Koreans. Armed -with a big pair of scissors, they pounced upon the unfortunate -peasants as they entered the town on their way to market, and -cut not only the strings of their monumental hats, but severed -their beloved chignons, and shortened by at least three-quarters -of their length the stems of their pipes—arbitrary measures -well calculated to break their hearts with mortification and -vexation of spirit. It is not to be wondered at that such -<span class='pageno' id='Page_257'>257</span>impolitic conduct, added to occasional acts of violence, soon -roused the indignation and hatred of the natives, otherwise a -very inoffensive and peaceable people. On October 7, 1895, -the Korean Queen was murdered in her palace by assassins -in the pay of the Japanese, and with the complicity of the -Legation. King Li-Hsi, a very poor creature at the best, -whose reign has been one tissue of Court intrigue and palace -revolution, after the assassination of the Queen, fell into a consternation -of abject terror, completely abdicating his regal -authority, and became so degraded that he even consented to -sign an edict insulting the memory of the late Queen, and -accusing her of shameful crimes. Innocent persons were now -executed at Seoul as guilty of the murder, whereas the actual -assassins were acquitted by a self-constituted Japanese tribunal.</p> - -<p class='c008'>In the meantime Russia very ably exploited the general -discontent, and in an underhand manner offered her services -to the timid King, who was not only terribly afraid of the -Japanese, but also of his father, the Tai-wen-kun, a ferocious -old gentleman, whose ambition had disturbed Korea for over -twenty years, and who had been raised to power by the natives. -His Majesty seemed disposed to accept the Russian proposal, -but dared not leave his palace, in which he was kept a close -prisoner. A riot ensued, whether spontaneous or provoked -has never been divulged, which, on the night of February 11, -1896, offered him a chance of escape. The Tai-wen-kun was -killed, and Li-Hsi obtained shelter at the Russian Legation, -then guarded by a detachment of sailors fresh landed at -Chemulpo, the port of Seoul, without any attempt on the part -of the Japanese to prevent them. Li-Hsi, once safe in the house -of the Russian Minister, where all the members of the Korean -Government had found shelter, acted like a King in a comic -opera, and became the plaything of Russia, precisely as he had -recently been of Japan. He forthwith revoked all the reforming -edicts he had previously signed, and annulled the decree -degrading the memory of the unfortunate Queen, the trial -of whose assassins took place in a High Court presided over -by judges selected from various European nationalities, with -the result that the responsibility for her murder was thrown on -the Japanese.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The reactionary movement now became violent, and many -useful reforms had perforce to disappear. A committee, composed -of the highest native functionaries, the British Controller -<span class='pageno' id='Page_258'>258</span>of Customs, and a few Americans, was appointed to study -measures of reform, but they only met two or three times, and -nothing came of it, so that in a few months all the old abuses -reappeared. Nevertheless, by her sagacious conduct, Russia -had the ability to win over the foreign representatives in Korea -to her side, and Japan, in order to preserve the remnant of her -influence in a country whose commerce was mainly in her -hands, and where not less than 10,000 of her subjects resided, -was now obliged to arrive at an understanding with Russia. -The Convention of Seoul, signed May 14th, 1896, by the -representatives of the two Powers, completed by that of July -29th, concluded at Moscow at the time of the coronation of -Nicholas II., and drawn up by Prince Lobanof and Marshal -Yamagata, accorded Japan merely the right to keep 1,000 -troops in Korea for the protection of the Japanese telegraph -wires between Fusan and Seoul and of her subjects settled in -the capital and in the open ports of Fusan and Gensan. Russia -also obtained the same rights, and, moreover, a concession -to construct a telegraphic line from Seoul to the Siberian -frontier.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The two Powers further agreed to lend the Korean Government -their support for the reorganization of its finances and a -sufficient police force to maintain order, and to permit, as soon -as possible, of the withdrawal of their garrisons. In appearance -it was a sort of Russo-Japanese <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">condominium</span></i> that was -established in Korea; but Russian influence, now all-powerful -with the King, met with no further obstacle after the restoration -of that Sovereign to his palace in February, 1897. A -decree, ordering that all railways to be constructed in Korea -should have the same gauge as that of the Trans-Siberian -Railway, and that the debt of £300,000 contracted by Korea -with Japan should be repaid, and, moreover, that none but -Russian instructors should be engaged in reorganizing the -Korean army, was also issued, which Japan considered a -distinct breach of the Treaty of Moscow.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Russian influence was therefore, at the beginning of the -year 1897, absolutely preponderant in Korea as well as in -China. In both countries the Tsar’s Government had played, -with extraordinary ability, the part of protector of the conquered -against the abuses of the conqueror, and also that of a -redresser of wrongs, whereby it won universal approbation -throughout the Far East. The Japanese victories now appeared -<span class='pageno' id='Page_259'>259</span>only to have been obtained for the benefit of Russia, who -substituted herself everywhere for Japan, in Manchuria as well -as in Korea, and thus profited very considerably by the War -without having to pay any of its expenses. If at its close -Russia had the discretion to perceive the advantages which -she might derive from intervention, and if she acted with -energy and decision, she also knew how to curb the impetuosity -of her admirals, who were eager to commit those -very faults into which Japan had fallen, which undoubtedly -would have brought about very serious European complications. -She therefore at first abstained from annexing the -peninsula of Liao-tung and the important stations of Port -Arthur and Talien-wan, which she had compelled the Japanese -to evacuate, and officially she made no annexations in Korea; -but, possessing the right to construct a railway through Central -Manchuria and to protect its works by her own troops, and -being at one and the same time mistress of the situation -at Seoul, Russia was able at the right moment to annex -either Korea or Liao-tung, and bring the Trans-Siberian to the -open sea through one or the other of these two peninsulas. -She hesitated as to which she should select; the first was -nearer Peking, the second brought her more directly to the -Pacific, whence she could menace simultaneously the mouth -of the Yang-tsze and the South-east of Japan. At St Petersburg, -however, it seemed that the Government was waiting for -the completion of the Trans-Siberian Railway, which was proceeding -in hot haste, and which it was expected would reach -the Amur in the first months of 1900, ere the psychological -moment should arrive to strike a decisive blow.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Side by side with immense advantages acquired by Russia, -those obtained by her allies seemed insignificant. Germany -had not shown herself exacting; all she asked was a few acres -of land at Tien-tsin and other naval ports where she might -establish independent concessions intended to satisfy her sense -of dignity. The absence of special concessions had not -hitherto prevented Germany from achieving an extraordinary -commercial success in China, but the future will prove that the -German Empire entertains great designs in the Far East, the -realization of which are merely postponed.</p> - -<p class='c008'>As to France, she got in return for her services the two -Conventions signed at Peking by her Minister, M. Gérard, on -June 20th, 1895. The first of these documents accords divers -<span class='pageno' id='Page_260'>260</span>facilities to the extension of her commerce on the frontier -between China and Indo-China; the second ratifies, to her -advantage, the frontier limits. A new market—Semao, in the -Yunnan—was now added to the towns of Mong-Tze and Lung-Chau, opened to Franco-Annamite commerce in 1887. The -customs on goods entering or leaving these markets and -passing through Tongking, already reduced to three-quarters -of the maritime Custom-house tariff of 1887, were again lowered -to about two-fifths of the general tariff, so far as concerned -products exported from any other Chinese port, or intended to -be re-imported into any one of these said ports. In Article 5 -of this Convention the following passage occurs: ‘It is understood -that China, in the exploitation of mines situated in the -provinces of Yunnan, Kuang-si, and Kuang-Tung, may apply, -in the first place, to French merchants and engineers, the exploitation -remaining subject to the rules laid down by the -Imperial Government in all that concerns national industry. -It is agreed that the railways already existing, or to be constructed -in Annam, may, after a mutual understanding, be -extended on Chinese territory.’ Finally, it was further stipulated -that the French and Chinese telegraph lines should be -combined. The Convention respecting the frontier definitely -extended the French possessions to the eastern shore of the -upper Mekong, thereby giving France the territory situated on -the border of the Shan State of Xieng-hong. England in 1894 -had admitted the right of suzerainty of China over this little -principality, as well as over one or two others, thereby creating -a sort of neutral zone between her Indian Empire and French -Indo-China.</p> - -<p class='c008'>A great deal was made over this Convention in France, and -the energetic manner in which the French Minister at Peking -had been able to obtain these concessions under the very nose -of his English colleague, Sir Nicholas O’Connor. The negotiations -closed, M. Gérard proceeded to the Tsung-li-Yamen -on the day arranged for the exchange of signatures, to find, -however, only one of the two Chinese plenipotentiaries present. -This personage offered profuse apologies for the non-appearance -of his colleague. ‘Nothing should have prevented his -being here,’ replied the French diplomatist. ‘I pray you find -him at once and tell him so.’ A few moments afterwards the -second Celestial appeared alone, looking very sheepish. ‘And -your colleague, is he coming back?’ asked M. Gérard. ‘No; -<span class='pageno' id='Page_261'>261</span>I am afraid he is detained, and that he cannot return. Shall I -go and fetch him?’ ‘I beg your pardon,’ M. Gérard shrewdly -replied; ‘I will keep you here, and will go myself in quest of -your friend.’ At the end of an hour or so the two Celestials -were finally brought together, and on being asked to explain -their dilatory conduct, stated that the British Minister was -in the next room, threatening, if they ventured to sign, forthwith -to haul down his flag. M. Gérard was soon able to -convince the Celestial plenipotentiaries that they had nothing -to fear, but that they must immediately affix their signatures to -the document. Sir Nicholas O’Connor, he assured them, once -he was convinced of the futility of his intimidation, would soon -turn his attention to other affairs. This anecdote, whilst it -reflects great credit on the energy of the French Minister, and -displays his knowledge of the Chinese character to advantage, -emphasizes the declining influence of England in China in -1895 and 1896, as well as the annoyance experienced by this -Power at the ratification of the French frontier and its extension -towards Mekong. By confirming it, China violated, it is true, -the engagements she had made when England recognised her -position at Xieng-hong, but this did not concern France, for -the State in question was as much the vassal of Annam or of -Siam as it is of Burmah or of China.</p> - -<p class='c008'>What was the real value of the commercial concessions -granted to France by China, and concerning which her press -had made such capital? The reduction of the duties on all -products passing by Tongking would have been of great value -if the neighbouring Chinese province had been a rich one, but -it is, unfortunately, quite the reverse. It is now time to glance -over the region that can be provisioned and exploited through -Tongking. It includes the greater part of Yunnan and -Kwang-si, the southern half of Kwei-chau, and a small part of -Kwang-tung, that long and narrow band of territory which this -province projects over the Tongking frontier between the sea -and Kuang-si. The Yunnan, the Kwang-si, and the Kwei-chau -are the three poorest provinces of China, and cover a fifth of -her territory, whilst possessing barely the fifteenth of her population, -or, in other words, about 24,000,000 out of 380,000,000. -They have been unfortunately devastated by the great insurrection -of the Taipings and the Mohammedan revolts, especially -Yunnan; the country is really only a conglomeration of -mountains and plateaux, some of them 6,500 feet in height, and, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_262'>262</span>moreover, the communications are very scanty, and it would -cost an enormous sum to improve them. The report of the -Lyons Mission, which explored this part of China in 1895–97, -frequently mentions the great difficulties of transport and the -steepness of the ascents, such, for instance, as the famous -Imperial road of Ten Thousand Steps, which you ascend from -the bank of the Red River to the Yunnan plateau, between -Manhao and Mong-tze, and which in a distance of only 30 -miles rises from 485 to more than 6,500 feet. It also mentions -the paucity of population, as contrasted with its superabundance, -in the basin of the Yang-tsze-Kiang and the coast provinces. -In the Far East the mountains are almost invariably barren, -even when there is very little cultivable soil in the plain -below. It is said that the Yunnan is extremely rich in mineral -ore, but, as once remarked an acute observer, who has recently -visited nearly the whole of China, when explorers find nothing -worth noticing on the surface of a country, they generally arrive -at the conclusion that there must be something worth looking -for underneath. Undoubtedly both copper and tin have been -exploited for years past in Yunnan, but thus far the actual -wealth of these mines is unknown, and it would be mere matter -of conjecture to affirm whether they are worth working or not, -or whether it would pay to construct a railway 300 miles in -length to transport the ore, as these Chinese provinces on -the frontier neighbouring Tongking produce neither silk, tea, -nor any other valuable Chinese export product, and do not -offer a particularly brilliant prospect at present. As to Article 5, -relating to mines, if taken in the literal sense, it is simply a -truism, but if one wishes to discover in it a disguised engagement, -and read ‘ought’ instead of ‘may,’ it is a violation of the -clause granted to the most favoured nation inserted in all -Chinese treaties with European Powers. France had soon to -recognise its futility on January 15th, 1896, at the time of the -signing of the Anglo-French treaty relating to the affairs of -Siam, by which, it is true, she profited little by the difficult -circumstances in which Great Britain then found herself, and -the two Governments of Paris and London agreed that all the -rights and privileges acquired, or to be acquired, either in the -Yunnan or more to the north at Sze-chuan, were to be equally -shared.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The profit which France might have obtained from the convention -of June 20th, 1895, was thus reduced to little or -<span class='pageno' id='Page_263'>263</span>nothing. During the following year the negotiations which -were being persistently pursued at Peking brought about other -results. The right to reconstruct the arsenal at Foochow -established by the French in 1866, and which they destroyed -in 1884 under Admiral Courbet, was again restored to them. -Several naval engineers are working there at present, and French -foundries are supplying material. Such has been the share -derived by France in the concessions made by China, to obtain -which the nations made such flattering advances to Li Hung-chang -when that astute old gentleman made his recent famous -tour through Europe and America. It certainly compensated -after a fashion for the loss of the custom of Japan, who at one -time gave frequent orders to French factories, but who now -deals exclusively with England and America for the ships and -cannon necessary for her greatly augmented fleet.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Meanwhile, the French Minister at Peking has exerted -himself in a creditable manner for the benefit of the Catholic -missionaries. He has obtained the abrogation of those regulations -which prohibited missionaries from purchasing estates -in the interior of China, and exacted a promise that the next -edition of the <em>Ta-tsing-lu-lieh</em>, a collection of laws issued by the -Tsing Dynasty, should appear without the list of punishments -against missionaries contained in the edition of 1892. Finally, -he obtained authorization for the Lazarists to rebuild on the -same spot the cathedral at Tien-tsin, burnt at the time of the -massacre of the missionaries and nuns during the insurrection -of June, 1870.</p> - -<p class='c008'>It is assuredly as the protectress of Catholicism that France -has of late years most worthily played her part in the Far East. -Possibly she has not known how to convert to her material -advantage the influence which ought to be derived in China -from her religious position, and doubtless French policy in the -Celestial Empire has been lacking in enterprise. She certainly -did not derive from the intervention in favour of China a -profit proportionate to the risks incurred, and has obtained -from China not only less than her ally, Russia, but even -than England, and by uselessly opposing the demands of -this latter Power she has run the risk of irritating without any -benefit that ill-feeling which divides these two great Western -nations.</p> - -<p class='c008'>After a period of inaction during the year which followed the -War, the British Government, if it has not positively reconquered -<span class='pageno' id='Page_264'>264</span>its former influence, has at least gained a renewed hearing at -Peking. Although China trembled before Russia, the presence -in her waters of the British fleet did not fail to inspire her with -a feeling of profound respect; but, once the first moment of -alarm was over, she again bethought herself as much as possible -to begin afresh her old game of pendulum between the various -Powers. The slow work of British diplomacy throughout the -year 1896 fructified in the signing of the Anglo-Chinese Convention -of February 4th, 1897, by which China conceded to -Great Britain certain important modifications on the Burmese -frontier; granted her back a part of the Shan States; recognised -her right to establish a Consul somewhere in Western -Yunnan, Manwyne, or Chunning-fu; engaged to open the -roads leading to these places as well as to others; and finally -allowed the railways to be constructed in Yunnan to be united -with those of Burmah. Lastly—and this is the most important -point of all—a separate article prescribed that the Si-Kiang, or -West River, which flows through Canton, should be open to -European navigation as far as Woochow, on the Kwang-si and -Kwang-tung frontier, 125 miles from Canton. The two river -ports Samshui and Wuchow became treaty ports, and European -concessions were established there.</p> - -<p class='c008'>This was for England some return for the mortification she -had experienced twenty months earlier at the time of the -Gérard Convention. If, therefore, in Yunnan, in spite of the -equality of rights existing between Great Britain and France, -the advantage was with the latter, by reason of the natural -conditions rendering access less difficult from Tongking than -from Burmah, the opening of the West River was a check -for French policy, which had vigorously opposed it. By -this waterway European vessels—that is to say, almost exclusively -British steamers coming from Hong-Kong—would, in -the first place, be able to trade with the rich valley of the -lower Si-kiang, which crosses Kwang-tung, and reascends to -the frontier of Kwang-tung, where they would meet the junks -which bring to this point at a small cost the varied products -of this province, and, moreover, distribute merchandise from -Hong-Kong to the extreme navigable points of the West -River and its affluents. These points are situated at a great -distance in the interior, almost on the frontiers of Yunnan and -Tongking, and at Lung-chau, thirty miles from Lang-son, one -can see at high tide junks from Canton. Therefore all the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_265'>265</span>commerce of Kwang-si which France had so coveted was to be -drained by this new channel.</p> - -<p class='c008'>French diplomacy endeavoured to repair the unfavourable -impression produced by this Anglo-Chinese treaty, which -effaced the greater part of the advantages conceded to her on -the frontier of Tongking, and in June, 1897, it was stated in -Paris that China had ceded to France the right to construct a -railway from Lao-kai, on the Red River, between Tongking -and Yunnan-hsien, the capital of Yunnan, and to prolong it -to Nanning-fu and even northward beyond the line projected -to Lang-son and Lung-chau. This last concession should -reserve for France all the traffic of the western Kwang-si, provided -that it is really worth while constructing a railway to -obtain it; for unquestionably navigable rivers have a distinct -advantage over railways in so mountainous and poor a country. -As soon as the former are opened they can be navigated, -whereas it will require time to construct the railways, which, -moreover, are very costly. In February, 1898, I was able to -see for myself that the Si-kiang was already traversed by -steamers, whereas the railway from Lang-son to Lung-chau, the -concession for which was given in 1896, was not even commenced, -on account of the many difficulties that had arisen -with the local authorities. The opening in 1899 of Nanning -to foreign commerce is well calculated to deprive France even -of this little traffic, which will revert to Canton.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_266'>266</span> - <h3 class='c001'>CHAPTER X<br /> <span class='large'>CHINA AND THE POWERS, 1897–99—‘SPHERES OF INFLUENCE,’ AND THE ‘OPEN DOOR’</span></h3> -</div> -<p class='c014'>Political calm in the Far East during the summer of 1897—Provisionary -regulation of the questions that divided the Powers, and the maintenance -of old Chinese methods—Landing of the Germans at Kiao-Chau -in Shan-tung in 1897—England’s anger at this act, and her efforts to -avert the probable action of Russia in Pe-chi-li—Anglo-Chinese Convention -of February, 1898—Opening of all the waterways to European -navigation—The policy of the ‘open door’—China recognises in -March, 1898, the occupation of Kiao-chau and concession of the railway -granted to Germany in Shan-tung—Session to Russia on lease of -Port Arthur, and the immediate occupation of this port—Franco-Chinese -Convention, April, 1898—Divers conventions granted in the -Southern Provinces and session of the Bay of Kwang-chau-wan—Irritation -of Great Britain, who obtains new and important advantages -in June, 1898—Session of Wei-hai-wei at the entrance of the province -of Pe-chi-li, and of Kowloon, opposite Hong-Kong—Fresh Anglo-Russian -difficulties in November, 1898—Railway and other concessions -granted to foreigners throughout the Celestial Empire.</p> - -<p class='c007'>After the diplomatic wrangling which followed the war, a lull -occurred in the summer of 1897 in the Far East. Each of -the European Powers interested in China—Russia, France, -and England—had obtained her share of the spoil. That of -Germany was generally deemed modest, but it was believed -she had no political interest in the Celestial Empire, and was -quite content to develop her commerce. Meanwhile Russia -and Japan had patched up their quarrel in Korea. Doubtless -their arrangements were not of a definite character, and their -mutual ambitions rather dormant than satisfied; but the advantages -already obtained, and the preparations which both -nations would have to make in order to be ready when they -wished to return to the game, seemed to promise a respite for -some years to come. Russia was constructing her railway, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_267'>267</span>which, notwithstanding all the diligence brought to bear upon -its completion, was not expected to reach the river Amur until -the end of 1899, and the Pacific until 1903 or 1904. Japan, -whilst preparing for the arduous task of reorganizing Formosa, -was arming to the teeth, so as to be ready in case of trouble -with Russia, which she feared inevitable. She doubled her -army, and ordered a first-class fleet to be built in Europe and -America, which was to insure her maritime supremacy on the -coasts of China, but which could not be ready until 1904 or 1905. -France, having definitely pacified Tongking, was occupied -in studying the route of the various railway lines which had been -conceded to her. England was hastening the construction of -her railways in Burmah, and sending her steamers into the -West River, while her capital, amalgamated with that of -Germany and America, had the larger share in the industrial -movement which had been created in Shanghai, and seemed -likely to extend to other ports, especially after the treaty of -Shimonosaki.</p> - -<p class='c008'>China herself, profiting by this lull, returned to her old -sleepy habits: she had learnt nothing, and forgotten nothing. -When her chief statesman, Li Hung-chang, was sent to -Europe and America in 1896, it was not only because he was -better equipped than anyone else, by his long intercourse with -foreigners, to treat with them, but principally because he was in -disgrace. This mission had been offered to Prince Kung, and -even to Prince Ching, the Emperor’s uncles. ‘What have we -done,’ these illustrious personages probably exclaimed, ‘that -we should be subjected to this humiliation, and sent on a -mission to the barbarians?’ The tour of Li Hung-chang was, -therefore, intended as a severe punishment, supplemented -by the loss of his peacock’s feather and his yellow jacket. If -the observations which are attributed to him with respect to -progress are true, his influence must incontestably have -diminished, possibly owing to the vicissitudes to which he has -been subjected since his return to China. Be this as it may, -one thing is clear: he has not hitherto been able to overcome -either the Court prejudices or those of the overwhelming -majority of the literati.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The only progress made has been permission for the construction, -under the direction of English and American -engineers, of a line from Tien-tsin to Peking, to slightly -prolong beyond the Great Wall the one which starts from -<span class='pageno' id='Page_268'>268</span>Tien-tsin and the mouth of the Pei-ho, and ascends northwards -along the coast of Pe-chi-li, and to authorize the reconstruction -of the little line from Shanghai to its deep-water port, Woosung. -These works organized in those parts of the Empire most -frequented by Europeans, in the great open port of Shanghai, -where half the foreign population of China lives, and in the -capital, the residence of the diplomatic corps, were calculated -to create an illusory effect. The English may also have wished -to unite Peking to the sea, which they dominated in the Far -East as elsewhere, to spite Russia for having installed herself in -Manchuria. A longer railway from Peking to Hankow, -traversing over 650 miles of the heart of China, had been projected -since 1889, and a Chinese railway director named Sheng -had been commanded to collaborate in the matter of its construction -with Li Hung-chang and his rival, the celebrated -Chang-Chih-Tung, Viceroy of Hankow. Much more progressive -in all probability than Li Hung-chang, Sheng seemed -really desirous of building this line; but he insisted that the -material should be manufactured in China, and to this effect he -had erected at Hanyang, near Hankow, and his capital Wu-chang, -three towns which in reality form one vast city, an immense -foundry, which was not likely, at any rate for many years to -come, to supply the necessary material. After the War the -united efforts of the Ministers of France and Belgium had -obtained permission for a Franco-Belgian financial syndicate to -construct the line for the Chinese Government, and then to -exploit it. Obstacles, however, were thrown in the way, and -although the Chinese had commenced the works on the Peking -side, they were stopped in the autumn of 1897, owing to difficulties -which had arisen concerning the interpretation of several -clauses in the contract. It was the old story of Chinese shifty -dilatoriness, and nothing came of any one of the reforms proposed, -civil or military.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Momentarily satisfied by their newly-acquired privileges, the -foreigners ceased, for the time being, clamouring for fresh -favours. Everything was calm at Peking, and no one seemed -to see any grave event likely to occur in the Far East, at any -rate, before the termination of the Trans-Siberian Railway, -which would give Russia the chance of making an advance step, -when all of a sudden, in the month of November, 1897, Europe -learnt with surprise that Germany had landed sailors in the -Bay of Kiao-chau, in the Shan-tung Peninsula. The motive -<span class='pageno' id='Page_269'>269</span>for this unexpected movement, we were assured, was to put -pressure on the Government at Peking to conclude certain -long-standing negotiations connected with the assassination -of two German missionaries, and which, as usual in China, -dragged unconcernedly along. At first the importance of this -matter did not seem to create the impression that might have -been expected. Many even believed that it was but an ingenious -artifice on the part of the German Emperor to display the uses -of a navy, and to force the Reichstag to vote the necessary -credit for the increase of the fleet. But when William II. sent -into the Far East his brother Prince Henry, in command of a -squadron, requesting him at the time of his departure to make -the weight of his ‘mailed fist’ felt, if need arose, there was now -no possible doubt that the occupation of Kiao-chau was definitive, -and that Germany was paying herself, tardily, it is true, -but with less ceremony than her allies, for the services she had -rendered to China in 1895. She had taken, no doubt, a long -time about it, for she was hesitating as to which place she -should choose for the naval station she was anxious to establish -in the Far East.</p> - -<p class='c008'>If the landing at Kiao-chau had been thoroughly matured, -it, nevertheless, appeared that the Berlin Cabinet had not taken -the precaution to insure the consent of the other Powers. It -was asked if Russia herself, who had her eye on this bay, in -which her Far Eastern squadron had passed the winter of -1896–97, had not been caught napping. When the occupation -of the bay became known in England, public opinion became -violently excited. Although Germany seemed to have gradually -detached herself from the Franco-Russian group, and to have -approached Great Britain, and although English and German -banks combined had agreed in 1897 to float a second Chinese -loan of £16,000,000 on the European market, and notwithstanding -that the finances of the two countries had often co-operated -in China, the cordiality which exists between the subjects of -Queen Victoria and those of her grandson were even now -strained in the Far East. As soon as the occupation of Kiao-chau -became known, there was a positive explosion of invective -throughout the English press, soon followed by an avalanche of -jokes when William II. toasted his brother, on the eve of his -departure for the Chinese Seas, in an amusingly melodramatic -speech. The misadventures of Prince Henry, who was delayed -by divers accidents, and constantly obliged to coal at English -<span class='pageno' id='Page_270'>270</span>naval stations, added not a little to the general and very ironical -merriment.</p> - -<p class='c008'>It was not so much the action of Germany that gave rise -to genuine anxiety in England as the fear that the Government -of the Tsar might take advantage of it to make another advance -in North China. If it mattered little to the English that -Russia should occupy a harbour free of ice throughout the year, -they were greatly exercised at the prospect of her approaching -the capital of the Celestial Empire close enough to obtain -direct influence in Chinese affairs. England insisted that a -port of this sort should be open to the commerce of all nations, -precisely like her own Hong-Kong or the Treaty Ports. -Thus, while Mr. Balfour, in the early days of 1898, almost -invited the Russians to secure for themselves an issue to the -open sea, a few days later another of Her Majesty’s Ministers—Sir -Michael Hicks-Beach—declared, amid the applause of -the entire press, ‘that the British Government was absolutely -determined, at any cost, even at the risk of war, that the “open -door” in China should not be closed.’ In order to oppose the -quiet advance of Russia, Great Britain anticipated her by -appropriating her hitherto successful financial policy, and offered -to lend the “Son of Heaven” £16,000,000, which he particularly -wanted. This last of the three great Chinese loans was -the least guaranteed. The Customs receipts no longer sufficed -to assure the interest, and it therefore gave the lender a greater -excuse for meddling in the internal administration, and to -exercise the stronger pressure on the politics of Peking. The -conditions for this loan included the addition to the list of -open ports of Talien-wan, in the peninsula of Liao-tung, which -Russia had long coveted. By throwing it open to the commerce -of all the Powers, its appropriation by any one of them -would be rendered very difficult, if not impossible.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The game was certainly very well played, but in order to -carry it to an issue, it was necessary to have a sufficient force -on the spot to impose upon China the acceptation of its conditions. -Now, the season was not propitious; in winter, when -the Pei-ho is frozen over, Russia must remain more powerful -at Peking than England. Scared by the threats of M. Pavloff, -the Russian <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Chargé d’Affaires</span>, the Tsung-li-Yamen dared not -accept the demands of Sir Claude Macdonald, the English -Minister, notwithstanding the energetic manner in which they -were presented.</p> - -<p class='c008'><span class='pageno' id='Page_271'>271</span>The direct loan was consequently not concluded, Talien-wan -was not opened, and Great Britain had to content herself with -an agreement signed at the end of February, 1898, in virtue of -which she obtained, however, some very important concessions. -European steamers were, after June, 1898, to be allowed to -navigate in all the waters of the Empire. No part of the basin -of the Yang-tsze-Kiang was ever to be ceded or rented to any -foreign Power; a port was to be opened in the province of -Yunnan, and the position of Inspector-General of Customs -was to be reserved exclusively to a British subject, so long as -British commerce should hold the first rank in the foreign -commerce of China. The value of these concessions is apparent -when we consider that the basin of the Yang-tsze is the richest -and most thickly-peopled part of the Middle Kingdom. As a -commentary upon this agreement, the House of Commons in -March included in the Address to the Throne: ‘That it was of -vital importance for the commerce and influence of Great -Britain that the independence of China should be respected.’ -In the course of the discussion Mr. Curzon, Under-Secretary -for Foreign Affairs, declared in the first place that England -was opposed to any attack upon the independence or integrity -of China, and that in the second she would resist any attempt -to close any Chinese port to her commerce, so long as it -was open, or to be opened, to the commerce of any other -nation, and that, moreover, she was determined to maintain -in their integrity all the privileges which she had obtained -by the treaty of Tien-tsin in 1858. This was the enunciation -of the famous policy known as the ‘open door.’</p> - -<p class='c008'>Meanwhile, Germany, in the same month of March, made -China ratify the occupation of Kiao-chau, which had been leased -to her for ninety-nine years, and which she hastened, it is true, to -declare a free port. An extensive radius of railways was at the -same time conceded to her in Shan-tung, which she had constituted -a ‘sphere of interest,’ and the right of pre-emption on -all the railway and mining concessions which the Chinese -Government might grant in that province.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Russia, on her side, alarmed at the Anglo-Chinese negotiations, -came to the conclusion that if she delayed her occupation -of the peninsula of Liao-tung any longer, she would risk, if not -being forestalled by a rival, at least witnessing the creation of -international interests calculated to render the execution of -her projects more difficult. She hesitated no longer, and on -<span class='pageno' id='Page_272'>272</span>March 27th, 1898, obliged China to sign the Convention ceding -to her the lease of Port Arthur and Talien-wan, and the authorization -to construct a branch line, uniting these ports to the East -Chinese Railway. Thus she obtained her object The Trans-Siberian -had now a terminus on the open sea, and could threaten -Peking from the entrance of the Gulf of Pe-chi-li. It looked -for a moment as though the long deferred struggle between the -Whale and the Elephant were really about to take place. Two -English cruisers were stationed at Port Arthur when this point -was ceded to Russia. They put to sea, but on March 29th -the formidable British Far East fleet, which had been immensely -increased during the winter, was mobilized, one part -steaming towards the north, while the other remained at the -mouth of the Yang-tsze, ready to occupy, so it was said, the -Chusan Islands, which command the entrance to the river. -Russia was exceedingly prudent, and, in order not to add the -powerful support of Japan to that of England, on March 18th -she renounced all active intervention in Korea, and left that -country open, if not precisely to the political action, at least -to the economic interest of the Land of the Rising Sun. A -conflict was averted, but the inevitable opposition of Russian -and English interests, added to an accumulation in China Seas -of warships of every nationality, hastily sent there after the -affair of Kiao-chau, kept up a well-founded feeling of anxiety and -irritation in the minds of the British public, further increased -by a Franco-Chinese agreement signed in April. France -remained, according to her habitual policy, confined in the -poor regions of the south, but obtained from China the promise -not to alienate on any account the territory comprised in the -three frontier provinces of Tongking, and never to cede to any -other Power than France the island of Hainan. To these -clauses were added the renewal of the concession of the Yunnan -Railway, and finally the cession on a long lease of the Bay of -Kwang-chau-Wang, situated on the eastern coast of the Lei-chau -Peninsula opposite Hainan, and, moreover, the Chinese -engaged to appoint a French Director-General of Posts. This, -of course, was an answer to the promise obtained by Great -Britain respecting the Director-General of Customs, and it -might have been of great importance to the French by placing -in their hands the telegraph lines of the Celestial Empire which -joined, independently of the British cable, the lines in Indo-China -which stretched to the Russian lines in Siberia and thence -<span class='pageno' id='Page_273'>273</span>on to Paris. Notwithstanding the great political interest at stake, -this advantage was unhappily allowed to lapse, no Director-General -of Posts has been nominated, this post still remaining -united to that of the Customs, under the direction of Sir -Robert Hart. With respect to the other concessions obtained -by France, it does not appear that England or any other Power -need be much concerned about them. Hainan may have -some importance to France, who could never permit any other -Power to establish itself at the entrance to the Gulf of Tongking. -As to the harbour of Kwang-chau, which is not of the first -rank, the mouth being narrow, it does not extend the French -sphere of action, but leaves her mewed up where she was in -the far south. It has only brought her annoyances, and is -certainly not a strategical point of primary importance, whence -she might menace the position of her rivals in the China -Seas.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Far more important were the cessions of territory soon afterwards -made to Great Britain in compensation for the occupation -of the ports of Liao-tung by the Russians. Their value did not -consist in their extent, which was not considerable, being merely -Wei-hai-wei and a little town in Shan-tung, and 400 square -miles of territory in the peninsula of Kowloon, and immediately -opposite Hong-Kong. Both were leased for ninety-nine years. -The strategical value is, however, of the highest importance. -In the peninsula of Kowloon, where the English had up to this -time only a small piece of land, they now came into possession -of all the heights and bays necessary to shelter the port -of Hong-Kong from attack and to insure its extension. Wei-hai-wei, -on the other hand, gave them precisely what they had -long coveted—a naval station in the North of China, so that -when their squadron was in these latitudes it would no longer -be obliged to make a voyage of from four to five days in order -to take in provisions or seek shelter at Hong-Kong. Wei-hai-wei, -the fortifications of which were immediately undertaken, -in a measure weakens Port Arthur, the two being exactly -opposite each other, with a stretch of sea of only sixty miles -between them, and the former is not much more distant from -the mouth of the Pei-ho. Needless to say, being in possession -of so excellent a station, England with her superior fleet will -necessarily during many years to come be in a position to -prevent the Russian squadron interfering with her projects, -and also, notwithstanding the shortness of the journey, to -<span class='pageno' id='Page_274'>274</span>impede any assistance by sea being afforded to Russian -troops who might be operating in the north of China. The -English, moreover, can from this position, by a dexterous -movement, cut the line of railway between Tien-tsin and the -Great Wall.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Notwithstanding these advantages, the insatiable British -public was not satisfied, and complained that the Government -had allowed Germany to occupy a privileged position in Shan-tung, -and had, moreover, promised not to interfere with her -rights in that province, nor to construct a railway starting from -Wei-hai-wei, and, moreover, to consider this place as a sort of -Far Eastern Gibraltar without any commercial pretensions, -thereby consenting to the creation of a German sphere of -interest in opposition to the policy of the ‘open door.’ When -Parliament was prorogued in August, the Chinese Question -had been discussed no fewer than eight times, and the Salisbury -Ministry had been frequently and very bitterly attacked -by its own supporters. The intemperate oratory of certain -Ministers, and notably of Mr. Chamberlain, who unhesitatingly -accused Russia of bad faith, and even went so far as to say -one must remember when dealing with Russia the old proverb, -‘He who sups with the devil must have a long spoon,’ had not -a little contributed to excite public opinion in Great Britain. -In order to soothe matters a little, the Cabinet declared to -Parliament that its Minister at Peking had been authorized to -inform the Chinese Government that Great Britain would lend -its support in order to resist an attempt on the part of any -Power to commit an act of aggression against China under the -pretext that she had granted to a British subject the concession -of a railway or other public work.</p> - -<p class='c008'>This was a return to the policy of the ‘open door’ to which -England attaches so much importance. She refused to admit -that commercial privileges should be given to any one Power, -or any preference for public works to be executed; in a word, -she would hear of no ‘spheres of interest.’ Such stipulations -are, indeed, diametrically opposed to the wording of the treaties, -but in these times hardly, except by force or the threat to use -it, can one expect even the most solemn engagements to be -observed. England herself was obliged to concur in the -German ‘sphere of interest’ in Shan-tung. In the months of -August and September, 1898, it was once more feared that -there might be trouble between England and Russia over -<span class='pageno' id='Page_275'>275</span>the matter of the railway from Shan-hai-Kwan to Niu-chwang, -a prolongation beyond the Great Wall of the line between -Peking, Tien-tsin, and Shan-hai-Kwan. The principal bank in -the Far East, the Hong-Kong and Shanghai Banking Corporation, -was to build it for the Chinese Government and exploit -it, reserving as security a first mortgage on the line. Russia -intervened, and objected that any railway concession should -be given to any other Power than herself north of the Great -Wall. After considerable discussion, the Powers arrived at -an agreement, and the English company kept the concession, -but only retained a lien on the already constructed Peking-Shan-hai-Kwan -line to the south of the Wall.</p> - -<p class='c008'>In the midst of all the intrigues and unpleasantness which -we have just narrated, Europe has, nevertheless, accomplished -at Peking a noteworthy and unprecedented work. She has -not only obtained very advantageous concessions for her -commerce, such, for instance, as the opening to navigation of -all the watercourses on which Treaty Ports are situated, but -also the allotment to the European Customs Administration -of the collecting of <em>likin</em> in the valley of the Yang-tsze, as a -security for the third great loan of £16,000,000. She has -also obtained the right to introduce into China the best -machinery for the exploitation of her natural resources. The -English are about to work the coal and iron mines of Shan-si -and Ho-nan, the Germans those of Shan-tung, and the English -and French together the mines of Yunnan. Six thousand -miles of railway are to be constructed, not only at the extremities -of the Empire in the Steppes of Manchuria and on the plateaux -bordering Indo-China, but also in the thickly-peopled central -and eastern provinces, from Peking to Han-kau and Canton, -from Tien-tsin to the lower Yang-tsze, in Shan-tung and around -Shanghai, connecting towns of several hundred thousand, and -even over a million inhabitants, through countries at least twice -as densely peopled as France.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_276'>276</span> - <h3 class='c001'>CHAPTER XI<br /> <span class='large'>THE FUTURE OF CHINA—MAINTENANCE OR PARTITION OF THE CELESTIAL EMPIRE?</span></h3> -</div> -<p class='c014'>Necessity of proceeding slowly with the Reform movement in China, if the -overthrow of the Empire is to be averted—Weakness of the Government -at Peking—The Emperor and the Reformer, Kang-Yu-Wei—The -Empress Dowager and Li Hung-chang—Palace revolution in September, -1898—Enormous obstacles in the way of the Celestial Empire -reforming itself—Reasons why it cannot follow the example of Japan -in 1868—The possibility of partition—The interests of Great Britain, -the United States, and Japan, partizans of the ‘open door’ policy, -and of Germany, Russia, and France—The dangers incurred by -partition—Difficulties of effecting it pacifically, and also for Europeans -to govern the hundreds of millions of Chinese—The anarchy that might -result—Services which might be rendered to progress by the Chinese -Government in preventing too rapid a transition—Possibility of converting -the Chinese to material progress.</p> - -<p class='c007'>‘Every time that the bones of China are rattled—and they -have never been more vigorously than at present’—said a -technical English paper, ‘an increase of commerce follows.’ -Nothing can be truer; but, at the same time, it might be prudent -not to shake the old skeleton too violently, too often, or too -long, if we do not wish to see it tumble to pieces. China is a -sort of amorphous State whose different parts are joined -together by the very weakest ties, concerning which we know -little or nothing, and whose main force consists in tradition -and in the existence of a governing class of literati, recruited -throughout the Empire, even among the very people. On the -other hand, germs of serious disaffection do exist; the actual -Dynasty is a foreign one, which, at the beginning of the century, -the terrible Taiping Rebellion—only suppressed with the -assistance of Europeans—nearly ruined, and the descendants of -the old national Ming Dynasty are still living. The accession -<span class='pageno' id='Page_277'>277</span>to the throne of the present Emperor was irregular, it seems, -according to Chinese procedure, and the country is honeycombed -by secret societies, whose object is the overthrow of -the existing state of affairs. The mass of the people are totally -indifferent to politics, and very rarely exhibit hostility to -foreigners, if the latter behave with circumspection, unless, -indeed, they are urged on by fanatics or malcontents, when, -unfortunately, they are easily roused. In the principal towns -of every prefecture and sub-prefecture there exists a heterogeneous -mass of soured and fanatical literati, who pursue the -humblest trades in order to keep themselves from starvation, -who are intimately mixed up with the people, by whom they -are treated with great respect, and who will obey their commands -to overthrow the Europeans and their innovations.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The Government of Peking is too thoroughly convinced of -its external weakness to openly resist any demand imposed -upon it by the Powers, but if it be too hardly pressed, and -forced to introduce or allow the premature introduction of -all sorts of innovations, and in too many places at once, it may -run the risk of exciting against it the literati, who regard, and -not without reason, any extension of European influence as a -menace to their privileges. Such action might easily lead to -active opposition to all reform, especially in the central and -southern provinces, more backward than those of the north, -and, if leaders of the movement can be discovered, lead to the -complete disorganization of the Celestial Empire. Trouble -has already occurred in Sze-chuan, as well as further in the -lower valley of the Yang-tsze. A rather serious insurrection -broke out in 1898 in the Kwang-si and Kwang-tung, but -without any result. We know that local troubles in so badly -governed a country as China of a necessity must become -chronic, but in many cases the news concerning them reaches -Europe considerably embellished and exaggerated.</p> - -<p class='c008'>It is certain that the elements of disorder are just now greatly -excited. Even at Peking rival factions are disputing for power; -the events which occurred there in September, 1898, are little, -and possibly never will be completely, known, and it would be -impossible to relate with any approach to truth the tragedies -and comedies that are constantly being enacted within the -walls of the Forbidden City.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The Emperor Kuang-Su, a young man of twenty-five, with a -sickly body, and, it is said, a weak mind, had been completely -<span class='pageno' id='Page_278'>278</span>won over to the Reform movement by a literate of the new -school, named Kang-Yu-Wei, who hailed from Canton. His -Celestial Majesty, with all the zeal of a neophyte, was induced -during the summer to issue a distinctly revolutionary edict. It -was said that he went so far as to presume to wear a European -costume, and that he even intended going personally -to Japan to observe there for himself the transformation which -had been effected in the last thirty years. The Reform party -undoubtedly had entertained Japanese as well as English -sympathies, and its chief, Kang-Yu-Wei, passed his last night -at Peking in the Japanese Legation. Marquis Ito, it is said, -discouraged the precipitation with which it was intended to -carry out in a few weeks reforms that had taken more than a -quarter of a century to accomplish in Japan.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Such an attempt had no chance of success, for it not only -opposed many prejudices and interests, but was opposed by all -the Manchu functionaries, by Li Hung-chang, who had been -recently disgraced, and by the Empress Dowager. His Celestial -Majesty pretended to arrest this last-named personage, who is -his aunt, and not his mother; but the astute Princess defeated -his object. The great majority of the mandarins being hostile -to the movement, she soon possessed herself of the necessary -tools for her purpose. The Emperor was in his turn imprisoned -in his palace, and forced to apologize and sign an edict -placing the reins of Government entirely in the hands of -the Dowager. The immediate consequence of this act was -that all the mandarins of the old school, among them Li -Hung-chang, returned forthwith to power; Kang-Yu-Wei took flight -on board an English vessel, and most of his partizans were -either beheaded or sent into exile, and very soon all trace of -their work was effaced.</p> - -<p class='c008'>From this imprudent attempt at reform we may derive a few -useful lessons. In the first place it showed the instability of -the Peking Government, and also the existence, but at the same -time the impotence, of the Reform party among the literati; -and in the second it accentuated that dangerous factor in the -politics of the Far East, the inflexible antagonism existing -between England and Russia. The Empress Tze-Hsi is undoubtedly -a very clever woman; she first governed the Empire -in the capacity of Regent, but since 1887 she has, with the -assistance of Li Hung-chang, who is said to have been a -former lover, done so in the name of her nephew, absolutely -<span class='pageno' id='Page_279'>279</span>refusing to abdicate. Her rule has been undoubtedly pernicious -to China, for it has invariably been reactionary. As -an instance in point, an important Viceroy has been recently -reprimanded for attempting to reorganize on the European -system the troops in the provinces which he administered. -The Tsung-li-Yamen has likewise in a very short time contrived -to strengthen the party opposed to innovation, and all sorts of -restrictions have been placed in the way of the exploitation of -the mines. For all this, be it bad or good, the Government of -Tze-Hsi and of Li Hung-chang is nevertheless a Government; -but both the Empress and her Minister are aged, and one may -naturally ask what will occur when they are no longer of this -world.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The Reform party, which seems to have the sympathy of a -few high functionaries, does not apparently include many of -the mandarin class; the unsuccessful literati, who struggle for -existence in the towns of the interior, and who are in immediate -contact with the people, apparently remain outside -of all notion of progress, being absolutely convinced of the -immense superiority of the Chinese over the barbarians. It -is therefore very difficult to imagine how a handful of innovators -can ever be able to impose their ideas against so much -prejudice. A revolution, such as occurred in Japan in 1868, -which rushed that Empire into the ways of reform, stands no -chance of being effected in China, and even if it were, it would -only receive just such another rebuff as happened in 1898, or -else lead to anarchy and the dismemberment of the Empire.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The situation in China to-day is essentially different from -that of Japan thirty years ago. In the first place the Chinese -civilization which gave way in Japan to European was not of -domestic growth, but essentially an imported article of extreme -antiquity, which never succeeded in stultifying the Japanese -people as it has done the Chinese; what is more, ancestors -and classics were never held by the Japanese in the same -veneration as is bestowed upon them by the Chinese. Far -above the traditions of Confucius and of the Wise Men of old -stood the Mikado of divine descent and the spirit of national -independence. The first object of the Japanese Revolution in -1868 was to restore the Emperor to the plenitude of his power, -a result attained by the union of the principal clans, as we have -already explained. Although it resulted in the suppression of -feudalism and the introduction of European civilization, it was -<span class='pageno' id='Page_280'>280</span>originally not presented in this form, and if the entire nation -eventually accepted these innovations, it was because they had -been consecrated by the divine Emperor, and, moreover, were -approved of by a powerful army which had always been friendly -to progress and prompt to resist reaction.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Those advantages that so greatly favoured the Japanese -reformers are non-existent in China. There is no military -party in Peking friendly to Reform or eager to assist the reformers -in seizing supreme power at the right moment and -helping them to retain it. The initiative, therefore, cannot -come from either the capital or the provinces. Instead of the -Japanese daimios, or hereditary chieftains, surrounded by innumerable -and faithful vassals, we have in China viceroys who -are invariably strangers in the provinces they administer, and are -spied upon by Tatar marshals having at their disposal by way -of an army a horde of ill-disciplined ragamuffins, whom, even if -an attempt were made to transform them into genuine soldiers, -a task which would require many years to effect, the Court -at Peking, being against the scheme, would soon disband. -No martial spirit or feeling of patriotism exists in China to -induce the governing classes to give up their privileges, even -though it were for the benefit of the country. The tenacious -attachment of the Chinese to their very ancient but stationary -civilization is their greatest impediment to progress, especially -as love of country is a mere empty sound to the vast majority -of Chinamen.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Another and very important difference between China to-day -and Japan in 1868 is that thirty years ago Europe permitted -the Island Empire to accomplish its own revolution -without interference, whereas to-day the Powers would -assuredly prevent any attempt at a too sudden evolution in -the Government of the Celestial Empire, which would only -plunge the country into a deplorable condition of turmoil. -Even now the Dowager Empress’s party is known as the -Russian, and that of Kang-Yu-Wei as the Anglo-Japanese. -Possibly this may be an exaggerated view of the case, and that -neither party is in the service of any particular Power; but -the incorruptibility of Li Hung-chang must be taken with a -grain of salt. It is, however, certain that the Legations watch -with a jealous eye the intrigues of the various factions, and -that the disgrace of Li Hung-chang is looked upon as a victory -for England, and each return to power of the Viceroy of Pe-chi-li -<span class='pageno' id='Page_281'>281</span>as a Russian success. No worse sign could possibly exist -for a State than the perpetual interference of foreign Powers in -its affairs.</p> - -<p class='c008'>‘Are we about to witness the dismemberment of China?’ is a -question people are constantly asking themselves. No one in -particular wishes for it, since the division of such an inheritance -would be disputed by at least five or six claimants, who will -only settle their differences at the sword’s point. For the past -twenty-five years Europe has trembled at the bare thought of -war, and we must not be surprised if she dreads the mere -mention of the disruption of China, which would be even more -dreadful, since it means universal war, in which the United -States, Great Britain, and Japan, as well as the Continental -Powers, would each take a share. Even if the matter were -settled amicably, what country would care to govern eighty or -a hundred millions of Chinamen? Some people say that it -could easily be settled by not attempting to govern them at all, -in other words, to let things go their way; but no European -Power would, or could, do otherwise than rule them methodically, -according to our modern ideas of government. To-day, -if a band of brigands exists in any obscure corner of -China, nobody troubles about it, but once that corner belongs -to a European Power, the irresistible desire of attempting to -establish order would assuredly lead to an insurrection. The -introduction of European methods is certain to upset many of -the old customs and traditions to which the Chinese hold with -almost pathetic tenacity. It requires an amazing tact to govern -the Chinese, a fact made daily manifest in Hong-Kong, and -illustrated by the recent serious outbreak in the French concession -at Shanghai, where a disturbance took place over the -removal of a time-honoured sanctuary to make way for a public -road. The difficulties encountered by Europeans in every -country imbued with Chinese ideas—those of the English in -Burmah, the French in Tongking, and the Japanese at -Formosa—prove, if proof were needed, how great is the resisting -power and the risks any European nation would have to -encounter which attempted to govern even a fragment of the vast -Chinese Empire.</p> - -<p class='c008'>On the other hand, each Power, whilst dreading the consequences -of a partition, is equally unwilling to behold a rival -carry off the lion’s share. It is, therefore, with an eye to an -eventual partition that each nation endeavours to obtain a -<span class='pageno' id='Page_282'>282</span>privileged position in certain regions, and to possess itself of -spheres of interest by forcing China to make the singular -promise never to cede any portion of territory in certain defined -provinces to any nation but to the one which obtains the -promise. But this sort of promise is fraught with difficulties, -and a source of eventual hostilities between nations having -pretensions upon the same region, just as it is between the -partizans of ‘spheres of interest’ and those of the ‘open door.’</p> - -<p class='c008'>In order to understand the policy of the various Powers in -China, in which they see a very important field for exploitation, -we must first consider their commercial interests in the -Celestial Empire. The British Empire incontestably occupies -first place in the foreign commerce of China, which in 1897 -stood at 366,000,000 hai-kwan taels, or £54,900,000 (1 tael = -3s.). Of this 236,934,000 taels, or £35,540,100, two-thirds of -the whole, belongs, according to the Imperial Chinese Customs -Report, to Great Britain. Here, however, we must not be -misled, for if we subdivide this sum, we shall see that about -£5,500,000 alone belong to England, £5,000,000 to her -colonies other than Hong-Kong, through which the remainder, -that is to say, about £23,000,000 worth of goods, passes, Hong-Kong -being merely a point of transit. Goods imported from -Germany, America and Russia into China, passing through -this island port, or being exported thence to the four corners -of the globe, are put down to England. Then, again, a very -important trade is carried on between the North and the South -of China through Hong-Kong, and thus it comes to pass that -Great Britain gets the credit for commerce which does not -really belong to her. If Hong-Kong possessed proper Custom-house -statistics, it would be easy to account for the origin and -destination of the merchandise which passes through this port; -but such statistics do not exist. Under these circumstances, -we must turn either to those of the various countries of Europe -and America, or to the detailed statistics of the Chinese -Customs, which frequently rectify the total amounts, whereby -we learn that £692,700 worth of Russian petroleum is imported, -whereas the total imports from Russia by sea are only estimated -at £485,100. The difference must, therefore, be accounted -for as having passed through Hong-Kong. A comparison -between the Chinese Customs statistics and those of Germany, -the United States, French Indo-China, and other countries, -obliges us, however, to admit that three-fifths at least of the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_283'>283</span>trade of Hong-Kong really belongs to the British Empire, which -leaves to the latter about £27,000,000, that is, 40 to 50 per -cent. of the total foreign commerce of the Celestial Empire. -In the matter of imports, the English reign supreme, holding -at least three-fourths in their hands, and dominating the market -by the two principal articles, opium and cotton. Moreover, -their flag floats over 65 per cent. of the total tonnage registered -in the Chinese ports; of 636 foreign houses of business -established in the open ports, 374 are English; of 11,600 -foreigners, 5,000 are British subjects; and English is the -language most spoken throughout the ports of the Far -East. When we take all these facts into consideration, we -are obliged to acknowledge that, having so many interests -to defend in this part of the globe, England has a right to let -her voice be heard clearly in commercial affairs. We must not -be surprised, therefore, if she insists upon the ‘open door’ policy -in China. The question now arises, Does she seek territory in -the Celestial Empire? She has apparently sacrificed the -‘spheres of interest’ theory by exacting from China an engagement -not to cede anything in the basin of the Yang-tsze, and -the English Jingoes are already dreaming that Great Britain -will be mistress not only from the Cape to Cairo, but from -Cairo to Shanghai. ‘Are not the Arabian Coast and the -Persian Gulf,’ I recently read in an English paper, ‘already -ours, and morally subject to our protectorate? Once we -possess the valley of the Yang-tsze, who is to prevent our -constructing a rival line to the Trans-Siberian from the mouth -of the Nile to that of the Blue River?’<a id='r28' /><a href='#f28' class='c006'><sup>[28]</sup></a> Although just at -present it were best not to count too much on the wisdom and -coolness of the British, nevertheless, their statesmen seem to -appreciate the dangers of so beautiful a dream. They, at least, -understand that the peril of the British Empire lies in its enormous -extent. The majority of the British would, no doubt, be satisfied -if they were allowed to place their capital and their commerce -on a footing of equality with that of other countries -in the Celestial Empire, if the territorial encroachments of -the Powers did not justify the fear of the creation of a protectionist -tariff. We may, therefore, hope that Great Britain, -having obtained all that she desires in the way of strategic -<span class='pageno' id='Page_284'>284</span>points for the benefit of her naval forces, and also a great -number of commercial concessions, will remain contented with -her lot, and not dream of attacking the independence of China, -but rather be inclined to help her to regain power.<a id='r29' /><a href='#f29' class='c006'><sup>[29]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c008'>After England the United States do the greatest business -with China. They only figure for £4,500,000 in the Chinese -Customs statistics, but their own official publications give -£7,840,000. Petroleum and cotton goods are the principal -articles of their commerce, which is sure to be enormously -increased in the future as the Middle Kingdom requires more -and more machinery, which is manufactured to-day much more -cheaply in America than anywhere else. The United States -are represented in China by thirty-two houses of business and -1,564 citizens; their mercantile marine is, however, very insignificant, -but having of late assumed a position among the -world’s Powers, and being already installed in the Philippines, -they are sure to increase their mercantile fleet very rapidly, and -as they aspire to become one day mistress of the Pacific, -they watch with a very jealous eye all that happens in the Far -East. However protectionist they may be at home, they are -resolute partizans of the ‘open door’ in this market, of which -they justly hope to eventually acquire a large part through their -enterprise. Already a coolness has occurred in their friendship -with Russia, and in January, 1900, they obtained a guarantee -that none of the Powers should establish differential tariffs in -leased ‘spheres of interest.’</p> - -<p class='c008'>Japan takes the third rank with a rapidly increasing commerce, -which in 1897 reached £5,850,000. Her spun cotton -rivals that of England and India. Seven hundred Japanese are -registered as residing in the different ports. The Celestial -Empire has no warmer friends at the present moment than the -Japanese. The Japanese papers are full of articles which -compare the position of the two countries to that of Prussia and -Austria after Sadowa, and preach reconciliation, and a close -alliance was already spoken of with enthusiasm at the close of -the War. Many Japanese statesmen are studying this question, -among them the Marquis Ito, four times Prime Minister, and -Prince Konoye, President of the Chamber of Peers, who -travelled in China, and stayed in Peking in 1898 and 1899. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_285'>285</span>According to certain signs, their overtures have not been altogether -fruitless. The Government of the Empress Dowager -does not seem to entertain any particular rancour against the -Japanese for the sympathies which they expressed for the Reformer -Kang-Yu-Wei, and undoubtedly seeks some support in -order to withdraw itself from the over-exclusive domination of -Russia. If this last Power is feared in Peking, it would seem -that Japan is at the present time the most considered, whose -counsels are best heard, and who best serves as the intermediary -for progress into China. It is from Japan that China -obtains instructors for her army, and that the Viceroy Chang-Chih-tung -not only borrowed money, but also engineers for his -foundry at Hanyang. The cementing of a formal alliance -will no doubt be prevented through fear of Russia, and very -probably China does not desire it very sincerely. Possibly at -Peking they continue to despise the Japanese as much as they do -Europeans, although they may have a preference for the former. -One thing is certain, and that is, that the relations between the -Governments at Peking and Tokio are better than they were -before the War. Of the Western Powers, England is most -preferred by the Mikado’s subjects, although even with her -they are a little suspicious. A feeling of intense resentment is still -expressed by the vast majority of the Japanese against Russia. -A small minority, however, desire that an understanding should -be arrived at with her. This party, however, also wishes for -the ‘open door,’ China being the only outlet for their young -and already important cotton industry.</p> - -<p class='c008'>These three nations—England, the United States, and Japan—complete -the group of the whole-hearted partizans of the -‘open door.’ The British press has often expressed a desire -to see an alliance effected between them, and if this were only -created between England and Japan it would be very formidable -in the Far East. The Japanese fleet is excellent, and -whatever may be our opinion of the ability of the Mikado’s -sailors, it is certain that, once united to the English fleet under -the command of an English admiral, it could soon sweep the -China Seas, and it would then be easy to embark an army of a -hundred, even of two hundred thousand men, whom it would -be difficult, even according to Russian officers, for the Tsar’s -army in the Far East to resist. Perhaps Russia has pushed -the Empire of the Rising Sun too much and too soon into the -arms of England.</p> - -<p class='c008'><span class='pageno' id='Page_286'>286</span>Germany, who, according to her own statistics, carries on -a trade with China valued at £3,400,000, of which £2,320,000 -are imports into China, and who counts 104 commercial -houses instead of the 78 in 1892, and registers 870 residents -in the Treaty Ports, divides her preferences between the -policy of the ‘spheres of influence’ and the ‘open door.’ If -she has reserved a right of preference in the public works to -be undertaken in Shan-tung, she soothes the irritation of the -English by making Kiao-chau a free port; but, notwithstanding -the antipathy which exists at heart between the two nations -and the progress of German commerce, often at the cost of -British trade, and thanks to the more obliging manners and -greater activity of the German merchants, a distinct amelioration -has taken place since the end of 1898 in the relations -between the two Governments, and Germany seems for the -present to have turned her back upon the Franco-Russian group -in the Far East in order to support British policy. One -province alone in China is not enough for her commercial -enterprise, and she fears to see protection closing the other -ports.</p> - -<p class='c008'>We now come to Russia. Her total commerce with the -Celestial Empire does not amount to more than about -£3,000,000, half of which passes overland by way of Siberia. -Petroleum as an import and tea as an export are the two great -articles of Russian trade with the Celestial Empire. There are -very few Russians living in China, and those who do so are -mainly established in the port of Hankow. Russia’s objects in -the East are almost entirely political, and it is very probable that -her protective tariff will follow her territorial aggrandizement. -Being already mistress of Manchuria, she officially fixed the -southern limits of her sphere of influence, at the time of the -affair of the Niu-chwang Railway, at the Great Wall. To the -north is a vast stretch of land almost entirely desert. In all -probability this limit is merely temporary, and possibly none -really exists in Russian aspirations; but before declaring her -policy she awaits the completion of the Trans-Siberian Railway. -The Empire of the Tsar, notwithstanding the 60,000 to 80,000 -men already massed between the Amur, Korea, and Pe-chi-li, -does not yet feel sufficiently safe to take a step forward for fear -of bringing herself into conflict with England and Japan. The -day the Trans-Siberian Railway is finished a step southwards -may no doubt be made. The antagonism between Russia and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_287'>287</span>Great Britain, both of whom aspire to be the leading Asiatic -Power, will then no doubt become bitterer than ever.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The policy of France has been more often than not ostentatious, -timid at heart and often vexatious in form. She has -made a great fuss over a few commercial advantages obtained -in the sterile provinces which border on Tongking, and she has -opposed England without doing her any injury with respect to -the opening of the West River. In certain affairs relating to -European concessions at Shanghai and Hankow, France has -unfortunately succeeded not only in vexing England, but in -alarming the Germans, Americans, and Japanese by the excessive -regulations which she has introduced in those territories -which have fallen into her hands. It does not seem, however, -that the French have contrived to obtain sufficient compensation -for the enmities which they have provoked in defending, -not without peril, interests which after all were not their own.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The part which France has wished to play in China has not -been a strictly commercial one. French highly-finished and -expensive fabrics are of no good in the Chinese market. If -she only had the common-sense and enterprise to send to -Tongking first-class weavers, and establish there a manufactory -under French direction, with cheap native labour, she should -soon be able, if she copied the cotton industries of India, to -compete with Japan in the Chinese market. It is therefore -the exportation of capital which ought to be her object in -the Far East, in China as well as in Indo-China. Notwithstanding -their activity, it is not countries like Japan and Russia, -which are without capital, that can attempt to exploit the riches -of China, but countries that are already advanced in civilization -like Germany, the United States, and above all, France -and England, who, by the introduction of the vast resources -of their capital, are in a position to work the mines, railways, -and other resources of the Middle Kingdom. If, instead of -trying to obtain exclusive privileges in a poor region, which are -of no use and only irritate other nations, France had supported -them in their ‘open door’ policy, she would have gained -a good deal, without losing anything from the purely commercial -point of view, and thus Frenchmen might have placed -themselves on a common footing with men of all nations, in -the same manner that the English and the Germans contrived -to come to an agreement in business transactions, notwithstanding -the divergence which tends to separate them more -<span class='pageno' id='Page_288'>288</span>and more, and she would then have been able to place her -capital to great advantage, and thereby have added immensely -to her prosperity, not only abroad but at home, as was the -case under the Second Empire, when she covered Europe with -railways.</p> - -<p class='c008'>France might, moreover, from the purely political point of -view, have played a conciliatory part, and have thus managed -to prevent the dominant influences at Peking from becoming -too exclusive, which might ultimately result in a terrible conflict, -and she should have worked to maintain the independence -of China. Now that the Chinese are permitting Europeans -to take their riches in hand by constructing their railways -and exploiting their mines, it seems to us that France ought to -allow her to retain a sort of communal existence, in which -the civilized nations might carry on their economic activity -precisely as they do in Turkey, with the difference that the -Empire of the Son of Heaven is much vaster, richer, and -populated by a far more industrious people than that of Sultan -Abd-ul-Hamid.</p> - -<p class='c008'>This is, of course, a solution of an apparently temporary -character, but which might have a chance here, as elsewhere, -of lasting longer than a score of other solutions which are -deemed definitive, always provided that the Powers do not -exert too much pressure on the feeble Government at Peking, -and especially if Russia, once the Trans-Siberian Railway is -finished, does not insist upon her demands in so violent a manner -as to provoke simultaneous action on the part of the Powers, and -thereby bring about a partition. The destinies of the Celestial -Empire are, however, in a great measure in the hands of the -Tsar, who has, fortunately, already given many proofs of -sagacity.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The maintenance of the Chinese Government seems for the -moment preferable, even in the interests of the opening up of -the country and in the introduction of our civilization in its -immense territory, to the partition of China between the various -European nations. We do not say this because we believe that -the Chinese Government is converted to progress, for we hold -that, with very few exceptions, those who direct the fortunes of -the Chinese Empire are quite as fossilized in their prejudices, -as firmly believe in their decrepit wisdom, as eager to prove -their hatred of Western civilization, and, moreover, as corrupt, -as ever they were. At the same time, they are convinced -<span class='pageno' id='Page_289'>289</span>of the impossibility of China resisting the encroachments of -European civilization, and as resigned as ever to yield to external -pressure. Undoubtedly the era of subterfuges on the one -side and of menaces on the other is by no means closed, -and in spite of reforms which have been, and are still to be, -obtained in the future by Europeans, a considerable part of the -pecuniary advantages to be obtained from the transformation -of China will remain in the hands and up the sleeves of the -mandarins. But if progress is somewhat retarded by this -resistance, which, after all, will only be temporary, it will be -better so than that it should be introduced too suddenly and -cause unnecessary trouble. Meanwhile, the Government of -Peking plays an extremely useful part. Some people have not -hesitated to say that if it ceased to exist progress would be -much more rapid, forgetting that anarchy would ensue, the -end of which would be as difficult to foresee as it would be -to find a means of terminating it, or of discovering a manner in -which any European Government could govern 200,000,000 -Chinamen. The losses which the re-establishment of a stable -regime would entail, and the vast expense of subduing rebellion, -would certainly exceed those resulting from the procrastination -under the actual form of Government.</p> - -<p class='c008'>At the end of a certain period it is highly probable that -the march of events may be accelerated, and when the mass -of the Chinese people have been placed in contact with the -results of Western progress, it is very probable that its -great common-sense will do the rest. It is an appeal to their -essentially commercial and money-making instincts that we -must make if we wish to convert the Chinese, the most realistic -and the least idealistic of nations. Railways will be the best -missionaries of civilization in China.</p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_290'>290</span> - <h2 class='c005'>INDEX</h2> -</div> - -<ul class='index c002'> - <li class='c031'><div class='center'>A</div></li> - <li class='c031'>Advances, small, made to immigrants into Siberia, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Agricultural zone, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>; - <ul> - <li>extent, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>;</li> - <li>population, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Agriculture, Siberian peasants’ ignorance of, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>; - <ul> - <li>products of Japan, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a>, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>;</li> - <li>novel methods of manuring, <a href='#Page_130'>130</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Ahmar Dabam Mountains, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Ainos, the, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Albazine, heroic defence of, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Alexander III. decrees the creation of the Trans-Siberian Railway, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Alexandrofsk, prison of, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Altai Mountains, the, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>; - <ul> - <li>valleys of the, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Amur province annexed by Russia, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>; - <ul> - <li>population, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>;</li> - <li>free from all special Custom duties, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>, <em>note</em>;</li> - <li>number of immigrants annually, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>;</li> - <li>Russian immigrants have to face a large Asiatic contingent, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>;</li> - <li>Buddhists in the province, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>;</li> - <li>only likely to attract Russians, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Amur River, Khabarof, establishes himself on the, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>; - <ul> - <li>immigrants settle in the region, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>;</li> - <li>damp climate, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>;</li> - <li>Government assists colonization in the Amur basin, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Armstrong, Whitworth, and Co. construct the ferry-boats for Lake Baikal, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Army, Japanese, strengthened, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a>; - <ul> - <li>excellence of the troops, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a>, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Art, Japanese, withstands Chinese influences, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a>; - <ul> - <li>under the Tokugawas, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a>;</li> - <li>art industries, <a href='#Page_119'>119</a>;</li> - <li>hasty production and deterioration, <a href='#Page_137'>137</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Artillery employed at the naval battle of Shigutake, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Aryans, the, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Asiatic Ocean, tribes in the region of the, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Astrakhan annexed by Russia, <a href='#Page_1'>1</a></li> - <li class='c002'><div class='center'>B</div></li> - <li class='c031'>Baikal, Lake, beauty of, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>; - <ul> - <li>used in the transport of tea, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>;</li> - <li>ferry-boats to convey trains across, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>;</li> - <li>its size, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Barabinsk Steppe, the, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Barley in Siberia, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Barnaoul, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>; - <ul> - <li>attractive to immigrants, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Beer, excellent, at Irkutsk; - <ul> - <li>Japanese beer, <a href='#Page_120'>120</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Behring Straits, native races in the district of the, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Berizof on the Obi, climate, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Berlin, distance to Vladivostok and Port Arthur, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Biisk attractive to immigrants, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Birch, predominance of the, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Black Current, the, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Blagovyeshchensk, its prosperity, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>; - <ul> - <li>fruit and vegetables brought to, by Chinese, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Blue River, mouth of the, <a href='#Page_188'>188</a>; - <ul> - <li>its banks, <a href='#Page_235'>235</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Brandt’s, Herr von, estimate of Chinese revenue, <a href='#Page_219'>219</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Bridges, Siberian, carried away by inundations, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>; - <ul> - <li>bridges of the Trans-Siberian Railway, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Britain, Great, trade with Siberia, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a>; - <ul> - <li>important commerce with Japan, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a>;</li> - <li>Japan’s friendship for her, <a href='#Page_168'>168</a>;</li> - <li>new commercial treaty with Japan, <a href='#Page_179'>179</a>, <a href='#Page_180'>180</a>;</li> - <li>concessions made to, by China, <a href='#Page_240'>240</a>;</li> - <li>she turns her back on China for Japan, <a href='#Page_244'>244</a>;</li> - <li>the treaty with France concerning Yunnan, <a href='#Page_262'>262</a>;</li> - <li>she regains her position in China, <a href='#Page_263'>263</a>;</li> - <li>public wrath at the German seizure of Kiao-chau, <a href='#Page_269'>269</a>;</li> - <li>the ‘open door’ policy, <a href='#Page_270'>270</a>, <a href='#Page_271'>271</a>, <a href='#Page_274'>274</a>;</li> - <li>offer of a loan to China, <a href='#Page_270'>270</a>;</li> - <li>important convention with China regarding the Yang-tsze-Kiang basin, etc., <a href='#Page_271'>271</a>;</li> - <li>danger of war with Russia, <a href='#Page_272'>272</a>;</li> - <li>Wei-hai-wei and Kowloon ceded to Great Britain, <a href='#Page_273'>273</a>;</li> - <li>the English public still dissatisfied, <a href='#Page_274'>274</a>;</li> - <li>the Niu-chwang Railway affair, <a href='#Page_275'>275</a>;</li> - <li>Great Britain’s commerce with China, <a href='#Page_272'>272</a>, <a href='#Page_273'>273</a>;</li> - <li>better relations with Germany, <a href='#Page_286'>286</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>British bombard Kagoshima, <a href='#Page_106'>106</a></li> - <li class='c031'>British Columbia, temperate climate, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Brushes, Japanese, <a href='#Page_120'>120</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Bubonic plague, microbe of the, discovered by a Japanese, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Buddhism practised by the Buriats, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>; - <ul> - <li>in Trans-Baikalia and the Amur, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>;</li> - <li>introduced into Japan, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>;</li> - <li>purer in Japan than in China, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a>;</li> - <li><span class='pageno' id='Page_291'>291</span>degenerated in China, <a href='#Page_202'>202</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Buriats, the, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>; - <ul> - <li>in Trans-Baikalia, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>;</li> - <li>in the Amur district, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Butter scarce in Siberia, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>; - <ul> - <li>exported to Russia, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c002'><div class='center'>C</div></li> - <li class='c031'>Camels employed in the tea trade, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Canada compared with Siberia, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>; - <ul> - <li>rivers and agricultural area, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>;</li> - <li>position superior to that of Siberia, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>;</li> - <li>difference between Canada and Siberia, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Canton, the foreign mart of China, <a href='#Page_229'>229</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Catholics not tolerated in Russia, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a>; - <ul> - <li>their churches in all large Siberian towns, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Cattle, very numerous in Siberia, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>; - <ul> - <li>exported thence to Europe, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>;</li> - <li>scarcity in Japan, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Cedar-trees, Siberian, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>; - <ul> - <li>their seeds eaten by the Siberians, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Cereals in Siberia, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>; - <ul> - <li>a lengthy summer necessary for their cultivation, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>;</li> - <li>in the valleys of the Upper Yenissei and Obi, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>;</li> - <li>the harvest, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>;</li> - <li>unfavourable climate in Siberia, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>;</li> - <li>exported, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Chancellor first enters Russia viâ the White Sea, <a href='#Page_61'>61</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Chartered Company, a, established under the Strogonofs, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Cheliabinsk in the Great Plain, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>; - <ul> - <li>scenery, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>;</li> - <li>refuges for immigrants at, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>China allows Russia to build the Manchurian Railway, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>; - <ul> - <li>her interest in it, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a>;</li> - <li>commercial class have always been honoured in China, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a>;</li> - <li>Japan her best friend, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a>;</li> - <li>China compared with Turkey, <a href='#Page_183'>183</a>;</li> - <li>density of the population, <a href='#Page_184'>184</a>;</li> - <li>enormous coal and copper beds untouched, <a href='#Page_184'>184</a>;</li> - <li>China more backward than India or Japan, <a href='#Page_185'>185</a>;</li> - <li>the significance of the Japanese War, <a href='#Page_185'>185</a>;</li> - <li>end of China’s isolation, <a href='#Page_186'>186</a>;</li> - <li>possible results of her dissolution, <a href='#Page_187'>187</a>, <a href='#Page_281'>281</a>;</li> - <li>first impressions, <a href='#Page_188'>188</a>;</li> - <li>cultivation of the soil, <a href='#Page_190'>190</a>;</li> - <li>Peking, <a href='#Page_190'>190</a>;</li> - <li>Hien-feng’s hunting excursion, <a href='#Page_195'>195</a>;</li> - <li>ruin of the once fine highroads, <a href='#Page_199'>199</a>, <a href='#Page_201'>201</a>;</li> - <li>hills never cultivated, <a href='#Page_202'>202</a>;</li> - <li>squandering of money, <a href='#Page_203'>203</a>;</li> - <li>general decay, <a href='#Page_203'>203</a>;</li> - <li>the mandarinate the curse of China, <a href='#Page_204'>204</a>;</li> - <li>the literati, <a href='#Page_204'>204</a>–206;</li> - <li>corruption, <a href='#Page_206'>206</a>, <a href='#Page_217'>217</a>;</li> - <li>how the governing class is selected, <a href='#Page_208'>208</a>;</li> - <li>the causes of her isolation, <a href='#Page_209'>209</a>, <a href='#Page_210'>210</a>;</li> - <li>the non-existence of any martial spirit among the people, <a href='#Page_210'>210</a>;</li> - <li>irregularities in the Government, <a href='#Page_211'>211</a>;</li> - <li>long existence of the State, <a href='#Page_212'>212</a>;</li> - <li>patriotism unknown, <a href='#Page_213'>213</a>;</li> - <li>population, <a href='#Page_214'>214</a>, <em>note</em>;</li> - <li>taxes light, <a href='#Page_218'>218</a>, <a href='#Page_219'>219</a>;</li> - <li>total revenue, <a href='#Page_219'>219</a>;</li> - <li>natural disasters, <a href='#Page_220'>220</a>;</li> - <li>population does not increase, <a href='#Page_220'>220</a>;</li> - <li>rapacity of officials, <a href='#Page_220'>220</a>, <a href='#Page_221'>221</a>;</li> - <li>the result of the opening up of the country, <a href='#Page_227'>227</a>;</li> - <li>the Treaty of Shimonosaki, <a href='#Page_228'>228</a>, <a href='#Page_236'>236</a>;</li> - <li>opposition to foreigners, <a href='#Page_229'>229</a>;</li> - <li>nothing to be expected from the Government, <a href='#Page_236'>236</a>;</li> - <li>industries, <a href='#Page_237'>237</a>, <a href='#Page_238'>238</a>;</li> - <li>increase of wages, <a href='#Page_238'>238</a>, <a href='#Page_239'>239</a>;</li> - <li>industries still limited to the Treaty Ports, <a href='#Page_240'>240</a>;</li> - <li>China’s commerce, <a href='#Page_241'>241</a>, <a href='#Page_282'>282</a>–286;</li> - <li>her collapse after the War, <a href='#Page_242'>242</a>, <a href='#Page_243'>243</a>;</li> - <li>England turns her back on China, <a href='#Page_244'>244</a>;</li> - <li>North China coveted by Russia, <a href='#Page_246'>246</a>;</li> - <li>the intervention of Russia, France, and Germany, <a href='#Page_247'>247</a>;</li> - <li>Russia better liked than any other Western Power, <a href='#Page_248'>248</a>;</li> - <li>China becomes alarmed at Russia, <a href='#Page_251'>251</a>;</li> - <li>Russian interference in the War settlement, <a href='#Page_252'>252</a>;</li> - <li>a foreign debt contracted, <a href='#Page_253'>253</a>;</li> - <li>it leads to further foreign interference, <a href='#Page_254'>254</a>;</li> - <li>Russia becomes guarantor for China, <a href='#Page_255'>255</a>;</li> - <li>Russian influence predominant, <a href='#Page_258'>258</a>;</li> - <li>concessions to Germany, <a href='#Page_259'>259</a>;</li> - <li>to France, <a href='#Page_259'>259</a>–261;</li> - <li>England regains her position in China, <a href='#Page_263'>263</a>, <a href='#Page_264'>264</a>;</li> - <li>railway concessions, <a href='#Page_267'>267</a>, <a href='#Page_268'>268</a>;</li> - <li>Germany seizes Kiao-chau, <a href='#Page_268'>268</a>;</li> - <li>wrath in England at this act, <a href='#Page_269'>269</a>;</li> - <li>important concessions to England, <a href='#Page_271'>271</a>;</li> - <li>England declares the ‘open door’ policy, <a href='#Page_271'>271</a>, <a href='#Page_274'>274</a>;</li> - <li>China leases the Liao-tung Peninsula to Russia, <a href='#Page_271'>271</a>, <a href='#Page_272'>272</a>;</li> - <li>concessions to France, <a href='#Page_272'>272</a>;</li> - <li>Wei-hai-wei and Kowloon ceded to England, <a href='#Page_273'>273</a>;</li> - <li>the Niu-chwang Railway affair, <a href='#Page_275'>275</a>;</li> - <li>progress made in China, <a href='#Page_275'>275</a>;</li> - <li>germs of disaffection, <a href='#Page_276'>276</a>, <a href='#Page_277'>277</a>;</li> - <li>the Palace Revolution of September, 1898, <a href='#Page_277'>277</a>, <a href='#Page_278'>278</a>;</li> - <li>the government of the Empress Dowager, <a href='#Page_278'>278</a>, <a href='#Page_279'>279</a>;</li> - <li>difference between China to-day and Japan in 1868, <a href='#Page_279'>279</a>, <a href='#Page_280'>280</a>;</li> - <li>friendly feeling for Japan, <a href='#Page_285'>285</a>;</li> - <li>the partisans of the ‘open door,’ 285;</li> - <li>the present government preferable to a partition, <a href='#Page_288'>288</a>;</li> - <li>railways the best missionaries, <a href='#Page_289'>289</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Chinese at Vladivostok, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a>; - <ul> - <li>supply Blagovyeshchensk with fruit and vegetables, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>;</li> - <li>also Khabarofsk, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>;</li> - <li>Chinese emigration to Eastern Siberia, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>;</li> - <li>their distinctness as a race, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>;</li> - <li>Chinese civilization introduced into Japan, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>;</li> - <li>integrity of Chinese merchants, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a>;</li> - <li>patience of Chinese, <a href='#Page_184'>184</a>;</li> - <li>their insolence to foreigners, <a href='#Page_195'>195</a>;</li> - <li>their energy, <a href='#Page_196'>196</a>;</li> - <li>their habit of saving appearances, <a href='#Page_196'>196</a>, <a href='#Page_197'>197</a>, <a href='#Page_203'>203</a>, <a href='#Page_216'>216</a>;</li> - <li>the peasantry, <a href='#Page_199'>199</a>;</li> - <li>the Chinese alphabet, <a href='#Page_206'>206</a>, <a href='#Page_207'>207</a>;</li> - <li>the <em>feng-shui</em> geomancy, <a href='#Page_209'>209</a>, <a href='#Page_225'>225</a>;</li> - <li>patriotism non-existent, <a href='#Page_213'>213</a>;</li> - <li>physical and linguistic differences among the Chinese, <a href='#Page_214'>214</a>, <a href='#Page_215'>215</a>;</li> - <li>their civilization, <a href='#Page_216'>216</a>;</li> - <li>love of cunning, <a href='#Page_217'>217</a>;</li> - <li>Chinese etiquette, <a href='#Page_217'>217</a>;</li> - <li>life very easy for the people, <a href='#Page_218'>218</a>;</li> - <li>the people and the Government, <a href='#Page_218'>218</a>, <a href='#Page_219'>219</a>;</li> - <li>their contented disposition, <a href='#Page_220'>220</a>;</li> - <li>resignation, <a href='#Page_221'>221</a>;</li> - <li>their indifference to death and cruelty, <a href='#Page_221'>221</a>;</li> - <li>suicides out of spite, <a href='#Page_222'>222</a>;</li> - <li>why they are bad soldiers, <a href='#Page_222'>222</a>, <a href='#Page_223'>223</a>;</li> - <li>they might be better, <a href='#Page_223'>223</a>, <em>note</em>;</li> - <li>filial piety and infanticide, <a href='#Page_223'>223</a>;</li> - <li>ancestor worship the cause of non-progressiveness, <a href='#Page_223'>223</a>, <a href='#Page_224'>224</a>;</li> - <li>unhappy lot of married women, <a href='#Page_224'>224</a>;</li> - <li>their immorality, <a href='#Page_224'>224</a>;</li> - <li><span class='pageno' id='Page_292'>292</span>gambling, the national vice, <a href='#Page_224'>224</a>;</li> - <li>opium-smoking, <a href='#Page_225'>225</a>;</li> - <li>filthy habits and superstition, <a href='#Page_225'>225</a>;</li> - <li>good qualities of the Chinese, <a href='#Page_226'>226</a>;</li> - <li>their habit of looking to the past for a type of perfection, <a href='#Page_226'>226</a>;</li> - <li>their lack of discernment, <a href='#Page_226'>226</a>;</li> - <li>scandalized by Christianity, <a href='#Page_230'>230</a>;</li> - <li>Chinese and Western civilization, <a href='#Page_230'>230</a>, <a href='#Page_231'>231</a>;</li> - <li>appreciation of our administration, <a href='#Page_231'>231</a>, <a href='#Page_232'>232</a>;</li> - <li>their superstitions about missionaries, <a href='#Page_232'>232</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Chino-Japanese War, significance of the, <a href='#Page_185'>185</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Christianity introduced into Japan, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>; - <ul> - <li>its great progress, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>;</li> - <li>extirpated, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>;</li> - <li>not accepted by modern Japan, <a href='#Page_174'>174</a>;</li> - <li>Christianity in China, <a href='#Page_230'>230</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Chuckchis, the, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Churches very numerous in Siberian towns, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Clans, the south-eastern, a danger to the Shogunate, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a>; - <ul> - <li>they join the Mikado against the Shogun, <a href='#Page_104'>104</a>;</li> - <li>survival of the clannish spirit in modern Japan, <a href='#Page_156'>156</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Coal, abundant in Siberia, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>; - <ul> - <li>coal in Japan, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a>;</li> - <li>enormous beds in China, <a href='#Page_184'>184</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Commerce, Japanese, enormous increase of, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a>–140; - <ul> - <li>its high standard not maintained, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a>;</li> - <li>the Treaty of Shimonosaki and Chinese commerce, <a href='#Page_236'>236</a>;</li> - <li>transport of goods in China, <a href='#Page_240'>240</a>;</li> - <li>the <em>likin</em> system, <a href='#Page_240'>240</a>, <a href='#Page_241'>241</a>;</li> - <li>total amount of Chinese commerce, <a href='#Page_241'>241</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Confucius’ works studied by the literati, <a href='#Page_206'>206</a>; - <ul> - <li>his views on filial piety, <a href='#Page_223'>223</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Copper-mines, Siberian, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>; - <ul> - <li>copper exported from Japan, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Cossacks encounter little opposition, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a>; - <ul> - <li>they traverse Siberia from end to end, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>;</li> - <li>they disappear as hardy pioneers, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>;</li> - <li>the Cossacks of the Vitim region, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Cotton industry introduced into Japan, <a href='#Page_119'>119</a>; - <ul> - <li>its wonderful progress, <a href='#Page_122'>122</a>;</li> - <li>cotton factories in Shanghai, <a href='#Page_237'>237</a>;</li> - <li>total amount of cotton imported into China, <a href='#Page_241'>241</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Custom-house duties in Siberia, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>; - <ul> - <li>in China, <a href='#Page_240'>240</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c002'><div class='center'>D</div></li> - <li class='c031'>Daimios forbidden to enter Kioto, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>; - <ul> - <li>the five grades, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>, <a href='#Page_98'>98</a>;</li> - <li>their initiation enfeebled, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a>;</li> - <li>horror of the barbarians, <a href='#Page_104'>104</a>;</li> - <li>they recognise the uselessness of opposing the foreigners, <a href='#Page_106'>106</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Dan-no-ura, the naval battle of, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Dogs, Siberian, like wolves, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Dutch the only Europeans allowed to traffic with Japan, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a></li> - <li class='c002'><div class='center'>E</div></li> - <li class='c031'>Education, its backward state in Siberia, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>; - <ul> - <li>making considerable progress, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>;</li> - <li>education in Japan, <a href='#Page_134'>134</a>, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a>, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a>;</li> - <li>in China, <a href='#Page_206'>206</a>–208</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Electric light in Siberian towns, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>; - <ul> - <li>in Tokio, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Emigration from Russia, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>; - <ul> - <li>its management, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a></li> - <li>(<em>see</em> also Immigration)</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Empress Dowager and the Palace Revolution, <a href='#Page_278'>278</a>; - <ul> - <li>a clever woman, <a href='#Page_278'>278</a>, <a href='#Page_279'>279</a>;</li> - <li>her party known as the Russian, <a href='#Page_280'>280</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>England (<em>see</em> Britain, Great)</li> - <li class='c031'>English attempts to enter Siberia viâ the Arctic Ocean, <a href='#Page_61'>61</a>–62; - <ul> - <li>an English company creates an annual service to Siberia by this route, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Ermak Timoféef seizes Sibir, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Eunuchs, the, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Examinations, public, in China, <a href='#Page_205'>205</a>; - <ul> - <li>the subjects chosen, <a href='#Page_206'>206</a>, <a href='#Page_208'>208</a>;</li> - <li>the ‘new Western culture,’ 207, <a href='#Page_208'>208</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Exiles, two classes of, sent to Siberia, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>; - <ul> - <li>allowed to settle in towns, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>;</li> - <li>occupations, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>;</li> - <li>families allowed to accompany them, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a>;</li> - <li>their number in 1894, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a>;</li> - <li>the artillery captain at Kluchi, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c002'><div class='center'>F</div></li> - <li class='c031'><em>Feng-shui</em> geomancy, Chinese, <a href='#Page_209'>209</a>, <a href='#Page_225'>225</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Ferry-boats to convey trains across Lake Baikal, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Fetish-tree, a, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Finance, Japanese, brilliant condition before the war, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a>, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a>; - <ul> - <li>the programme of expansion, <a href='#Page_145'>145</a>;</li> - <li>subvention to Formosa, <a href='#Page_146'>146</a>;</li> - <li>large loan required, <a href='#Page_146'>146</a>;</li> - <li>scarcity of cash, <a href='#Page_147'>147</a>;</li> - <li>a foreign loan, <a href='#Page_148'>148</a>;</li> - <li>the revenue of 1897–1898, <a href='#Page_149'>149</a>;</li> - <li>increase of taxation, <a href='#Page_149'>149</a>;</li> - <li>new sources of revenue, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a>;</li> - <li>taxes not really heavy, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a>–152;</li> - <li>other possible sources, <a href='#Page_151'>151</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Fir-trees, Siberian, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Fishing industry, importance of Japanese, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Flowers, Siberian, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>; - <ul> - <li>Japanese love of flowers, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Foreigners, Japanese suspicion of, <a href='#Page_178'>178</a> 179; - <ul> - <li>the commercial treaties, <a href='#Page_178'>178</a>–180;</li> - <li>the land tenure difficulty, <a href='#Page_180'>180</a>, <a href='#Page_181'>181</a>;</li> - <li>foreigners in China, <a href='#Page_228'>228</a>;</li> - <li>demand a free hand to trade, <a href='#Page_229'>229</a>;</li> - <li>opinion of Chinese about them, <a href='#Page_230'>230</a>–233;</li> - <li>before the war, <a href='#Page_235'>235</a>, <a href='#Page_236'>236</a>;</li> - <li>Treaty of Shimonosaki, <a href='#Page_236'>236</a>;</li> - <li>the literati and foreigners, <a href='#Page_277'>277</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Forest Zone, the Great, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>; - <ul> - <li>its trees, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>;</li> - <li>marshlands and severe climate, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>;</li> - <li>may become of great value, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>;</li> - <li>population, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Formosa, Japanese subvention to, <a href='#Page_146'>146</a></li> - <li class='c031'>France, why attracted to Tongking, <a href='#Page_185'>185</a>; - <ul> - <li>she co-operates with Russia and against Japan, <a href='#Page_247'>247</a>;</li> - <li>her sacrifice in turning from Japan, <a href='#Page_249'>249</a>;</li> - <li>Russia endeavours to draw her into warlike demonstrations against Japan, <a href='#Page_250'>250</a>;</li> - <li>‘advantages’ gained by her intervention, <a href='#Page_259'>259</a>, <a href='#Page_260'>260</a>, <a href='#Page_262'>262</a>;</li> - <li>her treaty with England concerning Tongking, <a href='#Page_262'>262</a>;</li> - <li>France the protectress of Catholicism in China, <a href='#Page_263'>263</a>;</li> - <li>she suffers a check in China, <a href='#Page_264'>264</a>;</li> - <li>more concessions obtained, <a href='#Page_272'>272</a>, <a href='#Page_273'>273</a>;</li> - <li><span class='pageno' id='Page_293'>293</span>the part she ought to play, <a href='#Page_288'>288</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>French settlers in Siberia, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a>; - <ul> - <li>the Government generally indulgent towards them, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Fujiwara family, the, retains the Prime Ministership, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Fukuzawa, Mr., editor of the <cite>Jiji Shimpo</cite>, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Furniture, absence of, in Japanese houses, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Furs, exported from Siberia, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a></li> - <li class='c002'><div class='center'>G</div></li> - <li class='c031'>Gambling, the national Chinese vice, <a href='#Page_224'>224</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Germany, commerce with Japan, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a>; - <ul> - <li>she co-operates with Russia and France against Japan, <a href='#Page_247'>247</a>;</li> - <li>reason for so doing, <a href='#Page_249'>249</a>, <a href='#Page_250'>250</a>;</li> - <li>small advantages obtained in return, <a href='#Page_259'>259</a>;</li> - <li>she seizes Kiao-chau, <a href='#Page_268'>268</a>;</li> - <li>constitutes Shan-tung a sphere of interest, <a href='#Page_271'>271</a>;</li> - <li>her commerce with China, <a href='#Page_286'>286</a>;</li> - <li>better relations with England, <a href='#Page_286'>286</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Glass in Japan, <a href='#Page_120'>120</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Gold-mines, Siberian, in the Forest Zone, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>; - <ul> - <li>employ relatively few people, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>;</li> - <li>their exploitation and yield, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>;</li> - <li>Government the only buyer of Siberian gold, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>;</li> - <li>bad system of taxation and other drawbacks, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>;</li> - <li>primitive implements used, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>;</li> - <li>the most important veins generally difficult to get at, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>;</li> - <li>mining centre removed to the banks of the Amur and Lena, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>;</li> - <li>exploitation only granted to Russian subjects, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Great Wall of China, the, <a href='#Page_201'>201</a>–203</li> - <li class='c002'><div class='center'>H</div></li> - <li class='c031'>Hankow, on the Yang-tsze, the great tea mart of China, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>; - <ul> - <li>projection of a railway from Peking to Hankow, <a href='#Page_268'>268</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'><em>Hara-kiri</em>, the ferocious custom of, in Japan, <a href='#Page_98'>98</a>; - <ul> - <li>in China, <a href='#Page_222'>222</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Hart, Sir Robert, <a href='#Page_240'>240</a></li> - <li class='c031'><em>Heimino</em>, or commoners of Japan, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a>; - <ul> - <li><em>heimino</em> in the public offices, <a href='#Page_156'>156</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Henry, Prince, and the ‘mailed fist,’ 269</li> - <li class='c031'>Hideyoshi reduces the daimios to obedience, <a href='#Page_91'>91</a>; - <ul> - <li>orders all missionaries to leave Japan, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Hien-feng’s hunting excursion, <a href='#Page_195'>195</a></li> - <li class='c031'>High-roads of China, dilapidated condition of the, <a href='#Page_199'>199</a>, <a href='#Page_203'>203</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Hitotsubashi, tries to retrieve the Shogunate, <a href='#Page_106'>106</a>; - <ul> - <li>his overthrow, <a href='#Page_107'>107</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Hong-Kong seventeen days from London viâ Siberia, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>; - <ul> - <li>commerce with Japan, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a>;</li> - <li>Chinese in Hong-Kong, <a href='#Page_231'>231</a>, <a href='#Page_232'>232</a>;</li> - <li>lease of the surrounding heights to England, <a href='#Page_273'>273</a>;</li> - <li>her total commerce, <a href='#Page_282'>282</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Horses sometimes difficult to procure on the Siberian postal-road, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>; - <ul> - <li>their great number in Siberia, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>;</li> - <li>horses in Japan, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Hu-nan, coal-beds in, <a href='#Page_184'>184</a></li> - <li class='c002'><div class='center'>I</div></li> - <li class='c031'>Iemitsu enfeebles the initiative of the daimios, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Ieyas, Tokugawa, rises to power, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a>; - <ul> - <li>he reduces the Court to poverty, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>;</li> - <li>creates divergencies among the daimios, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a>;</li> - <li>and revives the Chinese classics, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Immigrants into Siberia almost exclusively peasants, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>; - <ul> - <li>Tobolsk a great meeting-place for them, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>;</li> - <li>the routes taken, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>;</li> - <li>length of the journey, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>;</li> - <li>refuges erected for their accommodation, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>;</li> - <li>those coming from same districts grouped together, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>;</li> - <li>regulations for their settlement 46, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>;</li> - <li>small advances made to them, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>;</li> - <li>where they settle, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>;</li> - <li>many return again to Russia, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Imperial canal, Chinese, ruinous condition of the, <a href='#Page_203'>203</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Indemnity, Chinese War, <a href='#Page_145'>145</a>; - <ul> - <li>paid in gold, <a href='#Page_146'>146</a>, <em>note</em>;</li> - <li>the Liao-tung indemnity, <a href='#Page_251'>251</a>–252</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>India more advanced than China, <a href='#Page_185'>185</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Industries, Japanese, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a>; - <ul> - <li>fancy goods, <a href='#Page_119'>119</a>;</li> - <li>glass, brushes, and foundries, <a href='#Page_120'>120</a>;</li> - <li>jute carpet and match industries, <a href='#Page_121'>121</a>;</li> - <li>enormous progress of cotton, <a href='#Page_122'>122</a>;</li> - <li>Japanese own all their own industries, <a href='#Page_122'>122</a>, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a>;</li> - <li>scarcity of workmen, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a>;</li> - <li>abuses in the employment of women, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a>;</li> - <li>hours of labour, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a>;</li> - <li>holidays, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a>;</li> - <li>increase of wages, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a>;</li> - <li>diminution of capital, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a>;</li> - <li>fisheries, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a>;</li> - <li>Chinese industries, <a href='#Page_237'>237</a>;</li> - <li>women employés, <a href='#Page_238'>238</a>;</li> - <li>their wages, <a href='#Page_238'>238</a>, <a href='#Page_239'>239</a>;</li> - <li>industries limited to the free ports, <a href='#Page_240'>240</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Infanticide in China, <a href='#Page_221'>221</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Inland Sea, the, of Japan, <a href='#Page_112'>112</a>; - <ul> - <li>its light-houses, <a href='#Page_112'>112</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Inundations in Siberia, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a></li> - <li class='c031'><em>Iourdis</em>, or Kirghiz huts, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Irbit, the great fair at, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Irkutsk, difference between the Customs on tea at Odessa and Irkutsk, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a>; - <ul> - <li>total Customs in 1896, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>;</li> - <li>population, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>;</li> - <li>the theatre, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>;</li> - <li>Irkutsk once capital of Siberia, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>;</li> - <li>its excellent beer, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>;</li> - <li>Government of, population in 1897, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>;</li> - <li>number of immigrants annually, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Iron mines, Siberian, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a></li> - <li class='c031'><em>Isbas</em>, the, or Siberian peasants’ cottages, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>; - <ul> - <li>interior ornamentation, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Islamism professed by the Kirghiz, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Ito, Marquis, <a href='#Page_160'>160</a>,162; - <ul> - <li>the Ito programme, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a>, <a href='#Page_145'>145</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Ivan the Terrible, <a href='#Page_1'>1</a>; - <ul> - <li>grants the Strogonofs trading privileges, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c002'><div class='center'>J</div></li> - <li class='c031'>Japan, the Black Current, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>; - <ul> - <li>her transformation, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>;</li> - <li>European scepticism as to military success, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>;</li> - <li>early history, <a href='#Page_83'>83</a>;</li> - <li>its settlement, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>;</li> - <li>introduction of Chinese civilization, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>;</li> - <li><span class='pageno' id='Page_294'>294</span>also of Buddhism, the silkworm, etc., <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>;</li> - <li>resemblance of the adoption of Chinese civilization in the seventh with that of European in the nineteenth century, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a>;</li> - <li>the system of heredity, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a>, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a>;</li> - <li>real authority very rarely vested in the man supposed to exercise it, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a>;</li> - <li>feudalism established, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a>;</li> - <li>dissensions in the Government, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a>;</li> - <li>the Government overthrown by Yoritomo, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>;</li> - <li>increasing power of the daimios, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>;</li> - <li>the Shogunate, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>;</li> - <li>non-interference of the Mikado in the Government, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>;</li> - <li>civil wars, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>;</li> - <li>pitiable condition of Japan at the beginning of the sixteenth century, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>, <a href='#Page_91'>91</a>;</li> - <li>suppression of the independence of the nobles, <a href='#Page_91'>91</a>;</li> - <li>Ieyas rises to power, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a>;</li> - <li>arrival of the Portuguese in Japan, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a>;</li> - <li>St. Francis Xavier introduces Christianity, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>;</li> - <li>great progress made by it, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>;</li> - <li>material progress, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>;</li> - <li>Hideyoshi orders all missionaries to leave Japan, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>;</li> - <li>Christianity extirpated in Japan and exclusion of foreign influence, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>;</li> - <li>Dutch and Chinese only allowed to trade with Japan, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>;</li> - <li>the three ancient classes of the people, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>–99;</li> - <li>the daimios divided by Ieyas among themselves, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a>;</li> - <li>Japan under the Tokugawas, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a>;</li> - <li>again under Chinese influences, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a>;</li> - <li>the causes of the Revolution of 1868 deep-rooted, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>;</li> - <li>decline of the Shogunate, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>;</li> - <li>penetration of Western ideas into Japan, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>;</li> - <li>the United States demands the opening of the ports, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a>;</li> - <li>ports opened, <a href='#Page_104'>104</a>;</li> - <li>overthrow of the Shogunate, <a href='#Page_104'>104</a>–107;</li> - <li>necessity of adopting Western civilization in all branches perceived, <a href='#Page_107'>107</a>;</li> - <li>sweeping reforms, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a>;</li> - <li>removal of the Court to Tokio, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a>;</li> - <li>the Satsuma insurrection, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a>;</li> - <li>modern Japan, <a href='#Page_109'>109</a>;</li> - <li>religious toleration, <a href='#Page_111'>111</a>;</li> - <li>Japan the Great Britain of the Far East, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a>;</li> - <li>her industries, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a>–124;</li> - <li>essentially an agricultural country, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a>;</li> - <li>agricultural products, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a>, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a>, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>, <a href='#Page_130'>130</a>;</li> - <li>scenery, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a>;</li> - <li>density of the rural population, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a>;</li> - <li>small area of cultivable land, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a>, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a>;</li> - <li>scarcity of domestic animals, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a>;</li> - <li>education, <a href='#Page_134'>134</a>;</li> - <li>increase of the population, <a href='#Page_134'>134</a>;</li> - <li>foreign commerce, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a>–140;</li> - <li>trade despised in ancient Japan, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a>;</li> - <li>brilliant condition of her finances before the war, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a>, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a>;</li> - <li>extensive programme of expansion, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a>, <a href='#Page_145'>145</a>;</li> - <li>large loan required to meet same, <a href='#Page_146'>146</a>;</li> - <li>a foreign loan, <a href='#Page_148'>148</a>;</li> - <li>taxation, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a>–152;</li> - <li>instability of Parliaments, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a>;</li> - <li>the clan spirit in modern Japan, <a href='#Page_156'>156</a>;</li> - <li>the Parliamentary system, <a href='#Page_156'>156</a>–163;</li> - <li>importance of Japan’s military forces, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a>;</li> - <li>her coal, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a>;</li> - <li>Japan China’s best friend, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a>;</li> - <li>her friendship for England and distrust of Russia, <a href='#Page_168'>168</a>;</li> - <li>colonizing ambitions, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a>;</li> - <li>her thorough transformation, <a href='#Page_174'>174</a>;</li> - <li>refusal to accept Christianity, <a href='#Page_174'>174</a>;</li> - <li>the civil status, <a href='#Page_175'>175</a>;</li> - <li>railway and post 176;</li> - <li>carelessness and unpunctuality, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a>;</li> - <li>inexperience, <a href='#Page_178'>178</a>;</li> - <li>hostility to foreigners, <a href='#Page_178'>178</a>;</li> - <li>renewal of the commercial treaties, <a href='#Page_178'>178</a>–180;</li> - <li>land tenure, <a href='#Page_180'>180</a>;</li> - <li>her foreign missions, <a href='#Page_182'>182</a>;</li> - <li>Japan more advanced than China, <a href='#Page_185'>185</a>;</li> - <li>the Treaty of Shimonosaki, <a href='#Page_228'>228</a>;</li> - <li>England suddenly favours Japan, <a href='#Page_244'>244</a>;</li> - <li>Japan leaves Liao-tung in consequence of the demand by Russia, France, and Germany, <a href='#Page_247'>247</a>;</li> - <li>her fears of Russia, <a href='#Page_247'>247</a>, <a href='#Page_251'>251</a>;</li> - <li>Russia’s warlike intentions against Japan, <a href='#Page_250'>250</a>;</li> - <li>China desires an alliance, <a href='#Page_251'>251</a>;</li> - <li>compensation for leaving Liao-tung, <a href='#Page_251'>251</a>, <a href='#Page_252'>252</a>;</li> - <li>Japan’s high-handed policy in Korea, <a href='#Page_256'>256</a>, <a href='#Page_257'>257</a>;</li> - <li>agreement with Russia regarding Korea, <a href='#Page_258'>258</a>;</li> - <li>Japan prepares for a conflict with Russia, <a href='#Page_267'>267</a>;</li> - <li>her commerce with China, <a href='#Page_284'>284</a>;</li> - <li>good relations with China, <a href='#Page_285'>285</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Japanese in Vladivostok, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a>; - <ul> - <li>origin of the Japanese, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>;</li> - <li>quite distinct from the Chinese, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>, <a href='#Page_171'>171</a>;</li> - <li>the early Japanese, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>;</li> - <li>the Shinto religion, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>;</li> - <li>their power of assimilation, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>;</li> - <li>costumes, <a href='#Page_111'>111</a>, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a>, <a href='#Page_132'>132</a>;</li> - <li>proud of their victory over the Chinese, <a href='#Page_112'>112</a>;</li> - <li>their houses, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a>, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a>;</li> - <li>the children, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a>, <a href='#Page_116'>116</a>;</li> - <li>European costume, <a href='#Page_116'>116</a>;</li> - <li>their industries in their own hands, <a href='#Page_122'>122</a>, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a>;</li> - <li>their food, <a href='#Page_130'>130</a>;</li> - <li>dwellings of the peasantry, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a>;</li> - <li>disuse of furniture, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a>;</li> - <li>freedom of the women, <a href='#Page_132'>132</a>;</li> - <li>artistic instinct of the Japanese, <a href='#Page_132'>132</a>;</li> - <li>cost of living, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a>;</li> - <li>charges brought against merchants, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a>;</li> - <li>Japanese do not yet understand the value of time, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a>;</li> - <li>the three classes of society not exclusive, <a href='#Page_155'>155</a>;</li> - <li>indifference to politics, <a href='#Page_163'>163</a>;</li> - <li>their hardiness, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a>;</li> - <li>lack of inventiveness, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a>;</li> - <li>attention to detail, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a>;</li> - <li>unpunctuality, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a>;</li> - <li>indifference to death, <a href='#Page_221'>221</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Jews in Siberia, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Jimmu-Tenno, first Emperor of Japan, <a href='#Page_83'>83</a>, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Jinrikisha, the, in Japan, <a href='#Page_116'>116</a>; - <ul> - <li>the fares, <a href='#Page_117'>117</a>;</li> - <li>in China, <a href='#Page_189'>189</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Junks, Japanese, rapidly disappearing, <a href='#Page_112'>112</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Jute carpet-making at Osaka, <a href='#Page_121'>121</a></li> - <li class='c002'><div class='center'>K</div></li> - <li class='c031'><em>Kaborski tchaï</em>, the, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Kagoshima bombarded by the British, <a href='#Page_106'>106</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Kainsk, the Jerusalem of Siberia, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Kaiping, coal-mines at, <a href='#Page_189'>189</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Kalmucks, the, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Kami, or superior beings, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Kamtchatka reached by the Cossacks Alexief and Dezhnief, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Kang-Yu-Wei, the Reformer, <a href='#Page_278'>278</a>; - <ul> - <li>his party known as the Anglo-Japanese, <a href='#Page_280'>280</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Kansk, the refuges for immigrants at, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Kara Sea, navigation only possible during six weeks, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a></li> - <li class='c031'><span class='pageno' id='Page_295'>295</span>Kazan, the Tatar kingdom, annexed by Russia, <a href='#Page_1'>1</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Khabarof, the Ataman, establishes himself on the Amur, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Khabarofsk, the military element at, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a>; - <ul> - <li>its few women, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Kiakhta, tea passing through, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>; - <ul> - <li>the three parts of the town, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Kiao-chau seized by the Germans, <a href='#Page_268'>268</a>; - <ul> - <li>made a free port, <a href='#Page_286'>286</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Kioto, feudal princes never allowed to enter, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>; - <ul> - <li>Court removed from Kioto to Tokio, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a>;</li> - <li>population, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a>;</li> - <li>industries, <a href='#Page_121'>121</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Kirghiz Steppes crossed by the Russians in 1847, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Kirghiz tribe, the, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>; - <ul> - <li>number and religion, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>;</li> - <li>they export their cattle to Europe, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Kiu-Siu settled by Mongolian pirates, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Kobylkas, the, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Korea, Japan has a free hand in, <a href='#Page_246'>246</a>; - <ul> - <li>Russian activity, <a href='#Page_256'>256</a>;</li> - <li>high-handed conduct of the Japanese, <a href='#Page_256'>256</a>;</li> - <li>murder of the Queen, <a href='#Page_257'>257</a>;</li> - <li>Russia’s offer of service, <a href='#Page_257'>257</a>;</li> - <li>the agreement between Russia and Japan, <a href='#Page_258'>258</a>;</li> - <li>Russia renounces active intervention in Korea, <a href='#Page_272'>272</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Koreans settled in and about Vladivostok, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a>–53; - <ul> - <li>Koreans introduce the art of writing into Japan, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Kowloon, the peninsula of, ceded to England, <a href='#Page_273'>273</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Krasnoyarsk, the theatre at, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>; - <ul> - <li>the English-Siberian Company establishes an agency at, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Kuang-Su, Emperor of China, <a href='#Page_277'>277</a>; - <ul> - <li>his reforming tendencies, <a href='#Page_278'>278</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Kuznetsk attractive to Siberian immigrants, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a></li> - <li class='c002'><div class='center'>L</div></li> - <li class='c031'>Lamuts, the, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Land-owners, rich, greatly needed in Siberia, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Land tenure in Japan, <a href='#Page_180'>180</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Larches, great height of the, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Leather, Russian, imported into Siberia, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Lena, River, discovered in 1637, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Letters, time occupied to reach the Far East shortened by one-half by the Trans-Siberian Railway, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Liao-ho, River, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Liao-tung, peninsula of, the Japanese ordered to quit, <a href='#Page_247'>247</a>; - <ul> - <li>Japan receives compensation for same, <a href='#Page_251'>251</a>, <a href='#Page_252'>252</a>;</li> - <li>Russia obtains the peninsula, <a href='#Page_271'>271</a>, <a href='#Page_272'>272</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Li-Hsi, King of Korea, his vacillating conduct, <a href='#Page_257'>257</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Li Hung-Chang commences the Peking Railway, <a href='#Page_189'>189</a>; - <ul> - <li>his immense fortune, <a href='#Page_217'>217</a>;</li> - <li>Li and the war settlement, <a href='#Page_251'>251</a>;</li> - <li>his tour to Europe a sort of punishment, <a href='#Page_267'>267</a>;</li> - <li>he returns to power, <a href='#Page_278'>278</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'><em>Likin</em>, or Chinese inland Customs, total amount, <a href='#Page_219'>219</a>; - <ul> - <li>a pernicious system, <a href='#Page_240'>240</a>, <a href='#Page_241'>241</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Literati, the, <a href='#Page_204'>204</a>; - <ul> - <li>the three honorary degrees, <a href='#Page_205'>205</a>;</li> - <li>the public examinations, <a href='#Page_205'>205</a>;</li> - <li>syndicate for helping them on, <a href='#Page_206'>206</a>;</li> - <li>the subjects they are examined in, <a href='#Page_206'>206</a>;</li> - <li>no progress to be expected from them, <a href='#Page_211'>211</a>;</li> - <li>their hatred of foreigners, <a href='#Page_232'>232</a>, <a href='#Page_233'>233</a>, <a href='#Page_277'>277</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Littoral province annexed by Russia, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>; - <ul> - <li>population, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>;</li> - <li>immigrants arriving by sea, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>;</li> - <li>preponderance of the male over the female sex, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>;</li> - <li>Russians only slightly in the majority, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>London, distance to Vladivostok and Port Arthur, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a></li> - <li class='c002'><div class='center'>M</div></li> - <li class='c031'>Manchu Dynasty, the, dethrones the Mings, <a href='#Page_199'>199</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Manchuria, Chinese activity in, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>; - <ul> - <li>Russians exploring Manchuria, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>;</li> - <li>Chinese Manchuria, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Manchurian Railway, China allows Russia to build the, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>; - <ul> - <li>cannot be completed in contracted time, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>;</li> - <li>absolutely in Russia’s hands, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a>;</li> - <li>its length, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a>, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a>;</li> - <li>difficulties to be overcome in construction, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a>;</li> - <li>great political importance, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>;</li> - <li>Port Arthur the terminus, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>;</li> - <li>its cost, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Manchus, the, oppose the Russians in Siberia, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>; - <ul> - <li>they prosper in the Amur and Littoral provinces, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>;</li> - <li>number, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Mandarinate, the, never acclimatized in Japan, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a>; - <ul> - <li>the curse of China, <a href='#Page_204'>204</a>;</li> - <li>not hereditary, <a href='#Page_205'>205</a>;</li> - <li>therefore the more pernicious, <a href='#Page_209'>209</a>;</li> - <li>cowardice of the military mandarins, <a href='#Page_223'>223</a>;</li> - <li>hatred of foreigners, <a href='#Page_232'>232</a>, <a href='#Page_233'>233</a>;</li> - <li>looks upon China as a prey, <a href='#Page_248'>248</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Marshlands on the banks of the Obi and the Irtysh, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Match industry, Japanese, <a href='#Page_121'>121</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Merchants, Siberian, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>; - <ul> - <li>charges brought against Japanese merchants, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a>;</li> - <li>merchants in ancient Japan, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a>;</li> - <li>honesty of Chinese merchants, <a href='#Page_240'>240</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Mikado, almost a god, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>; - <ul> - <li>Imperial self-effacement, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a>, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>;</li> - <li>the Court reduced to absolute poverty, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>;</li> - <li>the Imperial family universally respected, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a>;</li> - <li>agreement with the south-western clans against the Shogun, <a href='#Page_104'>104</a>;</li> - <li>the Mikado refuses to acknowledge the Shogun, <a href='#Page_105'>105</a>;</li> - <li>he ratifies the treaties of 1865, <a href='#Page_106'>106</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Milk, excellent, in Siberia, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Millet in China, <a href='#Page_199'>199</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Mings, Tombs of the, <a href='#Page_199'>199</a>, <a href='#Page_200'>200</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Minusinsk, the centre of settlement in Siberia, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a></li> - <li class='c031'><em>Mir</em> system introduced in Siberia, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Missionaries, female, <a href='#Page_230'>230</a>; - <ul> - <li>Chinese superstitions regarding missionaries, <a href='#Page_232'>232</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Moji, rapidly rivalling Nagasaki, <a href='#Page_112'>112</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Mongolia, Russian, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Mongolian pirates settle in Kiu-Siu, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a></li> - <li class='c031'><span class='pageno' id='Page_296'>296</span>Mongols, the Kalmuck, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Mosque, the northernmost in the world at Tomsk, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Mosquitoes, troublesome, in Siberia, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Mouravief-Amurski, Count, favours the Trans-Siberian Railway, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Mujiks, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a> - <ul> - <li>(<em>see</em> also Siberians)</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c002'><div class='center'>N</div></li> - <li class='c031'>Nagasaki, Christians in, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>; - <ul> - <li>Nagasaki the only port left open to European commerce, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>;</li> - <li>penetration of Western ideas into Japan through Nagasaki, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>;</li> - <li>its scenery, <a href='#Page_110'>110</a>;</li> - <li>the chief coaling port on the Pacific, <a href='#Page_111'>111</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Nan-kow, <a href='#Page_201'>201</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Natives of the Tundra Zone, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>; - <ul> - <li>declining tribes, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Navy, Japanese, strengthened, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a>; - <ul> - <li>its importance, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Nertchinsk, treaty of, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>; - <ul> - <li>corn ripens there, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>;</li> - <li>the silver mines now of little value, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>;</li> - <li>now merely a huge village, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Newspapers, Japanese, <a href='#Page_163'>163</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Nicholas II. stops transportation into Siberia, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Nikko, magnificent temples at, <a href='#Page_202'>202</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Niu-chwang, railway being laid to; - <ul> - <li>the Niu-chwang Railway affair, <a href='#Page_275'>275</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Nobunaga Ota seizes the government, <a href='#Page_91'>91</a></li> - <li class='c002'><div class='center'>O</div></li> - <li class='c031'>Oats, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Obi, climate in its upper valley, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>; - <ul> - <li>gold-mines exhausted in its basin, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>;</li> - <li>the Upper Obi attracts most Siberian immigrants, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>;</li> - <li>stores landed at the mouth of the Obi, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a>;</li> - <li>canal between the Obi and the Yenissei, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Odessa, enormous Customs on tea at, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Okhotsk, the, discovered, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>; - <ul> - <li>native tribes in the region of the, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Olekma, a tributary of the Lena, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Omsk, situation of, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>; - <ul> - <li>the Trans-Siberian Railway, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Opium-smoking in China, <a href='#Page_225'>225</a>, <a href='#Page_241'>241</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Opium War, the, <a href='#Page_228'>228</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Orthodox Church, Kirghiz converted to the, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>; - <ul> - <li>it abstains from propaganda in China, <a href='#Page_248'>248</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Osaka, the Manchester of Japan, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a>; - <ul> - <li>its industries, <a href='#Page_119'>119</a>–121;</li> - <li>construction of a new harbour, <a href='#Page_120'>120</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Ostiaka, the, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>; - <ul> - <li>their origin, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'><em>Ostrogs</em>, or Siberian block-houses, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a></li> - <li class='c002'><div class='center'>P</div></li> - <li class='c031'>Paris, distance to Vladivostok and Port Arthur, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>; - <ul> - <li>also to Tokio, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Parliaments, Japanese, instability of, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a>; - <ul> - <li>composition of the two Chambers, <a href='#Page_157'>157</a>, <a href='#Page_158'>158</a>, <em>note</em>;</li> - <li>opposition to the clan Cabinets, <a href='#Page_157'>157</a>–159;</li> - <li>a dissolution, <a href='#Page_159'>159</a>;</li> - <li>the various parties, <a href='#Page_160'>160</a>, <a href='#Page_161'>161</a>;</li> - <li>signs of improvement, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a>, <a href='#Page_163'>163</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Pe-chi-li, Gulf of, Russia dominates the, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>; - <ul> - <li>its flatness, <a href='#Page_188'>188</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Peking, the railway at, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>; - <ul> - <li>the city and walls, <a href='#Page_191'>191</a>, <a href='#Page_192'>192</a>;</li> - <li>street scenes, <a href='#Page_192'>192</a>, <a href='#Page_193'>193</a>;</li> - <li>shops, <a href='#Page_193'>193</a>;</li> - <li>the main thoroughfares and side streets, <a href='#Page_194'>194</a>;</li> - <li>houses, <a href='#Page_194'>194</a>;</li> - <li>scene from the walls, <a href='#Page_195'>195</a>;</li> - <li>insolence of the people to foreigners, <a href='#Page_195'>195</a>;</li> - <li>monuments, <a href='#Page_195'>195</a>, <a href='#Page_196'>196</a>;</li> - <li>its decay, <a href='#Page_196'>196</a>;</li> - <li>the environs, <a href='#Page_199'>199</a>;</li> - <li>entry of the Allies into Peking, <a href='#Page_228'>228</a>;</li> - <li>projection of a railway to Hankow, <a href='#Page_268'>268</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'><em>Père Marquette</em>, size of the, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Peter the Great’s wish to extend Russia westwards, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Petersburg, St., distance to Vladivostok and Port Arthur, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Petroleum, use of, by the Japanese, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Pigs non-existent in Japan, <a href='#Page_120'>120</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Pine-trees, Siberian, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Pinto, Fernan Mendez, the Portuguese navigator, arrives in Japan, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a></li> - <li class='c031'>‘Pity of the Slav,’ the, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Podorojne, the official passport for Siberia, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Population, Siberian, in 1851, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>; - <ul> - <li>in 1897, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>;</li> - <li>superiority of the Russians in Western Siberia, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>;</li> - <li>in the Amur and Littoral, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>;</li> - <li>Asiatics in the Amur, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>;</li> - <li>annual increase of the population, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a>;</li> - <li>rural population of Japan, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a>, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a>;</li> - <li>its annual increase, <a href='#Page_134'>134</a>;</li> - <li>population of China, <a href='#Page_213'>213</a>, <a href='#Page_214'>214</a>, <em>note</em></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Port Arthur better placed than Vladivostok, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>; - <ul> - <li>to be the principal terminus of the Trans-Siberian Railway, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>;</li> - <li>its distance from the European capitals, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>;</li> - <li>Russia obtains the lease of Port Arthur, <a href='#Page_271'>271</a>;</li> - <li>it is weakened by Wei-hai-wei, <a href='#Page_273'>273</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Ports, Chinese, <a href='#Page_188'>188</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Portuguese, first appearance in Japan, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a>; - <ul> - <li>great influx of the, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Postal-road of Siberia, the, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>; - <ul> - <li>its animation, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>;</li> - <li>horses sometimes difficult to obtain, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>;</li> - <li>eight large towns situated on it, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>;</li> - <li>cost of travelling, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>;</li> - <li>fairly well kept, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>;</li> - <li>its monotony past Lake Baikal, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Postal service, Japanese, cheapness of the, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Post-stations, Siberian, each provided with forty horses, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>; - <ul> - <li>the postmaster at Kluchi, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>;</li> - <li>their appearance, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a>;</li> - <li>uncleanliness, <a href='#Page_61'>61</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Potatoes in Japan, <a href='#Page_130'>130</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Powers’ change of tone towards China after the war, <a href='#Page_185'>185</a>; - <ul> - <li>their surprise at China’s downfall, <a href='#Page_243'>243</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Protestants not tolerated in Russia, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a>; - <ul> - <li>their churches in all large Siberian towns, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c002'><div class='center'>R</div></li> - <li class='c031'>Railway loan, Japanese, <a href='#Page_145'>145</a>; - <ul> - <li>extension of lines, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a>;</li> - <li>cheapness of fares, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a>;</li> - <li><span class='pageno' id='Page_297'>297</span>railway concessions granted by China, <a href='#Page_267'>267</a>, <a href='#Page_268'>268</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Raskolniks, the, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Reindeer, the, in Northern Siberia, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Religion, Japan refuses to accept our, <a href='#Page_174'>174</a>; - <ul> - <li>the Chinese and our religion, <a href='#Page_230'>230</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Restaurants on the Trans-Siberian Railway, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Rice, cultivation of, in Japan, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a>; - <ul> - <li>annual production, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>;</li> - <li>its preponderance, <a href='#Page_130'>130</a>;</li> - <li>commerce in, <a href='#Page_138'>138</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Rivers of Siberia covered for months by ice, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>; - <ul> - <li>villages on the banks of the most important, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>;</li> - <li>Chinese rivers, <a href='#Page_188'>188</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Russia, expansion eastwards, <a href='#Page_1'>1</a>; - <ul> - <li>abandons the lower Amur, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>;</li> - <li>her colonization, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>;</li> - <li>the Empire as a gold-producing centre, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>;</li> - <li>overland commerce with China, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>;</li> - <li>population, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>;</li> - <li>emigration, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>;</li> - <li>her subjects only allowed to work the Siberian gold-mines, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>;</li> - <li>concessions to the English-Siberian Company, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a>;</li> - <li>allowed by China to build the Manchurian Railway, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>;</li> - <li>which is absolutely in the hands of Russia, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a>;</li> - <li>Japan’s distrust of, <a href='#Page_168'>168</a>;</li> - <li>her new policy in China, <a href='#Page_186'>186</a>;</li> - <li>Russia displeased by the war, <a href='#Page_245'>245</a>;</li> - <li>desires an outlet to the sea, <a href='#Page_245'>245</a>;</li> - <li>she covets North China, <a href='#Page_246'>246</a>;</li> - <li>Russia, France, and Germany order Japan to quit Liao-tung, <a href='#Page_247'>247</a>;</li> - <li>Japan’s fear of Russia, <a href='#Page_247'>247</a>;</li> - <li>better liked than any other European Power by China, <a href='#Page_248'>248</a>;</li> - <li>her warlike intentions against Japan, <a href='#Page_250'>250</a>;</li> - <li>China becomes alarmed of Russia, <a href='#Page_251'>251</a>;</li> - <li>her influence in the war settlement, <a href='#Page_251'>251</a>, <a href='#Page_252'>252</a>;</li> - <li>Russia stands guarantee for China, <a href='#Page_255'>255</a>;</li> - <li>her activity in Korea, <a href='#Page_256'>256</a>;</li> - <li>offer of service to Korea, <a href='#Page_257'>257</a>;</li> - <li>agreement with Japan in Korea, <a href='#Page_258'>258</a>;</li> - <li>Russia’s preponderating influence, <a href='#Page_258'>258</a>, <a href='#Page_259'>259</a>;</li> - <li>she obtains the lease of Port Arthur, <a href='#Page_271'>271</a>, <a href='#Page_272'>272</a>;</li> - <li>danger of war with England, <a href='#Page_272'>272</a>;</li> - <li>the Niu-chwang Railway affair, <a href='#Page_275'>275</a>;</li> - <li>Russia’s interests in China political, <a href='#Page_286'>286</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Russians, their religious toleration, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>; - <ul> - <li>manner of taking tea, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a>, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>;</li> - <li>prejudice against tea conveyed by sea, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>;</li> - <li>Russians naturally sociable, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>;</li> - <li>their nomadic habits, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Russo-Chinese Bank established, <a href='#Page_255'>255</a>, <a href='#Page_256'>256</a></li> - <li class='c002'><div class='center'>S</div></li> - <li class='c031'>Saigon, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Saigon, Marshal, quells the Satsuma insurrection, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a></li> - <li class='c031'><em>Saké</em>, the Japanese drink, <a href='#Page_130'>130</a>, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Sakhalin, Island of, population, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>; - <ul> - <li>inveterate criminals sent to, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Samoyeds, the, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>; - <ul> - <li>their number, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'><em>Samourai</em>, the, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>; - <ul> - <li>become hereditary, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>;</li> - <li>their position in ancient Japan, <a href='#Page_98'>98</a>;</li> - <li>opposed to the Shogunate, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>;</li> - <li>correspondence between certain <em>samourai</em> and Europeans, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>;</li> - <li>wearing of the two swords prohibited, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a>;</li> - <li>public offices in their hands, <a href='#Page_156'>156</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Satsumata-Choshiu combination, the, <a href='#Page_156'>156</a>, <a href='#Page_157'>157</a>; - <ul> - <li>its rule, <a href='#Page_161'>161</a>, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Sayan Mountains, the, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Scenery of Central Siberia, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Selenga River, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Serfdom never existed in Siberia, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Shanghai two days from Port Arthur, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>; - <ul> - <li>the town, <a href='#Page_235'>235</a>;</li> - <li>industrial activity at, <a href='#Page_237'>237</a>;</li> - <li>railway to Woosung, <a href='#Page_268'>268</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Shan-tung, coal-beds in, <a href='#Page_184'>184</a>; - <ul> - <li>Germany constitutes Shan-tung a sphere of interest, <a href='#Page_271'>271</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Sheep unknown in Japan, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Shimonosaki, Strait of, <a href='#Page_112'>112</a>; - <ul> - <li>treaty of, <a href='#Page_228'>228</a>;</li> - <li>Article 6, <a href='#Page_236'>236</a>, <a href='#Page_246'>246</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Shintoism, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>; - <ul> - <li>its rites, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Shogunate, the, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>; - <ul> - <li>the <em>kammong</em> daimios allied to the Shogunate, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a>;</li> - <li>the southern clans dangerous to it, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a>;</li> - <li>its decline, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>;</li> - <li>frightened at America’s demand for the opening of the ports, <a href='#Page_104'>104</a>;</li> - <li>its enemies, <a href='#Page_104'>104</a>;</li> - <li>powerlessness, <a href='#Page_105'>105</a>;</li> - <li>its abasement, <a href='#Page_105'>105</a>;</li> - <li>last bid for power, <a href='#Page_106'>106</a>;</li> - <li>and total overthrow, <a href='#Page_107'>107</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Siberia, its conquest by Russia, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a>; - <ul> - <li>treated as a penal settlement, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>;</li> - <li>opened to colonization, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>;</li> - <li>population, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a>;</li> - <li>Siberia compared with Canada, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a>;</li> - <li>its rivers, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>;</li> - <li>climate, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>;</li> - <li>the three zones, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>–7;</li> - <li>its scenery, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>;</li> - <li>conditions of existence better in Siberia than in Russia, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>;</li> - <li>the Russian population in the West, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>;</li> - <li>religious toleration, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>–16;</li> - <li>Siberia a prolongation of Russia, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a>, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>;</li> - <li>absence of great landlords, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>;</li> - <li>land rented to farmers, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>;</li> - <li>primitive methods of cultivation, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>;</li> - <li>domestic animals, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>;</li> - <li>the more populous regions, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>;</li> - <li>land tenure, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>;</li> - <li>lack of means of communication, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>;</li> - <li>mineral wealth, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>–29;</li> - <li>limited industries, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>;</li> - <li>the tea traffic, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a>;</li> - <li>other commerce, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>;</li> - <li>towns, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a>;</li> - <li>immigration, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>–48;</li> - <li>transportation of convicts, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>–55;</li> - <li>what is needed, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a>;</li> - <li>loneliness of the country, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>;</li> - <li>inundations, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>;</li> - <li>a cross-country journey, <a href='#Page_61'>61</a>;</li> - <li>Siberia entered by the Arctic Ocean, <a href='#Page_61'>61</a>–63;</li> - <li>trade between England and Siberia, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a>;</li> - <li>the Ural Railway, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>;</li> - <li>trans-continent river and rail system fails, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>;</li> - <li>the Trans-Siberian Railway, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>–75;</li> - <li>the transformation it will effect, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Siberians, conditions of peasant life, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>; - <ul> - <li>better off in Siberia than in Russia, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>;</li> - <li>their ignorance of hygiene, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>;</li> - <li>apathy of the peasants, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>;</li> - <li>their favourite texts from Scripture, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>;</li> - <li>the ‘pity of the Slav,’ 21;</li> - <li>the traffic on the postal-road, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>;</li> - <li>ignorance of the peasants of agricultural science, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>;</li> - <li>rich, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>;</li> - <li>do not like the new railway, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>;</li> - <li>nor immigration, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>;</li> - <li>their resignation, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Sibir, Tobolsk erected on its site, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Silk imported into Siberia, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>; - <ul> - <li>Chinese silk exported, <a href='#Page_241'>241</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'><span class='pageno' id='Page_298'>298</span>Silver mines, Siberian, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Stanovoi Mountains, the, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Stretensk on the Amur, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Strogonofs obtain trading concessions, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Suiko, Empress, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Sungari River, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a>, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Summer Palace, the, <a href='#Page_202'>202</a>, <a href='#Page_203'>203</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Sze-chuan, coal-beds of, <a href='#Page_184'>184</a></li> - <li class='c002'><div class='center'>T</div></li> - <li class='c031'>Tarantass, the, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Tatar, kingdoms annexed, <a href='#Page_1'>1</a>; - <ul> - <li>Tatar driven southwards, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a>;</li> - <li>the Kirghiz, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>–22;</li> - <li>Tatar women in China, <a href='#Page_193'>193</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Taxes, Japanese, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a>, <a href='#Page_151'>151</a>; - <ul> - <li>Chinese, <a href='#Page_218'>218</a>, <a href='#Page_219'>219</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Tea, traffic in Siberia, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a>; - <ul> - <li>routes taken, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a>;</li> - <li>tea passing through Kiakhta, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>;</li> - <li>duty, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a>, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>, <em>note</em>;</li> - <li>Hankow the great tea mart in China, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>;</li> - <li>Nijni-Novgorod, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a>;</li> - <li>difficulties of transport, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a>;</li> - <li>its value, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a>;</li> - <li>total amount exported from China, <a href='#Page_241'>241</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Telega, the, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Telephone, the, in Siberia, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>; - <ul> - <li>in Tokio, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Temples, Chinese, <a href='#Page_202'>202</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Theatres, Siberian, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Tien-tsin, the railway at, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>, <a href='#Page_189'>189</a>; - <ul> - <li>the town, <a href='#Page_189'>189</a>;</li> - <li>inundations, <a href='#Page_190'>190</a>;</li> - <li>the Treaty of Tien-tsin, <a href='#Page_228'>228</a>;</li> - <li>industry at, <a href='#Page_237'>237</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Tiumen, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Tobacco introduced by the Portuguese into Japan, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>; - <ul> - <li>its cultivation, <a href='#Page_130'>130</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Tobolsk, its erection, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a>; - <ul> - <li>the ancient capital of Siberia, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>;</li> - <li>a meeting-place for immigrants, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Tobolsk, the Government of, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>; - <ul> - <li>population, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>;</li> - <li>education in, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>;</li> - <li>excellent soil, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>;</li> - <li>number of immigrants, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Tokio, distance to Vladivostok, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>; - <ul> - <li>removal of the Court to, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a>;</li> - <li>railway to Yokohama opened, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a>;</li> - <li>population, <a href='#Page_113'>113</a>;</li> - <li>its up-to-datedness, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a>;</li> - <li>fires, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a>, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a>;</li> - <li>means of getting about, <a href='#Page_116'>116</a>;</li> - <li>badly lighted, <a href='#Page_117'>117</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Tokugawa, the, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Tomsk, the mosque at, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>; - <ul> - <li>the neighbouring country, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>;</li> - <li>population, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>;</li> - <li>its new university, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>;</li> - <li>theatre, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Tomsk, Government of, population, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>; - <ul> - <li>excellent soil, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>;</li> - <li>number of immigrants annually, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Tongking, its copper-mines attract the French to, <a href='#Page_185'>185</a>; - <ul> - <li>Customs lowered, <a href='#Page_260'>260</a>;</li> - <li>poor country in the neighbourhood, <a href='#Page_262'>262</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Towns, absence of large, in Siberia, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>; - <ul> - <li>those along the highroad, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a>;</li> - <li>their appearance, etc., <a href='#Page_39'>39</a>–41</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Trans-Baikalia, climate, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>; - <ul> - <li>scenery, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>;</li> - <li>population, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>;</li> - <li>Buddhists, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Trans-Siberian Railway, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>; - <ul> - <li>destined to revolutionize Siberia, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a>;</li> - <li>why originally designed, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a>, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>;</li> - <li>the Ural Railway, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>;</li> - <li>Alexander III. decrees its execution, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>;</li> - <li>how it will cross Lake Baikal, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>;</li> - <li>length, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a>;</li> - <li>the Manchurian section, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>;</li> - <li>its construction easy, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>;</li> - <li>bridges, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>;</li> - <li>workmen, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a>;</li> - <li>its cost, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a>;</li> - <li>distance viâ the Trans-Siberian Railway to the Far East, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>;</li> - <li>the <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">train-de-luxe</span></i>, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>;</li> - <li>journey to the Far East much shortened by it, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>;</li> - <li>fares, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>;</li> - <li>restaurants, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>;</li> - <li>too expensive for heavy merchandise, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>;</li> - <li>facilities for forwarding letters to the East, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>;</li> - <li>Russia awaiting its completion, <a href='#Page_259'>259</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Treaties, Japanese commercial, <a href='#Page_178'>178</a>–180; - <ul> - <li>treaties respecting foreigners in China, <a href='#Page_228'>228</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Treaty Ports, list of Chinese, <a href='#Page_234'>234</a>, <em>note</em>; - <ul> - <li>Shanghai, <a href='#Page_235'>235</a>, <a href='#Page_237'>237</a>–239;</li> - <li>industries limited to them, <a href='#Page_240'>240</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Trees of Siberia, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Troitskosavsk, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Troops, Russian, in the East, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Tundra Zone, the, of Siberia, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>; - <ul> - <li>area and population, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Turki population of Siberia, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a></li> - <li class='c002'><div class='center'>U</div></li> - <li class='c031'>United States demand the opening of Japanese ports, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a>; - <ul> - <li>their commerce with China, <a href='#Page_284'>284</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>University at Tomsk, the, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Ural Railway opened in 1880, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a></li> - <li class='c002'><div class='center'>V</div></li> - <li class='c031'>Vegetables not cultivated in Siberia, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Verkhoyansk, its severe climate, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Villages of Siberia, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>; - <ul> - <li>resemblance to those of Russia, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>;</li> - <li>Japanese villages, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Vitim, military government of, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Vladivostok, the sea covered with ice in winter, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>; - <ul> - <li>the military element at, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>;</li> - <li>Vladivostok not so good as Port Arthur, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>;</li> - <li>the town and harbour, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>;</li> - <li>population, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a>;</li> - <li>the journey to, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a>;</li> - <li>main terminus of the Trans-Siberian Railway removed to Port Arthur, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>;</li> - <li>Vladivostok a point of vantage, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>;</li> - <li>distance from Vladivostok to the European capitals, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>;</li> - <li>to Tokio, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>;</li> - <li>Chinese in, <a href='#Page_232'>232</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Voltaire’s idea of a Siberian highroad, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a></li> - <li class='c002'><div class='center'>W</div></li> - <li class='c031'>Wages in China, increase of, <a href='#Page_238'>238</a>, <a href='#Page_239'>239</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Wei-hai-wei ceded to England, <a href='#Page_273'>273</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Western civilization not a monopoly of one race, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Wheat in Siberia, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>; - <ul> - <li>in China, <a href='#Page_199'>199</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Wiggins, Captain, enters the mouth of the Yenissei, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Witte, M. de, chief promoter of the Manchurian Railway, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a>; - <ul> - <li>his successful Chinese financial policy, <a href='#Page_255'>255</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Women, Japanese, freedom of, <a href='#Page_132'>132</a>; - <ul> - <li>Chinese, <a href='#Page_193'>193</a>;</li> - <li>they never work in the field, <a href='#Page_199'>199</a>;</li> - <li>binding of their feet, <a href='#Page_221'>221</a>;</li> - <li><span class='pageno' id='Page_299'>299</span>their unhappy lot when married, <a href='#Page_224'>224</a>;</li> - <li>immorality, <a href='#Page_224'>224</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Women and children employed in Japanese match factories, <a href='#Page_121'>121</a>; - <ul> - <li>their unhealthy lodgings, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a>;</li> - <li>conditions of labour, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a>, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a>;</li> - <li>women and children in Shanghai, <a href='#Page_237'>237</a>, <a href='#Page_238'>238</a>;</li> - <li>their wages, <a href='#Page_237'>237</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Wood, very dear in China, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>; - <ul> - <li>used for architectural purposes, <a href='#Page_202'>202</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c002'><div class='center'>X</div></li> - <li class='c031'>Xavier, St. Francis, visits Japan, <a href='#Page_91'>91</a>; - <ul> - <li>introduces Christianity there, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c002'><div class='center'>Y</div></li> - <li class='c031'>Yablonovoi Mountains, the, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Yang-tsze-Kiang, dense population of the valley of the, <a href='#Page_184'>184</a>; - <ul> - <li>no part of its basin ever to be ceded, <a href='#Page_271'>271</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Yakutsk, climate, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>; - <ul> - <li>population, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>;</li> - <li>the eunuchs, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>‘Yellow Peril,’ the, <a href='#Page_186'>186</a>, <a href='#Page_239'>239</a>; - <ul> - <li>if Japan and China united, <a href='#Page_246'>246</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Yellow River, coal-beds on the banks of the, <a href='#Page_184'>184</a>; - <ul> - <li>its mouth, <a href='#Page_188'>188</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Yenissei, Government of the population, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>; - <ul> - <li>immigrants, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Yenissei River, its mouth reached in 1636, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>; - <ul> - <li>gold-mines near it, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>;</li> - <li>its beauty, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>;</li> - <li>Captain Wiggins enters it in 1874, <a href='#Page_61'>61</a>, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a>;</li> - <li>canal between the Yenissei and the Obi, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Yokohama, railway opened to, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a>; - <ul> - <li>the third port in the Far East, <a href='#Page_113'>113</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Yoritomo overthrows the Taira, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>; - <ul> - <li>his ingratitude, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>;</li> - <li>first Shogun, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Yoshitsune wins the Battle of Dan-no-ura, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>; - <ul> - <li>his adventures and death, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Yunnan, copper-mines of, <a href='#Page_184'>184</a>; - <ul> - <li>a poor province, <a href='#Page_261'>261</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c002'><div class='center'>Z</div></li> - <li class='c031'>Zaïmka system in Siberia, the, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a></li> -</ul> - -<hr class='c032' /> -<div class='footnote' id='f1'> -<p class='c008'><a href='#r1'>1</a>. <span class='pageno' id='Page_300'>300</span>Mr. Richard Davey is responsible for the translation of this work, but I -have added a footnote here and there (signed by my initials), and I have -revised the spelling of the proper names to bring them into accordance -with English usage. To forestall the charge of inconsistency, I may say -that I have acted on the principle generally adopted in the spelling of European -proper names, that is, I have retained improper spellings consecrated -by long custom—for instance, Chefoo, Suchow, Hankow, Kowloon, just as we -write Florence, Munich, Naples, Moscow. But names not yet regularly -Europeanized I have spelled according to a consistent and more reasonable -system of transliteration-as Kiao-chau, Pe-chi-li, Kwei-chau. The French -spelling of Chinese proper names looks very strange to an English eye, and -would convey a wholly false impression to an English ear.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f2'> -<p class='c008'><a href='#r2'>2</a>. The <cite>Times</cite>, September 13th, 1900.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f3'> -<p class='c008'><a href='#r3'>3</a>. For example, the writer signing himself ‘Diplomaticus’ in the <cite>Fortnightly -Review</cite> for September, 1900, airily dismisses as ‘illusions’ the belief -that ‘China was gradually crumbling to ruin, that she was incapable of organized -resistance to the foreigner, that her millions were unconscious of a -national spirit and incapable of progress.’ Each one of these ‘illusions’ is an -elementary fact about China, except so far as foreign help and guidance may -alter it.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f4'> -<p class='c008'><a href='#r4'>4</a>. The <cite>Times</cite> special correspondent, September 11th, 1900.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f5'> -<p class='c008'><a href='#r5'>5</a>. Written especially for the American edition by the author.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f6'> -<p class='c008'><a href='#r6'>6</a>. The position of the Manchu Dynasty in China is somewhat analogous -to that of the Shogunate in Japan, which was also caught some forty years -ago between the national sentiment and the foreigner. But in Japan, -when the Shogunate fell, there remained the divine Emperor, whose -prestige covered all the reforms which enlightened statesmen carried out. -In China, after the Manchu Dynasty, nothing remains but chaos.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f7'> -<p class='c008'><a href='#r7'>7</a>. ‘Yermak,’ the millstone, was the nickname given to Vassil, son of -Timothy, a tracker of the Volga, because he ground the corn for his party. -He was not a Cossack by birth, but joined the Don Cossack pirates.—H. N.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f8'> -<p class='c008'><a href='#r8'>8</a>. The import of Ceylon tea into Russia is already large, and is increasing -rapidly.—H. N.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f9'> -<p class='c008'><a href='#r9'>9</a>. All that part of Siberia situated east of Baikalia forms a sort of neutral -ground free of the Custom-house. Only spirits, tobacco, sugar, mineral -oils, lucifer matches, and in general all articles of the same character which -are subject to excise duty in Siberia proper, pay Custom-house duties when -they are sent for sale to the Siberian ports on the Pacific. All other goods -have only to pay ‘customs’ if they are forwarded to parts of the Empire -west of Baikalia, and these are paid at Irkutsk, through which everything -is obliged to pass. Tea going from Kiakhta pays duty at Irkutsk.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f10'> -<p class='c008'><a href='#r10'>10</a>. By means of an ice-breaking steamer vessels are now able to leave or -enter Vladivostok harbour at any time.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f11'> -<p class='c008'><a href='#r11'>11</a>. The Tsar appointed a Commission to inquire into the whole question -of transportation to Siberia, with a view to its cessation. The Commission -is now understood to have reported in this sense.—H. N.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f12'> -<p class='c008'><a href='#r12'>12</a>. The author is misinformed here. The <em>Baikal</em>, the great ice-breaking, -train-carrying steamer, and the <em>Angara</em>, a smaller passenger-boat, -have both been designed, constructed, and set up on Lake Baikal by -Sir W. G. Armstrong, Whitworth and Co., Ltd., of Newcastle-on-Tyne.—H. N.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f13'> -<p class='c008'><a href='#r13'>13</a>. The official estimate of the total cost of the railway is over £80,000,000, -of which over £50,000,000 were spent by the end of 1899.—H. N.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f14'> -<p class='c008'><a href='#r14'>14</a>. This train has been running for a year as far as Irkutsk.—H. N.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f15'> -<p class='c008'><a href='#r15'>15</a>. A <em>koku</em> equals 4·95 bushels.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f16'> -<p class='c008'><a href='#r16'>16</a>. In 1899 (to December 25) 423,646,605 yen or £42,364,660.—H. N.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f17'> -<p class='c008'><a href='#r17'>17</a>. The Japanese took care to stipulate that the indemnity should be paid -in gold at the exchange of the tael in 1895, which allowed them to know -exactly on what amount of money they could count, which was of extreme -importance to them, Japan having adopted the gold standard, and the -greater part of the indemnity being destined to be spent in purchases in -Europe and the United States.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f18'> -<p class='c008'><a href='#r18'>18</a>. Many of the daimios, whose personal property was very small, are now -extremely poor. The largest fortunes in Japan are those of the merchants -and bankers, who under the old regime used to hide their wealth to avoid -taxation.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f19'> -<p class='c008'><a href='#r19'>19</a>. The Japanese Parliament is composed of two Chambers—the House -of Lords, or Peers, to which belong (1) the Princes of the Blood (13); -(2) all the Princes and Marquises (40); (3) such representatives as are -elected for seven years by the Counts, Viscounts, and Barons (123); -(4) members who are nominated for life by the Emperor (100); (5) members -elected, one for each department, and selected from among the fifteen more -important personages of the department over thirty years of age (45). The -Chamber of Deputies is composed of 300 members, one for every 128,000 -inhabitants, and is elected by all Japanese subjects over twenty-five years -of age who have resided in an electoral district for a term of twelve months, -and who pay 30s. direct taxes. To be elected, the candidate must be over -thirty years of age and fulfil the same conditions as above. The heads of -noble families can neither be electors nor elected to the Lower Chamber. -In 1895 there were 467,887 voters (11 per 1,000 inhabitants), and in all -517,130 persons (12 per 1,000), paying more than 30s. direct taxes. -Among the first class there were 21,070, and among the second class 25,405 -<em>shizoku</em>, or ancient <em>samurai</em>, from which fact we may take it for granted -that there are fewer rich men among the ancient <em>samurai</em> than among the -rest of the population. As to the nobles, so-called <em>kwazoku</em>, at least a third -of the heads of noble families pay less than 30s. The proportion of <em>shizoku</em> -among those having the right of vote is less than 5 per cent.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f20'> -<p class='c008'><a href='#r20'>20</a>. In normal times, before the exceptional augmentation of the effective -resulting from the events of 1898, England had in the Far East only -twenty-six vessels, and even now her fleet is still inferior to that of Japan.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f21'> -<p class='c008'><a href='#r21'>21</a>. At the present time the Russian troops in Manchuria and the Lower -Amur do not exceed 60,000 men.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f22'> -<p class='c008'><a href='#r22'>22</a>. ‘Politics and Peoples of the Far East.’ London: Fisher Unwin. -1895.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f23'> -<p class='c008'><a href='#r23'>23</a>. The population of China has been very variously estimated. There -exist official statistics, but the question is, what faith can be placed in -them? The ‘Statesman’s Year Book,’ which is generally well informed, -returns 383,000,000 for China Proper, and 402,000,000 for the entire -Empire. Some travellers, however, are of opinion that these figures should -be greatly modified, and hold that the correct medium is between -200,000,000 and 250,000,000, because the mountainous regions are very -thinly populated, and travellers erroneously form an opinion from the condition -of the valleys through which they pass, which are generally densely -populated.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f24'> -<p class='c008'><a href='#r24'>24</a>. Quoted by Mr. Henry Norman, ‘Peoples and Politics of the Far East.’</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f25'> -<p class='c008'><a href='#r25'>25</a>. The admirable and even gallant conduct of the Chinese Regiment from -Wei-hai-wei under its British officers in the recent severe fighting about -Tien-tsin affords a striking confirmation of M. Leroy-Beaulieu’s words.—H.N.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f26'> -<p class='c008'><a href='#r26'>26</a>. The following is the list of the Treaty Ports: To the north of the -Blue River, Niu-chwang, Tien-tsin, Chefoo, and near the mouth of the river -Shanghai and its annex, Wusung. On the Yang-tsze-Kiang: Chin-Kiang, -Nanking, Wuhu, Kiu-kiang, Sha-shi, Hankow, It-chang, Chung-king—in -all eight river stations, of which Nanking is not really ‘open,’ although -mentioned in the French treaty of Tien-tsin. Not far from Shanghai is -Suchow, on the inland canals. On the coast south of the Blue River are -Hangchow, Ning-po, Wenchow, Foochow, Amoy, Swatow. At the mouth -of the West River is Canton, and higher up the river Samshui, Wuchow, -and since the spring of 1899 Nanning-fu. On the Gulf of Tongking: Pakhui, -and in the island of Hainan, Hoi-how. The open towns on the frontier of -Indo-China are: Lung-chau, Mongtse, Ho Kau, Szemao, Tchoun-ning-fu, -and a sixth, Tong-hing, is not as yet occupied. The open ports were in -1842, according to the Treaty of Nanking, only five in number, but were -increased by the treaty of Tien-tsin to nineteen; others were opened by -the treaty of Shimonosaki in 1895, and by the convention with England -signed in 1897. A more recent treaty with this Power (1898) promises, but -without fixed date, however, the opening of three new ports: Kin-chau in -Manchuria, Fu-ning in Fo-kien, and Yo-chau in Hu-nan (opened in -December, 1899).</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f27'> -<p class='c008'><a href='#r27'>27</a>. The story of the improper salute was a newspaper fiction. No -foundation for it has ever been adduced. The ‘threats’ after the sinking -of the <em>Kow-Shing</em> were wholly unofficial, and the matter was referred to -arbitration by the two Governments.—H. N.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f28'> -<p class='c008'><a href='#r28'>28</a>. It is to be regretted that the author does not give the name of the -newspaper in which he read this ludicrous utterance; we should doubtless -then see that it is far from representative of British opinion.—H. N.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f29'> -<p class='c008'><a href='#r29'>29</a>. M. Leroy-Beaulieu cannot seriously believe that the independence of -China is threatened by Great Britain. British policy is, as it always has -been, to maintain her independence by every means.—H. 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