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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d0fc0ea --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #61310 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/61310) diff --git a/old/61310-0.txt b/old/61310-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 7ec90be..0000000 --- a/old/61310-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,13431 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Awakening of the East, by Pierre -Leroy-Beaulieu - - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - - - - -Title: The Awakening of the East - Siberia—Japan—China - - -Author: Pierre Leroy-Beaulieu - - - -Release Date: February 3, 2020 [eBook #61310] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - - -***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE AWAKENING OF THE EAST*** - - -E-text prepared by Richard Tonsing and the Online Distributed Proofreading -Team (http://www.pgdp.net) from page images generously made available by -Internet Archive (https://archive.org) - - - -Note: Images of the original pages are available through - Internet Archive. See - https://archive.org/details/awakeningofeast00lero - - -Transcriber’s note: - - Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_). - - - - - -THE AWAKENING OF THE EAST - -Siberia—Japan—China - -by - -PIERRE LEROY-BEAULIEU - -With a preface by Henry Norman -Author of -“People and Politics of the Far East,” “The Real Japan,” etc. - - - - - - -New York -McClure, Phillips & CO. -M C M - -Copyright, 1900, -By McClure, Phillips & Co. - -First Impression, November, 1900 -Second Impression, January, 1901 - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - PREFACE[1] - - -M. Leroy-Beaulieu’s work appears in English at a singularly appropriate -moment, and I believe that those who know most about the Far East will -be the warmest in its praise. Its personal observations are acute, its -statistics have been conscientiously gathered and carefully collated, -they are scrupulously restricted to the particular matters they are -intended to illuminate, while most valuable of all is the author’s -political sagacity, and the detachment, so to speak, of his attitude as -an observer and investigator. If one may say so without offence, this is -rare in a writer of M. Leroy-Beaulieu’s nationality. A Frenchman is -usually so good a Frenchman that he cannot divest himself, even for an -hour, of the preferences and prejudices of his own land and race. When, -however, you do find a Frenchman who by temperament, research, and -travel has attained to a cosmopolitan impartiality, then nobody dwells -in so cool and clear an atmosphere as he. The present volume, I venture -to say, is an example of this, for if there were no name on the -title-page, and the word ‘we’ were not used of the French people, it -would be impossible to discover the writer’s nationality from his work. -Hypercriticism might perhaps remark that M. Leroy-Beaulieu is just a -little too ready to welcome as fact malicious little anecdotes directed -against ourselves, such as the ingenious fiction that the British -admiral saluted the Japanese admiral’s flag outside Wei-hai-wei before -sunrise in order that the guns should awaken the sleeping Chinese seamen -to a sense of their peril, not to mention his ready acceptance as -typical of the ‘insatiable British public’ of the amusing boast of some -unnamed English newspaper that we might, if it pleased us, build a -railway from the mouth of the Nile to the mouth of the Yang-tsze. But, -on the whole, he probably approaches as near to the ‘impartial -spectator’ of an old-fashioned philosophical hypothesis as it is given -to anybody in this prejudiced world to do; and assuredly the brilliant -ability with which he has analyzed and summarized national and -international situations of the greatest delicacy and complexity speaks -for itself. - -Beyond question the future of the Far East is the gravest matter before -the civilized world to-day. For many generations the Eastern Question -caused Sovereigns to turn restlessly in their beds and diplomatists to -start at a footfall; but, as Lord Rosebery was quick to point out, there -arose not long ago a Far Eastern Question much more embarrassing, much -more complicated, much more pregnant with disaster. It presents itself -at this moment under three chief aspects: the approaching completion of -a Russian continuous line of railway from Europe to the China Sea, the -frontier of Korea, and the gates of Peking; the startling entry of Japan -into the comity of peoples as a great naval, military, and civilizing -power; and the course of events which has led to the occupation of the -Chinese capital by the allied forces of eight nations. It is precisely -with these three topics that M. Leroy-Beaulieu deals, and there will be -no need to recommend them to the earnest attention of British readers if -the latter realize—as they should—that behind the third there looms -without doubt the appalling spectre of a European War. - -The Trans-Siberian Railway has been greatly hindered by the Chinese -rising in Manchuria. For practical purposes it can hardly be said to -exist beyond Irkutsk, for although the line is completed as far as -Stretensk, there is yet a lack of rolling-stock, and the dreary voyage -by steamers of different draughts down the Shilka and Amur rivers to -Khabarofsk, where the line to Vladivostok is met, deprives the railway -route as yet of all its advantages over the sea-route from Europe. The -last passengers who came from Vladivostok to Moscow before the -interruption of traffic spent thirty-eight days on the journey, and it -will have been noticed that by far the larger part of the reinforcing -Russian troops, horses, and _matériel_ were despatched to the Far East -from Odessa, no small portion in British transports. The Manchurian -section of the great railway has from the first, even in times of peace, -presented great difficulties of climate, lack of supplies, and hostility -of the native population, but now a considerable part of the work -executed has been destroyed, the Russian forces have not yet succeeded -in clearing the country of the Chinese troops and irregulars, a large -garrison will have to be maintained to protect the works in hand, and a -long delay over the original estimated dates of completion is -inevitable. All this, however, is nothing but a question of date. In -national strategic enterprises of this kind Russia works with speed and -tenacity. What has been destroyed will be built more solidly than -before; it is even probable that recent events, as they will undoubtedly -give Russia a freer hand, will enable her to secure a shorter, and -therefore more effective, route from her Siberian line to China. It will -not, in any case, be many years before Port Arthur and Peking will be -within a fortnight’s railway journey of Moscow. Before then that railway -will have developed agricultural and mineral wealth along its route to a -degree undreamed of by those who have not studied its prospects on the -spot, and it will be defended and served by every kind of protective and -paternal legislation. Moreover, when need arises, every mile of the -line, every station and warehouse and water-tank, every station-master, -every engineer, every conductor, every patrolling convict, every -locomotive, every carriage and every waggon, will be placed by a stroke -of the pen at the absolute disposal of the Minister of War, while every -railway in European Russia will be called upon to supply whatever may be -lacking. Russia has one great advantage over other countries in times of -crisis—private interests cease to exist. It must not be forgotten, also, -that the Trans-Siberian Railway is only one of Russia’s great strategic -lines towards the East. Before it is finished, her Trans-Caspian -Railway, which is already not only a military, but positively a -commercial success, will be joined to it, and will have brought the -frontiers of Persia and Afghanistan, and another frontier of China, -within a week of the military centre of European Russia. Whether from -the point of view of intercommunication, of commerce, or of diplomacy -and arms, no single development so significant and so far-reaching in -its consequences has occurred in the modern world. - -The second aspect of the Far Eastern Question is at last happily -appreciated by all. The ‘child of the world’s old age,’ Japan, has grown -to manhood. It is exactly eighteen years—the age at which Sovereigns -attain their majority—since Count Inouye first proposed to the sixteen -treaty Powers—including Peru and Hawaii!—that Japan, in return for -certain concessions to foreigners, should be endowed with a measure of -judicial autonomy. Great Britain, to her honour be it ever remembered, -led the way in this, and Japan is now a nation as independent as -ourselves—the first Oriental people to be placed absolutely on a par -with the conquering and jealous West. In no respect has she shown -herself unworthy of the faith placed in her. In art alone has she -retrograded, but that will not be held a special reproach to her by -those among us who look back six centuries for their artistic -inspiration. In finance, in law, in science, in education, in -manufacture, she has already attained a higher level than many so-called -civilized nations, and she is progressing fast. In directions -unfortunately still more calculated to compel the respect of other -peoples—a very powerful army and navy, perfectly equipped, admirably -disciplined, and instinct with the magnificent courage of the old feudal -warriors—her advance has taken the unthinking world by surprise. But for -her prompt and unselfish action in China, and the large force which her -first-rate military system enabled her to despatch without delay, Europe -and America would to-day be mourning the most horrible massacre of -modern history. At this moment Japan and Great Britain are the only -nations striving, and, if necessary, probably ready to fight, to keep -China independent and undivided, open to the trade of all the world on -equal terms, without selfish reservations on the one hand, and without -trembling before party recriminations on the other. - -The Far Eastern Question, however, holds the stage at this moment by its -third aspect. China, the eternally unoriginal, has repeated herself once -more, as every student of the Far East has foreseen she would. This time -the repetition is extraordinary exact, as a reviewer of the new edition -of Lord Loch’s ‘Personal Narrative’ of 1860 has just pointed out. ‘It is -impossible,’ he says, ‘to read it without being struck by the -resemblance, down even to details, between the situation in China and -that of exactly forty years ago. Then, as now, a war party led by an -Imperial Prince was in the ascendant; a war was forced on European -Powers by a gross breach of a solemn treaty, two Ambassadors on their -way to Peking being fired on and obliged to return; the armies of those -Powers had to march on the Chinese capital; the Chinese authorities in -the provinces were frantic in their eagerness to negotiate so as to stop -the advance of the allied army on the capital. Li, then only a -provincial Governor, had his little proposals for settling everything to -his own satisfaction. The Emperor had fled from the capital, and the -lady who is now Empress Dowager had fled with him, and in many other -respects history is just now repeating itself with curious fidelity.’[2] -But forty years ago there was no occupation by eight nations, and no -five great Powers endeavouring to checkmate one another’s plans. Indeed, -there was then no Far Eastern Question at all. But though we have -changed, China remains the same. Her rooted hatred of foreigners, her -treachery, her lies, her sickening cruelty, her utter inability to -reform herself, to eradicate corruption, to form an army or a navy—to -be, in a word, a nation—remain precisely as they have always been. -Writers with no first-hand knowledge of China have not unnaturally -fallen into the error of thinking that because small-bore rifles and -Krupp guns have been found in the hands of the Chinese troops, who have -used them with effect in beating back for a time foreign forces, -therefore China has at last laid to heart the lessons of her defeat by -Japan, and has become a military Power to be reckoned.[3] It is a -complete misapprehension. The Boxers fought recklessly, like the -Mahdists, from a belief in their own magical invulnerability; but the -regular troops hardly even attempted to withstand a foreign attack in -anything like equal numbers, except from behind strong walls, and not -always then. Describing the capture without a shot or a blow of several -forts and magnificent guns, that had never been fired since they were -bought, an eye-witness says: ‘Only the most complete demoralization, -utter rout, and headlong flight of the Chinese could explain the -abandonment of such valuable guns, gear, and equipment.’[4] - -I dwell upon this point because there is great danger of it being -overlooked at the present crisis—by some from ignorance, by others from -design. As the missionary said to M. Leroy-Beaulieu, ‘Those who most -despair of China are those who know her best’; and the author’s own -conclusion that ‘any reform from the inside is out of the question, no -matter from how high the initiative starts,’ is the conviction of all -students of China, except those who have never been within ten thousand -miles of her coast. This very weakness, coupled with her malleability, -even to the profession of arms—witness the gallant conduct of the -Chinese Regiment from Wei-hai-wei under its British officers—is the -kernel of the danger of the present situation, for the nation that -should be free to organize China would be a menace to the rest of the -world. Those who aim at conquest are therefore playing for a high stake, -and their inspiration is more cogent than that which urges others to the -defence of mere trading opportunities. The course of the coming century -depends upon the result of this trial of statesmanship. Woe betide -England if her leaders fail her now! - - HENRY NORMAN. - - - - - CONTENTS - - - PAGE - INTRODUCTION xv - - - _PART I.—SIBERIA_ - - CHAPTER - - I. THE ORIGINS OF RUSSIAN EXPANSION IN SIBERIA AND THE - NATURAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE COUNTRY 1 - - II. THE LAND OF SIBERIA AND ITS INHABITANTS 9 - - III. AGRICULTURAL SIBERIA AND THE RURAL POPULATION 17 - - IV. MINERAL RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES 27 - - V. SIBERIAN COMMERCE AND THE TRANSPORT OF TEA 31 - - VI. SIBERIAN TOWNS 38 - - VII. IMMIGRATION 43 - - VIII. MEANS OF COMMUNICATION IN SIBERIA 56 - - IX. THE TRANS-SIBERIAN RAILWAY 64 - - X. THE RAILWAY THROUGH MANCHURIA 71 - - XI. THE ALTERED RELATIONS BETWEEN EUROPE AND THE FAR EAST - RESULTING FROM THE TRANS-SIBERIAN RAILWAY 76 - - - _PART II.—JAPAN_ - - I. THE ORIGIN AND PAST HISTORY OF JAPAN 81 - - II. JAPAN AND THE REVOLUTION OF 1868 97 - - III. MODERN JAPAN 110 - - IV. JAPANESE INDUSTRY 118 - - V. RURAL JAPAN 125 - - VI. DEVELOPMENT OF JAPANESE COMMERCE 135 - - VII. THE FINANCES OF JAPAN 143 - - VIII. THE DOMESTIC POLITICS AND PARLIAMENT OF JAPAN 154 - - IX. JAPAN’S FOREIGN POLICY AND HER MILITARY POWER 164 - - X. THE FUTURE OF WESTERN CIVILIZATION IN JAPAN—RELATIONS - BETWEEN JAPANESE AND FOREIGNERS 171 - - - _PART III.—CHINA_ - - I. THE CHINESE PROBLEM 183 - - II. THE CAPITAL OF CHINA 188 - - III. THE COUNTRY IN THE NEIGHBOURHOOD OF PEKING—NUMEROUS SIGNS - OF THE DECLINE OF THE EMPIRE 198 - - IV. THE LITERARY AND MANDARIN CLASS—PRINCIPAL CAUSES OF THE - DECADENCE OF THE EMPIRE 204 - - V. THE CHINESE PEOPLE AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS 212 - - VI. FOREIGNERS IN CHINA—THE ATTITUDE OF THE CHINESE TOWARDS - WESTERN CIVILIZATION 228 - - VII. THE POSITION AND WORK OF FOREIGNERS IN CHINA 234 - - VIII. CHINA AND THE POWERS 242 - - IX. RUSSIA, FRANCE, AND ENGLAND IN THE FAR EAST IN 1895–97 253 - - X. CHINA AND THE POWERS 1897–99—‘SPHERES OF INFLUENCE,’ AND - THE ‘OPEN DOOR’ 266 - - XI. THE FUTURE OF CHINA—MAINTENANCE OR PARTITION OF THE - CELESTIAL EMPIRE? 276 - - - - - INTRODUCTION[5] - - -This book is the result of personal observations made in the course of a -journey through Siberia, China, and Japan, lasting over a year, and is -supplemented by information derived chiefly from official and carefully -collated documents. Asia, the largest of the five Continents, is still -the most densely populated; but after being the cradle of civilization, -it has been for many centuries dead to all progress. It is in the -awakening of this vast Continent through the influx of men and ideas -from the West, by the application of modern science to the exploitation -of its wealth, that consists the phenomenon which we are witnessing at -the present time, and to the examination of which the author devotes the -following pages. - -The effect of European action in Asia does not, it is true, date from -our time; it began as soon as the Asiatic invasion of Europe had ceased. -In the sixteenth century, whilst the Russians were settling in Siberia, -we find the Portuguese landing on the coasts of India, China, and Japan. -For a long time, however, the influence of the West was merely -superficial. By the middle of the nineteenth century it had scarcely -reached India and a few points on the coast of Asia Minor; all the rest -of Asia remained obdurate. Siberia was almost a desert, unexplored, -without any communication with the outer world; China a stranger to all -progress; and Japan hermetically sealed. Thus, all the temperate zones -of Asia, those best suited to the white race, as well as those inhabited -by the most numerous, industrious, and vigorous populations, regarded -from whatever point of view, were fifty years ago completely outside of -European influence. At this moment two facts of vital importance have -become prominent, which have been passed over almost unnoticed by -European nations, greatly preoccupied by other questions. In 1854, Japan -began to open her ports to foreigners; and Russia, descending almost -simultaneously from the glacial solitudes of the Okhotsk Sea, seized, at -the expense of China, the banks of the Amur, thus coming into actual -contact with the Celestial Empire, which hitherto she had only reached -through deserts, advanced her frontier up to the boundaries of Korea, -and acquired a port on the Pacific (latitude 43°), free of ice nearly -all the year round. This was the moment when that awakening of Northern -and Eastern Asia began which has become more and more active, especially -during the last ten years. - -Immediately after the conquest of the Province of the Amur, Count -Muravief-Amurski, one of the prime movers in the expansion of Russia, -foresaw under what conditions the Muscovite Empire could make its power -felt in the Far East, and suggested the construction of a Trans-Siberian -Railway, which, thirty years later, was undertaken by Alexander III. In -building it, his main idea was to open a strategic route to facilitate -the passage of his troops into China. The Trans-Siberian Railway was -thus constructed far less in the interests of the country it traversed -than for those of the countries at its opposite extremities. But it was -presently discovered that the southern portion of Siberia through which -the line runs possessed a climate scarcely more severe than that of -Manitoba and of the far west of Canada, an equally fertile soil, with -even better irrigation and still greater mineral wealth, the development -of which was only prevented by the complete absence of any means of -communication. - -Now Siberia, instead of being shut off from the rest of the world, will -be traversed by one of the most frequented routes in the universe, and -its southern zone will become one of the richest possessions of the -white race. The Russian peasants have a natural tendency to emigrate, -and since the abolition of serfdom have been invading Siberia in great -numbers, and rapidly settling there. More than 200,000 emigrants arrive -there every year, and the births greatly outnumber the deaths, so that -the population of the Asiatic domains of the Tsar is annually increased -by more than 300,000. Russian colonization doubtless has its drawbacks, -the most serious among which are lack of capital and absence of -education and enterprise among the labouring classes. In spite of this, -one fact remains: thanks to the Trans-Siberian Railway, a numerous white -population is already occupying the whole North of Asia, from the Urals -to the Pacific, and thus Russia can meanwhile make the full weight of -her power felt in the Far East, which will certainly prove of -incalculable benefit to the advance of modern civilization throughout -Asia. - -While Siberia was being colonized, and the Trans-Siberian Railway was -assuming definite shape, Japan was accomplishing her extraordinary -transformation. In 1854 the Powers, under threat of bombardment, forced -open the gates of this feudal State, whose customs differed from ours -more than those of any other Asiatic country, and the entrance to which -was forbidden to foreigners under pain of death, and which for ten years -was the scene of numerous outrages against them. Forty-five years later -new Japan deals on a footing of equality with the European Powers; its -admission to the number of civilized States is signalized by the -suppression of the extra-territorial privileges of the Europeans, and it -has become a centre of great industry, whose cotton stuffs compete in -China with those of India, America, and Great Britain. European steamers -supply themselves from her coaling-stations; her foreign commerce -amounts annually to £44,000,000 sterling; her soil is intersected by -3,125 miles of railway; a crowd of little steamers, often native built, -ply along her coasts, whilst regular lines of steamers fly her flag in -the ports of Europe, America, and Australia; her fleet is the most -powerful in the Pacific; her army, which crushed China five years ago, -formed the bulk of the international troops that recently marched to the -relief of the foreign Legations threatened by the Chinese. Before these -realities the scepticism of those who have so long jeered at these -Asiatics playing at being Europeans must perforce turn to admiration. - -Many people, however, find it difficult to believe in the durability -and the sincerity of Japan’s transformation. Without concealing from -ourselves that the prodigious work which has been accomplished in -Japan has sometimes been premature, that imitation of Europe has -occasionally been pushed to excess, that it has even been directed in -some points where it would have been wiser to have remained faithful -to national traditions, we believe—as one of the best informed -Japanese we have ever met assured us—that the great wind from the West -which is blowing upon this country has come to last. We find this -conviction confirmed both by observation of the Japan of the present -and in the lessons taught by her past. Where the changes have been -carried too far, certain unassimilated and unessential scoriæ will be -eliminated, but the better part of the work will remain and a new -Japan be the result, in many points similar to Europe in the -scientific and material sense of civilization—profoundly modified and -brought nearer to the West, yet differing from us from the social and -moral point of view. In short, we have confidence in the future of -Japan, if she only takes the lessons she has received to heart, and if -she be not over-proud of being the ‘Great Britain of the Far East,’ -and is not carried away by a spirit of aggrandizement that may exhaust -her resources. The prudent policy which she appears to have adopted in -the face of the present crisis in China is, however, of a character -well calculated to reassure her friends. - -The study of the Chinese problem closes this volume. The Celestial -Empire, so far from being revivified like its neighbours, has resolutely -made no concession to Western civilization. As long as China had only to -trouble over the intermittent and not far-reaching action of Western -Powers, distracted by a thousand other cares, and whose commercial -activity found outlets in other directions, she had not much difficulty -in maintaining her isolation. - -From the moment, however, when she found herself face to face with near -and powerful neighbors, rejuvenated nations, from whose eyes her -incurable weaknesses were not screened by the illusion of distance, she -was destined, if she did not yield with a good grace, to be swept along -by the torrent of innovation which she has so long and so vainly sought -to resist. Japan, by her victories in a war which was in reality a war -of Western Science _versus_ Chinese Routine, a war of Progress against -Stagnation, in 1895 forced open the gates of China. If she had not done -so then, undoubtedly Russia would have achieved the same work a few -years later, after the construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway. The -Middle Kingdom no longer frightens the world by its vastness, and those -innovations which it abhors are now thrust upon it by foreigners; thus -has been brought about a situation pregnant with political and -economical consequences still further complicated by the rivalries of -the European nations vying with each other to realize a transformation -from which they hope to reap enormous advantages. - -We have also endeavoured in this book to note down the salient features -of the present position, the knowledge of which may serve to throw a -light on the future of the Celestial Empire. Firstly, by recalling the -detestable Government imposed upon China by the all-powerful class of -_literati_, who remain petrified in their stubborn pride, incurable -routinists, and hostile to progress; then, in contrast to the -decrepitude of this Government, the vitality of the people, whose -undeniable defects are compensated by an endurance, perseverance, and -commercial ability of the highest order; the attitude of this people -towards Europeans and their civilization, the part hitherto played by -the latter, their trade in the ports, and the quite recent beginnings of -great industries in these very ports; the concessions for various -undertakings granted during the last four years to these very Europeans -who are at last emerging from the few acres in which they had hitherto -been penned at infrequent points along the coast or on the banks of the -Yang-tsze, and who are abandoning their exclusive devotion to trade in -order to carry out a system of real colonization by applying Western -methods to the realization of the wealth of China; and finally the -disquieting spectacle of the Powers in rivalry around this decrepit -Empire, on which none dare lay a too heavy hand lest it crumble away and -they lose the best pieces, which each of them dreams eventually of -annexing. - -Since this book was published in France, in April this year, a -particularly grave crisis has arisen in China. The most violently -reactionary faction in the Court of Peking has seized the reins of power -and has headed a movement for the extermination of the foreigner; the -regular army, making common cause with the fanatical adherents of secret -societies, has besieged in their Legations the Ministers of all the -nations, and has opposed the onward march of the troops despatched to -their relief; hundreds of missionaries and thousands of native -Christians have been butchered throughout the Empire, and everywhere, -even in the Treaty Ports, the security of Europeans has been menaced. -These appalling events have, it would seem, taken Europe quite -unprepared, although warnings were not wanting. A perusal of a file of -the Hong-Kong and Shanghai newspapers will easily prove that great -uneasiness prevailed as far back as last spring, if not in the -Legations, at any rate in the Treaty Ports. - -The present crisis will, it is true, not be a matter of much surprise to -those who have studied China. The reader will notice several passages in -this book in which we are reminded of the necessity of proceeding with -the utmost caution in introducing progressive measures into the ancient -Empire, if we wish to avoid an outbreak culminating in a sanguinary -upheaval and the possible collapse of that worm-eaten structure. It -would appear, however, in fact, that during the past three years the -ill-advised action of Europe has done everything to bring about such a -disaster. - -Too numerous railway and mining concessions, preliminary works commenced -simultaneously in a great number of localities, without sufficient -regard for the superstitions of the natives, the invasion by foreign -engineers and foremen with overbearing manners, could not but irritate -the Chinese, and prepare the ground for agitators and agents of the -secret societies and (unemployed) literati who swarm everywhere. The -violent action of Germany at Kiao-chau, followed by the seizure of many -points on the coast by the other Powers, readily induced the Court and -literati to believe that the Foreign Powers intended to partition China, -and treat her as a conquered country. - -The governing classes among the Chinese have little patriotism, as we -understand it, but they tremble for their salaries and privileges, and, -in common with the populace, they beheld with horror the prospective -violation of their ancient customs. They could not therefore be expected -to repress with any energy disturbances with whose authors they were in -cordial sympathy. Again, the dynasty of foreign origin which reigns in -China is now worn out and tottering; it knows that any concession made -to the foreigner will be turned to its disadvantage, that the best means -of recovering prestige is to pose as the enemy of the Western -civilization; it has even to fear that any great opposition on its part -to popular prejudice may one day lead to its being swept away. - -What wonder, then, that under the rule of the old Dowager Empress—an -energetic Sovereign, perhaps, but ignorant, like the harem recluse she -is, and, moreover, passionate, like most women—the Court viewed benignly -the organization known as the _I-ho-chuan_, almost literally, ‘League of -Patriots,’ which we call ‘Boxers,’ who first spread themselves over -Shan-tung, where the foreigners had displayed the greatest brutality and -tactlessness! The creatures of the Empress, narrow-minded and brutal -Manchu princes, mandarins of an ultra-reactionary type, who, having -never been brought into contact with Europeans, are ignorant of the -latter’s strength—all these people whom the Palace revolution in -September, 1898, exalted to power, and who exercise it without control -since the exile of Li Hung-chang to his distant Viceroyalty of Canton, -have not learned how to observe the precautions which at one time guided -that wily old fox. - -Imperial edicts have favoured the Boxers, ‘those loyal subjects who -cultivate athletics for the protection of their families, and who bind -together different villages for the purpose of mutual protection.’ In -this association, affiliated with other secret societies, it was sought -to discover a prop for the dynasty both at home and abroad. Arms were -procured from Europe, intended either for the rebels or the regular -army, and then, as always happens with feeble Governments in times of -trouble, it was found impossible to stem the torrent so easily let -loose, and increasing violence soon got the upper hand. The Empress even -appears to have been overwhelmed by factions more reactionary and -fanatical than herself—factions at whose head stands Prince Tuan, father -of the recently adopted heir-presumptive. - -Such is the genesis of the present crisis. What are to be the -consequences? They would be very grave if the chiefs of the movement -hostile to foreigners removed the present Emperor to some distant place, -and refused to negotiate on anything like reasonable terms, or if, -leaving him in the hands of the Europeans, they should raise a -competitor against him. The Emperor, whose accession to the Celestial -throne is, in any case, according to Chinese ideas, irregular, and who -has exasperated the mandarins by his attempts at reform, would thus run -a great risk of being considered a usurper, both in the eyes of the -people and the literati. What could the Powers do in such a case? We -hardly dare dream of such a laborious, costly, and deadly undertaking as -would be an expedition five or six hundred miles from the coast into the -heart of a country like China, devoid of good means of transport, and -where a large European army would find existence difficult. Besides, in -the midst of complete anarchy and civil war, the Powers, whose union is -already so unstable, would be forced to interfere, with the risk of -irreparable disputes arising between them all at the finish. - -Even if the Court should come to terms and no competition for the Empire -arise, the situation in China will none the less present great -difficulties. The installation in Peking of an Emperor surrounded by -councillors approved by the West and watched by a foreign garrison, -which would be the most desirable end of the present acute crisis, would -not suffice to restore order throughout the Empire. All the elements of -agitation are now at boiling-point, and it is even to be feared that ere -the allies are able to act vigorously on the offensive, the anti-foreign -movement will have gained ground in the provinces. The prestige of the -Manchu dynasty, greatly damaged already, will be still further lowered -when the Emperor is exhibited as the puppet of the West. Ambitious -aspirants of all sorts, Chinese patriots inimical to both Manchu and -foreigner, even legitimate representatives of the ancient Ming Dynasty, -will all of them seek to profit by this state of things, and, fishing in -troubled waters, cause thereby a general recrudescence of insurrection, -fomented by the secret societies. Will the Chinese Government succeed in -repressing them by its own forces? This is not at all certain, and in -that case will Europe charge herself with all the political, military, -and financial risks involved in the exercise of such an avocation and -become the police of China? - -It will perhaps be said that if the Manchu Dynasty can no longer -maintain itself, it may be best to leave it to its fate and allow it to -be replaced by another. A new, popular, and strong Government would then -appear upon the scene, which would find it easier to observe the -engagements imposed upon it.[6] - -But apart from the fact that this new Government might perhaps be very -hostile to foreigners and difficult to bring to reason, the Manchus are -not yet stripped of all power, and their overthrow would not be effected -without a devastating civil war, lasting probably many years. Europe is -now too much interested in China to encourage such a catastrophe. - -On the other hand, nobody desires the partition of the Celestial Empire. -To begin with, the chief eventual rivals are not ready: Russia has not -completed her Trans-Siberian Railway; England is hampered with her -interminable war in South Africa; the United States, with a large -portion of its population opposed to outside extension, insists that no -part of the Middle Kingdom shall be closed to them—in other words, that -it shall not be dismembered; Japan has not completed her armaments; her -finances require careful attention, and she feels, besides, that she -cannot act alone. France has every reason for averting a partition, in -which her share (the provinces adjoining Tongking) would be a very poor -one; and finally, the present insurrectionary movement should prove to -the world—including Germany, who took so indiscreet an initiative at -Kiao-chau—that it would not be easy to govern the Celestials after -European methods, and that the mere task of establishing order in a -large colony carved out of China might be beyond the strength even of -the European Powers. - -This being the case, the only policy possible for all countries is to -abandon for the present their personal aims, and to endeavour in unison -to patch up the Manchu system. To depart from this line of action is to -proceed to disaster. But the Powers will have to display some wisdom for -a few years to come if this bolstering process is to have the least -chance of success. The Court and the populace of the capital should be -given a not-easily-forgotten lesson: let the instigators of the proposed -murders of the ministers be delivered up and made to pay for their -cowardly conduct; if necessary, even let their bodies be left unburied, -which, in the eyes of the Chinese, is the most terrible of all -punishments; let the old Empress be exiled if it should appear necessary -to remove her from power. But after all this is done, let the legal -order of succession be respected. While putting pressure on the Court to -appoint moderate or even slightly progressive men to the head of -affairs, avoid a too direct and a too evident interference in the -selection of rulers, which would be perilously inadvisable. On the one -hand, the Powers would soon cease to act in unison, each considering -such and such a grand mandarin more or less its friend and such another -its enemy; and on the other hand, the men chosen would lose all -authority, as they would be looked upon as agents of the foreigners. -Against this, it is absolutely indispensable that Peking and Tien-tsin -should be occupied during several years by a strong garrison, otherwise -it will be said that the foreign soldiery have departed through fear, -and that the permanent fortification of Ta-ku should be forbidden. - -These last measures doubtless involve certain inconveniences, granting -the difficulty of maintaining harmony between the various Powers, but if -they should be neglected the lesson would risk being too soon forgotten, -as were those of 1860 and 1894–95; moreover, they would provide a means -of permanent pressure on the Chinese Government. - -Nevertheless, if it is important to strike hard at the centre, the more -reason have we to refrain from any act calculated to lower in the -provinces the prestige and the authority of a regime, the sources of -whose weakness are already numerous. The threat of popular risings will -continue one of the serious dangers of the position in the Far East; to -avoid them, we must not seize upon the first incident that arises as a -pretext for demanding concessions, the extortion of which disturbs and -estranges the mandarins, whilst their execution irritates the people. If -we do not accept such a course, we run the risk of creating permanent -anarchy. The surest way of obtaining tranquillity in China would be a -formal, or at any rate a tacit, international understanding binding the -Powers for some years not to support at Peking any demand for a -concession as long as the greater number of railways now under -construction are not completed. That would, moreover, enable European -capitalists, who have not been very eager to take up Chinese loans, to -ascertain the value of their investments in the Middle Kingdom. We -believe that the business and practical sense so highly developed in the -Chinese will induce them to become reconciled to the material side of -our civilization, but by multiplying simultaneously in every direction -preliminary works, say, for railways, we annoy them and wound their -susceptibilities before giving them a chance to appreciate the advantage -of our innovations, not to mention the economical disturbance arising -therefrom. - -In conclusion, although patriotism is at a low ebb in the Middle Kingdom -and the military spirit still lower, we might, by worrying the Chinese -too much, end by creating the one and resuscitating the other. In any -case, if the Chinese make bad soldiers—chiefly because they have -detestable officers—they are first-class rioters. Wherefore any idea of -dividing China, either now or at some future time, seems to us -ill-advised. Passing events will have taught a useful lesson, should -they bring Europe to abandon once and for ever this fatal idea. It was -very wisely said in the English Parliament during the present crisis -that ‘China must be governed by the Chinese and for the Chinese,’ which -does not mean that it should be governed against the foreigners. Let us -hope that all Europe will frankly take to heart this sagacious remark. - - PIERRE LEROY-BEAULIEU. - - - - - THE - AWAKENING OF THE EAST - - - - - _PART I.—SIBERIA_ - - - - - CHAPTER I. - THE ORIGINS OF RUSSIAN EXPANSION IN SIBERIA AND THE NATURAL - CHARACTERISTICS OF THE COUNTRY - - Antiquity of Russian expansion in Asia, which is contemporary with - that of Western Europe in the New World—Analogy between the North - of Asia and the North of America—The three natural Zones of - Siberia—Their climate, extent and capabilities—The Polar Zone is - absolutely sterile and uninhabitable—The Forest Zone—The - Meridional Zone, which is both cultivable and colonizable. - - -No sooner had Russia shaken off the yoke of the Tatars which weighed -upon her for three centuries, and left its mark so deeply impressed as -to be still visible, than, reformed and united, she began to expand -beyond her natural confines. In this she only imitated the example of -Spain, which a short time previously had been delivered from the Moors -and united under the sceptre of Ferdinand and Isabella. Being -essentially a continental country, without easy access to the sea, and -having no difficult frontier to bar her expansion to the East, Russia -turned her attention in that direction, and, defeating her old masters, -annexed the Tatar kingdoms of Kazan and Astrakhan. This conquest -extended her frontier to the immediate neighbourhood of the Ural -Mountains. In the second half of the sixteenth century Tsar Ivan the -Terrible found himself possessor of vast but sparsely-peopled regions, -at a great distance from his capital, and extremely difficult of direct -administration. - -It is a remarkable coincidence that under these circumstances an -organization should have been formed in Russia almost spontaneously with -others of the same kind which were to prove of such great utility in the -West—_i.e._, a great colonizing company, under Imperial charter. The -Strogonofs, very rich merchants, who had extended their sphere of -trading operations as far as the basin of the Kama, the great affluent -of the Volga, addressed in 1558 a petition to the Tsar, in which they -demanded a concession of the lands in that region, promising at the same -time, in consideration of the grant, to build a city, develop the -resources, and defend the country against the attacks of savage tribes. -Ivan the Terrible acceded to their request, accorded them divers trading -privileges, and conferred upon them the right to administer justice and -to levy troops. Thus was organized a regular chartered company analogous -with the East India Company and with those more recently formed in South -Africa and on the banks of the Niger. The company in question began the -conquest of Siberia. - -The Strogonofs, once established on the Kama, experienced, as generally -happens when a civilized people finds itself in contact with barbarous -tribes, the necessity of extending further eastwards at the expense of -their Tatar neighbours, if only to protect themselves from their -depredations. In 1581 the Tsar gave them permission to employ a -celebrated Cossack pirate, Ermak Timoféef,[7] who seized the city of -Sibir, or Isker, then capital of Khan Kuchun, the principal Tatar chief -of Western Siberia. Six years later the present city of Tobolsk rose on -the site of Sibir. - -We will not attempt to narrate the history of the conquest of Siberia, -which strongly resembles the taking of North America by French pioneers -at about the same time. When the Tatar tribes of the West had been -driven towards the Southern Steppes, the Cossacks encountered little -opposition from the poor hunters and fishermen whom they found in the -district. In summer these Cossack adventurers navigated the rivers in -canoes, whilst their winters were spent in block-houses, or _ostrogs_, -surrounded by palisades not unlike the forts erected by the Hudson Bay -Company. Soon they became very numerous, being attracted from the more -civilized parts of Russia by the growing profits of the fur trade. In -1636 they had reached the mouth of the Yenissei, and a year later -arrived on the banks of the Lena. In less than two years—that is, in -1639—they had discovered the shores of the Okhotsk, and fifty years -later the whole continent had been traversed from end to end. In 1648 -the Cossack adventurers Alexief and Dezhnief doubled the eastern -extremity of Asia, and arrived at Kamtchatka, and in 1651 the Ataman -Khabarof established himself on the Amur, where he discovered other -adventurers, who had already descended this river in 1643. At this -juncture the Russians found themselves face to face with the Manchus, -who had just conquered China, and notwithstanding the heroic defence of -their fortress at Albazine on two occasions, they were obliged in 1688 -to abandon the middle and lower basins of the Amur to the Sons of Heaven -in accordance with the treaty of Nertchinsk, a territory which they only -reconquered from the degenerate Chinese in 1858. - -To the west as well as to the east of Siberia the Russian frontiers -remained scarcely altered until about the middle of the present century. -It was only in 1847 that the Tsar’s troops were able to cross the arid -zone of the Kirghiz Steppes. The policy of Peter the Great was directed -towards Europe, and his dream was to extend Russia towards the West by -the conquest of Constantinople—a fact which accounts for the extinction -of zeal on the part of Russia with respect to her Asiatic possessions, -which were now treated merely as penal settlements or as fields for -scientific investigation, whenever the Sovereigns took it into their -heads to become specially interested in such matters. The increase of -Imperial authority and the more regular organization of the State had in -the meantime subdued the adventurous and enterprising spirit of the -Cossacks, and that particular class of men, half soldiers, half -brigands, who had proved themselves such hardy pioneers at an earlier -epoch, now disappeared, and in the middle of the eighteenth century -Siberia was opened as a field of colonization. In spite of the many -obstacles which the system of serfdom in Russia placed in the way of -peasant emigration, in 1851 the population of Siberia had reached -2,400,000, a figure which, although not very large considering the -immensity of the country, was in excess of the population of Canada at -the same period, which numbered only 1,800,000 souls. From this point of -view the Russians had no reason to be ashamed of their colonization, -and, as a matter of fact, have none to-day. According to the census of -January, 1897, there were 5,731,732 Siberians living on a territory of -4,812,800 square miles, whereas in 1891 there were only 4,833,000 -Canadians inhabiting the 3,721,800 square miles known as the Dominion. -The density of the population of Northern Asia is not much inferior to -that of British North America, and it must not be forgotten that the -conditions of life in Siberia are greatly inferior to those of Canada. - -A comparison of the natural conditions existing in the northern regions -of the old and the new world shows that they are nearly identical. Both -consist for the most part of vast expanses of flat country, often -covered with magnificent forests, and quite as frequently barren. -Siberia, like Canada, is irrigated by noble rivers, which under a milder -climate would constitute a superb network of intercommunication; but -unfortunately both countries are hampered by an extremely rigorous -climate, which imprisons these fine rivers during many months of the -year under an impenetrably thick coating of ice. In the north of Siberia -as well as of Canada the country is so intensely cold as to render -agriculture impossible. That part, therefore, of both countries which is -capable of exploitation is of extremely limited extent, consisting both -in Russian Asia and in British North America of a ribbon-like zone some -3,720 miles in length and from 250 to 300 in width. - -If Siberia resembles Canada in some things, it must be confessed that -the latter country has every advantage in point of beauty and position. -In the first place, Siberia is more to the north; that portion which -approaches nearest to the Equator is situated about 43° latitude—that is -to say, a little more to the north than the extreme south of Upper -Canada, and, being on the Pacific, it is most distant from European -Russia, whereas the corresponding part of Canada is the nearest to -England, and washed by the Atlantic, the St. Lawrence, and the great -lakes. On the other hand, that part of Siberia which is closest to -Russia is covered to the south by barren steppes or by mountains which -confine the centres of civilization between 54° and 57° latitude. -Moreover, whereas the coast of Canada on the Pacific enjoys a much -milder climate than the country situated on the other side of the Rocky -Mountains, the regions of Siberia which border the Great Ocean are just -as frigid as the rest of the country. The heights which separate the -basin of the Amur from that of the Lena are not sufficiently elevated to -form a barrier against piercing north winds, and the Japanese -Archipelago interposes itself between the coast and the warm waters of -the Black Current, which plays the same part in the Pacific as the Gulf -Stream in the Atlantic. Thus it happens that the climate of -Trans-Baikalia, where the rivers which, when united, form the Amur take -their source, is one of the most rigorous in Siberia, and the sea is -covered with ice in the port of Vladivostok, which lies in the same -latitude as Marseilles, whereas, opposite on the American coast, seven -degrees northward, the winters of British Columbia are not more severe -than those of Holland or the West of Germany. - -Notwithstanding its terrible climate, Siberia is not entirely -uninhabitable; indeed, even on the borders of the Arctic Ocean humanity -is represented by a few aboriginal Polar tribes, who wander from place -to place in sledges drawn by dogs, and usually followed by a numerous -herd of reindeer. The white man, however, cannot endure the conditions -prevailing in the extreme north, and it is therefore necessary with a -view to colonizing that one must learn to distinguish between the -different parts of Siberia. - -The country has been judiciously divided into three zones, which are, -proceeding from north to south, the Tundra (or Arctic Moss) Zone, the -Great Forest Zone, and lastly the Agricultural Zone; the south and -south-west of the last-named includes the steppes, as well as the Altai -and Sayan Mountains. It would be impossible to trace a line of exact -demarcation between these different zones, for the transition is -extremely gradual; but, speaking generally, the land situated north of -63° and 64° latitude is barren of all vegetation excepting mosses and -lichens. The subsoil is eternally frozen, but the surface thaws in -summer very slightly, thereby turning the country into one vast marsh. -The rivers remain frozen during nine months of the year. Under these -circumstances, cultivation is out of the question. To the south-western -limit of this zone, at Beriozof on the Obi, the medium temperature all -the year round is 5° C. below zero, and in winter it goes down to 23°. -The average in summer is 13·5°, and that of the hottest month 18°, which -is about the same as the heat in Paris in July; but the warm weather -lasts so short a time as to be useless for agricultural purposes. To the -east the climate becomes rapidly severe, and at Verkhoyansk, a village -situated in the Yakutsk district, latitude 67°, one of the coldest -regions in our hemisphere is reached. The average throughout the year is -17° C. below zero; during the three winter months it is 47°, and in -January 49°. The minimum is about 68° below zero. What characterizes -this dreadful region is that to the extreme cold in winter succeeds a -very short but relatively warm summer. The medium thermometrical reading -during the warm season is 13°, which rises to 15° for the month of July, -during which the mercury sometimes rises to 25° in the shade. The -difference between the temperature of the warmest and the coldest months -of the year is about 64°, that is to say, four times what it is in -Paris. It is very remarkable that in whatever direction you go from -Verkhoyansk, even northward, the climate becomes less rigorous, thanks -to the comparative mildness of the winter. As to the summer, it scarcely -merits the name, falling to 9° and even to 3° C. on the borders of the -Arctic Ocean. - -In such unfavourable conditions, it is not surprising that the 1,600,000 -square miles which comprise the Tundra Zone only support between 60,000 -and 80,000 inhabitants, mostly Samoyeds, Ostiaks, Chuckchis, Lamuts, and -other miserable Arctic tribes, among whom live, or rather vegetate, a -few Russian officials and a fairly numerous group of exiles. The -reindeer, whilst serving as a means of transport, is also used as food, -and its hide furnishes the natives with clothing. There is no other -domestic animal excepting the powerful Polar dog which drags the -sleighs. Whether this part of Siberia will ever become of any ultimate -use is at present hard to say, but we may take it for granted that it -will only be through the discovery of a mineral wealth, the existence of -which is unknown at the present time, that the Polar Zone of Siberia -will ever attract even a temporary settlement of colonists. - -To the south of the Tundra begin the Great Forests. At first the trees -are sparse and stunted, and only an experienced botanist can recognise -the distinctive characteristics of the larch; the trees, however, become -loftier as the climate moderates and the summer lengthens. The larches, -firs and pines rise to a great height, and become at last so thick as to -prevent the sun drying the damp soil of the Taiga, or primeval forest. -The banks of the rivers are invariably covered by immense marshes, the -most extensive of which are those to be met with in the neighbourhood of -the Obi and the Irtysh. When the snow begins to melt, the inundations -extend to considerably over six miles on either side of the ill-defined -river-banks. The climate of this region is extremely severe, the winters -frightfully cold, but the summers fairly warm. The frost lasts only -seven instead of eight months; the subsoil, however, is eternally -frozen, and agriculture is only possible in certain spots and demands -constant attention. It is evident, however, that this zone, which covers -about 2,320,000 square miles, that is to say about half Siberia, will -never be able to support a dense population; still, with its great -forests it is much more valuable than the more northern or Polar -regions. If it is possible to prevent these Siberian forests from -undergoing the same process of devastation which has befallen those of -Northern America, they may become of enormous value. Moreover, there -exist in their midst some very important gold-mines, especially near the -Yenissei and in the basin of the Olekma, one of the tributaries of the -Lena, not a few of which are already being satisfactorily exploited. -There is therefore hope that in due time these vast regions now covered -with forests and marshes may be able to support a much larger population -than the actual one, which does not exceed 700,000 souls, mostly -Russians and natives. - -If we abstract from the total extent of Siberia the 1,600,000 square -miles of Tundra, and the 2,320,000 square miles of forest land, there -remain nearly 900,000 square miles which form the cultivable zone, the -only one which will ever be capable of supporting anything like a dense -population. This region is not perceptibly distinguishable from that of -the forests by any marked change in the landscape, unless it be to the -west, where the great green trees that usually flourish in milder climes -form an agreeable contrast to the everlasting pines and firs. Then, -again, the presence of cereals is very noticeable, the late summer being -of sufficient length to enable wheat, barley and oats to ripen. So long -as the seed remains under the snow it matters little how intense the -cold may be above; but when once the snow melts it becomes absolutely -necessary for the heat to be sufficiently great during a prolonged -period to enable the grain to germinate, and above all it is necessary -that the autumnal frosts should not occur before the corn has had -sufficient time to ripen. At Nertchinsk in Trans-Baikalia the winter is -often much more rigorous than at Beriozof on the Obi, and yet corn -ripens in the neighbourhood of the first-named town, for the simple -reason that the temperature between May and September, although not many -degrees higher, remains equable much longer. It is rather to the brief -period during which the sun has any power than to the intensity of the -heat or the excess of cold that may be attributed the difficulty of -rendering these extreme northern regions of any agricultural value. -Notwithstanding that the cultivable zone of Siberia is so extremely -limited, it covers an area five times the size of France and equal to -half the cultivable sphere of Russia in Europe, which is also afflicted -with glacial and sterile zones. This more fortunate section of Siberia -may, and doubtless will, offer for a long time to come an admirable -field for Russian emigration. - - - - - CHAPTER II - THE LAND OF SIBERIA AND ITS INHABITANTS - - Siberia a prolongation of Russia in Europe—Marked resemblance in - scenery and climate between the two countries—Insignificance of - the indigenous population, especially towards the West—Facilities - of colonization—Preponderance of the Russian element in the - agricultural zone—Indigenous elements: Polar tribes diminishing; - Mongol population increasing, but much more slowly than the - Russian—Asiatic immigration to the east of the cultivable - zone—Heterogeneous elements imported from Europe—Jews and - Raskolniks. - - -After crossing the beautifully wooded valleys and the chain of hills -known as the Ural Mountains, the traveller arrives at Cheliabinsk, -situated in the Great Plain, and can scarcely believe that 1,200 miles -of railway separate him from Moscow, so striking is the resemblance -between the scenery around him and that of Central Russia, notably in -the Governments of Tula and Riazan. In the open spaces rise tufts of -delicate verdure, beyond which, here and there, appear the gray outlines -of some village, consisting of rows of wooden houses surrounded by -fields. The only striking difference between the appearance of this -country and Central Russia consists in the predominance of the birch -between the Ural and the Obi. For nearly 1,200 miles no other tree -shades the absolutely flat country. It is the same with the wild -flowers, among which I noticed the _Kaborski tchaï_, with its long pink -spiral blossoms, which recall those of the digitalis. It is not -surprising that a Russian territory bearing such a singular resemblance -to the mother country should prove attractive to Russian emigrants. The -winter here, however, is undoubtedly both longer and colder; the summer -is a little hotter, and the mosquitoes much more troublesome; but, on -the other hand, land is freer, and the peasant is no longer confined in -the very narrow space granted in the old country to his father at the -time of the emancipation of the serfs, and which, at his death, he has -been obliged to share with his brothers. If one is surprised to notice -during the first few days’ journey by the Trans-Siberian Railway so few -villages, the reason is not far to find. The line passes a little to the -south of the colonized region, and borders the insufficiently-watered -steppes where the Kirghiz graze their cattle. From time to time the -traveller perceives in the plain the circular huts and even the tents of -these nomads, and not unfrequently at the stations he may meet with a -number of them, with their beady black eyes, their yellow complexions, -and their closely-shaven heads contrasting picturesquely with the fair -locks and long yellow beards of the red-shirted Mujiks. A little to the -north, after passing the Obi, the Kirghiz disappear, although the town -of Tomsk still possesses a mosque, said to be the most northern in the -world. - -It is estimated that these Tatars do not exceed 90,000. The majority -profess Islamism, whilst a few have been converted to the Orthodox -faith, and a smaller proportion still remain pagans. Only a fraction -dwell in the towns. Besides this Tatar tribe, some 20,000 Mongols, -called Kalmucks, inhabit the Altai Mountains. In the north may still be -found other aborigines of a very inferior type, known as Ostiaks. They -are supposed to be of Finnish origin, and do not exceed 40,000 in -number, and are exclusively engaged in hunting and fishing. It is stated -that at one time they were fairly civilized, but they have been -gradually driven back by the Russians into the Arctic and sterile -regions, and have become decimated by drink and other vices, the -unfortunate result of contact with a superior race. Further north of the -forest-line and the Tundra region wander a few Polar tribes called -Samoyeds, who, owing to the extremely arid nature of the soil and the -rigour of the climate, have never come into contact with European -civilization. There are about 20,000 of them, and owing to the -unfavourable social and climatic conditions under which they exist, it -is not likely that they will increase. The purely Russian population, to -whom the agricultural zone almost exclusively belongs, forms about -nineteen-twentieths of the 3,356,000 inhabitants of Western Siberia, -which itself contains three-fifths of the population of all Siberia. - -The richest section of the Government of Tobolsk consists of a narrow -band of land running between the marshes of the northern regions and the -sterile steppes of the southern. At Tomsk this cultivable zone widens -when it passes the Obi, and the character of the scenery changes to -pleasant hills and valleys, in which latter the earth is still -sufficiently thick and rich to entirely cover the rocky formation below. -The leaf-bearing trees are finer, and are interspersed with splendid -specimens of Siberian fir and the extremely picturesque Siberian -cedar-tree. Occasionally these trees group themselves together, and form -a sort of wood or plantation; at other times they grow singly along the -roadside, being thus cultivated in order to supply sleepers for the -railway or as superior fuel. The fields are full of beautiful flowers, -and the general appearance of the country is that of a fine park, -forming a very agreeable contrast to the monotonous Barabinsk Steppe, -with its infrequent and stunted birches. The plateau which stretches -between the two rivers Tom and Chulym, affluents of the Obi, at a height -of between 800 and 900 feet above the level of the plain, is extremely -fertile, the vegetation being most varied, and the whole region is -vastly superior in point of picturesqueness to any hitherto visited. The -valley of the Yenissei, dominated to the east by mountains and traversed -by the magnificent river, is extremely beautiful. The water runs -rapidly, is remarkably clear, and in more than one place the majestic -stream widens to over 1,000 yards. - -Once the traveller has passed the Yenissei, he leaves the tedious plains -behind him, and finds himself among pleasant hills and valleys, which -are rapidly becoming highly cultivated. The post-road, which crosses -from the west to the east, from Tiumen, at the foot of the Ural, to -Stretensk on the Amur, sometimes follows the course of the rivers, and -at others rises to a considerable height above them. On either side rise -veritable walls of gigantic Siberian pines, with red trunks, sombre -verdure, interspersed by magnificent larches of a lighter shade of green -and of more regular shape, and by fir-trees and cedars, whose cones -contain those little seeds which the Siberians are so fond of chewing. -On the banks of the more important rivers, and at every ten to twenty -miles’ distance, the traveller now passes numbers of little towns and -villages, surrounded by arable land, which form, however, but very -insignificant oases in the midst of these interminable forests. It is, -however, along this post-road, in the valley of the Yenissei, and on the -banks of two or three other rivers, that almost the entire population of -Central Siberia is concentrated. Here, as elsewhere, the Russian element -predominates; for out of the 570,000 inhabitants of the government of -Yenissei there are not more than 50,000 natives, who, moreover, live -principally in the forests to the north. - -The population of the Government of Irkutsk includes about 500,000 -inhabitants, of whom 100,000 are Buriats, mostly shepherds and farmers. -They were originally Mongols, and still practise Buddhism, and live -principally on the slopes of the Sayan chain of mountains, which runs -close to the Chinese frontier. To the east of the great Lake Baikal, -which is 440 miles in length by 30 to 60 in width, and which by reason -of its mountainous shores recalls the lakes of Scotland, is a region -that contains the only really beautiful scenery in Siberia. This section -of the country has always entertained close relations with China. -Trans-Baikalia in former times supplied the Emperors at Peking with -their finest game. The whole district of the Verkhne-Udinsk, comprising -the basin of the Selenga, the principal affluent of the Baikal, is -frequently and not inappropriately called Russian Mongolia. On the -summit of the Ahmar Dabam, a chain of mountains which dominates Lake -Baikal, I perceived for the first time a fetish-tree with its branches -bedecked with parti-coloured rags. On the eastern slope I also -discovered a Lamasery. The scantily cultivated plateau to the north, -which is watered by the Vitim, a tributary of the Lena, was, it appears, -not populated at the time of the arrival of the Russians, and even -to-day it only contains a few villages peopled by wretched Mujiks. This -region before the annexation of the right bank and of the lower valley -of the Amur was used as a sort of military encampment. At the present -time it is governed by a military régime, whose administration is -concentrated in the hands of a Governor, invariably a general in the -army. Of the 670,000 inhabitants, one-third are natives, one-third -peasants, or inhabitants of its gloomy little towns, and the other third -consists of Cossacks, who are only distinguishable from the peasants by -wearing a yellow band on their caps and trousers. Instead of paying -taxes, they have to submit to certain military obligations. Although -they are Cossacks by name and by race, they possess none of the -brilliant military qualities which distinguish their European kinsmen. -The two territories annexed by Russia in 1858 at the expense of China, -the Province of the Amur, and the southern portion of the Littoral -Province—the only one which is of the least value—are scarcely -inhabited, and were even less peopled at the time of the arrival of the -Russians, when they possessed not more than 10,000 Manchus, and about as -many natives, engaged in hunting and fishing, and belonging to several -declining tribes. The Manchus have remained and are prospering; the -other tribes are gradually passing away. Some 20,000 or 30,000 Korean -and Chinese emigrants have settled in the neighbourhood of Vladivostok. -The Russian immigration, however, forms at least five-sixths of the -112,000 inhabitants of the Province of the Amur, and more than -two-thirds of the 214,000 of the coast province, of whom 30,000 natives -live in the Arctic regions, where the whites leave them in peace. The -newly-acquired Chinese territory includes at least 140,000 Russians out -of the 175,000 inhabitants. It must, however, be remembered that this -remarkable majority is mainly due to the concentration of troops which -has taken place since the Chino-Japanese War, which so profoundly -modified the political condition of the Far East. - -The following table is formed from official sources—chiefly from the -census taken on January 28, 1897, and marks the area and the total -population of the nine Siberian provinces: - - ──────────────────┬────────────┬────────────┬────────────┬──────────── - │ │ │Natives and │ Area of - │ Square │ Total │ other │Agricultural - │ Miles. │Population. │ Asiatics. │Zone, Square - │ │ │ │ Miles. - ──────────────────┼────────────┼────────────┼────────────┼──────────── - Tobolsk │ 536,600│ 1,438,655│ 180,000│ 270,800 - Tomsk │ 328,000│ 1,917,527│ 〃 │ 〃 - ──────────────────┼────────────┼────────────┼────────────┼──────────── - Yenissei │ 987,400│ 567,807│ 45,000│ 193,400 - Irkutsk │ 280,800│ 501,237│ 100,000│ 〃 - ──────────────────┼────────────┼────────────┼────────────┼──────────── - Yakutsk │ 1,535,900│ 283,954│ 250,000│ - Trans-Baikalia │ 229,800│ 669,721│ 200,000│ 139,200 - Amur │ 172,900│ 112,396│ 18,000│ 104,000 - ──────────────────┼────────────┼────────────┼────────────┼──────────── - Littoral │ 741,400│ 214,940│ 70,000│ 147,000 - Island of Sakhalin│ 〃 │ 25,495│ 〃 │ 〃 - ──────────────────┼────────────┼────────────┼────────────┼──────────── - Total │ 4,812,800│ 5,731,732│ 863,000│ 854,400 - ──────────────────┴────────────┴────────────┴────────────┴──────────── - -The southern agricultural region of Siberia, in contradistinction to the -frozen zone to the north, is mainly inhabited by European settlers. The -proportion of these over the native population is greatest in the west, -and decreases towards the east, where, however, it still remains -superior by about two-thirds, so that we need not hesitate to conclude -that out of the 5,000,000 people living on this long strip of land, more -than four million and a half are of European origin. Nevertheless, it -must not be forgotten that the indigenous Mongol and Turki population, -which is immensely superior to the poor tribes of fishermen and hunters -who wander about the northern zone, does not diminish, but continues to -increase, much less rapidly, however, than the Russians, who are -constantly being reinforced by emigration. Fortunately the feeling -between these two distinct elements is excellent; the Russians, being of -Oriental extraction, do not hold those racial prejudices which are so -marked among the Anglo-Saxons. The religious question, which is of -course an obstacle to any attempt at a fusion between the Orthodox and -the Buddhist population, is also not very intense or intricate. The -Russian is essentially tolerant, in opposition to his Government, which -is the reverse. The Orthodox emigrants have no objection to a Pagoda or -a Lamasery being erected alongside of their own churches and -monasteries. I remember seeing, while travelling, from Cheliabinsk to -Omsk, the Metropolitan of the last-named town, who happened to be in the -train, get out at a certain station to visit a church which was being -built, and to bestow his benediction upon a crowd of Mujiks who had -assembled for the purpose of receiving it. Whilst the ceremony was in -progress, a few feet further on five Tatar travellers had stretched -their carpets, and, with their faces turned Meccawards, were going -through the elaborate gymnastics connected with Mussulman devotion. The -Mujiks, who were crowding forward to kiss their priest’s hand, never -dreamt of disturbing the Mohammedan worshippers, but watched them quite -respectfully. I doubt very much whether in any part of Europe three -centuries ago, when the populace was not more developed in the -intellectual sense than are these poor Mujiks, such a scene of tolerance -could ever have been witnessed. The Russian Government accords the -utmost liberty to its subjects in Asia in matters of religion. The -origin of Russian official intolerance in Europe is in the main purely -political, and if it considers Buddhists and Mussulmans in Siberia less -objectionable than Catholics and Protestants, it is simply because the -followers of these divergent creeds are the representatives of former -and very dangerous enemies, and are, moreover, perpetually endeavouring -to impose their doctrine upon anyone with whom they come into contact. - -The Russian colonization of Siberia has been carried out without the aid -of any other European nationality. There are only a few hundred other -Europeans settled in the country, the greater number of whom are French -people. I was much amused at the little station at Sokur, about nine -leagues from the Obi, to find a buffet kept by a Frenchwoman, a peasant -who had married a Bessarabian, and who had only been in Siberia a year, -after having, however, spent several in Southern Russia. Her buffet was -arranged with a greater degree of taste and comfort than those in charge -of the Russians, who, however, keep everything scrupulously neat and -clean. The worthy lady had forgotten her fluent French, but had not yet -acquired fluent Russian. At Tomsk I fell in with another Frenchwoman, -who kept a bookshop, and in nearly all the towns along the great -post-road at Irkutsk, Blagovyeshchensk, Khabarofsk, and Vladivostok, I -found French shopkeepers, some of whom had been thirty years in the -country. They seemed to entertain a distinct preference for photography. - -Now that Siberia is at last thrown open to civilization, foreigners -will, of course, become much more numerous, and already many engineers -are to be found in various parts of the mining districts; but for all -this, I do not think that at any period the Russian colony will be -greatly influenced thereby. - -We may, therefore, conclude that, from the ethnological point of view, -as well as from the geographical, Siberia is merely a prolongation of -Russian Europe, or of what is known as Greater Russia. It is true that a -few heterogeneous elements exist of the same sort as those to be met -with in Russia itself: Poles and Germans from the Baltic provinces, and -the descendants of exiles, or even exiles themselves; and thus it comes -to pass that in all the larger towns, at Tomsk, Krasnoyarsk and Irkutsk, -Catholic and Lutheran churches abound. On the other hand, there are -synagogues in nearly all the secondary towns. Israel is fully -represented in Siberia, and the little town of Kainsk between the Omsk -and the Obi is popularly known as the Jerusalem of Siberia. There are -also about 100,000 Raskolniks, followers of a reform which took place in -the liturgy of the Orthodox Church in the seventeenth century. This, -however, is, needless to say, a purely Russian contingent. The -Raskolniks exist in every part of Siberia, but in the province of the -Amur they form about a tenth of the population, and are also very -numerous in Trans-Baikalia. They are mainly the descendants of people -belonging to this particular sect, who were originally exiled from -Russia in the eighteenth century. Their chief peculiarity consists in -their love of temperance and horror of every sort of innovation. Nothing -would induce them to take even a cup of coffee or tea. In our time the -members of certain curious sects, that of the Eunuchs, for instance, are -exiled into Siberia, and confined to a village in the territory of the -Yakutsk, in the Tundra Zone. According to the belief of these eccentric -persons, Napoleon I. was a reincarnation of the Messiah, and they -believe he rests in the sleep of death on the shores of Lake Baikal -until a time when an angel shall awaken him and place him at the head of -an amazing host destined to establish the reign of God in all parts of -the world. The Raskolniks, owing to their temperate habits and their -industry, are generally considered to be a very valuable element in the -population of the country. - - - - - CHAPTER III - AGRICULTURAL SIBERIA AND THE RURAL POPULATION - - Enormous preponderance of the rural and peasant population in - Siberia—Siberian Mujiks—Their rude and primitive manner of - life—Excellent quality of the land, and backward methods of - cultivating it—Mediocre and irregular manner of raising - cereals—The necessity and difficulty of improving agricultural - operations—The absence of large and enterprising ownership in - Siberia a disadvantage. - - -Siberia resembles Russia not only in the matter of its immensity, its -loneliness, the duration of its winters, monotonous expanse of its -plains and enormous forest lands, but also in the leading -characteristics of its peasantry; but in Asia and Russia these seem -accentuated, possibly by reason of the peculiarity of the surroundings -among which they are compelled to live. Even more than in Russia is this -class of the people essentially rural; the exploitation of the -gold-mines is the only other industry of any importance, and it employs -relatively few people in comparison with its yield. - -In Siberia great landlords are conspicuous by their absence. The only -nobles mentioned by the official statistics are a few functionaries -whose lands will be found on the other side of the Ural, and the only -rich people in the country are the merchants residing in the towns, who -occasionally add to their incomes, mainly derived from trade, by a -certain interest in mining speculations. Some of these worthy people -build themselves handsome country houses, but they do not take much -interest in agriculture. A few concessions of land were made in the -middle of the century, but they have long since passed out of the hands -of their original owners into those of the Mujiks, to whom they have -been ‘let,’ but these do not appear to care about their prosperity. All -the rest of the land belongs either to the Government or to small -farmers, who rent it from the Crown. - -The Siberian peasant lives exactly as do his brethren in Russia, in -villages or hamlets. Isolated houses are rare, the agglomeration of -dwellings being an absolute necessity of the conditions of that -collective and communal proprietorship which prevails throughout the -Tsar’s dominions. A Siberian village is, therefore, a reproduction of a -Russian village. On either side of the road is a succession of low, -one-story houses built of dark wood, and separated from each other by -yards, at the back of which are the stables. The appearance of these -dwellings is exceedingly dreary, for they are invariably built of rough -wood, blackened by age. Occasionally, however, some few planks are -painted a vivid white. The usual doleful aspect of these villages is -sometimes enlivened, especially in the larger ones, by the presence of a -brick church, with cupolas painted a vivid green. In the hamlets these -chapels are only outwardly distinguished from the rest of the _isbas_ by -an iron cross. - -If anything, the general appearance of these Siberian villages is even -more dreary and depressing than that of their counterparts in European -Russia, where the houses are often gaily painted. Here they are built -entirely of unhewn wood, like the log-huts of the Far West. Then, the -few domestic animals to be seen wandering about the roadway are not -reassuring, for the dogs look like wolves, and the enormous black pigs -like wild boars. Nevertheless, I am of opinion that the Siberian peasant -is better off than his Russian brother. His _isbas_ are certainly more -spacious, although, to be sure, six, seven, and even ten, persons are -usually crowded into two or three tiny rooms, the immense stove in the -centre of which, in winter, is usually used as a bedstead by the entire -family, whereby whatever air otherwise might be admitted is hermetically -excluded. For all that, I have never seen in Siberia any of those -miserable hovels to be found in Russia, but undoubtedly the manners and -customs of the Siberian peasants are even more primitive than those of -the Russians. They possess less knowledge of hygiene and cleanliness, -and are absolutely ignorant of everything calculated to render life in -the least degree agreeable or rational. During the six winter months the -Siberian keeps his house rigorously shut, excluding even a breath of -air; in summer he does the same, for the double windows of the two or -three very small sleeping-rooms are never opened on any pretext. These -Siberian peasants are, moreover, astonishingly lazy and apathetic. Their -only pleasure in life consists in dreaming away the time whilst smoking -their pipes, and in drinking _vodka_, not to enliven themselves, but -simply to get dead-drunk. Whilst the men are at the public-house the -women stand by their open doors, listless and gossiping, indolently -watching their fair-haired children, who, with only a red shirt on, -fabricate the time-honoured dirt-pies of universal childhood in the mud -or else roll about in the dust. Work is limited to what is absolutely -indispensable, and the Siberian peasant is much happier doing nothing -than in working to obtain what his fellows in other countries would -consider the necessaries of life, but which he looks upon as ludicrously -superfluous. Every village possesses a herd of cows, which you may watch -in the early morning hours straggling off to the pastures, driven along -by two or three old men or urchins, and although you can always get -excellent milk, butter is very scarce, and cheese unknown. As to a -garden, even for the cultivation of necessary vegetables, I have never -seen one in the hundred villages I have visited, excepting, indeed, in -Trans-Baikalia, where I perceived one or two attached to the _stanitsas_ -belonging to some Cossacks. It is not because vegetables will not grow, -but because the peasants will not cultivate them. In the towns in the -Amur district, such as Blagovyeshchensk, Khabarofsk, and a few others, -vegetables are to be obtained, but even these are brought over by the -Chinese from the opposite bank of the river. - -In addition to laziness, the Siberian peasant adds the most surprising -obstinacy, which is not precisely a bad quality, when, as in the case of -the English, it serves to increase their dogged activity; but in Siberia -it is simply another incentive to do nothing. Once a Siberian peasant -has made up his mind to play _dolce far niente_, no power, Divine or -human, will induce him to budge. I have often heard Europeans say that -Siberia is the only country where you cannot get work done even for -money; and this is perfectly true, for on certain holidays it matters -little what you may offer, you will not get a coachman to take you a -five-mile drive. The Siberian would rather lose money than earn it -against his will. - -If inertia is happiness, then the Siberians must be the happiest people -on earth. They disdain progress and would rather die than better their -condition. Their motto is, ‘What sufficed for our fathers is surely good -enough for us,’ and this is the invariable answer a peasant will give -you if you venture to suggest any sort of change for the better in his -condition. His favourite texts from Holy Scripture are those which -flatter his habit of intellectual stagnation, those which preach -resignation and abstention, but certainly not those which teach action -and effort. ‘He who is contented with little will not be forgotten by -God,’ was the text I once saw stuck up in the waiting-room of one of the -dirtiest stations in Trans-Baikalia. It struck me as being particularly -appropriate, both to the place and the people. The prevailing lack of -energy and perseverance, which has been noticed by travellers in every -part of the Tsar’s Empire, seems to me to be one of the radical -characteristics of the Russian nature. It may possibly derive its origin -from the influences of Tatar blood, which was so largely infused among -the lower classes of Russians from the thirteenth to the sixteenth -century at the time of Tatar domination. Then, again, it must be -remembered that extreme cold, like extreme heat, produces apathy, -especially upon the men, who are thereby condemned to remain for many -months inactive, and whose minds, owing to their excessive ignorance, -are a blank. - -Siberian peasants are supremely ignorant. In 1894 the Government of -Tobolsk, the most progressive of any in respect of education, numbered -only 19,100 children frequenting the schools out of a population of -1,400,000 souls. In the towns the proportion of scholars was 4·63 per -100, but in the country districts it did not rise to 1·05. One must not, -however, be too severe on the Siberians for showing so poor an -educational result, for we must not forget the enormous distance between -village and village, and the difficulties of obtaining schoolmasters, -owing mainly to the excessive ignorance in which the lower orders of -Russians are plunged. Notwithstanding the very considerable progress -which has been made in this direction in the last few years, there is -probably no country in the world where reading and writing would be of -greater advantage, for during at least one-half of the year the Siberian -has literally nothing to do but to think, or, better, to dream, his life -away. - -Serfdom has never existed in Siberia, which accounts for the Mujiks -having a much more independent air than their brethren in European -Russia. They have, however, in common with these latter, that peculiar -sort of charity which has been well called the ‘pity of the Slav.’ It -is, however, not an active virtue, but a sort of dreamy pitifulness -which induces these poor people to help each other, but does not prevent -them from being exceedingly suspicious of strangers. They will, however, -invariably leave on the sill outside their windows a hunk of bread or a -jug of milk for the benefit of some escaped convict or some wretched -outcast. Unfortunately, however, the extreme ignorance and the innate -laziness of these people prevent their extracting from the soil much -that, at a very small cost of labour, would greatly increase both their -wealth and their comfort. - -The soil of Siberia is exceedingly rich. The famous _tchernozium_, or -black earth of Southern Russia, covers a great part of the Meridional -Zone of the provinces of Tobolsk and Tomsk. The upper valleys of the Obi -and the Yenissei, sheltered from the north winds, enjoy a milder climate -than the plains, and are excellent for the growth of all sorts of -cereals. On the borders of the Angara, the great tributary of Lake -Baikal and on that of the Lower Amur, and its tributary rivers and its -affluents, which are marshy, there are enormous tracts of extremely -fertile land, but the methods of cultivation are of the most primitive. -Then, again, the vast majority of the rural population obstinately -refuses to work in the fields. All along the great postal highway, which -stretches from the Ural to the Amur, and beyond to Kiakhta, the manner -in which the peasants earn their living is considerably modified. They -exist by trafficking along this main road, along which pass manufactured -goods imported from Europe, which are forwarded to Central Siberia, the -great caravans of the tea merchants, the gangs of exiles, and lastly the -ordinary travellers. As this road is the only one which goes from west -to east, it is very animated. Even in summer, when the traffic is not so -active—the tea caravans only pass in winter—I have rarely seen fewer -than 100 transports of one sort or another per day. Although every -postmaster is obliged to keep no fewer than forty horses, and each -carriage rarely requires more than three, occasionally it is impossible -to secure a conveyance, and one is obliged to ask the peasants for -assistance, which they are very ready to afford, making you pay from -three to four roubles (six to eight shillings) for a relay of -twenty-five _versts_ (sixteen miles), a sum which, if they see that they -have to deal either with somebody who is in a great hurry, or with a -wealthy traveller, they persistently increase in the most barefaced -manner. In winter the transport of tea also enables them to make -considerable sums of money. - -Thus it is that the country folk in these latitudes neglect agriculture, -considering it merely as an accessory. In the neighbourhood of the -villages you will find a few fields and pastures, where the cows, -horses, and sometimes a few black sheep, are sent out to graze under the -care of two or three boys or old men, or sometimes without any shepherd -at all. A wooden barrier prevents their escaping into the neighbouring -forest. - -The number of horses in Siberia is very great. In the government of -Tomsk in 1894 there were 1,360,000 horses to a population of only -1,700,000, that is to say, 80 horses per 100 inhabitants. In the -government of the Yenissei the proportion is over 90 per 100 -inhabitants, and the same proportion prevails in the government of -Irkutsk. Almost the only other country where there are almost as many -horses as men is, besides Russian Central Asia, the Argentine Republic, -where there are 112 per 100 inhabitants. In the United States there are -but 22, and in France only 7. The proportion of horned cattle is also -very considerable, being about 60 per 100 inhabitants, rising in Eastern -Siberia, in Tobolsk and Tomsk, to 80, whereas in the Yenissei and -Irkutsk districts there are about 3 beasts per family. The greater part -of these are cows. Bullocks are very scarce, not being employed either -for food or burden. It is only along the Kirghiz Steppes, in the country -traversed by the Trans-Siberian railway between the Urals and Omsk, and -the region immediately below this line, that milk is used. The rain -falls in this region very slightly, and the land is not cultivable, but -purely arable, and as the Kirghiz are extremely capable herdsmen, the -results are very satisfactory, and they export their cattle largely into -Russian Europe, and even beyond. I remember coming across a train full -of bullocks which were being conveyed to St. Petersburg, and I know of -at least one large house in Moscow which receives weekly from the little -town of Kurgan, situated on the railway line, many thousands of pounds -of butter, a great part of which is exported thence to Hamburg. - -If one wishes to become acquainted with the real Siberian farmers, one -must leave aside the highroads and plunge into the country. True, the -villages become much less numerous, but then they are surrounded by more -extensive fields. In those districts which were first colonized in the -Government of Tobolsk some rather thickly-peopled places are -occasionally to be found, especially in the northern steppe between 55° -and 58° latitude. In the Government of Tomsk a more inhabited region -will likewise be met with to the south of the zone of the immense but -well-wooded marshlands; but in this province, as in that of the -Yenissei, the southern portion, instead of being covered by sterile -steppes, contains the magnificently wooded valleys of the upper Obi, the -Yenissei, and their affluents, which very naturally attract the greater -number of Russian emigrants. - -The agricultural resources in the districts of Barnaul, Biisk, Minusinck -and Kansk, are extremely rich, and, besides excellent land, splendid -water, and a relatively mild and agreeable climate, there are a variety -of minerals. More to the east, if we wish to avoid the ever-silent -desert, or the _taiga_, we must, on leaving the highroad, enter some of -the valleys at the foot of the mountains on the Chinese frontier, on the -borders of which the whole population is at present concentrated. The -aspect of this region, however, differs very little from that crossed by -the post-road between Irkutsk to the great prison of Alexandrof, where -we behold fine wheat-fields and herds of cattle wherever there is an -opening in the thick but marshy woodlands. Excepting for the extent of -the cultivated lands which surround them, the appearance of the -villages, however, does not change in the least. There is never a -vestige of a garden or of any sort of verdure near the houses, unless, -indeed, it be a few flowers growing in pots, which are never arranged on -the ledge outside the window, but in the interior, and form, together -with a few icons and the portraits of their Imperial Majesties, the only -attempt at ornamentation indulged in by the inhabitants of these -essentially comfortless and inartistic dwellings. - -The only crops of the least value in Siberia are those of the various -cereals, of which about 150,000,000 bushels are harvested, mostly in the -western part of the country, which is not only the most thickly -populated, but also the freest of forests. - -The rest of Siberia, that is to say, the provinces watered by the Amur -and the territory of the Irkutsk, which are very thinly peopled, does -not produce a total of more than 5,500,000 bushels. Wheat, generally -sown in spring, and oats form each about 30 per cent. of the total -cereal product of Siberia. The balance is made up of rye, barley and -buckwheat. The arable land has to undergo, especially when first -reclaimed from the steppe, the usual process of preparation, manuring, -etc. The Siberian peasants have not acquired even the most rudimentary -knowledge of agricultural science, and, consequently, often have to -abandon their farms. On the other hand, in certain favourable regions, -in the Governments of Tobolsk and Tomsk, where the earth is -exceptionally rich, the pastures have gone on fairly well for over a -hundred years without any sensible diminution in the excellence of their -grazing properties. However, land is so abundant in Siberia that often -the peasants, when they find after they have reclaimed it that its -productive qualities decrease, rather than be bothered with a repetition -of the processes of manuring, etc., pack up their traps and migrate -elsewhere, literally, to ‘fresh woods and pastures new,’ where probably -the foot of man has never trod. - -In Siberia, as stated already, great land-owners are non-existent. The -soil is, therefore, exclusively in the hands of the peasants, but up to -the present the _mir_ collective communal property-ship, as is found -throughout Russia, is quite exceptional, and then only in the more -sparsely peopled parts of the west. Since 1896, however, the Government -has decided to introduce, if not practically, at least theoretically, -the _mir_ principle as it exists in European Russia. Nevertheless, in -Siberia the commune is not supposed to possess property, but simply to -hold it on the principle of usufruct, the whole land belonging to the -Crown. In those parts of the country which are nearly uninhabited the -_zaïmka_ system still holds good, whereby a peasant, although he may be -a resident in a village, is allowed to build himself a hut on the steppe -or in the forest where he passes the summer, and where he can cultivate -and even enclose one or two large fields which are supposed to belong to -him, and which he can sell or give away as he pleases, and which, in -point of fact, he owns by right of being the first occupant; but this -system is only provisional. With the increase of population it gives -place to another, whereby the peasant is not considered an absolute -proprietor, but only for so long as he chooses to cultivate his land -properly. From the moment he ceases to comply with this condition -another man can take his land. Everybody is allowed to cut hay in the -prairies where he likes, and the pastures and woods are common property. -On the other hand, it is forbidden to enclose any forest or -pasture-land. - -The climate of Siberia is naturally opposed to the cultivation of -cereals, which have to struggle against droughts, autumnal fogs, and -late and early frosts. During the last ten years some very interesting -meteorological observations have been made at Irkutsk, whereby it has -been discovered that July is the only month in which it never freezes. -Then, again, in the government of Tobolsk, and to the west of that of -Tomsk, in addition to these climatic drawbacks, the crops are often -devastated by myriads of _kobylkas_, a sort of locust or grasshopper -which comes from the Kirghiz Steppes. Under these circumstances, -agriculture in Siberia may well be said to be an even more arduous way -of earning a livelihood than it is in Russia proper. It not unfrequently -happens that the crops fail utterly, and during the last ten years it -has been noticed that these disasters are mainly due to increasing -impoverishment of the soil. The irregular condition of the crops is all -the more disastrous in Siberia because of the lack of means of -communication which impedes the easy transport of corn from one district -to another, and results in enormous fluctuations in prices, that often -spell ruin to the unfortunate peasants. The introduction of the railway -to Irkutsk occasioned a notable reduction in the price of bread in -Eastern Siberia, but, on the other hand, the principal line, -unfortunately, transports agricultural products from Siberia to the -region of the Volga. - -But a matter which is even of greater importance than that of -intercommunication are the extremely antiquated methods of cultivation -which the peasants insist upon retaining. In the first place, their -notions of preparing the reclaimed soil for culture are absolutely -barbarous. All they do is to scratch up the immediate surface of the -earth with a sort of plough which dates from the Iron Age, and then sow -their crop. When the field is exhausted, which, not having been properly -manured, it very soon is, it is abandoned for a period of years until it -recovers some of its reproductive qualities. With improved agricultural -implements the earth could be more deeply ploughed, and at a very little -distance beneath the surface it is almost invariably extremely rich. The -question is how to induce the peasants to change methods which have been -handed down to them from their ancestors through the ages. It is of -course much to be regretted that in Siberia there exists no great -land-owners wealthy enough to introduce modern improvements, and thus -teach their humbler neighbours the value of progress by practical -illustration; but until means of communication are facilitated and -improved it will be difficult to induce men of wealth and education to -settle in a country which, however naturally rich it may be, is, to say -the best of it, exceptionally unattractive. Even in Russia, where so -many noblemen, owing to the great losses which they sustained at the -time of the emancipation of the serfs, have abandoned their lands to the -peasants, and have retired to the larger towns, there are yet to be -found men who have had the courage to face reverses, and who have taken -their estates in hand on scientific principles, introducing the latest -improvements in agricultural implements, and thereby have influenced for -the better the peasantry by even inducing some of them to abandon their -primeval methods of agriculture. This desirable state of affairs, -however, cannot exist in Siberia, at least for the present. Then, again, -there is another advantage which would accrue from the presence of rich -land-owners in Siberia, namely, contact with persons of superior -education and culture, which in the end would doubtless affect the -peasantry for the better. In Russia the peasantry form a compact body -which, by reason of its singular position in the social sphere, is -absolutely unable to receive or absorb any influences from the more -educated classes. This is a state of affairs which it is highly -desirable should cease in the Asiatic colonies, where at present it is -even more strongly marked than in Russia itself. The problem of the -future of Siberia is the possibility and feasibility of inducing -important land-owners to settle in the country. - - - - - CHAPTER IV - MINERAL RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES - - Importance of the Siberian mines—The gold-mines—Insufficiency of - organization principally due to unfavourable climatic - influences—Railway extension would bring about an increase in the - value of the mining industries—Silver, copper, and iron mines. - - -However productive Siberia may eventually become, it can never solely -depend for its prosperity upon its agricultural resources. Happily, the -subsoil is richer than the upper crust, on account of the great -abundance of ore of various kinds which it conceals. The gold and silver -mines, however, alone, up to the present, have been worked to any -extent, although a few of the iron mines have been slightly exploited. -Even in the case of gold, however, only the alluvial mines have been -touched in those valleys where gold exists, and nowhere have the rock -veins been opened. More can hardly be expected in a country which is -nearly destitute of the proper means of transport; hence the extreme -difficulty of conveying the necessarily heavy and elaborate machinery -required for the extraction of the gold from the rock. Then, again, the -rock ore is only to be found at great distances from inhabited centres -in unexplored forests and mountainous regions. The diggings, on the -other hand, are much easier, demanding no other implements than a sieve -and a spade. The siftings have been exploited in great numbers from end -to end of Siberia, their takings proving, since 1895, equal to -two-thirds of the gold product of the whole of the Russian Empire, the -fourth largest gold-centre in the world, coming immediately after the -United States, Australia, and the Transvaal. The amount of gold -abstracted from the Siberian mines since 1895 amounts to not less than -£5,000,000, and this figure, high as it is, is, in all probability, much -under the mark, the miners very often retaining a good deal of their -findings for themselves. The Government is the only buyer of Siberian -gold. It has the right to claim on purchasing the gold from the miners -between 15 and 20 per cent. of the ore. This system of taxation is -extremely pernicious, since it tempts the miners, as already stated, to -conceal the real amount of their takings. An increase in the surface tax -would compensate for the suppression of the official claim upon the net -product, and would put an end to a great deal of fraud. I have been -assured that a reform in this sense may soon be expected. The enforced -obligation of selling to the State becomes, in the long-run, exceedingly -irksome to concessionaires, because it forces them to send their gold to -a great distance, to the laboratories at Tomsk and Irkutsk, where the -official agents analyze it to determine its value, whereas, of course, -it would be much simpler to send it direct to Europe, and there sell it -to speculators who would promptly pay the price demanded. Another -drawback in the present system is that the miners have often to wait a -long time for ready cash, which is absolutely necessary to them in their -business. Sometimes the Government keeps them waiting until their gold -has reached St. Petersburg, and they are ultimately obliged to discount -it according to the very high tariff rates prevailing in Siberia. The -transport of the metal to Europe by the State is as expensive as it is -troublesome, since it has to be conveyed to Moscow and St. Petersburg in -charge of a military escort. I have on several occasions seen between -the Yenissei and Lake Baikal carts bringing gold from the mines, -escorted by three or four soldiers ready to fire on the least signs of -possible attack. Another drawback to the Siberian mining industries are -the primitive implements used in abstracting the ore from the soil, -which, as M. Levat, a distinguished engineer, very truly observed to me, -were of a sort that apparently dated from the days of Homer. Under these -circumstances, it is the custom in Siberia to work the surface of the -mine only, and after enough ore has been extracted from it, to abandon -the place entirely. - -Owing to the geological formation of the country, the more important -Siberian mines will not be found, as in California, on the mountain -slopes, but at depths covered by marshlands. Their exploitation, -therefore, is much more costly, as it is necessary before commencing -operations to cart away an immense quantity of the upper surface of the -earth. Hence it happens that if a mine is disturbed at the surface, and -then abandoned by the miners, it is, so to speak, spoilt, as any attempt -to work it again in all probability will result in disappointment. For -this reason, many excellent mines in the basin of the Obi and of the -Yenissei have been already exhausted, and the centre of the mining -industry in these regions has been transferred to the banks of the Amur -and the Lena, and this notwithstanding the many difficulties the miners -have to face, as the soil hereabouts is invariably frozen for about -twenty yards in depth, and work can only be pursued for about 120 -consecutive days in the year. The miners’ salaries, too, are exceedingly -high. In the diggings at Olekma, an affluent of the Lena, wages are 3s. -4d. per diem, that is to say, double what they are on the Yenissei, and -eight times as much as in the neighbourhood of Semipalatinsk, where the -Kirghiz workmen receive only fivepence. Notable progress, however, has -been made in these regions during the last few years, as the mines are -gradually leaving the hands of adventurers and small associations, to be -concentrated in those of important companies, financed by the richer -Siberian merchants, and even by large Russian firms. The great mining -company of Olekma extracted in 1880 £1,000,000 worth of gold, and -maintained its reputation at £680,000 in 1896, proving this mine to be -one of the richest in the world. With the introduction of proper means -of transport, and, above all, a liberal reform in the legislation, -doubtless the Siberian mines would become infinitely more valuable than -they are at present. - -Already European capitalists are paying attention to Asiatic Russia, and -one or two important groups of French mining engineers during the past -three years have been inspecting those parts of the country which are -said to be richest in ore. I was never more surprised than to find on -board a boat on the Amur two English engineers, whose acquaintance I had -made in December, 1895, in the far-away goldfields of the Transvaal. All -that the mines of Siberia need to become of enormous value are -sufficient capital and up-to-date methods of working them. The silver -mines of Nertchinsk, which in old times had an unenviable reputation as -the site of the most terrible Siberian penal settlement, are now of -little value. On the other hand, copper, iron, and coal-beds are -distributed in great abundance in various parts of the country, and seem -to constitute its principal and most permanent source of wealth. The -copper mines have not been exploited at all, but are known to exist in -the Upper Yenissei, in the districts of the Minusinsk, celebrated -throughout Siberia for its agricultural prosperity; others may be -discovered more to the west, on the Irtysh. Iron is found in great -quantity in the western regions, in the Altai Mountains, on the borders -of the Yenissei, and in the valley of the Angara, and to the east in -Trans-Baikalia, where its iron mines have been fairly well exploited, -but hitherto not on any considerable scale. Coal will certainly be found -in considerable abundance in the western plains, and in the last few -years a vast coal area has been found, beginning about 150 miles south -of the Trans-Siberian line near the town of Kuznetsk, and extending to -the Upper Obi. In 1887 a new and still larger field was discovered at -about 80 miles east of Tomsk, and, moreover, close to the railway line. -At the extremity of Siberia, near Vladivostok, and, consequently, close -to the sea, other coal-beds have been opened of late. - -Siberian industries are at present very limited, and consist of a few -unimportant distilleries, breweries, brick-kilns, match manufactories, -etc. It is therefore evident that for some long time to come the -inhabitants will be compelled to devote their attention and energies to -the development of the natural products of the soil. All new countries -are forced to do this in the first stages of their civilization, and -since the United States, New Zealand, and Australia failed in -manufactures in their earlier days, Siberia may surely content herself -by following in their wake. - - - - - CHAPTER V - SIBERIAN COMMERCE AND THE TRANSPORT OF TEA - - Special character of trade in Siberia—Importance of the tea - transport—Kiakhta—The annual arrival of tea at the Irkutsk - Customs-house—Road followed by the tea caravan—Dilatory and - expensive methods of transport—Comparison between the land road - viâ Kiakhta and the sea-route viâ Odessa—Other articles of - commerce, exportation of cereals, etc. - - -Commerce is much more important in Siberia than either agriculture or -manufacture, and forms the basis of all the great fortunes that have -been made in the country. Siberian commerce is mainly concerned with -transport, and if we except the traffic in gold by the Government, the -only other objects of export are cereals and furs. The importation, on -the other hand, is very limited, consisting merely of manufactured -articles necessary for the material comfort of a very scanty and -primitive population, whose wants are correspondingly few. The commerce -of the country would be infinitesimal were it not that nearly all the -tea consumed in Russia passes through Siberia.[8] Tea in Russia occupies -even a more important position than it does in England. The average -Russian takes between a dozen and fifteen cups per day, and he will not -travel without his tea, tea-pot, and his sugar, and the _samovar_, a -sort of glorified kettle, is never absent from every table in Russia, -and is always full of hot water ready to moisten the leaves of the plant -that comforts but does not intoxicate. The Russians make their infusion -very weak, pouring the boiling water a great many times over the same -leaves. The peasantry, unlike the English of the lower classes, who like -their tea very strong, use the same leaves over and over again until the -decoction ends by being only straw-coloured water. This explains the -fact that whilst the Russians drink three times as much tea as the -English, the quantity of it imported into Russia is at least two-thirds -less than that which China and India send annually to Great Britain. - -It was by the overland route that the Russians first came in contact -with the Chinese somewhere towards the end of the seventeenth century, -and their commerce with the Celestial Empire continued until the middle -of the present century exclusively overland. Almost all the tea which -enters Russia has to pass through the town of Kiakhta, about 180 miles -south-east of Irkutsk as the crow flies, but 430 miles by the -postal-road, which is only used during two short periods of the year, -the first in December and the second in spring, when, owing to the -quantity of ice on Lake Baikalia, navigation is impossible. During the -rest of the year the tea is transported across the lake, in winter on -sledges, and in summer by steamers, whereby not less than 93 miles are -gained. Occasionally, as, for instance, on the banks of the Solenga, the -road rises to about 4,000 feet above the level of Lake Baikalia. Here -the scenery becomes extremely fine, and the traveller obtains between -the branches of the magnificent trees glimpses of the beautiful lake far -below, forming a very welcome change to the monotony of the plain in -which the caravans spend the greater part of their journey. Kiakhta -consists of three parts: the town of Troitskosavsk, about two miles -north of the Russo-Chinese Frontier; the town of Kiakhta proper, which -is on the immediate frontier, but on Russian territory; and separated -from the last only by a strip of neutral ground a hundred yards wide is -the Chinese town of Maimatchin. Troitskosavsk is the most important of -the three, and offers an exceedingly agreeable aspect to the traveller -who has been obliged to climb up the reverse side of the steep and -barren hill overlooking the town. The houses lining the road are of -wood, comfortable, and painted a light colour. Even the lateral streets -are well kept, and it is, taking it for all in all, the cleanest town I -have seen in all Siberia. One soon realizes that the tea trade supplies -the whole population with ample means of earning a livelihood, and also -that the wealthy take an interest in their town. On one side of the -road, for instance, is the communal school, built out of funds -originally intended for the erection of barracks, but, soldiers not -being required, the place was converted into a school, munificently -supported by the merchants of the city. The children pay a small -entrance fee. Opposite stands another very large educational -establishment, also supported by voluntary contributions. - -The dwellings of the principal tea merchants are situated at -Troitskosavsk, whose population numbers quite 7,000 souls; but it is at -Kiakhta,[9] on the frontier, that the tea-leaves are manipulated. The -two towns are linked by an excellent road, which passes between -desolate-looking sand-hills, sparsely covered with wretched fir-trees. -The blue outline of the mountains of Mongolia closes in the horizon to -the south. The houses of the wealthier inhabitants are painted white, as -is the church, the interior of which is extremely rich with massive -silver candelabras and a gorgeous iconostase. Beyond a group of _isbas_, -where the workmen dwell, and half hidden by the cupolas of the church, -stands the vast but very low one-storied building of the Tea Warehouse. -Such is Kiakhta, through which passes annually into the Russian Empire -from 40,000,000 to 60,000,000 pounds of tea, costing, before the Custom -duties are paid, between £1,500,000 to £2,000,000. The following are the -figures obtained from the tea registers during the last five years, -kindly supplied to me by the authorities at Kiakhta. - - ─────┬───────────────┬───────────── - Year.│Weight of Tea. │Value of Tea. - ─────┼───────────────┼───────────── - 1892│42,596,500 lbs.│ £1,672,143 - 1893│43,123,250 〃 │ 1,659,134 - 1894│51,086,900 〃 │ 1,932,318 - 1895│52,439,500 〃 │ 2,043,086 - 1896│55,369,200 〃 │ 2,128,402 - ─────┴───────────────┴───────────── - -The tea begins to pour into Kiakhta in winter from the month of November -to February. In December it is not at all an uncommon thing to see as -many as 5,000 boxes delivered daily. The total number of boxes of tea -which passed the Customs in 1896 was 412,869. - -The tea harvest in China takes place generally in spring, the first -gathering of the leaves occurring in April, the fourth and the last in -June. The latter is compressed into bricks, is of very inferior quality, -and bought only by the poorer people. The great tea-market is Hankow on -the Yang-tsze. All the great Russian houses have representatives who -arrive here annually to purchase, and expedite the tea either by sea, -viâ Odessa, or overland by Kiakhta. We must not, however, imagine that -caravan tea, which the Russians consider to be the finest, is all -carried overland. Far from it, but then the purchasers are not supposed -to know this, as there exists a prejudice to the effect that tea which -travels by water is thereby deteriorated, which is nonsense, since all -tea must perform a journey by water of greater or less length. Even that -which is destined for Kiakhta is sent by boat to Tien-tsin, whence it -has to ascend the Pei-ho on junks, and it is only packed on the camels’ -backs at Kalgan, at the foot of the Great Wall. Thence it has to perform -a journey of not less than 900 miles across the desert before it reaches -Urga, the sacred town of Mongolia, which is situated at a distance of -160 miles south of Kiakhta. Transport can only take place in the month -of October, when the roads begin to get hardened by the first frosts, -and the camels have returned from the pasture lands where they pass the -greater part of the summer. These camels are hired from the Mongolians, -and there is great competition among the merchants to secure them, the -Russians endeavouring to obtain the greater number of beasts before -anybody else so as to secure the first crop of tea. A certain quantity -of tea is also brought to Kiakhta on little Mongolian carts, which -invariably return home carrying with them three pieces of wood, an -article which is almost valueless in Siberia, but very dear in China, -where it is resold at a profit. - -The camels are unloaded at Kiakhta, and the wicker-boxes or baskets, -each containing from 100 to 160 pounds of tea, are divested of the light -covering of camel’s hair which sufficed to protect them during the -journey across the Desert of Obi, where rain is almost unknown. For the -rest of the journey through Siberia it is necessary to screen them with -a waterproof covering made of camel’s hide, the hair being turned -inwards. Whilst the process of enveloping the boxes is proceeding it is -almost impossible to bear the intolerable stench. The tea, compressed -into bricks, each weighing two pounds and a half, is next sorted, -dusted, and those which have been in any degree damaged are separated -from the rest and sold at a low price. Then the whole of the tea, be it -in leaf or brick, is packed on the sleighs and conveyed, as already -stated, across country, partly by water, partly over the routes already -described. At Irkutsk, however, the Custom-house officers examine a few -of the cases, and stamp the rest with a leaden brand, and the caravan is -allowed to proceed to its destination. - -The earlier teas which arrive are conveyed by sledge to Irbit, a town on -the eastern slopes of the Ural, but beyond the confines of Siberia, and -in the Government of Perm. Between February 1st and March 1st Irbit is -the scene of an immense fair, which attracts merchants from all parts of -Siberia. The principal goods dealt in are Chinese tea, furs from the -north and east, and light manufactured articles from Russian Europe. The -total sold in the year 1880 amounted to £5,286,000, which has been -considerably exceeded since. - -The principal tea caravans do not arrive in the region of the Obi before -the beginning of April, the sleighs proceeding very slowly, and the -stoppages by the way being frequent. Boats convey the fragrant -merchandise between Tomsk, Tura, and Tiumen, terminal stations on the -Ural Railway, whence they are conveyed to Perm. Here they are shipped up -the river Kama, and finally embarked on the Volga and taken to -Nijni-Novgorod, the chief centre of the tea trade in Russia. Thence the -railways distribute the merchandise over the empire. The results of the -tardier crops arrive at Irkutsk, where they are embarked on the Angara -and conveyed by boat to the meeting of that river with the Yenissei, -where, as it is impossible to ascend the latter, the rudely-constructed -boats in which it has hitherto performed the journey are broken up and -sold for firewood. By this road only 330 miles are performed by land to -Tomsk. Some of the merchants, in order to avoid as much as possible the -overland route, take a much longer one by water viâ Uliasutai, a city in -Western Mongolia on the Upper Yenissei. The above will suffice to give -the reader an idea of some of the exceptional difficulties which the tea -merchants have to encounter in conveying their very perishable freight -across Northern Asia into Russia, the journey taking not less than a -year from the date of the gathering of the leaves. The following -official data, registered in 1893, of the expense incurred in conveying -a single pood, or thirty-six pounds (English), of tea from Han-Keou to -Nijni-Novgorod will suffice to afford a fair notion of the great cost of -transport. - - £ _s._ _d._ - From Han-Keou to Kiakhta viâ Tien-tsin and Urga 0 15 5 - Manipulation at Kiakhta and transport to Irkutsk 0 6 4 - From Irkutsk to Nijni (by sledge to Tomsk, water to - Tiumen, railway to Perm, and thence by water) 0 12 9 - Insurance from Tien-tsin to Nijni, 2¼ per cent 0 1 10½ - Interest on capital 0 3 2 - ———— ———— ———— - Total £1 19 6½ - ==== ==== ==== - -On the other hand, the same quantity of tea transported from Hankow to -Nijni, viâ the Suez Canal and Odessa, and thence by train to Nijni, -costs only thirteen shillings. From these facts it can easily be -understood that the great commerce of Kiakhta is purely artificial and -abnormal, and exists simply thanks to the enormous difference between -the Custom-house duties at Odessa and those at Irkutsk. At the former -place the duty is £3 6s. per pood, or thirty-six pounds, for all kinds -of tea, whereas at Kiakhta it is only £2 on leaf tea and 5s. 4d. on -brick. The insignificance of this latter tax is very important, because -brick tea is the only sort which is used in Siberia east of the Volga, -the greater part of the leaf tea being forwarded to Russia. On the other -hand, notwithstanding its many inconveniences, the tea transport across -Russia is a most important factor in Siberian existence, since it -furnishes the means of livelihood to thousands of people living along -the great postal-road, and indeed is a sort of subvention which the -Russian tea-drinkers pay to Siberia, and one which the Government very -wisely keeps up by maintaining the high tariff at Odessa. It is -interesting to follow the increasing value of a pood (thirty-six pounds) -of tea on its way from Irkutsk to Nijni. On entering Siberia at the -former place from China it only costs £2 5s. By this time it is already -paying the cost of its transport from Hankow, the expenses of insurance, -etc., costing about £1 3s., the Custom-house duties amount to about £2, -that is, £3 2s. credit, and the transfer thence to Nijni will add about -thirteen shillings to its value; so that when we take into account an -interest of three shillings on the capital employed we find that a -product which cost less than ten roubles where it grew and where it was -first purchased, by the time it reaches the market costs forty-eight -roubles, nearly five times its original value. On the greater part of -the leaf tea which passes through Odessa, the Russian pays on every -pound of tea at 3s. 2d. he purchases 1s. to the Treasury. The total -amount of Custom-house duties paid on tea at Irkutsk amounted in 1896 to -£1,050,361. - -Independently of tea, the land commerce between the Russian Empire and -China is, comparatively speaking, insignificant, and rarely exceeds -£265,000. The principal object of import is Russia leather, and the -chief article from China is a very light but strong sort of silk, much -worn in Siberia during the summer. For the rest, the trade between -Siberia and Russia consists mainly in cereals and flour, but it is -difficult to obtain exact statistics on account of the many lines of -communication which have been recently opened since the introduction of -the railway. - - - - - CHAPTER VI - SIBERIAN TOWNS - - Scarcity of towns and their slight importance—Their administration - and commerce—Resemblance to the towns in the Russian - provinces—Introduction of telephones and electric - light—Intellectual progress—University at Tomsk—The drama at - Irkutsk—The crisis through which these towns are passing. - - -The absence of large manufactures doubtless accounts in a measure for -the fact that Siberia, according to the census of 1897, only contains -eleven towns inhabited by over 10,000 souls. Eight of these (including -the two cities of Tomsk and Irkutsk, which have each 50,000 inhabitants) -are situated on the postal-road which passes from the foot of the Ural -to Tiumen, to terminate on the shores of the Pacific at Vladivostok; -Omsk is situated somewhat to the south of the old postal-road, at the -point where the Trans-Siberian Railway crosses the Irtysh; Tobolsk, the -old capital of Siberia, which has greatly declined in our day, is built -at the meeting of the Irtysh and the Tobol, and also close to the -junction of the two great highroads. Barnaoul, on the Upper Obi, is the -only Siberian town of any importance which is not within easy reach of -either the railway or the postal-road, but then it has the advantage of -being situated in the centre of the most highly cultivated part of the -country. There exist, also, a number of other small towns, situated on -the two main arteries and in the more fertile valleys. All of them are -centres for the distribution of manufactured articles imported from -Europe, and also depots whence the products cultivated in their -neighbourhoods are collected and expedited. All these towns are seats -both of administration and commerce, and the local capitals are always, -with the sole exception of Tobolsk, the biggest towns in the district, -and contain the dwellings of the officials and other functionaries, -which add greatly to their handsome appearance. In the region of the -Amur and the Littoral garrisons have been introduced, which lend -considerable animation to the place. At Vladivostok in 1895 the Russian -population consisted of 2,780 civil servants, 189 exiles, 555 -functionaries and priests (including their wives and children), and -10,087 officers and soldiers with their families. At Khabarofsk the -official element is still more preponderating. With the exception of -Blagovyeshchensk, situated at the meeting of the Amur and the Zeya, -which owes its prosperity to the neighbouring gold-mines, the towns of -Eastern Siberia are nothing more or less than camps or huge villages -like Chita or Nertchinsk, with very low _isbas_, or wooden houses, -prodigiously broad streets, vast open spaces, the whole dominated -generally by the enormous white mass of some official edifice or other. - -In the west, however, between the Ural and Lake Baikal, towns exist in -the European sense of the word. It cannot be said, however, that they -are remarkable for their monumental beauty, but they possess a certain -measure of picturesqueness, and bear a striking resemblance to the -provincial towns of Russia proper, such as Saratof or Samara, or some -quarters of Moscow itself. The houses are nearly all built of black wood -like those peppered all over the country, and are built on either side -of the long streets at a little distance one from another, and rarely, -if ever, embellished by a garden or any attempt at external decoration. -The streets cross each other at right angles, and are made as wide as -possible, on account of the numerous fires, against which every -precaution has to be taken, and people are actually requested not to -smoke on the great wooden bridge which crosses the Angara at Irkutsk. In -certain wealthier quarters of the towns a story is usually added to the -houses, which are painted white, gray, or some other conspicuous colour. -Occasionally one comes across a stone building two or three stories -high, usually either the shop of some rich merchant or official, or else -a museum, hospital, gymnasium, college for boys or school for girls, or -sometimes an immense barracks. - -The appearance of these dwellings when grouped together on the -hill-tops, as at Omsk, is agreeable, especially so as they are -interspersed with the bright-coloured cupolas of the churches. As to the -latter, they are innumerable. There is literally one at every corner. -Standing at the centre of the cathedral square at Irkutsk, I was able to -see no less than seven at a glance. They are all exactly alike, usually -painted blue or rose-colour, surmounted by one big cupola, and -surrounded by a lot of smaller ones brightly gilt or silvered, and -produce an excellent effect in the sun or on a clear moonlight night. -Internally they possess all the barbaric splendour of Russian churches, -and are a blaze of gilt icons and crystal chandeliers. - -Take them for all in all, Siberian towns are far pleasanter to visit -than one might imagine. The streets, as a rule, possess a wooden -pavement, but after a heavy rain they are very apt to become impassable. -A gentleman at Tomsk once assured me that on one occasion when the snow -melted a bullock was drowned in the surging mass of water rolling past -his door. But, after all, the streets of Chicago and New Orleans are not -very well kept, and where the climatic variations are so extreme, it is -doubtless almost an impossibility to keep the streets in anything like -proper order. Otherwise, the telephone is to be found in all the more -important towns, and when the visitor looks up and sees such an amazing -number of wires stretching across the streets from pole to pole, he -might readily imagine himself in America. The electric light has also -been introduced even at Tomsk and Irkutsk. Means of locomotion have by -no means been neglected, and you can hire a quick-going little Russian -cabriolet for twenty kopecks, or sixpence the fare! What astonishes one -most, however, is that, as in Russia, there is scarcely any movement in -the streets of these towns, notwithstanding that they are centres of a -very active commerce. - -Education has made considerable progress in the towns of Siberia, and -the wealthier classes are not behindhand in assisting the Government in -this direction. At Tomsk a University has recently been established in -an immense and very handsome edifice, which contains at present some 500 -students. Admission has been wisely rendered much more easy than it is -in Russia, and it is expected that before long a faculty of Law will be -established, in which the students will be able to study the new legal -reforms which Alexander II. introduced some years ago into the judicial -system of Russia. Other professorial chairs will be introduced before -long in addition to that of Medicine, which is already very well -attended. The library contains over 200,000 volumes, the greater part -gifts from private benefactors, and not a few of the rarer editions of -French and English classics must have originally belonged to libraries -dispersed at the time of the French Revolution. A number of comfortable -houses have been built in the park attached to the University (only a -very short time ago virgin forest) for the benefit of students, who can -there receive board and lodging at a very moderate price. In addition to -the University, another huge educational establishment, an Institute of -Technology, is in progress of construction. Tomsk, although it is -somewhat out of the way for commercial purposes, appears to me destined -to become before long the intellectual centre of Siberia. - -All the Siberian towns possess a theatre. The one at Tomsk was built by -a rich merchant some years ago, and during the winter months two -permanent troupes give on alternate nights representations of opera and -drama. Troupes of Russian actors occasionally visit Siberia, and I -remember once seeing two artists, who enjoy great popularity at Moscow, -give at Krasnoyarsk a representation in Russian of Shakespeare’s ‘Taming -of the Shrew,’ and on the following evening an excellent performance of -‘Madame Sans-Gêne.’ These plays were attended by large and highly -appreciative audiences. At Irkutsk there is a really magnificent theatre -capable of accommodating a thousand persons, the erection of which cost -not less than £32,000. It was built entirely by public subscription, at -the head of the list being the Governor. The prices of admission -are—stalls 6s. 8d. in the front row; 2s. 2d. in the back seats; 1s. in -the first row of the second gallery, and 6d. in the third. These latter -are the cheapest seats in the house. Unfortunately, of late years, the -wealthier classes show a distinct tendency, thanks to facilities of -travel, to spend their money in Russia, and even in Paris, and the rich -merchants are no longer inclined to dazzle the Siberians by a somewhat -barbaric display of their wealth. At Moscow and Petersburg, doubtless, -they find a greater variety of amusements, and no need, in order to -spend their money, to follow the example of a certain Siberian -millionaire who used to wash his chamber-floor with champagne. Other -times, other manners. If the principals go to St. Petersburg, their -representatives remain behind, and although they are unable to make any -very ostentatious display, nevertheless, they contrive to live -comfortably. The position also of the officials, owing probably to the -increased facilities of communication and the spread of education, has -lost a good deal of its former importance, and governors of provinces, -who were in days of yore kings or demigods, are no longer looked upon -with any sense of awe, everybody being aware that they receive their -daily orders by telegraph from St. Petersburg. Irkutsk, which in former -times was the capital, is now only a large provincial city. The grand -old Siberian hospitality is disappearing rapidly, and there are not -wanting, even in Siberia, old-fashioned people who curse the -Trans-Siberian Railway, which is destined sooner or later to -revolutionize the manners and customs of Northern Asia. - - - - - CHAPTER VII - IMMIGRATION - - Causes of Russian emigration to Siberia—Its increasing - importance—Absolute necessity for State intervention in the - colonization of Asiatic Russia—Roads followed by the - emigrants—Land concessions—Provinces towards which they direct - themselves—Colonization of the Province of the Amur and the - Littoral—Vladivostok—Chinese, Koreans and Japanese—Exiles and - convicts—Conditions for the development of Siberia—Favourable and - unfavourable elements—Necessity of employing foreign capital. - - -The immigrants who arrive in Siberia are almost without exception -peasants. According to the census taken last January, there were in -Russian Europe, exclusive of Finland and Poland, whose inhabitants -rarely, if ever, emigrate, only 94,000,000 inhabitants scattered over a -surface of 1,875,000 square miles, that is to say, fifty inhabitants per -square mile. One would imagine, therefore, that there was ample space -for all the subjects of the Tsar in his European territories; but the -great northern Governments of Arkhangelsk, Vologda, and Olonetz, which -occupy over a quarter of this area, and in which agriculture is almost -impossible, do not contain more than 2,000,000 inhabitants in 540,560 -square miles. Then, again, a great number of the Governments situated to -the north of Moscow consist of only very inferior marshlands, and are -but poorly populated, and, what is more, seem unlikely ever to improve. -The majority of the inhabitants of the empire are therefore concentrated -in the south, where the population is relatively dense, especially in -the Governments of Kursk, Penza, Tambof, Orel, Voronej, and notably so -in Little Russia, which is all the more remarkable when we consider that -these regions are exclusively agricultural, and that the methods of -farming are still very primitive. Notwithstanding, however, the rapid -development of industry in Russia, many years will pass before these -regions will be capable of supporting a population equal to that of -Central or Western Europe, where the natural conditions are more or less -identical. It is not therefore very surprising that a fraction of the -population of Russia should go in search of better climes, and direct -itself towards Southern Siberia, a more attractive and fertile country -than Northern Russia. - -Emigration, it must be borne in mind, is but a small item in the natural -causes of the increase of the Russian population. The annual excess of -births over deaths rises to about 1,500,000 in the whole of the Empire, -and is from 1,100,000 to 1,200,000 in European Russia (Poland and -Finland always excepted). The emigration towards Asia has up to 1895 -scarcely exceeded a tenth of this figure, and does not even now reach -more than a fifth or a sixth. According to an official work published at -the end of 1896, the ‘Statesman’s Handbook to Russia,’ we find that -during 1887–95, 94,000 families, forming an aggregate total of 467,000 -persons, established themselves in Siberia. The average therefore would -be about 52,000 souls per annum, but the last few years have witnessed a -visible increase. The above figures do not apparently include emigrants -who are destined for Central Asia (general Government of the Steppes and -Turkestan), to which the total rarely exceeds 10,000 per annum. -According to information received direct from Siberia, about 63,000 -emigrants arrived in 1894 over the Ural from European Russia. On the -other hand, 3,495 entered Siberia by sea, landing in the great Littoral -Province on the Pacific. Lately the emigration movement has become much -more active, and we should not be far out of our reckoning if we -estimated the number of emigrants into Siberia for the years 1897 and -1898 as about 200,000 for each year. The number of persons who seek -permission to leave Russia for Siberia is becoming greater every year. -Many, however, are discouraged and even refused the necessary papers, so -as to avoid burdening the newly-settled country with a superfluity of -people who generally arrive without a penny in their pockets. It is -natural in a country where the peasantry are still so primitive and -ignorant as in Russia that the Government should closely watch the -movements of emigrants, who might, on finding exaggerated promises and -illusions dispelled, become troublesome and even dangerous. The -following is the manner in which these matters are generally organized -in European Russia. When several families belonging to a _volost_ -express a wish to emigrate they are requested to determine in what part -of Siberia they desire to establish themselves. If the applicants are -deemed suitable, two of their number, selected as delegates, visit the -parcel of land which has been allotted to them, and on returning they -are able to inform their friends as to the exact nature of the place to -which they are destined. Formerly, the emigrants were allowed to choose -their own land, which, as they were almost invariably very -inexperienced, was usually quite unsuited to their requirements, and -they either went further afield or, disgusted, returned home. In order, -therefore, to prevent a recurrence of this unsatisfactory state of -affairs, the sensible system of sending on two delegates or pioneers has -been established. - -The method selected by emigrants entering Siberia was, until quite -recently, to ascend the Kama, and take the Ural Railway at Perm for -Tiumen; thence, at this terminus, they embarked either on the Tobol, the -Irtysh, or the Obi for Tobolsk, which used to be a great rendezvous for -the emigrants. In 1893 the Siberian Railway had not reached Omsk, and -out of 63,000 emigrants, 56,500 had entered Asia by the Tiumen, and -6,500 only had taken the Trans-Siberian Railway to Kurgan. Among the -first, 36,500 followed the waterway which I have just described, and -20,000 performed the journey in carts. To-day the greater number are -transported by the railway to the station nearest to the town selected -for their future residence, or to the extreme limit of the line, if they -are going farther east. There they are obliged to take the _telega_, a -sort of Russian cart, shaped like a trough, on four wheels. I have often -met on the highroads in Siberia long lines of these carts, each -containing several persons, men, women and children, with their -labouring tools and household belongings. The scene is very picturesque, -especially towards evening, when the worthy folk encamp on the highroad: -the men unsaddling the horses, the women going to the well for water, -and the children playing about, whilst some old man, seated on the -wayside, reads the Bible out aloud to a group of eager listeners. -Sometimes the journey exhausts the resources of the family, and I have -seen in Trans-Baikalia a caravan of Little Russians come to a full-stop -for want of money, and the good people, encamped on the highway, quietly -awaiting the arrival of the district Immigration Agent, to obtain from -him the supplies necessary to enable them to continue the journey. -Emigrants who travel by _telega_ from their old home in Europe to the -new one in Asia often consume as much as a whole year in the journey -from Little Russia to the Amur, albeit the travellers frequently spend -as many as three months at a time working on the railway, in order to -add a little to their scanty supply of cash. - -The majority of the emigrants arrive in spring. In the principal towns -on the route refuges have been organized for their shelter. A number of -these are to be found at Cheliabinsk at the foot of the Ural. I visited -that at Kansk, the centre of a much-frequented region in the Government -of Yenissei. Twenty _iourdis_, or enormous huts, built on the model of -those used by the Kirghiz and from ten to twelve feet in diameter and -nine feet in height, with an extinguisher shaped roof covered with -camel’s hide, were here erected for destitute emigrants. A spacious -hospital, kitchens and a Russian bath were at the time nearly completed. -A winter habitation with an immense stove had also been erected, but -there are not many emigrants travelling during the worst months of the -year. All these buildings are of wood, after the fashion of most Russian -houses, and seemed fairly comfortable. Three young women from the town -acted as voluntary nurses attached to the hospital. - -Emigrants who come from the same district in European Russia are as a -rule grouped together in the same village, and, as far as possible, -everything is done to prevent the crowding together of people who come -from divergent provinces, which might give rise to trouble. Thus, the -officials always endeavour to avoid mixing the ‘Little Russians’ with -the ‘Great Russians,’ and never to introduce new-comers into villages -already inhabited by old Siberians, who do not look upon emigration in a -very favourable light, for the simple reason that formerly they could -occupy as much land as they liked and redeem as much of it as they -chose, whenever their own fields became exhausted, and they could, -moreover, even tramp off in another direction in quest of better land if -the spirit moved them so to do. The arrival of a great number of new -people has naturally put an end to these irresponsible movements, and -consequently given rise to a great deal of discontent. - -The following are a few rules which have been adopted recently for the -formation of fresh settlements, on the _mir_ system of Russian -collective communal proprietorship, which the Government has decided to -introduce into Siberia. Fifteen dessiatines (37 acres) are given -gratuitously to each man, and a sum of 30 roubles (about £3 1s. 8d.) -can, if necessary, be advanced to each family immediately. Formerly it -was necessary to await authorization from the Government at St. -Petersburg, even for this small amount, before it could be paid, but, -now, happily, it has been decided to leave the matter in the hands of -the functionary who is placed at the head of the Immigration Bureau of -the district, whereby a great deal of trouble and misery is avoided. -Other sums of money can be advanced from time to time up to £9 10s. if -the applicant is deemed worthy. Theoretically this money ought to be -repaid at the end of ten years, which, needless to say, it rarely, if -ever, is. - -Of the 63,000 persons who arrived in Siberia from over the Ural in 1894, -the majority, 38,000, settled in the Government of Tomsk, 17,000 -proceeded to the Amur, 3,800 to the Steppes, 2,100 to the eastern -Governments of Yenissei and Irkutsk, and 2,100 to the Government of -Tobolsk. These figures do not include the 3,495 who entered the Littoral -Province by sea. The region which appears to attract the most emigrants -is that of the Upper Obi and its affluents, including the regions of -Barnaoul, Biisk, and Kuznetsk in the Government of Tomsk. In these -sheltered valleys, which descend from the Altai range, the climate is -relatively mild and the land excellent. After this comes the region of -the Amur, where the emigrants are almost exclusively Little Russians, -who generally established themselves in the region extending along the -Lower Zeya to the east of Blagovyeshchensk and the Bureya. The climate, -however, is much colder than in the Government of Tomsk, and although -the richest part of the Amur has been selected for the principal centre -of colonization, the damp is excessive on account of its proximity to -the great water and to the very thick forests which cover almost the -whole country. The valleys, even on the borders of the Amur and its -affluents, are often inundated, and always marshy, and have, moreover, -up to the present resisted all attempts at cultivation. The plateaux to -the north of the Stanovoi Mountains possess a better kind of soil, and -form a more favourable zone, although even here cereals have a tendency -to produce, much to their detriment, a superabundance of weeds. The -Government, which, for political reasons easily understood, has hitherto -assisted colonization in the basin of the Amur, has refused until quite -lately to extend the movement to the region of the Yenissei, being -possibly under the impression that an excessive scattering of the new -population ought as much as possible to be avoided. Now that a -considerable part of the richer lands of Tomsk is occupied, it has been -deemed advisable to make an advance towards the east; therefore, in 1896 -19,000 colonists were settled in the Government of the Yenissei, notably -in the districts of Minusinsk, on the upper river, which enjoys nearly -the same advantages as the Upper Obi, and Kansk more to the east, which -is now the most active centre of settlement. The Government of Irkutsk, -which apparently contains a lesser supply of likely land, will doubtless -attract official attention later on. - -Settlers who have been for some considerable time in Siberia appear -generally satisfied with their lot, and although they may not endorse -the optimistic affirmations of the official world, the majority of their -villages appear more prosperous than those they abandoned in Russian -Europe. It could hardly be otherwise if they worked hard, since they are -allotted abundance of good land and a small pecuniary advance to assist -them with preliminary expenses. Nevertheless, a number of them return to -Europe every year. In 1894 as many as 4,500 went back, and, I fancy, if -the truth were known, a great many more. I once asked an official in -charge of the emigrants at Kansk, a very amiable, well-informed man, who -takes a great interest in his duties, why so many of these good people -wanted to go home again. He replied that not a few peasants emigrated -into Siberia under the illusion that they would be much better off, and -not have to work so hard, but when they found that they had to labour as -hard as ever, they soon got tired, packed up their traps, and returned -home. Others complain of the climate, not so much, as we might imagine, -of the winter as of the summer, when the mosquitoes are a perfect -plague. Some suffer from home-sickness, especially the women, who regret -their former surroundings, and who by incessant complaints and -lamentations end by worrying their husbands to return. This, however, is -not peculiar to Siberia or to the Russians, for it has even been noticed -in the United States, where young colonists are often obliged to give up -their farms because their wives find an isolated country life -insupportable. - -In the greater part of Siberia the population, as we have already -observed, is exclusively Russian. The native element may almost be -described as non-existent. From the ethnological point of view, the -region from the Obi to the Yenissei is already, and tends to become more -and more so, a prolongation of European Russia. In the government of the -Amur it is, however, otherwise, for the Russians have to face a native -population, and the colonists who have come from the European dominions -of the Tsar find themselves obliged to compete with a rather formidable -Asiatic contingent. On this side the centre of Russian influence is at -Vladivostok, a town which was only founded about forty years ago, but -which the Trans-Siberian line will eventually lift to extreme -importance. The only shadow in the picture is that during three or four -winter months the harbour is covered with ice. The noble bay, which the -English formerly named after Queen Victoria, and which the Russians have -now placed under the patronage of Peter the Great, is one of the most -magnificent in the world, in which the whole Russian fleet could easily -find shelter; but, unfortunately, although it is in the same latitude as -Toulon, it freezes very easily.[10] For this reason Vladivostok may -suffer considerably from the greater attractions of Port Arthur, which -is even better placed at the head of the line of communication towards -the Celestial Empire, and is, moreover, free from ice the whole year -round. Nevertheless, the town will remain the seat of many important -military establishments, which are already in existence, and which it -would be exceedingly expensive, and by no means easy, to remove -elsewhere. - -Splendidly situated at the head of a peninsula about twelve miles long, -separating two deep bays, whose shores, however, are absolutely sterile, -Vladivostok faces the principal and the more eastern of the two ports, -which happens, also, to be the safest. The town contains a number of -stone houses several stories high, built on the rather steep sides of -the hills, and presents quite an imposing appearance, especially after -the little wooden-housed towns in the interior of Siberia. Although it -lacks the extraordinary animation of its contemporaries, Vancouver, -Tacoma, and Seattle, for instance, on the other side of the Pacific, its -streets are the liveliest I have seen between Moscow and Nagasaki. It -soon becomes evident that one is in the Far East here. The streets are -crowded with pigtailed Chinese in blue, with Koreans in white, and -Japanese in their national costumes. Among these Asiatics move soldiers -and sailors, so that the European civilian costume is scarcely -represented at all, and the majority of those who do wear it are -Japanese. The day after my arrival happened to be the feast of St. -Alexander Nevsky, one of the great Russian holidays, which coincided -with a Chinese festival, so that the whole place was a blaze of -Celestial bunting, gold-edged yellow triangular shaped flags, emblazoned -with heraldic dragons, far out-numbering those of the Russians. Figures -confirm the impressions of experience, and the following show the manner -in which the population of Vladivostok was subdivided in 1895: - - ──────────────────────────────────────────────────┬──────┬──────┬────── - │ Men. │Women.│Total. - ──────────────────────────────────────────────────┼──────┼──────┼────── - Nobles │ 290│ 228│ 518 - Priests and their families │ 19│ 18│ 37 - Russian civil population │ 1,691│ 1,089│ 2,780 - Soldiers and families │ 9,232│ 855│10,087 - Exiles and families │ 117│ 72│ 189 - Other Europeans │ 46│ 26│ 72 - Japanese │ 676│ 556│ 1,232 - Chinese │ 5,580│ 58│ 5,638 - Koreans │ 642│ 177│ 819 - ──────────────────────────────────────────────────┼──────┼──────┼────── - Total │18,293│ 3,079│21,372 - ──────────────────────────────────────────────────┴──────┴──────┴────── - -In 1895 the population had considerably increased, mainly in consequence -of the barracks and of the increase of Russian and Asiatic emigration. -It has been observed that since the Chino-Japanese War the Koreans have -developed a distinct tendency to establish themselves on Russian soil. - -As in California and Australia, the Chinese who arrive in Vladivostok do -so without bringing their wives. They are mainly engaged as workmen, -domestic servants, boatmen, etc. When they have amassed a small fortune -they return home. Many of them, indeed, pass the winter in Shan-tung, in -the neighbourhood of Chi-fu, of which latter place they are nearly all -natives. The Japanese are, likewise, engaged in petty trade, and a -considerable number of them are hairdressers. It is also whispered -abroad, and pretty freely, too, that not a few of them are spies. A high -code of morals would condemn the manner in which the majority of the -Japanese here gain their livelihood. As to the Koreans, being very -strong, they are better adapted for hard work, and have supplied a -number of hands on the railway. They are more numerous in the environs -of Vladivostok than in the town itself—and they are highly appreciated -by their employers, the administration affording them small allotments -on account of their industrious and peaceful habits. - -It is not only at Vladivostok that the influence of the Far East -appears, but throughout the entire government of the Amur. From the -moment one enters Trans-Baikalia one is brought into immediate contact -with the Mongol tribe of the Buriats. As already stated elsewhere, the -Yellow Race predominates in this region, and throughout Trans-Baikalia -the followers of Buddhism form about a third of the population—in 1895, -190,003 out of 610,604. Advancing towards the East, and leaving aside -the older Russian possessions in order to enter the provinces annexed in -1857, we find that the territory of the Amur contains 21,000 Manchu -Buddhists out of a population of 112,000 according to the census of -1897. These Manchus were about the only occupants of the country at the -time of its annexation, and not a few have remained subjects of the -Chinese Empire. Opposite to Blagovyeshchensk there is a large Chinese -village, whence almost every morning a number of people bring fruit and -vegetables to the Russian town. - -In the territory of the Littoral, in that broad zone which extends from -42° to 70° north, it was estimated in 1895 that the Russians exceeded -110,000 in a population of 152,000, the rest being composed of 23,000 -natives, 18,000 Chinese, Koreans and Japanese, and about 1,000 Jews. -According to the census taken in 1897, the population has very -considerably increased. It records 214,940 inhabitants, but these have -not been subdivided into classes, and, moreover, the European -immigration has not been very considerable in the last two years. A -curious observation has been made as to the preponderance of the male -sex over the female, there being 147,669 men as against 67,261 women. -The reason for this is not far to seek, and is mainly due to the fact -that the Russian immigrants generally arrive with their families, -whereas the military element, exceeding 40,000 in the Littoral Province, -and the Chinese are not encumbered with women-folk. Khabarofsk, -essentially a garrison town, and the capital of the government, has out -of a population of 14,932 only 3,259 women. Its appearance is, -therefore, quite martial, and its picturesqueness is considerably -improved by the presence of a number of Chinese junks in the harbour, -that, as is the case at Blagovyeshchensk, Sydney and Melbourne, bring -excellent vegetables from the fertile kingdom of the Son of Heaven. -Apart from the troops, the Koreans, the Chinese and the Japanese form at -least a quarter of the population of the Littoral, and, combined with -the natives, reach a total which is only slightly overtopped by the -Russians. There are not wanting those who disapprove of this high -proportion of the Yellow Race in the three territories forming the -Government of the Amur, but without any justifiable reason. The Buriats, -for instance, are by no means a decreasing element in the population, -and the Russians are distinctly prolific, whereas the Chinese -immigration, if it ever takes place on any considerable scale, will have -to cross the Desert of Gobi, an obstacle which will delay it for a long -time to come. In the other two territories, the indigenous population, -mostly fishermen and hunters of a very primitive sort, is undoubtedly -visibly diminishing, excepting in the ice-bound regions of the Okhotsk -and Behring Straits, whither, too, Manchus, Chinese and Koreans are -flocking in considerable numbers. All these Asiatics are hard-working, -live upon less than the Russians, and are much more industrious and -often hire from the European immigrants strips of land which they -cultivate with much better results. The small trade of the towns is -almost entirely in the hands of the Yellow Race. Although the Chinese -immigration is more or less of an ephemeral nature, it is very likely to -become exceedingly numerous, especially in the towns and their suburbs, -and might in the course of time render the competition of the Whites -extremely difficult, and necessitate interference on the part of the -Russian Government to limit the sphere of Chinese labour. In any case, -it is quite certain that if Manchuria, as a consequence of the -introduction of the railway, ever comes under the dominion of the Tsar, -it is highly improbable that its so doing will increase the immigration -of the Russians, mainly on account of the surprising activity of the -Chinese in colonizing this part of their empire. At the present time the -Government is more preoccupied with the European than with the Asiatic -immigration, and, whereas it never refuses a grant of land to the -Koreans, it very frequently does so to the Europeans, excepting by -special and exceptional favour. I am obliged to admit that the -Government has, as a rule, been very indulgent towards the French, -several of whom have obtained grants at Blagovyeshchensk, although a -refusal was given to a Frenchman to buy land notwithstanding that he had -lived in the country for over thirty years. As to the gold mines, their -exploitation is only granted to Russian subjects. The whole country east -of Baikalia, that is to say, the Government of the Amur, is at present -freed from paying Customs duties, excepting on spirits, tobacco, sugar -and other articles which in Russia pay excise duty. This part of Siberia -is never likely to become attractive to Europeans of other nationality -than the Russians. On the other hand, undoubtedly, in the course of -time, European capital will be much employed in this part, and some -enterprising merchants and engineers may even eventually establish -themselves in the country, which will surely prove to its interest, and -not to its detriment. - -Independently of voluntary immigrants, Siberia used to receive annually -a great number of political and other exiles and convicts. By a _ukaz_, -issued in 1899, Tsar Nicholas II. put a stop to the old and cruel system -of exiling suspects and convicts into Siberia,[11] which ought -undoubtedly to result in much good; for when a country begins to be -thickly peopled with free immigrants it is unwise to continue to use it -as a penal settlement. These exiles may be divided into two principal -groups: firstly, political, often very honest and amiable people, such -as students who have taken part in a manifestation hostile to the -Government; Poles, compromised in recent insurrections; Catholics and -Protestants who have displayed too much zeal in the affirmation of their -religious opinions; and Raskolniks, whose peculiar theological opinions -have already been described. The second category includes less estimable -people: youths of good family of by no means irreproachable character, -who have been sent to meditate on their shortcomings for a certain -number of years, and repent of their follies at their leisure on the -pleasant banks of the Obi or the Yenissei; and certain functionaries of -good family who have been guilty of appropriating money officially -entrusted to them. Of these unfortunate people, those who have been -guilty of minor offences are sent to Western Siberia, where they often -obtain employment as servants and coachmen. On the other hand, those who -have committed graver offences, and who have been condemned to hard -labour, undergo their punishment in Eastern Siberia, in Irkutsk, -Yenissei, or in Trans-Baikalia, and must remain there. Inveterate -criminals, murderers, and escaped galley-slaves, are sent to the island -of Sakhalin, opposite the mouth of the Amur, where, even at the -expiration of their terms, they are obliged to end their lives. Those -political exiles who are not punished for grave offences are also -relegated to the west, where the climate is fairly temperate. The graver -the charge and the heavier the sentence, the farther are they sent -eastward, even to the icy territories of Yakutsk, Verkhoyansk, Nijne -Kolymsk, and Ust-Yansk. To these regions are also relegated the members -of the strange sect of Eunuchs. The majority of these people, unless -indeed they are very gravely compromised, after being obliged to reside -three, or even ten, years in a village, are allowed to settle in a town, -to go freely all over Siberia, and even at the expiration of a certain -number of years to return to Russia. They not infrequently make -themselves extremely useful. Many Poles become innkeepers, and I know of -one at least who is a Doctor of Law, and who speaks excellent French. At -Irkutsk one can get good beer, a beverage elsewhere execrable, a boon -entirely due to the enterprise of an exile from the Baltic provinces. In -the extreme north not a few exiles employ their time with scientific and -meteorological studies. Here I may observe that I have never seen any of -the exiles in Siberia ill-treated, and even the chain which some of them -are obliged to wear did not seem to me very heavy. The great prison of -Alexandrofsk, near Irkutsk, is admirably managed, its rules being very -mild. Nevertheless, I must confess that I only visited what the -officials chose to show me. All I can say is that, according to my -experience, if there are exiles who are habitually badly treated, they -must be very few in number. Of course, I can say nothing in extenuation -of the system of transporting a young man or even a young woman to -languish in a dreary village buried in the depths of a forest or the -Tundra, merely because they happen to have taken an over-prominent part -in some political or students’ demonstration. - -One curious fact connected with this system of Russian transportation is -that the wives and children of the exiles are often authorized to follow -the condemned man, which they very frequently do, although in some cases -the law considers the marriage bond annulled by the mere act of -condemnation, the unfortunate exiles being considered civilly dead. The -families of these poor people often endure such terrible privations that -local committees have been founded, under the patronage of the -authorities, to assist them. In 1894, in the five Governments of -Tobolsk, Tomsk, Yenissei, Irkutsk, and Yakutsk, 15,000 exiles and their -families arrived. - -In a single and not particularly favourable year, the population of -Siberia was increased by about 85,000 persons, of whom about 66,495 were -free immigrants. The natural increase was almost equally great, rising, -according to the statistics, to 78,000, exclusive of the Littoral -Province, which, if taken into account, ought to raise the population by -80,000. On a population which we may estimate at 5,300,000 at this -period, there must have been about 250,000 births, that is 47·5 per -1,000, and 172,000 deaths, or 32·4 per 1,000. The birth-rate, therefore, -is exceedingly high, and the death-rate, when the conditions of the -country are considered, certainly not abnormal. In 1898 the immigration, -owing to the opening of the railway, was greatly increased, to the -extent even of 200,000 souls. It is not therefore a lack of population -which is ever likely to affect the future of Siberia. The natural -resources of the country can be justly compared with Canada, which it -exceeds in size, and also, to a slight extent, in population; but the -difference between the two countries, in point of economic development, -is very great. What is wanted in Siberia is less the creation of a great -number of complex industries, for which the country is not yet ripe, -than the introduction, as already stated elsewhere, of up-to-date -methods of exploiting the natural resources of the country, which can -only be borrowed from foreign countries, and it will only be by opening -wide its doors and by receiving strangers without jealousy or -unwarranted suspicion that Russia will ever be able to obtain from her -gigantic enterprise in Trans-Siberia a return worthy of the great wealth -of a country which must eventually be placed on the same footing as any -other in point of civilization and progress. - - - - - CHAPTER VIII - MEANS OF COMMUNICATION IN SIBERIA - - Absolute insufficiency of the present means of transport—Coaches and - sleighs—The tarantass: price, length and conditions of travelling - by this means of locomotion—Navigation—Scheme for penetrating into - Siberia by the Arctic Ocean and its recent success—Absolute - necessity of more railways. - - -In order to form a fair idea of the revolution which the Trans-Siberian -Railway is likely to bring about in the economical and political -conditions of Northern Asia, it will be as well to glance at the actual -conditions of the present means of travel and transport in the country. -The most rapid means of locomotion at the disposal of travellers only -yesterday, as it were, was in summer the stage-coach, and in winter the -sleigh. Twenty years ago, to go to Vladivostok (6,000 miles distant) the -traveller took the coach at Kazan, on the Volga, the journey occupying -not less than two months in the more favourable season, when a coat of -snow, as solid as marble and as smooth as velvet, replaces the usual mud -and slush on the Siberian roads. Later on, with the progress of -navigation and the construction of a railway across the Urals, the -starting-point for this journey was removed further on to the most -eastern point touched by the steamboats, in the basin of the Obi at -Tomsk. In summer this route shortened the journey viâ Krasnoyarsk, -Irkutsk, and Chita about 1,875 miles, at the end of which one reached -the Amur, where navigation recommenced. Since 1896 the Trans-Siberian -has passed Tomsk, and now the starting-point of the road journey has -gone gradually farther afield, and is now daily receding more to the -east. - -In the summer of 1897 the railway had already reached the little town of -Kansk, about 160 miles beyond the Yenissei, and it was here, or at the -Kluchi station, some 65 miles further on, that one hired a coach. It is, -however, wiser to buy one’s tarantass, in order to avoid the trouble of -unloading luggage at each stage, and, again, the coaches hired out by -the postmasters are much less comfortable. - -The station-master at Kluchi, to whom I had been recommended, like many -other subordinate officials in Siberia, was an exile, who in better days -had been a captain in the artillery, and, moreover, the cashier of his -regiment. One fine day, in a fit of over-generosity, he unluckily lent a -sum of money, abstracted from the cash-box, to a comrade who had lost -very considerably at the gaming-tables. Fate avenged the regiment in the -shape of an inspector, who inopportunely arrived upon the scene, -examined into affairs, and forthwith ended the military career of the -unlucky officer. After fourteen years’ exile in Siberia this -indiscriminately good-natured individual has become chief inspector of a -little railway-station, and adds to his small income by letting out -tarantasses to travellers. He sold me for £18 the best of his vehicles, -which, I was assured, had recently been used by a distinguished -official, but, nevertheless, I had to get rid of it, when I took the -steamer on the Amur two months later, for about £7. - -Jules Verne, in ‘Michael Strogoff,’ has introduced and popularized the -tarantass. It is a vehicle without springs, with a body about six feet -long, like a trough supported on three broad planks of wood, and mounted -upon two very low axles nine to ten feet apart. An immense hood protects -the back part of the carriage from the rain, and by buttoning the -leathern apron fixed to the front, one can keep one’s self almost -hermetically screened from the weather. The tarantass, if it is not -particularly comfortable, has the advantage of being very strong. It -possesses nothing in the shape of a seat, and one is obliged to lie -full-length on a litter of hay or upon the luggage, unless, indeed, from -time to time, in order to change position, one cares to sit on the edge -of the vehicle or else alongside the coachman. The horses are supplied -by the postmasters at the rate of three kopecks, or three farthings, per -verst for each horse, and, moreover, one has to pay a fixed tax of about -fivepence per horse at each relay. The team consists usually of three -horses, and the relays are found at a distance of about sixteen miles -apart. The expenses, therefore, for this short distance amount to about -five shillings, inclusive of a tip to the coachman, so that there is not -much to complain of in that respect. The same tariff applies in winter, -but in the intermediary seasons, from March 5 to May 15, and from -September 15 to December 1, when the thaw sets in and the roads are very -heavy, a fourth horse is needed, and the expense is increased about one -quarter. I used frequently to ask Siberians how many miles could be -performed in this sort of vehicle. Of course, almost everybody gave me a -different answer. One high official in Tomsk informed me that it could -undertake as many as 400 versts in twenty-four hours. ‘Do not imagine -you can go more than from sixty-five to eighty,’ said the -station-master, and as it was he who had sold me my tarantass, I came to -the conclusion that his rather dismal prognostic was the true one. As a -matter of fact, everything depends upon the condition of the roads, and -also as to whether the traveller has supplied himself with a -_podorojne_, an official document usually granted to Imperial couriers -and to high officials, and which enables its possessor to avoid being -detained at the various stations on the road. Fortunately, as I had one -of these documents, I was able to make between 90 and 120 miles in -twenty-four hours. - -I cannot describe the scenery by the way as particularly interesting. -The road cuts through the forests of pines and larches, and is, as a -rule, fairly well kept, and about as broad as the best of our national -routes in France. From time to time the wall of verdure opens out to -give way to a clearing, along which one perceives rows of wooden houses, -indicating the existence of some village or other, the name of which is -printed on a post, that also supplies information as to the number of -inhabitants of each sex. One soon gets tired of the beauty of the trees, -and, to be truthful, also of the rather monotonous convoys of _telegas_ -loaded with merchandise, waggons with gold, escorted by soldiers, and of -the interminable caravans of emigrants. As one passes the Baikal the -road becomes less and less frequented, and more and more monotonous and -dreary, especially in the dismal steppe, with its stunted growth, -through which flows the Vitim, an affluent of the Lena. The road now -meanders through marshy prairies, and is merely indicated by the line of -gray telegraph-posts stretching off towards the horizon. - -In order to break the intolerable monotony of these very long journeys, -it is usual to invite one or two other travellers to share expenses, and -these are not difficult to find, for the Russians are naturally sociable -and quite free from stiffness or conventionality. I was rather surprised -on one occasion to find the wife of an official in Trans-Baikalia who, -to join her husband, had performed the journey from Vladikavkaz, 4,000 -miles by rail and 1,000 miles by road, in the company of an officer with -whom she was only slightly acquainted. The Russians were not more -astonished at this than Americans would have been. The general -insecurity of the country is probably responsible for the ease with -which people make acquaintances. Those who like to deal in horrors are -by no means behindhand in relating appalling stories of travellers who -have been waylaid by escaped convicts and murdered in the heart of the -forest. ‘Have you your revolvers?’ asked the postmaster, on the evening -of my first journey in my tarantass, and just as we were about to start. -‘Three travellers were assassinated on this relay only fifteen days -ago,’ continued he, and then he gave us a horribly detailed account of -the circumstances. I had no revolver with me, and never had any reason -to need one, and I rather doubted the authenticity of these gruesome -stories. The real danger which travellers in Siberia have to encounter -is that of having the rope which attaches their luggage to the back of -the tarantass artfully cut and their portmanteaus carried off. Accidents -are rare, as the tarantass is generally very strongly built. It is -somewhat alarming, however, when at the head of a steep incline, to -watch the coachman exciting his horses into a gallop by the wildest -gesticulations, but one soon learns that the danger in this case is -merely apparent. - -Considerable patience is certainly needed on these Siberian journeys, -for the roads are often appallingly bad, especially when the inundations -set in after a thaw, when even the bridges are carried off by the -torrents. Then, again, what is particularly exasperating is the passive -air of resignation assumed by all concerned, postmaster and coachman, -and even by one’s travelling companions. Accustomed as these people are -to live in a climate in which the forces of Nature defy the ingenuity of -man, they are very apt, especially as they have nothing on earth else to -do, to shrug their shoulders at the inevitable, and to avoid with -supreme skill troubling themselves about the ways and means of bettering -things. I remember on one occasion, after having been assured at Kiakhta -and Chita that if I persisted in continuing my journey I was exposing my -life, being landed in a ford into which one of the wheels of the -tarantass stuck. To extricate it, we had to work for over an hour in the -cold water and in the dim dawn, and even then we were only able to do so -with the help of two Buriats who were passing that way, and who lent us -their horses to assist us in getting out of this unpleasant fix. With -the sole exception of this mishap I had very little to complain of. It -is in the post-stations, however, that one’s patience is put to the test -and that one realizes the force of a truism made by a certain English -author, who began a book on Siberia with the following singular -aphorism: ‘In Siberia time is not money.’ One crosses the threshold of -these rather doleful-looking houses, which become more and more -lugubrious as one advances eastward, with a feeling akin to dread. - -The postmaster is almost invariably to be found seated in front of a -very dirty register, and generally grunts out his answers to your -inquiries as to whether he has any horses ready, ‘You will have to wait -two or three hours, possibly until the next morning,’ after which -pleasant piece of information you pass into the common waiting-room, -usually furnished with a few chairs, two or three tables and one or two -old sofas. On the wall hang an ikon or so, the inevitable portraits of -their Majesties, and a few frames with the usual printed instructions -and regulations. Then comes a sort of glorified bill-of-fare, from a -perusal of which you learn the names of a number of succulent dishes, -but, unfortunately, the last line informs you that the postmaster is -only obliged to supply you with black bread and hot water, the last -article being intended to make tea, with which, together with sugar, -every traveller supplies himself before starting. Nearly always, -however, one finds excellent eggs and milk. It is wise in travelling in -Trans-Baikalia to take a supply of preserves, which you can procure in -any large Siberian town. - -The travellers, however, whom one meets in these resorts are generally -exceedingly friendly, very willing and even eager to share their -provisions. Seated round the great copper samovar, conversation becomes -cordial and intimate, everybody calling each other, regardless of age or -sex, by their Christian names, ‘Nicholas Petrovitch,’ ‘Paul Ivanovitch,’ -‘Elisabeth Alexandrovna,’ and so forth. Constantly, when on the journey, -one often falls in with the same people, and thus acquaintance soon -ripens into intimacy. But, although these gatherings round the samovar -are very agreeable, and enable one to study the pleasanter qualities of -the Russian people, it is not advisable to pass the night in any of the -hostelries along the road, for all the insecticide powders ever invented -will not insure a quiet night. - -However interesting, therefore, a cross-country journey through Siberia -may be, it is not exactly of the kind one would recommend for a pleasure -trip, although many Russian ladies, even of the highest rank, frequently -undertake it, but I do not recommend it to delicate people. When -supplied with a _podorojne_ and the weather is fine the journey is -pleasant enough, but it must not be forgotten that it takes seven weeks -to go from the Ural to Vladivostok. In winter the journey by sleigh from -the Volga takes two months, but if it takes so long for a traveller, -what must it be for merchandise! Commerce, therefore, on account of the -backward condition of the land routes, is obliged in Siberia to make use -of the splendid watercourses, but even these are paralyzed during seven -months of the year by thick coatings of ice, and, what is still worse, -they all flow towards an ocean eternally blocked by icebergs. - -Recently some very hardy experiments, crowned so far with partial -success, have been made to penetrate to the heart of Siberia by the -Polar Sea when navigation is free during certain weeks of the year. It -will be remembered that it was by the White Sea that European commerce, -represented by an Englishman named Chancellor, first entered Russia in -the sixteenth century. It is therefore not to be wondered at that -attempts have been made to penetrate into Siberia by the mouths of the -Obi and the Yenissei, which are situated at no greater distance than -1,000 to 1,200 miles from the northernmost part of Norway, where the sea -is always free from ice. M. Sidorov, a Russian gentleman of ample -fortune, in the middle of the present century, devoted himself to -carrying out this scheme, and notwithstanding that he was discouraged by -the leading scientists of the day, who considered it impracticable, he -promised a very ample reward to the captain of the first ship which -should enter the Yenissei. Two expeditions, attempted in 1862 and 1869, -failed; but in 1874 an Englishman named Wiggins, captain of the _Diana_, -succeeded in passing the Straits of Kara, which separate Novaya Zemlya -from the continent, on the frontiers of Europe and Asia, and thus was -able to effect a passage into the estuary of the Yenissei. More -successful attempts were made in the following years, and in 1878 iron, -groceries, machinery, and other articles, were landed at the mouths of -the Obi and the Yenissei. In 1887 an English company was formed to carry -on a regular service at the close of each summer between England and the -North of Siberia, but unfortunately the first year was not successful, -the goods not being of a profitable character. On the succeeding voyage -the vessel could not pass the Straits of Kara, and had to return home. -Subsequently a new company was formed, but with disastrous results. -These ineffectual attempts, however, did not discourage the English, and -the scheme for navigating the Arctic Ocean was reassumed on a larger -basis in 1896, when three steamers entered the Yenissei and ascended -that river to Turukhansk, about 600 miles from its estuary, where their -goods were transferred to large barges and conveyed to Krasnoyarsk. The -merchandise, which included seven steam-engines, was sold for a fair -profit. This English company has now installed an agency at Krasnoyarsk, -and the Russian Government, in consideration of the great services which -it has rendered at great risk in attempting to create a regular service -through the Arctic Ocean into Western and Central Siberia, has reduced -the customs duties on all goods introduced by it by one-half, and indeed -has completely abandoned its claims on a number of articles such as -grocery and machinery. Moreover, so pleased has the Russian Government -been by this courageous attempt that it has granted some very valuable -mining concessions on this river. In 1897 six English steamers returned -to Turukhansk, and quite a fleet of them was directed to the mouth of -the Obi, hitherto somewhat neglected on account of the shallowness of -the water. Moreover, an attempt has recently been made to create an -export trade between Siberia and England, and a cargo of corn brought by -the company’s barges to the point where their ships are anchored was -soon afterwards happily transported to Europe. In 1898 the same company -met with identical success. Thus far this enterprise has been very -fortunate. Needless to say, the Kara Sea and the straits which border -upon it are, up to the beginning of August, blocked with ice, -concentrated there by the different currents, and the season during -which navigation is possible lasts only from six weeks to two months, -between August and September. The ships used in this particular service -must leave Europe a little beforehand, so as to await at the Straits of -Kara a favourable opportunity to penetrate to the mouth of the rivers, -ascend them, discharge and recharge, and start again as quickly as -possible. The time is exceedingly limited during which the barges can -transport their cargoes into the interior and reascend the Siberian -rivers ere these are frozen over, and this especially is the case on the -Yenissei, whose currents, even at Krasnoyarsk, are not more than six -miles an hour, attaining, however, twelve miles between Krasnoyarsk and -Yenissei. Therefore it is impossible to perform more than seventy to -eighty miles a day, and it must be remembered that between Turukhansk -and Krasnoyarsk the distance is about 1,000 miles, and that in the -beginning of October navigation is suspended. Under these conditions it -is not likely that more than one service a year can ever be organized, -although possibly, when the peculiarities of the icy regions of the Kara -Sea are better known, it might be otherwise. It should also be mentioned -that the vessels engaged in this particular trade have not been built -expressly for it, but are ordinary cargo-boats, which can be engaged -during the rest of the year trading in pleasanter climes. If the present -company establishes itself definitely it will be extremely fortunate, -not only for the town of Krasnoyarsk, but for the whole of Siberia, -which will thus be able to export, by a very cheap route, the excess of -its harvests and perhaps also some of its superb wood, and receive in -exchange from Western Europe manufactured articles and machinery, -hitherto exclusively supplied from Moscow. Therefore the opening of the -Trans-Siberian Railway, combined with the passage of navigation through -the Arctic Sea, will necessarily benefit Asiatic Russia very -considerably, and help that country to obtain freer communication with -the rest of the world, and thereby enable it eventually to become -completely modernized. - - - - - CHAPTER IX - THE TRANS-SIBERIAN RAILWAY - - Origin of the Trans-Siberian Railway—At first considered only from the - strategic and political point of view—Completion of the Ural - Railway—Project of utilizing the navigable routes to unite Russia - to the Amur—Difficulties encountered owing to the severity of the - climate—Alexander III. in 1891 decides to lay a line between the - Ural and the Pacific, and determines the conditions of its - construction—The various sections of the line and its deviations - across Manchuria—Condition of the works in 1892, and the speed - with which it has been constructed—Russia now possesses (1900) a - line of mixed communication by train and boat passing from the - Ural to the Pacific, and in 1904 a complete line will pass - directly from the Ural to Port Arthur, a distance of over 4,130 - miles—The monster ferry-boats in course of construction to convey - passengers across Lake Baikal—The success of the enterprise. - - -The idea of making an overland road from Russia to the Far East and the -Pacific probably germinated in the fertile brain of Voltaire, who, in a -letter to Count Schuvarof, dated Ferney, June 11, 1761, said ‘that it -ought to be possible to travel from Russia direct to China without -having to cross any considerable mountain pass, just as one can go from -St. Petersburg to Paris without leaving the plain.’ The matter was even -more practically defined, nearer our own time, by Count -Mouravief-Amurski, who, after he had annexed the province of the Amur to -Russia, favoured the idea of building a Trans-Siberian railway, and, in -the meantime, encouraged the creation of a postal highroad from the -Urals to the Amur, which, he considered, would greatly strengthen -Russian prestige on the shores of the Pacific. - -The Trans-Siberian Railway, it may be remarked, was not originally -designed merely in the interests of Siberia, but as a means of uniting -Europe with the rich countries of the Far East, in such a manner as to -avoid the necessity of passing any length of time in the rude and -sparsely-peopled intermediary territories. Even after the project was -definitely accepted by Alexander III., the political and strategical -considerations of the problem were deemed of far greater importance than -the commercial; but presently it transpired that Siberia was not quite -the forlorn country hitherto imagined, but that it possessed certain -resources of great value, which might easily be developed, provided -rapid communication with the rest of the empire was organized. - -The first step in the right direction was the construction of the Ural -Railway, opened in 1880, which united Perm on the Kama with Tiumen on -the Tobol, a river flowing into the Irtysh. The increasing necessity of -developing the important gold and iron mines in the Urals was doubtless -the principal motive why this line was completed; but presently it -proved to be of vast importance to the rest of Siberia, since, by -combining the river with the land routes, it became possible, at least -during five or six months of the year, to reach Tomsk in a relatively -short period. - -At that time it was thought the opening of this trunk line would be -detrimental to the scheme of a complete Trans-Siberian railway, for once -the junction of the navigable tributaries of the Obi with those of the -Volga was accomplished, it was deemed desirable to connect Russia with -its possessions in the Far East by uniting in the same manner the basin -of the Obi with that of the Yenissei, and finally the latter with the -affluents of the Amur, and so with the Pacific. A railway from the Obi -to the Yenissei was not thought necessary, a canal being all that was -required. In 1882, therefore, the construction of a canal was undertaken -between the Ket, a tributary of the Obi, and the Kass, an affluent of -the Yenissei, the distance not being more than 126 miles. The canal in -question, which traverses a series of virgin forests, when completed, -unfortunately, however, did not realize expectation. To the east of the -Yenissei its promoters encountered formidable obstacles from the ice and -from the numerous rapids that disturb the current of the Angara, and all -attempts to ascend that river have hitherto failed. - -Notwithstanding these difficulties, the enterprising engineers hoped to -the last to be able to modify some of them, but have not succeeded in so -doing. Thus, it soon became evident that if any practical means of -communication was to exist between Russia and the Pacific, it could only -be by some method independent of climatic irregularity. The late Tsar, -Alexander III., very readily understood that the mixed rail and river -system, with its many inconveniences of loading and unloading, and its -ice blockades, was, comparatively speaking, useless. Hence the great -encouragement and assistance which his Imperial Majesty gave to the -creation of the Trans-Siberian Railway, in which he took the deepest -interest, being quite of opinion that its completion was of vital -importance to the improvement and well-being of an immense section of -his Empire. In less than eight years from the day he signed the Imperial -decree authorizing its immediate execution trains began to run over -3,300 miles, uniting the upper region of the Amur with Europe and the -lower section of that river with the Pacific. Without entering into -further particulars of the various routes proposed and subsequently -given up, suffice it to say that at present the excellent idea of -creating a line running along the shores of Lake Baikal from Irkutsk to -Misofsk has been temporarily abandoned, and that a short line of -forty-four miles between Irkutsk and Listvenitchnaya now runs to the -western shores of that lake, where the trains will ere long be shunted -directly on board ferry-boats built on the well-known American system, -and thus travellers will be able to continue their journey to the Far -East without leaving the train. - -The Trans-Siberian Railway between Cheliabinsk and Vladivostok now -includes a main line some 4,125 miles in length, plus two branch lines, -one 104 miles and the other 410 miles in length, which unite with the -Upper and Lower Amur. - -The Western Siberian Railway was finished in 1895; the Central Siberian -and the section between Irkutsk and Baikal in 1898. Trains can now run -over 2,152 miles of rail. The 478 miles of the Ussuri line, of which 67 -miles belong to the trunk line, were not opened until 1897. The many -difficulties of the Trans-Baikalian line, which somewhat retarded its -completion, having been overcome, it was inaugurated quite recently, -whereby 2,814 miles out of the total 4,125 miles were rendered free for -traffic. The line to Ussuri was finished three years ago, and the rail -having been laid between Onon and Stretensk, the Russians have now -(1900) a complete land and river system of intercommunication to the -Pacific. - -For some years past a number of Russian officers and engineers have been -quietly exploring Manchuria, with very interesting results. In 1895 the -Chinese Government, after the Chino-Japanese War, accorded, as a token -of gratitude to Russia for her share in the combined intervention with -France and Germany in her favour, the privilege to build a railway -through this important province, and, moreover, to occupy the country -during its construction, the better to protect both works and workmen. -This circumstance brought about a great modification in the original -route of the Trans-Siberian line. The section in the Amur from Stretensk -to Khabarofsk was abandoned and replaced by a Trans-Manchurian Railway -which leaves the station at Onon, 104 miles east of Stretensk, to rejoin -the original line at Nikolsk, about 67 miles from Vladivostok, and thus -has a mixed route of rail and river been created which brings Europe and -the Pacific into direct communication during the summer months. The -train now conveys travellers from the Ural to Stretensk; thence by boat -to Khabarofsk, whence the line continues uninterruptedly to Vladivostok. -As to the great Manchurian line, it cannot be completed, even according -to the letter of the concession, before 1904, so numerous and so very -great are the natural and other obstacles which have to be overcome. A -notable modification has, however, already been made in the original -plan. Vladivostok is now no longer to be the main terminus, which will -be transferred to Port Arthur, 530 miles further south. The advantages -to commerce to be derived from this project will doubtless soon and -amply compensate for the extra labour and expense. - -The great difficulties of constructing the Trans-Siberian Railway were -mainly due to its abnormal length. Whereas the Americans had only 2,000 -miles to cut in creating their line between the Mississippi and the -Pacific, the Russians thirty years later had to lay down more than 4,000 -miles of rail in order to reach the same ocean from the Ural. Otherwise -their difficulties were very much less formidable than those which at -times nearly baffled even the ingenuity of the Americans. Happily there -are no Rocky Mountains or Sierra Nevada in Siberia to traverse at a -great height, but only comparatively low ranges like the Yablonovoi, or -‘Apple-Tree Mountains,’ so-called from their rather dumpy shapes. Then, -again, although Siberia is at present not more densely inhabited than -was the Far West from 1860 to 1870, it contains no such desolate regions -as the plateaus of Utah and Nevada. It may, therefore, be safely -affirmed that from the engineering point of view the task was a -comparatively easy one, although the line has to pass over an -exceedingly varied country after leaving the Ural, and through -interminable plains, to reach the undulating regions between the Obi and -the Yenissei, where it ascends a chain of hills at an altitude of not -less than 2,000 feet on the road from the Yenissei to Irkutsk. On the -eastern shore of the Baikal the railway gradually ascends to an altitude -of not less than 3,500 feet above the level of the water, whence it -descends in rapid zigzag into the valleys of the Ingoda and the Chilka, -cuts the abrupt spurs of some very high mountains, and passes into -marshlands where, by the way, the engineers have had to overcome their -greatest obstruction, mainly due to the unstable condition of the soil. -When, therefore, we take into consideration that between the Amur and -the Ural there is not a single tunnel, we may safely conclude that, if -it were not for its enormous length, this now famous line has not been -from the engineering point of view as arduous an undertaking even as -have been, for instance, some of the much shorter lines nearer home, -across the Alps and the Cevennes. - -The bridges, on the other hand, are very remarkable and numerous, and -some of them required great skill in their construction, since they span -the more important rivers of Siberia, which, with the exception of those -in the basin of the Amur, invariably flow due north. There are four -principal bridges, of which two cross the Irtysh and the Obi -respectively, each 2,750 feet in length; the other two span the Yenissei -and the Selenga, and are about 3,000 feet in length. These four bridges -were exceedingly costly, necessitating the erection of stone piles of -prodigious strength, capable of resisting the shock of the enormous -masses of floating ice. The minor bridges, some of them 700 to 900 feet -in length, are very numerous, but, beyond the difficulty of fixing them -firmly a great distance on either side of the rivers, owing to the -marshy nature of the soil on the immediate banks, it needed no -superlative skill on the part of the engineers who superintended their -erection. - -Altogether the most remarkable feature of the line will be the manner in -which the trains are eventually to be transported across the Baikal, the -largest lake in Asia. In America and in Denmark the system of running a -train on to a monster ferry-boat, crossing considerable expanses of -water, has now been in practical use for many years; but the distances -hitherto have never exceeded seventy miles. The Toledo, Ann Harbour, and -Northern Michigan Railroad possesses a service of ferry-boats that -convey the trains across Lake Michigan, a distance of about seventy -miles. The _Père Marquette_, the biggest ferry-boat in the world, -so-called in honour of the celebrated Jesuit missionary and explorer, is -344 feet in length by 54 feet in width, and possesses four lines, -whereby it can carry thirty freight cars and sixteen very up-to-date -passenger corridor carriages. The difficulties to be surmounted with -respect to Lake Baikal are happily less than those to be encountered on -Lake Michigan. The distance from shore to shore, to begin with, is -considerably less. Between Listvenitchnaya, otherwise the ‘Larches,’ to -Misofsk is only forty miles. Notwithstanding the excessive cold, the -Baikal does not freeze until quite late in January, on account of its -great depth, 4,200 feet, of which 2,900 feet are below the level of the -sea, forming a prodigious volume of water which takes a very long time -to freeze, and an almost equally long time to thaw, for its temperature -rarely rises, even in summer, above 5° C. During eight months of the -year Lake Baikal is free and navigable, and it is believed that two -crossings a day, always in the same channel, may eventually reduce the -thickness of the ice in winter. - -The building of these enormous ferry-boats has been entrusted to a -well-known American firm.[12] They are to be larger than the _Père -Marquette_, and provided with special contrivances for cutting the ice -as they force their passage through it, and they are, moreover, intended -to go at the rate of thirteen and a half knots an hour in free water, -and four knots when cutting through the ice. The passage will take nine -hours in winter and about two and a half hours in summer. Unfortunately, -storms are very sudden and frequent on Lake Baikal, and, moreover, in -summer travelling is often impeded by dense fogs, and it occasionally -happens that boats are detained for hours and even days at a time before -they dare venture across. It will certainly be very unpleasant for the -passengers to be kept for many hours at Listvenitchnaya or Misofsk -waiting for the weather to clear. However, they can take heart of grace; -for not so very long ago they might have been detained for days at some -out-of-the-way post-house, in company with a regiment of most unpleasant -and unnameable bedfellows! - -The difficulties of obtaining workmen for building this railway were not -so great as might have been expected, thanks to the nomadic habits of -the Russians, who think very little of leaving their wives and -belongings at home, and going hundreds, even thousands, of miles away in -search of employment. Then, again, there were already a considerable -number of workpeople to be obtained on the line itself; for, as already -stated, the population of Siberia is concentrated on the old -postal-road, which runs in many points parallel to the railway. Convict -labour was not greatly used, and when it was it proved unsatisfactory, -and was soon more or less abandoned. The line, however, has taken an -unusually long time to finish, because the only season during which work -can be carried on in Siberia lasts but six months; but this probably -proved attractive to the Russian and Asiatic workmen, as it gave them -ample time, when the ground was thickly covered with snow, to return to -their cabins and indulge in those day-dreams so dear to them and to all -Orientals. - -It is difficult to estimate the exact cost of the line, but it was at -first reckoned at over £40,000,000 sterling,[13] of which unfortunately -a considerable percentage was absolutely wasted, if not worse. Grave -charges have been brought against a great number of people in connection -with this line, and doubtless with reason; for it must not be forgotten -that the notions of honesty entertained in Asiatic Russia are apt even -now to be distinctly Byzantine. However, be this as it may, Russia can -be congratulated upon having completed a brilliant achievement, which no -other nation, except perhaps England or America, would have dared to -undertake, especially in so short a time. - - - - - CHAPTER X - THE RAILWAY THROUGH MANCHURIA - - Concessions granted by China to construct the Manchurian Railway—The - East Chinese Railway Company and its statutes—Method of - construction and utilization of the waterways—Military and - political advantages—Branch to Port Arthur—Rapid progress already - made. - - -The completion of the Manchurian Railway will take place in a few years, -and if there has been an apparent delay in its construction, it must not -be forgotten that the harder work had already been finished on the -Trans-Siberian line when the plans for the Chinese scheme were only just -drawn up, and also that the obstacles to be overcome in Manchuria are -infinitely greater than any that presented themselves in Siberia. These -obstacles are mainly the result of the natural formation of the soil. As -to the alleged political difficulties, they are very unimportant, -although the line does pass through a Chinese province. - -Notwithstanding that it was nominally conceded to an anonymous society, -the line is absolutely in the hands of the Russian Government, to -confirm which statement we have only to study the statutes of the East -China Railway Company, which were drawn up by the chief promoter, M. de -Witte, and formulated by the Russo-Chinese Bank between August 26 and -September 8, 1896, after the signing of the Convention between the -Russian and the Chinese Governments. According to these statutes, which -were approved of by the Russian Government on December 4 to 16, 1896, -and published in the _Messager Officiel de l’Empire_, ‘the shareholders -must be either Russians or Chinese. The concession lapses at the end of -eighty years from the day of the opening of the completed line. The -bonds can only be issued on demand, and then only with the consent of -the Russian Minister of Finance. The Russian Government guarantees -payment of the interest and the redemption of the bonds. The company is -managed by a committee, comprising a President and nine members, of whom -one is Vice-President, divided between Peking and St. Petersburg. The -President is chosen by the Chinese Government only; the other members of -the committee are usually elected at a general meeting of the -shareholders. The chief duty of the President is to watch over the -interests of the Chinese Government. The Vice-President is supposed to -interest himself exclusively in the management of the company. The -Russian Government has a right to superintend the progress and -development of the works, both during the period of construction and of -exploitation. The Russian Minister of Finance has, moreover, the right -to ratify the nominations of the Vice-President, chief engineer, and of -all other officials, and to approve or otherwise of any modifications -which may be suggested during the construction of the line. - -These and other regulations, to which we need only allude, prove the -preponderating influence of Russia in the undertaking, and we should, -moreover, remember that the majority of the shares are in the hands of -the Russian Government. It is therefore obvious that the Chinese -President is but a mere figurehead, and that the whole enterprise is -exclusively Russian. As a matter of fact, the only important reservation -made in the interests of China is the following: ‘After a lapse of -thirty-six years from the date of the completion of the line, the -Chinese Government will have the right to repurchase it, and to assume -all the responsibilities of the said company.’ If China does not avail -herself of this right of repurchase, she will not enter into possession -of the line and its dependencies until the conclusion of the eighty -years from the date of its inauguration originally stipulated, under -which circumstance she will certainly have a very long time to wait. The -statutes also declare that the works must begin not later than August 16 -to 28, 1897, and that they must be finished in six years, that is to -say, in 1903, but, as a matter of fact, it is not likely that everything -will be ready by that time, owing to the many obstacles the engineers -have to overcome. - -According to a project accepted in 1897, the Manchurian line from Onon -to Nikolsk will be 1,200 miles in length, of which 890 miles will pass -through the Celestial Empire, and 310 miles through Russian territory. -The total distance by rail from Cheliabinsk to Vladivostok will be 4,072 -miles instead of 4,640, as stated in the original scheme, including the -40 miles across Lake Baikal. - -Chinese Manchuria is composed of the two basins of the Sungari, the -great affluent of the Amur, which joins this river between -Blagovyeshchensk and Khabarofsk, and of the Liao-ho, which flows into -the treaty port of Niu-chwang in the Government of Pe-chi-li. Between -these two basins lies a zone of steppes, quite destitute of water, an -eastern prolongation of the great Desert of Gobi, and 130 miles in -width. To the east of the north and north-west of Manchuria rises a -chain of lofty mountains, which separate the valleys of the Amur and its -tributaries, the Argun and the Ussuri, from the great inland and very -marshy plain watered by the Sungari and its tributary rivers. - -The new line will, after leaving Onon, have to cross a lofty chain of -mountains south of Trans-Baikalia, 265 miles in length, at a height of -over 3,000 feet, and then descend into the valley of the Argun, to -finally enter an absolutely deserted mountainous region, unexplored -until the arrival of the engineering mission, some 130 miles long. -Thence it will have to be carried over a height exceeding even the 3,000 -feet above mentioned, and for another 330 miles will run at a height -varying between 300 to 600 feet above the level of the Sungari plain, to -again rise to 1,950 feet in order to cross another lofty range before -redescending to Nikolsk, which is 130 feet above the level of the sea. -To the difficulties thrown in the way of rapid progress by the great -height and precipitous nature of the Manchurian Mountains must be added -those created by the unstable condition of the soil, which, according to -some travellers of my acquaintance who have explored this district, -consists of one immense lake of mud. Fortunately, however, it seems that -at about three or four feet below this objectionable surface exists a -solid bed of gravel, which may afford an excellent foundation for the -line. These unfavourable conditions were at first deemed so -insurmountable that at one time many pessimists were of opinion that it -would be wiser to abandon the Manchurian scheme altogether, and return -to the original plan of passing through the valley of the Amur. The -Tsar, however, held firm to his purpose, and the order was promulgated -by His Majesty in 1898 to forthwith undertake the construction of that -portion of the line between Onon and the Argun situated in his own -territory. The waterways in Chinese territory have been utilized -precisely as those in Siberia. In order to ascend the Sungari a number -of flat steam-tugs were ordered from Newcastle-on-Tyne. They are -unusually shallow, only drawing two feet of water, are supplied with -engines of 500 horse-power, and intended to convey the rails. These are -brought from Europe, viâ Vladivostok, over the Ussuri line. I remember -in September being at Iman, where the Vladivostok line reaches the -Ussuri, and watching with great interest one of these immense boats in -process of reconstruction. I cannot help thinking, however, that the -Argun would be better for the transport of heavy railway material than -the shallow Sungari. - -If the Russian Government so promptly determined to carry out the -construction of the Manchurian Railway, it was rather on account of -important political considerations than of any shortening of the route. -This railway, it must be borne in mind, passes at less than 330 miles -from the extreme north of the Gulf of Pe-chi-li, whereas by the Amur -line the distance is double, and even then, after arriving at -Vladivostok in order to reach Pe-chi-li, an unexplored and uninhabited -mountainous district which extends north of the Korean Frontier would -have to be passed. From the plain of the Sungari Russia can easily send -troops to Mukden and Niu-chwang, and if necessary even to Peking, -whereas from Vladivostok she would find it very difficult, if not -absolutely impossible, to transport them by land, and, moreover, there -she is by no means complete mistress of the sea. - -Vladivostok already contains a number of important maritime -establishments, the harbour is excellent, and in case of a war with -Japan it would be a most important point of vantage. Russia, however, -calculates that by means of the Manchurian Railway she will be able to -transfer the Trans-Siberian terminus five degrees south of Vladivostok, -to Port Arthur, whereby she dominates the Gulf of Pe-chi-li and both the -land and sea routes leading to the Chinese capital. This scheme has been -absolutely decided upon since 1898. The branch lines which unite the -harbours of Port Arthur and Talien-wan to the nearest point of the East -Chinese Railway, close to the town of Kirin, are being pushed on as -actively as possible. Thousands of tons of rail, as well as a number of -railway-engines, have already arrived from France and America at Port -Arthur and Niu-chwang, and another branch of the Russian Railway is -being laid in the direction of this last-named port. The branch from -Port Arthur is about 530 miles, so that the total length of the -Trans-Siberian line will not be greatly increased by this deviation, -which will bring it to a full-stop at the extremity of the peninsula of -Liao-tung, on the shores of a sea which is always free of ice. The total -increase in the expenditure will not exceed £5,000,000. - - - - - CHAPTER XI -THE ALTERED RELATIONS BETWEEN EUROPE AND THE FAR EAST RESULTING FROM THE - TRANS-SIBERIAN RAILWAY - - The distance between Europe and the Far East by the - Trans-Siberian—Diminution of the time and expense of the - sea-route—China and Japan within two weeks of Paris and - London—Luxury and comfort on board the Far East express—The - difficulty of transporting merchandise, which must remain much - more expensive than by the sea-route—Importance of the - Trans-Siberian Railway as a means of diffusing civilization in the - Far East. - - -As already stated, between 1904 and 1905 at the latest, a continuous -railroad will bring Europe in touch with the shores of the Pacific. The -distances between Paris, Berlin, and London, and Vladivostok and Port -Arthur are as follows: - - 5,852 miles from St. Petersburg, viâ Moscow. - 6,370 miles from Berlin. - 7,044 miles from Paris. - 7,104 miles from London, viâ Dover and Ostend. - -European expresses would traverse the longest of these distances in one -week; but it must be remembered that it is not at present possible for -trains to run over the Siberian Railway at such high speeds as from -forty to fifty miles an hour. These are only possible upon the very -substantial lines of Western Europe, and are indeed much in excess of -what is achieved by the American Trans-Continental trains, once they -cross the Mississippi, or by the Canadian Pacific, the speed on which -between Montreal and Vancouver rarely exceeds twenty-five miles, and -even this relatively low rate cannot be expected at first on the -Trans-Siberian Railway. The rails are very light, especially on the -first or western sections, and the whole railroad is, in many places, as -is often the case in America, rather primitively constructed. It is -therefore calculated that the Far East express, the weekly -_train-de-luxe_, which is to be organized as soon as the line is -completely finished,[14] will take not less than twelve days to perform -the journey between London or Paris and Vladivostok and Port Arthur, -which will not necessitate a greater speed than twenty miles an hour -over the Siberian lines. When, however, the system is better managed and -placed on the same footing as that of the Canadian Pacific, the journey -may possibly be performed in a few hours under eleven days. The -Trans-Siberian route will, once it is opened, be incomparably the -shortest route between Europe and the Far East. It takes from -Vladivostok to the Japanese ports of Nawoyetsu and Niigata on the -Japanese Sea, a distance of about 480 miles, about forty hours by -steamer. From thence, about 280 miles of rail, traversed in fifteen -hours, will bring the capital of the Mikado within two and a half days -from Vladivostok, and about fifteen days from Paris. On the other hand, -the Chinese line, which is now being reorganized by an English company -between Peking and Tien-tsin, and from thence to Shan-hai-kwan at the -foot of the Great Wall, is being extended to Niu-chwang, where it will -join the Russian lines, and thus the journey from Paris and London to -Peking can be performed in between thirteen and fifteen days. Shanghai, -the principal port of China, is distant 575 miles from Port Arthur, and -can be reached in two days, and thus Hong-Kong will be only seventeen -days’ journey from London. It now takes thirty-four days at least to get -from Paris or London to Yokohama viâ the Suez Canal, and twenty-one viâ -Canada, and certainly not less than twenty-eight days to reach Shanghai -by either route. Twenty-five days are required to get to Hong-Kong viâ -Suez, and thirty viâ America, and although this port is situated in the -tropics, it could be reached much more expeditiously viâ Siberia than -round by India. The Marseilles steamers touch at Saigon after a voyage -of twenty-three days, but it is not probable that they will be able to -compete in the matter of speed with the Trans-Siberian Railway. The -capital of Cochin China, however, marks the extreme limit of this -sphere; but all places situated to its north and east—Japan, Tonkin, -China, and the Philippines—can be brought immeasurably nearer to Europe -than was certainly ever imagined by Voltaire when he wrote his letter to -Count Schuvarof. It is therefore evident that, even if the maritime -companies do their utmost to increase the speed of their boats, they -will never be able to convey travellers to Peking, Hong-Kong, Shanghai, -Tokio or Manila, in anything like the short space of time taken by the -Trans-Siberian. - -Another great advantage of the Trans-Siberian line is the diminution of -the expense, which will be considerably less than that charged by the -steamers. The price of a first-class passage from Marseilles to -Hong-Kong, Shanghai, or to one of the Japanese ports, is uniformly about -£70, to which must be added another £5 for travelling expenses from -London to the starting-point. Viâ Canada the expense is about the same, -whereas by crossing Siberia it will cost something like half. The -Russian tariff is an extremely reasonable one, especially for great -distances, and it is calculated that the prices from the German frontier -to Vladivostok or Port Arthur will be by the ordinary trains about 11 -guineas first class, and £5 third. By the _train-de-luxe_ from the -Russian frontier to the end of the journey it will be £18. To these -expenses must, however, be added those which are always inclusive on -board ships, but never on the trains—such as food, service, etc., which, -however, are never alarmingly high on the German or Russian lines. If we -add to the above the price of the ticket from Port Arthur to Shanghai, -£6, to Hong-Kong, £12, it is clear that the cost of the journey will be -about £32 from Paris to North China and Japan, and £40 to Southern -China—in a word, half what is charged at present. - -A rather alarming question arises as to how people will be able to -endure the inevitable fatigue of passing twelve days continuously in a -railway-carriage. Habit is second nature, and although there is no other -line in the world of such great length, nevertheless countless Americans -think nothing of spending a week or ten days constantly travelling by -train. It must be remembered, too, that the carriages intended for this -line will be built expressly, and contain every conceivable comfort and -modern improvement. A long corridor down the centre of the compartments -will enable passengers to take exercise; and, needless to say, -everything will be arranged for the comfort of the sleeping department, -and for the heating of the carriages in winter. Already those lines -which have been opened in Siberia are supplied with restaurants -providing very good food, and usually under the management of a -Japanese, whose head cook is well skilled in the concoction of -cosmopolitan dishes, and whose waiters leave nothing to be desired in -point of cleanliness and civility. Even now, in out-of-the-way stations, -where, a few years ago, the foot of man had never trod, travellers who -have exhausted their store of novels may find a bookstall fairly well -supplied with current fiction and guide-books. - -The Russian Government, however, in its zeal for the comfort of -Trans-Siberian travellers, has made arrangements for the installation of -a super-excellent restaurant, a well-stocked library, and, in short, of -all those many luxuries hitherto which are the joy and boast of -Americans. One cannot expect the comfort of a first-class liner in a -narrow, box-like train; but then we must remember that the passengers on -board these floating palaces have to endure many miseries in the shape -of sea-sickness and the numerous ills which invariably accompany a -journey through the Torrid Zone. There can be no question as to the -superiority of the Trans-Siberian route to the Pacific over the -Canadian, inasmuch as the latter includes two long sea-journeys. In -summer the Trans-Siberian line will be undoubtedly very pleasant, and -even in winter the carriages can be kept warm, and, moreover, there need -be no fear of an unexpected visitation from an avalanche as there is in -Canada. And thus, in the course of a few years, the irrepressible -globetrotters of the two worlds, as well as the business man, to whom -‘time is money,’ will find a new and rapid means to reach countries -which distance and the difficulties of travel have hitherto placed -beyond the reach of only the most enterprising or of those who do not -mind a very long sea-voyage. From the purely commercial side of the -question, however, there can be no doubt that a very long time may -elapse before the Trans-Siberian Railway can compete with the sea route -in transporting heavy merchandise to and from the Far East, and the -great commercial centres of Europe and Asia. Still, certain lighter -articles—silk and tea, for instance—can certainly be brought in fair -quantities, viâ the Siberian line, at a reasonable price. One of the -great advantages of the line will be the facilities it offers for -forwarding letters to and from China, Japan, etc., in considerably less -than half the time now taken. - -As to the social transformation which must inevitably result from the -constant passage of so many people belonging to the highly civilized -nations of the west, through a country hitherto so backward as Siberia, -it may well be summed up as incalculable. That Russia will specially -benefit by the creation of a line which she has built at an enormous -cost is but just, and, moreover, surely the reward for her courage and -enterprise. At the same time, civilization will also find a common -interest in the amazing difference which so important a factor must -inevitably create in the history of progress in the Far East. - - - - - _PART II.—JAPAN_ - - - - - CHAPTER I - THE ORIGIN AND PAST HISTORY OF JAPAN - - Different opinions respecting Japan and the reforms which have been - carried out in that Empire within the past few years—Necessity of - understanding something of Japanese history in order to appreciate - the recent transformation in the country—Origin of the - Japanese—Early history—The Mikados—The Japanese adopt Chinese - civilization between the fifth and eighth centuries of our - era—Inability for the Japanese to accept certain Chinese - institutions—Decline of the absolute power of the Mikados—Military - government adopted in the twelfth century—Japanese - feudalism—Increase of power among the feudal lords in the - fourteenth century—Civil wars and anarchy in the fifteenth - century—Order re-established and the Government centralized - through the action of the great military chieftains at the end of - the sixteenth century—Foundation of the dynasty of the Tokugawa - Shoguns—Europeans in Japan in the sixteenth century—The Japanese - accept our civilization with enthusiasm—Rapid spread of - Christianity—Reaction in the seventeenth century—Purely political - causes—Persecution of Christians and the expulsion of - foreigners—Japan isolated during nearly two centuries. - - -The absolute isolation which Japan preserved for over three hundred -years and her systematic rejection of any attempt at the introduction of -even a ray of Western civilization, is not, it must be confessed, -without fascination for all who take interest in the history of a people -who, during the last thirty years, have become so popular and so -progressive as the Japanese. Suddenly, and without any explicable cause, -the country, which was as carefully sealed to the outer world as the -enchanter’s famous casket, was thrown wide open, not only to admit, but -even to court, foreign progress, science and civilization, and now Japan -has definitively accepted without any hesitation the most absolute -changes and audacious innovations in her political and social systems, -and has effected a transformation in her manners, ideas, and customs, -not to mention costumes, such as has never before been achieved by any -other nation in so brief a space of time. - -At first Europe watched this extraordinary evolution with interest, not -unmingled, however, with scepticism, finding it difficult to take -seriously what might in the end prove but a passing fashion or the -result of caprice. Many, indeed, felt anxious lest the introduction of -modern civilization into a country so deliciously quaint and fascinating -as Japan might destroy the charm of a population of artists, and, -moreover, do irreparable damage to that exquisite art for which it is so -justly celebrated. For many, Japan ought to have remained the land of -lovely china, of rich lacquers, of _kakimonos_, _musmes_ and -chrysanthemums. Indeed, who could be expected to believe that the home -of the _geisha_ and of all sorts of dainty delights, of dwarf trees and -liliputian tea-gardens, could possibly acclimatize the smoky industries, -the strict militarism and the matter of fact judicial and political -systems of our humdrum civilization? As well expect such a -transformation in a world of butterflies and glittering dragon-flies as -in the Empire of the Mikado. One eminent writer declared that ‘the Japan -of to-day is but a bad translation’; and yet another says: ‘I find Japan -a sort of anæmic dwarf. I know that she is of antediluvian antiquity, -but for all that I cannot help thinking this little old mummy, bedecking -herself in the trappings of Western civilization, supremely ridiculous.’ -This was the opinion held not only by casual visitors to Japan, but also -by not a few who had lived for years in the country, and who were never -happy excepting when contrasting the solid qualities of the Chinese, -their circumspection, their prudence, and their profound attachment to -ancient customs, with the intense vanity and frivolity of the Japanese. - -What could not be achieved by twenty-five years of hard work and -peaceful progress in the way of convincing Europe of the earnestness of -her intentions Japan did in less than six months by her military -successes. When Europe beheld the triumphant achievements of the -Mikado’s army, she had to confess that Japan was not quite the butterfly -she had imagined, and began to study with greater attention the -remarkable work which had been accomplished in that Empire. But the -wonderful progress made in Japan during the last half of this century -would not seem so extraordinary were the history of the Land of Flowers -and its people better known. By the light of the past, the Revolution of -1868, which led to the suppression of the feudal system in Japan, and to -the opening of the ports throughout the country, becomes clear and -sequent. - -In the fifth century of our era Japanese history begins to assume -definite form, and the chronicles of the Kojiki and the Nihongi, which -were written in the eighth century, cease to record mythological events -and to deal with those purely human. Since that date the ancestors of -the present Emperor have been ruling sovereigns over the two meridional -islands Kiu-Siu and Sikoku, and the south-western section of the great -Island of Hondo. According to tradition, they had already been reigning -princes for over a thousand years, and their history, like that of -almost every other great dynasty, stretches back into the night of time, -when the world was peopled by gods and demigods. The first Emperor, -Jimmu-Tenno, was a grandson of Amaterasu, Goddess of the Sun, herself a -great-granddaughter of the gods Izanaghi and Izanami, who were the -actual founders of Japan. We next learn that Japan sprang direct from -the hands of the gods, whereas all the other countries of the world, -even those from whom she is pleased to accept modern civilization, -originated through the evolution of natural forces. Jimmu-Tenno having -alighted on this earth from heaven on the island of Kiu-Siu, passed -thence viâ the Inland Sea to Hondo, where, after conquering ‘people of -the same race as his own subjects,’ who inhabited these parts, he -subdued the whole of the western part of the island, even to the zone of -the central forests, ‘which were peopled by barbarians.’ In the year 660 -B.C., he established himself in the province of Yamato, where they -pretend in our day to have discovered his tomb. It is from this very -early date that the Japanese begin their history. Jimmu-Tenno was -succeeded by several generations of Mikados, of whom the first seventeen -were centenarians, who lived between a hundred and a hundred and forty -years each. In those distant times, the gods, it seems, took the same -personal interest in Japanese affairs as they condescended to do in -those of the Trojans. The history, however, of Japan, in its legendary -period, like that of most other countries, is exceedingly sketchy and -contains nothing of a positive character until the year 200 A.D., when -an Amazonian Empress, who rejoiced in the rather startling name of -Jingo, headed a successful campaign against the Koreans. - -Contemporary historical research has resulted in clearing away a good -deal of the mist which shrouded in a veil of mystery the primitive -history of Japan. It would seem, however, for instance, that some -centuries before our era the Mongolian pirates indulged in frequent -incursions upon the western coast of the country in much the same -unpleasant manner as did, some thousand years later, the Normans in -Europe. After exterminating the natives, who were not numerous, they -established themselves, together with their wives and families, in the -island of Kiu-Siu. Later on, an illustrious chief, who turns out on -closer acquaintance to be none other than Jimmu-Tenno, of legendary -fame, crossed over to the great island and ‘found it peopled by -inhabitants of the same race as himself’; hence it becomes evident that -there were two distinct migrations from the mainland of the ancestors of -the actual Japanese, a fact confirmed in a double cycle of heroic -legends, one of which deals with the island of Kiu-Siu and the other -with the province of Idzuma, situated on the west coast of Hondo, an -island opposite Korea. - -The Japanese, therefore, form a part of the great family scientifically -known as the Uralo-Altaic, which includes the Finns, the Hungarians, the -Turks, the Mongols and the Koreans. The different branches of this -family appear to be less closely united than are those of the white -race, but on the other hand, their languages, which are distinctly -agglutinant, have certainly a common origin. It should be remarked that -the Chinese do not form part of this group, constituting a family quite -apart, whose language is distinctly monosyllabic and rhythmic. Their -handwriting, however, was adopted by the Japanese between a thousand and -twelve hundred years ago, as were also a number of words describing -objects which up to that time were unknown to them, and probably -introduced from China. If it is an undoubted fact that the Chinese and -Japanese belong to the Yellow Race, the link which unites them is quite -as remote as that which exists between a Frenchman and a German on the -one hand, or an Arab and a Kabyle on the other. A superficial analogy -between the Chinese and the Japanese must not mislead us. The very -sparse indigenous race which the Korean immigrants found upon the south -and south-west of Japan were of the same family as the Ainos of our -time, of whom some 15,000 still linger in Yezo, the great southern -island of the Archipelago; and, moreover, they belonged to the same race -as the Ghilaks of the Amur, and the tribes to the north-east of Siberia. -These Ainos, who exist by hunting and fishing, are considered to be the -hairiest people on earth; they are mere savages, quite as dirty in their -habits as the Japanese are clean. They had in all probability little or -nothing to do with the formation of the actual population. - -The civilization of the ancient Japanese until the fifth or sixth -century of our era was, it seems, most primitive. Writing was unknown, -and the people were but just emancipated from the Stone Age, their -knowledge of the use of metal being very limited. They owned a few -domestic animals, the horse and the dog, and also poultry. They -cultivated rice, millet, barley, two sorts of peas, and in addition to -these cereals the sea and the rivers supplied them with fish, and the -forests with flesh. They apparently ate more meat than do their -descendants of the present day, a fact due, of course, to the -introduction of Buddhism, whose followers are, or should be, -vegetarians. As to their houses, they were of wood and extremely simple. - -The Shinto religion, which has become once more the State religion, has -a mythology formed out of legends dealing with the generation of the -gods who preceded the advent of the Imperial family. Out of the eight -hundred myriads of divinities only some half-dozen are now venerated. -Among these is Amaterasu, Goddess of the Sun, and ancestress of -Jimmu-Tenno. The spirits of the deceased Mikados and of certain heroes -are known as _Kami_, ‘superior beings,’ and are honoured by this title, -as are also the ancestors of each family. Beyond this Shintoism -recognises neither dogma nor ethics. A writer of the last century thus -apologizes for this easy-going creed. ‘It was,’ says he, ‘invented by -the Chinese, because they are a very immoral people; but in Japan -morality is not needed, since the Japanese have only to act according to -the dictates of their hearts to do well. To obey the Emperor, who is the -descendant of the gods, and almost a god himself, and follow one’s -natural inclinations, are the only precepts imposed upon its followers -by Shintoism, and a pilgrimage to the nearest temple once a year the -only kind of divine service exacted. There are no public ceremonies, -excepting an occasional hieratic dance performed by young girls. In the -wooden temples roofed with bark, which are supposed to reproduce the -habitations of the primitive Japanese, there are no ornaments, no -sculpture, and no representations whatever of the Divinity. The priests, -who wear no distinctive costume, and who lead the lives of ordinary -citizens, occasionally don a rich garment with long flowing sleeves, go -to the various temples and perform certain very simple rites in the -presence of a mystic mirror to be found in every temple, a facsimile of -one given by the Goddess of the Sun to her grandson Jimmu-Tenno, as an -emblem of purity. A white horse will also sometimes be seen within the -precincts of the temples. The only sacrifice is the offering of fruits, -fish, wine, and rice, accompanied by the recitation of certain prayers -in the ancient Japanese language; this is, it must be confessed, an -exceedingly primitive cultus, but it was the only one known in Japan -until the sixth century, at which epoch began the great development of -Chinese civilization in Japan, originally introduced, however, by the -invasion of Korea by the Japanese armies at the commencement of the -third century. The Korean envoys who brought the annual tribute to their -Japanese conquerors eventually became the pioneers of civilization among -the more primitive race which had overcome them. They brought into the -country, for instance, in the year 284 the art of writing. Possibly this -date is erroneous and ought to be 400, the period when, according to a -very ancient tradition, the first mention of medicine is made in the -national history, on the occasion of the grave illness of the then -reigning Mikado, who was cured by a Korean physician. Then followed the -silkworm, and the mulberry-tree, the arts of spinning and weaving. -Finally, in 552 the first image of Buddha appeared, and eventually led -to the introduction of the religion of Sakyamuni. - -From this period until the beginning of the seventh century there was a -perfect invasion of the arts, customs, and opinions, religious, social, -and political, of the neighbouring continent. Then was for the first -time displayed that ardour which is so peculiar to the Japanese, and, if -I might so say, also of that rage for civilization—true, it was then -only Chinese civilization—which characterizes them at the present day. - -Buddhism triumphed without formidable opposition, and at the beginning -of the seventh century there were not less than forty-six temples and -1,385 priests or Buddhist monks in Japan. The Chinese calendar was -adopted, the language, writing and literature of China were studied with -enthusiasm. Ambassadors and special missions were sent to the continent -to examine on the spot the religion, the arts, the industries and also -the government of the Chinese and their political and judicial system. -Thus it so came to pass that feudalism was introduced centuries before -it was imposed upon Europe after the fall of the Roman Empire. At the -death of the Empress Suiko in 628, under whose reign all these reforms -took place, Japan was completely remodelled after the image and likeness -of China. The remarkable feature about this transformation is its -resemblance to the revolution now in progress. It was effected without -the least opposition or violence. The methods used then were the same as -those which are being employed to-day: the sending forth of missions and -the employment of foreigners by the Government to study and introduce -everything that was likely to improve the country and its people. Above -all, there existed a universal goodwill and eagerness to stimulate the -advance movement. Japan, therefore, by her wonderful powers of -assimilation, was suddenly converted from a barbarian to a civilized -country. Nevertheless, however deep-rooted was the influence of China, -it did not interfere with the architecture and the art of the Japanese, -which remained distinct. The good sense of this able people taught them -to distinguish between the different elements in the civilization which -they were introducing, to reject those which did not suit them, and to -transform others which were better fitted to their inclination. A -reaction, however, set in between the eighth and the eleventh centuries -which enabled the Japanese to recover sufficient of their identity and -yet retain most of the innovations in their industries, agriculture, and -fine arts, in the culture of which latter they eventually surpassed -their masters. The new religion suited them admirably, and it remains to -this day much less corrupt in Japan than it is among the Chinese -themselves. The official and administrative system introduced from -China, being opposed to the natural bent of the Japanese mind, was, -however, soon rejected, and they returned to their own, which suited -them better. - -The mandarinate was never acclimatized, and the principle of heredity -always remained in force. The divers degrees of dignity, at first twelve -in number and then nineteen, were never given, as in China, to -individuals, but to families as hereditary titles. The position, for -instance, of Prime Minister, or _Kwambaku_, became hereditary in a great -family of the Court, that of the Fujiwaras, from which, moreover, -according to tradition, the Empress was invariably selected. Then began -to manifest itself that very peculiar trait in the history of Japan of -real authority very rarely being vested in the hand of the man supposed -to exercise it. The Mikado, who, from the ninth century onwards, was -invariably a child, and abdicated in youth to retire into a monastery, -is supposed to reign and yet never govern. This was the beginning of a -system of Imperial self-effacement which lasted over a thousand years. -Presently we discover that the hereditary _Kwambaku_ also exercises no -authority, which is exactly the opposite of what took place in Europe in -the Middle Ages, where, if a Sovereign retired into privacy, his Prime -Minister was pretty certain to become forthwith correspondingly -prominent. In the Middle Ages, at an epoch when Europe was engaged in -fighting and slaughtering, the Court of Kioto was a centre of art, -pleasure and poetry, in which, however, authority was completely set -aside. - -In the meantime, feudalism established itself in the country. Side by -side with the effeminate aristocracy of the _kuges_, certain nobles -descended from collateral branches of the Imperial family, and who in -their time had occupied great official positions, both in the provinces -and in the capital, leaving subalterns to fulfil their duties, now -formed themselves into a military and territorial aristocracy, and, -whilst profound peace reigned in the greater part of the country, -carried on a war against the Koreans in its south-eastern limits, and -against the Ainos, who had been driven back to the north of Hondo, in -the north-east. The custom imported from China by the Japanese of -separating the civil from the military functionaries, combined with a -genius for heredity, led in the course of time to the creation of many -great military families, under whose authority or lead clans of soldiers -grouped and gradually separated themselves from the rest of the -population. The chiefs of these clans in due time became, especially in -the tenth century, in the north and eastern provinces, independent, so -that by degrees their influence during the two succeeding centuries in -the Government was paramount, and the Court of Kioto was the object of -perpetual dissensions between two great military families, the Taira, -and the Minamoto, both descendants of Emperors of the eighth and ninth -centuries. They had each a claimant to the Imperial throne, who was -invariably an infant. A Taira, Kiyomori, governed Japan from 1156 to -1181 in the position of Prime Minister. He ordered the Minamoto family -to be massacred; one or two of its members, however, escaped, among them -Yoritomo, the son of the chief. In due course of time this Yoritomo -created a revolution in Kwanto in his own favour. Upon learning of the -death of Kiyomori he straightway marched upon Kioto in company with his -bastard brother, Yoshitsune, who had escaped from a monastery to which -he had been relegated. Between them they seized the capital and -proclaimed a child of seven years of age Emperor in the place of the -Mikado Antoku, who was not much older, and who was carried off by the -Taira to the island of Kiu-Siu. The great naval battle of Dan-no-ura, -won by Yoshitsune in 1185 at the mouth of the Inland Sea, completed the -ruin of the Taira, who, together with their Emperor, were nearly all -slain in the disaster to their fleet, which made Yoritomo master of -Japan. - -Yoritomo behaved with the utmost ingratitude to his brother Yoshitsune, -who had so largely contributed to his success. He ordered him never to -appear again at Court, and sent a group of assassins to pursue him to -the farther end of the island. His life was frequently saved, thanks to -the shrewdness of the giant monk Benkei and the devotion of the -dancing-girl Shidzuka. The adventures of the brave Yoshitsune and his -death by suicide has supplied Japanese literature with a number of -interesting and picturesque legends not unlike those which delighted our -ancestors in the Middle Ages. - -After these events, the feudal system was firmly established in Japan -for over seven centuries, and we hear no more of Chinese methods of -administration. This is mainly due to the warlike character of the -Japanese people and to the increasing power of the feudal chiefs, who -had naturally, in order to maintain their reputation, to keep the -country in a perpetual ferment of political or civil war. The striking -difference between the feudal system in Japan and that which existed -contemporaneously in Europe is that the Japanese ruler was never the -Sovereign. He was called the Shogun, or Sei-i-tai-Shogun, literally, -‘General charged with the duty of subjugating the barbarians.’ This -title was first bestowed upon Yoritomo in 1192. It was the Shogun’s duty -to govern. In theory he was responsible to the Emperor, whose humble -servant he was supposed to be. As a matter of fact, the Mikado had long -since ceased to interfere in the government, and lived in the palace of -Gosho at Kioto in the midst of luxury, his generals and ministers paying -him no other respect than that of mere ceremony. - -The new power of the Shogunate instituted by Yoritomo was not long -before it also became attenuated. In 1198, immediately after the death -of its founder, his father-in-law, Hojo Tokimasa, seized the reins of -government, and in 1219 the posterity of Yoritomo was already extinct. -The supreme authority was by this time definitely vested in the family -of the Hojo, whose chief took the title of Shikken, or Regent, and chose -and dethroned the Shoguns, usually children, at his pleasure, selecting -them either from the Imperial family or from that of the Fujiwaras. The -period during which this curious regime lasted is perhaps the most -brilliant and the most prosperous in the history of Japan in the Middle -Ages; but eventually Japan fell into a sort of feudal anarchy, bearing a -close affinity to that which existed in Germany at the same epoch. The -power of the Hojos was finally broken in 1334, thanks to the combined -action of the feudal lords, aided by a Mikado named Go-Daigo, who -happened for once to be possessed of some energy. The executive, -however, did not remain long in the hands of this Emperor. His chief -lieutenant, Ashikago Takauji, rose up against him, obliged him to flee -from his capital, and replaced him by another member of the Imperial -family, at the same time electing himself Shogun. From 1337 to 1392 -Japan had two rival dynasties of Mikados. Notwithstanding these -disturbances, the Court of the Shoguns Ashikagas was very often -extremely brilliant, both from the literary and the artistic point of -view. During the fifteenth century civil wars raged again, and the -authority of both Mikado and Shogun consequently dwindled into -insignificance. In the provinces the warriors, known as _samourai_, -gradually became hereditary, recognising no authority but that of their -feudal lords, the daimios. The country became poor, the population -rapidly dwindled, and all the arts except that of the armourer tended to -disappear. The opening years of the sixteenth century beheld Japan in a -pitiable plight indeed, the population decimated by terrible epidemics -and earthquakes, as well as civil wars, and such was her condition that -she might have been compared to France after the Hundred Years’, or -Germany after the Thirty Years’, War. When St. Francis Xavier visited -the country in 1550 he was appalled by its misery. It was a far cry then -from the Japan of his days to the Cipango, the golden land of promise so -greatly vaunted by Marco Polo three centuries earlier. The feudal system -in Japan, however, had been of great use in forming the character of the -people; it preserved in them those virile qualities so conspicuously -absent among the Chinese. - -The close of the sixteenth century witnessed the decline and fall of -feudalism throughout the Empire, which led to the re-establishment of -centralization. This was due to the energy of three great military -chiefs, Nobunaga, Ieyas, and Hideyoshi, the first of whom was descended -from the Taira and the second from the Minamoto, and therefore both were -essentially aristocratic. The third, however, was about the only -personage in medieval Japan who ever rose from the ranks to occupy a -towering position in the State. Ota Nobunaga, after having considerably -aggrandized the very small principality which he had inherited from his -father, interfered in the quarrels of a succession of Shoguns, and -deposing in 1573 the last Ashikaga, seized the Government as Prime -Minister, and compelled the daimios to obey him. He curbed the -encroachments of the Buddhist monks, who had accumulated during the long -period of the civil wars immense landed estates; but at last, hemmed in -by his many enemies, this remarkable man ended his career by -disembowelling himself, an unpleasant but evidently popular method of -committing suicide with the Japanese. - -Hideyoshi, who from groom had become principal lieutenant to Nobunaga, -extinguished all further spirit of resistance on the part of the feudal -barons. Once Japan was united, he wished to establish its power beyond -the limits of the Empire, and for this purpose sent an expedition into -Korea, which, however, only resulted in ruining that country, thanks to -the quarrels and dissensions which took place between the Japanese -generals, some of whom were Christians and others Buddhists. - -At the death of Hideyoshi in 1598, the power of the daimios, even that -of the great princes of the south-west, Choshiu and Satsuma, was already -much attenuated, and everything was ready for a change similar to that -which took place in France under Louis XI. It led to the -quasi-independence of the lords being suppressed in favour of a -feudality of a purely domestic character. The principal factor in this -change was Tokugawa Ieyas, who had been one of the chief generals of -Nobunaga and Hideyoshi. Placed by this last at the head of the council -of the regency, which had to exercise power during the minority of his -son Hideyori, Ieyas was not long before he quarrelled with his -co-regents. Assuming the command of an army, recruited in the north and -the east of the Empire, he in 1600 defeated at Sekigahara the united -forces of the clans of the south and the west, and thus made himself -master of Japan. Instead of a purely ephemeral sovereignty, he founded a -dynasty and a régime which lasted for 250 years, as the result of his -ability and that of his son and grandson. Before proceeding further in -detailing the political and social organization of this interesting -country, it will be well to pause and consider an event of supreme -importance which took place in the sixteenth century, and the effect of -which explains much that is now happening. I refer to the period of the -great Portuguese colonization, when that now small kingdom had annexed -vast possessions in the Indies, and had added new ones in Cochin China -and in the south of China to her Empire. - -In 1542, three Portuguese, who had taken passage on board a Chinese -junk, were wrecked upon the southern coast of Japan. Among the other -passengers happened to be a Chinaman, who volunteered as interpreter. He -seems, however, to have entertained for foreigners the same contempt as -that in which they are held by his compatriots in this year of grace -1900. He described the Portuguese to the Japanese as people who were -very little better than savages, who did not know how to write Chinese, -and as being, moreover, profoundly ignorant of the art of eating their -food with chopsticks. We may conclude, therefore, that these worthy -Portuguese did not produce a very favourable impression. In 1545, the -navigator Fernan Mendez Pinto arrived at the little island of -Tanegashima, to the south of Kiu-Siu, and was well received by the -feudal lord of that district. The powerful Prince of Bungo, -father-in-law to the Lord of Tanegashima, having heard of the strangers, -invited them to his capital in the north-east of Kiu-Siu, and -entertained them very handsomely. Pinto was so favourably impressed by -all he saw that two years later he returned to the same spot, carrying -off with him two Japanese fugitives from justice. They had the fortune -of being converted to Christianity by St. Francis Xavier, and served him -as interpreters when the renowned Jesuit missionary landed on August 15, -1549, at Kagoshima, the capital of the Prince of Satsuma. The earliest -converts were a few relatives of the interpreters. The Prince received -the saint very favourably, and the Princess insisted upon him composing -for her benefit a summary of the Articles of the Christian Faith, -together with the translation of the principal prayers. St. Francis -immediately edited a Japanese version of the Catechism and a translation -of the Credo. Unfortunately, in the course of time the Prince of Satsuma -was much offended by certain Portuguese sailors, who, probably on -account of the obstacles they encountered in the attempt, refused to -land in his dominions, and betook themselves and their merchandise -further on to those of his rivals. Greatly annoyed at their behaviour, -the prince now ordered the missionaries to quit his dominions. St. -Francis obeyed and proceeded to the capital of the Prince of Bungo, who -was highly delighted to see him, and assisted him in a number of ways to -found churches and missions, so that when the great missionary left -Japan in 1551, Christianity was fairly established in the country. -Presently Japan was inundated with Portuguese missionaries, sailors, and -merchants. The Japanese, with an eye as much to business as to social -improvement, encouraged this influx of strangers in the hope of its -leading to a profitable commerce being established between the two -countries. The Jesuits, too, whose influence the Japanese quickly -recognised, were treated with the utmost cordiality and respect. So -great was the Japanese power of assimilation, that Mendez Pinto tells us -that, having made a present of an arquebus to the Prince of Tanegashima, -that potentate caused it to be imitated, and very soon afterwards the -navigator was shown six weapons exactly like his own. A few months later -there were 30,000 distributed in the province of Bungo, and 300,000 -throughout the country. These figures may be taken with a grain of salt; -nevertheless, there must have been a very firm foundation for the story. -In 1582, forty years after the arrival of the Portuguese, artillery -played a great part in the Battle of Shigutake, one of Hideyoshi’s -greatest victories. - -Whether material or spiritual motives were at the bottom of the rapid -progress made by Christianity at this period it would be difficult to -say. Princes, literary men, priests, even Buddhists, rich and poor -alike, presented themselves in hundreds to receive baptism, and even -Nobunaga, if he did not actually profess the new religion, at any rate -favoured its propaganda. At the time of his death in 1582 there were -fully 600,000 converts in the centre and the south of Japan; half the -daimios in the island of Kiu-Siu had embraced Christianity, together -with the greater part of their subjects; the Prince of Tosa, in the -island of Sikokou, and many daimios in the centre and west of the great -island had also been baptized. There were not less than 200 churches, -some of which were even situated in the capital of the Empire. In -Nagasaki, which in 1567 had become the centre of foreign commerce, there -was scarcely a pagan left. In 1582 an embassy, sent to Rome by the -Princes of Bungo, Arima and Omura, was solemnly received by Pope Sixtus -V. It afterwards proceeded on a tour through Portugal, Spain, and Italy. -Although Hideyoshi apparently did not display the same enthusiasm for -Christianity as did his neighbours, nevertheless, their number continued -to increase; and during the last ten years of the sixteenth century it -is believed there were over a million converts to the Roman Church out -of a population of between eight or ten millions, a marvellous record -for fifty years’ missionary labour. Unfortunately, it was not to last -long, although, to be sure, the brief epoch of its success was marked by -a material progress quite as astonishing as the spiritual, for, with the -religion of the Europeans, the Japanese had adopted a great many of -their arts and industries. Tobacco, for instance, began to be -cultivated, and boats built on European models transported Japanese -trade as far afield as the Gulf of Mexico. Strangers could travel from -one end of the country to the other without fear of being molested by -the natives, and St. Francis Xavier had every reason to say that the -‘Japanese nation was the delight of his heart.’ Presently Hideyoshi -became alarmed lest the system of government which he had formulated -might eventually be overthrown through the missionaries and by possible -religious wars occasioned by so abrupt a change in the opinions and -ethics of an entire nation. He feared lest the admission into the -country of so many merchants and missionaries might not be the prelude -to another invasion of a hostile character, resulting in the conquest -and annexation of Japan to some European power or other. It is even said -that a Portuguese captain was sufficiently imprudent to inform Hideyoshi -that the King, his master, had the intention of sending priests into the -dominions of the Mikado with the object of ultimately landing troops, -who, aided by the native Christians, should effect his overthrow. -Whether these words were ever spoken or not is uncertain, but they were -undoubtedly the expression of the thoughts of contemporary European -Sovereigns, a fact which the Japanese soon learnt when they came to be a -little better acquainted with the proceedings of the Portuguese in -India. In a word, the suspicions of the Japanese rulers were awakened, -and even the brilliant services rendered by the Christian General -Konishi could not efface them, and the impression was further increased -by the rivalry which existed between the Jesuits and the Franciscans, -and also between the Portuguese, the Spaniards, the English and the -Dutch, who were perpetually accusing each other of most malevolent -designs. In 1587 Hideyoshi issued an edict ordering all missionaries to -leave Japan within twenty-four days, which, however, remained a -dead-letter until 1597, when it was put into force—in consequence of the -imprudence of the Spanish Franciscans, who began preaching in the open -air, and even in the streets of Kioto, which resulted in a riot and in -seventeen native Christians being put to death at Nagasaki. Ieyas -continued the persecution throughout 1614, as did his son and grandson, -who, between them, contrived to extirpate Christianity in every part of -the Empire before 1638. For years the inhabitants of Nagasaki were -condemned to trample upon the Crucifix in the presence of the -authorities, and even as late as 1868 placards were still to be seen -stuck up in the streets offering rewards for the denunciation of members -of the ‘forbidden, lying, and corrupt sect.’ - -The immediate result of this persecution, which was extremely severe, -was the exclusion from Japan of all outside influence, for the foreigner -and Christianity had become in the eyes of the Government a moral, -social, as well as political dissolvent. The evil conduct of the -European sailors, who, even according to the statement of the -missionaries themselves, had carried off women and children in great -numbers, to sell into slavery at Manila or Macao, and their dissolute -behaviour generally, cast opprobrium upon the religion which they -professed, and thus it came to pass that the Japanese accused the -Christians of not practising the ethics they taught, but, on the -contrary, of giving a bad example by their disrespect to parents, -superiors, and to all in authority. - -In 1609 and 1611 Ieyas granted the Dutch the right of trading all over -the island, but his son, Hidetada, being suspicious of their good -intentions, closed all harbours to them, excepting those of Hirado and -Nagasaki in the island of Kiu-Siu, and, furthermore, prohibited the -Japanese from leaving their country under any pretext. From 1637 the -Dutch and the Chinese alone were authorized to trade in Japanese waters, -and then only through the port of Nagasaki. Confined within the narrow -limits of the island of Deshima, condemned to submit to the most abject -humiliations, and never allowed to go ashore excepting once a year on a -special mission to Yedo, when they conveyed presents to the Shogun, -before whom they had to crawl upon their hands and knees, the agents of -the Dutch East India Company entertained with Japan commercial relations -of the scantiest kind. With this sole exception, Japan, which had acted -in so liberal a manner towards foreigners, became in a short time a -sealed book to the outer world. - - - - - CHAPTER II - JAPAN AND THE REVOLUTION OF 1868 - - Progress demoralized in Japan under the Shoguns Tokugawa—Imperial - Court, Mikado and _kuges_, feudal society, Shogun, Daimios, - _samourai_, and people—Foundation of the political régime—Military - preponderance of the Shogun—Seclusion of the Mikado—Divisions - among the Daimios—Exclusion of strangers—Artistic development and - economy—Progress of civilization—Decline of the Shogunate—Position - of Japan in the middle of the nineteenth century—Foreigners begin - to re-enter the country in 1854—Scandal created by the opening of - the ports—The Court and the clans in the south-west provinces - hostile both to Western civilization and the Shoguns—Fall of the - Shogunate—Restoration of the Mikado and introduction of European - civilization. - - -We have already seen that the Emperor, or Mikado, was deprived of all -authority, and retained only the outward attributes of his Imperial -dignity. He dwelt in his palace of Gosho surrounded by 155 _kuges_, or -noble families, all of whom were descended from the Imperial house, but -whose duties were merely ceremonial. In order to prevent any possibility -on their part of the _kuges_ interfering with him, Ieyas reduced the -Court to absolute poverty. He fixed the civil list of the -Mikado—according to custom, in kind—at 9,000 _kokus_,[15] or 44,550 -bushels of rice; as to the _kuges_, many of them lived in the most -straightened circumstances. To still more completely isolate the Mikado -the feudal princes were never on any pretext allowed to enter Kioto. - -These princes, or daimios, who were the leaders of the military order, -of whom the Shogun was the chief, were divided into five classes, -according to their precedence and importance: firstly, the three great -Gosanké families, who reigned over the provinces of Owari, Kii and Mito, -and were descended from the three elder sons of Ieyas: they enjoyed the -privilege of electing from amongst their number the Shogun in case of -the failure of direct heirs; secondly, the sixteen _kokushu_ daimios, -whose ancestors possessed their fiefdoms before the elevation of Ieyas, -which he had considerably reduced as a punishment for their having taken -up arms against him, and whose revenues ranged between 750,000 and -5,000,000 bushels; thirdly, the nineteen _kammong_ daimios, who were the -immediate relatives or vassals of the Tokugawas, and descendants of -Ieyas’ favourite generals, among whom he distributed the fiefdoms he had -confiscated from his enemies: they were eventually the chief supporters -of the Shogunate, being, however, not so rich as the above, possessing -only between 50,000 and 1,600,000 bushels of revenue; fourthly, the 88 -_tozamma_ daimios; and fifthly, the 110 _foudai_ daimios, who were not -infrequently cadets of one of the two preceding classes. They possessed -an income of at least 50,000 bushels, but rarely more, and their estates -were proportionally small. Nevertheless, there were eight _tozammas_ and -sixteen _foudais_ who enjoyed between them a revenue of 500,000 bushels, -and, who, when united, were sufficiently powerful to be very -troublesome. - -Next came the _samourai_, forming about a twentieth of the entire -population of the Empire. They were a distinct military class under the -daimios, and were distinguished by wearing, even in infancy, the two -swords Ieyas called the ‘living soul of the _samourai_.’ Excepting in -one or two principalities at the extreme south, notably at Satsuma, they -were never agriculturists, but, despising all manual labour, lived on -salaries paid by their chief. Exceedingly brave and punctilious in all -points of honour, they were addicted to vendetta, and added to their -other peculiarities the ferocious custom of _hara-kiri_, which obliged -them on the least insult to disembowel themselves with a small sword, an -unpleasant rite into which they were initiated when still very young. -They were ever ready to shed their blood for their prince and -fanatically attached to their clan. It was from them that the troops, as -well as all the minor officials in the various principalities, were -recruited. The _samourai_ were not only military, but literary, and -corresponded to our professional classes, and their opinions only had -the slightest influence on the affairs of the country. When a -_samourai_, for some reason or other, found himself without a master, -either because he had been expelled from his service or his lord had -been deprived by the Shogun of his titles and estates, he sometimes -turned _ronin_, or knight-errant, more often than not a brigand, and -occasionally a redresser of wrongs, but as a rule a fellow capable of -the worst sort of crime as well as of the most heroic acts of chivalry. -In times of trouble these _ronin_ were wont to form themselves into -bands and offer their services to a popular prince, and when accepted, -their opinion and influence sometimes became of considerable weight. - -Nineteen-twentieths of the population consisted of the _heimin_, or -commoners. Of this class the peasantry was by far the most numerous and -esteemed. Next came the artisans, then the merchants, for be it -remembered that feudal Japan, like feudal Europe, held trade and -tradesmen in supreme contempt. Finally the two classes of pariahs, the -_eta_, or ‘dirty people,’ who followed the profession of -leather-dressers, tanners, curriers, knackers, grave-diggers, etc., then -the _hinin_ (not men), and the beggars. - -Only on certain rare occasions, when a daimio wished to increase the -number of his men-at-arms, and recruited some of his _samourai_ from the -_heimin_, or, again, when a _ronin_, tired of vagabondage, embraced some -trade or other and contrived to lose himself among the people, were the -barriers between class and class ever broken down, and thus society in -Japan remained strictly confined within its narrow boundaries for over -two centuries. Notwithstanding these restrictions, the country enjoyed -during this period a profound peace and great prosperity. Both Ieyas and -Iemitsu understood to perfection how to apply the maxim, ‘Divide in -order to reign,’ whereby they broke up the influence of the daimios, -which, when united, might have proved formidable. This they contrived to -do by isolating them from the Imperial Court, and creating between them -divergences of interest, and by fermenting among them a spirit of hatred -and jealousy. Ieyas had not dared dispossess all his adversaries after -his victory, but he confiscated a part at least of their domains, out of -which he created a number of fiefs, which he distributed among his -allies and soldiers. The descendants of these, the _kammong_ and -_foudai_ princes, being ever at war with the _kokushu_ and the -_tozamma_, obtained protection from the Shoguns by establishing a common -bond of interest, being fully aware that the downfall of the Tokugawas -would be sure to involve their own. - -A danger undoubtedly presented itself to the south-east of the Empire, -for here the domains of the _kokushu_ princes of Choshiu, Satsuma and -Hizen and others nearly as powerful formed a continuous line of -territory, and consequently a storm rising in that quarter might have -been fatal to the Shogunate; but so long as these great vassals received -no support from a foreign power, the military preponderance of the -Shogun was safe. This state of affairs eventually gave rise to a -rigorous exclusion of foreigners. Divided among themselves, isolated -from all external influences, deprived of all communication with the -Court, the daimios in due time lost a great deal of influence in their -own principalities. By virtue of the Sankin law, promulgated in 1635 by -Iemitsu, and solemnly ratified by the Mikado, they were compelled to -sojourn at least one year out of two at Yedo, and to leave their women -and children during the following year in that capital as hostages. In -this manner their initiative was enfeebled, and as they were obliged in -great part to leave the administration of their own affairs in the hands -of subordinates, they soon became mere idlers, under the constant -supervision of a swarm of spies, who reported to the Shogun any attempt -on their part to resist his authority, or to conspire against him. -Notwithstanding its many drawbacks, this administrative system, although -it unquestionably weakened the political character of the Japanese, was -in the long-run, by securing a prolonged peace, exceedingly beneficial -to the country, especially as regards the development of art and -literature, and it is from the period of the Tokugawas that dates all -that is finest in Japanese architecture, painting, sculpture, -lacquering, including the temples of Nikko and the noblest specimens of -Satsuma faience. In the meantime civilization had made rapid progress, -and the intellectual influence of China upon Japan was paramount. The -Chinese classics, formerly neglected by the Japanese, were now, thanks -to the initiative of Ieyas, studied with ardour both at the Court of his -successors and at that of the Mikado, and were even publicly taught in -the ever-increasing number of schools. And thus it came to pass that -when the Europeans returned in 1854 they found Japan more completely -under the influence of Chinese art and literature than had their -ancestors in the sixteenth century. - -The causes which brought about the revolution of 1868, which resulted in -the suppression of the Shogunate and of feudalism, and in the rapid -introduction of European civilization, were quite as important and as -deeply rooted in the hearts of the people of Japan as were those which -led to the French Revolution in 1789, which, it will be remembered, had -been brewing for a very long time before its eventual outbreak. -Politically, the decadence of the Shogunate commenced in 1652, after the -death of Iemitsu, and especially at the beginning of the eighteenth -century, when the Tokugawas began gradually to decline, precisely as had -done the various dynasties that had preceded them. Surrounded by a -brilliant court and enlightened patrons both of arts and letters, the -Shoguns disdained occupying themselves with public affairs, which they -left in the hands of the Gorogio, a council composed of five _foudai_ -daimios and their subordinates. This substitution of a rather effete -bureaucracy for the old but energetic feudal system soon inspired the -great vassals with a hope of being able to overthrow their former -masters. They perceived that it was easy to pick a hole in the Shogunate -from the doctrinal point of view, even in the name of those very -Confucian theories upon which they had the pretension to base their -supremacy. As a matter of fact, although the system of paternal -government extolled by the illustrious Chinese philosopher is by no -means opposed to feudalism, when closely examined into, it shows that -there was no place in it for the Shogunate, since it does not admit of -any intermediary between the father and his children. - -At the same time, in the eighteenth century a whole college of literary -men and a distinct school of literature rose, whose principal object was -the study of the ancient texts, to collate, publish, and interpret them, -whereby certain political and religious conclusions were arrived at, -tending to prove that the only legitimate power in Japan was the -autocracy of the Mikado, the descendant of the gods, and the only true -religion Shintoism, and that patriotism, moreover, demanded the -restoration of the ancient political and social organization which had -existed in the Empire long before the introduction of Buddhism, -feudalism, and of Chinese ideas in general. If these theories did not -interest the people, they certainly, and very effectively, created a -breach between the literary classes and the _samourai_, on the one hand, -and the Shogunate and its supporters, who by this time had become not -only unpopular with the productive classes of the nation, but were even -looked upon in the light of a tax, against which the people very -naturally rebelled, failing to see why they should be called upon to -support an idle and otherwise useless caste. - -In 1700 the Government, financially embarrassed, was compelled to -diminish the number of charges imposed upon it by the feudal system, and -to increase taxation, whereupon the merchants deemed it prudent to -conceal the exact amount of their fortunes, and the peasants, who paid -their lords a third or a half of their harvests, were not infrequently -ransomed by the _ronin_. Under these circumstances the feudal system -could no longer endure, since it was now brought into contact with a -society richer and better organized than itself, and thus it became -impossible for the Japanese Government to prevent the penetration into -the Empire of European ideas, which filtered through the one port, -Nagasaki, left partially open for the benefit of the Dutch. From the -eighteenth century onwards certain young _samourai_ were always to be -found at this port endeavouring to place themselves in contact with the -Dutch. The Shogun Tzunayoshi (1650–1709) pretended not to notice what -was happening, although his Government was ostentatiously endeavouring -to repress any kind of intercommunication between the natives and -foreigners. - -It appears that medicine was the first science which excited the -interest of the youthful Japanese students. They at first managed to -obtain from the Dutch some books, containing anatomical plates, which -both interested and surprised them on account of the great difference -which existed between the figures represented in these works and the -fantastic theories invented by the Chinese doctors. At considerable -risk, for the laws on the subject were extremely severe, they secretly -experimented upon a corpse, in order to compare the results with the -anatomical sketches they had obtained from Europe. This led to their -procuring a Dutch treatise on anatomy, which, with great difficulty, -they translated into Japanese, spending sometimes as much as a whole day -upon a single phrase. Before the end of the eighteenth century several -Dutch-Japanese dictionaries were compiled, and a good many European -works were translated and published privately, and read with all that -ardour which fear of persecution ever engenders. - -Before the commencement of the present century these studies produced -practical results, and the country was peppered with furnaces and -windmills built after Dutch models. It led, also, to the introduction of -several novel industries, which were evidently inspired by some occult -European influence. However feeble these beginnings may have been, both -European and modern Japanese writers attach a great importance to this -early initiation of a certain number of able and learned men to at least -one of the languages, and to some of the sciences of the West. It -prepared the way for many ardent advocates of European civilization to -influence the Japanese to accept European ideas. This was the impression -conveyed to me at Tokio by that very able gentleman Mr. Fukuzawa, the -editor of the most important newspaper published in Tokio, the _Jiji -Shimpo_, or ‘Times,’ who is also founder and director of one of the -largest free schools in Japan. He himself had studied Dutch between 1840 -and 1850, when quite a young man, and showed me a book translated from -the Dutch and published in Tokio in 1770. ‘The days,’ said he, ‘of the -old régime in Japan were counted when in 1854 the Americans forced my -country to open her ports, and the Shogunate, which had become -exceedingly unpopular, undermined on all sides, crumbled to the dust.’ - -The situation of Japan in the middle of the nineteenth century was -therefore not unlike that of France on the eve of the Revolution; but, -fortunately, above the honeycombed Government, doomed to fall at the -first serious outbreak of popular displeasure, Japan possessed the -Imperial dynasty, a power universally respected, all the more so because -it was so completely exempt from interference in public affairs; towards -it every heart turned in the hour of trouble, and the remarkable reforms -were accepted in its name as proceeding from a Sovereign who ruled by -Divine right. In 1853 an event occurred which more than any other tended -to the overthrow of the Shogunate. An American squadron, consisting of -four men-of-war, under the command of Commodore Perry, appeared in the -Bay of Yedo with the object of presenting a letter from the President of -the United States to the Shogun demanding the conclusion of a treaty of -commerce and the opening of the ports. It was in vain that the Bakufu -(the Government of Yedo) tried to induce the Commodore to proceed to -Nagasaki and to employ the mediation of the Dutch and Chinese. Perry -replied that he would only accord a few months for the delivery of the -answer he demanded, and promised to return and fetch it in the following -year. The Government of Yedo was taken by surprise, and feeling that it -was impossible to resist the importunate and imperative strangers, and -alarmed at the grave consequences which might result from the opening -out of the country, addressed a circular to the daimios detailing the -facts and asking their advice. Some of them suggested the opening of -only one or two ports for a limited time, say three or four years, as an -experiment, but the greater number—Prince Mito, chief of the house of -Tokugawa, at their head—were of a contrary opinion, and counselled that -no concession should be granted, and that the country should forthwith -arm itself and prepare for resistance. Nevertheless, when Perry returned -some time afterwards, a treaty was signed permitting the opening of the -two ports of Shimoda and Hakodate, and, moreover, granting permission -for the establishment of an American consulate (1854). This official -took up his residence in 1857, just as France, England, and Russia had -frightened the Shogun by a naval display into granting them like -privileges, which were still further augmented by a new convention -promulgated in 1858. - -The prolonged isolation in which the feudal lords of Japan had hitherto -lived had filled them with a horror of all things foreign, so that the -concessions made by the Shogun very naturally produced an extraordinary -fermentation among the military classes, who considered all these -privileges bestowed upon the barbarians as so many outrages to the -national dignity. The Imperial Court was not less scandalized. When the -Mikado first heard of the arrival of so many Westerners on the sacred -soil of Japan, he ordered public prayers to be said at Ise, the most -holy temple in Japan, and presently a secret understanding was arrived -at between the Court of Kioto and the clans in the south-west, who, -although they were perfectly sincere in their detestation of the -strangers, nevertheless thought this incident afforded an excellent -chance for satisfying their hereditary rancour against the Tokugawa and -a possibility of annihilating their power. When confronted by these -dangers, the Shogun endeavoured to shirk his responsibility, and turned -to the Mikado, asking him to confirm the treaties which he had himself -concluded. A statesman of great energy and of progressive tendencies, -Ii-Kammon-no-Kami, now determined to intimidate the Mikado and obtain -from him at any cost the desired signature, which under such -circumstances at another period would have been a mere formality. But -this able man was assassinated in 1860 by the _ronin_, who, in -accordance with Japanese usage, presently published a patriotic -declaration justifying their crime. Needless to say, the Shogun, in his -vain attempt to reconcile both parties, fell to the ground, like the man -in the proverb who sought to seat himself between two stools. The -audacity of his adversaries increased, and the Imperial Court and the -daimios began to interfere without the slightest hesitation in the -affairs of State. In 1862, against all precedent, the Prince of Satsuma, -in going to Yedo, passed by Kioto, and undertook to escort thither a -_kuge_, who was carrying Imperial despatches to the Shogun, and invited -him to appear before the Emperor. The Bakufu now found itself so -absolutely powerless that it was obliged to submit to all demands, -including destitutions and reintegrations of dignitaries, together with -the permission for the daimios to leave Yedo with their families; and -thus was the first step taken towards the ultimate ruin of the -time-honoured Shogunate. - -For the first time in two hundred and thirty years a Shogun—a minor—went -up to Kioto in March, 1863, preceded by the Regent. The Mikado left his -palace, and, contrary to secular etiquette, went in solemn state to the -temple of the God of War, where he bestowed the sword of honour upon the -Shogun as the ensign of supreme command with which he was to expel the -barbarians. The Shogun’s second visit to Kioto in 1864, on the other -hand, witnessed his complete abasement; for the Court no longer accepted -his decrees, and refused him any further control over their finances. In -a word, from being master he had now become servant. Amongst those who -immediately surrounded the Emperor, there were still many who revolted -at the idea of his being allowed to occupy himself with the government -of the Empire, and their so doing gave the rebel clans in the south-west -time to reorganize themselves. After a short attempt at revolt, they -soon came to the conclusion that further dissensions would only play -into the hands of their enemies, and from 1865 the majority of the -_samourai_ had joined a general conspiracy which it was hoped would -result in the ruin of the already crumbling Shogunate. Still, the cry of -‘Death to the barbarians!’ was not so easily suppressed, and hatred of -the foreigner remained for some time yet extremely fierce among the -masses. The governing classes, however, who had been brought into -contact with Europe, began to see that it was useless resisting its -power, especially after Kagoshima, the capital of Satsuma, was bombarded -in 1863 by a British squadron as a punishment for the murder of Mr. -Richardson by the Prince’s escort. The daimios and their councils no -longer closed their eyes to the existing condition of affairs, and -recognising the uselessness of resisting Powers which were armed with -such formidable engines of war, they changed their policy as by magic, -loaded the foreigners with honours, opened their ports to them, and even -made preparations to place the Japanese army under the same régime as -that of civilized nations. This conduct was not wholly disinterested, -for they were shrewd enough to perceive the commercial advantages which -might ultimately accrue to them as a reward for their liberality. The -Court followed their example, and two years after having issued an order -to ‘sweep the strangers from the soil of Japan’ as if they were so much -dust, the Emperor ratified the treaties of 1865 at the demand of the -Shogun, who had come to Kioto with 70,000 men to suppress the open -revolt of the Prince of Choshiu. - -This struggle between the Tokugawa and a subordinate vassal was their -last and supreme effort to regain power. Unfortunately for them, they -were crushed in the attempt, and their military prestige was for ever -destroyed. The Regent Hitotsubashi, who succeeded the young Shogun, who -died on September 19, entertained no illusions as to the gravity of his -position. He was by this time firmly convinced that it was absolutely -necessary radically to modify the constitution of the country, and -feeling certain that it would be useless any longer to resist so -powerful and popular a wave of progress, he determined to associate -himself with the new ideas, in the hope thereby of preserving some -measure of his family’s former influence. He therefore entreated the -Emperor to summon a council of the principal daimios, who accordingly -assembled at Kioto in 1868, with the result that they one and all -advised the Emperor to allow the centralization of the Government to -take place at once, as being absolutely necessary to the welfare of the -country. The Prince of Tosa, one of the chiefs of the south, addressed a -letter to the Shogun, in which he informed him of the results of the -meeting, and that they had acknowledged the supremacy of the Emperor. -Hitotsubashi, seeing that resistance was of no further avail, sent in -his resignation, which was accepted, with the condition, however, that -he should continue to direct public affairs until after the general -assembly of all the daimios. The southern clans, fearing that the -Tokugawa might still be able to recover their power, made a bold move, -and attempted to seize the person of the Mikado. On January 3, 1868, the -Imperial seal was stolen, and a decree issued handing over the -guardianship of the palace to the _samourai_ of Satsuma, Hizen and Tosa. -On the following day the Shogunate was formally abolished. Hitotsubashi -retired to Osaka with his army, where, trembling lest he might fall into -some trap skilfully prepared by his enemies, and refusing to listen to -any overtures, even the offer of a high position in the new Government, -he marched with his men on Kioto; but the unfortunate Shogun was now -treated as a mere rebel, and when he beheld the troops of the hostile -clans carrying the embroidered standard of the Mikado, he realized that -he was betrayed by his own people, and fled by sea to Yedo, where he -surrendered unconditionally to Prince Arisugawa, commander of the ‘Army -of Punishment,’ The princes of his family were the first to rally round -the Emperor; others of his partisans struggled for a brief time with an -adverse fate, but were finally overcome, and thus a revolution which -began with the cry of ‘Down with the foreigners!’ and was provoked by -the daimios and the _samourai_, the representatives of feudalism, -against the authority of the Shogun, ended in the destruction of -feudalism, and in the definite introduction into Japan of Western -civilization. - -Soon afterwards, when the Imperial Court began to better understand -foreign manners and customs, the _kuges_, the more intelligent among -them, from being antagonistic became their staunchest friends and -supporters. Presently the mass of the people, following the lead of -their superiors, enthusiastically accepted the new idea that Japan could -no longer live isolated. Their rulers had the distinct merit of -understanding that in order to become the equal of the Western nations, -if only from the simple point of view of material progress, it would not -suffice for Japan to borrow their cannons and their guns, or even their -military training, an experiment which had signally failed with other -Oriental Powers; but that if Western civilization was to be of the least -good to Japan, it was absolutely necessary to accept it in all its -branches, civil, industrial and commercial, as well as military. The -promoters of the movement, the ministers and agents of the great lords, -had no more interest in maintaining feudalism than had, after the -Revolution, the inferior clergy and squires in the Government of France -before 1789. The first step in the suppression of feudalism was the -abolition of the privileges of the _samourai_, who might, had they been -allowed to retain them, have become troublesome. - -In 1876 the carrying of the two swords, their erstwhile distinguishing -insignia, was prohibited. The stipends which they had previously -received from their lords, and of which the State had possessed itself, -were capitalized, and the territorial revenues of the daimios, which -were at first compensated by annual pensions, were transformed in the -same manner. These changes, which were undoubtedly beneficial to the -bulk of the population, nevertheless brought about a great deal of -misery, by throwing a number of people who had hitherto enjoyed all the -privileges of fortune into humble circumstances. The peasantry benefited -most by the new form of Government, and became, without having to pay -anything, in a very short time owners of the land which they had -hitherto only held as tenants, and, moreover, no longer obliged to pay a -tribute to their feudal lords, but only a small tax to the Central -Government. Needless to say, there was considerable resistance on the -part of the two millions of people whom these new laws deprived of -privileges which they had enjoyed for centuries, but these were easily -and speedily suppressed. From 1869, in order further to mark the rupture -between the old and the new order of things, the residence of the -Emperor was transferred from Kioto to Yedo, now known as Tokio. In 1872 -the first Japanese railway was opened between the new capital and -Yokohama. The old-fashioned _samourai_ were at first dreadfully -scandalized when they saw the Emperor, against all precedent, driving -about among the lower classes in an open carriage. But the invading wave -was too strong for resistance, and presently a number of _samourai_ of -their own accord, especially in the capital, gave up the custom of -wearing the two swords. Yet another flicker of the old spirit, however, -reappeared in 1877, when the clan of Satsuma rose and endeavoured to -oppose the introduction of so many innovations. This rebellion was -suppressed by Marshal Saigo, who lost his life in the affair, leaving, -however, behind him a name still universally venerated in Japan. In 1889 -Viscount Mori, a Japanese statesman of very advanced opinions, was -stabbed by a fanatic on the day of the proclamation of the new -Constitution. At present no one in Japan, be he statesman or simple -citizen, unless, indeed, he chance to be some fanatic or other under the -influence of the Buddhist priests in some out-of-the-way district, -dreams of disturbing the pleasant relations which exist between the -native population and foreigners. After the repression of the rebellion -in Satsuma the new Government was definitively consolidated, and the -country fully launched on the road to complete Europeanization. In 1889 -the Parliamentary system was introduced, and we shall presently see with -what success. It is therefore not saying too much to assert, before we -proceed further, that the wonderful revolution which has taken place in -our day in Japan is not ephemeral, and that it has now gone too far to -be in any danger of reaction. It is, moreover, quite in accord with the -antecedents and the intellectual spirit of this remarkable people, and -therefore likely not only to become permanent, but even progressive. - - - - - CHAPTER III - MODERN JAPAN - - Japan the country of contrasts—The port and town of Nagasaki—The - navigation of the Inland Sea—Junks and steamboats—Yokohama—Its - population and commerce—Tokio—The telephones and electric - lights—The houses and the streets—The people and their - costumes—Means of transport at Tokio—Jinrikishas and tramways. - - -The moment the traveller enters the harbour of Nagasaki he finds himself -surrounded by the most extraordinary contrasts. In the first place, the -scenery is quite charming: the mountains are a delightful green and are -thickly draped with foliage, from which peep out a number of pretty -little wooden houses, whose windows are replaced by sliding -paper-panels. The sea is dotted with rocky islands covered with those -picturesque Japanese fir-trees whose outline is as varied as it is -graceful. Here and there rise from the water curious little -fishing-sheds, the delight of the amateur photographer, which add -considerably to a landscape which looks for all the world like an -animated picture off a Japanese screen. One can scarcely believe that it -is all real, and certainly not that it was at one time the scene of a -terrible tragedy: yet such it was, for from one of the neighbouring -islands in 1638—yclept Pappenberg—several hundred Christians were cast -into the sea. Presently we see rising in the background a tall chimney -with its streaming cloud of smoke, and the noise of machinery in motion -grating upon our ears reminds us somewhat unpleasantly that modern -civilization has at length penetrated into Japan, and the better to -emphasize this fact, our steamer is presently surrounded by a fleet of -ugly coal-barges, and a sudden turn brings us face to face with the -ships and flags of all nations—British, French, German, Russian, and -American. - -On the other side of the bay, in the docks recently constructed by the -Mitsubishi Company, workmen are busy building a 5,000–ton vessel. Not -far distant, on the southern slope of the hill overlooking the town, is -the European quarter, situated in the midst of delightful gardens. The -elegant steeple of the Catholic church rises sharply from among the -pine-trees, and contrasts favourably with the massive and very ugly -building—an eyesore on the pretty scene—that disagreeably emphasizes the -very bad taste of the American missionaries, as also the absolute -tolerance which the Government of the Mikado accords to all -denominations in a country where, not so very long ago, so great was its -exclusiveness that even the shipwrecked were put to a cruel death. As I -gazed upon this charming scene, I could not forbear picturing to myself -how it must have looked fifty years ago when a solitary Dutch vessel -landed its tiny cargo for the benefit of a few foreign merchants -imprisoned in the artificial island of Deshima, the only spot where they -were allowed to live, and even then subjected to many vexatious -humiliations. - -In forty-five years Nagasaki has become the chief coaling port on the -Pacific, and as safe for Europeans—perhaps safer—than many a seaport in -Europe itself. Steamers do not remain long at Nagasaki, where they only -touch to coal, but passengers have time to land for a few hours and -visit the town. Happily, the inhabitants have retained their national -costumes, but the men have unfortunately adopted our very ugly headgear, -and flourish in every variety of bowler and yachting hat. In the shops -one soon perceives the march of civilization, for they are full of -articles imported from all parts of the world, as well as others -imitated from European models, improved upon, in the artistic sense, by -the natives. You can buy books by all the leading authors almost as -cheaply as in Paris or London, as well as oil-lamps, gas-stoves, -photographs representing recent Japanese battles with the Chinese, -looking-glasses (which were absolutely unknown in Japan until quite -recently), and little terrestrial globes, the sight of which latter -reminded me of an anecdote related by a missionary when I was in China. -At the beginning of the Chino-Japanese War, the Viceroy of a certain -province asked the Reverend Father to show him where Japan was located, -and he had the pleasure of pointing out to His Excellency, for the first -time in his life, the exact place whence came the warriors with whom his -Government was then at war. The Japanese are very proud of their victory -over their colossal neighbour, and have placed some of the cannon which -they took from her in the principal Shinto temples in the city. - -Twelve hours after leaving Nagasaki you pass into the great Inland Sea, -or heart of Japan, to effect an entrance into which in 1863 required the -combined efforts of the fleets of England, France, Holland, and the -United States. Now every great steamer that trades in the Pacific is -free to weigh anchor in this glorious harbour, which, however, is never -open at night on account of the many dangers to navigation in the Strait -of Shimonoseki, which, by the way, is only a mile wide. As we passed -through it, I perceived quite close to the southern shore no less than -six immense steamers, anchored off the port of Moji—rapidly becoming a -rival to Nagasaki—up to which the trains bring coal from the mines -situated some miles inland. On the summit of the long range of hills a -number of huge cannon stationed at intervals testify that the coasts of -Japan are by no means unguarded. - -Everything has been done by the Japanese Government to facilitate -navigation in this rather dangerous Inland Sea, which was so -hermetically shut to foreigners a half-century ago. In 1895 there were -over 149 light-houses, built either by the State or the local -authorities, admirably placed at intervals along the coast of Japan, the -majority, of course, being erected along the shores of the Inland Sea, -which, it must be remembered, contains not less than 5,000 islands. -These light-houses are all the more necessary because, although the -scenery of this magnificent expanse of water is very beautiful, the -currents are exceedingly strong and dangerous, and the shoals, moreover, -very numerous. An amazing number of little Japanese steamers of from 80 -to 200 tons, and even less, constantly carry passengers to and fro -between the various ports and towns on these innumerable islands. -Mingling among these are still to be seen a few old Japanese junks, -which, however picturesque, are not of much use in these go-ahead days, -and are rapidly disappearing. Their shape is now only retained by a few -fisher-boats. As a matter of fact, it is no longer legal to build -vessels after the old Japanese model, excepting on a small scale, as in -fishing or pleasure boats. Such a decree as this would, in any other -country, have caused some unruly expression of public opinion; but in -Japan it was otherwise, and the people very reasonably accepted a change -for the better in the time-honoured form of their sea-craft. After -twenty-four hours, of which one or two were passed at Kobe, we left the -Inland Sea behind, and almost immediately afterwards beheld for the -first time the peak of the celebrated Fusi-yama volcano, rendered so -famous by Japanese engravers. Twenty-eight hours after leaving Kobe we -entered the harbour of Yokohama, which is within fifty minutes’ rail of -Tokio, the capital. - -Yokohama was, before the enfranchising of the ports, a miserable little -fishing village containing about a hundred houses. It was opened to -foreign commerce in 1858 in the place of Shimoda, which was thought to -be badly situated. It is a town of 170,000 inhabitants, having sprung up -after the mushroom fashion hitherto deemed peculiar to America, and is -the third largest port in the Far East, being alone surpassed by -Hong-Kong and Shanghai; but its streets appear much less animated than -those of the last-named ports. The Bund, the principal thoroughfare by -the sea, always seems rather deserted. On the other hand, on the hill -above, to the south of the concession, is the European quarter, which is -full of delightful houses, surrounded by lovely gardens. There are about -1,800 foreigners of various nationalities, exclusive of Chinese, settled -here, a good half being English. The port is very spacious and -commodious, and the biggest ships ever built can anchor quite close up -to the quay. The total value of the exports in 1896 was £6,169,600, the -imports £7,280,400, making a total of £13,450,000, or about half the -foreign commerce of Japan, which, during the same year, reached the very -important figure of £28,500,000.[16] But this brand new town is not -particularly interesting, and the traveller will do well to hurry on to -Tokio. - -The capital of Japan is the largest town in Asia, and the seventh in the -world. On December 31, 1895, it was reputed to contain 1,268,930 souls, -and must by this time, owing to the rapid increase of its population, -have attained 1,400,000. It is spread over an enormous space, much -larger than that occupied by Paris. The reason why it covers such an -amazing extent is that everybody lives in his own house, which is never -more than one story high, and then, again, nearly every house has its -little garden. Under these conditions, it is, therefore, not surprising -that such an enormous population requires unlimited space in which to -accommodate itself. Moreover, Tokio contains a great many open spaces, -and, odd to relate, most of these are to be found in the centre of the -town in the neighbourhood of the Imperial Palace. These ‘building -sites,’ if one might so call them, were formerly occupied by the palaces -of the great daimios, the majority of which were surrounded by bastions, -supported on a cyclopean stone wall rising from a deep moat. When the -daimios first received permission to leave Tokio, a few years before the -downfall of the old Government, they retired to their castles in the -provinces, and, at the abolition of the feudal system in 1872, their -lands became, as we have seen, the property of the State. On the site of -several of them immense public buildings have been erected after the -European fashion, among which are the palaces of the various Ministries, -and also the Parliament House; but many other wide, open spaces are -still waiting to be utilized, and, being weed-grown and disorderly, -produce a distinctly dreary effect. The old ramparts, planted with -pine-trees, which surrounded most of them, are still standing, and one, -embracing the immense park of the Imperial Palace, is used as a public -promenade. As you walk along it, and look towards the palace itself, it -is difficult to believe that you are in Japan, everything is so very -European, and on the other side the waste land contains a perfect forest -of telegraph and telephone poles, which affirms, and very forcibly, too, -that our civilization is distinctly the reverse of picturesque. - -Telephones, telegraph, electric light, gas, petroleum lamps, etc., are -now as plentifully used in Tokio as they are in any English or American -town. It is most amusing to notice as you pass along the streets, when -the paper screens which form the façade of most of the houses are -removed, the artisans seated at their _tatamis_, working by the light of -an Edison lamp. When they cannot afford electricity or gas, the Japanese -use petroleum exclusively, but not without some considerable risk to the -safety of a city entirely built of wood. Since a Japanese house contains -next door to nothing in the way of furniture, and that even in the -houses of the rich all valuable objects of art are usually kept in an -iron safe, and only exposed on state occasions, a fire does not matter -so much as it would in a London mansion or a Chicago ‘sky-scraper.’ A -few cushions, coverlets, and household utensils, which are to be found -in every house, are soon put outside the doors, so that the inhabitants -have very little to fear, for their house is only one story high, and -the whole façade consists of paper screens, which slide into one another -when required. The only people who really have anything to fear from -fire are the retail merchants, whose shops, of course, are well stocked. -Fires are of very constant occurrence, and people are not at all -surprised to wake up in the morning to hear that some hundred houses -have been burnt down during the night. - -The authorities at present avail themselves of fires in order to widen -the streets and improve their sanitary condition. They are now as a rule -much straighter and wider than any to be found in most other Oriental -cities, and even, for the matter of that, in the towns of Southern -Europe, and although they have no side-walks, they are much cleaner than -any you will find in China or Siberia, or, indeed, in most cities of the -United States. Possibly on account of the immense size of the city, they -are nothing like so animated as the streets of Peking or Tien-tsin, and -are much less picturesque than one might have been led to expect, for -the Japanese, both men and women, after they have reached their tenth or -twelfth year dress very plainly in neutral colours, blue, gray and brown -prevailing. The women, however, enliven the scene by their bright-hued -waistbands and huge bows. As to the children, especially on holidays, -they wear the most vivid colours. Sometimes you can trace upon their -tiny persons an entire landscape, and at others enormous bunches of -flowers dashed upon a background of scarlet China crape, which decorate -their exceedingly small figures. Their heads are generally close-shaven -when they are infants, but as they grow older the dignity of age is -marked by that funny zone of stiff black hair which adds so much to the -comical appearance of a Japanese doll. Another peculiarity about these -youngsters is that a smaller one generally hangs on to the back of -another so tightly as to suggest a big barnacle. It is indeed amusing to -watch a little lady of between five and six years of age carrying her -still smaller brother on her back literally from morning to night, never -appearing in the least degree incommoded by what to children of other -nationalities would be a most uncomfortable position. The little boy -accommodates himself to all the various movements his sister may make. -If she tumbles, he tumbles, and if she gets up, up gets he, and it would -really appear as if the younger child formed an integral part of the -elder’s body. European children who are brought up in Japan fall into -this singular habit quite as naturally as the Japanese, who can fall to -sleep in a position which would, one imagine, have kept awake one of the -famous Seven Sleepers of Ephesus. - -European costume has undoubtedly made some inroad throughout Japan, but -fortunately not to the extent originally anticipated. Japanese ladies, -who first adopted European fashions with enthusiasm, at present have -nearly returned to the delightful way of dressing invented by their -ancestresses, so that during the three months I spent in Japan I only -once saw a Japanese lady dressed _à la Parisienne_. The European costume -is now only to be seen at Court on state occasions, where, it should be -observed, the old Japanese Court dress was not only very ugly and -extremely heavy, but most uncomfortable. A few years ago an order was -given that all the officials, little and great, should wear, when on -duty, frock-coats and straight trousers, but this edict is no longer in -force. Nevertheless, it has become the fashion for Japanese officials of -rank to attend their offices in European costume, but here again there -are already exceptions. English hats of all sorts and shapes, Tyrolese, -bowler, sailor hats, and German caps, are universally worn by men in -every class. Some young gentlemen, with pretensions to fashion, are -adopting the tailor-made garments of Bond Street and the Rue de la Paix, -and although this is regrettable from the æsthetic point of view, it -must be conceded that our dress is much better adapted for the -exigencies of our modern life than the loose, long-sleeved garments of -the Japanese. - -The _kago_, or palanquin, has absolutely disappeared from Tokio, and is -now only to be found in the mountain districts, its place having been -taken by the jinrikisha. It is now so well known in Europe, thanks to -Japanese exhibitions, that all I need say is that it is a very small -carriage supported by two very tall wheels, and pulled along by a -runner. The jinrikisha is not, as many imagine, of Japanese origin, but -due to the inventive genius of a foreigner, who made a fortune out of -his invention. It is now used throughout the whole of the Far East; but -Japan remains the land of its predilection, mainly on account of the -extraordinary swiftness and skill of the native runners, who are -unsurpassed in this respect in any other part of the East. There are at -the present moment about 200,000 of these quaint vehicles in various -parts of the Empire, of which about 40,000 are in Tokio. As a rule they -can only seat one person, but a few are built to convey two passengers, -exclusively Japanese; for the jinrikisha is not yet built that would -accommodate a couple of Europeans, even ladies. The lowest fare is 2½d.; -by the hour, 5d.; and for the half-day, 1s. 3d. These are the prices -exacted from Europeans, but the Japanese pay considerably less. - -Independently of the jinrikisha, Tokio possesses a few omnibuses, and a -line of tramways uniting the two stations of Shimbashi, the terminus of -the Western, and Uyeno, that of the Northern Railway. The extreme length -of this tramway is nine miles, and the fare is 1½d. all the way. The -tramcars are driven by horses, and the number of seats is not limited, -people being allowed to stand up in the middle as in the United States. -In 1895 the company conveyed fifteen million and a half passengers, -paying a return of thirty-five per cent. on a capital of about £45,000. -An electric tramway is now under consideration. One improvement Tokio -certainly stands in need of, and that regards its lighting. Here and -there you may come across an electric lamp or so; but the principal -street illumination invariably proceeds from those big Chinese lanterns, -lighted by petroleum lamps, which hang outside the shops, which, -fortunately, remain open until quite late; but when the shutters are up -in most of the wooden houses one passes by, the darkness is quite -Egyptian, unless, indeed, it happens to be a moonlight night. Doubtless, -in the course of a very little time, Tokio will be as well lighted as -any other highly-civilized city. - - - - - CHAPTER IV - JAPANESE INDUSTRY - - Japan the Great Britain of the Far East—Osaka, the centre of Japanese - industry—Great and small industries—Increase of certain industries - hitherto unknown in Japan: glass and match manufactories, - breweries, etc.—Employment of children—Scale of wages—Length of - labour hours—Cotton-spinning—The larger industries—Recruiting of - workmen and women from the rural districts—Abuses denounced by the - press—Increase of wages throughout Japan. - - -Nothing delights the Japanese more than to hear their Empire compared to -Great Britain, and when we come to think of it there is a certain -analogy between the Archipelago of the Rising Sun in the Far East and -the British Isles in the West; but the Japanese hope that this -resemblance will not end in a mere geographical comparison, but extend -to their maritime, commercial and industrial development. To their -credit, be it said, they are really working very hard to attain their -ideal. One has only to visit Osaka, the Manchester of the Mikado’s -Empire, to realize the amazing progress made by the Japanese in the last -quarter of the century. This city, which has a population of about half -a million souls, is situated midway between Kioto and Kobe, about thirty -miles distant, which respectively contain 340,000 and 150,000 -inhabitants. About six and a half miles further on is yet another -industrial centre, Sakai, with a population of 50,000. This region, -which slopes gradually to the Inland Sea, may be described as the heart -of Japan, being its main centre of commercial, agricultural and -industrial activity, and it is the chief tea-market of the Empire. It -was also until 1869 near the political centre; for Kioto was from the -end of the eighth century the capital of the Mikados, who removed their -Court thither from Nara, where they had previously resided for several -centuries. - -Industries on a large scale have only been recently introduced into -Japan, among the earliest being that of cotton-spinning, established in -Osaka in 1882. Before the arrival of the Europeans, and even up to 1880, -nearly all the minor trade of the country was divided up into a number -of small workshops scattered all over the country. A few large silk -manufactories existed, however, in the more important towns, and at -Kioto there were some fairly important paper factories, and -_saké_-distilleries (wine made from rice); but these were not numerous, -and only engaged a very few hands. The official statistics for 1894 -disclose the existence of 4,732 families manufacturing the various -ceramic products for which Japan is famous, employing about 23,726 -people; 4,407 families, giving employment to 14,092 artisans, engaged in -the manufacture of lacquer-ware; 81,652 matting and straw-plaiting -factories; and lastly 600,444 families working 820,585 looms. From this -we see that what might be termed the minor industries of the country are -very numerously represented. In these small and independent workshops -are produced all those numerous Japanese articles that enjoy a European -popularity which they are not likely to lose for a very long time to -come, Japan having a monopoly in the production of an infinite number of -toys, articles of furniture, paper fans, umbrellas, boxes, screens, and -knick-knacks of every description; and it is fortunate it is so, on -account of the density of the rural population, and the exceeding -smallness of the farms, which are easily cultivated, leaving their -proprietors a great deal of leisure on their hands, which they wisely -employ in making those countless pretty things that in Europe go by the -name of ‘Japanese fancy goods.’ These small workshops now carry on -nearly all the art industries of the country, but no Japanese city is -now without its tall chimneys, rising quite as conspicuously and -unpicturesquely in their suburbs as they do in Europe. - -Northward of the cyclopean stone ramparts of the old castle of Osaka -stands the enormous Mint, one of the finest establishments of the sort -in the world, to the east of which is the Arsenal, where the Japanese -turn out all the cannon and guns necessary for the use of their army. At -night the horizon is crimson with the ruddy glow of the cotton-mills and -other numerous factories. Most of these industries have only been lately -introduced into the country, and the fathers of many of those who are -engaged in them had no idea even of their existence. The Japanese, for -instance, until quite recently, had no conception of the art of -glass-blowing. To-day there are several very important glass factories -doing a first-class trade at Osaka, glass being now much needed on -account of the prevailing use of petroleum lamps, and many people are -beginning to use glass in place of the paper screens which have hitherto -served the Japanese as windows. Breweries have been established in -various parts of the country, and the principal at Osaka produces -admirable beer, largely exported, even as far as Vladivostok and -Singapore. Brushes of every description, too, are now manufactured in -Japan, and exported in great quantities to the United States. I had the -pleasure of inspecting one of these brush manufactories at Osaka, which -employed 300 men, women and children on the premises, and 900 others in -its various branches in the suburbs. I experienced some little -difficulty at first in gaining admittance on account of my nationality, -and I had even to take an oath that I would not divulge any of the -secrets of the trade. This precaution was due to some fear that I might -possibly introduce their economical system into France, and thereby do -them considerable mischief in the way of competition. A curious fact -connected with this particular trade of brushmaking is, that the -necessary pigs’ bristles and bone have to be imported, for the excellent -reason that St. Anthony’s pet animal is practically non-existent in any -part of the Empire, so that the Japanese confine themselves to carving -the handles for the infinite number of brushes which they manufacture, -and in putting the bristles into the variety of objects that require -them. Osaka likewise contains a number of iron-foundries and ship-yards, -in which nearly all the small steamers which ply between the islands are -constructed. Unfortunately the harbour of Osaka is a very bad one, and, -indeed, might almost be described as non-existent, the entrance to the -river being very sandy, and the exit seaward hopelessly narrow and -exposed to east winds. For this reason the majority of the goods -manufactured at Osaka are exported viâ Kobe, where nearly all the great -English and American steamers touch, and which is an admirable port. The -formation of a large harbour at Osaka was begun in 1899, at a cost of -something like £2,000,000, assured by a loan of £1,700,000, issued by -the town, in addition to a considerable subvention from the State. A new -industry has recently been introduced at Osaka, that of jute -carpet-making, which is likely to become very important, an enormous -number of very cheap and very pretty carpets having already been -exported to the United States and still more recently to England, where, -on account of their excellent patterns, durability and extreme -cheapness, they have suddenly become extremely popular. The present -Exhibition at Paris will no doubt introduce them into France. - -The Japanese copper and tin industries have only recently been created, -and at present do not employ more than eighty hands. The silk industries -are entirely concentrated at Kioto. Mats and other straw goods, which -form a very important item of Japanese export, are exclusively made in -and about the same city. Undoubtedly the two most important of the -modern Japanese industries are cotton-spinning and match-making. In -1889, 10,165,000 gross of matches, costing £184,000, were produced. In -1894, the figures stood at 18,721,000 gross, valued at £406,800, since -when this industry has gone on increasing by leaps and bounds. Matches, -as may well be imagined, are very cheap throughout the country, and you -can buy two boxes containing each about sixty for five rin, or a -half-sen, _i.e._, half a farthing. - -Nothing can be more interesting than a visit to one of these great match -factories, which exclusively employ women and children, the latter being -sometimes under six years of age. Wages, when compared with those of -Europe, are very trifling, the highest average being 15 sen, or about -3¾d., per diem. Some of the girls get a little more for pasting on the -labels, which requires considerable skill, and the women who put the -matches in the boxes are paid 4½d. Very clever workwomen, who by the -sheer delicacy of their touch are able to tell to a match, without the -trouble of counting them, how many go to a box, are paid 7d. Some -objection has been made to the employment of so many infants, but their -mothers do not seem to object, for in the first place the children add a -farthing or so to the general fund, and in the second they are able to -keep them about them, which no doubt saves them much anxiety. Very few -men are engaged in these match manufactories. The match-boxes are nearly -all made by the workpeople at home in their off-hours, and also in -certain workshops set apart for their manufacture. Japanese matches are -exported in great quantities to Hong-Kong, China and India. - -The cotton looms are located in stone buildings erected on Manchester -models, and employ many thousands of hands. The following Custom-house -statistics will give an excellent idea of the progress of this industry: - - ─────────────────┬─────────────────┬─────────────────────────────────── - │ Importation of │ Spun Cotton. - │ Raw Cotton into │ - │ Japan. │ - ─────────────────┼─────────────────┼─────────────────┬───────────────── - 〃 │ 〃 │Exportation from │Importation into - │ │ Japan. │ Japan. - ─────────────────┼─────────────────┼─────────────────┼───────────────── - │ _Tons._ │ _Tons._ │ _Tons._ - 1894 │ 64,071│ 2,067│ 9,350 - 1895 │ 84,739│ 2,362│ 8,661 - 1896 │ 99,108│ 7,677│ 11,810 - 1897 (10 months) │ 117,710│ 20,274│ 7,185 - ─────────────────┴─────────────────┴─────────────────┴───────────────── - -From the above it will be remarked that Japan, in a relatively very -short time, from being almost exclusively an importer of cotton goods, -now exports them to foreign markets, and with good results. The -Custom-house declared in 1898 £1,109,600 worth of cotton, or 20,269 tons -of exports, and £734,400, or 7,185 tons of imports. The statistics of -the Japanese Cotton Spinners’ Union record the following figures: - - ───────────┬───────────┬───────────┬───────────┬───────────┬─────────── - │ Mills. │ No. of │ Workmen. │Workwomen. │Production - │ │ Looms. │ │ │ of Spun - │ │ │ │ │ Cotton. - ───────────┼───────────┼───────────┼───────────┼───────────┼─────────── - │ │ │ │ │ _Tons._ - 31 Dec.,│ 30│ 227,895│ 4,089│ 10,330│ 18,798 - 1890│ │ │ │ │ - 31 Dec.,│ 47│ 580,945│ 9,650│ 31,140│ 68,106 - 1895│ │ │ │ │ - 31 Dec.,│ 61│ 839,387│ 13,447│ 43,367│ 97,435 - 1897│ │ │ │ │ - 31 Oct.,│ 61│ 1,233,661│ 13,447│ 43,367│ 97,829 - 1898│ │ │ │ │ - ───────────┴───────────┴───────────┴───────────┴───────────┴─────────── - -Nearly half of this cotton is manufactured at Osaka, the rest at Kobe, -and at Okyama, on the Inland Sea, to the west, and at Yokkaichi, Nagoya -and Tokio, to the east. The conclusion of the late Chinese War gave a -great impulse to the cotton industries in Japan, and necessitated the -construction of new and much larger establishments, and the enlargement -of those already in existence, so that it is calculated that before long -over a million and a half looms will be in activity in various parts of -the country. These very important industries, it must be remembered, are -not subsidized by foreign capital, or under the direction of foreigners; -they are purely and absolutely Japanese; up to the present, however, -nearly all the plant has been imported from England and America. - -Until 1897 employers of labour had a good deal of trouble in obtaining -workmen. The townspeople, being engaged in a great many small industries -of their own, were not willing to abandon them for work which was not -likely to prove as remunerative as their own; in consequence of this the -country districts had to be ransacked for hands, and nearly all the -girls employed in the factories of Osaka are the daughters of small -farmers. They are lodged and boarded by the various companies in -buildings erected expressly for the purpose, a percentage being deducted -from their wages for their keep. Certain abuses having arisen in their -management, a leading local newspaper, published in English, but really -owned and edited by Japanese, in 1897 called attention to the same in a -series of articles, violently attacking the working organization of the -Osaka cotton-mills. The lodgings of the workwomen were, it was stated, -exceedingly unhealthy; and as to the morals of the women employed, the -less said about them the better. Then, again, the agents who engaged -these young women were accused of doing so under false promises, and it -was said they even went so far as to intercept their correspondence with -their homes. The editor furthermore condemned in the severest terms the -employment of extremely young children. - -These articles attracted a great deal of attention, and contained -doubtless a certain amount of truth, not unmingled, however, with -considerable exaggeration. The Japanese employers of labour are, it -should be remarked, after all in very much the same position in which -our own were some fifty or sixty years ago. As to the moral tone of the -workgirls, it is doubtless neither better nor worse than it is in the -great manufacturing centres of Europe and America. At Moscow a -manufacturer informed me that the morals of his workgirls were very bad, -and at Shanghai another gentleman related to me things on the same -subject best left unpublished. The working hours are not longer in Japan -than they were in Europe thirty or forty years ago. They never exceed -twelve hours a day, from which half an hour must be deducted for the -midday meal. Nevertheless, it is excessive, especially when we remember -that the week’s work is divided into two parts, one half the hands -working all night and the other all day, so that the looms are never at -rest. Then they have only two off-days in the month, on the first and -the fifteenth; and there are only four special holidays in the year, the -three first days in the New Year, and the Emperor’s birthday. Even the -first and the fifteenth are not observed if there is a press of work. If -these hours appear too long, it must not be forgotten that the Japanese -workman, like his brother worker in the South of Europe, does not labour -with the intensity that distinguishes the Englishman or the American. As -to the employment of women, they are only engaged in the match -factories, and their work is of the lightest. - -Nevertheless, attention in Japan is being directed towards these two -very important questions, which will, doubtless, sooner or later, -receive proper attention and be modified. Wages are already rising, as -the workpeople begin to understand their worth and their own interests, -and to know how to protect them. A danger to which the Japanese -industries are exposed is undoubtedly due to a diminution of capital, -the result of over-production after the late war, which brought about -much the same phase that occurred in the commercial history of Germany -after the Franco-German War. However, the financial crisis of 1898 and -the competition recently created at Shanghai have created a certain -degree of anxiety concerning the immediate future of Japanese industry; -but, on the other hand, the magnificent results obtained in such a -surprisingly short time, and the courageous manner in which this -industrious people have overcome the many difficulties which beset them -in the earlier stages of their career, must not be forgotten. - - - - - CHAPTER V - RURAL JAPAN - - Predominance of agriculture in the economic existence of - Japan—Density of the rustic population in the plains and lower - valleys—Importance of the Japanese fisheries with respect to the - food supply of the people—Principal crops: rice, tea and - mulberry-trees—Absence of domestic animals—Returns of Japanese - agriculture—Small holdings—Japanese peasantry, their vegetarian - or ichthyophagian diet—Their dwellings—Position of women—Their - extreme cleanliness, politeness and good nature—Cost of - living—Amelioration of peasant life in Japan after the - Restoration—Spread of Western civilization and instruction among - them. - - -Notwithstanding the rapid industrial development which has recently -taken place in Japan, the greater proportion of the population is still -essentially rural, and derives, if not all, at least the greater part of -its means of subsistence from the soil. Petty industries, however, -abound and materially assist this hard-working people to add to their -very small incomes. Along the indented coasts of the islands, and on the -shores of the Inland Sea, innumerable little villages will be found, -whose inhabitants depend entirely for their subsistence upon the -fisheries, but notwithstanding their importance, Japan may be described -as an essentially agricultural country. It is, also, the cultivation of -the soil which supplies the raw material of the silk, still one of the -staple export industries, and also of another very important article of -exportation, tea. On a total export in 1896 of £11,650,000 worth of -Japanese products, tea represented £637,200, rice £795,100, raw silk -cocoons and silk-ravel £3,166,600. If we add to these figures about -£4,700,000 worth of miscellaneous products, or 14 per cent., and add -also about £1,200,000, or 4 per cent., of raw or unprepared produce, we -shall find that the aggregate value of agricultural products of all -kinds reaches the respectable figure of £5,950,000, more than half that -of the total export. Notwithstanding their importance, the area devoted -to the culture of the tea-plant and the mulberry-tree is relatively -small as compared with that devoted to rice, which is the staple article -of food of the whole of the Far East. The extensive culture of this -latter accounts for the peculiarity often noticed in Japanese -landscapes, that you never see any of those gentle hill-slopes which are -so familiar in France. The hills rise abruptly from the stagnant waters, -and seem cut into three or four broad step-like terraces, possibly the -result of the action of the water which inundates the rice-fields. When -I was in Japan, in the autumn, the rice harvest was just over, and the -country would have looked very dismal on account of the drab colour of -the muddy soil, divided up like a chess-board into regular squares, from -which the rice had been recently cut, and now covered by a thin layer of -dry weeds, had it not been for the peculiarly elegant shapes of -surrounding heights which are shaded by those delightful firs so -familiar to us in old Japanese prints. The lace-like curtains of bamboo -clustering here and there added also to the variety and charm of the -scene, which was further enhanced by the numerous cryptomerias, whose -superb foliage contrasted vividly with the brown and the red of the -maples that are invariably planted around the charming little temples -dotted about in all directions. In the hilly districts the beauty of the -trees breaks the monotony of the rice-fields and of the reclaimed -wastelands, but in the plains and valleys there is not one to be seen, -every inch of land being most carefully cultivated. - -The rural population of Japan is marvellously dense, incomparably more -so than in any part of Europe. On an area but little greater than that -of Great Britain and Ireland, Japan contains 42,270,620 inhabitants, -that is to say, 284 souls per square mile, including the large southern -island of Yezo, which is very sparsely peopled. Not taking this very -extensive island into account, it will be safe to state that the -population of Japan is twice as dense as that of France, and only -equalled by that of Belgium, an absolutely industrial country, whereas -at least 80 per cent. of the Japanese live in the country. Certain -provinces, Shiko and Sitama, for instance, to the north-east of Tokio, -respectively boast of 604 and 709 to the square mile, although the -capital cities of these two provinces contain respectively only 26,000 -and 20,000 inhabitants. The island of Shikoku and the province of -Kagawa, on the other hand, which possesses only one large town, -Takamatsu, with 34,000 inhabitants, has a population that reaches the -phenomenal figure of 998 souls to every square mile. In only thirty-six -out of forty-six Japanese provinces, exclusive of Yezo, are there less -than 250 inhabitants to the square mile, and in only four, three of -which are at the extreme north and one at the south, is the population -less crowded than in most parts of France. The following statistical -table shows the population, with its relative density: - - ─────────────────┬─────────────────┬─────────────────┬───────────────── - │ Square miles. │ Population. │ Density per - │ │ │ square mile. - ─────────────────┼─────────────────┼─────────────────┼───────────────── - Nippon, Northern │ 30,556│ 6,455,287│ 191 - Nippon, Central │ 37,028│ 16,368,995│ 442 - Nippon, Western │ 20,922│ 9,523,168│ 453 - Island of Shikoku│ 7,113│ 2,929,639│ 412 - Island of Kiu-Siu│ 17,037│ 6,524,024│ 384 - Hokkaido, or Yezo│ 36,734│ 469,507│ 13 - ─────────────────┼─────────────────┼─────────────────┼───────────────── - │ 149,390│ 42,270,620│ 316 - Formosa │ 8,995│ 2,041,809│ 228 - ─────────────────┼─────────────────┼─────────────────┼───────────────── - │ 158,385│ 44,312,429│ 272 - ─────────────────┴─────────────────┴─────────────────┴───────────────── - -Even more remarkable than the population is the small area of cultivated -land required to support such an immense number of people. Japan is an -extremely mountainous country, and although the plains and valleys, -especially in the east and south, are admirably cultivated, and the -rice-fields occasionally cover hills that slope so close to the sea as -not to allow of the existence of even a small fringe of cultivable land, -the mountain ranges in the interior are still covered with forests, and -even the northern part of the great island, where the land is excellent, -is quite uncultivated. According to recent statistics, about one-fifth -of the total surface of the country has been reclaimed and subdivided -into a remarkable number of small farms and tenements. The forest lands, -on the other hand, cover 88,632 square miles, of which 28,544 square -miles belong to private owners, 51,834 square miles to the State or to -the various provinces, and 8,254 square miles are Crown lands. The -remainder of the island is occupied by moors, uncultivated tracts of -land, extremely extensive in Yezo, where the forests are of vast extent, -and where only 1,269 square miles of land repay cultivation. If we leave -aside the northern island, and only take into consideration the land -occupied by 99 per cent. of the Japanese population, we discover that, -exclusive of 67,571 square miles of forest land, only 21,234 square -miles provide food for 42,000,000 people, whereas in France there are -about 56,917 square miles devoted to cereals alone, and if we add -potatoes, vineyards and other edibles, we arrive at a total of 75,889 -square miles for a population much inferior to that of Japan; moreover, -France imports provisions very largely from other countries. - -In England and in France, as in most other European countries, very -extensive and superior pasture lands are set aside for the forage of -domestic animals intended for food. In Japan there is nothing of the -sort. On the highroads you will meet peasants dragging their own carts -and waggons, and if you travel by any other means than the railway, it -will be in a jinrikisha hurried along by human runners, or in a -palanquin carried on men’s shoulders, rarely, if ever, in a carriage or -on horseback. Sheep and goats are absolutely unknown in the Empire, but -I am assured there are a few pigs, although I never saw any. A European -who had lived many years in Japan assured me he had travelled for twelve -hours by rail without seeing a bullock or a cow; in the west, however, I -myself have often met with cattle. The scarcity of animals is one of the -peculiarities of Japan which most surprises the traveller. Statistics -confirm this impression, for they give only a return of 1,097,000 head -of cattle and 1,477,000 horses. - -Doubtless this singularity may be attributed to the predominance of the -Buddhist religion, which prohibits the eating of flesh, notwithstanding -which the Japanese are not above relishing a fowl, although poultry is -nothing like as abundant as it is in our villages. The very great -quantity of fish eaten doubtless accounts for this enormous population -being able to exist in so mountainous a country on such an abstemious -diet. The various fishing industries for 1894 returned produce valued at -£2,740,000. We have already mentioned the countless fishing villages -which send out a fleet of not less than 600,000 of those graceful -one-sailed junks that sometimes seriously impede the progress of the -numerous steamers in the Inland Sea. The secondary and very rocky island -of Awaju does not contain a single town, but nevertheless can boast of a -population of 198,000 inhabitants, spread over an area of only 220 -square miles, subsisting entirely on its fishing industries. - -The importance of the fisheries does not prevent Japanese agriculture -from taking a foremost position, and it must be admitted that farming -must have reached a high degree of perfection if the limited space -allotted to it can support such a dense population, a fact all the more -remarkable when we remember that Japan imports very few articles of -food. It is true that in many places there are two crops yearly, -although rice has only two harvests in the southern island of Shokoku; -in many other places, in November, as soon as this has been gathered, -the earth is manured again and sown with barley, or _daikon_, a kind of -monster turnip. The following statistics of 1895, which give the extent -of cultivated land and the nature of the various products, will serve to -illustrate how relatively great these are when compared with the area of -land in cultivation. - - ─────────────────┬─────────────────┬─────────────────────────────────── - │ Area in Acres. │ Produce. - ─────────────────┼─────────────────┼─────────────────────────────────── - Rice │ 6,821,694│ 195,612,321 bshls. - Barley │ 1,600,632│ 33,830,173 〃 - Rye │ 1,649,390│ 34,377,074 〃 - Wheat │ 1,096,257│ 19,470,855 〃 - Peas and azuki │ 1,318,779│ 17,701,808 〃 - Millet │ 848,282│ 18,633,157 〃 - Buckwheat │ 422,928│ 5,891,613 〃 - Sweet potatoes │ 586,478│ 1,865,709 cwts. - Potatoes │ 56,727│ 18,598,076 〃 - Colza │ 374,072│ 4,932,246 bshls. - Cotton │ 148,649│ 471,978 cwts. - Hemp │ 51,431│ 102,967 〃 - Indigo │ 114,999│ 579,298 〃 - Tobacco │ 88,185│ 279,870 〃 - Mulberry-trees │ 675,972│ 279,870 〃 - Tea │ 123,404│ 635,979 〃 - ─────────────────┴─────────────────┴─────────────────────────────────── - -The absence of domestic animals obliges the Japanese to have recourse to -novel methods of manuring the land. The rice-fields are strewn with -green grass, freshly cut in openings in the forests and on the mountain -sides, which, when covered with muddy water, speedily decomposes; to -this lime is sometimes added. Excrements of all kinds are also largely -employed in all fields except those devoted to the cultivation of rice, -and along the coast-line fish manure is much used. - -Everywhere, excepting in Yezo, the cultivation of rice preponderates, -especially in the northern part of the principal island, mainly because -the climate is elsewhere too cold to allow of any other crop being sown -during the winter and spring. Barley and wheat are grown mainly in the -centre of the great island of Nippon, rye in the western parts of the -same island, and also in the two southern islands of Shikoku and -Kiu-Siu, the last-named of which produces sweet potatoes in abundance. -These were originally imported from Java to Satsuma, and are still -called _Satsuma-imo_, or Satsuma potatoes. Tobacco, which was introduced -by the Portuguese in the sixteenth century, and which is universally -used all over the islands, being one of the few customs the Japanese -have retained from their first contact with Europeans, is cultivated -everywhere, except, perhaps, in the north. The mulberry-tree grows -exclusively in the mountainous regions of the centre, and only in very -small quantities in the north. Tea will be met with, on the other hand, -only in the plains, and at the foot of the lower ranges of hills. From -the windows of the train which passes from Tokio to Kioto, and -principally in the environs of this last-named town, as also of Osaka -and Nara, one sees extensive tea-plantations lifting their deep, green -foliage from the rice-fields. - -As may well be imagined, owing to the smallness of his tenement, the -Japanese peasant is by no means rich, and has to live on very little. In -the plains he subsists mainly on rice boiled in water, precisely as do -the workpeople in the towns, a little fish seasoned with _soy_, or -Japanese sauce, flavours this very simple menu, which also includes a -few eggs, and occasionally a chicken, a little game, or a wild duck. In -the mountains, where the people are very poor, and rice is considered a -luxury, barley and millet are sometimes substituted. The fisher-folk -replace this almost exclusively vegetarian diet by the produce of their -work. Even among well-off people in the towns the principal dish at -dinner consists of boiled rice. During meals the usual drink is hot -_saké_, which the guests offer each other in little cups with a good -deal of polite ceremony. This very weak form of brandy is distilled from -rice, and about 150,000,000 gallons of it are consumed annually. The -other great Japanese drink is green tea. - -The Japanese peasantry usually live in small villages, separated from -each other only by a few hundred yards. Sometimes, however, their houses -are built in little groups of four or five, but it is extremely rare to -find a peasant’s cottage quite isolated. Nothing can exceed the -simplicity of the construction of these habitations, which only differ -from those of the townspeople by their lofty and heavy thatched roofs, -which usually contain a granary, and are supported by very stout wooden -pillars, rising from a heap of stones placed on the bare ground, without -any attempt at a foundation. Those walls only which support the gable -are solidly built with clay kept together by a bamboo lattice. The two -principal façades stand back about a yard inside the pillars, and -consist of paper screens which slide backwards and forwards. At night, -or in stormy weather, these screens are replaced by wooden shutters. The -whole front is thrown wide open when the weather is fine or there is a -ray of sunshine, so that passers-by may have a full view of the -interior. It is this curious fashion of living in public which most -strikes the traveller who arrives in Japan from China, where you cannot -even see what is going on in the outer courtyard, and is one of the -chief characteristics that differentiate the Japanese from all other -Orientals. Another very striking feature is the scrupulous cleanliness -which reigns in these dwellings, whose only furniture are _tatamis_, or -thick straw mats, which cover the floor of the whole house, excepting a -space immediately opposite the door where visitors are expected to leave -their boots and slippers. - -The total absence of furniture, added to an equal lack of heating -apparatus and to the non-existence of any means of shutting out cold and -draughts, at first gives one an impression of extreme discomfort, but it -must not be forgotten that when the Japanese adopted Chinese -civilization they rejected three things: chairs, coverlets, and stoves. -The Imperial palaces at Kioto would make one of our humblest cottages, -so far as furniture is concerned, appear quite luxurious. At Hirashima, -a town of 100,000 inhabitants, the principal hotel is kept by a -Japanese, and although lighted by electricity and possessing a -telephone, the guests are expected to sit upon the floor, and only to -warm the tips of their fingers at the two or three little scraps of -burning embers in the _hibachi_, and in the morning, although it may be -freezing, they have to perform their toilet in the open courtyard. When -I was in this city I visited the house occupied by the Emperor during -the Chinese War, and was shown his study, which contained merely an -arm-chair, a few other chairs, and by way of stove only a _hibachi_, of -exquisite workmanship, it is true—black lacquer worked over with gold. - -The emptiness of a Japanese peasant’s home is, therefore, no sign of -extreme poverty, and although we may describe him as poor, as his -capital is extremely small, there is no reason to describe him as -destitute. In summer he is dressed as lightly as possible, and in winter -as warmly, always in deep blue, in contrast to the light blue affected -by the Chinese. The men wear a pair of trousers, or rather a -tight-fitting pair of drawers that reach to the ankles, and an ample -vest with pagoda sleeves. The women, on the other hand, wear one or two -skirts reaching half-way down their legs, and gaiters or stockings -without feet, the whole made of cotton or dark-blue linen and joining -the _tabi_, or little shoe, which ascends above the ankle. - -Japanese women enjoy greater freedom than any other women outside -Europe. They may come and go wherever and whenever they like, and -chatter with whom they choose. Whereas in China you never see a woman in -a tavern, in Japan you very frequently see only women. At an inn you are -always received by the wife of your host and by a whole troop of young -girls, who serve you, and keep you company. The women, when they have -finished their household duties, which are very slight, share with the -men the labour in the fields; and I remember seeing in the neighbourhood -of Kioto a woman with a child on her back helping her husband to drag a -waggon along. One is astonished to perceive with what persistent -good-humour these small but very hardy people perform their very heavy -work. In the midst of the trying labours of the rice-fields, with their -feet benumbed by the cold mud during the harvest, which is gathered in -November, they are invariably gay and happy. Doubtless that which -contributes most to their cheerfulness is the fact that they are far -ahead of the corresponding class in any other country in the matter of -artistic instinct. There are very few of them but preserve some -curiosity in bronze or lacquer, which has been handed down by ancestors, -and which, of all the scanty heirlooms, is the one thing most valued. -They are, moreover, passionately fond of nature. - -Every season of the year has its flowers, wild or cultivated, from the -plum-trees in February to the deep, red-leaved maples in November, and -every district has some particular spot celebrated for the beauty and -abundance of this or that flower. Thither the whole neighbourhood goes -in gay crowds to enjoy and admire them. In that season of the year when -they have less to do, the peasants, who are indefatigable walkers, under -the pretext of a pilgrimage, go incredible distances to visit some -beautiful site, or a famous temple, usually surrounded by magnificent -trees. Then, again, their domestic industries supply them with a great -deal of light work, which tends to render their existence less -monotonous than it otherwise might be. In order to give my readers an -idea of the cost of living in Japan, I copy from the _Japan Times_ the -following table of the expenses of the family of a schoolmaster in the -province of Rikuzen, in the north of the principal island. - - EXPENSES FOR THREE PERSONS—HUSBAND, WIFE, AND INFANT OF FROM SIX TO - SEVEN YEARS OF AGE. - - │ £ │_s._│_d._ - 3 _to_ (1 _to_ = 4 gallons) 3rd quality rice │ 0│ 9│ 2 - Vegetables and fish │ 0│ 3│ 0 - House linen │ 0│ 3│ 0 - Rent of house │ 0│ 1│ 7½ - Lighting and heating │ 0│ 1│ 6 - 3 _sho_ (1 _sho_ = ⅖ gallon) 2nd quality soy (sauce) │ 0│ 0│ 10½ - Tea │ 0│ 0│ 7 - Writing materials │ 0│ 0│ 7 - Education of child │ 0│ 0│ 5 - Baths every three days │ 0│ 0│ 5 - Taxes │ 0│ 0│ 3½ - Footgear │ 0│ 0│ 3½ - Extras │ 0│ 0│ 11 - │ ———│ ———│ ——— - Total │ 1│ 2│ 8 - │ ===│ ===│ === - -Or, in other words, about £1 3s. for the month. To this must be added £1 -10s. a year for clothing, making a total of £15 2s. for the year. These -figures were compiled in 1897, when the price of provisions had -considerably increased. It must, however, be stated that they exceeded -the salary of the unfortunate teacher, which has not been raised, and is -only £1 a month. - -The peasantry have certainly benefited by the abolition of the old form -of government, and Western civilization is even now commencing to -penetrate among them. They light their dwellings with petroleum, and, -although their notions of the value of time are exceedingly simple, -nearly all of them possess a watch or a clock. Most have adopted -European caps or hats, and none of the men shave their heads as they did -in olden times; moreover, they never express the least opposition to the -encroachments of modern civilization, but, on the contrary, invariably -display curiosity and a great desire to try experiments. Public -education is theoretically obligatory, and about 80 per cent. of the -boys and 40 per cent. of the girls attend schools, where they are taught -to read and to write about 100 Chinese characters, as well as the two -syllabic Japanese alphabets, in addition to one or two other general -things. The schoolmasters, having been too hastily recruited, may have -been educated too much on the old-fashioned Chinese lines; but, -nevertheless, modern ideas are making headway, and in the course of time -will undoubtedly carry the field. - -The Japanese people, even in the country, are definitely on the road to -progress. It would be unwise to change everything from the night to the -morning as by the touch of a magician’s wand, but undoubtedly the first -impulse has been given, and has met with no resistance. From the -agricultural point of view, there can be no question that the Japanese -have much to learn, not so much with respect to those products which -they already cultivate, but to the introduction of others besides the -all-prevalent rice. These reforms will be very difficult to bring about, -for the obvious reason that the small farmers only accept changes with -extreme caution; but in the course of time they will have to be -introduced, especially when we reflect that the population of Japan -increases at the rate of 300,000 souls per annum, and the extent of -territory which has been reclaimed and is in cultivation is so small in -proportion to the density of the population. - - - - - CHAPTER VI - DEVELOPMENT OF JAPANESE COMMERCE - - Progress of Japanese commerce in the last fifteen years—Remarkable - increase of exports and of the importation of raw - material—Importation of capital in the form of machinery for - native manufactories—Countries interested in Japanese - commerce—Japanese merchants accused of occasionally producing - inferior articles and not fulfilling their contracts—The reasons - for the excess of imports over exports in the years 1894–98. - - -Nothing can better illustrate the rapid progress made in Japanese -commerce during the last thirty years than the development of her import -and export trade, which is regularly recorded in a pamphlet published by -the Japanese Minister of Finance, both in Japanese and English, entitled -the ‘Monthly Return of the Foreign Trade of the Empire of Japan,’ which -gives the fullest particulars respecting the commercial operations of -the month, as well as a résumé of what has recently transpired. Each -spring a complete volume is issued which supplies further details, and -gives a table showing the commercial status throughout the preceding -year. According to the figures given in this document, which are -extremely accurate, the exports in 1898 attained the unusually high -figure of £16,570,000, and the imports £27,700,000, making a total of -£44,270,000. The following table displays very clearly the prodigious -advance made in Japanese commerce during the thirty years included -between 1868 and 1898. - -The figures in the original document are, of course, given in Japanese -currency, but, for the convenience of English readers, they are here -rendered by their equivalent in English money, taking the yen at two -shillings, the rate it has held for a considerable time past. - -JAPANESE FOREIGN COMMERCE. - - ───────────────────────┬───────────────────────┬─────────────────────── - │ Imports. │ Exports. - ───────────────────────┼───────────────────────┼─────────────────────── - 1868│ £1,070,000│ £1,550,000 - 1879│ 3,300,000│ 2,820,000 - 1884│ 3,220,000│ 3,400,000 - 1889│ 6,620,000│ 7,020,000 - 1894│ 12,170,000│ 11,330,000 - 1895│ 13,870,000│ 13,620,000 - 1896│ 17,170,000│ 11,780,000 - 1897│ 21,930,000│ 16,310,000 - 1898│ 27,700,000│ 16,570,000 - ───────────────────────┴───────────────────────┴─────────────────────── - -By studying the statistics published in this official pamphlet, we find -that out of £3,581,200 of indigenous articles exported from Japan in -1883, £2,713,900 were of a purely agricultural character, and only -£242,200 represented articles manufactured in the country. This last -class consisted only of the various articles included among the ancient -art industries of Japan: £54,400 worth of ceramics and pottery, £54,300 -of lacquer, £26,100 of paper fans, umbrellas, and fancy goods generally, -etc. The silk industries did not even attain the comparatively low -figure of £9,000. Five years later, in 1888, the situation was entirely -changed. The export of indigenous merchandise exceeded £6,489,100, of -which only 68·6 per cent. instead of 76·4 per cent. represented -agricultural produce, 3 per cent. instead of 3·4 per cent. forestries, -5·2 per cent. instead of 6·7 per cent. of the total amount fisheries; on -the other hand, the various minerals had risen from 6·7 per cent. to -11·2 per cent., and manufactured goods rose from 6·8 per cent. to 11·8 -per cent. Japan also exported £350,000 worth of copper and £300,000 -worth of coal. The silk manufactories exported silk goods to the extent -of £168,000, and all the art industries, with the sole exception of the -lacquer, which remained stationary, rose very considerably in value. To -these figures must be added the returns of certain other commercial -products of a kind totally unknown in Japan a quarter of a century -ago—matches, for instance, of which £74,000 worth were exported. - -A glance at the following figures will show of what the Japanese export -trade during the last three years was composed, and the nature of the -goods. - - PRINCIPAL EXPORTS FROM JAPAN IN 1895, 1896, 1897 AND 1898. - - ───────────────┬────────────┬────────────┬────────────┬──────────── - │ 1895. │ 1896. │ 1897. │ 1898. - ───────────────┼────────────┼────────────┼────────────┼──────────── - Raw silk and │ │ │ │ - cocoons │ £4,800,000│ £2,880,000│ £5,560,000│ £4,200,000 - Silk ‘ravel’ │ 290,000│ 280,000│ 300,000│ 270,000 - Tea │ 820,000│ 640,000│ 780,000│ 820,000 - Rice │ 720,000│ 790,000│ 610,000│ 590,000 - Camphor │ 150,000│ 110,000│ 130,000│ 120,000 - Cuttle-fish │ 100,000│ 110,000│ 140,000│ ? - Coal │ 760,000│ 890,000│ 1,150,000│ 1,520,000 - Copper │ 520,000│ 550,000│ 580,000│ 730,000 - Tissues and │ │ │ │ - silk │ │ │ │ - handkerchiefs│ 1,530,000│ 1,200,000│ 1,320,000│ 1,600,000 - Sewing cotton │ 100,000│ 400,000│ 1,350,000│ 2,010,000 - Spun cotton │ 240,000│ 230,000│ 260,000│ 260,000 - Matches │ 470,000│ 500,000│ 560,000│ 630,000 - Mats and straw │ │ │ │ - goods │ 480,000│ 530,000│ 640,000│ 630,000 - Fans and │ │ │ │ - screens │ 80,000│ 100,000│ 120,000│ ? - Pottery │ 200,000│ 200,000│ 180,000│ 200,000 - ───────────────┴────────────┴────────────┴────────────┴──────────── - -Altogether the chief manufactured articles exported in the year 1895 -were valued at £4,000,000; three years later they rose in value to -£6,300,000. - -At the present moment goods which were absolutely unknown in Japan in -1850 are exported from that country all over the East from Korea to -Singapore; and Japanese cotton goods, the raw material for which has to -be imported from India, compete with Chinese materials of the same -class, the raw material for which is obtained from the same country. -Needless to say, Japanese silks and mats can be procured in every part -of the world, and their coal, though inferior to the Welsh, being -greasy, emitting great quantities of smoke and burning away quickly, is -very cheap, and is supplied to all the steamers touching at the ports of -the Far East from Korea to the Straits of Malacca. In the meantime, -those industries for which Japan has always been noted have not -diminished in importance. It must, however, be confessed that this -branch of industry has decreased both in quality and beauty, the result, -doubtless, of hasty and purely commercial production. If, however, very -fine work is not produced so much as it was formerly, cheap Japanese -artistic goods, ceramic and otherwise, flood the markets of the -civilized world. A curious fact connected with the actual condition of -Japanese export trade is the remarkable extension and increase in value -of what might be called the new industries, of which by far the most -important are those connected with cotton. - -Meanwhile, the import trade has lately been considerably altered. -Fifteen years ago Japan imported sugar and petroleum only. In 1897 raw -cotton was introduced to the value of £4,300,000. If we add to this -£100,000 worth of wool, £93,400 of pig-iron, £47,700 of steel, and one -or two other minor items, we have a return of £5,900,000, or 23 per -cent. of the entire imports; the food imports during the same year were -also 23 per cent. The increase in the value of these latter in 1897, -which stood at £5,900,000 as against £3,400,000 in the previous year, is -due to the failure of the rice crop, which necessitated the importation -of 3,800,000 cwt. of rice, valued at £2,180,000. A certain quantity of -rice, between £400,000 and £800,000 worth, has to be imported annually -from Korea and Indo-China, in order to counterbalance the amount of -Japanese rice of the first quality exported to Europe and the United -States. Besides rice, the import of sugar has reached the high figure of -£1,980,000, and petroleum, of which 61,000,000 gallons were imported in -1897, £766,700. - -Imported manufactured goods may be divided into two distinct classes, -the first including articles of domestic use or consumption, and the -second those which tend to extend the various industries of the country, -and which in a sense constitute a certain proportion of capital. In the -first category may be placed spun goods, both cotton and woollen, and -watches; in the second, machinery, wrought iron and steel, rolling-stock -and other materials for the railways. - -Woollen industries did not exist in Japan until recently, for the simple -reason that sheep were not introduced until after the opening of the -ports to Europeans. In 1897, woollen goods were imported to the value of -£133,700, and textile fabrics to £1,020,000; while watches, which were -never seen in Japan until 1850, are now in general use, and in 1897, -305,894 of these necessary articles were imported and retailed at an -average of about 12s. each. - -The second class of manufactured articles imported into the Empire in -1897 includes £830,000 worth of wrought iron, £1,360,000 of machinery -and boilers, £510,000 of locomotives and railway carriages and trucks, -£330,000 of rails, and £200,000 of other railway stock, _i.e._, 15 per -cent. of the total imports. This rapid development, which compares very -favourably with the two preceding years, 1896 and 1895, is mainly due to -increased activity in railway construction since the Chinese War, and -also to the rapid commercial expansion throughout the Empire. - -The following table shows the manner in which Japanese foreign trade was -shared among the various nations in 1896: - - ─────────────────┬─────────────────┬─────────────────┬───────────────── - │Exportation from │Importation into │ Total. - │ Japan. │ Japan. │ - ─────────────────┼─────────────────┼─────────────────┼───────────────── - Great Britain │ £900,000│ £5,920,000│ £6,820,000 - United States │ 3,150,000│ 1,640,000│ 4,780,000 - China │ 1,380,000│ 2,130,000│ 3,510,000 - Hong-Kong │ 2,000,000│ 910,000│ 2,970,000 - British India │ 450,000│ 2,250,000│ 2,700,000 - France │ 1,900,000│ 770,000│ 2,670,000 - Germany │ 300,000│ 1,720,000│ 2,020,000 - Korea │ 340,000│ 510,000│ 850,000 - ─────────────────┴─────────────────┴─────────────────┴───────────────── - -Japan also carries on a very extensive trade with other countries -besides those above mentioned, among them Switzerland, Asiatic Russia, -Italy, Australia, the Philippines, Cochin China, Canada, etc., but in no -case does it exceed £400,000 annually. The relative high figures of the -business transacted between Japan and Hong-Kong is due to that port -being a centre whence goods are distributed to other countries. One -striking feature of the above table is the preponderance of the trade -between Japan and England, from which country she derives all her cotton -and linen goods, as well as nine-tenths of her machinery and wrought -iron (nails excepted), and more than half of her woollens—in a word, the -immense majority of all the manufactured commodities imported into the -country. Germany sends machinery, cloth, almost all the iron nails, -alcohol, sugar and paper; Belgium and Russia export manufactured -articles into, but take almost nothing from, Japan. The principal French -import is mousseline de laine, valued at £570,000, which is almost a -French monopoly. About a fifth of the goods imported from America -consists of machinery and wrought metals; the rest includes petroleum, -raw cotton, flour and leather. The United States, France, and lastly -Italy, are Japan’s principal customers for raw silk, as well as for her -light spun silks. Five-sixths of the tea grown in Japan goes to America -and the rest to England. China, Korea and India take almost all the -Japanese matches, while the coal will be found distributed along the -whole of the Asiatic Coast of the Pacific. Copper goes to Hong-Kong, -Germany and England, and rice, camphor, matting, straw and art goods are -distributed all over Europe and the United States. - -This brilliant picture of Japanese commercial prosperity has, -unfortunately, its shady side. Many complain that the articles -manufactured in Japan are not up to the mark in point of excellence and -finish. As is generally the case with Orientals, they start well and -make their first batch of goods admirably, but the quality soon falls -off, probably the result, not so much of negligence, as of over-hasty -production, due to competition. There can be no question that these and -other complaints are not unfounded, and many intelligent Japanese are -the first to acknowledge and deplore them. As an instance in point, -matches are not nearly so well made as they used to be. Many complaints -have also been made as to the increasing inferiority of a certain class -of silk goods known as _haboutaye_ and of the silk pocket-handkerchiefs, -of which an enormous quantity are exported, with the result that the -exportation of these last-mentioned necessary articles fell from -1,855,000 dozens in 1895, to 1,157,000 in 1897. On the other hand, there -is a distinct increase in the export of _haboutaye_. Nevertheless many -thoughtful people have watched this deterioration in the excellence of -the new Japanese industries with some alarm, and not a few manufacturers -who have had their attention drawn to the matter have already mended -their ways. The same complaint might be made of goods manufactured in -certain parts of Europe, notably in Germany, where cheap and showy -articles are fabricated in superabundance, but Japan would do well to -maintain her reputation as high as possible as a producer of all that is -best in the market. - -Still graver is the charge brought against Japanese merchants of -occasional lapses from a high standard of honour, and of availing -themselves of the slightest possible pretext to avoid fulfilling the -letter of their contracts, in which they contrast unfavourably with the -higher class of Chinese merchants, whose reputation for integrity and -for a strict adherence not only to their written, but also to their -verbal promises, is well known, with some degree, possibly, of -exaggeration. It is as well to recall in this connection that the -Japanese were until quite recently a feudal and military people, who -despised trade in all its branches, and those who were engaged in its -pursuit were not considered any the better for being honest. In China, -on the other hand, it has ever been otherwise, the merchants, after the -literati, being looked upon as the most honourable class in the Empire, -whereas the military were invariably despised, being recruited from the -lowest ranks of society. Ideas have certainly been considerably modified -in Japan in the last thirty years; still, the majority of the merchants -are of the same class as their predecessors when they are not their -immediate descendants; therefore, we should not be surprised if they -retain some of their traditions it were better they were without. In a -word, since the Restoration of 1868 the Japanese have done their best to -get rid of the prejudices of feudal times, but although these are fast -disappearing, some of their after-effects still remain. - -It has always been extremely difficult to induce Orientals to understand -the value of time, and in this particular the Japanese are still on a -par with their neighbours. Foreign merchants have the greatest -difficulty in persuading their Japanese correspondents that a few days’; -nay, a few hours’ delay in the transaction of business and in the -despatch of goods often leads not only to much inconvenience, but to -absolute loss. - -One of the chief desires of the Japanese at the present time is to see -their export commerce pass from the hands of foreigners, who hold it, -into their own; but they may rest assured that until they improve their -business habits they will not succeed in carrying out their object in -this direction. - -It has been noticed that during the three years 1896, 1897 and 1898 the -Japanese imports have been immensely in excess of their exports. This is -probably due to the necessity of obtaining plant in great quantities for -the immediate increase of the many new industries that have sprung up -all over the country in so short a time. This financially has -undoubtedly resulted in a distinct loss to the nation. The Chinese War -indemnity brought a good deal of gold into the country, but the greater -part of it has been expended in augmenting the navy and in the purchase -of war materials. Fortunately, trade throughout Japan in 1899 was -distinctly flourishing, thanks mainly to the abundance of the crops in -the preceding year, and also to a curb having been put on exaggerated -industrial activity, whereby, as already intimated, the imports were in -excess of the exports, and the danger of a crisis in this direction was -averted. This extraordinary commercial development in so remarkably -short a period reflects the greatest credit upon the Japanese people, -but we must not expect that it will continue progressing without -encountering occasional checks, and there are not a few thoughtful -people who foresee that the Japanese factories will soon have to compete -very seriously with those which have been recently erected in the free -ports of China. In this respect it may be remarked that salaries have -risen at Shanghai, as well as at Osaka and Tokio. The acquisition of the -island of Formosa will probably before long enable the Japanese to -cultivate cotton and other tropical produce on their own territory, -which will, of course, be a great gain to them. - - - - - CHAPTER VII - THE FINANCES OF JAPAN - - Flourishing condition of Japanese finance on the eve of the war with - China—Present Japanese financial problem the result of the - important military, naval, and public works undertaken by the - Government at the close of the war—Enormous expense of this - programme, demanding a loan of £24,000,000—Gradual method of - paying off this debt in nine instalments—Impossibility of floating - the loan on the home market, all Japanese capital being locked up - in the various newly-created industries—Debts incurred in - connection with the programme of expansion, whereby the ordinary - Budget was doubled—Progressive scale of taxation from the present - date until 1905—Absolute necessity of augmenting certain - taxes—Projected imposition of increased taxation, especially upon - land and on beers, wines, and spirits—Taxation as compared with - the population of Japan and other countries—Prospects of Japanese - finance. - - -Before the war with China, Japanese finance was in a most brilliant -condition, and the fiscal year April 1st, 1893, to March 31st, 1894, the -close of which preceded hostilities by only a few months and which is -the last of which accurate accounts have been published, showed a return -of £8,588,300 ordinary and £315,913 extraordinary revenue, making a -total of £8,904,213, as against £8,458,187 expenditure, the surplus -being £446,026, which on a Budget of £10,400,000 was a very creditable -but by no means an exceptional result. As a matter of fact, there had -been only one deficit, that of 1891–92, resulting from the exceptional -expenses incurred by the nation through the disastrous effects of the -earthquake of 1891, one of the most terrible on record even in Japan, -where these dreadful visitations are of very frequent occurrence. The -whole financial tendency of the preceding years is summed up in the -statement that at the beginning of the year 1896–97 £3,900,000, derived -from accumulated surpluses, was at the disposal of the Treasury, -although £2,300,000 had already been withdrawn from this reserve fund to -help in defraying the expenses of the war. - -On the other hand, the National Debt at this period was not higher than -£28,350,000, of which £1,570,000 was paper money in circulation. It had -therefore diminished since 1890–91 by £2,300,000, of which £1,450,000 -was due to the withdrawal of the paper money. These notes had been -issued at a period when the new regime was not firmly established, the -insurrection at Satsuma still to be suppressed, and the Government -unable to obtain cash, even at a very high rate of interest. In 1881 the -premium upon silver, the standard currency, had risen to 70 per cent., -thanks to the energy of Count Matsukata, the very able Minister of -Finance. It fell to 9 per cent. by 1884; in 1886 par was reached. The -paper money of the State and the national banks was gradually withdrawn -and replaced by notes of the Bank of Japan, payable at sight. In brief, -if we compare the figures of the Debt and the Budget with those of the -population, 41,500,000, we can only envy the financial situation of -Japan on the eve of the war. - -Although the expenses of the Chino-Japanese War, which were partly -covered by the indemnity obtained from China and partly by a public -loan, undoubtedly checked the progressive prosperity of the country, -they had nothing whatever to do with the present financial problem, -which has been created by the magnitude of the military, naval, -industrial, and commercial enterprises undertaken by the Japanese -Government since the close of the war. Between 1895 and 1896 the -Government decided to double the strength of the army, by raising the -number of divisions from six to twelve (exclusive of the Imperial -Guard), and it will now thus muster 150,000, as against 70,000 to 75,000 -on a peace footing, and 500,000, instead of from 270,000 to 280,000, in -time of war. The fleet is to be increased from 43 vessels of 78,000 -tons, _plus_ 26 torpedo-boats, without a single cruiser, to 67 -men-of-war, of which 7 are first-class battleships, with a displacement -of 258,000 tons, besides 11 torpedo-boat destroyers and 115 -torpedo-boats. The creation of numerous arsenals and fortifications will -eventually complete the programme, but beyond these War Office expenses, -very considerable sums have been spent in the construction of railways, -extension of telegraph lines, creation of new ports, subventions to the -mercantile marine, and in the establishment of a second University at -Kioto. The plan of railway extension which was decided upon in 1893 by -the Diet must be completed according to contract in 1910. The other -measures for the augmentation of the army and navy were included in the -programme of the Ito Cabinet, which the Chambers accepted immediately -after the signing of peace. This extra expenditure is to be disbursed in -ten instalments from 1896 to 1906, and some further amendments and -additions were made during the Parliamentary Session of 1896–97. The -expenses entailed by these extensive schemes, together with the -railways, are tabulated below:— - - Navy and arsenals £22,650,000 - Army 8,220,000 - Fortifications 940,000 - Other military expenses 680,000 - Railway construction 7,980,000 - Increase and improvement of lines 2,650,000 - Telephones 1,280,000 - Construction of ports 790,000 - Defence against floods 1,970,000 - Subventions to banks 2,060,000 - Creation of a tobacco monopoly 820,000 - Subventions to various industries, commerce, agriculture, - and other public works 1,460,000 - ——————————— - Total £51,500,000 - -Of this amount £32,495,670 was for War Office expenses, and £19,005,406 -was intended for the very extensive commercial enterprises. - -In 1893 a loan was voted to be issued as and when required to entirely -cover the expense of the new railway lines. The indemnity was -£30,000,000, _plus_ £4,100,000 as compensation for the retrocession of -the Liao-Tung Peninsula, imposed upon Japan by the Russian, French, and -German Governments. This latter sum, as well as the first instalment, -£7,500,000, of the indemnity was duly paid into the Japanese Treasury on -November 8, 1895; the remainder was to be paid by regular instalments on -May 8 of each year until 1902. China, however, availed herself of a -clause allowing her to pay off the debt at once, and thus escape -interest charges, which she did on May 8, 1898. Japanese statesmen had -anticipated this act of the Chinese Government, and did not count upon -more than £34,100,000. Of this sum £8,000,000 had been debited to the -war account, leaving a balance of £26,100,000. In addition to these -amounts, the Treasury held the accumulated surpluses, which, on April 1, -1896, attained £3,900,000, to which £500,000 must be added as the -surplus in the Budget of 1896–97. The difference between the total of -these receipts and the anticipated expenses was to be balanced by a loan -known as ‘the loan for State enterprises.’ The following table exhibits -the assets for this programme of expansion: - - Chinese indemnity[17] £26,100,000 - Surpluses of previous Budgets 4,400,000 - Railway loan, £7,980,000 21,480,000 - Loan for State enterprises, £13,500,000 〃 - ——————————— - Total £51,980,000 - =========== - -The expenses being £51,500,000, there would thus remain a surplus of -nearly £500,000, thanks to the favourable result of the fiscal year -1896–97. - -Apart from this financial scheme, however, there was still a war charge -which had not been foreseen. It had at first been believed that the -island of Formosa would be self-supporting, an illusion which was soon -dispelled, and the Government had therefore to grant this new -acquisition for a period of years a subvention from the Imperial -Treasury of about £600,000, to obtain which various receipts officially -described as extraordinary, such as voluntary contributions and -restitutions, sales of State lands, and interest on divers funds had to -be drawn upon. These receipts generally averaged £200,000, and by the -year 1905–6, the time fixed for the conclusion of the expansion -programme, will have furnished between £1,500,000 and £1,800,000; for -the remainder it will be necessary to have recourse to a loan, and -supposing that during this period the subvention of the Japanese Budget -to Formosa, which must necessarily diminish year by year, rises to about -£4,000,000, another loan of between £2,000,000 and £2,500,000 will have -to be raised. Japan would therefore have to borrow about £24,000,000 -from 1896–97 to meet the extraordinary expenses she had undertaken. On -the other hand, when these were met, her ordinary Budget still remained -greatly augmented by the necessity of maintaining an army and navy -double what they were before the war. - -This being the case, two important questions presented themselves. In -the first place, was it possible to raise without difficulty a loan of -£24,000,000, and from whence was it to be obtained? In the second, was -the country sufficiently rich, once the scheme was executed, to maintain -this increased expenditure, and by what means would it be able to obtain -fresh resources to pay current expenses? The first question contained -the principal difficulty. Not only did Japan need to borrow £24,000,000, -but she had to borrow most of this without loss of time. Naturally, the -Administration decided to carry out with the least possible delay the -essential parts of the programme already determined upon, especially -those connected with the national defence, and the Budgets of 1896, -1897, and 1898 were therefore most heavily charged with the -extraordinary expenses. The extraordinary Budget of the first year -reached £10,300,000, that of the second £14,200,000, that of the third -£6,000,000. In no case, however, could the surpluses of the previous -Budgets and the part already paid out of the indemnity (which was -£20,600,000, of which £8,000,000 had been handed over to the War Office) -have sufficed to provide such large amounts. It was therefore necessary -to borrow in 1896–97 £1,830,000, in 1897–98 £6,880,000, while in 1898–99 -a further issue of £4,500,000 had to be made. Now the grave situation -which arose was this: the issues of 1896–97 were readily taken up by the -public, but in 1897–98 only a third of the sum needed could be obtained, -because the conditions of the market were too unfavourable and -disposable capital was lacking. Whereas in the summer of 1897 £4,000,000 -of a 5 per cent. Japanese loan was floated on the London market at par, -the Government offered the Japanese people bonds bearing the same -interest at 94, but they were not placed without much difficulty. - -All the capital in Japan is locked up either in previously contracted -State loans or in the innumerable commercial enterprises which have -sprung up in the country during the past few years. When we remember -that nine-tenths of the £40,000,000, at which the National Debt stood -after the war, is in Japanese hands, and that it is with their own money -that they have constructed railways and established new industries, -there is no ground for surprise at this lack of ready capital. In view, -however, of the evident impossibility of placing a domestic loan for the -sum required, two alternatives remained: a foreign loan, or a reduction -to more modest proportion of the programme of expansion. - -The result of an appeal to foreign capitalists would no doubt have -proved successful if the attractive interest of from 5 to 5¼ per cent. -had been offered. Japan offers excellent security. Her finances have -hitherto been admirably managed, and her liabilities do not appear to be -in excess of the capabilities of her people. Nevertheless, the project -of a foreign loan seems to have met with serious opposition from many -eminent people in Japan, which arose from a twofold cause: first, fear -of compromising the independence of the country by supplying foreigners -with a pretext for interfering in the internal affairs of the Empire, in -case there was any difficulty in fulfilling obligations; and, secondly, -the national pride, which regarded it as humiliating for Japan to become -indebted to Europe. This latter motive was doubtless the most powerful, -but it rested upon an altogether exaggerated notion of national dignity. -What all the great Powers of the world, except, perhaps, France and -England, have done, Japan might do without sacrificing her dignity. The -Japanese Government, after long hesitation, in which it perhaps missed -the most favourable opportunity, decided in June, 1899, to issue a 4 per -cent. loan on the London market at the rate of 90 francs. The high rate -of issue did not greatly tempt the public, but that part of the loan not -then subscribed will be gradually issued and advanced by the banks which -undertook the issue, and thus the Japanese Treasury will find itself in -possession of sufficient funds to proceed with its programme until money -is more plentiful at home. In the meantime, so far as concerns the -honourable intentions of the Japanese to fulfil their obligations, we -may rely with safety upon their natural high sense of honour, and rest -assured that they will do everything in their power to meet their -obligations. Moreover, the resources of Japan, which I will briefly -analyze, appear sufficient to enable the country to meet without much -difficulty the interest on the loans as well as the permanent -expenditure resulting from its greater national importance. - -Let us, to begin with, review the principal items in the revenue as -tabulated in the Budget of 1897–98: - - Land tax £3,870,000 - Income tax 190,000 - Tax on drinks 2,990,000 - Tax on tobacco 310,000 - Registration 750,000 - Tax on sales, contracts, etc. 590,000 - Customs 660,000 - Various duties 490,000 - Posts and telegraph 1,210,000 - Profits of the State railways 540,000 - Crown land products 290,000 - Other items 250,000 - Receipts from Formosa 810,000 - ——————————— - Total £12,950,000 - =========== - -This Budget is higher by one-half than that of 1893–94, the total of -which we have already given, and whose ordinary receipts did not quite -reach £8,600,000. This increase results from four causes: (1) better -returns from the public services—railways and posts; (2) a slight -increase in the revenue from taxes whose rate has not changed, and also -in the Crown lands; (3) the establishment of two new taxes on -registrations and sales, contracts, and other commercial deeds, the -aggregate value of which increased the revenue by about £1,200,000; (4) -the reorganization of the tax on drink, increased by £1,150,000, and of -that on tobacco, in consequence of this product having been converted -into a monopoly, the effects, however, of which were not felt in -1897–98, for it only came into force in January, 1898. To these we must -add the receipts from Formosa, which, unfortunately, are not net -receipts. The total revenue for the fiscal year 1897–98 was £12,950,000, -and exceeded ordinary expenses by £600,000; but these figures will -undoubtedly be greatly augmented when the programme of expansion is -completed. It is calculated that by the year 1904–5 the ordinary -expenses will stand as high as £17,300,000, in order to meet which it -will be necessary to raise another £4,400,000 by increased taxation. - -Taxation in Japan has a natural tendency to increase. During the years -1887–94 the annual rise was between 1¼ and 1½ per cent. at a time, when -it was not affected by any unusual excitement. This was before the war. -Assuming that it only advances at the rate of ¾ per cent., it is -expected that by the year 1904–5 the increase will add £500,000 to the -£9,800,000 of 1897–98. On the other hand, the Customs tariff, which was -kept exceedingly low by the treaties with foreign Powers, has risen in -consequence of the revision of these treaties, and, it is hoped, will -produce an increase of £600,000. The tobacco monopoly will also, it is -anticipated, produce £800,000 per annum, an absolute increase of -£500,000 on the existing returns. There remains, therefore, £2,800,000 -to find, which will doubtlessly be obtained from the increased receipts -of the posts, telegraph, and telephones, and by the extension of the -State railways now in existence, and the exploitation of those in -process of construction. - -The recent excessive activity in commercial circles has suffered a check -of late, a halt not very surprising after such a forced march. In the -meantime, there is some risk that the returns of the posts and railways -may not increase as rapidly as the more sanguine anticipate, for the new -railways are not likely to prove as profitable as those already in -existence, which pass through richer regions. During the interval -1892–96 the net railway returns to the State, without including any -remarkable increase in the lengths of their lines, was doubled. By the -year 1904 it is calculated that there will be 1,250 miles of rail -instead of the 600 in 1897, which it is estimated will yield an increase -of £550,000 upon the present returns. As to the posts, telegraph, and -telephones, whose rough receipts were augmented by about 80 per cent. -during the last four years, there is every reason to believe that they -will in 1904–5 be £850,000 above what they are at present. Thus we have -£1,400,000 added to the necessary £2,800,000. The remaining £1,400,000 -will have to be taken from various other sources of taxation. The -question now arises: Will the country stand further taxation without -protest? The answer seems to me reassuring. The land tax before the -Restoration and even to the close of the seventeenth century, as can be -verified by reference to many important historical documents, was seven -times more burdensome than it is at present, and was paid in kind—in -rice, or other kindred products—and yielded to the daimios and the -Central Government 147,000,000 bushels of rice per annum. At the price -fetched by rice in 1897, when the harvest returned a fair average, the -land tax should now represent about a sixth of this amount, and the -total Budget of £17,300,000 anticipated for the year 1894–95 only -claimed 93,100,000 bushels. If we add to these all the provincial and -communal Budgets, we find not more than 127,400,000 bushels of rice. It -is therefore untrue that the Japanese are not better off to-day than -they were under the old regime. Since the introduction of the present -financial conditions and the abolition of the feudal system, prices have -increased enormously. From 1887 to 1897, according to the Monthly -Returns published by the Bank of Japan, on the returns of about forty -principal products of the Empire, we find that they have increased in -value by no less than 73 per cent. Salaries have augmented even to a -greater extent, and the population has risen 4,000,000, so that an -addition of 45 per cent. upon the taxes leaves the taxpayer less heavily -burdened than before. The most important of all these taxes may strike -us as distinctly heavy, but we must not forget that in former times it -was the only form of taxation. In those good old days nine-tenths of the -population lived in the country, which was divided up among the daimios, -the peasantry being their tenants; but at the abolition of the feudal -system the peasants, under the new law, became proprietors, without -having to pay a fraction either to their former masters or to the -Government. - -In 1896 the agricultural produce of Japan was valued at £62,600,000, -exclusive of the produce of the fens, which, however, is very important. -The land taxes, therefore, at £3,800,000 are only 5·6 per cent., and the -local land tax 2·8 per cent. of this total. All this is not excessive. - -Finally, the land tax includes £352,500 derived from the tax on urban -building land, which pays £1 12s. per acre, only four times as much as -the rice-fields, and should easily return from £200,000 to £300,000 -more. As regards the total of the land tax, it was decreased by -one-sixth in 1877; an equivalent increase would bring in a return of -about £600,000 more, and this could be effected without much -inconvenience, owing to the general increase in the value of property. -The tax on _saké_, the principal drink of the country, was raised in -1897 about one-half. It would bear augmentation, as at present it pays -5d. per gallon on a drink which is worth 1s. 3d. a gallon. In general, -the Japanese financiers prefer to raise existing taxes rather than -establish new ones. If we study the question from another point of view, -and examine how best to increase Japanese taxes, let us consider the -Budget as it will be five years hence, after the necessary taxes already -mentioned have been added to it. Of the £17,300,000 of the Revenue, -£3,400,000 will be derived from Crown lands, railways, and posts, -£850,000 from Formosa, and £13,000,000 from monopolies and taxes paid by -Japan proper. The population, increasing as it does at the rate of -350,000 to 400,000 souls a year, will have reached 45,500,000, -contributing to the State at the rate of £13,000,000, or about 5s. 9d. -per head, which does not seem to us excessive when compared with what is -paid by people of other countries. A Frenchman, for instance, pays £3, -an Italian £1 12s., a Russian 12s. 9d., an Egyptian 16s. 9d., and a -Hindu 3s. 9d. I have not selected these nationalities haphazard, but -because each of them has some special characteristic in common with -Japan, especially Egypt, essentially an agricultural country. I do not -think that anybody can maintain that an Italian, as a rule, is five or -six times richer than a Japanese, or an Egyptian three times, or that -the 130,000,000 of Russians, 20,000,000 of whom are Asiatics, possess -incomes double the average to be found in Japan, and there is no doubt -an immense inverse difference between a Hindu and a Japanese. Bearing in -mind these facts, one must certainly conclude that the amount which the -Jap will pay to his Treasury is considerably lighter than that obtained -from almost every people in the Old World. With regard to the National -Debt, five-sixths of which is held by natives, at the present moment it -does not exceed £40,000,000, but it will reach its maximum in 1901, when -it will stand at £49,930,000. The annual repayment stands at present at -£720,000, but will increase to £1,000,000 in 1903, and go on augmenting, -so that by 1938, unless fresh obligations are incurred beyond those -already in view, Japan will be free of debt. - -The financial difficulties confronting Japan at the present moment are -therefore not so formidable as they appear. In 1899 the Chamber -increased the land tax, which it had previously very persistently -refused to do. At the same time it raised the tax on _saké_ and on the -posts. The Budget of ordinary receipts was therefore advanced to -£19,000,000. This figure may appear excessive, but it shows a surplus of -£4,000,000 on the actual expenses, a fact which indicates the intention -of the Government to pay off as soon as possible the extraordinary -expenses of the Ito programme, which means that these increased -taxations are to be considered merely as temporary. They may possibly -impede commerce at first, a thing which, unfortunately, cannot be -helped, but, at any rate, the future will be considerably benefited -thereby. The finances of Japan have, happily, always been managed in a -highly satisfactory and prudent manner, and if the Empire carries out -the present plan of expansion, and does not embark on any fresh schemes -involving further outlay, Japan seems to have found a clear way out of -the transient difficulties which at one time weighed upon her finances. - - - - - CHAPTER VIII - THE DOMESTIC POLITICS AND PARLIAMENT OF JAPAN - - Present social organization—The nobles, or _kwazoku_; the _shizoku_, - or ancient _samurai_; and the _heimin_—Equal civil rights for all - citizens—Preponderance of the _samurai_ in politics since the - Restoration—Survival of the clan spirit—Japan governed during the - past thirty years by the Choshiu and Satsuma clans—Creation in - 1889 of a Constitution modelled on that of Prussia—Parliamentary - struggles against Cabinets governed by Southern clans—Frequent - crises and dissolutions—A Ministerial crisis in Japan—Efforts of - the Chamber to impose Ministerial responsibility and to replace - the Government of clans by that of parties—Signs of improvement in - the working of the representative system—Its prospects in Japan. - - -We have now to study the least praiseworthy of the many institutions -borrowed from Europe by modern Japan, that relating to the home politics -of the country, which are very unsettled. Since 1889, when the Mikado, -in fulfilment of the promise made to his people at the Restoration, -first granted a Constitution analogous to that of Prussia, the Chambers -have been dissolved not less than five times. A constant antagonism has -existed between the representatives of the people and the various -Cabinets which have succeeded each other; and if we except the time of -the Chinese War, when the patriotism of the Japanese was so intense as -to absorb even party feeling, we shall find that no Cabinet has been -able to dispose of an important majority. In order to understand this -state of affairs, we must recall the manner in which the Restoration -took place, bearing in mind the actual social organization of Japan, and -also the fact that the clan instinct has survived both class prejudice -and feudal privileges, which were suppressed without the least -opposition or regret. - -Twenty-five years have now elapsed since the abolition of the old -regime, and in the meantime the feudal system has been replaced, -primarily by a centralized and absolute monarchy, and now by -Parliamentary representation modelled on the European plan. The eighty -odd historical provinces have become forty-five departments, each -administered by a Prefect. The people are, however, still divided into -three distinct classes: the aristocracy, or _kwazoku_, formed of a -fusion of the ancient daimios with the _kuges_, or Court nobles, and of -the _shinkwazoku_, or newly ennobled persons (in all 644 families, -consisting of about 4,162 persons); the _shizoku_, or ancient _samurai_ -(numbering 432,458 families, or 2,049,144 persons); and finally the -_heimin_, or commoners; but apart from the predominance of the nobility -in the composition of the Chamber of Peers[18] no privileges have been -granted either to them or to the _shizoku_: their duties are exactly the -same as those of any other members. From the social point of view we -shall, however, very soon find that far less exclusiveness exists in -this country, where feudalism was in full force only so recently as -thirty years ago, than we should in many in Europe, where its abolition -dates back in some instances several centuries. A Japanese gentleman -recently said to me: ‘In Japan we never dream of asking a person the -first time we see him to what class he belongs.’ I dare say some -time-honoured privileges still linger in their inner circle, and that a -few old-fashioned noblemen do consider themselves superior to the -_heimin_, but they take great care not to display any such feeling. One -meets members of the Japanese aristocracy in every public resort and -place of amusement, and they mingle without the least hesitation with -the rest of the public. I remember one day at Tokio being present at a -wrestling match, a very favourite sport with the Japanese. Someone -pointed out to me Prince K——, the President of the House of Peers, seated -among the crowd on one of the steps of the ring. The Marquis H——, the -descendent of a great family of daimios, was also present, as well as -the Marquis Tokukawa, who is an ardent admirer of the sport and belongs -to the family of the Shoguns, to have merely looked upon a member of -which a generation or so back would have cost a man of the people his -life. These gentlemen appeared to thoroughly enjoy the entertainment, -and evidently thought very little or nothing at all of their former -exclusiveness. - -Although the highest positions in the Government are open to all, they -have hitherto always remained in the hands of the _samurai_. Just as -immediately after the Restoration, so to-day the country is governed by -members of this very numerous and intelligent gentry. All the successive -Ministers, the majority of whom have been ennobled, even made _kwazoku_, -have sprung from its ranks. The same may be said of all the high -officials, and, with very few exceptions, of the majority of the smaller -employés of the Government, even down to the very police agents and the -vast majority of the military and naval officers. This is not surprising -when we remember that the _samurai_ constituted before the Restoration -not only the military, but also the student and literary class. Even now -the greater number of the students at the University are recruited from -among them, and as a proof that a sort of special respect is still -entertained for them, they form the majority of the members of the Lower -House, although they only possess one-twentieth of the voting power of -the country. The mass of the Japanese people may be described as caring -very little about public affairs; and it is, after all, perhaps as well -that the political and administrative affairs of such a new country -should be in the hands of a distinct and cultured class. This is, -however, merely a transitory state of affairs, not a privilege. It is -already observed that the proportion of the _heimin_ in all public -offices, even in the army, tends to increase rapidly. - -The only marked feature of the former regime which still survives the -many social changes that have recently taken place in Japan is the clan -spirit, which is as strong to-day as ever. The bond which united the -followers of a former feudal prince among themselves still subsists, -although the prince himself may have fallen almost to the level of his -clansmen. The men who have up to the present governed modern Japan have -always belonged to southern clans, especially to those of Choshiu and -Satsuma; the two others, Hizen and Tosa, are less united, and although -certain important political personages are of their number, they have -had to fight their way to the front rather by dint of hard work than -through any clan influence. The influential combination formed by the -first-named clans, and unitedly known as the Sat-Cho, holds in its hands -the reins of administration, rules the army, and makes its influence -felt even more strongly in the navy. Their politics, however, are not -quite identical. Those of the Satsuma, for instance, are usually -believed to be rather more conservative and authoritative than -otherwise, and it is from its ranks that are recruited the majority of -the military party. The men of the Choshiu, on the other hand, are more -progressive and more subtle, but they are also accused of being too fond -of money. The chiefs of these clans appear to understand each other -sufficiently well to establish a sort of balance of power between -themselves, occasionally collaborating in a Cabinet, at other times -succeeding each other as distinct Ministries. In the rank and file there -is considerable rivalry, positions and honours being more liberally -distributed among the followers of those in power. During the earlier -part of my visit to Japan, under the last Premier, Count Matsukata, the -Satsuma clan was in the ascendant, and to give some idea of its -influence all I need say is that the Minister of Finance, the President -of the Council, the Minister of Foreign Affairs, the Home Minister, and -the Minister of War and Marine—in short, the five most important -Ministers out of eight—were of their number, and a sixth was a prominent -member of the Choshiu, their allied clan. Now the provinces of Yamaguchi -and Kagoshima, which are the home of these two clans, contain only one -out of the forty-two million inhabitants of the entire Empire. It is -therefore not surprising that people in other parts of the country -should complain of having so small a share in the Government. Imagine -France ruled exclusively for thirty years by Provençaux! It would only -be natural that such a state of affairs should lead to great -dissatisfaction throughout the Republic. - -So long as Japan remained an absolute monarchy, in which the Legislature -was concentrated within a narrow circle, the Choshiu and Satsuma -Ministries succeeded each other without any noisy opposition; but when -in 1890 Parliamentary Government was established, an immediate collision -occurred between the Lower Chamber, which is composed of representatives -from all parts of the country,[19] and the Cabinet, dominated by the -Sat-Cho combination. Although according to the Constitution, analogous -to that of Prussia, the Ministers are not responsible to the Chambers, -but to the Emperor alone, and although the Budget of the current year, -if the finance bill is not voted in due time, becomes by law that of the -following year also, the irreconcilable opposition which manifested -itself from the beginning greatly embarrassed the first Matsukata -Ministry in 1891 and 1892, and the Ito Ministry which succeeded it. This -latter, whose plans for the extension of the Navy were obstinately -rejected by the Chamber, twice dissolved it: in December, 1893, and -again in May, 1894. After the war patriotic feeling ran so high that -people cared very little about the Government and its measures, and -projected laws were adopted without the least opposition; but when -affairs began to settle down it was otherwise. In 1897 and 1898 there -were two dissolutions, and in the latter year the Ministry in power was -the ninth since December, 1885, and the seventh since the establishment -of the Parliamentary system. This gives an average of about two years -for each Cabinet, and even less for the Chamber, of which not one has -yet attained its legal term. - -The reason for this persistent conflict is due in the first place to the -popular assembly being hostile to the Government of the clansmen, and in -the second because it is displeased that the Ministers are not -responsible to it. Whilst professing the greatest respect for the -Emperor, the Chamber considers that the Government should possess a -Parliamentary majority in order to retain power. It, moreover, complains -of a certain lack of respect, Ministers rarely troubling to appear -before it, and that it is seldom, if ever, addressed by any but high -functionaries, appointed Government Commissioners for matters within -their several departments. In a word, there exists considerable friction -in the popular assembly against this state of affairs, which reduces it -to the position of a mere debating society. - -Now, all successive Cabinets have resolutely refused to consider the -Lower Chamber in any other light, which gave rise to some curious -incidents during the Ministerial and Parliamentary crisis of December, -1897, and January, 1898, which I had the good fortune to witness. The -Cabinet, persuaded that the majority was hostile to it, determined to -avoid even the semblance of dependence upon the Chamber, and therefore -did not wait for the passing of a vote of censure, but dissolved the -Chamber and offered their own resignation to the Emperor, to whom alone -they considered themselves responsible. - -Consequently, on December 24th the Emperor, according to custom, came in -person to read the Speech from the Throne to the two united Chambers, -who forthwith voted the usual answer. These two documents were very -short, and the second, containing merely protestations of respect and -loyalty, was unanimously adopted. On the morrow, scarcely had the order -of the day been read and certain financial projects of the Government -presented, than the doyen of the Chamber, Mr. Suzuki, asked leave to -speak, and proposed the amendment, so as to enable the House to discuss -a vote of censure. This amendment, which did not come as a surprise, -being unanimously passed, the same gentleman returned immediately to the -tribune and read out the following resolution, ‘That the Chamber of -Deputies declares it has no confidence in the present Ministry,’ -whereupon somebody presented a folded paper to the President, who -silenced the speaker by announcing that he had just received an Imperial -rescript, the tenor of which he informed the Chamber was as follows: ‘In -virtue of Article 3 of the Imperial Constitution, We hereby ordain that -the Chamber of Deputies be dissolved forthwith.’ The House rose, having -met for only seven minutes, and simultaneously the Upper House was -prorogued. Two days later, on the 27th, the Emperor received the -resignation of Count Matsukata and his colleagues. On the evening of the -same day the Marquis Ito, who had already twice been Premier, in 1886–88 -and in 1892–96, and who is certainly the best known living Japanese -statesman, was summoned to the palace. At first he hesitated about -accepting the leadership of the Government under such very difficult -circumstances, especially with respect to foreign affairs, Japan being -at that time at the acute stage of her Chinese question, while home -matters were embarrassed by several economical and financial -obstructions of a very serious character, but nevertheless, the Marquis -finally accepted. After ten days’ fruitless negotiations, he was obliged -to give up his difficult task; but he was able, however, by the 12th of -January to compose another Cabinet containing some excellent names, but -it was a clan Ministry, including four Choshius and two Satsumas. In -June he was obliged to dissolve Parliament, and the Ito Cabinet had to -give way to another, formed under the Presidency of Count Okuma, a -statesman of very progressive views, which may be described as the only -genuine Parliamentary Cabinet Japan has yet known. The new Cabinet was -not composed from a single party, but by a coalition of the two already -existing, and leagued against the clans. It lasted but a short time, and -towards the end of 1898 the Satsuma and Choshiu parties returned to -office under the Premiership of Marshal Yamagata. - -As in the case of the clans, the parties are formed of groups of persons -and interests. They have no defined programmes, but are constantly -changing their views, and are mere cliques surrounding one or two -influential politicians who aspire to replace the clan in office merely -for the sake of the advantages to be obtained, and to be able to -distribute posts among their relatives and friends. In the Parliament -which was dissolved in 1897 by Count Matsukata the most important of -these groups was that of the ‘Progressives,’ including some 90 to 95 -members out of 300; then came the ‘Liberals,’ with about 80 adherents; -then the ‘National Unionists,’ 25 to 30; and, lastly, some twenty other -subdivisions, besides the ‘Independents.’ The Progressives are more -consistent, possibly because they have only been in existence since -1896. The Liberals, although the oldest group, have almost completely -lost their influence and cohesion during the last two or three years. - -If you question a Japanese about the programmes of these different -parties he will give very vague answers, and, for the matter of that, -they are hardly distinguishable one from another. The demands presented -by the Progressives to Count Matsukata in the autumn of 1897 were -formulated in the vaguest terms, and confined to generalities, such as -reforms in the administration, a magnanimous system of government, etc. -The National Unionists are somewhat conservative in their tendencies, -but their programme is also extremely nebulous. On one point, however, -everybody seems agreed, and that is a horror of any attempt to increase -taxation, and not even the most seductive of projects will induce the -Chamber to budge an inch in this direction—an economical consistency -which is a distinct virtue considering the youth and inexperience of the -Japanese House of Representatives. - -The influential politicians do not form a part of the Chamber, nearly -all of them having been ennobled, and, what is more, with one exception, -they are not avowed chiefs of any party. If Count Itagaki, an old -Radical, is the official leader of the Liberals, Count Okuma, by far the -most original statesman in the Empire, does not profess to be the leader -of the Progressives, although he is extremely intimate with them. -Neither does Marshal Yamagata openly declare his influence over the -National Unionists. This action on the part of those who in any other -country would be popularly known as leaders of the various parties -undoubtedly weakens the influence of the several groups in the Japanese -Parliament. As to the representatives of the two clans in power in the -House, needless to say, the feeling of clanship carries all before it, -even party interests. Three Satsuma deputies who belong to the -Progressives immediately withdrew when this party in a preliminary -meeting declared opposition to the Matsukata Ministry. - -The men of the Southern clans have now governed Japan for over thirty -years, and governed her well. The able and energetic statesmen of the -first days of the Restoration have been succeeded by others of equal -ability, and of the same school. They are surrounded, however, by a -bureaucracy which existed in Japan even in the days of the last Shoguns, -and closely resembles that of Prussia, which, although arrogant, is -highly educated and progressive. They are supported by a powerful and -well-disciplined army, a navy whose officers are for the most part -members of the same clans as the Ministers, and the heads of the Civil -Service. These men have led their country happily through a series of -unexampled changes, transforming her from a feudal to a modern State -administered on advanced principles. They have placed her in an -excellent financial position, they have covered her with military glory, -and have assured her a period of extraordinary prosperity and economic -development. These observations force themselves upon the impartial -spectator who visits Japan with the object of studying the remarkable -progress she has made in so surprisingly short a time. - -It is impossible not to feel some anxiety lest affairs should be -wrenched from the hands of such experienced statesmen as those of the -Satsuma and the Choshiu clans, only to be scrambled for among the groups -into which the Chamber is at present divided. This, however, need not -make us despair of the success of Parliamentary Government in Japan. We -must not forget that the British Parliament was not shaped in a day, and -that in all countries in which this particular form of government has -been accepted many years have had to elapse before it attained anything -approaching perfection, and it is but natural that Japan should go -through the same experience. To be just, however, considerable progress -has lately been made in the right direction. The parties which possess -any kind of adhesion have occasionally participated more or less -directly in the Government. Marquis Ito brought Count Itagaki into the -Cabinet of 1895, and at the end of his Ministry was himself supported in -the Chamber by the Liberals. Then, again, in 1896 Count Matsukata came -into power in company with Count Okuma, favoured by the Progressives. -Throughout the whole of the Session of 1896–97, thanks to their support -and to that of the secondary groups, the Government possessed a decided -majority which did honour to the political acumen of the Ministers and -to the wisdom of the members. Unfortunately, in the autumn of 1897 the -Progressives grew tired of a Cabinet which did not fulfil its promises, -and withdrew, carrying with them Count Okuma; but this attempt showed on -the one hand that the Government had recognised the importance of an -understanding with a party, and on the other that such an understanding -possessed some staying power. Since the month of October, 1898, the -Yamagata Ministry has had to deal with a very reasonable Parliament, -which has unhesitatingly passed those laws which were required to -extricate the country from its financial difficulties, and also divers -measures necessitated by recently concluded treaties with European -Powers. All this seems to indicate that under certain grave -circumstances the Japanese Parliament is quite capable of rising to the -occasion, and possesses the great quality, as I have said once before, -of a spirit of economy often, unfortunately, absent from the more -experienced Parliaments of Europe. If the Japanese Parliament ever -returns to its old turbulent and boisterous humours, and insists upon -governing instead of controlling, and if its irreconcilable Opposition -incurs the risk of compromising the interests of the country, it is not -at all improbable that the Constitution may be seriously embarrassed by -a series of crises, but at present there is not much chance of -exceptional measures creating any serious trouble. If the voters of -Japan are apt to display an over-exuberance at elections, this is due in -the main to the fact that they are new to their business, and moreover -they form but a very small proportion of the population. The masses are -absolutely indifferent to political agitation. The newspapers, which are -read in the towns, make but slight reference to politics, and are mainly -filled with gossip, novels and anecdotes, while to the vast majority of -the people the Emperor is still a demi-god, and the last thing the -commercial classes would approve would be a series of riotous scenes in -the Chamber. - - - - - CHAPTER IX - JAPAN’S FOREIGN POLICY AND HER MILITARY POWER - - The military forces of Japan—The part they may play in the Far - East—Japanese army and navy—Excellent qualities and sound - instruction of the troops—Remarkable power of organization - displayed during the war with China—Importance of a Japanese - alliance for the Powers interested in China—The feeling of Japan - towards foreign countries—Her conservative policy in China since - the war—Her policy hostile to Russia and favourable to England—The - Korean Question—Motives which might lessen her feeling of - hostility towards Russia—Japan the champion of the integrity of - the Celestial Empire. - - -The Japanese Parliament having voted the necessary funds for carrying -out the programme of military, naval and economic expansion which was -formulated by the Government after the Chino-Japanese War, the Empire -will have, as we have already seen, without mentioning new railways and -other public works, an army of 150,000 men on a peace footing, instead -of from 70,000 to 75,000, and will be able to send into the field -500,000 men instead of from 270,000 to 280,000 men. Her fleet will be -increased to 67 men-of-war, of 258,000 tons, 11 torpedo-boat destroyers, -and 115 torpedo-boats, instead of the 33 vessels of 63,000 tonnage and -26 torpedo-boats she had before the war with China. - -It is not expected that the completion of this programme of defence will -take place before 1905 as regards the navy, and 1903 with respect to the -army. As the matter stands, however, more than half the work is -finished. Of the £21,300,000 voted to defray the expenses of the -augmentation of the navy, which includes arsenals, docks, etc., it was -stipulated that £13,300,000 was to be disbursed before April 1st, 1899, -and £3,400,000 more between that date and April 1st, 1900. The lengthy -opposition made by the Parliament with regard to the raising of taxes -and foreign loans possibly may have retarded the works a little, -especially those which have been executed in Japan; but the foreign -orders have been fulfilled, and the Mikado’s navy is now in possession -of nearly all the new vessels contracted for. The completion of at least -three out of the five arsenals is also far advanced. The same may be -said of the army. Of the £7,900,000 demanded for its increase, -£4,200,000 was spent before April, 1896, and £1,000,000 between that -date and April, 1900. It may be well to remind my readers that when -everything is completed the army will consist of twelve divisions -instead of six, exclusive of the Imperial Guard. Three of these new -divisions were completed when I was in Japan in 1898. - -What constitutes the great importance of the Japanese factor in the Far -East, and consequently throughout the world—the question of the Far East -dominating all others—is that her military and maritime forces are on -the spot. The Japanese navy would be respectable under any -circumstances, for it is equal to that of either Italy or Germany; but -it should be remembered that the Western nations cannot leave their -coasts and their colonies unprotected, and consequently can only send a -secondary portion of their maritime force, otherwise scattered -throughout the world, into Chinese waters. It follows therefore that no -other European Power, excepting perhaps England, could bring into these -waters in case of war a fleet in any way comparable with that of the -Mikado.[20] - -What has been said of the naval power may be repeated with still greater -emphasis of the military. It is needless to recall the difficulties to -be overcome in transporting, notwithstanding the immense size of vessels -now in use, even a single army corps to the Far East, the long and -minute preparations necessary for such an enterprise, or the perils that -are likely to be encountered, unless the sending Power is absolute -mistress of the sea. Japan, thanks to her railways and Inland Sea, can -now in a few days concentrate her whole army where no hostile vessel -dare pursue it, in the island of Kiu-Siu, 125 miles from the coast of -Korea, barely 500 miles from the mouth of the Yang-tsze-Kiang, a -distance equalling that between Marseilles and Algiers, and 625 miles -from the Bay of Pe-chi-li, and 940 miles from the entrance to the -Pei-ho, the river which flows to Peking. It could, therefore, in a few -days after the declaration of war land in China and especially in Korea -such a force as no European Power, excepting Russia, once the -Trans-Siberian line is finished, could introduce in so short a time.[21] -Since her fleet can easily protect her own territory, she need keep only -a part of her reserves at home. - -We have already seen that in the struggle with China, Japan, with her -naval and military forces, easily overcame that rather contemptible -enemy. It was evident that in this campaign the Japanese displayed -remarkable organizing ability, and that the whole working of the -delicate machinery of transports, ambulances, commissariat, etc., was -admirably managed. This is a great point in their favour, especially -when we remember that a similar compliment could not be paid to many a -European expedition sent out against enemies less redoubtable than the -Chinese. Even the English, after observing the manœuvres of the Japanese -squadron during the Chino-Japanese War, did not hesitate to praise their -excellence; and the military attaches who followed the Korean and -Manchurian campaign expressed themselves equally impressed by the -Japanese army. - -The courage of the Japanese cannot be questioned. They have proved it in -their long and bloody feudal wars, and, again, only twenty years ago, -during the insurrection in Satsuma. Their patriotism is equally sincere, -for they are the only Orientals among whom this sentiment exists, and -with them it easily rises to fanaticism. The endurance of their troops -is extraordinary. The subjects of the Mikado are unquestionably the best -pedestrians in the world; and it needs no strain on the imagination to -realize what must be the excellence of the infantry of a country whose -peasantry use no cattle to draw their waggons, and who pass their winter -months in making pilgrimages to distant sanctuaries in their own and in -neighbouring provinces. - -In Japan two men think nothing of dragging a jinrikisha sixty miles in -twelve hours, taking only two for rest, and recommencing their journey -the next day quite fresh. A Japanese battalion has been known to march -twenty-five to thirty miles in a day, knapsack on back, without leaving -any stragglers behind. The instruction of the soldiers—cavalry, perhaps, -excepted—is excellent, and they learn very quickly. I have watched the -manœuvres of some recruits who had only been six weeks in the regiment, -and, although they had never in their lives been in European dress -before, they wore their uniforms much more easily than many of our young -soldiers. The Japanese are, moreover, excellent shots. - -The raw material of the Japanese army is, therefore, exceedingly good. -It is provided with first-class guns and cannon, and as the navy is -composed of vessels built by the best builders in Europe and America, -according to the latest models, it goes without saying that the -artillery is worthy of the vessels which convey it. The staff may -possibly not attain the same high standard as the rank and file, but -this is difficult to pronounce upon, the data not being sufficient to -assist us in forming a correct opinion. It seems, however, that it has -been accused of lacking decision, and also of being too much under the -influence of academic and technical theories, not paying sufficient -attention to the exigencies of modern warfare. - -Be this as it may, it is very probable that in the case of Japan going -to war as the ally of a European Power, these defects would be much -modified if they listened to the advice of their friends. In addition to -the above, we must not forget to add that Japan is the only country of -the Far East which works important coal-mines, and that two of the -principal of these are situated in the island of Kiu-Siu, quite close to -that part of the coast nearest Korea and China, and that she is, -moreover, at the present day mistress of the Pescadors, a strategical -point which Courbet valued very highly, situated in the middle of the -China Sea. It will thus be easy to estimate of what value the -co-operation of this nation would be to those Powers who are interested -in the Middle Kingdom. - -It is, therefore, necessary to know something of the feeling entertained -by Japan towards the Sick Man of Peking, as well as towards the various -doctors assembled round his bed, thinking less of the patient’s recovery -than of the eventual division of his legacy. So far as China is -concerned, Japan is undoubtedly favourably disposed towards her, and -since the war she has had no warmer, and, it may be added, no sincerer -friend than her late enemy. If Japan had been allowed a free hand, she -would undoubtedly have reorganized China to her own profit, but possibly -Europe, in preventing this, displayed considerable acumen, for her so -doing might in the long-run have proved dangerous. Next to being able to -reform China herself, Japan would like her to undertake her own -reformation, and place herself in a position to maintain her autonomy, -so as not to fall a prey to the European Powers. - -The Ministers of the Mikado are very naturally somewhat alarmed at the -thought that their country may soon be the only one in the whole world -inhabited by a non-European race that maintains its independence, and -they cannot forbear asking themselves how long this independence may be -allowed to last, all the more so since Japan is in immediate contact -with, numerically speaking, the most powerful State in the world, the -colossal Russian Empire, which borders upon China. Might not Japan under -these circumstances be constantly menaced by so formidable a neighbour? -Doubtless she would be able to resist an invasion, but at a terrific -sacrifice—for to conquer Japan it would be necessary to exterminate many -millions of Japanese. In any case Japan’s foreign influence would be at -an end, especially in Korea, which she has several times conquered, and -upon which she still cherishes pretensions that date over 2,000 years. -Even from the purely economic side she would suffer greatly; for her -principal commercial outlet, China, might be closed to her for good. - -These are the principal reasons which oblige the Japanese to remain the -devoted friends of the Chinese Empire, and at the same time the -adversaries of Russia, who, they believe, wishes to absorb China, and -thereby dominate, if not the whole, at least the north, of the Asiatic -Continent, and which compel them to throw in their lot with England. -This latter Power does not aim at the political annexation of China; she -only wishes to obtain additional facilities for her commerce and -concessions for public works, and has therefore no intention whatever of -surrounding the Celestial Empire by a formidable ring of Custom-houses. -Undoubtedly Japan has had good reason to seek an alliance with England, -and we need not be surprised at her distrust of Russia, which, having -deprived her of the fruits of her continental conquests in 1895, three -years later annexed them herself. As to England, her interest in -obtaining the co-operation of Japan is so self-evident as only to need a -passing allusion. Through her friendship with Japan she could obtain -what she wants, not only in the Far East, but elsewhere, a large and -well-organized army that, owing to an unquestionable supremacy on the -sea, the result of the combination of two formidable fleets, could be -easily and safely transported to the neighbouring continent. - -May there not, however, be certain other reasons which might eventually -induce not so much Great Britain to break off her Japanese alliance as -Japan to sever her side of the compact and ultimately extend her hand to -Russia? There is ground for the belief that such a proposition does -exist, since there are Russophiles at Tokio and Japanophiles at St. -Petersburg. Is it not, moreover, rather imprudent to oppose the progress -the Tsar’s Empire is making on the continent? It is, after all, an -irresistible force resulting from the very nature of things, and -therefore it were perchance wiser to be rather with Russia than against -her. Then, again, it should be remembered that Russia displayed her -goodwill towards Japan by leaving her a free hand in Korea, not, -however, until after she had seized Port Arthur. True, the situation -created in Korea by the compact of April, 1898, was precarious; and -possibly, when once her position in the Far East is consolidated by the -completion of the Trans-Siberian line, the Tsar’s Government may rescind -the concession which it has signed and occupy the peninsula. But even if -we admit that this contingency is a possible one—and it is by no means -absolutely certain that Russia does entertain any such project—Japan may -still hope for compensation elsewhere in the centre or south of China -round the province of Fu-kien, where she has already made her influence -felt, as also at Borneo. Russia might also give certain tariff -guarantees, and might it not be to her interest, less urgently, perhaps, -than in the case of England, to secure the co-operation of Japan in case -of conflict? And, finally, is Great Britain a very safe ally? May she -not be simply using Japan for her own ends, thrusting her forward only -perhaps to abandon her when she is committed? Will she lend assistance -to a commercial rival? - -These are arguments which are not without their influence at Tokio, -where the difficulty of opposing a solid and durable barrier against the -encroachments of Russia on the continent is fully appreciated, and where -there certainly exists a feeling of distrust, not only of the English, -but of all other Europeans. Political and military interference in -continental affairs has never resulted otherwise than in weakening an -insular power, and much as the subjects of the Mikado may desire Korea, -it should not be forgotten that, however great Japan’s interests may be -in that direction, she may easily renounce her pretensions on _terra -firma_ if she were offered some material and tangible compensation -elsewhere. It has been said that Japan had cast a longing eye on the -Philippines, and certain signs led many to think that at one time she -had played with the rebels in those islands much the same part enacted -by the United States in Cuba; but now America has seized upon these -islands, and has also annexed Hawaii, another spot coveted by Japan. -Unfortunately, Japan has come too late into the world to possess -colonies, and must therefore content herself with the solitary Formosa, -which, however, is a possession by no means to be despised. - -Still, even now, Japan does not lose all hope of eventually obtaining a -footing upon the continent; but, providing that others do not handle -China too roughly, she has no intention of interfering with her -neighbour, certainly not to menace her integrity. She wishes only to -consolidate her by augmenting at the same time her own influence, and -would not intervene even if she thought the Celestial Empire were in -danger. From the point of view of international politics, Japan is -certainly a conservative element; but in the day of struggle, should it -ever occur, she is destined to weigh very heavily in the scale, not only -in the solution of the question of the Far East, but also in the problem -which rises behind it—that of supremacy in the Pacific, which will one -day be fought out, not between the Whale and the Elephant, but between -the Elephants of the Old and the New Worlds—that is to say, between -Russia and the United States. But whatever may be the events which will -eventually transpire, Japan apparently does not wish to precipitate a -struggle, provided only that the maintenance of the _status quo_ is not -threatened by others. - - - - - CHAPTER X - THE FUTURE OF WESTERN CIVILIZATION IN JAPAN—RELATIONS BETWEEN JAPANESE - AND FOREIGNERS - - Questions which are raised by the recent evolution in Japan—Can the - Japanese assimilate the civilization of peoples of a different - race?—Precedents and analogies—Up to what point does Japan wish to - resemble Europe?—Character and degree of the changes which have - taken place in Japan from the social, political, and economical - point of view—Adaptation of Western institutions in Japan—Feeling - of the Japanese towards foreigners—The revision of treaties with - foreign Powers—The absolute necessity for Japan to enter into - intimate relationship with the rest of the world if she wishes to - retain her newly-acquired civilization. - - -To one who has studied Japan on the spot, a very serious question -presents itself for solution, one of vast importance, not only to the -inhabitants of that island Empire, but to the entire human family, -_i.e._, Will the evolution which this country has undergone prove -permanent and not likely to collapse at a given moment, bringing with it -the ruin of the State? In a word, the question is, whether it be -possible for a people so suddenly to assimilate the old-established and -elaborate civilization of another race. Let us, to begin with, remember -that the Japanese have already afforded precedents proving that they -possess powers of assimilation in a rare degree. From the third to the -sixth century of our era they introduced Chinese civilization into their -dominions, and from the ethnographic point of view, whether the Japanese -belong to the Mongol or to the Malay family, they are not so far removed -from the Chinese as the whites; nevertheless they are quite as distinct -from them as are the Aryans from the Semites, and as the French or the -Germans from the Arabs. The example of Russia is perhaps less marked, -because more intimate affinities unite the Slavs to the Western races, -and yet the Russians are the least Slav of any of the Slavs, being in -reality for the most part Finns who have submitted to Slav influences. -The Finns are related to the Mongols, and Muscovy, moreover, was under -the Tatar yoke for three centuries, a dominion which has left a very -profound impression on the race. Peter the Great’s enterprise was -therefore not an easy one. The principal objection, however, which can -be brought against the example of Russia is that her evolution was never -completed, and did not influence the lower strata of society -sufficiently for it to become completely Europeanized. Hungary offers a -better field of investigation in this direction, for the peoples who -originally invaded her were distinctly Oriental, but now this country -has become absolutely European, the result probably of an intimate -connection between its inhabitants and their neighbours. But beyond -these facts, there is one point which we should not overlook. Our own -civilization is not the monopoly of one race, but was constructed by the -concurrence of many people. It results directly from Roman and Greek -civilization, and through these from Phœnician and Egyptian. The -Egyptians, needless to say, were a branch of the Hamites, the most -degraded white race of our time; the Phœnicians, on the other hand, were -Semites, and it was another Semitic race, the Arab, that during the -Middle Ages held the light of civilization, and transmitted to us the -inheritance of antiquity, after having widely extended its scientific -uses. The whole history of our civilization, therefore, protests against -its having ever been at any time monopolized by the Aryan branch of the -white race. - -Modern ethnography, based upon recent linguistic and anthropological -discoveries, has shaken to its foundations those notions concerning the -white races which were universally accepted in bygone times. We no -longer hold that it was from the high plateau of Asia that swept those -tribes who eventually peopled Europe, but that they radiated from the -centre of Europe herself. Far from forming the majority of the -inhabitants of the Continent, the Aryans, if that term still preserves -its meaning, are but one of its elements. They have mingled everywhere -in variable quantities among the different hordes of Finnish and other -races who have overrun our continent. The varied formation of the skulls -which has been observed among the different inhabitants of a single -country corresponds with the predominance of one or other of these -original elements, with the result that the unity of race which has -hitherto been imagined to exist among all Western peoples is now proved -to be chimerical. - -Whatever truth these theories may contain, they are nevertheless subject -to frequent modification, but it seems impossible with the present facts -to sustain _à priori_ that one race cannot assimilate the civilization -of another. No doubt the Japanese differ more completely from the -Europeans of the West than do the Russians, or even the Arabs, or than -they themselves do from the Chinese; but once the unity of the human -race is admitted, this becomes a mere question of degree of parentage. -Must we, therefore, draw a line of degree between peoples beyond which -the transmission of the civilization of the one cannot penetrate to the -other, even as the French law fixes a limit to the transmission of -inheritance? Nothing short of experience can solve the question. For the -matter of that, the phenomenon is constantly taking place before our -eyes, and if there be a people who might attempt it with hope of -success, it is surely the Japanese, who to exceptional intelligence and -remarkable powers of assimilation add a great spirit of enterprise and -an uncommon energy. - -Japan cannot be compared for a moment with China; for, much younger than -her Celestial neighbour—since she received her civilization at her hands -at a period contemporary with the fall of the Roman Empire, when the -annals of China reached as far back into the night of time as those of -Egypt—she has not had time to fossilize herself in sterile admiration of -the past, and she has never adopted that mandarinate which China -considers one of her chief glories, but which is in reality slowly -ruining her. Above all, like Europe in the Middle Ages, she has -submitted to the virile influences of the feudal system, and, therefore, -there is no reason _à priori_ why she should not succeed in her -enterprise. Whether or no Japan wishes to convert herself on every point -into an absolutely Europeanized nation, and a Western European nation at -that, is another question which demands close attention. Possibly it is -an exaggeration to say that the promoters of the remarkable series of -reforms which have lately been effected in Japan had ever an eye to so -complete a transformation. The first reform which engrossed their -attention was undoubtedly to place their country, which had so suddenly -broken through her ancient tradition of isolation, on a military, naval, -and an economical basis, that would enable her to treat as an equal with -any of the other nations of the world. The Japanese are the only -Oriental people who have understood the conditions necessary to attain -this aim. Japan discerned that by accepting a military and economic -position equal to that of any European country, she was also obliged to -undergo immense changes in every department of her national existence, -and she unflinchingly faced her new position, resolved to accomplish -every sort of transformation in order to place herself on a firm -footing. - -It seems to me that Japan has solved the difficult question as to which -were the changes she ought to undergo. The fact that she has accepted -the entire programme of European civilization, barring a few domestic -usages, certain traditions of family existence and religion, speaks for -itself. The religious question is one of the most interesting and -curious phases of Japanese experience. Until the present day history has -always demonstrated that the first act of a people which desired to -model itself upon another was to adopt its religion, and in Japan itself -1,500 years ago Buddhism paved the way for the advent of Chinese -civilization. In the sixteenth century, at a time when she was first -brought into contact with Europeans, Christianity played an important -part, and soon made many proselytes. To-day it is otherwise. The Mikado, -it is true, does not prevent his subjects from embracing Christianity, -but he does not encourage them to do so. Most probably this is the -result of the fact that religion is no longer the foremost factor in -Western civilization, and is somewhat veiled by important scientific -discoveries and material improvements, and, whether rightly or wrongly, -there can be no question that the spirit of the century pretends to -solve political and social problems outside of the sphere of religion. - -The Japanese have evidently arrived at the conclusion that it was -unnecessary to effect a transformation in an order of ideas which the -Europeans themselves apparently consider accessory. If one day they find -that they have made a mistake, it probably will not take them long to -change their minds; but for the present they have preferred to rally -round the popular idea, neutrality of the State in matters of religion -and freedom of conscience to all, and this allows them to retain -Buddhism and Shintoism as the religion of the immense majority of the -people. - -From the civil point of view, on the other hand, they have introduced -many European reforms. Japanese society formerly resembled in many ways -that of ancient Rome, especially with respect to the constitution of the -family. The new civil code which has been carried into effect is more in -accordance with modern ideas, and modifies the excessive habit of -adoption, diminishes the power of the head of the family over his -married children and his younger brothers, and raises somewhat the -position of women, who were already freer in Japan than in any other -Oriental country. But it also permits, in accordance with Japanese -traditions, very slight difference to exist between legitimate and -illegitimate children, and on this point, as on that of divorce—whether -for good or otherwise I do not consider myself called upon to judge—it -shapes itself very much on the same lines as does modern legislation -elsewhere. The personal status, therefore, of a Japanese is very much -the same as that of a European, and the laws relating to property have -for a long time been identical with our own. As to the penal code, it is -one of the most moderate in the world, and the death sentence is only -passed in cases of crime against the Emperor. - -Politically speaking, the Japanese have gone further still, and have -given themselves a Constitution analogous, as already stated, to that of -Prussia. It may perhaps be queried whether they were wise in accepting -so entirely our representative system; but undoubtedly within the last -eight years Parliamentary life in Japan has made rapid strides, and, -indeed, is neither better nor worse than it is in many a European -country. The parties do not come to stay long, and their programmes are -very confused. The relation between the clans and the provinces plays a -very conspicuous part in the Parliamentary existence; but, for the -matter of that, so they do in Italy and elsewhere. Even if it has been a -rather premature experience, nevertheless Parliamentary Government in -Japan seems likely to stay. The numerous provincial and communal -assemblies carry out their business fairly well, although, to be sure, -there are whispers of a slight amount of corruption—but where is it -otherwise? One of the happiest traits of Japanese evolution is that -there appears little probability of its ending, like the great Russian -transformation under Peter the Great, in the creation of two distinct -classes, separated by an insurmountable barrier. There is no serfdom or -anything to maintain the Japanese peasantry in the same position of -inferiority as the Russian mujik, and the mass of the nation -unhesitatingly follows the lead of its chiefs. - -Refined by from twelve to fifteen centuries of civilization, the -subjects of the Mikado are much better educated than were those of Peter -the Great, and therefore can march with far greater assurance on the -road to progress. While the smallness of the country and the density of -its population, concentrated for the most part on the coast-line, are -likewise aids to the rapid penetration of new ideas, still further -assisted by a well-organized system of primary instruction and a -military service, it is, however, rather from the material point of view -that the change has been most striking and rapid. - -Without returning to the matter of the extraordinary rapidity of the -increase of industry, there is one subject connected with it which I -cannot forbear dwelling upon, and that is the excessive ability with -which the Japanese have succeeded in organizing certain public services -introduced from the West in such a manner as to place them within the -reach of even the poorest. In many European colonies the high tariff of -the rail and postal services deters the natives from using them; but in -Japan it is otherwise. There you pay on the railway ¾d. a mile first -class, ½d. second, and ¼d. third, which latter is used by the majority -of the people, and the total returns for 2,290 miles of Japanese rail, -notwithstanding these low rates, reached in 1895 £1,878,600 (of which -£1,179,600 were paid by travellers), as against £766,300 for expenses, -the profits being £1,112,300, or about 10 per cent. upon the outlay -capital, which was £11,649,200. The post is also extremely cheap in -Japan, ½d. being charged for letters and ¼d. for post-cards. In 1896–97 -503,000,000 objects passed through the post-office, of which 263,000,000 -were post-cards, 122,000,000 letters, and 87,000,000 newspapers. The -preponderating number of post-cards, which surpasses that of letters, is -strikingly in contradistinction to what one observes in every other -country, and is a proof of the economical habits of the people and of -their appreciation of this cheap method of correspondence. The -enthusiasm with which the population profits by all the innovations -introduced from the West is a convincing proof of the very slight -resistance which the implanting of our civilization receives. Yet -another favourable sign is the exceptional number of students in the new -universities and public schools of all descriptions. Practical science, -law, and medicine attract the majority of the students, and already many -of them have attained marked success in their several careers. As an -example, I may mention that it was a Japanese who discovered the microbe -of the bubonic plague. The Japanese are sometimes, and possibly with -some truth, accused of lacking the inventive faculty; but those peoples -who are from many points of view at the head of civilization at the -present day, the English and the Americans, are not those among whom the -power of invention is exceptionally prominent. It is in France or in -Germany that the principles of nearly all modern discoveries have been -found, but it is in England and the United States that their application -has been perfected. No one, however, can refuse the Japanese this latter -gift, and they unquestionably possess an almost excessive faculty of -attention to minute detail. Possibly they have not so far materially -assisted in advancing science, and surely it is somewhat premature to -pronounce judgment on this subject; but with good technical teachers—and -everything points that they will have them—they can certainly soon -acclimatize European civilization in their country, precisely as they -did in days of old that of China, but only on the condition that they -keep themselves well in touch with Europe. - -Their principal danger, however, seems to me to consist in their -attempting to isolate themselves too much, and to believe that they have -learnt everything that can be taught them, and consequently have no -further use for their masters. Perhaps, too, in certain cases they have -got rid only too quickly of the services of foreign functionaries and -councillors. Throughout the whole of the eighteenth century Russia, so -to speak, modelled herself on the German plan, and Japan would also do -well not to forget too hastily the advice of Western teachers. Already a -certain amount of negligence is noticeable in the post-office and on the -railways, whose systems are occasionally dislocated by many -irregularities and also by a certain carelessness, usually attributed to -excess of work or to the breakdown of machinery, but which is more -probably due to the inexperience of the public servants of the entire -hierarchy. The fact is, Japan does not at present value the most -characteristic feature of modern civilization—punctuality; but, to be -just, when we consider the indolent habits of Asiatics in general, we -should not be surprised at this, rather the contrary. It would, however, -be well for the Japanese, until they have got thoroughly trained to an -appreciation of the value of time, to retain officials who will remind -them of its importance. - -It may also be added that in the commercial development considerable -inexperience and too great zeal in every branch, industrial, financial, -and commercial, has been displayed: in the over-rapid increase, for -instance, of banks and companies of all kinds, in the mismanagement of -new societies, and in the abuse that has frequently been made of credit. -All these things are new to Japan, and they have occasionally not been -treated as they should have been. We have bestowed so much praise on the -economical development of the country that we may surely be allowed to -observe that much has been done too quickly. But this has been the case -in all new countries, in the two Americas, as well as in Australia, and -one must not therefore be too severe on Japan in this respect, but also -not surprised if it occasionally results in the paralysis of business -and even in an occasional crisis. As often occurs, a rise in salaries -accompanied industrial expansion, and proved very inconvenient to export -industries, all the more so as these are for the most part mainly -nominal, and prices rose almost immediately. During the last two years -an inverse movement has taken place, and we must do the Japanese the -justice to say that when they saw the danger they displayed considerable -sagacity, and both the Government and the public expressed a wish to -limit their desire for expansion. If there were serious economic -difficulties in Japan in 1897–98, they seem now to have passed away; -they were but the result of over-activity, and the present outlook in -the Mikado’s dominion, although not as brilliant as it was immediately -after the war, is once more normal. - -The transitory troubles of the Empire of the Rising Sun will not, in our -opinion, become very grave if the Japanese thoroughly understand that it -is to their interest rather to increase their contact with foreigners -than to limit it. Since 1889 there has existed in Japan a reactionary -movement against strangers, which apparently reached its culminating -point in 1896, and now seems gradually diminishing. It is sincerely to -be hoped that this feeling of suspicion will absolutely disappear. One -of the numerous reasons which contributed to raise a certain hostility -against Europeans was their attitude with respect to the renewal of the -treaties. This important question, which so closely concerned the -relations between the Japanese and foreigners, has now been settled, and -if Japanese statesmen are well inspired, the solution that has been -arrived at should greatly enhance the true interests of their country. - -Almost immediately after the Restoration, the Government of the Mikado -expressed the desire to revise the treaties concluded between it and the -foreign Powers during the last years of the old regime. What it most -desired was to abrogate the extra-territorial privileges granted to -strangers, and to render them responsible to the native tribunals. It -also hoped to re-possess itself of the right to modify the Custom-house -tariff, which was very low, not with a view to protection, but in order -to augment the revenues. In exchange for these concessions Japan offered -to open the country to Europeans, to allow them to reside and to -establish their industries anywhere outside of the five ports in which -they had hitherto been confined. Joint negotiations were opened with the -seventeen Powers who had signed the treaties on several occasions, but -without favourable results, and the check they received in 1897 greatly -irritated public opinion in Japan. The Government then decided to -negotiate separately through the intermediary of its representatives in -Europe. The first success was with England, by the treaty concluded in -1894; the other nations followed suit, and the new treaties were -enforced on July 17th, 1899. - -For several years, however, a change had taken place in public opinion -in Japan, and many people began to think that it might be as dangerous -to completely open the country to foreigners as to grant them privileges -of proprietorship. ‘They are much richer than we are,’ said they, ‘and -will buy up all our lands and strip us of our resources, so that in time -we shall cease to be masters in our own house.’ On the other hand, the -Europeans began to make an outcry at the thought that they would be -obliged to submit to Japanese jurisdiction, which, although founded on -the European system, might be misapplied by the Yellow people, who were -still barbarians, and who might use it to make the existence of -foreigners in Japan intolerable. Both views of the case were -exaggerated, and rendered the task of the various diplomatists an -exceedingly difficult one. Diplomacy, however, carried the day, not -without sacrificing the proposed absolute equality of rights between -Japanese and foreigners. - -The new treaties accepted the Japanese desideratum respecting the -suppression of consular tribunals and European municipalities, but -foreigners were, in their turn, to renounce proprietary rights. The -English treaty thus summarizes the principal concessions granted: ‘All -members of the principal contracting parties may carry on any wholesale -or retail business, in any sort of product, manufactures and -merchandise, personally or by their representatives, individually or -through an association, either with other foreigners or with natives; -and they shall have the right to possess, let or occupy houses, shops, -manufactories and other premises as they deem necessary, or to hire -lands, to live therein, or to engage therein in business, by conforming -themselves to the laws, and the police and Custom-house regulations of -the country, as if they were natives thereof.’ This gave rise to -considerable controversy. It confirmed the right of foreigners to -possess, let or occupy houses and divers places of business, but on the -other hand, it only allowed them to rent land, which according to -Japanese law can only be hired on short leases of between thirty and -fifty years, as the case may be, which is, of course, a great hindrance -to the installation of any important industry. - -This apparent contradiction formed the subject of an agitated -controversy carried on by the English papers printed at the various -ports, which pointed out with rather thoughtless acrimony that the new -treaty was only intended as a blind to deprive foreigners of their -extra-territorial liberties. They forgot that outside of property and of -the leasehold system the Japanese code contains another method of -tenure, called ‘Surface Right,’ whereby the purchaser of a piece of land -has the right to everything that is on the surface thereof (excepting -the crops), that is, to plant or cut down trees and to build thereon. -One can purchase the surface of the land in accordance with Japanese law -for as long a period of time as one likes, a thousand years even, either -on payment by instalments or complete purchase. For any enterprise which -is not purely agricultural this purchase is equivalent to absolute -possession of the land. - -Foreigners can thus establish industries in Japan, and it is therefore -to the interests of the Japanese to encourage them so to do. Private -individuals, as well as the Government, ought to do everything they can -to attract foreign capital, but this can only be done in the case of -industrial enterprises by allowing foreigners to take the direction of -affairs. I have been asked whether it is not possible to induce foreign -capitalists to lend their money on sharing terms to Japanese companies -as they do to the American railways, without taking any part in the -direction, but I am afraid this is a hope the Japanese would do well not -to entertain. Whether it be through prejudice or otherwise, it is quite -certain that Europeans will do nothing of the sort, and the Japanese -seem to be aware of the fact, and several railway companies have -modified their statutes in order to admit a clause whereby foreigners -can become shareholders; but as the Japanese possess all the land over -which the lines run as well as the stations, I do not think that this -proposition can be legal. It is, therefore, to be regretted that public -opinion has not insisted upon a concession of the right of -proprietorship being bestowed upon foreigners. - -It is, however, not improbable that before long the Legislature may get -over this difficulty by deciding that in companies constituted according -to Japanese laws, and registered in Japan, the members, though they be -foreigners, become thereby Japanese citizens, and can also be absolute -land-owners. However, on all points the Japanese Government, supported -by Parliament and public opinion, has taken the necessary precautions to -apply the new treaties in the most liberal manner possible. If there -have been some unfavourable verdicts pronounced in the Japanese -tribunals in the short time they have been in existence, these have -generally been revised on appeal. The greater experience gained by -contact between the Japanese and Europeans, and the wish to see foreign -capital collaborating in the development of the resources of the -country, will doubtless suggest, little by little, new measures -calculated to smooth down any feeling of irritation between the native -and the foreign population. If there still exists a feeling of hatred of -the foreigner among individual fanatics, a certain ill-will in the lower -and more ignorant class of the people, some abuse of authority among -inferior officials, the Government of the Mikado is too sagacious to -allow any flagrant cause of annoyance to disturb European residents, -which would soon be resented by their respective Governments and might -even lead to the scattering of the fruits of thirty years’ progressive -effort. - -Japan has already done much, but especially because she has done so much -in so short a time, and because the immense majority of her inhabitants -had no idea thirty years ago of European affairs, and therefore have no -means of comparison, they are apt to exaggerate their progress, however -marvellous it may be, and consequently they are not in a position to -notice that certain European importations come to them slightly -deteriorated. Foreigners act the part of critics, and even if their -criticism is sometimes severe, it is nevertheless useful. The -functionaries and the young men who are sent on foreign missions also -fulfil the same critical office, and this is an additional reason why -the Government is so wise in maintaining these missions. Unless, indeed, -from time to time the new civilization which has been imported in Japan -is refreshed at its primary source, it will soon run a risk of losing -strength, and, for the matter of that, any people, even European, that -isolated itself too much and became absorbed in self-admiration, would -inevitably deteriorate. It is not belittling the extraordinary progress -so rapidly accomplished by the Empire of the Rising Sun to say that it -can only be perfected if the people of that wonderful country remain in -contact with the inhabitants of Europe and America. - - - - - PART III.—CHINA - - - - - CHAPTER I - THE CHINESE PROBLEM - - Actual position of the Far Eastern Question—The Sick Man of Peking—The - wealth of his heritage—The immense resources of the soil and - subsoil of China, the latter of which is still virgin—The results - which may be expected from the opening up of China—Change in the - attitude of the Powers towards the Celestial Empire since the - Japanese victories revealed its weakness—The origins of the Far - Eastern problem. - - -The decisive victory which Japan obtained over China five years ago -revealed to the civilized world the existence in the East of Asia of -another Sick Man, an even greater invalid and infinitely richer than the -better known patient at Constantinople. Four times the size, and twelve -or fifteen times more densely peopled than the Ottoman Empire, China -contains a much smaller proportion of deserts, her resources are greater -and far more varied, and her inhabitants are not only more industrious, -but more peaceful and apparently much easier to govern. Therefore, at -the end of the nineteenth century—when the material wealth of a country -is of far greater importance than its historical memories, and men are -more eager to discover fresh openings for enterprise, new lands to -cultivate, or mines to exploit than relics to preserve or peoples to -liberate—Europe abandons the bedside of the Grand Turk to occupy herself -with her chances of inheriting far greater riches from the Son of -Heaven. The Sick Man on the shores of the Bosphorus may be afflicted -with some dreadful convulsion or crisis in his illness, but the nations -pretend not to perceive his contortions, and joyfully welcome any -evidence of even a feeble return to health; in a word, they only seek to -prolong his existence. If the preservation of peace in Europe has its -share in this attitude, the wish not to be disturbed in the work which -she pursues in China has also its share in the position which Russia and -more than one other Power have assumed with regard to the Chinese -Empire. - -The fact is, the nations have promised themselves a booty in the Middle -Kingdom as precious as it is easy to obtain. China from this point of -view is worth a great deal more than Turkey, or even Africa, which -Europe has so eagerly sought to divide. Although less extensive than the -Dark Continent, China is much more thickly peopled, and the climate is -less unhealthy, access easier, the rivers more navigable, and the soil -far more fertile. The patient and laborious Chinese will eventually -facilitate the exploitation of the wealth of their vast territory, which -is more than can ever be expected from the barbarous, ignorant and -indolent peoples of Africa. - -The resources of China are greater than those of Africa, and many of -them are still absolutely undeveloped. The Chinese peasants, moreover, -are among the best agriculturists in the world. As evidence of this -assertion, it should be remembered that, by the perfection of their -method of cultivation, they extract from the soil of their plains -sufficient to enable their rural population to multiply in a manner -unknown in the Western world. Certain provinces in the Valley of the -Yang-tsze-Kiang—Shan-tung, Hu-pe, Kiang-su, and others—in spite of their -being purely agricultural, are as densely peopled as Belgium, and we may -further observe that, as is the case throughout the Far East, wherever -rice dominates, the mountain regions are almost uninhabited. If the soil -is admirably cultivated, the subsoil, on the other hand, is absolutely -neglected, and only an insignificant quantity of coal is extracted from -the immense coal-beds which cover over 40,000 square miles on the banks -of the Yellow River, in the plains of Hu-nan, and under the terraces of -Shan-si, which, together with those equally important in the basin of -Shan-tung, were so highly extolled by the celebrated traveller -Richthofen. The coal-beds in Central China appear to be even more -extensive, and the carboniferous basin of Sze-chuan, where there is also -petroleum, covers an area equal to half France. The coal-beds of Hu-nan -are also very considerable, and minerals are equally abundant. The -copper-mines of Yunnan are so rich as to have proved one of the chief -inducements that attracted the French to Tongking. Mines of precious ore -are known to exist in many other places, but, notwithstanding their very -ancient civilization, the Chinese have scarcely touched the wealth -beneath their feet. In this respect they have proved themselves inferior -to the classical nations of antiquity, and have left their riches to be -garnered by foreigners. - -We can form some idea of the development of which China is susceptible -by considering the example of two other Asiatic nations placed in much -the same conditions—British India and Japan. India, with all her -dependencies, is about a sixth larger than China proper, but contains -only about three-quarters of the number of her inhabitants; yet although -her subsoil is much less rich and her population far more indolent than -the Chinese, she carries on double the trade with Europe that the -Chinese Empire does. Japan, nine times smaller and nine times less -peopled than China, but reformed by an enlightened Government and by the -introduction of European methods, has seen her commerce rise in thirty -years from £5,000,000 to £44,000,000, more than three-quarters higher -than that of her enormous but stationary neighbour. - -Unfortunately, an imbecile Government, as corrupt as it is absurdly -exclusive, impedes the progress of China with far greater obstinacy than -do the prejudices of her people. So long as the illusion lasted as to -the power of this unwieldy Empire, no one ventured to tear from it by -force what it was imagined could be obtained by persuasion, and the -nations resigned themselves to permit the immense resources of the -interior to remain untouched, contenting themselves merely with the -opening of a few ports to commerce. But in 1894 the brilliant victories -of the Japanese revealed to an astonished world the weakness of the -colossus, its corruption, and utter incapacity to regenerate itself; -hence the reason why the Chino-Japanese War may be rightly considered -one of the greatest events in contemporary history. From it dates the -change in the attitude of the foreign Powers towards the Celestial -Empire. They now command where formerly they begged, and have mustered -up courage to force the Son of Heaven to put a price on the treasures of -his Empire, or else to allow them to do so in his stead. If they have -not already divided up his territory, they mortgage portions of his -provinces, and obtain mining, railway, and all sorts of other -concessions. In the eyes of the Powers China is no longer a country to -be counted with as a probable ally, but merely one which they may one -day reduce to vassalage. - -In 1895, after the conclusion of the war, Russia inaugurated the new -policy with respect to China. She was at that time the only European -nation that seemed to have any idea of the weakness of China, and was -already preparing, by the construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway, to -play an important part in the Far East. Germany, France, and England in -1897 obtained the ‘leases’ of various strategical points on the coast -and the recognition of what they were pleased to call ‘spheres of -influence.’ Russia now returned to the game, and Japan also took a part -in the struggle. From the middle of 1898 a lull has occurred, which -recent events, however, have disturbed and proved that the Far Eastern -problem is far from settled. It would certainly have surprised men who -were living at the beginning of this dying century if they had been told -that it would close before the Grand Turk was driven out of Europe, and -yet the destinies of Eastern Asia are even now far from being -determined. The problems which rise round the future of the Celestial -Empire are neither less grave nor less complicated now than they ever -were. Although China is infinitely less heterogeneous than Turkey, she -runs the same dangers from internal disturbance; for she is governed by -a foreign dynasty and honeycombed by secret societies. The Central -Government is feeble and without cohesion. On the other hand, the -rivalry which exists between the European Powers, to whom should be -added the United States and Japan, is not less active in the East than -it is in the West of Asia. The only, but still enormous, result which -has been more or less definitely obtained consequent upon the events of -the last five years—the end of the isolation from Europe in which China -has hitherto existed, and her being brought for the first time since the -beginning of her history into contact with a civilization which has -developed quite independently of her own—creates a situation of the -intensest interest. If the lack of military qualities among the Chinese -and the insufficiency in numbers of the Japanese renders the Yellow -Peril, comparatively speaking, little to be feared from the war side of -the question, many people, and among them the most enterprising -representatives of European civilization, the Americans and Australians, -are greatly exercised over the matter from the economic point of view. -It would, however, be presumptuous to attempt to prophesy what would be -the consequences of the dissolution of the Chinese Empire through -internal disorder, or of its partition amongst the Powers in consequence -of an international treaty, or after a war which would be sure to become -universal, or even of the reawakening of this oldest State in the world -by the introduction of Western ideas and methods, or finally of a -struggle between the White and the Yellow races; but it is comparatively -easy, now that the question poses itself for the first time, to -determine its multiple elements, to study the relative position of its -diverse factors, the near prospect of their action, and the situation of -the patient round whose sick-bed eagerly press the many doctors and -heirs of so wealthy an invalid as China. - - - - - CHAPTER II - THE CAPITAL OF CHINA - - The coasts of Pe-chi-li and the mouth of the Pei-ho—Ta-ku and - Tien-tsin—From Tien-tsin to Peking by rail—Peking: the Forbidden, - Imperial, Tatar and Chinese cities; the walls, streets, houses, - shops and monuments—Behaviour of the natives towards - foreigners—Decadence of the capital and of the whole Empire. - - -If one enters China from Eastern Siberia by the Gulf of Pe-chi-li after -a long voyage round the Korean Peninsula, the first impression of the -Celestial Empire is distinctly unattractive. The contrast between the -shallow waters where the vessel casts anchor, some miles distant from -the mouth of the Pei-ho, and the noble port of Vladivostok, or the -enchanting Bay of Nagasaki, with its verdant shores and blue waters, -enlivened by the picturesque sails of the fishing-junks, is, to say the -least, extremely depressing. - -Nearly all the ports of the Celestial Empire are thus formed, and can -only be entered during a few hours of the day. Even the mouth of the -great Blue River is encumbered with shoals, and its famous rival, the -Yellow River, in its lower basin, is divided up into such a multitude of -channels that meander through the marshy lands as to interrupt all -direct navigation from the sea. The Gulf of Pe-chi-li, which may be -described as the port of Peking, although situated closer to the Equator -than the Bay of Naples, or the mouth of the Tagus, seems, with its -choked-up estuaries, its storm-beaten shores, its fogs and icy coat in -winter, thoroughly typical of China and her traditional inhospitality, -and her eagerness rather to repulse than to invite the stranger within -her gates. From the anchorage outside the bar it is difficult to discern -the lowlying coast; and the first objects to attract attention are mud -forts, mud houses in mud villages, and mud heaps marking the graves in -the cemeteries. This uninviting place is Ta-ku, beyond which, a little -higher up, at Tang-ku, the Pei-ho ceases to be navigable for vessels of -any tonnage. On landing, a surprise awaits you—the railway. Commenced by -Li Hung-chang, for the purpose of transporting the coal from his mines -at Kaiping, a few miles to the north-east, branches have been added, and -since the summer of 1897 it takes the traveller to Peking viâ Tien-tsin. -An hour and a half after leaving Tang-ku, I alighted at the former town -amid a mob of noisy coolies, who pounced upon me and my luggage. We -crossed the Pei-ho in a sampang instead of the ordinary ferry-boat which -conveys the Celestials, packed together like sardines in a box, and -stuck, apparently immovably, in the most extraordinary postures. From -the landing-place, we were trotted in a jinrikisha drawn by a Chinaman -through the Rue de France, up Victoria Road to the Astor House, an -American hotel kept by a German; opposite it is a garden, over which a -white flag with a crimson circle in its centre, the emblem of the Rising -Sun, announces that the garden and the house belong to the Japanese -Consul. Thus was I first initiated to the cosmopolitanism of a foreign -concession in the Far East. - -Tien-tsin is the biggest open port in North China and the third in rank -in point of activity and commerce in the whole Celestial Empire. It is, -moreover, an immense Chinese city of nearly a million inhabitants, but -its European concession is very inferior to that of Shanghai, and as a -native city it is of little interest in comparison with Peking, Canton -and many other towns. It is from here that travellers used, in former -times, to begin the disagreeable journey to the capital, either on -horseback or by junk up the Pei-ho. The river route was usually -performed partly by sail and partly by oar, but occasionally the boat -had to be towed by men. The junks took two or three days to ascend the -sinuous course of the river. Sometimes, however, when the wind was to -the north, and the shoals numerous, the journey occupied from four to -five days before Peking was reached. Now the daily express, which speeds -along at the rate of twenty miles an hour, takes three hours and -fifty-three minutes to cover the ground which separates Tien-tsin from -the station at Peking. - -The country through which it passes is very flat, and it is only just -before arriving at its terminus that the blue outline of some rather -high hills come into sight towards the north-east. In the month of -September, when the rains are over and are replaced by a drought that -lasts until the end of winter, the environs of Tien-tsin, including the -cemetery, are entirely under water, and as we looked from the train -window, we could see a coffin floating about, and another like gruesome -object stuck on the embankment of the line, which led us to reflect -that, though the Chinese make such a fuss over their ancestors, they -apparently care very little for their graves. The inundation at first -stretched as far as the eye could see. Presently the land began to peep -out. If you expect to find the soil from which the waters have just -retired uncultivated, it will only be an evident proof that you know -very little about the indefatigable industry of the Chinese -agriculturist, and the great care and skill which he brings to his task. -All that emerges has already been carefully sown, even down to the very -brink of the water, and at a few steps from the limits of the -inundation, the future harvest which has sprang up under the hot -September sun from the moist but rich soil begins to make its -appearance. The mud villages now succeed each other rapidly, and -presently the traveller reaches an admirably cultivated country where -not an inch of soil is wasted, and where the wheat and sorghum fields -are alternated by kitchen gardens and orchards. - -The temporary station at Peking, built of planks and galvanized iron, -stands in the midst of this landscape. Very little is to be seen of the -high walls of the city, which are almost entirely hidden by trees, and -by a slight rising in the land. Nothing indicates that the gates of the -capital of the oldest Empire in the world are so near. In order to -traverse the mile which separates the station from the entrance to -Peking, it is necessary to exchange the most highly perfected of human -conveyance for the most barbaric. The Chinese are unwilling that the -stranger should dispense, in order to enter their most holy capital, -with a thorough jolting in their national carriage, unto which the -Siberian tarantass may be compared as the most luxurious of vehicles. -Two enormous wheels, covered with iron and garnished with a triple row -of nails, support this shapeless waggon, which is protected by a blue -awning, and is dragged along by two mules harnessed one in front of the -other. Whilst the driver sits in front under the awning, the hapless -traveller has to accommodate himself on the floor, with his legs -stretched out in front of him. Now begins the torture, for one is -literally jolted about against the wooden sides of the cart like a pill -in a box. Presently the wheel goes over a huge stone, only to fall into -a deep hole, or stick in a rut. Meanwhile, the diabolical waggon behaves -in a most abominable manner, to the unutterable agony of its wretched -inmate, who lives in terror of being either precipitated into the mud, -or of having his brains knocked out by the collapse of the whole -structure. Of this latter catastrophe there is little or no likelihood, -for about the only good quality this appalling conveyance can boast of -is solidity: nothing could break it. About twenty minutes after leaving -the station a high battlemented wall, surrounded by a mud-filled moat, -is reached. Next, you pass over a bridge, beyond which a gate admits -into a sort of half-moon surrounded by walls, beyond which is yet -another gate admitting to the city proper, where, after another hour’s -jolting, the unhappy traveller alights at a hotel in Legation Street -kept by a Frenchman. - -Although not the most ancient city in the Celestial Empire, Peking is an -epitome of the rest of China, together with its ancient civilization and -its present stagnation and decadence. It belongs to a very different -type from the cities of Europe, or even of the Moslem world, and the -sight of its immense wall and successive enclosures, which divide it -into four distinct parts, reminds one of Nineveh or Babylon. In the -centre is the ‘Forbidden’ or ‘Purple City,’ about a league in length -from north to south, and a quarter of a league in width, containing the -palaces of the Emperor and Empress Dowager, and the gardens and the -residences of a swarm of parasites numbering, it is said, between six or -eight thousand persons, inclusive of guards, concubines, eunuchs, -functionaries, gardeners and other attendants upon the Imperial harem. -The only Europeans who are allowed to cross the sacred threshold of the -Purple City are the members of the Diplomatic Corps, to whom the Emperor -gives audience on New Year’s Day, as well as since quite recently on the -occasions of their arrival or taking leave. Around the Purple City -extends the Imperial City, its walls painted pink, which in its turn is -surrounded by the Tatar City, a rectangle of 4 miles in length, by 3 -miles in width, whose sides face the cardinal points. Its colossal walls -are 50 feet high, and at their summit are 50 feet wide. Their external -fronts consist of two strong brick walls, rising from a substructure of -stone. The interior is filled up with earth, and the summit, covered -with flagstones, forms a walk bordered by embattled stone parapets. -Bastions project outwards, and huge pavilions built of brick, pierced -with many balistraria, and coated with highly varnished coloured tiles, -ornament its four corners and gates. It rises only 99 feet above the -ground, beyond which height it is never allowed to build, lest the -flight of the good spirits might be inconvenienced thereby. This -magnificent rampart, which to the north-east and to the west rises -abruptly from the midst of the country, Peking having no suburbs, -presents a most imposing aspect; and it is not less impressive when -beheld from any one of the half-moons, which are very vast, and are -built before the various gates, but which, owing to the height of the -embattled walls which surround them on all sides, each of which is -surmounted by a massive brick pavilion, look like wells. - -To the south of the Tatar City is a group of less imposing walls -surrounding the lengthy rectangle which includes the Chinese City, the -commercial part of Peking. The broad street that intersects it from -north to south, and cuts it into two equal parts, especially close to -the Tsieng-Men Gate, by which you pass into the Tatar City, is the most -animated artery of the city. In the central walk, paved with magnificent -flagstones, not one of which is now in its right place, and which -apparently only serve as stumbling-blocks to pedestrians, and are -covered with mud a foot deep in summer, and by a pestilential dust in -winter, circulate in the utmost confusion the ever-present waggons, -already described, palanquins, sedan-chairs, whose colours vary with the -dignity of the owner, chairs drawn by mules, men riding on small -Manchurian ponies, indefatigable asses, which are the best means of -locomotion in the place, enormous one wheeled barrows, coolies -struggling under the burden of huge baskets filled with fruit, -vegetables, and other comestibles, fixed to the end of a very long pole -slung across their shoulders—all this busy world bustles along, filling -the air with shouts and cries of every kind, from the croaking of the -porters to the stentorian shouts of the waggoners. Occasionally a long -string of huge two-humped camels, a cord running from the nostrils of -one animal to the tail of the other, and led by a Mongolian urchin, adds -to the incredible confusion. All this crowd, together with beasts and -vehicles, has to content itself with what, under ordinary circumstances, -would be a very broad roadway, if at least a third of it were not -encumbered by a sort of permanent open-air fair, carried on in rows of -booths, some of which are used as restaurants, others as shops of every -description. These booths turn their backs to the middle of the street, -and thus hide the line of shops beyond, of which, from the centre of the -road, you can only perceive the enormous and innumerable signboards -hanging from a veritable forest of gaily-painted poles. - -Beyond the Tsieng-Men Gate is situated the Beggars’ Bridge, always -thronged by groups of wretches clamouring for alms and ostentatiously -displaying the most appalling mutilations, with all kinds of loathsome -diseases added to their sordid misery to excite compassion. The narrow -side-walks, which are bordered on the one hand by booths, and on the -other by big shops, are filled by a motley gathering of small -shopkeepers, each plying his business in the open-air barbers, -hairdressers, and fortune-tellers, among whom the crowd has no little -difficulty in threading its way. Here you see men in light-blue blouses, -with long pigtails; Chinese ladies with their hair dragged back -magpie-tail fashion, who balance themselves painfully as they go along -on their tiny deformed feet; Tatar women, whose hair is puffed out on -each side of their faces, and who, like their Chinese sisters, stick a -big flower behind their ears. Not being crippled by bound feet, like -their less fortunate Chinese sisters, these women strut along with as -firm a step as their high-heeled clogs will permit. Their faces are -bedaubed with rice-flour, and their cheeks painted an alarmingly bright -red. Children with their heads shaved in the most comical manner, dotted -about with little tufts, that have a very funny appearance, being cut -according to the taste or caprice of their parents, also run about. -Among the well-clad children of a better class are others, stark-naked, -looking for all the world like small animated bronzes, so dark and -warm-coloured is their polished skin. In order to avoid being mobbed, -one has occasionally to seek refuge in a shop, which usually opens on to -the street, and is without windows. In the back the shopkeepers are -peacefully seated behind their counters smoking long pipes, whilst -exhibiting their goods and listening to the bargainings of their -customers. These shops are always very clean, and the goods are arranged -with great order and even considerable taste. A bowl with goldfish, or a -cage full of birds, adds not a little to the charm and peacefulness of -the scene, which is peculiarly refreshing after the noise and dirt of -the streets. - -All the great arteries of Peking are equally filthy and closely resemble -each other, excepting that not one of them can equal, either in the size -of the shops or wealth of their contents, the famous High Street that -leads to the Tsieng-Men Gate. In summer, after the rains, a coating of -mud some two feet and a half deep covers both road and footpath, which -when the weather dries again is converted into thick clouds of dust. The -sideways, always lower than the central road, are usually filled by -pools of green water, whence arises the most horrible stench of decayed -vegetables and rotting carcases of animals, in addition to the -accumulated offal of the neighbouring houses. The wonder of it all is -that the entire population of Peking has not long since been swept away -by some appalling epidemic. - -Leaving aside the few broad streets, one frequently comes across immense -open spaces, whose centres are generally occupied by a huge dunghill. -The narrow little streets that branch out in all directions can be -divided into two classes—those which border on the three or four -principal commercial thoroughfares, which, like them, are lined with -shops, but are scarcely broad enough to allow of the passage of a single -cart, although they are thronged from morning to night by a seething, -noisy crowd; and the silent and deadly dull private streets, where the -dwelling-houses are to be found. On either side runs a gray wall, whose -monotony is broken at intervals by a series of shabby little doors. If -any one of these happens to be open, one can only perceive from the -street a small courtyard a few feet square, and another dead wall, -beyond which is the inner courtyard, shut off from all observation, and -on which open all the windows of these singular dwellings, not one of -which is more than one story high, and always protected by a gray -double-tiled roof, usually ornamented at the four corners by some -grotesque stone beast or other, but never turned up at the ends as are -invariably those of the temples and the monuments. There is no movement -whatever in these streets. A few children play before the doors, a dog -or so strays about in the road, and now and again a coolie or an -itinerant merchant, with two baskets suspended from a pole across his -shoulders, breaks the silence by a shrill cry; sometimes a donkey or a -cart passes along but fails to enliven the deadly quiet of the street, -which is so still and monotonous that one might almost imagine one’s -self in a village instead of in one of the most populous cities in the -world. - -The scene changes entirely when Peking is seen from the heights of the -walls which form the only agreeable promenade in the capital, to whose -summits ascends neither the mud nor the stench of this dirtiest of -cities. The eye wanders pleasantly over a forest of fine trees, for -every house has one or two in its courtyard, and barely a glimpse of the -offensive streets is to be had: only the gray roofs of the little -houses; and thus Peking looks for all the world like an immense park, -from whose midst rise the yellow roofs of the Imperial Palace, and to -the northern extremity of the city, a wooded height called the Coal -Mountain, surmounted by a pagoda. - -As to monuments, there are very few in Peking worth the seeing, and into -these foreigners are never allowed to enter. Twenty-five or thirty years -ago visitors were admitted into a great number of the temples: that of -Heaven, which is now being restored, and where the Emperor goes annually -to make a sacrifice, and the Temples of the Sun, the Moon, and of -Agriculture, and they were even allowed to peep into the Imperial -Gardens; but since the entry of the Anglo-French troops into Peking, in -1860, the Chinese have been very reticent with respect to their -monuments, doubtless a consequence of the salutary lesson they then -received, which they are philosophical enough to endeavour to forget, as -all wise folk should do things that wound their pride. To-day the people -affect to believe the official story invented on that occasion to save -appearances, wherein it was stated that the Emperor Hien-feng, instead -of fleeing before the allies, merely went on a hunting excursion in his -park at Johol in Mongolia. Their usual insolence towards foreigners had -completely returned, to be modified, however, so soon as they heard of -the successes of the Japanese, and they were seized with absolute terror -at the prospect of beholding the Mikado’s army marching through their -gates. - -When I was in Peking in the autumn of 1897 Europeans were very rarely -insulted in the streets. Before the War it was otherwise, and I myself, -like many another, did not escape the impertinence of the Chinese at -Canton. All the same, they took good care to close their monuments to -the inspection of the ‘foreign devils,’ and the only temple now open for -our inspection is that of Confucius, an immense but rather commonplace -hall with a steep roof supported on pillars painted a vivid red. -Foreigners are also permitted to visit the place where the literati -undergo their examinations. It consists of some thousands of little -cells lining several long, open corridors, wherein the unfortunate -candidates for law and medicine are shut for several days while they -answer the questions set them. Then there is the old Observatory, -wherein are two series of highly useful instruments. The first dates -from the time of the Mongol Dynasty in the thirteenth century, and lies -scattered half buried among the weeds at the bottom of the courtyard; -the second series is less antiquated, having been made under the -direction of the Jesuit Verbiest, who was astronomer to the Emperor of -China in the early part of the seventeenth century. They are shown on -the walls. After seeing these thoroughly up-to-date astronomical -instruments, one has visited all there is to be seen in the Imperial -city of Peking. - -It must be confessed, however, that walking in the streets, or at the -foot or on top of the enormous walls, is far more interesting and -instructive than visiting temples and palaces. At every step the -observer is struck with the activity and energy of the Chinese people in -contradistinction to the systematic stagnation of its governing classes, -and he soon comes to the conclusion that China is in a state of -decadence strongly resembling in many details that of the Roman Empire -at the time of the invasions of the Barbarians. This erstwhile -magnificent capital is now only the shadow of its former self. The -number of its inhabitants, 700,000 to 800,000, is gradually decreasing, -and many houses are already in ruins. Some of the best streets, which -must at one time have been splendidly paved, are now almost impassable, -the result of neglect; drains, which at one time were covered in, now -run open through the streets, and are choked up by nameless deposits -which are never removed, and even immense blocks of the celebrated walls -are occasionally allowed to crumble to ruin. Now and again an effort to -repair them is started, but as half the money intended for the work -usually remains in the hands of the officials and contractors it is -never well done, great care being taken not to do the repairs -thoroughly, for fear of preventing fresh disaster and losing a chance to -do it all over again. On the other hand, on the rare occasions when the -Emperor betakes himself and his court to some summer residence or other, -or to make a sacrifice at one of the temples, things are furbished up a -bit, to make him believe that his capital is well looked after. The ruts -and the mud-heaps in the streets through which the procession passes are -hidden under a thick coating of sand, and everything likely to offend -the eye of the Son of Heaven is covered over; even the miserable booths -which encumber the streets are removed, and the half-moons in the -rampart have their walls painted white, but only so high as the Imperial -eyes may be lifted as His Celestial Majesty passes by, lolling back -indolently in his magnificent palanquin. - - - - - CHAPTER III -THE COUNTRY IN THE NEIGHBOURHOOD OF PEKING—NUMEROUS SIGNS OF THE DECLINE - OF THE EMPIRE - - From Peking to the Ming Tombs and the Great Wall of China—The temples - in the hills—Striking neglect of monuments and public - works—Remains of ancient and well-paved highroads, now replaced by - wretched ones, which are only temporarily repaired when the - Emperor or the Empress Dowager passes—The manner in which useful - works are neglected in China, and her treasure wasted. - - -A tour in the environs of Peking, to the Great Wall and to some of the -temples built on the hills to the west of the town, confirms the bad -impressions received in the city. This excursion occupies between three -and four days, and can be performed with relative comfort, and in -ordinary times without the least danger. A ‘boy,’ that is to say, a -domestic servant—a combination of guide, interpreter, valet and cook, -and who is often, by the way, a very expert disciple of Vatel—a donkey -and donkey-boy, a waggon, drawn by two mules, and a waggoner, are the -staff necessary for this journey, which is usually performed partly on -foot and partly on donkey-back. This suite may be considered somewhat -numerous, but no other human being but his own master would get a -Chinese donkey to budge a step forward, and the same may be said of the -mules. As to the ‘boy,’ he is the indispensable party into whose hands -you must trust yourself absolutely, even to the extent of handing over -your purse, so that he may settle your accounts at the various inns and -give the expected backsheesh to the servants or to the guides and bonzes -in the temples. Needless to say, he perfectly understands how to take -care of himself in the matter of reserving for his own benefit the -‘squeezee,’ as they say in pigeon-English. All Europeans who travel in -the Far East are obliged to have a retinue, which adds to their -importance, and in which every man has his particular function to -fulfil, and will not undertake the least share of his fellow-servants’ -work. - -On leaving Peking by the Northern Gate, one crosses a sandy and barren -space, occupied in the thirteenth century by a part of the town, which -has now disappeared. Then come some outlying towns, mainly inhabited by -merchants, succeeded by the admirably cultivated plain which extends -from the north of Peking to the foot of the hills. It is more barren to -the south, and trees only grow close to the villages, which are -invariably surrounded by groups of weeping-willows. In this region the -soil and the climate are too dry to allow of the cultivation of rice, -but a crop of winter wheat is obtained, and I have seen it sown, and -even appearing above the ground, in the month of October. It does not -freeze in the very dry earth, although the thermometer falls twenty -degrees, and the snow is never very deep. This crop of wheat is -harvested during May. Presently you see fields of sorghum, millet, the -staple food of the people in these parts, and also of buckwheat. On all -sides the peasantry are hard at work, usually alongside strong waggons, -better built than those of the Siberian mujiks, and drawn either by two -mules or two horses, or sometimes by three little donkeys. In the -villages you can sometimes see the grain thrashed or the long leaves of -the sorghum being bound in sheaves, which when dried are made into mats -and screens. The women help in the latter work, which invariably takes -place close to their doors, for they are never seen in the fields. The -roads are generally very bad, but have not always been so. Many of the -bridges are still in a superb condition, although the fine flagstones -with which they are paved are in a shocking condition. Others, however, -are in absolute ruin, and the rivers which they once spanned have -consequently to be forded. Everything points to the fact that we are -passing over a once magnificent highroad, and effectively it leads to -the Tombs of the Mings, which explains why it was built in such a -sumptuous manner by that Dynasty, as well as the state of abandonment -into which it has fallen since it has come into the hands of the -Manchus, who dethroned the Mings in 1644. - -Very few places that I have ever visited have produced upon me a greater -impression of grandeur than the amphitheatre formed by the lofty hills -on whose last slopes stand the Tombs of the thirteen Emperors of the -Ming Dynasty. Each of these monuments is formed of an aggregation of -buildings shaded by magnificent trees, that present a striking contrast -to the usual gray barrenness of Chinese hills. The broad road which -leads to them, once paved but now in ruins, passes under a superb -triumphal arch into the silent valley, which seems deserted, although in -reality it is highly cultivated; the little villages clustering at the -foot of the heights, too, are, as a rule, difficult to make out. After -passing under numerous elegant gateways, supported by winged columns, we -at length arrive at a gigantic alley of colossal monoliths, representing -figures of animals and monsters alternately sitting and crouching, and -statues of famous legislators and warriors. Roads radiate towards each -of the Tombs, of which I only visited that of the first Ming Emperor who -reigned in Peking. - -After having passed through a high wall by a porch with three badly-kept -gates, we crossed a spacious courtyard planted with trees, and presently -entered the great hall. Before the whole length of the façade extends -several flights of marble steps with exquisitely sculptured balustrades. -The hall itself is not less than 200 feet long by about 80 feet wide and -40 feet in height. It is nearly empty, and at first you can only -perceive the forty gigantic wooden columns, each formed of the trunk of -a tree, that support the roof, and which two men cannot embrace. These -columns are said to have come from the confines of Indo-China. In the -midst of them, half hidden away, is a small altar, ornamented with a few -commonplace china vases, which are crumbling to pieces and full of dust. -Beyond the altar, enclosed in a sort of tabernacle, is the tablet -inscribed with the deceased Emperor’s name in three Chinese characters. -His body lies beyond, at the end of a gallery a mile long, which -penetrates straight into the heart of the hill, but is walled up a short -distance from the entrance, which one reaches through two courtyards -separated by a portico. From the lofty tower that rises over this -entrance, the walls of which, by the way, are embellished with names -which numerous Chinese and a few Europeans have been vulgar enough to -scratch on the walls with the points of their knives, the view includes -the whole semicircle of hills, as well as all the Tombs, which, by -reason of the very simplicity of their design, create an impression of -extreme grandeur. Their erection must have cost as great an amount of -labour as that which was bestowed by the Egyptians upon the sepulchres -of their Pharaohs. - -The Great Wall of China is another colossal undertaking, in order to -reach which you take the high road to Mongolia that passes through the -Pa-ta-ling Gate at the extremity of the pass of Nan-kow. This highroad, -which for centuries has been daily traversed by long caravans of camels, -engaged in the traffic between Mongolia, Siberia, and China, was -formerly paved with blocks of granite, of which no trace is now to be -seen, either on that part of the road in the little town of Nan-kow, or -in the difficult mountain pass, and the traveller may therefore conclude -that they have either been used in the construction of houses or washed -away by some torrent. Nan-kow is a walled town, like almost all those in -the neighbourhood of Peking, including the curious old suburb of -Chao-yung-kwan, over one of the doors of which there is an inscription -in six languages, one of which has not yet been deciphered. Everywhere -on the mountain sides towers and picturesque ruins of fortifications -manifest how great has ever been the fear of the Chinese of the Tatars -and Mongols, for protection against whom the Great Wall was built. It is -divided into two parts, the inner and the outer wall, the first of which -extends for nearly 1,560 miles, from Shan-hai-kwan on the Gulf of -Pe-chi-li into the Province of Kan-su on the upper Yellow River. Built -two hundred years before our era, needless to say, it has been often -repaired and rebuilt. Near the sea it is constructed of stone, but brick -has been used on the inland portions. In thickness it varies from 16 -feet to 20 feet, and is about the same in height, but to the west it is -nothing like so lofty. - -The inner wall, which dates from the sixth century, was almost entirely -reconstructed by the Mings in the sixteenth century, and is 500 miles -long. This is the wall to be seen from Pa-ta-ling, passing over the -hill, and then proceeding right and left to climb in zigzag fashion to -the very summit of the mountains. It is constructed after the model of -the walls of Peking, on a substructure of stone, with two rows of brick -battlements. The top is paved, and forms a roadway 11 feet in width. Its -height varies, according to the irregularity of the land, between 12 -feet and 20 feet, and at about every 300 feet there are towers twice the -height of the wall, also surrounded by bastions and battlements. -Although less imposing than the Wall of Peking, the Great Wall of China -does not deserve the flippant remarks that have been made about it. -Against an enemy unprovided with artillery, and horsemen like the -Mongols and Tatars, it must have presented a very serious obstruction, -and if occasionally they have been able to scale it, it has generally -resisted every attempt at invasion. Although it has not been used under -the present Dynasty, which is of Tatar origin, it has remained, thanks -to the care bestowed upon it in former times, one of the best preserved -monuments in China. - -It is otherwise with the greater number of the temples scattered over -the hills, which stand amidst groups of magnificent trees, whose green -foliage contrasts so pleasantly with the gray, barren hills which the -Chinese, like all other peoples of the Far East, never cultivate. -Visitors are pleasantly received in the temples near Peking, some of -which are used as summer residences by European diplomatists tired of -being shut up in the city, whose pestilential miasmas occasionally reach -even their houses, although they are surrounded by parks. Some of them -are only wooden structures, with dwellings for the bonzes surrounding -courtyards on to which open the various sanctuaries. The use of wood in -the Far East for building purposes does not prevent a certain display of -magnificence and art, and the Japanese temples at Nikko and many other -places are marvels of richness and beauty, although they are entirely -built of wood. Unfortunately, unless they are very carefully looked -after, they are naturally apt to deteriorate much quicker than stone -buildings. Needless to say, the Chinese temples are in a very -dilapidated condition. I cannot say that I was impressed by the amazing -collection of Buddhas, some life-size, others colossal, some gilded and -others painted, no two of which are said to be exactly alike; or by the -crowd of horrible monsters with ferocious faces and abominable gestures -who guard the entrances to these temples. They one and all filled me -rather with disgust than with the slightest impression of awe. This -degenerate Buddhism is very different from that which exists in Ceylon, -and among certain Japanese sects. The only traces of the original -character of the religion, or at any rate of the land from which it -sprang, are to be found in the lovely stone pagoda of the Pi-Yuen-Sse, -whose style is pure Hindu, and contains some exquisite bas-reliefs -representing scenes in the lives of Sakyamuni and his saints, or, again, -in the even more beautiful sculpture to be admired in the Temple of the -Yellow Tower. - -The Summer Palace, which, by the way, was not a genuine Chinese -building, but erected under the direction of the Jesuits in the -eighteenth century in the style of Versailles, has not been rebuilt -since its destruction by the Allies in 1860, and all access to its ruins -has been prohibited. Not far distant is the summer residence of the -Empress Dowager, surrounded by magnificent gardens. The road which leads -to it is well kept. For the matter of that, as the Empress was about to -make a pilgrimage to a neighbouring shrine at the time I passed that -way, all the roads were being tinkered up for her advent. Hundreds of -coolies were working under the direction of mandarins of the second or -inferior rank, with the white or gold button, who were dashing on -horseback hither and thither, giving orders and generally superintending -so that all irregularities were rapidly disappearing under cartloads of -sand. These costly repairs were, however, only ephemeral. - -The Chinese Government never hesitates about wasting money on -trivialities. On one occasion, a river happening to upset certain -arrangements in one of the Imperial gardens, it was, at enormous cost, -drained from its bed, and allowed to inundate and ruin hundreds of farms -belonging to the unfortunate peasants. On another occasion, with a view -to worthily celebrating the sixtieth birthday of the Dowager Empress, -the money intended for the reorganization of the army in Pe-chi-li was -squandered on processions, illuminations, and fireworks. Whenever money -is needed for anything but the gratification of the greed and vanity of -the Court officials, it is never forthcoming; and every traveller who -has been to China will corroborate what I have said concerning not only -the neighbourhood of Peking, but also of Canton and Shanghai. The -highroads have practically ceased to exist, and the bridges are rapidly -crumbling to ruin. The Imperial canal, one of the most magnificent works -of past generations, which goes from Hang-Chow to Tien-tsin, a distance -of over 940 miles, and unites the Blue, the Yellow, and the Pei-ho -Rivers, and also the capitals of the middle provinces, whence are -obtained the best provisions, is now at many points choked up with sand -and stones, and in others it is only a few inches deep, and can only be -used for local traffic. China of to-day is but a shadow of what she has -been, for her sole object in existence is to deceive, and her -administration is rotten to the core. This decadence dates centuries -back, but it culminated five years ago, when an Empire of 400,000,000 -inhabitants was obliged to humble itself to a nation ten times its -inferior in population and resources. - - - - - CHAPTER IV -THE LITERARY AND MANDARIN CLASS—PRINCIPAL CAUSES OF THE DECADENCE OF THE - EMPIRE - - The literati or governing class—How it is recruited from the mass of - the people through examinations—Bachelors, Masters of Arts and - Doctors—Enormous number of candidates—The functionaries - exclusively selected from the literati—Most of the posts - sold—The syndicate for the exploitation of public offices—The - gravest defect of the system, the examinations, the subjects - selected being merely exercises in rhetoric and memory about an - immense quantity of nonsensical matter supplied by the Chinese - classics and ancient annals—Abortive attempts to introduce small - doses of Western science into these examinations—Superstitions - of the literati—This stupid system of examination the principal - cause of Chinese isolation—Complete disappearance of the - military spirit resulting from the same fatal cause—Hostility - and contempt entertained by the literati against all European - progress—Difficulty of suppressing or reforming the mandarinate. - - -The curse of China and the main reason why her remarkable people, who -once deserved to be compared with the ancient Romans, have sunk to the -degraded condition in which we find them at present, is the mandarinate, -which she has the misfortune to consider one of her chief glories. It is -this corrupt and antiquated system that is destroying the Celestial -Empire. It has often been observed that nations generally have the -Government they deserve, and it is undoubtedly true that the -administration of China is, in a measure, the logical result of her -geographical situation and singular history, to which might be added the -peculiar character of her people. On the other hand, there is no -question that the worst traits of the national character are accentuated -in the mandarin class which governs the country, and saps its activity -and energy. - -Theoretically, the Chinese Government is based on paternal principles; -as a matter of fact, it is entirely in the hands of the class known as -‘literati,’ from whose ranks all the State officials, or mandarins, are -recruited; and if we wish to understand the primary causes of the -misgovernment of the Celestial Empire, we must become thoroughly -acquainted with the origin and manners of the mandarins, who are not -hereditary, but recruited from the mass of the people in the most -democratic manner in the world by means of public competitive -examinations. These examinations confer three honorary degrees, which -might be likened to those bestowed by our Universities: Bachelors, -Masters of Arts, and Doctors. The degree of Bachelor is competed for in -each district (there are sixty districts per province), and that of -Master of Arts in the eighteen provincial capitals; that of Doctor, on -the other hand, is only to be obtained in Peking. One may imagine the -esteem in which these degrees are held by the people when I mention that -in 1897, when I was at Shanghai, no less than 14,000 candidates came up -for examination at Nanking, with only 150 honours to be distributed -amongst them. It is considered a great honour for a family to include a -literate amongst its members, and his obtaining his degree is celebrated -throughout the entire province which enjoys the privilege of being his -birthplace. Should he be fortunate enough to obtain his laureate at -Peking, he is welcomed on his return to his native town as a veritable -conquering hero. It is quite true that, in order to pass his -examination, he has to go through an amount of physical suffering and -patient endurance which would deter any but a Chinaman from the attempt. -Each candidate is shut up for three whole days in a box-like cell four -feet square, in which he cannot even lie down, with no other companions -than his brush, paper and stick of Chinese ink; and barely an -examination passes without some student or other being found dead in his -cell. According to popular rumour, it is said that the all-pervading -corruption penetrates even into these cells, and that not a few -candidates succeed less through their merits than through the golden -gate; and it has even been observed that the sons and near relatives of -existing high functionaries are pretty sure to pass; but as a rule, -however, it seems that merit generally obtains its reward. It is, -however, after the examinations that begin the real difficulties of -those who are not rich and are without influential friends. One might -naturally expect that after the trouble, fatigue, and expense of the -examination were over, some post or other would surely be forthcoming to -recompense the efforts of the candidate; but the contrary is the rule, -and many a man has had to wait a lifetime before obtaining the reward -for which he has striven so hard. Nevertheless, those students who seem -to possess exceptional ability generally push themselves forward in the -following manner: a syndicate has been formed which advances the funds -necessary to assist the aspirant in mounting the first rung on the -ladder of fame, and to help him further, until he is in a position to -return the money borrowed, either in cash or kind, with a very handsome -interest. The idea of exploiting public offices as a sort of commercial -concern is, to say the least, ingenious, and, what is more, it seems to -be occasionally exceedingly remunerative. On the other hand, the expense -and the intrigue that such a pernicious system must necessarily involve -can better be imagined than described. As an instance in point, I was -assured that the position of Tao-tai or Governor of Shanghai, worth, for -not more than three years, a salary of 6,000 taels, or £900, a year, was -recently bought for over £30,000. - -Even worse than the purchase of public offices, and the favouritism -shown at examinations, are the subjects chosen for competition, which -are exclusively selected from Chinese classical and scholastic -literature. The works of Confucius, those of his disciples, of Mencius -and of other philosophers who enlightened the world two thousand years -ago, and a mass of quaint lore derived from the ancient Chinese -chronicles, form the subject of these extraordinary examinations, and -the students have to learn some hundred volumes as nearly as possible by -heart, memory being the one thing most highly prized by the Board of -Examiners. The student is expected to quote certain extracts word by -word as they appear in the books, and his examination papers must, -moreover, be embellished by a great quantity of quotations—the more the -better. An elegant style is obtained only through acquaintance with as -many of the 60,000 Chinese characters as possible, from which the -student is expected to make an appropriate selection, and, as each sign -means a word, and not a few of these are almost unknown, and only to be -found in some hidden corner of an ancient volume, the waste of time is -appalling. The preparatory instruction, therefore, simply consists in -cramming the wretched candidate with a knowledge of as great a number of -signs or characters, and quotations from the Celestial classics, as -possible. One of the most curious features of the Chinese is that, -although everybody knows how to read and write a little, no one can do -so perfectly, for the simple reason that no Chinaman has ever been known -to completely master the voluminous alphabet of his country. The most -ignorant has acquired some ten or a dozen characters relating to his -trade, and sufficient for his purpose. When a man has mastered 6,000 or -8,000 he is considered learned, and, when we come to think of it, there -must be very few ideas that cannot be expressed by so many thousands of -words. Many of the higher literati manage to acquire even 20,000 words, -and the state of the mind of that man may safely be left to the reader’s -imagination, especially if we reflect that he must have passed his -entire youth studying by rote thousands of signs only distinguishable -from one another by the minutest strokes, and in acquiring a prodigious -amount of obsolete knowledge from classical books and annals whose -authors lived in remote antiquity. Of late years a slight modification -has been introduced in the shape of certain concessions to what is -officially called the ‘new Western culture.’ To the usual questions -selected from the works of Confucius and other philosophers have now -been added the identification of names mentioned in modern geography, -and since the Chino-Japanese War the examiners at Nanking ask their -candidates some very grave and informing queries in astronomy, as: ‘What -is the apparent diameter of the sun as seen from the earth? and what -would be that of the earth as seen from the sun or from some other -planet?’ The following sage question is typical of the intellectual -condition of both examiner and examined: ‘Why is the character in -writing which represents the moon closed at the bottom, and the one -which represents the sun left open?’ - -In the capital of a province near Shanghai the learned examiners wished -to encourage the study of mathematics, and, accordingly, prizes were -offered for competition and a solemn circular sent out to encourage -young men to take part in the examination. Some young fellows, who had -been educated in the missionary schools, solved most of the problems -offered fairly well, and in accordance with the rules of modern -elementary education. Others, on the other hand, who were better -acquainted with the Four Books and the Five Great Classics than with -Western geometry, made the remarkable discovery that the problems were -explained in an old work written many centuries ago, with the result -that they simply copied word by word the fantastical solutions therein -formulated, and, of course, carried off the prizes. In the following -year one of the professors of a foreign missionary college asked leave -for a competent European teacher to be included in the examining -committee in order to assist in the preparation of the papers and to -pronounce a verdict upon the answers sent in. Needless to say, the -demand was refused and the questions were sent out without the least -attempt to insure their being loyally answered. Among the questions -asked at a competitive scientific examination in Chekiang in 1898 were -the following: ‘How are foreign candles made, and in what consists their -superiority over those manufactured in China?’ ‘Name the principal ports -touched at by the steamers running between Japan and the Mediterranean.’ -‘To which of the new sciences and methods which people are endeavouring -to introduce should the greatest importance be attached?’ ‘Write an -essay on international law.’ Comment is needless. - -These foolish innovations, of course, do not change the fundamental -scholastic and rhetorical character of Chinese examinations, and the -usual themes for the compositions remain identical. Here are two -examples quoted by Mr. Henry Norman: ‘Confucius hath said, “In what -majesty did Chun and Yu reign over the Empire, as though the Empire was -as nothing unto them!” Confucius hath said, “Yao was verily a great -sovereign. How glorious he was! Heaven alone is grand, and Yao only -worthy to enter it. How exalted was his virtue! The people could find no -words wherewith to qualify it.”‘[22] This was the theme that had to be -developed by many a flower of rhetoric. It is only through the study of -these books, written twenty centuries ago, and encumbered by parables -and affected maxims, and of ancient annals crammed with fantastic -legends believed in as absolute facts, that are selected the members of -the class who are expected to govern China! - -The result of this method of education was exemplified as late as 1897, -two years after a war which had brought the Celestial Empire within an -inch of ruin, when a censor, one of the highest officials in the Empire, -addressed a document to the Emperor, wherein he protested against the -concessions made to the inventions of the Western barbarians, which he -did not hesitate to qualify as calculated to disturb the peace of the -dead. Instead of constructing railways, he gravely insisted, it were -wiser to offer a handsome reward to the man who should recover the -secret of making flying chariots to be drawn by phœnixes which certainly -existed in the good old times. A little time previously a member of the -Tsung-li-Yamen had lifted his voice to protest against the various -railway embankments and the nails that studded the lines, which, he -believed, were likely to inconvenience and wound the sacred dragons who -protect the cities of the Empire, and who dwell beneath the soil. The -strange superstitions of the _feng-shui_ geomancy dealing with the -circulation through the air of good and evil spirits, and with the -prescribed height to which buildings may be erected, and the exact -positions of doors and other like grave matters, which, it seems, unless -they be properly attended to, are apt to upset and offend the flying -spirits in their progress through space, exercise a greater empire over -the minds of Chinese officials in the very highest places than matters -which we should consider of the greatest importance. - -The fact that the mandarinate is recruited from the democracy renders it -even more pernicious than if it constituted a hereditary aristocracy, -for, as it stands, nobody has any interest in overthrowing it. The most -intelligent people try to enter it, and it attracts all the most gifted -men in the Empire, but only to corrupt them. The literary class enjoys -an enormous prestige, and the poorest man lives in the hope of seeing -his son one of its learned members. It, therefore, does not excite any -of that hatred usually provoked by caste privilege, and thus does not -stand the least danger of being upset. On the other hand, the condition -to which it has reduced the Celestial Empire is a condemnation of the -system of examination for Government office, and many a Western State -might do well to study this question and to take its lesson to heart. -That its effects have been more accentuated in China than elsewhere is -undeniable, being the result of diverse historic and ethnographical -circumstances peculiar to that nation. The Chinese reached a high state -of civilization long before our era, and being more numerous and -intelligent than their neighbours, so soon as they were cemented into -one compact nationality they proceeded to subjugate Indo-China and -Korea; and so it came to pass that China had no dangerous foes to -disturb her, Japan being isolated in her island Empire, and she was -separated from India by a formidable mountain barrier and from the West -by immense deserts. From that time the Chinese had nothing to trouble -them, and had but to live in quiet admiration of the labours of their -ancestors, who were the authors of the perfect peace which they enjoyed, -and thus little by little they accustomed themselves to look upon them -as superior beings and as types of perfection. More advanced than any of -their tributary subjects, and having nothing to fear from competition, -they became lost in self-admiration, or, rather, in the admiration of -those who had made their country what it was, and ended by believing -that no further progress was either necessary or possible, and thus are -now absolutely non-progressive. - -The isolation and the want of emulation in which China has existed for -so many centuries have destroyed whatever energy and initiative she -might otherwise have possessed. It should be remarked, however, that the -Roman Empire was in very much the same condition, and for the same -reason, at the time of the invasion of the Barbarians, and that outside -the moral revolution effected by Christianity—which, by the way, only -obtained its fullest developments by the overthrow of the Empire—no -further progress was being made. The sterile admiration of bygone -greatness, therefore, is the foundation-stone of the doctrines of -Confucius. The Chinese people, who are essentially practical and -positive, and less given, perhaps, than any other in the world to study -general questions and lofty ideals, soon deteriorated under so -retrogressive a system, and eventually lost all sight of the origin of -many of their most important institutions. Religion and morals were -reduced to mere rites and ceremonies that only conceal the emptiness of -Chinese civilization, and so the nation came to the conclusion that the -one thing in this world worth the doing was to save appearances, and -conceal corruption beneath a flimsy mask. - -The isolation of China and her superiority over her neighbours produced -another very grave consequence—the ruin of that martial spirit which has -obliterated all idea of duty and sacrifice. The military mandarins are -despised by their civil colleagues, and their tests consist almost -exclusively of physical exercises such as archery and the lifting of -heavy weights. ‘One does not use good iron to make nails, nor a good man -to make a soldier,’ says the Chinese proverb, and thus it is that the -Chinese army is recruited from a horde of blackguards and plunderers, -whose only good qualities are their contempt for life and physical -endurance, which might under proper management turn this raw material -into an excellent army. - -The Celestial Empire is quite as incapable of resisting the advance of -modern civilization as it is of assimilating it. From the literati who -govern the land nothing is to be expected, for they will neither learn -nor forget anything. Their prejudices are so strong as to prevent their -accepting any great movement of reform, even if it were in their -interests, and in the stagnant position in which China is at present, -aided by the lack of intercommunication between the provinces, the -mandarins do exactly as they please. The _Peking Gazette_, the official -paper, described quite recently in the most glowing terms the -suppression of a revolt, showing at the same time the expenses incurred -and the rewards offered to those who had aided in its suppression. The -real truth of the story was that no revolution whatever had taken place -in the district mentioned, and the only unusual event which had occurred -was the pursuit of a runaway thief by three soldiers. Such an instance -could not possibly occur in a well-regulated State, and naturally the -men who profited by the lie will not be very desirous of a change in so -profitable a system. ‘Those who despair most of China are those who know -her best,’ once said a missionary to me; and his words have been -confirmed by nearly every traveller in the Far East with whom I have -spoken on the subject. No reform can be expected in the country from -within, and a proof in point will be found in the history of the Palace -Revolution of September 9th, 1898. The question, therefore, which -presents itself is whether external pressure can be brought to bear on -China with a view to reforming her Government without causing the -dislocation of the Empire. - - - - - CHAPTER V - THE CHINESE PEOPLE AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS - - Great antiquity of China’s national existence—Stagnation of her - organization as well as of her social, religious and - administrative institutions—Unity of Chinese civilization - notwithstanding varied surroundings, differences of language and - of racial origin, it being much more inflexible than that of the - Western world—Some of the principal characteristics of the - Chinese—Love of false appearances—Gulf that divides the - theoretical from the practical in all matters of Chinese - administration—Corruption of the Chinese Government and its - determination to impede progress—Lightness of the taxes—The mass - of the people apparently happy under distressing circumstances—The - good-humour and liveliness of the Celestials—Pity said to be - absolutely excluded from the Chinese character—Why the Chinese - make bad soldiers—Organization of the family and position of - women—Vices of the Chinese: love of gambling, opium, filthy habits - and superstitions—Their better qualities—The people themselves not - in a state of decadence—Primary effects of contact with Western - civilization. - - -The Chinese are at one and the same time the most numerous and the -longest existing nation in the world. The annals of the Celestial Empire -date as far back as those of Egypt, and twenty centuries ago, when -States which now rule the earth were in process of formation, China, -having undergone several evolutions, was already constituted as she is -to-day. The Chinese have never been subjected to any of those marked and -repeated changes which, during the last two thousand years, have so -profoundly modified the social organization and the manners and customs -of other countries; and even the introduction of a new religion did not -produce in the East anything comparable to the revolution which, at -about the same time, occurred in the West through the spread of -Christianity. Buddhism did not modify the Chinese people, but the -Chinese people modified Buddhism after their own image and likeness, -without, however, permitting the doctrines of Sakyamuni to exercise the -least influence over their character, or change an iota of their ideas -concerning life and morality, which were determined by Confucius and -other sage Celestials, being in reality derived less from the -meditations of philosophers or the inspiration of prophets than from the -intuitive instinct of the race. The institutions of China have not -altered the mental habits or method of life upon which they profess to -be modelled, any more than has the theoretical principle of family -existence altered the Imperial Government; for the Chinese even now -often qualify their high officials by the endearing epithets ‘father’ -and ‘mother.’ Political revolutions have not made a deeper impression -upon the fossilized organization of the Chinese Government, than has -religion on the character and manners of the people. The various -dynasties that have succeeded each other have changed nothing, although -some of them have been of foreign origin: the Mongolian in the -thirteenth century and the Manchurian in our own time; but they effected -no variations in the system of Government, and only placed certain -functionaries to watch over the mandarins, precisely as the Tatar -marshals are instructed to spy upon the officials of nowadays. - -China has always been governed after Chinese methods, and although she -has occasionally been conquered by foreigners, she has invariably -absorbed them into her own civilization, and obliged them to observe her -traditions. The Chinese care very little about the future, the greatness -or the independence of their country; but they cling with extraordinary -tenacity to their old manners and customs, and thereby offer a striking -contrast to their neighbours the Japanese, who, notwithstanding their -intense patriotism, will make any sacrifice, even that of religious -principle and most cherished tradition, if they think that they may -thereby benefit their Empire. The Japanese have almost the same -conception of patriotism as Europeans, but not so the Chinese, with whom -this virtue is merely a racial affair, which in the hour of danger -invariably proves of little or no avail, especially against adversaries -of a kind never previously encountered. - -Does there exist, beyond this intense love of old customs and of an -immutable civilization, any bond of union among the three or four -hundred millions of human beings who constitute the population of -China?[23] At first sight no people could possibly appear more -thoroughly homogeneous than the Chinese; but it is not necessary to stay -long among them to perceive that even from the physical point of view -there are certain racial differences which make it more difficult at -first to note the dissimilarity which separates their race from our own. -Even more striking are the diverse dialects spoken in the Empire, -several of which are not mere patois, but distinct languages, rendering -it impossible for a native of Canton or Foochow to make himself -understood at Peking; and in many provinces these idiomatic -peculiarities are very interesting. In Fo-kien no less than three patois -are spoken—the Amoy, Swatow, and the Foochow, which are utterly -different from each other. Between the cities of Peking and Tien-tsin, -scarcely thirty leagues apart, there is already a marked difference in -the matter of dialect. It is also a noteworthy fact that very little -sympathy exists among the Chinese from different provinces, who keep -aloof from each other even when circumstances oblige them to live in the -same town. Very marked, too, are the divergent characteristics and -temperaments observable between the inhabitants of the North and those -of the South, the former being much the most energetic and enterprising, -but at the same time more hostile to foreigners. The Central Government -is almost unknown by the multitudes outside of Peking, and it would be a -comparatively easy task to raise an army in one part of China to fight -against the inhabitants of another. - -The question may now be asked whether China, which covers an area equal -to that of Europe, and is even more thickly peopled, is less homogeneous -than our own Continent. Does there exist between the various Chinese -provinces the same differences that mark each of the nations that in the -aggregate form Europe? From the geographical and climatic point of view -it is evident that the difference is not very great, although China -possesses very high mountains only on her Western frontier, and her -plains are much more extensive and continuous. But from the ethnical -point of view it would be an exaggeration to state that there is much -analogy between China and Europe, since the former is certainly much the -more homogeneous. The different countries of our Continent are inhabited -by peoples who are only remotely related to each other, and who are -merely united by the ties of a common civilization, whereas amongst the -subjects of the Son of Heaven the ties are much stronger and the -physical resemblance is more marked. I am, of course, speaking of the -inhabitants of China proper only—of the eighteen provinces, to which -might be added a nineteenth, Ching-king, or Southern Manchuria, now in -process of colonization by the Chinese. The various tributary peoples -belonging to the Celestial Empire, such as the Mongolians, the Thibetans -and the Turki in Eastern Turkestan, are absolutely distinct from each -other and from the predominant race; but although the dependencies which -they cover constitute two-thirds of the surface of the entire Empire, -they only form a twentieth of the entire population, and do not share in -its Government. - -It should be observed that the absence of any sympathy between the -inhabitants of the different Chinese provinces might have been found -quite recently exemplified in Europe, not merely between nation and -nation, but between province and province in the same country, and that -linguistic variations are still noticeable even in the most homogeneous -countries. History is full of instances of intestine troubles which have -existed in nearly every European nation, and it is but thirty years -since the Germans were at war with each other. - -I have often heard related the misadventures of two Celestials, natives -of different provinces, who, whilst travelling in Europe, met one day -only to discover that their sole means of making themselves understood -was by speaking English. But does not this story recall the recent Slav -Congress in Austria, whose debates had to be held in German in order -that they might be followed by all the delegates? The existence of -patois and dialects results from the inhabitants of certain districts -having neither the time nor the money to go beyond their village further -than the nearest market-town. Then, again, education in China does not -tend, as in Europe, to produce unity of language, since its writing is -quite independent of pronunciation, and the innumerable letters of its -alphabet represent, not sounds, but ideas. The lack of any spirit of -patriotism may be largely attributed to this state of absolute -isolation, to which may be added a general and very profound ignorance. -But patriotism as we understand it is, after all, a matter of modern -sentiment, therefore not to be looked for in so antiquated a nation as -the Chinese. - -It matters little whether there be a common origin or not, since our -notions of race are very difficult to define, and modern anthropological -and ethnographical discoveries tend more and more towards the acceptance -of the theory of the existence of distinct races. Whereas the patois of -the ten northernmost provinces are merely dialects of the Manchurian -languages, those of the south, especially of Fo-kien and Canton, are -totally different, and apparently confirm the theory that the Chinese -invaders who came from the north-east found the land already inhabited -by a people whom they assimilated, precisely as they are doing in our -time in Manchuria, and as did the Romans in ancient Gaul. - -The entire population of China, excepting a few obscure mountain tribes, -the remainder, possibly, of the autochthones of the South, whatever -their origin, have for centuries moulded themselves on a civilization -that penetrates far deeper into the details of every-day life than any -known in Europe. The result is a greater uniformity among the people who -have adopted it than will be found among men who follow a less rigid -code that permits of greater latitude and affords a freer scope for the -exercise of individuality. Many peculiarities in the Chinese character -appear at first contradictory, even to those who have lived long in the -country, and who assert that no European can ever thoroughly understand -a Chinaman because his mind is so differently constituted. - -The most striking characteristic of the Chinese, says Mr. Arthur H. -Smith, an American missionary who has lived twenty-two years in China, -in his admirable book ‘Chinese Characteristics,’ is their remarkable -manner of ‘facing’ a thing. To save appearances, or to ‘face’ a -difficulty cunningly rather than boldly, is the endeavour of the -inhabitants of the Kingdom of the Son of Heaven, and is the key, -moreover, to a great many other matters that might otherwise appear -incomprehensible. Every Chinaman considers himself an actor, whose -public words, acts, and deeds have nothing in common with reality. The -most praiseworthy and even the most innocent of actions, unless it be -performed in a certain way, will only cover its author with shame and -ridicule. If a fault is committed, the guilty party is expected to deny -it with the utmost effrontery in spite of convincing evidence, and on no -account must he confess himself guilty, even if he is obliged to repair -the injury done. From the highest to the lowest, the Chinese entertain a -profound respect for shamming. A boy caught stealing will slip the -coveted object up his sleeves, stoop down and pretend to pick it up, and -with the smile of an angel present it to his master, saying, ‘Here is -what you have lost.’ A little over a hundred years ago the mandarins who -were escorting Macartney, the English Ambassador, into the presence of -the Son of Heaven, profited by his ignorance of their language to place -over his carriage an inscription to the effect that it contained ‘the -Ambassador bringing tribute from the Kingdom of England,’ and thus kept -up the fiction of the universal sovereignty of their lord and master. - -Undoubtedly the observance of a certain amount of etiquette is both -useful and praiseworthy, and so considered by all civilized nations; but -Chinese etiquette is the most punctilious and complicated that was ever -imagined, and never on any account to be neglected for a single instant. -This excessive attention to outward forms, which, if they be but -observed, may conceal any kind of iniquity, explains the fact that in -China there is a deeper gulf between theory and practice than in any -other country in the world. That it has always been so may be -questioned, but at present the morals of Confucius have long since been -lost in a code of etiquette which defines virtue as consisting in the -observance to the letter of the three hundred rules of ceremony and the -three thousand regulations of conduct, without paying the least -attention to the spirit in which they were originally formulated. - -It is in the system of Government in China that the contrast between -precept and practice becomes most evident. As Mr. Henry Norman remarks -with hardly exaggerated severity, ‘Every Chinese official, with the -possible exception of one in a thousand, is a liar, a thief and a -tyrant!’ Examples confirming this assertion are very numerous, and even -the celebrated Li Hung-chang cannot be included in the list of those -officials who are noted for their honesty, since he had to disgorge a -great part of the immense fortune he had accumulated—twenty millions, it -is reputed—to save his head during the Chino-Japanese War, when he had -to purchase the goodwill of many Court dignitaries, eunuchs and others, -notwithstanding which, money matters still occupy a great deal of his -attention. I had the honour while I was at Peking to dine at the French -Legation in the company of this exalted personage, on the occasion of -the visit of the Admiral commanding the French Fleet in the Far East and -several officers of his staff. Li conversed through the intermediary of -an interpreter named Ma, to whom he spoke in the Fo-kien, his native -dialect; it appears he speaks Manchu very badly. He put to each of the -guests several polite questions usual among Orientals, inquired after -their rank, their age, and invariably wound up his courteous inquiries -by asking: ‘Well, and what is your salary?’ With us the income of an -official is a matter of very little importance, but with the famous -mandarin it was the essential. - -For centuries the administration of China has been as corrupt as it is -to-day, but for all this it has never driven the people to rebellion. It -is true that occasionally there are local agitations, whose chiefs go so -far as to pounce upon offending representatives of authority and convey -them to the capital of the district, or province, to demand their -degradation, which is more often than not accorded—a fact which inspired -an English paper at Shanghai to descant on the ‘democratic manner in -which the Chinese participate in their government.’ Oppression tempered -by revolt is the rule which prevails in the Celestial Empire, but there -is no fear of a general revolution against so degenerate a system. This -administrative machine, however, which appears to us to be so -detestable, only impedes progress, but does not affect the population, -which is accustomed to routine habits hundreds of years old, and has not -the remotest idea that a reform is either necessary or practicable. When -an enterprising man wishes to introduce even the most insignificant of -modern trades, he invariably attracts the attention of the mandarins, to -whom he is obliged to apply for permission to carry on his novelty, and -will only obtain it after much bribery and a promise to pay such a huge -percentage on his profits as to render the returns of his venture too -insignificant to be worth his continuing it. But for the uncomplaining -and unprogressive, who have nothing to do with administrative affairs, -life in China flows easily and quietly enough. The taxes are very light, -especially for the peasantry, who live by what they harvest in their -fields, or for the workpeople, whose wants are very small They fall, -however, heavily upon commercial transactions and the transport of -merchandise, are a great impediment to commerce, and though they never -affect them directly, for their poverty is far too great to permit of -their buying anything, they contribute indirectly to keep the inferior -classes in a state of abject poverty. According to the investigations of -Herr von Brandt, former German Minister to Peking, and a man who has -studied China profoundly, the land tax in China reaches £5,250,000, -being about 3s. per acre in the North, with a maximum of 13s. in the -South. This is not much when we consider the intense activity of Chinese -agriculture, which extracts from the soil almost everywhere two harvests -annually. The total of the Budget, according to the same authority, -reaches 100,000,000 taels, or £15,000,000. Other authorities estimated -it as high as £24,000,000, but even this is not excessive. The following -is Von Brandt’s account of the different sources of revenue of the -Chinese Empire: - - Inland Revenue £5,250,000 - Treaty port Customs (obtained by the International Customs - Service) 3,450,000 - Right for transit in the interior (_likin_) 1,800,000 - Native Customs and tax on native opium 1,500,000 - Salt tax 1,500,000 - Sale of titles and honorary distinctions 750,000 - Tribute of rice 450,000 - Licenses, etc. 300,000 - ——————————— - Total £15,000,000 - =========== - -The public revenues, gathered by the provincial treasuries, are sent on -to Peking after deduction of the amount necessary for the requirements -of the district. It is stated that only a third of these receipts is -disposable for the needs of the Central Government. - -The mass of the Chinese people endure, therefore, without much -discontent, a Government which in ordinary time weighs very lightly upon -them, that meddles very little in the affairs of their villages or -communes, always very strongly constituted in the Far East, and, above -all, never disturbs their ancient customs. Exceedingly poor, and only -able to live by dint of hard work, and having a very severe struggle for -life, the people have no time to waste on philosophical reflections, -and, moreover, possess no standard of comparison to assist it to judge -of the hardness of its fate. In addition to this, we must not forget -that the Chinese are endowed by nature with an excessive spirit of -conservatism and a patience and perseverance quite beyond praise, to -which must be added a jovial good-humour that enables them to endure an -existence which to the people of any other country would appear -intolerable. Peasants and workpeople alike have no hope of ever seeing -their humble condition improved, and their prospective existence is one -of absolute monotony, entirely passed in sowing and reaping, in carrying -heavy burdens, in the turning of looms, or in labouring the earth, -without having, excepting on a few feast-days, a moment’s rest, save -what is absolutely necessary for meals and sleep. None the less, they -always seem very happy, complain very little, and thoroughly enjoy their -few pleasures, and apparently absolutely ignore their troubles. - -This happy spirit of resignation explains why the Chinese, -notwithstanding their poverty, are one of the most contented people in -the world, and, consequently, one of the happiest; but, unfortunately, -they are exposed from time to time to dreadful calamities: an -inundation, an epidemic, or a bad harvest, which brings about inevitable -misery and famine to the entire population, who are left without any -resources because their work has not been sufficiently remunerative to -enable them to put anything by for a rainy day. Not a year passes -without a dreadful calamity occurring somewhere or other in the immense -Celestial Empire, causing the deaths of hundreds of thousands of people, -so that, notwithstanding the astonishing number of children born, the -population apparently does not increase. Here, then, we have a striking -application of the doctrines of Malthus; for in this society, into which -no ray of progress is admitted, men multiply quicker than their means of -subsistence, but natural calamities re-establish the balance by annually -overwhelming a prodigious number of men, women and children. - -The exaggerated sense of conservatism and the improvidence of the -administration are in part responsible for the occurrence of these grave -calamities, which are generally accompanied by a recrudescence of that -chronic piracy and brigandage which is peculiar to China, being the sole -means of gaining a livelihood left to many ruined wretches. Sometimes, -however, the agents of the Government, after having done nothing either -to prevent a catastrophe or to mitigate its consequences, increase it in -times of famine by their avidity in seizing the rice, and thus provoke a -rebellion, as happened in 1898 at various parts of the Yang-tsze-Kiang. -But beyond these cases, in which the authorities are manifestly guilty, -the Chinese people submit with the utmost resignation to calamities -which they foresee and consider as merely natural, and which, when they -happen, barely ruffle their habitual placidity. Death to such a people -cannot have the same terrors it has for us. - -Europeans are of all the civilized peoples of the earth those who -complain most of life, but yet who hold most dearly to it. The people of -the Far East, the Chinese as well as the Japanese, on the other hand, -consider it least. Indifference to death seems to be with them almost a -physical characteristic, the result of the singular insensibility of -their nervous system. With respect to this last, we have plenty of -evidence. The doctors in the European hospitals where natives are -treated relate with amazement how their patients undergo the most -painful operations without a murmur and without the necessity of having -to resort to anæsthetics. In every-day life, too, the same curious -apathy is to be observed in the extraordinary facility with which they -can fall asleep whenever they choose, even in the midst of the most -awful din and noise, and they can, moreover, remain for hours in one -position without making the slightest motion. The reverse of the medal -is that, although they are so indifferent to their own sufferings, they -are without the slightest feeling for those of others, and can watch the -writhing agony of a human being without expressing the least horror or -sympathy. The dreadful custom of binding the feet of women in such a -manner as to push the heel forward and double up the toes under the sole -of the foot, inducing a sore that is never healed, is but one out of -many examples of Chinese cruelty. The various and horrible tortures -inflicted by the judicial tribunals are another illustration of the same -dreadful instinct. The idea of bargaining with a person in danger of -death, or with a man who has fallen into the water before attempting to -rescue him from drowning, are things which would never suggest -themselves to a European, but they come naturally to the Chinese. - -The little value in which human life is held in the Far East is -exemplified by the frequency of suicide, merely to vindicate a point of -honour which in many parts of Europe would be settled at the point of -the sword. The _hara-kiri_ is not restricted to Japan, or to the upper -classes of Chinese society. A Chinaman, even of the lowest order, will -commit suicide out of vengeance, spite, or even through what he -considers a matter of honour. Sacrifice of life is common even among -women, if we may believe the following narrative extracted from a -Chinese newspaper: - -‘One day a sow belonging to a certain Madame Feng, having done some -slight injury to the door of a certain Madame Wang, that lady forthwith -demanded compensation with interest, which was refused, whereupon Madame -Wang announced her intention of committing suicide. This dreadful threat -proved altogether too much for Madame Feng, who there and then -determined to beat her enemy with her own weapon by flinging herself -into the nearest canal.’[24] Suicides are by no means rare among the -upper classes of the literati, and quite recently a censor, a high -functionary who possesses the privilege of addressing petitions to the -Sovereign, awaited the passing of the Imperial cortege and then killed -himself as a political demonstration, in order to add weight to a -memorial he had presented concerning some promise of the Government -which had not been fulfilled. The innumerable public executions form a -pendant to the equally numerous cases of suicide. - -The reader may be somewhat surprised that a people fearing death so -little should make such bad soldiers; but, after all, however lightly a -man may hold his life, no one sacrifices it unless it be for some ideal -or other. If the Celestials care so little about existence, they care -still less for the grandeur of their country, patriotic feeling being -absolutely absent from their nature. During the French campaign in -Formosa it was no uncommon thing to see Chinese prisoners refuse to do -tasks which they considered beneath them, and which they could only be -induced to perform after having seen the heads of a few of their -comrades fall under the sword. These very people who prefer death rather -than derogate from their dignity are the same who have often been seen -throwing down their arms on the battlefield. It is but fair to add that -it is the military mandarins or officers who generally give the signal -for a stampede. Possibly, if commanded by other officers, the Chinese, -with their wonderful power of enduring privation and callousness for -death, would eventually form an admirable army which, even if it were -unable to defend China against foreign Powers, would certainly prove a -valuable ally to one or other of them.[25] - -The practice of infanticide, especially of female infants, is another -example of the different ways in which the Chinese and Europeans regard -life and family ties. With us the love of parents for children is often -greater than that of children for their parents; but in China it is -quite the reverse. According to Confucius, filial piety was the noblest -of virtues, indeed, the fountain-head of them all, and it is the one -which his compatriots still practise most assiduously. Among the lower -orders, however, this virtue is confined to the support of parents; but -this is a duty never neglected. Among the twenty-four famous examples of -filial piety is mentioned the case of a man who, at the very moment that -he was about to bury his little three-year-old girl alive because he -could not afford to keep her as well as his old mother, had his infant -saved by the unexpected discovery of a treasure purposely placed in the -intended grave by a good genie, who was eager to reward so beautiful an -instance of filial piety. A still greater sin against this virtue is -that of not possessing male posterity; for then the family becomes -extinct, and the ancestors are deprived of those sacrifices to which -they have a right, and which it is the first duty of every well-thinking -man to offer them at regular intervals. Marriages are contracted very -early, and there is no stronger evidence needed against a wife to obtain -her divorce than that she has not had a son. The doctrine of filial -piety as it is understood by the Chinese, and the worship of ancestors, -which is its highest expression, have their good as well as their bad -side. It forms the principal mainstay of that useless system of -admiration of an irrevocable past in which everything is supposed to -have been better than it can possibly be to-day, and which of necessity -turns the people of the Celestial Empire from all desire for progress, -because to do so would be an outrage to an ancestry whose wisdom can -never be surpassed. - -If this belief produces unfortunate social consequences, it at the same -time serves to consolidate family ties; but ever so it is pernicious, -especially with respect to the condition of women. The lot of Chinese -women is certainly not a happy one. Lodging rather than living with her -husband, under his parents’ roof, the young wife is never allowed to see -her own family, excepting at certain fixed periods prearranged by -custom. In their earlier years married women in China are exposed to the -caprices and rebuffs of a shrewish mother-in-law, who is the tyrant of -the family, and whose humble servants the daughters-in-law are expected -to be. For all this, they enjoy a certain amount of liberty, for they -are neither cloistered nor veiled; but they very rarely leave their -house, a state of semi-seclusion which does not prevent their morals -being often very indifferent. ‘In a district near mine,’ an American -missionary at Fo-kien assured me, ‘there are very few husbands who are -not deceived by their wives; and in the one which is under my direction -the state of morality, or rather of immorality, is pretty nearly the -same.’ Theoretically speaking, adultery in a Chinese woman is considered -a very grave crime. As for the husband, he is not expected to practise -fidelity. The average Chinaman delights in obscenity, and revels in -improper stories and jests; and when he has a little money to spare, -spends it very freely in the loosest company. Those places of -entertainment where Venus reigns supreme are not, as in Japan, situated -in the best and most brilliantly lighted quarter of the town, for such -of my readers who have visited Canton may possibly remember to have had -pointed out to them the ‘flower-boats’—floating constructions two -stories high, whose internal decorations are of the most magnificent. - -The national vice of the Chinese, however, is gambling, and it is one -very few of them can resist. In his interesting monograph on Peking, -Mgr. Favier tells us how the beggars in rags will stake their last scrap -of clothing. Certain fanatics will stake their wives and children, and -men have been known to wager away their finger-joints. A young -Christian, who was an inveterate gambler, on one occasion staked and -lost his wife, who was only twenty years of age, for the large sum of -15s. The missionary paid the debt and returned the young woman to her -mother. A few months afterwards she rejoined her husband, and, adds the -author, with the authority of his thirty-eight years of missionary life -in China, ‘in all probability he has staked and lost her again.’ - -Intemperance, on the other hand, is extremely rare; but those who would -be drunkards in Europe, Mgr. Favier assured me when I was in Peking, are -opium-smokers in China, where he estimates that about one-fifth of the -population of the towns give themselves over to this horrible practice. -In the country districts the number is very much less, and another -missionary, who lives at Fo-kien in Southern China, estimates it at not -more than five per cent. The habit of opium-smoking is very widely -spread among the upper classes and the literati; but its effects are not -so pronounced among the rich as among the poor, who, by reason of bad -diet, are less prepared to resist its effects, especially as they -generally indulge in this vice in their leisure hours in the most -dreadful dens, and, moreover, smoke a very inferior quality of opium. A -young man who begins to indulge in this pernicious habit in his -twentieth year usually shuffles off this mortal coil before he is -twenty-two. The vices of the Chinese do not particularly shock -foreigners who live among them, for they are not obliged to see them; -but it is otherwise with their universal and repellently filthy habits -and intense love of all kinds of horrible noises, which they indulge in -on every possible occasion, be it a sad or merry one, a marriage or a -funeral, at festivals as well as at fires. What exasperates a European, -however, more than anything else are the vulgar superstitions which -replace among the Celestials the spirit of religion, which is quite -absent, and which constitute another hindrance to progress. Their -strange ideas with respect to _feng-shui_, or geomancy, often upset the -least attempt at introducing any improvement even in European -concessions or in such cities as Hong-Kong and Singapore. Then, again, -the disposition of the Chinese mind does not admit of general or -abstract ideas, and repudiates all sense of the ideal, and, in a word, -is sterilized by such absolute materialism as to shock even the most -cynical of Europeans. Take them for all in all, therefore, the -Celestials may be described as a not particularly seductive or -sympathetic people, all the less so as their ugly appearance is not -compensated for by the charm of manner which renders the Japanese so -agreeable and which enables them to gild even their vices. - -The Chinese, however, have certain great qualities which are not -precisely amiable, in spite of their extreme politeness, a matter rather -of ceremony than of sincerity. These qualities are of a serious nature: -patience, perseverance, hard work, the greatest aptitude for commercial -pursuits, industry, economy, singular resistive power, and respect for -parents and old age, to which may be added a remarkably contented frame -of mind. Therefore, even if the Chinese Government presents every -indication of decadence, it would be unjust to say the same of its -energetic and hard-working subjects. Unquestionably the Government is -not the only thing that needs reforming in China. There is the secular -habit of always looking to the past for a type of perfection, which -produces a certain atrophy of the Chinese intelligence, depriving it of -all elasticity, originality and power of invention, and making it only -capable of servile imitation, lacking even discernment—a fact which is -admirably illustrated in the well-known story of the tailor to whom a -European sent an old pair of breeches in order that he might copy them. -This he did so conscientiously that he cut a hole in the exact place -where there had been one in the well-worn pair which had been entrusted -to him. In the same order of ideas is an instance supplied me by the -Jesuit Fathers at Sicawei, near Shanghai, who showed me some drawings -executed by young Chinese students, intended for the plates to be -introduced in a publication on the fauna of the Far East. They included -some drawings of the skeletons of animals, which, however, were -disfigured, notwithstanding the entreaties of the Fathers, with certain -accidental blots and marks that appeared upon the models. It is not -impossible to induce the Chinese to learn new habits, but it is almost -impossible to induce them to correct those which have been bequeathed to -them by their ancestors. It is possible to teach them how to work modern -machinery, but no power, human or divine, could teach a Chinese -carpenter to work otherwise than he has been trained to do. At the -orphanage at Sicawei, under the direction of the Jesuits, I was shown -over the carpentry department, and was surprised to find each bench -occupied by only one workman. The Father who showed me over the school -informed me that it was absolutely impossible to induce two workmen to -occupy the same bench. The younger orphans saw the older children and -the adults who had remained in the service of the mission working thus, -and insisted upon doing likewise. - -The awakening of any sense of originality or invention in the mind of -this people, by whom these qualities have been lost for the simple -reason that they have been systematically trained to look backwards -rather than forwards, will be a work of centuries, and only brought -about by prolonged contact with the peoples and ideas of the West, and -this contact is only now beginning. Before it produces its full effects -upon the race it will doubtless do so upon the land of China itself, if -permission can only be obtained to exploit the great natural wealth -which lies undisturbed beneath the soil of this enormous Empire, and is -thus lost to humanity. If the work of developing the economic resources -of China be undertaken in a spirit of selfish interest, it will -nevertheless very considerably ameliorate the lot of the Chinese people, -if only by extending their field of activity, which is now limited to -agriculture and small industries. It will allow them, for example, to -exploit the subsoil, which is as much neglected in the Celestial Empire -as the soil itself has been perfected by exceedingly skilful farming. -If, as we believe, the great industries resulting from modern scientific -discoveries have really contributed to better the condition of the -people of Europe, surely their introduction into China should be most -beneficial to the inhabitants of that vast Empire. - - - - - CHAPTER VI - FOREIGNERS IN CHINA—THE ATTITUDE OF THE CHINESE TOWARDS WESTERN - CIVILIZATION - - Concessions successively made by China to foreigners after the Wars of - 1842, 1858–60, and 1895–98—Increasing tension between the Chinese - and Europeans in consequence of the latter desiring to extend - their action—Refusal of Europeans to conform to Chinese - usages—Frequent breaches made by them against the rules and - traditional customs of the Chinese—Contempt in which Western - civilization is held by the Chinese notwithstanding their - acknowledgment of its power and material advancement—This hostile - spirit more marked among the literati, who direct public opinion, - than among the people. - - -The position of foreigners in the Middle Kingdom has been defined by -various formal conventions, the first of which was the Treaty of -Nanking, signed between England and China after the war of 1842, known -in history as the Opium War. This was followed in 1844 by other treaties -upon the same subject with France and the United States, and still later -with other nations; in 1858 the treaties of Tien-tsin, which were -concluded with France and England after a short war, but which were not -ratified until 1860, after a much more serious campaign and the entry of -the allied troops into Peking, greatly ameliorated the condition of -foreigners in the Celestial Empire. Lastly, in 1895, the treaty of -Shimonosaki, imposed upon China by victorious Japan, gave fresh -facilities to foreign commerce. It is a characteristic fact, however, -that no serious concession has been obtained from China until after a -disastrous war, the Government of Peking never ceding to persuasion, -only to force. - -Since the sixteenth century Europeans have been able, as the Arabs and -Malays had before them, to carry on commerce with Canton without being -molested, simply because they did not show any intention of extending -their commerce further. But in the second quarter of the present century -they became more numerous and exacting, and tension began to manifest -itself. The pride of the Westerners, who were more than ever convinced -of the superiority of their civilization, and whose progress at home was -making giant strides, burned to impose their ideas upon the whole world, -and thereby wounded the equally great pride of the Chinese, stubbornly -attached to those very ancient customs so haughtily despised by the -barbarians, as they were pleased to call us. The port of Canton, -consecrated by tradition as the exchangemart between foreigners and -natives, no longer sufficed for European ambition, and a clamour was -raised to get rid of the twelve merchants, or _hongs_, to whom the -Chinese Government had conceded the monopoly of trading with the outer -world. The foreigners, moreover, demanded the right to deal with -whomsoever they pleased, and refused to submit any longer to the -arbitrary taxation and treatment to which they had hitherto been -subjected by the local authorities. These demands and others of a -similar character, which appear to us perfectly reasonable, were -considered exorbitant by the Chinese. To our incessant protests they -answered exactly as they had done twenty—nay, fifty—years before, that -we wished to compel them to do in their own country exactly as we chose, -whereas, considering that we were their guests, the contrary should be -the case, and that we ought to submit to their ways, however -objectionable they might seem to us, and even contrary to the interests -and development of our commerce. This is precisely what Europe to-day, -as then, refuses to admit, unless the Chinese very considerably mend -their ways, being of opinion that so vast a country has no right to -refuse to allow its wealth being exploited for the benefit of humanity, -and that if it cannot, either through want of goodwill or of the -necessary means, turn it to account itself, it should allow others who -possess implements perfected for the purpose to use them. In short, -Europe demands the right not only to trade, but also to exploit, and she -intends to have it, whatever may be the consequences. - -This radical difference in looking at the same thing is the origin of -every difficulty that exists between the Powers and the Celestial -Empire. The peoples of the West, once they have made up their minds that -a thing is likely to further their interests, insist upon its being -carried into effect whether the Chinese like it or not, and care very -little whether they offend the prejudices or even the sanctity of -Chinese tradition. It is not merely in matters of commercial -transactions that foreigners behave thus, but also with regard to -religion. We profess the most profound admiration and respect for those -men who at the risk of their lives bring the Gospel to those who know it -not, and who sacrifice everything in the hope of saving souls, and we -are thoroughly convinced of the vast superiority of the teaching of -Jesus Christ over that of Confucius. Christianity, however, upsets not -only the traditions, but also the foundations of Chinese society. No -Government of Europe would tolerate a religion which advocated polygamy, -and that of the United States rigorously opposes the spread of -Mormonism. We must not therefore be surprised if the Chinese do not -behold with a friendly eye a religion which opposes their great doctrine -of the cultus of ancestors, and if they consider it nothing short of -sacrilege and well calculated to overthrow morality and law, and -infinitely worse from their point of view than polygamy is from ours. -The employment of female missionaries by certain Protestant sects is -another scandal, and the sight of young women living under the same roof -as men who are not their husbands gives rise in their minds to a train -of thought the reverse of edifying. It matters little that the worship -of ancestors is but mere outward form, and that the lives of the -missionaries are without any reproach: ancient traditions and customs -are violated, and to these the average Chinaman holds far more -tenaciously than he does to the truths they conceal. - -The utter disregard paid by Europeans to even the most cherished customs -of the Chinese, and the vast difference which exists between the two -civilizations, together with the sense of superiority which both peoples -with perfect good faith entertain for themselves, is doubtless at the -bottom of that bitter feeling of contempt that causes every Chinaman to -despise as well as to hate the intruders. They look upon them as so many -barbarians, although Article 51 of the Treaty of Tien-tsin officially -ordained the proscription of the particular character describing -foreigners by this objectionable word. Our most complicated and -wonderful scientific instruments are not considered by the Chinese as -criterions of our superiority, and they recognise us to be skilful -workmen and clever jugglers, but otherwise only vulgar and ill-educated -fellows, and our lack of acquaintance with their ancient lore and -literature brings a smile of pity and contempt to their bland -countenances. They attach little or no importance to our inventions. ‘I -quite understand,’ said Prince Kong to a foreign Ambassador who had just -explained to him the theory and practice of railway travelling, ‘that in -Europe you should employ iron rails to transport you from one end of -your country to another. Here we obtain the same effect with our -waggons. We may not travel so expeditiously; but, then, we are never in -such a hurry.’ This quaint observation was spoken twenty-five years ago, -but it might easily be made to-day: the condition of mind which inspired -it is identical and unchanged. - -The Chinese may bow to our power, but it does not inspire them with the -least awe. They entertain for us about the same agreeable sentiment that -the traveller does for the footpad who suddenly puts a pistol to his -head and demands his money or his life. And as this same ill-used -traveller, in order to avoid a repetition of the assault, if he has to -pass that way, procures the same arms as his aggressor, so the Chinese -now and again appropriate some of our weapons of defence without knowing -how to use them; but, nevertheless, they remain thoroughly convinced as -to the superiority of their civilization. There can be no doubt that if -they were left to themselves, and European influence and pressure -suddenly ceased, the Chinese would quickly pull up the telegraph-poles -and the few miles of rail which with infinite patience and trouble have -been laid, close their ports, and efface every trace of the detested -innovations of the ‘barbarians.’ - -This would naturally be the act of the Government. As to the people, it -will continue to use the facilities introduced by Western civilization. -The boats which ply along the coasts and up the Yang-tsze-Kiang are -crowded with native passengers, who apparently enjoy the trip, and who -pay the better share of the profits made by the various steam navigation -companies, and the trains between Tien-tsin and Peking are always -crowded. The Chinese also know perfectly well how to appreciate European -administration, and three hundred thousand Chinese live upon the French, -English, and American concessions at Shanghai, two hundred thousand at -Hong-Kong, which was only inhabited by a few fishermen before the -English occupation, and all the large towns belonging to the European -colonies in the vicinity of China—Vladivostok, Manila, Saigon, -Singapore, Batavia—are practically Chinese towns. They like to have -their property and their commercial interests protected, and strongly -object to being exploited and harassed as they are under their own -Government. At the time of the occupation of Manchuria by the Mikado’s -troops, an English missionary who had long resided in the country -assured me that the Chinese were very glad to escape from the ‘squeezee’ -system, and from the many vexations to which they had been subjected by -the mandarins, and were amazed to see the Japanese pay for everything -they required. - -The Chinese are not, therefore, unappreciative of our civilization, and -since we afflict them with our presence, they think it wise to profit by -the material advantages which we have introduced among them; but, with -few exceptions, doubtless they would prefer the loss of these advantages -to our company, and they never cease to despise us. From the moment that -they can read they go to their old books as to a fountain-head, whence -they drink intoxicating draughts of pride and vanity, and of profound -contempt for all that is not of the wisdom of Confucius. - -After all, it is not by means of the ignorant classes, but through the -initiative of a few thinkers, that progressive ideas gradually filter -into a country and reform it. Unluckily, in the Chinese Empire, owing to -a defective system of education, the very class which ought to benefit -their fellows—the literati—is precisely that which is the most -obstinately retrogressive. - -The gross superstitions, too, which are entertained by the people in the -interior of China against foreigners form another barrier to an advance -movement. That the lower classes should believe that the missionaries -pull out the eyes of little children and use their bowels as the -ingredients of infernal and magical concoctions, or that our doctors -spread the pest whenever we want a war, is not much to be wondered at, -for the same things have been repeated in Astrakhan and in some of the -Russian provinces whenever there has been a rumour of an epidemic. But -what is really very grave is that the literati, who are so all-powerful -in China, foster these superstitions, and even spread them broadcast -among the people in order the better to keep up the feeling of hatred -which they ought to attenuate. At the bottom of all the risings against -the missionaries are the mandarins and the literati. The great influence -which these men exercise over the people, and their abhorrence of -Western civilization, is the real cause why no progress has hitherto -been made in the Chinese Empire. - - - - - CHAPTER VII - THE POSITION AND WORK OF FOREIGNERS IN CHINA - - The privileges of foreigners in China—The open ports and the - concessions—Great extension of privileges granted to foreigners by - the treaty of Shimonosaki (1895)—Opening of fresh ports—Facilities - conceded to commerce, and the right of establishing factories in - the Treaty Ports—The speedy effects of these concessions—Silk - industries—Chinese workmen: rise in their salaries—Prospects of - Chinese industry—Fresh concessions granted in 1898—Opening of the - waterways—Railways and mines—Great expectations resulting from - these additional treaties—The _likins_, or native - Custom-houses—Their oppressive exactions—Slow development of - foreign commerce in China—Necessity for Europeans to penetrate - into the interior and take their affairs into their own - hands—Chinese resistance to this proposal. - - -Foreigners who live in China, with the exception of the missionaries, -are at present penned up in the twenty-six open ports, to which may be -added six other towns or markets, situated on the frontiers of -Indo-China, assimilated to the free ports, but doing a very limited -trade. In each of these so-called open ports[26] spaces have been let on -long leases, or even sold to foreign Powers—England, France, the United -States and of late years even Germany, who has acquired a concession at -Tien-tsin, where, by the way, Japan also has one. Although these -concessions are on Chinese territory, they are considered as so many -small republics, independent of the native authorities, and administered -by Europeans, who reside there under the protection of their Consuls, -who hold both judicial and executive powers. In these ports, protected -by European law, is concentrated the whole foreign commerce of China. - -The appearance of these treaty ports varies according to their -importance, from the few houses surrounded by walled-in gardens, built -on the sands of Pakhui to the flourishing cosmopolitan port of Shanghai, -whose aspect is admirably calculated to flatter the vanity of Europeans. -Once the bar of Wusung is passed, after some hours’ journey down the -Blue River, whose shores are covered with monotonous rice and cotton -fields, the traveller might easily imagine that he was in Lancashire, so -great is the number of factory chimneys that come into sight. The -landing-place, or Bund, the principal thoroughfare of the town, which -follows the quay, is lined on the one side with trees, and on the other -by magnificent houses, built in the European fashion, the offices of the -principal banks, steamship companies, etc. The other streets, inhabited -by Europeans, although not very straight or broad, run either parallel -to the Bund or else meet it at some point or other. Further inland is -the Chinese quarter (within the concession), with its open shops, -monstrous and gaudy signboards, and its fragile paper lanterns, fairly -well kept, however—thanks to European supervision—and forming a marked -contrast in this respect to the other native quarter beyond the -concession, which is absolutely filthy. Once outside the town, we cross -the cricket-field, the racecourse, the lawn-tennis court, and reach -Bubbling Well Road and other wide avenues, fringed with the beautiful -villas, surrounded by gardens, belonging to the wealthy European -residents. - -Before the Chino-Japanese War foreigners only had the right to carry on -their commercial undertakings in the open ports, and had to have a -passport in order to travel in the interior. Isolated as much as -possible from the native population, they could traffic with the Chinese -only on the condition that they never attempted to alter any of the -native methods of production, or introduced any European innovations, or -endeavoured to exploit a single one of the innumerable natural resources -of the country. - -On the other hand, nothing was to be expected from private initiative or -from the Government, which latter would unquestionably have vetoed any -improvement, and only reluctantly permitted, on account of its political -value, the creation of the telegraph-line connecting Peking with the -extremities of the Empire. In 1877 the Europeans had actually to pull up -the rails laid down on the short line between Shanghai and Wusung, and -though the Chinese since 1889 have pretended to consider the -construction of a line from Hankow to Peking, it has only been with the -object of misleading the Europeans. No progress is possible in China -under these unfavourable conditions, and the antiquated methods of the -natives continue to hamper all commercial and financial prosperity. - -The treaty of Shimonosaki, signed in 1895 at the close of the war -between China and Japan, effected some very important changes in this -respect, and in virtue of the most-favoured-nation clause, inserted in -the treaties with the Powers, opened out a better prospect for -foreigners of every nationality, who were thus able to benefit by the -advantages conceded to the Japanese. Article 6 of this important -document stipulated the opening of several new ports, and permits steam -navigation along the coasts and up the rivers and canals leading -thereunto. It goes on to declare that foreigners may visit the interior -to purchase or sell merchandise, and that Japanese subjects may -establish depots for the same wherever they like without paying any -extra tax, and erect factories of all sorts in the Chinese open towns -and ports, and import into China all kinds of machinery on payment of a -fixed tariff. Goods manufactured by Japanese subjects on Chinese -territory should be placed on the same footing with respect to inland -and transit duties and other taxes, charges, and facilities for -warehousing, etc., in the interior, as goods imported into China by -other foreigners, and enjoy the same privileges. - -This clause is of very great importance, since it permits the -combination of highly-perfected European machinery and cheap Chinese -labour in the production of articles the raw materials for which, -especially silks and cotton, can be obtained in the immediate -neighbourhood of the free ports. The clause above cited may appear at -first somewhat extraordinary, and in any other country but China it -would be superfluous to stipulate that goods manufactured in the country -itself should not be treated with less consideration than similar -articles imported. But the Japanese negotiators understood their men, -and are perfectly aware that if they had not inserted these special -clauses, the advantages obtained would have been annulled by the Chinese -authorities by a system of arbitrary taxation and other vexatious -measures. - -No very long time elapsed before the advantages of Article 6 of the -Shimonosaki Treaty were made strikingly evident. In three years’ time an -entire district of Shanghai was occupied by not less than nine large -cotton factories, working 290,000 spindles, which in 1898 were increased -to 390,000, and close to them presently rose some thirty silk factories, -which, in due time, will be considerably increased both in numbers and -importance. In the other ports this industrial impulse has not yet been -much felt, except at Tien-tsin, where a woollen factory has lately been -established. In that great centre of industry, Shanghai, a certain -falling-off has been observed in this extreme briskness, due to -over-production, and also to a very legitimate desire to watch the -results of industries already existing before launching into further -speculations. Then, again, there was a fear that wages might presently -rise to an exaggerated extent. - -The labour market of China is undoubtedly enormous, but the supply does -not respond as readily to the demand as in Europe, because the distances -are great and the means of communication correspondingly few and -difficult. However, the labourers living on the banks of the Yang-tsze, -who are called ‘Water-fowls,’ constantly flock into Shanghai in search -of work. They belong to that class of poor creatures who crowd the great -Chinese cities, and whose only home is their sampang, in which an entire -family accommodates itself in a space that would barely suffice for a -single European. One can see their floating huts moored alongside the -_arroyos_ that furrow the suburbs of Shanghai. Once they begin to earn a -little, they build a hut on shore, using up the material of their old -boathouse, until they can erect something better by way of a dwelling. -Salaries are distinctly rising in Shanghai, and when I was there in 1898 -the factories were wrangling over their workmen and women—who are in the -majority—in consequence of certain enterprising but unscrupulous -managers of rival firms intriguing, by offers of higher wages, to induce -the most skilled to leave their employers and come to them. The quality -of the labour at Shanghai appears to be satisfactory, at least, so say -the different managers, and in the manufactories which I visited I -noticed that everything was scrupulously clean and orderly, quite as -much so as in any average European or American factory of the same -class. The workgirls do not live, as in Russia and Japan, and, indeed, -as they did formerly in England and in other manufacturing countries, in -a building near the place of business set apart for the purpose, and at -the expense of the firm, but at home with their own families. Many of -them are married women, and a great number, instead of leaving their -little girls over ten years of age at home, request that they may be -employed, so as to remain under their supervision. They are usually -engaged on very light work, such as shifting the cocoons in the boiling -water for the weavers. In the silk factories I visited they were allowed -half an hour every day for what was known as ‘school,’ during which some -senior workwoman—the mother or the elder sister—taught them the -rudiments of their work. This system is excellent, and the managers -declare themselves highly pleased with it, as it is likely to train good -workers. - -The working hours at Shanghai in the silk factories are usually from six -in the morning to six in the evening, including an hour and a half for -meals. In the silk manufactories the little girls earn 1¼d. per day at -first, which is increased to 2½d. after a short time. A clever workwoman -gets about 9d. In 1891–92 the wages in the same factory, which was then -on a very small scale and under a Chinese name, were about 30 per cent. -less. In the larger factories the children got 2½d. a day and the women -from 6d. to 7d. During the first few months that elapsed after the -signing of the Treaty of Shimonosaki salaries were on an average about -5d. As exchange has not varied much since then, the rise is very -considerable. ‘The women and children now working in the better -factories here,’ says the British Consul at Shanghai in his Report, -1897, ‘can now earn from 10s. to 30s. a month, which is quite a fortune -for people who in the native factories rarely make more than 4s. a -month, although they work hard all day!’ The same Report observes that -in certain branches of industry the Chinese workwomen earn more than -would the same class in Italy. The under-manager who took me round one -of the Shanghai factories, a Peruvian by birth, and, I fancy, a coloured -man by origin, judging from his curly hair and high cheekbones, told me -that in his boyhood in Peru he had earned 2½d. a day at the same -business, which is what is paid to child-workers in Shanghai. - -It is, therefore, a distinct mistake to imagine that China is destined -to remain the land of low salaries. Some considerable time may elapse -before wages reach the high figure obtained in Europe, but there is -every prospect that in the course of time a very considerable rise will -take place, especially as industry improves, and the demand for skilled -labour increases. The Celestials are pretty sure to look after their own -interests in the matter by forming trades unions. Strikes are not -unknown either in China or Japan. - -These facts tend, I think, to dissipate, if not entirely, at any rate in -part, the illusion about the famous ‘Yellow Peril’ which has so greatly -disturbed certain worthy people. That ‘peril’ seems to me to be still -remote, for, even if the people of the Far East did succeed in producing -nearly all the articles which they now import from Europe, it would -necessarily follow that the trade in them, being infinitely greater than -it now is, would increase their profits likewise very considerably. It -is equally certain that the first effect of the introduction into China -of European industries must lead, as it already has done, to the -bettering of the condition of the Chinese labouring class, both by -augmentation of wages and consequent improvement in manner of living. -If, therefore, European export trade may apparently suffer from the -manufacturing of goods hitherto imported by the Chinese, such as -cottons, for instance, matters will balance themselves eventually for -the simple reason that, the richer the Chinese get, the more they will -buy. Japan has already shown how the introduction of machinery has -created a new branch of import of great value. - -In order to realize these brilliant prospects, several very drastic -alterations in the present position of affairs are needed. The -permission, granted at the instance of Great Britain in 1898, allowing -European navigation on the inland waters of China, and the concessions -for the creation of railways and exploitation of mines, may subsequently -lead to very remarkable results, but up to the present they have not -been entirely successful. Industrial activity is still limited to the -free ports and their immediate vicinity. The reasons for this state of -affairs are worth examining, especially as they illustrate the -determined opposition of the Chinese authorities to all measures of -reform, and also indicate many points against which Europeans should -complain. - -The Chinese Custom-house duties were determined according to the -treaties as much as possible 5 per cent. _ad valorem_. They may -therefore be safely described as comparatively light, and are collected -with great regularity for the Imperial Government on the European system -by a staff admirably organized by Sir Robert Hart. - -The undesirability of exposing foreign merchants to the arbitrary and -corrupt methods of Chinese Custom-house officials led to the formation -of an international staff of officers, which works perfectly and gives -universal satisfaction. On the other hand, the great native firms are -most scrupulously honest in all their transactions, having discovered -from experience that ‘honesty is the best policy,’ and European -merchants can only praise their way of transacting business. It is, -therefore, neither on entering nor leaving China that difficulties -occur, whether for importation or exportation. The trouble arises in the -transport between the open ports and the places of consignment or -expedition; the principal grievance arises through the system of -_likin_, or of inland Customs, whereby an arbitrary and variable scale -of taxation is exacted on goods passing through towns or over the -frontiers of the various provinces, or even at certain determined places -on the highroads and rivers. This pernicious system is a great drawback -to the expansion of European trade, and gives rise to endless bother and -expense. - -‘Let us suppose,’ said a gentleman, thoroughly acquainted with commerce -in the Far East, at a meeting of the London Chamber of Commerce in 1898, -‘that a train going from London to Newcastle had to be stopped three or -four times on the way, so that goods might be overhauled and examined by -officials whose main object is to extort as much as they can in their -own interests, and who value goods arbitrarily at sight. Imagine, for -instance, a consignment of skins getting damaged by the rain through -careless packing, and on being weighed found heavier than declared in -the invoice: the result is, that the luckless owner is charged, not -according to the increased weight, but _fined_ according to his personal -property, say £50 or; £100 on £1,000! Or, finally, what would become of -British trade if we had to put up with _likin_ officials, one of whom -examines goods once in every three days, and another announces his -intention of only doing so when ten trains have arrived?’ - -There is a remedy for the _likin_ system, and that is a ‘transit pass’; -but more often than not, as with most things in China, this is merely a -theoretical improvement. On payment of a sum equal to half the original -entry duty, all imported goods should be considered free of inland duty. -But this regulation does not work, and no one avails himself of it, -since the Chinese very ingenuously manage to evade it by charging ‘a -duty on arrival at destination,’ which comes to the same thing. - -It is not therefore surprising that, with all these drawbacks, in -addition to a very rudimentary monetary system, Chinese commerce only -attains £50,000,000, of which £27,200,000 represents imports, which is -very small when one considers the enormous size of the country and its -great wealth. The half of this commerce is divided up between four -articles: £8,000,000 cotton and £4,800,000 opium (imported), and -£8,000,000 silk, and £5,000,000 tea (exported). The last figures are -inferior to what they formerly were, Indian tea having greatly affected -Chinese tea as far as England is concerned. Its preparation still -follows the old system, and its lasting quality is distinctly inferior -to Ceylon and other teas grown in India. This is another example of the -vast importance of introducing into China better and more scientific -methods. - -The export trade of China must inevitably remain very limited so long as -foreigners are prevented from penetrating into the country and directing -the exploitation of its resources. Whilst it was a mere matter of -opening a few ports, the Chinese Government made no very serious -opposition; but only the realization of its incapacity to resist -pressure induced it to permit the introduction into the Celestial Empire -of foreign capital, machinery, and industrial methods. Well may we ask, -Can the Sick Man of Peking endure such violent treatment? Will he not -succumb to the very powerful remedies that are being administered to -him, and thereby fulfil the secret wishes of those who are anxious for -his legacy? - - - - - CHAPTER VIII - CHINA AND THE POWERS - - The Question of the Far East unexpectedly brought to an issue by the - defeat of China—Foreign misconception of Chinese power, and the - amazement of European diplomacy at its collapse—The new state of - affairs created by Japanese victories—The aims of the various - Powers in the Far East and their policy—England seeks an ally - against Russia—Her sudden change of policy in 1895—She abandons - China for Japan—Russia covets the whole of Northern China—Japan’s - wish to conquer the Celestial Empire—The treaty of - Shimonosaki—Opposition of Russia to Japanese policy—Russia becomes - the interested protectress of China—The convention between the - three Powers, France, Germany, and Russia—Attempt to bring about a - reconciliation between China and Japan—Substitution of a powerful - Russian influence for that of England. - - -The Chinese Question presents many difficulties, not only because the -details are extremely complicated and the rival pretensions which it has -created difficult to reconcile, but because of the unexpected manner in -which it was thrust on the attention of Europe, at a time when diplomacy -had no ready remedy. - -The present position in the Far East is not the result of a gradual -chain of events, but of the absolute surprise created by the unexpected -results of the Chino-Japanese War. No doubt the collapse of China in -1894 was only the last act in a long drama of decadence, but it revealed -to astonished Europe the utter incapacity of China either to reform or -to defend herself, a fact for which we were quite unprepared. Japan -alone knew the truth, and profited by her knowledge of her colossal -neighbour’s almost incredible weakness. Russia had suspected it, but was -not sufficiently convinced to venture on carrying her conviction into -effect. Thanks to the astuteness of the Chinese and their remarkable -aptitude in all arts of deception, and the effect mentally created by -the prodigious multitude of her population—between three and four -hundred million souls—China had systematically fooled both Governments -and public alike, who shared the same illusion as to her power. Certain -events had, it must be confessed, conspired to maintain this illusion, -notably the bold resistance which the French army had met in Tongking, -under, no doubt, peculiar circumstances, but, nevertheless, such as -induced people to forget, at least for the time, the facile victories of -the Allies in 1860. Certain far-seeing writers—Mr. Henry Norman and Mr. -Curzon, the latter one of the most brilliant young statesmen of the -United Kingdom—had indeed realized that under a smooth surface there -existed in China amazing weakness and corruption. But they preached in -the desert. The war had only just broken out, when one of the -best-informed organs of the English press, the _Spectator_, stated: ‘We -think the weight of opinion is with those who believe, as we do, that, -if necessary, China could organize a most formidable army.’ This was the -illusion universally entertained in Europe, and, strange to relate, -shared by the majority of foreigners living in the Far East. - -By dissipating these illusions and exhibiting to the world the truth -concerning China’s decrepitude, the Japanese victories produced almost -the effect of an earthquake. European diplomacy had foreseen that the -war was likely to give rise to trouble, and Lord Rosebery even proposed -to the Powers at the beginning of the conflict to come to an -understanding with a view of stopping hostilities; but if the Queen’s -Prime Minister feared that complications in Korea might lead to Russian -intervention, the other Powers were not less unfavourably disposed to -see a naval demonstration in Chinese waters in which England should take -the lead. It was therefore resolved that European diplomacy should -remain inactive and watch proceedings, everyone believing that Japan -would soon be expelled from Korea, and that both the Japanese and -Chinese fleets, weakened in one or two naval battles, would collapse -altogether from sheer lack of combatants. When, however, the Chinese -forces were annihilated in the autumn of 1894, Europe was taken aback -with amazement, so great was her surprise, not to say consternation. By -the spring of 1895 the Powers had recovered from the shock they had -received, but their policy had consequently to be changed with respect -to a Power which they had believed to be formidable, but whose weakness -was now revealed. - -England, with perhaps excessive frankness, turned her back on her old -ally China. At the beginning of the conference she had been the champion -of the Celestial Empire, and the newspapers related at the time a -curious incident which happened before Wei-hai-wei, which the Japanese -squadron was about to attack. The British fleet upset their plan by -saluting Admiral Ito, contrary to all precedents, before sunrise, -whereby the sleeping Chinese were warned of their danger. On more than -one occasion the English did not hesitate to threaten the Japanese, -especially after the latter had fired on a British merchant ship -conveying some Chinese troops.[27] There was no mistaking the peremptory -tone of England when she gave the Japanese to understand that she had no -desire to see the war extend to Shanghai and the region of the -Yang-tsze. - -But the battle of the Yalu and the taking of Port Arthur in one morning -by the troops of the Mikado opened the eyes of the Cabinet of St. -James’s. What Britain desired in the Far East was, on the one hand, a -political prop, and even a military one, if necessary, against the -Empire of the Tsar—‘a bolt to fasten the door against the ambitions of -Russian expansion,’ to use the significant expression of Herr von -Brandt, and, on the other, a wide opening for her commerce and capital. -Once convinced that Japan, firmly established in Korea and on the -northern coast of the Gulf of Pe-chi-li, would become a far more -efficacious ‘bolt’ than China, England began to favour the Japanese, and -at the same time to advise the Chinese Government to abandon Peking, and -establish itself nearer the centre of the Empire. If the Middle Kingdom -was no longer a useful ally, it might still become a splendid prey, a -field of extraordinary economic activity, so that the transfer of the -capital to some point on the banks of the Yang-tsze accessible by sea—to -Nanking, for instance, would have placed China at the mercy of the -supreme mistress of the seas. The English, moreover, fully intended to -force China to open her ports, and their commercial superiority and the -influence which they have already established over the peoples in the -Far East would soon have enabled them to profit largely by this -revolution. - -If, however, the consequences of the Chinese defeat were realized in -London, they were no less so in St. Petersburg, and subsequent events -proved that Russian diplomacy was equal to the occasion. The Government -of the Tsar had beheld the war with quite as much displeasure as -England, and would have preferred the Far Eastern Question remaining in -abeyance until the termination of the Trans-Siberian Railway. The object -pursued by Russia in the Far East is, it should be remembered, -absolutely opposed to that of England, and concentrates itself on the -one issue—the securing of open sea. The vast Empire of the Tsars -possesses no port in Europe, where the ‘keys of the house’ are in the -hands, so to speak, of other Powers, and England barred her way to the -south fifteen or twenty years ago in Afghanistan and Beluchistan. In the -Far East somewhere in the middle of the century Russia contrived to -descend from the Polar Sea of Okhotsk and to advance at the expense of -China as far as Vladivostok; but this port remains closed for two months -on account of the ice, and Russia has always considered her provinces of -the Amur and of the Littoral merely in the light of temporary stations, -whence she intended on some future and favourable occasion to push her -way further south. Between 1880 and 1886 it was reported that she was -about to obtain a concession somewhere in the Bay of Korea, or even in -the isle of Quelpart, which is in the strait separating that country -from Japan. A little later she seemed to covet Port Arthur or -Talien-wan, which are free of ice, and are situated at the extremity of -the peninsula of Liao-tung, which would provide her access to an open -sea at the back of Korea and other advantages. At the narrow entrance to -the Gulf of Pe-chi-li and only 50 miles from the opposite coast of -Shan-tung, are ports which offer great advantages as naval stations, -whence a rapid transport fleet could easily convey troops in twenty-four -hours to Ta-ku, and thence in four days’ march to the Chinese capital. -Once established at Port Arthur, and having plenty of elbow-room in -Pe-chi-li, Russia could exercise over the Chinese Government, in its -present capital, even a more irresistible pressure than could England -have done had she been able to induce the Imperial Court to transport -itself to the banks of the Yang-tsze. - -Unquestionably the dreams of Russian aggrandizement have become much -more ambitious since she has discovered how very weak the Sick Man of -Peking is. She no longer seeks an open port on the Pacific, but -apparently pursues her object, unostentatiously however, towards the -complete domination of the Middle Kingdom, especially over her vast -dependencies in Turkestan, Mongolia, and Manchuria—in a word, over the -whole of North China. And as the Muscovite temperament is ever a dreamy -one, who knows but that on the shores of the Neva the heir of Peter the -Great does not already picture himself on the throne of the Sun of -Heaven, commanding the latter’s multitude of subjects, who are -accustomed to submit to a foreign yoke, and might obey the Tsar as -unresistingly as they did Ghengis Khan, even as to-day they pay homage -to a degenerate Manchu, and as indeed they would have done to the -Mikado, had not Europe put a stop to further advances on the part of the -Japanese? The Mikado, too, who had been driven into the war by the -repeated insolence of the Chinese and also by the justifiable desire to -protect his commercial interests in Korea, may also, when intoxicated by -his surprising successes, have entertained the thought that it might be -possible for him one day to annex China. If this war had taken place -fifty, or even twenty-five, years ago, when Europe paid less attention -to foreign affairs, it is probable that the Manchu Dynasty would have -been replaced by that of Japan. Possibly then the ‘Yellow Peril’—the -military ‘Yellow Peril’—which to-day is but a mere chimera, might have -become a very evident reality. The Japanese, after having thoroughly -reorganized and disciplined the Chinese army, might at a given moment -have let loose its innumerable hordes upon the Western world; but if in -1895 they had allowed themselves for a moment to dream of placing their -Emperor upon the throne of Peking, the Japanese were not allowed to -indulge in this pleasant vision for long, and were soon made to feel how -intently and jealously their movements were watched by European -diplomacy. - -By the treaty of Shimonosaki, signed April 2, 1895, the Celestial Empire -granted to her conquerors all their demands, recognising at the same -time the independence of Korea, and allowing Japan, whose troops still -occupied that country, a free hand. If this treaty had been ratified as -it was originally drawn up, Russia would have had to renounce for a long -time to come all hope of possessing an outlet to the open sea, and would -certainly have had to see her influence substituted by a rival at -Peking, who would have reorganized China possibly in a hostile spirit. -She could not allow this, but she dared take no initiative by herself, -fearing lest she might suddenly find herself confronted by England and -Japan. She, therefore, before the signature of the treaty of peace, -placed herself in communication with France and Germany, and endeavoured -to make those Powers understand that the installation of Japan on the -coast was as detrimental to their interests as it was to her own. She -successfully converted them to her way of thinking, and on April 22 the -three Powers addressed a Note to the Mikado, couched in the most -courteous terms, begging of his Majesty to renounce his pretensions over -the peninsula of Liao-tung, the establishment of his authority in that -country being likely to create a permanent danger to the peace, not only -of the Far East, but of the whole world. At first the Mikado, so it -seems, was determined to resist at any cost, and to refuse to yield. His -Government cast an eye towards England, to see if her support could be -counted upon; but at that time the Cabinet of St. James’s had not made -up its mind whether it would openly espouse the cause of Japan or not. -Possibly it was influenced by the absolutely anti-Japanese feelings -entertained by the vast majority of English subjects living in the Far -East, and it is also by no means improbable that she did not wish to -assist a Power that might eventually become a dangerous rival to her own -commercial supremacy. Perceiving at last that England would neither join -the three great Powers nor back the Mikado in his pretensions, the -Government of Tokio very wisely consented, at the time bearing great -ill-feeling towards England, who now found herself isolated in the Far -East. Nevertheless, resentment against Russia was so powerful, and the -feeling of alarm entertained by the two insular Powers at the spectacle -of the progress made by Russia so great, that in a short time a -reconciliation was effected between them. - -The intervention of what is known in the Far East as the New Triple -Alliance resulted in consequences quite as grave and durable as the war -itself. Its immediate effects dominated the politics of the Far East -until the end of 1897, and even now continue to do so. The essential -features of the new situation were the substitution in China of Russian -influence, now become all-powerful, for that of England, the antagonism -which has risen between Russia and Japan, and the friendly feeling which -now exists between this last Power and England. The mandarins and the -Court of Peking, whilst never ceding an iota of their pride or their -firm belief in the superiority of their civilization, were, -nevertheless, obliged to admit the irremediable weakness of the military -power of the Celestial Empire. If the majority did not care much for -China as their country, they one and all considered her to be their -prey, and consequently required a protector against the Japanese, and -they proceeded from Legation to Legation in quest of one; as their -situation was desperate, they were obliged to take what they could get, -and, Russia being agreeable, they accepted her friendly offer, even -though their new ally might eventually become a domineering master. This -gave them time, and they counted upon their cunning, when a favourable -opportunity presented itself, to set the Powers by the ears. Probably at -heart they entertain less dislike for the Muscovite Empire than for any -other European country, and, indeed, China has less friction with the -Russians than with any other nationality. Russia can enter the Celestial -Empire over her land frontier through countries very thinly populated by -inhabitants not of Chinese race, who are not hostile to strangers; -whereas the other Europeans coming by sea are brought into immediate -contact with the turbulent crowds of the seaport towns, where the least -act of imprudence may give rise to grave incidents. Moreover, the -subjects of the Tsar exhibit a greater degree of forbearance than the -peoples of the West. They do not experience that innate contempt for men -of colour, they are more tractable to the habits of the countries in -which they establish themselves, and are not so forward in protesting -against petty annoyances. The Orthodox Church, too, scrupulously -abstains from all propaganda in China, and the Russian Legation is -therefore spared those delicate questions concerning the rights and the -wrongs of missionaries which so greatly irritate the Chinese. All this -facilitates the substitution of Russian influence for that of the -English. - -We must, however, seek for the causes which induced France and Germany -to enter, under the Russian auspices, into an unexpected alliance -outside the question of the Far East. The harmony that exists between -these two Powers is due to their desire to gain the good graces of the -Tsar. Rivals in endeavouring to please him, they both answered all -proposals which came from St. Petersburg favourably. Germany had no -political interests in the East of Asia, and France only those of -secondary importance connected with Indo-China, and therefore these -nations never hesitated to regulate their line of conduct in the Far -East in accordance with their political aspirations in Europe, and, the -better to please Russia, forthwith modified their previously somewhat -hostile attitude. During the war both Powers had been more or less -favourable to Japan. - -This change of conduct involved a considerable sacrifice, especially in -the case of France, and signified the rupture of her old friendship for -Japan, whose army had been formed by a French military mission, and -whose battleships and arsenals had been in great part constructed and -organized by Frenchmen, services which the Japanese recognised shortly -after the victory of the Yalu by sending to the eminent naval engineer, -M. Bertin, the grand cordon of the Order of the Rising Sun. France had -not obtained great advantages from this friendship, but if she did not -do so, it was more or less because she did not wish it, for it is -certain that the alliance of the Mikado was offered to her in 1884 on -the condition that she conveyed to the coasts of Pe-chi-li a Japanese -army corps, intended to march on to Peking. France had also the right to -expect after the war some commercial advantages, notably some important -commercial orders to her great industrial firms, for the renovating of -the fleet, much damaged by the war. By placing herself on the side of -China, whose friendship might have been useful, the more so as she was a -neighbour, although she was constantly wrangling with her, France gave -up an alliance with the one country in the Far East which represents -progress and has a future, and, what is more, she literally pushed her -into the arms of England, who may one day make use of her against the -French. - -The sacrifices made by Germany were less important, for she could not -expect in the Far East any considerable advantages. To begin with, she -had seized the opportunity to play a political part on a stage where she -had never appeared before, but being much more commercial than France, -she had more to gain from the concessions which China would be obliged -to make, and she could thus include this vast market in the sphere of -her industrial activity and commercial enterprise. By mixing in the -affairs of the Far East the youthful German Empire only obeyed the -instinct of foreign expansion which obliges her to watch over her -political and commercial interests in all parts of the world. - -On the other hand, the action of the three Continental Powers presented -considerable danger, aggravated as it was by the warlike intentions of -the commanders of the Russian fleet. A rumour certainly existed in 1896 -in the Far East, and, moreover, has since been confirmed to me by most -credible witnesses, that between April 25, the day on which the Note of -the three Powers was presented, and May 5th, the date on which the -representatives of Japan announced their acquiescence, Admiral Tyrtof, -who commanded the Russian fleet and who has since become Minister of -Marine, invited Admiral de la Bonninière de Beaumont to proceed with him -to meet the Japanese fleet at the risk of provoking a collision, in -which the latter would inevitably have been crushed. The presence of -mind of the French Admiral, who evaded the invitation by protesting that -he had received no instructions from his Government, and therefore -delayed matters as long as possible, prevented an aggression which might -have resulted in dreadful consequences, and led to a massacre in Japan -itself of Russian and French residents, and, moreover, might have -brought about extremely grave international complications. Who knows, -too, but that public opinion in England might have been offended by such -an act, and that on the morrow of an easy victory over the Japanese the -Allies might have found themselves face to face with the British fleet? - -It is certain that by taking sides with Russia in a question of only -secondary interest to herself France incurred the grave risk of a war -not only with Japan, but with England, a war in which her stake was far -greater than that of Russia or of Germany, and the consequences of which -she would have been obliged to bear alone. Fortunately, the prudence of -Admiral de Beaumont smoothed over the angry feeling of the Russian -commanders, which, however, manifested itself once more on May 8, 1895, -the date on which the ratifications of the treaty of peace between China -and Japan were to have been exchanged. On that day the Russian fleet was -stationed in the roads off the Chinese port of Chefoo, at the entrance -to the Gulf of Pe-chi-li, opposite Port Arthur, where the exchange of -ratifications was to have occurred, ready for fight in case Japan -refused her acceptance, in which case it was agreed between the admirals -to oppose the Japanese near Ta-ku, at the mouth of the Pei-ho, close to -Wei-hai-Wei, where their fleet was anchored. Alongside of the Russian -fleet were two German cruisers, representing the German navy in the Far -East; but Admiral de Beaumont steamed away, leaving only at Wei-hai-Wei -the _Forfait_, thereby showing very clearly that he had no intention of -taking part in a superfluous demonstration, which would only have -resulted in increasing the irritation of Japan against the three Powers. - -These warlike demonstrations presented a singular contrast to the -extremely courteous tone of the Notes presented to Japan by the Russian, -French, and German ministers. They had the effect of convincing Japan -that she had in the future to count with the lasting hostility of the -Tsar, and that the secret desire of the Government of St. Petersburg was -not only to prevent her establishing herself on the Asiatic Continent, -but also eventually to completely annihilate her. By a curious -right-about-face, Japan now turned towards China, who received her -overtures favourably. The fact was that at Peking the pretensions of -Russia had created great alarm, and Li Hung-chang opened his heart to -the Japanese Consul at Tien-tsin, and begged the Cabinet of Tokio to -give a conciliatory answer with respect to the question of Liao-tung, -and solve it in a friendly manner, and thereby avoid increasing the -responsibilities which weighed upon his shoulders. The Chinese -Government, he added, was entirely at the mercy of the Russians, and -could only be saved by Japan. - -Was this intended on the part of the old diplomatist as a disguised -offer of service? It is impossible to say. One thing only is certain—the -Tsung-li-Yamen proposed that the Japanese minister, M. Hayashi, should -negotiate directly, and offer as a compensation for Liao-tung not an -indemnity, but an alliance with China and a concession for the railway -to be built between Tien-tsin and Peking. The Government of the Mikado -was inclined to accept this solution, but the three Continental -Powers—that is to say, Russia—did not view the matter favourably. They -wished, for better security—that Japan should not be bound to China -only, but that the retrocession of Liao-tung should not be subjected to -clauses calculated to prolong matters, and, above all, a cessation of -the continuance of the Japanese occupation of Korea. They therefore -insisted that the matter should be settled at once by the payment of a -supplementary indemnity of 30,000,000 taels, or £4,500,000, payable on -November 18th, 1895, the Japanese evacuation to take place within three -months. - -Japan was obliged to accept these propositions by an exchange of Notes -signed on the 19th October, and she, moreover, agreed to withdraw her -troops from Korea immediately. The attempt at a reconciliation and an -alliance with the Celestial Empire had failed; but since then the -language of the Japanese press and of many of her statesmen proves that -at Tokio this idea has not been entirely abandoned, and if they have not -been able to confiscate China to the advantage of the Mikado, the -Japanese wish to see her placed in a position to resist the pressure of -other Powers and to exist by her own resources. On the payment of the -indemnity, Japan endeavoured to obtain from China a formal promise that -she would never cede to any other Power the territories which she had -been obliged to restore. But Russian influence was already too firmly -established, and the promise was refused. The new political line of -conduct which the European Powers and those which had at first come to -her assistance were about to follow with respect to China was now openly -developed. If the Setting Sun had more worshippers now than the Rising -Sun, it is assuredly not the result of any sentiment of chivalrous -disinterestedness—quite the contrary. - - - - - CHAPTER IX - RUSSIA, FRANCE, AND ENGLAND IN THE FAR EAST IN 1895–97 - - The immediate results of the war—Issue of an important Chinese - loan—Russia becomes guarantee for China, and in return obtains the - right to construct the Manchurian Railway—Ability of Russian - diplomacy in Korea—Faults and abuses of the Japanese in that - country—Revolution in the Korean palace at Seoul—The King of Korea - under the protection of Russia—Preponderance of Muscovite - influences in the Far East at the beginning of 1897—Important - advantages obtained by the Tsar’s allies—Apparent - disinterestedness of Germany—Treaty with France signed on June - 20th, 1895—Energy of the French Minister—French protectorate over - the Catholics of the East—Efforts made by England in 1896 to - regain her influence at Peking—Anglo-Chinese Convention, February - 4th, 1897—Opening of the West River to European navigation—A few - fresh concessions granted to France in 1897. - - -In the events which have transpired in the Far East since the War, and -which have led to the present situation, two distinct phases mark the -violent aggression of Kiao-chau. The first extends from the spring of -1895 to the autumn of 1897, and is that in which the Powers, after -having come to China’s assistance, obtained from her concessions in -return for their good offices, whilst pretending moderation in their -demands. - -Altogether, the most important consequence of the War was the -establishment of a heavy foreign debt. Hitherto China had only -contracted in Europe insignificant loans of a few millions of francs. -During hostilities her foreign indebtedness rose to £7,000,000, a mere -trifle, and, moreover, the lenders were in possession of excellent -security; but the War Indemnity and other urgent expenses necessary for -the rehabilitation of the country mounted up to £48,000,000, so that now -the interest on this debt, taking the rate at 5 per cent., would absorb -£2,400,000, and, by adding the arrears of already existing loans, this -figure would attain about £2,800,000, equivalent to nearly the whole of -the Customs revenue. The Customs duties are paid in silver, but it would -be absolutely necessary to stipulate, if a considerable loan is to be -floated on the European market, that the interest should be paid in -gold. The question, therefore, very naturally arises whether, in view of -so small a margin, the fluctuations in the value of silver, which have -already caused the _hai-kwan_ taël to fall from 6s. 7d., its value a -quarter of a century ago, to 2s. 10d., the average rate since 1897, will -not sooner or later result in the Customs receipts proving insufficient -to cover the payment of the arrears. Nobody in his senses would dream of -lending money to China on the mere security of her general resources, -and she would, consequently, be obliged to assign to her creditors new -securities, and place in their hands the administration of new branches -of revenue. On the other hand, stripped of about £2,800,000 from the -total revenue, which the most optimistic estimate gives at £24,000,000, -she would have to look for new channels to add to her income, either by -increasing the taxes, or by permitting foreigners to exploit the -resources of the country, conceding to them railway and mining -concessions on the basis of leases or joint profits. The first proposal -ran the risk of unpopularity; the second was more tempting, but it meant -the introduction into the country of that very Western civilization -which the Chinese Government had opposed with all its might for the last -fifty years. - -The monetary difficulties of the Celestial Empire brought about a -renewed interference by Europeans in her affairs, if only in the -collecting of the taxes, and, also, a sort of financial embargo, the -dangers of which are sufficiently manifest in countries like Egypt. The -Government of Peking was well aware of this, and, therefore, spared no -effort in obtaining a reduction on the £34,500,000 War Indemnity, and -even attempted to arrive at an understanding with Japan respecting the -retrocession of Liao-tung without supplementary disbursement. - -The great importance of this money question was nowhere better -understood than at St. Petersburg, and one cannot help admiring the -boldness and ability of the policy pursued by Russia. That countries -like France and England, literally overflowing with money, should have -ventured to secure a preponderating position in China by means of -financial manœuvrings is not at all to be wondered at; but that Russia, -already heavily indebted with a public foreign debt amounting to over -£240,000,000, should have been shrewd enough to subject China to a sort -of vassalage, through the pecuniary services she rendered her, was -indeed a masterly achievement. - -M. de Witte, the Tsar’s Minister of Finance, who devised this remarkable -scheme and conducted it to a triumphant issue over the head of the -Minister for Foreign Affairs, exhibited throughout the rarest political -ability and foresight combined with business acumen. Russia was unable -to lend China money, but she was willing to become her guarantor, and -thus enable the Celestial Empire, backed by the principal banks of -Paris, where Russian funds were at their height, to float a loan of -£16,000,000 at 4 per cent. issued at ninety-four—that is to say, at the -same issue price at which, before this security was granted, the French -and German financial houses had offered to raise a loan at 5 per cent. -The annual interest to be paid by China, thanks to Russian intervention, -was thus reduced by a fifth, whereby the Celestials, although they -obtained a bargain, at the same time committed a grave political error. - -In accepting a foreign Power as guarantor, the Chinese Government -rendered itself responsible to that Power only, and placed her financial -and, above all, her political independence in far greater peril than she -could have done had she negotiated directly with individual capitalists -of various nationalities, whose pressure, in case of non-payment, would -have been considerably weakened by the inevitable differences which -would subsist between their Governments. This danger seems to have been -thoroughly understood at Peking, where the necessary documents were not -signed until the expiration of the last day’s delay granted by Russia, -and then only under extreme pressure, because the Chinese Government had -evidently failed to find assistance elsewhere. - -The Government of St. Petersburg, well pleased with this success, -proceeded to strengthen its policy in China by further financial -operations, and with the assistance of the Bank of Russia next created -the Russo-Chinese Bank, Parisian financiers supplying the greater part -of the capital, but leaving the direction of affairs almost exclusively -in Russian hands. The Comptoir d’Escompte transferred its agencies in -China to Russia, and the new bank established at the same time branches -at Peking, Tien-tsin, Shanghai, and Hankow. Since then this bank has -continued to be the principal agent of Russian influence in China, and -undoubtedly it was at first almost entirely through its mediation that -Russia negotiated the concession of the East Chinese Railway, which -enabled her to continue her Trans-Siberian Railway southward through -Manchuria, thus shortening the original line by several hundred miles, -and enabling it to pass within 350 miles of the Gulf of Pe-chi-li. -Russia, moreover, obtained the authorization to protect the works by her -own troops, whereby she made herself mistress of Manchuria, whence she -was able to dominate Peking until events allowed her to occupy -Liao-tung. - -Whilst she was amply paid for her services by China, Russia made herself -no less active in Korea. The Japanese, who had occupied that country, -perpetrated error on error. They had attempted to impose upon the -Koreans with great abruptness the most varied and radical reforms. Many -of these were possibly useful enough, but they ought to have been -introduced with discretion; others were unnecessary, and greatly -irritated the people by wounding their most cherished customs and -traditions. The Koreans, although not particularly clean in their -habits, are invariably clad in white, are, moreover, addicted to smoking -very long pipes, and to rolling their hair up into a huge chignon, which -they surmount by an enormously broad-brimmed hat, whose crown is so -small that they are obliged to fasten it to their heads by a long -string. The Mikado issued a sumptuary law against long pipes, chignons, -and wide-brimmed hats, and, moreover, ordered that the traditional white -robe should henceforth be replaced by the dark-blue one usually worn by -the Japanese. It is said that this unfortunate incident was the result -of a conviction that Koreans, being obliged to hold their pipe with one -hand, and to balance their enormous hats with the other, could never -become hard workers. Be this as it may, the Japanese sentinels at the -gates of Seoul made life unendurable to the unfortunate Koreans. Armed -with a big pair of scissors, they pounced upon the unfortunate peasants -as they entered the town on their way to market, and cut not only the -strings of their monumental hats, but severed their beloved chignons, -and shortened by at least three-quarters of their length the stems of -their pipes—arbitrary measures well calculated to break their hearts -with mortification and vexation of spirit. It is not to be wondered at -that such impolitic conduct, added to occasional acts of violence, soon -roused the indignation and hatred of the natives, otherwise a very -inoffensive and peaceable people. On October 7, 1895, the Korean Queen -was murdered in her palace by assassins in the pay of the Japanese, and -with the complicity of the Legation. King Li-Hsi, a very poor creature -at the best, whose reign has been one tissue of Court intrigue and -palace revolution, after the assassination of the Queen, fell into a -consternation of abject terror, completely abdicating his regal -authority, and became so degraded that he even consented to sign an -edict insulting the memory of the late Queen, and accusing her of -shameful crimes. Innocent persons were now executed at Seoul as guilty -of the murder, whereas the actual assassins were acquitted by a -self-constituted Japanese tribunal. - -In the meantime Russia very ably exploited the general discontent, and -in an underhand manner offered her services to the timid King, who was -not only terribly afraid of the Japanese, but also of his father, the -Tai-wen-kun, a ferocious old gentleman, whose ambition had disturbed -Korea for over twenty years, and who had been raised to power by the -natives. His Majesty seemed disposed to accept the Russian proposal, but -dared not leave his palace, in which he was kept a close prisoner. A -riot ensued, whether spontaneous or provoked has never been divulged, -which, on the night of February 11, 1896, offered him a chance of -escape. The Tai-wen-kun was killed, and Li-Hsi obtained shelter at the -Russian Legation, then guarded by a detachment of sailors fresh landed -at Chemulpo, the port of Seoul, without any attempt on the part of the -Japanese to prevent them. Li-Hsi, once safe in the house of the Russian -Minister, where all the members of the Korean Government had found -shelter, acted like a King in a comic opera, and became the plaything of -Russia, precisely as he had recently been of Japan. He forthwith revoked -all the reforming edicts he had previously signed, and annulled the -decree degrading the memory of the unfortunate Queen, the trial of whose -assassins took place in a High Court presided over by judges selected -from various European nationalities, with the result that the -responsibility for her murder was thrown on the Japanese. - -The reactionary movement now became violent, and many useful reforms had -perforce to disappear. A committee, composed of the highest native -functionaries, the British Controller of Customs, and a few Americans, -was appointed to study measures of reform, but they only met two or -three times, and nothing came of it, so that in a few months all the old -abuses reappeared. Nevertheless, by her sagacious conduct, Russia had -the ability to win over the foreign representatives in Korea to her -side, and Japan, in order to preserve the remnant of her influence in a -country whose commerce was mainly in her hands, and where not less than -10,000 of her subjects resided, was now obliged to arrive at an -understanding with Russia. The Convention of Seoul, signed May 14th, -1896, by the representatives of the two Powers, completed by that of -July 29th, concluded at Moscow at the time of the coronation of Nicholas -II., and drawn up by Prince Lobanof and Marshal Yamagata, accorded Japan -merely the right to keep 1,000 troops in Korea for the protection of the -Japanese telegraph wires between Fusan and Seoul and of her subjects -settled in the capital and in the open ports of Fusan and Gensan. Russia -also obtained the same rights, and, moreover, a concession to construct -a telegraphic line from Seoul to the Siberian frontier. - -The two Powers further agreed to lend the Korean Government their -support for the reorganization of its finances and a sufficient police -force to maintain order, and to permit, as soon as possible, of the -withdrawal of their garrisons. In appearance it was a sort of -Russo-Japanese _condominium_ that was established in Korea; but Russian -influence, now all-powerful with the King, met with no further obstacle -after the restoration of that Sovereign to his palace in February, 1897. -A decree, ordering that all railways to be constructed in Korea should -have the same gauge as that of the Trans-Siberian Railway, and that the -debt of £300,000 contracted by Korea with Japan should be repaid, and, -moreover, that none but Russian instructors should be engaged in -reorganizing the Korean army, was also issued, which Japan considered a -distinct breach of the Treaty of Moscow. - -Russian influence was therefore, at the beginning of the year 1897, -absolutely preponderant in Korea as well as in China. In both countries -the Tsar’s Government had played, with extraordinary ability, the part -of protector of the conquered against the abuses of the conqueror, and -also that of a redresser of wrongs, whereby it won universal approbation -throughout the Far East. The Japanese victories now appeared only to -have been obtained for the benefit of Russia, who substituted herself -everywhere for Japan, in Manchuria as well as in Korea, and thus -profited very considerably by the War without having to pay any of its -expenses. If at its close Russia had the discretion to perceive the -advantages which she might derive from intervention, and if she acted -with energy and decision, she also knew how to curb the impetuosity of -her admirals, who were eager to commit those very faults into which -Japan had fallen, which undoubtedly would have brought about very -serious European complications. She therefore at first abstained from -annexing the peninsula of Liao-tung and the important stations of Port -Arthur and Talien-wan, which she had compelled the Japanese to evacuate, -and officially she made no annexations in Korea; but, possessing the -right to construct a railway through Central Manchuria and to protect -its works by her own troops, and being at one and the same time mistress -of the situation at Seoul, Russia was able at the right moment to annex -either Korea or Liao-tung, and bring the Trans-Siberian to the open sea -through one or the other of these two peninsulas. She hesitated as to -which she should select; the first was nearer Peking, the second brought -her more directly to the Pacific, whence she could menace simultaneously -the mouth of the Yang-tsze and the South-east of Japan. At St -Petersburg, however, it seemed that the Government was waiting for the -completion of the Trans-Siberian Railway, which was proceeding in hot -haste, and which it was expected would reach the Amur in the first -months of 1900, ere the psychological moment should arrive to strike a -decisive blow. - -Side by side with immense advantages acquired by Russia, those obtained -by her allies seemed insignificant. Germany had not shown herself -exacting; all she asked was a few acres of land at Tien-tsin and other -naval ports where she might establish independent concessions intended -to satisfy her sense of dignity. The absence of special concessions had -not hitherto prevented Germany from achieving an extraordinary -commercial success in China, but the future will prove that the German -Empire entertains great designs in the Far East, the realization of -which are merely postponed. - -As to France, she got in return for her services the two Conventions -signed at Peking by her Minister, M. Gérard, on June 20th, 1895. The -first of these documents accords divers facilities to the extension of -her commerce on the frontier between China and Indo-China; the second -ratifies, to her advantage, the frontier limits. A new market—Semao, in -the Yunnan—was now added to the towns of Mong-Tze and Lung-Chau, opened -to Franco-Annamite commerce in 1887. The customs on goods entering or -leaving these markets and passing through Tongking, already reduced to -three-quarters of the maritime Custom-house tariff of 1887, were again -lowered to about two-fifths of the general tariff, so far as concerned -products exported from any other Chinese port, or intended to be -re-imported into any one of these said ports. In Article 5 of this -Convention the following passage occurs: ‘It is understood that China, -in the exploitation of mines situated in the provinces of Yunnan, -Kuang-si, and Kuang-Tung, may apply, in the first place, to French -merchants and engineers, the exploitation remaining subject to the rules -laid down by the Imperial Government in all that concerns national -industry. It is agreed that the railways already existing, or to be -constructed in Annam, may, after a mutual understanding, be extended on -Chinese territory.’ Finally, it was further stipulated that the French -and Chinese telegraph lines should be combined. The Convention -respecting the frontier definitely extended the French possessions to -the eastern shore of the upper Mekong, thereby giving France the -territory situated on the border of the Shan State of Xieng-hong. -England in 1894 had admitted the right of suzerainty of China over this -little principality, as well as over one or two others, thereby creating -a sort of neutral zone between her Indian Empire and French Indo-China. - -A great deal was made over this Convention in France, and the energetic -manner in which the French Minister at Peking had been able to obtain -these concessions under the very nose of his English colleague, Sir -Nicholas O’Connor. The negotiations closed, M. Gérard proceeded to the -Tsung-li-Yamen on the day arranged for the exchange of signatures, to -find, however, only one of the two Chinese plenipotentiaries present. -This personage offered profuse apologies for the non-appearance of his -colleague. ‘Nothing should have prevented his being here,’ replied the -French diplomatist. ‘I pray you find him at once and tell him so.’ A few -moments afterwards the second Celestial appeared alone, looking very -sheepish. ‘And your colleague, is he coming back?’ asked M. Gérard. ‘No; -I am afraid he is detained, and that he cannot return. Shall I go and -fetch him?’ ‘I beg your pardon,’ M. Gérard shrewdly replied; ‘I will -keep you here, and will go myself in quest of your friend.’ At the end -of an hour or so the two Celestials were finally brought together, and -on being asked to explain their dilatory conduct, stated that the -British Minister was in the next room, threatening, if they ventured to -sign, forthwith to haul down his flag. M. Gérard was soon able to -convince the Celestial plenipotentiaries that they had nothing to fear, -but that they must immediately affix their signatures to the document. -Sir Nicholas O’Connor, he assured them, once he was convinced of the -futility of his intimidation, would soon turn his attention to other -affairs. This anecdote, whilst it reflects great credit on the energy of -the French Minister, and displays his knowledge of the Chinese character -to advantage, emphasizes the declining influence of England in China in -1895 and 1896, as well as the annoyance experienced by this Power at the -ratification of the French frontier and its extension towards Mekong. By -confirming it, China violated, it is true, the engagements she had made -when England recognised her position at Xieng-hong, but this did not -concern France, for the State in question was as much the vassal of -Annam or of Siam as it is of Burmah or of China. - -What was the real value of the commercial concessions granted to France -by China, and concerning which her press had made such capital? The -reduction of the duties on all products passing by Tongking would have -been of great value if the neighbouring Chinese province had been a rich -one, but it is, unfortunately, quite the reverse. It is now time to -glance over the region that can be provisioned and exploited through -Tongking. It includes the greater part of Yunnan and Kwang-si, the -southern half of Kwei-chau, and a small part of Kwang-tung, that long -and narrow band of territory which this province projects over the -Tongking frontier between the sea and Kuang-si. The Yunnan, the -Kwang-si, and the Kwei-chau are the three poorest provinces of China, -and cover a fifth of her territory, whilst possessing barely the -fifteenth of her population, or, in other words, about 24,000,000 out of -380,000,000. They have been unfortunately devastated by the great -insurrection of the Taipings and the Mohammedan revolts, especially -Yunnan; the country is really only a conglomeration of mountains and -plateaux, some of them 6,500 feet in height, and, moreover, the -communications are very scanty, and it would cost an enormous sum to -improve them. The report of the Lyons Mission, which explored this part -of China in 1895–97, frequently mentions the great difficulties of -transport and the steepness of the ascents, such, for instance, as the -famous Imperial road of Ten Thousand Steps, which you ascend from the -bank of the Red River to the Yunnan plateau, between Manhao and -Mong-tze, and which in a distance of only 30 miles rises from 485 to -more than 6,500 feet. It also mentions the paucity of population, as -contrasted with its superabundance, in the basin of the Yang-tsze-Kiang -and the coast provinces. In the Far East the mountains are almost -invariably barren, even when there is very little cultivable soil in the -plain below. It is said that the Yunnan is extremely rich in mineral -ore, but, as once remarked an acute observer, who has recently visited -nearly the whole of China, when explorers find nothing worth noticing on -the surface of a country, they generally arrive at the conclusion that -there must be something worth looking for underneath. Undoubtedly both -copper and tin have been exploited for years past in Yunnan, but thus -far the actual wealth of these mines is unknown, and it would be mere -matter of conjecture to affirm whether they are worth working or not, or -whether it would pay to construct a railway 300 miles in length to -transport the ore, as these Chinese provinces on the frontier -neighbouring Tongking produce neither silk, tea, nor any other valuable -Chinese export product, and do not offer a particularly brilliant -prospect at present. As to Article 5, relating to mines, if taken in the -literal sense, it is simply a truism, but if one wishes to discover in -it a disguised engagement, and read ‘ought’ instead of ‘may,’ it is a -violation of the clause granted to the most favoured nation inserted in -all Chinese treaties with European Powers. France had soon to recognise -its futility on January 15th, 1896, at the time of the signing of the -Anglo-French treaty relating to the affairs of Siam, by which, it is -true, she profited little by the difficult circumstances in which Great -Britain then found herself, and the two Governments of Paris and London -agreed that all the rights and privileges acquired, or to be acquired, -either in the Yunnan or more to the north at Sze-chuan, were to be -equally shared. - -The profit which France might have obtained from the convention of June -20th, 1895, was thus reduced to little or nothing. During the following -year the negotiations which were being persistently pursued at Peking -brought about other results. The right to reconstruct the arsenal at -Foochow established by the French in 1866, and which they destroyed in -1884 under Admiral Courbet, was again restored to them. Several naval -engineers are working there at present, and French foundries are -supplying material. Such has been the share derived by France in the -concessions made by China, to obtain which the nations made such -flattering advances to Li Hung-chang when that astute old gentleman made -his recent famous tour through Europe and America. It certainly -compensated after a fashion for the loss of the custom of Japan, who at -one time gave frequent orders to French factories, but who now deals -exclusively with England and America for the ships and cannon necessary -for her greatly augmented fleet. - -Meanwhile, the French Minister at Peking has exerted himself in a -creditable manner for the benefit of the Catholic missionaries. He has -obtained the abrogation of those regulations which prohibited -missionaries from purchasing estates in the interior of China, and -exacted a promise that the next edition of the _Ta-tsing-lu-lieh_, a -collection of laws issued by the Tsing Dynasty, should appear without -the list of punishments against missionaries contained in the edition of -1892. Finally, he obtained authorization for the Lazarists to rebuild on -the same spot the cathedral at Tien-tsin, burnt at the time of the -massacre of the missionaries and nuns during the insurrection of June, -1870. - -It is assuredly as the protectress of Catholicism that France has of -late years most worthily played her part in the Far East. Possibly she -has not known how to convert to her material advantage the influence -which ought to be derived in China from her religious position, and -doubtless French policy in the Celestial Empire has been lacking in -enterprise. She certainly did not derive from the intervention in favour -of China a profit proportionate to the risks incurred, and has obtained -from China not only less than her ally, Russia, but even than England, -and by uselessly opposing the demands of this latter Power she has run -the risk of irritating without any benefit that ill-feeling which -divides these two great Western nations. - -After a period of inaction during the year which followed the War, the -British Government, if it has not positively reconquered its former -influence, has at least gained a renewed hearing at Peking. Although -China trembled before Russia, the presence in her waters of the British -fleet did not fail to inspire her with a feeling of profound respect; -but, once the first moment of alarm was over, she again bethought -herself as much as possible to begin afresh her old game of pendulum -between the various Powers. The slow work of British diplomacy -throughout the year 1896 fructified in the signing of the Anglo-Chinese -Convention of February 4th, 1897, by which China conceded to Great -Britain certain important modifications on the Burmese frontier; granted -her back a part of the Shan States; recognised her right to establish a -Consul somewhere in Western Yunnan, Manwyne, or Chunning-fu; engaged to -open the roads leading to these places as well as to others; and finally -allowed the railways to be constructed in Yunnan to be united with those -of Burmah. Lastly—and this is the most important point of all—a separate -article prescribed that the Si-Kiang, or West River, which flows through -Canton, should be open to European navigation as far as Woochow, on the -Kwang-si and Kwang-tung frontier, 125 miles from Canton. The two river -ports Samshui and Wuchow became treaty ports, and European concessions -were established there. - -This was for England some return for the mortification she had -experienced twenty months earlier at the time of the Gérard Convention. -If, therefore, in Yunnan, in spite of the equality of rights existing -between Great Britain and France, the advantage was with the latter, by -reason of the natural conditions rendering access less difficult from -Tongking than from Burmah, the opening of the West River was a check for -French policy, which had vigorously opposed it. By this waterway -European vessels—that is to say, almost exclusively British steamers -coming from Hong-Kong—would, in the first place, be able to trade with -the rich valley of the lower Si-kiang, which crosses Kwang-tung, and -reascends to the frontier of Kwang-tung, where they would meet the junks -which bring to this point at a small cost the varied products of this -province, and, moreover, distribute merchandise from Hong-Kong to the -extreme navigable points of the West River and its affluents. These -points are situated at a great distance in the interior, almost on the -frontiers of Yunnan and Tongking, and at Lung-chau, thirty miles from -Lang-son, one can see at high tide junks from Canton. Therefore all the -commerce of Kwang-si which France had so coveted was to be drained by -this new channel. - -French diplomacy endeavoured to repair the unfavourable impression -produced by this Anglo-Chinese treaty, which effaced the greater part of -the advantages conceded to her on the frontier of Tongking, and in June, -1897, it was stated in Paris that China had ceded to France the right to -construct a railway from Lao-kai, on the Red River, between Tongking and -Yunnan-hsien, the capital of Yunnan, and to prolong it to Nanning-fu and -even northward beyond the line projected to Lang-son and Lung-chau. This -last concession should reserve for France all the traffic of the western -Kwang-si, provided that it is really worth while constructing a railway -to obtain it; for unquestionably navigable rivers have a distinct -advantage over railways in so mountainous and poor a country. As soon as -the former are opened they can be navigated, whereas it will require -time to construct the railways, which, moreover, are very costly. In -February, 1898, I was able to see for myself that the Si-kiang was -already traversed by steamers, whereas the railway from Lang-son to -Lung-chau, the concession for which was given in 1896, was not even -commenced, on account of the many difficulties that had arisen with the -local authorities. The opening in 1899 of Nanning to foreign commerce is -well calculated to deprive France even of this little traffic, which -will revert to Canton. - - - - - CHAPTER X - CHINA AND THE POWERS, 1897–99—‘SPHERES OF INFLUENCE,’ AND THE ‘OPEN - DOOR’ - - Political calm in the Far East during the summer of 1897—Provisionary - regulation of the questions that divided the Powers, and the - maintenance of old Chinese methods—Landing of the Germans at - Kiao-Chau in Shan-tung in 1897—England’s anger at this act, and - her efforts to avert the probable action of Russia in - Pe-chi-li—Anglo-Chinese Convention of February, 1898—Opening of - all the waterways to European navigation—The policy of the ‘open - door’—China recognises in March, 1898, the occupation of Kiao-chau - and concession of the railway granted to Germany in - Shan-tung—Session to Russia on lease of Port Arthur, and the - immediate occupation of this port—Franco-Chinese Convention, - April, 1898—Divers conventions granted in the Southern Provinces - and session of the Bay of Kwang-chau-wan—Irritation of Great - Britain, who obtains new and important advantages in June, - 1898—Session of Wei-hai-wei at the entrance of the province of - Pe-chi-li, and of Kowloon, opposite Hong-Kong—Fresh Anglo-Russian - difficulties in November, 1898—Railway and other concessions - granted to foreigners throughout the Celestial Empire. - - -After the diplomatic wrangling which followed the war, a lull occurred -in the summer of 1897 in the Far East. Each of the European Powers -interested in China—Russia, France, and England—had obtained her share -of the spoil. That of Germany was generally deemed modest, but it was -believed she had no political interest in the Celestial Empire, and was -quite content to develop her commerce. Meanwhile Russia and Japan had -patched up their quarrel in Korea. Doubtless their arrangements were not -of a definite character, and their mutual ambitions rather dormant than -satisfied; but the advantages already obtained, and the preparations -which both nations would have to make in order to be ready when they -wished to return to the game, seemed to promise a respite for some years -to come. Russia was constructing her railway, which, notwithstanding all -the diligence brought to bear upon its completion, was not expected to -reach the river Amur until the end of 1899, and the Pacific until 1903 -or 1904. Japan, whilst preparing for the arduous task of reorganizing -Formosa, was arming to the teeth, so as to be ready in case of trouble -with Russia, which she feared inevitable. She doubled her army, and -ordered a first-class fleet to be built in Europe and America, which was -to insure her maritime supremacy on the coasts of China, but which could -not be ready until 1904 or 1905. France, having definitely pacified -Tongking, was occupied in studying the route of the various railway -lines which had been conceded to her. England was hastening the -construction of her railways in Burmah, and sending her steamers into -the West River, while her capital, amalgamated with that of Germany and -America, had the larger share in the industrial movement which had been -created in Shanghai, and seemed likely to extend to other ports, -especially after the treaty of Shimonosaki. - -China herself, profiting by this lull, returned to her old sleepy -habits: she had learnt nothing, and forgotten nothing. When her chief -statesman, Li Hung-chang, was sent to Europe and America in 1896, it was -not only because he was better equipped than anyone else, by his long -intercourse with foreigners, to treat with them, but principally because -he was in disgrace. This mission had been offered to Prince Kung, and -even to Prince Ching, the Emperor’s uncles. ‘What have we done,’ these -illustrious personages probably exclaimed, ‘that we should be subjected -to this humiliation, and sent on a mission to the barbarians?’ The tour -of Li Hung-chang was, therefore, intended as a severe punishment, -supplemented by the loss of his peacock’s feather and his yellow jacket. -If the observations which are attributed to him with respect to progress -are true, his influence must incontestably have diminished, possibly -owing to the vicissitudes to which he has been subjected since his -return to China. Be this as it may, one thing is clear: he has not -hitherto been able to overcome either the Court prejudices or those of -the overwhelming majority of the literati. - -The only progress made has been permission for the construction, under -the direction of English and American engineers, of a line from -Tien-tsin to Peking, to slightly prolong beyond the Great Wall the one -which starts from Tien-tsin and the mouth of the Pei-ho, and ascends -northwards along the coast of Pe-chi-li, and to authorize the -reconstruction of the little line from Shanghai to its deep-water port, -Woosung. These works organized in those parts of the Empire most -frequented by Europeans, in the great open port of Shanghai, where half -the foreign population of China lives, and in the capital, the residence -of the diplomatic corps, were calculated to create an illusory effect. -The English may also have wished to unite Peking to the sea, which they -dominated in the Far East as elsewhere, to spite Russia for having -installed herself in Manchuria. A longer railway from Peking to Hankow, -traversing over 650 miles of the heart of China, had been projected -since 1889, and a Chinese railway director named Sheng had been -commanded to collaborate in the matter of its construction with Li -Hung-chang and his rival, the celebrated Chang-Chih-Tung, Viceroy of -Hankow. Much more progressive in all probability than Li Hung-chang, -Sheng seemed really desirous of building this line; but he insisted that -the material should be manufactured in China, and to this effect he had -erected at Hanyang, near Hankow, and his capital Wu-chang, three towns -which in reality form one vast city, an immense foundry, which was not -likely, at any rate for many years to come, to supply the necessary -material. After the War the united efforts of the Ministers of France -and Belgium had obtained permission for a Franco-Belgian financial -syndicate to construct the line for the Chinese Government, and then to -exploit it. Obstacles, however, were thrown in the way, and although the -Chinese had commenced the works on the Peking side, they were stopped in -the autumn of 1897, owing to difficulties which had arisen concerning -the interpretation of several clauses in the contract. It was the old -story of Chinese shifty dilatoriness, and nothing came of any one of the -reforms proposed, civil or military. - -Momentarily satisfied by their newly-acquired privileges, the foreigners -ceased, for the time being, clamouring for fresh favours. Everything was -calm at Peking, and no one seemed to see any grave event likely to occur -in the Far East, at any rate, before the termination of the -Trans-Siberian Railway, which would give Russia the chance of making an -advance step, when all of a sudden, in the month of November, 1897, -Europe learnt with surprise that Germany had landed sailors in the Bay -of Kiao-chau, in the Shan-tung Peninsula. The motive for this unexpected -movement, we were assured, was to put pressure on the Government at -Peking to conclude certain long-standing negotiations connected with the -assassination of two German missionaries, and which, as usual in China, -dragged unconcernedly along. At first the importance of this matter did -not seem to create the impression that might have been expected. Many -even believed that it was but an ingenious artifice on the part of the -German Emperor to display the uses of a navy, and to force the Reichstag -to vote the necessary credit for the increase of the fleet. But when -William II. sent into the Far East his brother Prince Henry, in command -of a squadron, requesting him at the time of his departure to make the -weight of his ‘mailed fist’ felt, if need arose, there was now no -possible doubt that the occupation of Kiao-chau was definitive, and that -Germany was paying herself, tardily, it is true, but with less ceremony -than her allies, for the services she had rendered to China in 1895. She -had taken, no doubt, a long time about it, for she was hesitating as to -which place she should choose for the naval station she was anxious to -establish in the Far East. - -If the landing at Kiao-chau had been thoroughly matured, it, -nevertheless, appeared that the Berlin Cabinet had not taken the -precaution to insure the consent of the other Powers. It was asked if -Russia herself, who had her eye on this bay, in which her Far Eastern -squadron had passed the winter of 1896–97, had not been caught napping. -When the occupation of the bay became known in England, public opinion -became violently excited. Although Germany seemed to have gradually -detached herself from the Franco-Russian group, and to have approached -Great Britain, and although English and German banks combined had agreed -in 1897 to float a second Chinese loan of £16,000,000 on the European -market, and notwithstanding that the finances of the two countries had -often co-operated in China, the cordiality which exists between the -subjects of Queen Victoria and those of her grandson were even now -strained in the Far East. As soon as the occupation of Kiao-chau became -known, there was a positive explosion of invective throughout the -English press, soon followed by an avalanche of jokes when William II. -toasted his brother, on the eve of his departure for the Chinese Seas, -in an amusingly melodramatic speech. The misadventures of Prince Henry, -who was delayed by divers accidents, and constantly obliged to coal at -English naval stations, added not a little to the general and very -ironical merriment. - -It was not so much the action of Germany that gave rise to genuine -anxiety in England as the fear that the Government of the Tsar might -take advantage of it to make another advance in North China. If it -mattered little to the English that Russia should occupy a harbour free -of ice throughout the year, they were greatly exercised at the prospect -of her approaching the capital of the Celestial Empire close enough to -obtain direct influence in Chinese affairs. England insisted that a port -of this sort should be open to the commerce of all nations, precisely -like her own Hong-Kong or the Treaty Ports. Thus, while Mr. Balfour, in -the early days of 1898, almost invited the Russians to secure for -themselves an issue to the open sea, a few days later another of Her -Majesty’s Ministers—Sir Michael Hicks-Beach—declared, amid the applause -of the entire press, ‘that the British Government was absolutely -determined, at any cost, even at the risk of war, that the “open door” -in China should not be closed.’ In order to oppose the quiet advance of -Russia, Great Britain anticipated her by appropriating her hitherto -successful financial policy, and offered to lend the “Son of Heaven” -£16,000,000, which he particularly wanted. This last of the three great -Chinese loans was the least guaranteed. The Customs receipts no longer -sufficed to assure the interest, and it therefore gave the lender a -greater excuse for meddling in the internal administration, and to -exercise the stronger pressure on the politics of Peking. The conditions -for this loan included the addition to the list of open ports of -Talien-wan, in the peninsula of Liao-tung, which Russia had long -coveted. By throwing it open to the commerce of all the Powers, its -appropriation by any one of them would be rendered very difficult, if -not impossible. - -The game was certainly very well played, but in order to carry it to an -issue, it was necessary to have a sufficient force on the spot to impose -upon China the acceptation of its conditions. Now, the season was not -propitious; in winter, when the Pei-ho is frozen over, Russia must -remain more powerful at Peking than England. Scared by the threats of M. -Pavloff, the Russian Chargé d’Affaires, the Tsung-li-Yamen dared not -accept the demands of Sir Claude Macdonald, the English Minister, -notwithstanding the energetic manner in which they were presented. - -The direct loan was consequently not concluded, Talien-wan was not -opened, and Great Britain had to content herself with an agreement -signed at the end of February, 1898, in virtue of which she obtained, -however, some very important concessions. European steamers were, after -June, 1898, to be allowed to navigate in all the waters of the Empire. -No part of the basin of the Yang-tsze-Kiang was ever to be ceded or -rented to any foreign Power; a port was to be opened in the province of -Yunnan, and the position of Inspector-General of Customs was to be -reserved exclusively to a British subject, so long as British commerce -should hold the first rank in the foreign commerce of China. The value -of these concessions is apparent when we consider that the basin of the -Yang-tsze is the richest and most thickly-peopled part of the Middle -Kingdom. As a commentary upon this agreement, the House of Commons in -March included in the Address to the Throne: ‘That it was of vital -importance for the commerce and influence of Great Britain that the -independence of China should be respected.’ In the course of the -discussion Mr. Curzon, Under-Secretary for Foreign Affairs, declared in -the first place that England was opposed to any attack upon the -independence or integrity of China, and that in the second she would -resist any attempt to close any Chinese port to her commerce, so long as -it was open, or to be opened, to the commerce of any other nation, and -that, moreover, she was determined to maintain in their integrity all -the privileges which she had obtained by the treaty of Tien-tsin in -1858. This was the enunciation of the famous policy known as the ‘open -door.’ - -Meanwhile, Germany, in the same month of March, made China ratify the -occupation of Kiao-chau, which had been leased to her for ninety-nine -years, and which she hastened, it is true, to declare a free port. An -extensive radius of railways was at the same time conceded to her in -Shan-tung, which she had constituted a ‘sphere of interest,’ and the -right of pre-emption on all the railway and mining concessions which the -Chinese Government might grant in that province. - -Russia, on her side, alarmed at the Anglo-Chinese negotiations, came to -the conclusion that if she delayed her occupation of the peninsula of -Liao-tung any longer, she would risk, if not being forestalled by a -rival, at least witnessing the creation of international interests -calculated to render the execution of her projects more difficult. She -hesitated no longer, and on March 27th, 1898, obliged China to sign the -Convention ceding to her the lease of Port Arthur and Talien-wan, and -the authorization to construct a branch line, uniting these ports to the -East Chinese Railway. Thus she obtained her object The Trans-Siberian -had now a terminus on the open sea, and could threaten Peking from the -entrance of the Gulf of Pe-chi-li. It looked for a moment as though the -long deferred struggle between the Whale and the Elephant were really -about to take place. Two English cruisers were stationed at Port Arthur -when this point was ceded to Russia. They put to sea, but on March 29th -the formidable British Far East fleet, which had been immensely -increased during the winter, was mobilized, one part steaming towards -the north, while the other remained at the mouth of the Yang-tsze, ready -to occupy, so it was said, the Chusan Islands, which command the -entrance to the river. Russia was exceedingly prudent, and, in order not -to add the powerful support of Japan to that of England, on March 18th -she renounced all active intervention in Korea, and left that country -open, if not precisely to the political action, at least to the economic -interest of the Land of the Rising Sun. A conflict was averted, but the -inevitable opposition of Russian and English interests, added to an -accumulation in China Seas of warships of every nationality, hastily -sent there after the affair of Kiao-chau, kept up a well-founded feeling -of anxiety and irritation in the minds of the British public, further -increased by a Franco-Chinese agreement signed in April. France -remained, according to her habitual policy, confined in the poor regions -of the south, but obtained from China the promise not to alienate on any -account the territory comprised in the three frontier provinces of -Tongking, and never to cede to any other Power than France the island of -Hainan. To these clauses were added the renewal of the concession of the -Yunnan Railway, and finally the cession on a long lease of the Bay of -Kwang-chau-Wang, situated on the eastern coast of the Lei-chau Peninsula -opposite Hainan, and, moreover, the Chinese engaged to appoint a French -Director-General of Posts. This, of course, was an answer to the promise -obtained by Great Britain respecting the Director-General of Customs, -and it might have been of great importance to the French by placing in -their hands the telegraph lines of the Celestial Empire which joined, -independently of the British cable, the lines in Indo-China which -stretched to the Russian lines in Siberia and thence on to Paris. -Notwithstanding the great political interest at stake, this advantage -was unhappily allowed to lapse, no Director-General of Posts has been -nominated, this post still remaining united to that of the Customs, -under the direction of Sir Robert Hart. With respect to the other -concessions obtained by France, it does not appear that England or any -other Power need be much concerned about them. Hainan may have some -importance to France, who could never permit any other Power to -establish itself at the entrance to the Gulf of Tongking. As to the -harbour of Kwang-chau, which is not of the first rank, the mouth being -narrow, it does not extend the French sphere of action, but leaves her -mewed up where she was in the far south. It has only brought her -annoyances, and is certainly not a strategical point of primary -importance, whence she might menace the position of her rivals in the -China Seas. - -Far more important were the cessions of territory soon afterwards made -to Great Britain in compensation for the occupation of the ports of -Liao-tung by the Russians. Their value did not consist in their extent, -which was not considerable, being merely Wei-hai-wei and a little town -in Shan-tung, and 400 square miles of territory in the peninsula of -Kowloon, and immediately opposite Hong-Kong. Both were leased for -ninety-nine years. The strategical value is, however, of the highest -importance. In the peninsula of Kowloon, where the English had up to -this time only a small piece of land, they now came into possession of -all the heights and bays necessary to shelter the port of Hong-Kong from -attack and to insure its extension. Wei-hai-wei, on the other hand, gave -them precisely what they had long coveted—a naval station in the North -of China, so that when their squadron was in these latitudes it would no -longer be obliged to make a voyage of from four to five days in order to -take in provisions or seek shelter at Hong-Kong. Wei-hai-wei, the -fortifications of which were immediately undertaken, in a measure -weakens Port Arthur, the two being exactly opposite each other, with a -stretch of sea of only sixty miles between them, and the former is not -much more distant from the mouth of the Pei-ho. Needless to say, being -in possession of so excellent a station, England with her superior fleet -will necessarily during many years to come be in a position to prevent -the Russian squadron interfering with her projects, and also, -notwithstanding the shortness of the journey, to impede any assistance -by sea being afforded to Russian troops who might be operating in the -north of China. The English, moreover, can from this position, by a -dexterous movement, cut the line of railway between Tien-tsin and the -Great Wall. - -Notwithstanding these advantages, the insatiable British public was not -satisfied, and complained that the Government had allowed Germany to -occupy a privileged position in Shan-tung, and had, moreover, promised -not to interfere with her rights in that province, nor to construct a -railway starting from Wei-hai-wei, and, moreover, to consider this place -as a sort of Far Eastern Gibraltar without any commercial pretensions, -thereby consenting to the creation of a German sphere of interest in -opposition to the policy of the ‘open door.’ When Parliament was -prorogued in August, the Chinese Question had been discussed no fewer -than eight times, and the Salisbury Ministry had been frequently and -very bitterly attacked by its own supporters. The intemperate oratory of -certain Ministers, and notably of Mr. Chamberlain, who unhesitatingly -accused Russia of bad faith, and even went so far as to say one must -remember when dealing with Russia the old proverb, ‘He who sups with the -devil must have a long spoon,’ had not a little contributed to excite -public opinion in Great Britain. In order to soothe matters a little, -the Cabinet declared to Parliament that its Minister at Peking had been -authorized to inform the Chinese Government that Great Britain would -lend its support in order to resist an attempt on the part of any Power -to commit an act of aggression against China under the pretext that she -had granted to a British subject the concession of a railway or other -public work. - -This was a return to the policy of the ‘open door’ to which England -attaches so much importance. She refused to admit that commercial -privileges should be given to any one Power, or any preference for -public works to be executed; in a word, she would hear of no ‘spheres of -interest.’ Such stipulations are, indeed, diametrically opposed to the -wording of the treaties, but in these times hardly, except by force or -the threat to use it, can one expect even the most solemn engagements to -be observed. England herself was obliged to concur in the German ‘sphere -of interest’ in Shan-tung. In the months of August and September, 1898, -it was once more feared that there might be trouble between England and -Russia over the matter of the railway from Shan-hai-Kwan to Niu-chwang, -a prolongation beyond the Great Wall of the line between Peking, -Tien-tsin, and Shan-hai-Kwan. The principal bank in the Far East, the -Hong-Kong and Shanghai Banking Corporation, was to build it for the -Chinese Government and exploit it, reserving as security a first -mortgage on the line. Russia intervened, and objected that any railway -concession should be given to any other Power than herself north of the -Great Wall. After considerable discussion, the Powers arrived at an -agreement, and the English company kept the concession, but only -retained a lien on the already constructed Peking-Shan-hai-Kwan line to -the south of the Wall. - -In the midst of all the intrigues and unpleasantness which we have just -narrated, Europe has, nevertheless, accomplished at Peking a noteworthy -and unprecedented work. She has not only obtained very advantageous -concessions for her commerce, such, for instance, as the opening to -navigation of all the watercourses on which Treaty Ports are situated, -but also the allotment to the European Customs Administration of the -collecting of _likin_ in the valley of the Yang-tsze, as a security for -the third great loan of £16,000,000. She has also obtained the right to -introduce into China the best machinery for the exploitation of her -natural resources. The English are about to work the coal and iron mines -of Shan-si and Ho-nan, the Germans those of Shan-tung, and the English -and French together the mines of Yunnan. Six thousand miles of railway -are to be constructed, not only at the extremities of the Empire in the -Steppes of Manchuria and on the plateaux bordering Indo-China, but also -in the thickly-peopled central and eastern provinces, from Peking to -Han-kau and Canton, from Tien-tsin to the lower Yang-tsze, in Shan-tung -and around Shanghai, connecting towns of several hundred thousand, and -even over a million inhabitants, through countries at least twice as -densely peopled as France. - - - - - CHAPTER XI - THE FUTURE OF CHINA—MAINTENANCE OR PARTITION OF THE CELESTIAL EMPIRE? - - Necessity of proceeding slowly with the Reform movement in China, if - the overthrow of the Empire is to be averted—Weakness of the - Government at Peking—The Emperor and the Reformer, Kang-Yu-Wei—The - Empress Dowager and Li Hung-chang—Palace revolution in September, - 1898—Enormous obstacles in the way of the Celestial Empire - reforming itself—Reasons why it cannot follow the example of Japan - in 1868—The possibility of partition—The interests of Great - Britain, the United States, and Japan, partizans of the ‘open - door’ policy, and of Germany, Russia, and France—The dangers - incurred by partition—Difficulties of effecting it pacifically, - and also for Europeans to govern the hundreds of millions of - Chinese—The anarchy that might result—Services which might be - rendered to progress by the Chinese Government in preventing too - rapid a transition—Possibility of converting the Chinese to - material progress. - - -‘Every time that the bones of China are rattled—and they have never been -more vigorously than at present’—said a technical English paper, ‘an -increase of commerce follows.’ Nothing can be truer; but, at the same -time, it might be prudent not to shake the old skeleton too violently, -too often, or too long, if we do not wish to see it tumble to pieces. -China is a sort of amorphous State whose different parts are joined -together by the very weakest ties, concerning which we know little or -nothing, and whose main force consists in tradition and in the existence -of a governing class of literati, recruited throughout the Empire, even -among the very people. On the other hand, germs of serious disaffection -do exist; the actual Dynasty is a foreign one, which, at the beginning -of the century, the terrible Taiping Rebellion—only suppressed with the -assistance of Europeans—nearly ruined, and the descendants of the old -national Ming Dynasty are still living. The accession to the throne of -the present Emperor was irregular, it seems, according to Chinese -procedure, and the country is honeycombed by secret societies, whose -object is the overthrow of the existing state of affairs. The mass of -the people are totally indifferent to politics, and very rarely exhibit -hostility to foreigners, if the latter behave with circumspection, -unless, indeed, they are urged on by fanatics or malcontents, when, -unfortunately, they are easily roused. In the principal towns of every -prefecture and sub-prefecture there exists a heterogeneous mass of -soured and fanatical literati, who pursue the humblest trades in order -to keep themselves from starvation, who are intimately mixed up with the -people, by whom they are treated with great respect, and who will obey -their commands to overthrow the Europeans and their innovations. - -The Government of Peking is too thoroughly convinced of its external -weakness to openly resist any demand imposed upon it by the Powers, but -if it be too hardly pressed, and forced to introduce or allow the -premature introduction of all sorts of innovations, and in too many -places at once, it may run the risk of exciting against it the literati, -who regard, and not without reason, any extension of European influence -as a menace to their privileges. Such action might easily lead to active -opposition to all reform, especially in the central and southern -provinces, more backward than those of the north, and, if leaders of the -movement can be discovered, lead to the complete disorganization of the -Celestial Empire. Trouble has already occurred in Sze-chuan, as well as -further in the lower valley of the Yang-tsze. A rather serious -insurrection broke out in 1898 in the Kwang-si and Kwang-tung, but -without any result. We know that local troubles in so badly governed a -country as China of a necessity must become chronic, but in many cases -the news concerning them reaches Europe considerably embellished and -exaggerated. - -It is certain that the elements of disorder are just now greatly -excited. Even at Peking rival factions are disputing for power; the -events which occurred there in September, 1898, are little, and possibly -never will be completely, known, and it would be impossible to relate -with any approach to truth the tragedies and comedies that are -constantly being enacted within the walls of the Forbidden City. - -The Emperor Kuang-Su, a young man of twenty-five, with a sickly body, -and, it is said, a weak mind, had been completely won over to the Reform -movement by a literate of the new school, named Kang-Yu-Wei, who hailed -from Canton. His Celestial Majesty, with all the zeal of a neophyte, was -induced during the summer to issue a distinctly revolutionary edict. It -was said that he went so far as to presume to wear a European costume, -and that he even intended going personally to Japan to observe there for -himself the transformation which had been effected in the last thirty -years. The Reform party undoubtedly had entertained Japanese as well as -English sympathies, and its chief, Kang-Yu-Wei, passed his last night at -Peking in the Japanese Legation. Marquis Ito, it is said, discouraged -the precipitation with which it was intended to carry out in a few weeks -reforms that had taken more than a quarter of a century to accomplish in -Japan. - -Such an attempt had no chance of success, for it not only opposed many -prejudices and interests, but was opposed by all the Manchu -functionaries, by Li Hung-chang, who had been recently disgraced, and by -the Empress Dowager. His Celestial Majesty pretended to arrest this -last-named personage, who is his aunt, and not his mother; but the -astute Princess defeated his object. The great majority of the mandarins -being hostile to the movement, she soon possessed herself of the -necessary tools for her purpose. The Emperor was in his turn imprisoned -in his palace, and forced to apologize and sign an edict placing the -reins of Government entirely in the hands of the Dowager. The immediate -consequence of this act was that all the mandarins of the old school, -among them Li Hung-chang, returned forthwith to power; Kang-Yu-Wei took -flight on board an English vessel, and most of his partizans were either -beheaded or sent into exile, and very soon all trace of their work was -effaced. - -From this imprudent attempt at reform we may derive a few useful -lessons. In the first place it showed the instability of the Peking -Government, and also the existence, but at the same time the impotence, -of the Reform party among the literati; and in the second it accentuated -that dangerous factor in the politics of the Far East, the inflexible -antagonism existing between England and Russia. The Empress Tze-Hsi is -undoubtedly a very clever woman; she first governed the Empire in the -capacity of Regent, but since 1887 she has, with the assistance of Li -Hung-chang, who is said to have been a former lover, done so in the name -of her nephew, absolutely refusing to abdicate. Her rule has been -undoubtedly pernicious to China, for it has invariably been reactionary. -As an instance in point, an important Viceroy has been recently -reprimanded for attempting to reorganize on the European system the -troops in the provinces which he administered. The Tsung-li-Yamen has -likewise in a very short time contrived to strengthen the party opposed -to innovation, and all sorts of restrictions have been placed in the way -of the exploitation of the mines. For all this, be it bad or good, the -Government of Tze-Hsi and of Li Hung-chang is nevertheless a Government; -but both the Empress and her Minister are aged, and one may naturally -ask what will occur when they are no longer of this world. - -The Reform party, which seems to have the sympathy of a few high -functionaries, does not apparently include many of the mandarin class; -the unsuccessful literati, who struggle for existence in the towns of -the interior, and who are in immediate contact with the people, -apparently remain outside of all notion of progress, being absolutely -convinced of the immense superiority of the Chinese over the barbarians. -It is therefore very difficult to imagine how a handful of innovators -can ever be able to impose their ideas against so much prejudice. A -revolution, such as occurred in Japan in 1868, which rushed that Empire -into the ways of reform, stands no chance of being effected in China, -and even if it were, it would only receive just such another rebuff as -happened in 1898, or else lead to anarchy and the dismemberment of the -Empire. - -The situation in China to-day is essentially different from that of -Japan thirty years ago. In the first place the Chinese civilization -which gave way in Japan to European was not of domestic growth, but -essentially an imported article of extreme antiquity, which never -succeeded in stultifying the Japanese people as it has done the Chinese; -what is more, ancestors and classics were never held by the Japanese in -the same veneration as is bestowed upon them by the Chinese. Far above -the traditions of Confucius and of the Wise Men of old stood the Mikado -of divine descent and the spirit of national independence. The first -object of the Japanese Revolution in 1868 was to restore the Emperor to -the plenitude of his power, a result attained by the union of the -principal clans, as we have already explained. Although it resulted in -the suppression of feudalism and the introduction of European -civilization, it was originally not presented in this form, and if the -entire nation eventually accepted these innovations, it was because they -had been consecrated by the divine Emperor, and, moreover, were approved -of by a powerful army which had always been friendly to progress and -prompt to resist reaction. - -Those advantages that so greatly favoured the Japanese reformers are -non-existent in China. There is no military party in Peking friendly to -Reform or eager to assist the reformers in seizing supreme power at the -right moment and helping them to retain it. The initiative, therefore, -cannot come from either the capital or the provinces. Instead of the -Japanese daimios, or hereditary chieftains, surrounded by innumerable -and faithful vassals, we have in China viceroys who are invariably -strangers in the provinces they administer, and are spied upon by Tatar -marshals having at their disposal by way of an army a horde of -ill-disciplined ragamuffins, whom, even if an attempt were made to -transform them into genuine soldiers, a task which would require many -years to effect, the Court at Peking, being against the scheme, would -soon disband. No martial spirit or feeling of patriotism exists in China -to induce the governing classes to give up their privileges, even though -it were for the benefit of the country. The tenacious attachment of the -Chinese to their very ancient but stationary civilization is their -greatest impediment to progress, especially as love of country is a mere -empty sound to the vast majority of Chinamen. - -Another and very important difference between China to-day and Japan in -1868 is that thirty years ago Europe permitted the Island Empire to -accomplish its own revolution without interference, whereas to-day the -Powers would assuredly prevent any attempt at a too sudden evolution in -the Government of the Celestial Empire, which would only plunge the -country into a deplorable condition of turmoil. Even now the Dowager -Empress’s party is known as the Russian, and that of Kang-Yu-Wei as the -Anglo-Japanese. Possibly this may be an exaggerated view of the case, -and that neither party is in the service of any particular Power; but -the incorruptibility of Li Hung-chang must be taken with a grain of -salt. It is, however, certain that the Legations watch with a jealous -eye the intrigues of the various factions, and that the disgrace of Li -Hung-chang is looked upon as a victory for England, and each return to -power of the Viceroy of Pe-chi-li as a Russian success. No worse sign -could possibly exist for a State than the perpetual interference of -foreign Powers in its affairs. - -‘Are we about to witness the dismemberment of China?’ is a question -people are constantly asking themselves. No one in particular wishes for -it, since the division of such an inheritance would be disputed by at -least five or six claimants, who will only settle their differences at -the sword’s point. For the past twenty-five years Europe has trembled at -the bare thought of war, and we must not be surprised if she dreads the -mere mention of the disruption of China, which would be even more -dreadful, since it means universal war, in which the United States, -Great Britain, and Japan, as well as the Continental Powers, would each -take a share. Even if the matter were settled amicably, what country -would care to govern eighty or a hundred millions of Chinamen? Some -people say that it could easily be settled by not attempting to govern -them at all, in other words, to let things go their way; but no European -Power would, or could, do otherwise than rule them methodically, -according to our modern ideas of government. To-day, if a band of -brigands exists in any obscure corner of China, nobody troubles about -it, but once that corner belongs to a European Power, the irresistible -desire of attempting to establish order would assuredly lead to an -insurrection. The introduction of European methods is certain to upset -many of the old customs and traditions to which the Chinese hold with -almost pathetic tenacity. It requires an amazing tact to govern the -Chinese, a fact made daily manifest in Hong-Kong, and illustrated by the -recent serious outbreak in the French concession at Shanghai, where a -disturbance took place over the removal of a time-honoured sanctuary to -make way for a public road. The difficulties encountered by Europeans in -every country imbued with Chinese ideas—those of the English in Burmah, -the French in Tongking, and the Japanese at Formosa—prove, if proof were -needed, how great is the resisting power and the risks any European -nation would have to encounter which attempted to govern even a fragment -of the vast Chinese Empire. - -On the other hand, each Power, whilst dreading the consequences of a -partition, is equally unwilling to behold a rival carry off the lion’s -share. It is, therefore, with an eye to an eventual partition that each -nation endeavours to obtain a privileged position in certain regions, -and to possess itself of spheres of interest by forcing China to make -the singular promise never to cede any portion of territory in certain -defined provinces to any nation but to the one which obtains the -promise. But this sort of promise is fraught with difficulties, and a -source of eventual hostilities between nations having pretensions upon -the same region, just as it is between the partizans of ‘spheres of -interest’ and those of the ‘open door.’ - -In order to understand the policy of the various Powers in China, in -which they see a very important field for exploitation, we must first -consider their commercial interests in the Celestial Empire. The British -Empire incontestably occupies first place in the foreign commerce of -China, which in 1897 stood at 366,000,000 hai-kwan taels, or £54,900,000 -(1 tael = 3s.). Of this 236,934,000 taels, or £35,540,100, two-thirds of -the whole, belongs, according to the Imperial Chinese Customs Report, to -Great Britain. Here, however, we must not be misled, for if we subdivide -this sum, we shall see that about £5,500,000 alone belong to England, -£5,000,000 to her colonies other than Hong-Kong, through which the -remainder, that is to say, about £23,000,000 worth of goods, passes, -Hong-Kong being merely a point of transit. Goods imported from Germany, -America and Russia into China, passing through this island port, or -being exported thence to the four corners of the globe, are put down to -England. Then, again, a very important trade is carried on between the -North and the South of China through Hong-Kong, and thus it comes to -pass that Great Britain gets the credit for commerce which does not -really belong to her. If Hong-Kong possessed proper Custom-house -statistics, it would be easy to account for the origin and destination -of the merchandise which passes through this port; but such statistics -do not exist. Under these circumstances, we must turn either to those of -the various countries of Europe and America, or to the detailed -statistics of the Chinese Customs, which frequently rectify the total -amounts, whereby we learn that £692,700 worth of Russian petroleum is -imported, whereas the total imports from Russia by sea are only -estimated at £485,100. The difference must, therefore, be accounted for -as having passed through Hong-Kong. A comparison between the Chinese -Customs statistics and those of Germany, the United States, French -Indo-China, and other countries, obliges us, however, to admit that -three-fifths at least of the trade of Hong-Kong really belongs to the -British Empire, which leaves to the latter about £27,000,000, that is, -40 to 50 per cent. of the total foreign commerce of the Celestial -Empire. In the matter of imports, the English reign supreme, holding at -least three-fourths in their hands, and dominating the market by the two -principal articles, opium and cotton. Moreover, their flag floats over -65 per cent. of the total tonnage registered in the Chinese ports; of -636 foreign houses of business established in the open ports, 374 are -English; of 11,600 foreigners, 5,000 are British subjects; and English -is the language most spoken throughout the ports of the Far East. When -we take all these facts into consideration, we are obliged to -acknowledge that, having so many interests to defend in this part of the -globe, England has a right to let her voice be heard clearly in -commercial affairs. We must not be surprised, therefore, if she insists -upon the ‘open door’ policy in China. The question now arises, Does she -seek territory in the Celestial Empire? She has apparently sacrificed -the ‘spheres of interest’ theory by exacting from China an engagement -not to cede anything in the basin of the Yang-tsze, and the English -Jingoes are already dreaming that Great Britain will be mistress not -only from the Cape to Cairo, but from Cairo to Shanghai. ‘Are not the -Arabian Coast and the Persian Gulf,’ I recently read in an English -paper, ‘already ours, and morally subject to our protectorate? Once we -possess the valley of the Yang-tsze, who is to prevent our constructing -a rival line to the Trans-Siberian from the mouth of the Nile to that of -the Blue River?’[28] Although just at present it were best not to count -too much on the wisdom and coolness of the British, nevertheless, their -statesmen seem to appreciate the dangers of so beautiful a dream. They, -at least, understand that the peril of the British Empire lies in its -enormous extent. The majority of the British would, no doubt, be -satisfied if they were allowed to place their capital and their commerce -on a footing of equality with that of other countries in the Celestial -Empire, if the territorial encroachments of the Powers did not justify -the fear of the creation of a protectionist tariff. We may, therefore, -hope that Great Britain, having obtained all that she desires in the way -of strategic points for the benefit of her naval forces, and also a -great number of commercial concessions, will remain contented with her -lot, and not dream of attacking the independence of China, but rather be -inclined to help her to regain power.[29] - -After England the United States do the greatest business with China. -They only figure for £4,500,000 in the Chinese Customs statistics, but -their own official publications give £7,840,000. Petroleum and cotton -goods are the principal articles of their commerce, which is sure to be -enormously increased in the future as the Middle Kingdom requires more -and more machinery, which is manufactured to-day much more cheaply in -America than anywhere else. The United States are represented in China -by thirty-two houses of business and 1,564 citizens; their mercantile -marine is, however, very insignificant, but having of late assumed a -position among the world’s Powers, and being already installed in the -Philippines, they are sure to increase their mercantile fleet very -rapidly, and as they aspire to become one day mistress of the Pacific, -they watch with a very jealous eye all that happens in the Far East. -However protectionist they may be at home, they are resolute partizans -of the ‘open door’ in this market, of which they justly hope to -eventually acquire a large part through their enterprise. Already a -coolness has occurred in their friendship with Russia, and in January, -1900, they obtained a guarantee that none of the Powers should establish -differential tariffs in leased ‘spheres of interest.’ - -Japan takes the third rank with a rapidly increasing commerce, which in -1897 reached £5,850,000. Her spun cotton rivals that of England and -India. Seven hundred Japanese are registered as residing in the -different ports. The Celestial Empire has no warmer friends at the -present moment than the Japanese. The Japanese papers are full of -articles which compare the position of the two countries to that of -Prussia and Austria after Sadowa, and preach reconciliation, and a close -alliance was already spoken of with enthusiasm at the close of the War. -Many Japanese statesmen are studying this question, among them the -Marquis Ito, four times Prime Minister, and Prince Konoye, President of -the Chamber of Peers, who travelled in China, and stayed in Peking in -1898 and 1899. According to certain signs, their overtures have not been -altogether fruitless. The Government of the Empress Dowager does not -seem to entertain any particular rancour against the Japanese for the -sympathies which they expressed for the Reformer Kang-Yu-Wei, and -undoubtedly seeks some support in order to withdraw itself from the -over-exclusive domination of Russia. If this last Power is feared in -Peking, it would seem that Japan is at the present time the most -considered, whose counsels are best heard, and who best serves as the -intermediary for progress into China. It is from Japan that China -obtains instructors for her army, and that the Viceroy Chang-Chih-tung -not only borrowed money, but also engineers for his foundry at Hanyang. -The cementing of a formal alliance will no doubt be prevented through -fear of Russia, and very probably China does not desire it very -sincerely. Possibly at Peking they continue to despise the Japanese as -much as they do Europeans, although they may have a preference for the -former. One thing is certain, and that is, that the relations between -the Governments at Peking and Tokio are better than they were before the -War. Of the Western Powers, England is most preferred by the Mikado’s -subjects, although even with her they are a little suspicious. A feeling -of intense resentment is still expressed by the vast majority of the -Japanese against Russia. A small minority, however, desire that an -understanding should be arrived at with her. This party, however, also -wishes for the ‘open door,’ China being the only outlet for their young -and already important cotton industry. - -These three nations—England, the United States, and Japan—complete the -group of the whole-hearted partizans of the ‘open door.’ The British -press has often expressed a desire to see an alliance effected between -them, and if this were only created between England and Japan it would -be very formidable in the Far East. The Japanese fleet is excellent, and -whatever may be our opinion of the ability of the Mikado’s sailors, it -is certain that, once united to the English fleet under the command of -an English admiral, it could soon sweep the China Seas, and it would -then be easy to embark an army of a hundred, even of two hundred -thousand men, whom it would be difficult, even according to Russian -officers, for the Tsar’s army in the Far East to resist. Perhaps Russia -has pushed the Empire of the Rising Sun too much and too soon into the -arms of England. - -Germany, who, according to her own statistics, carries on a trade with -China valued at £3,400,000, of which £2,320,000 are imports into China, -and who counts 104 commercial houses instead of the 78 in 1892, and -registers 870 residents in the Treaty Ports, divides her preferences -between the policy of the ‘spheres of influence’ and the ‘open door.’ If -she has reserved a right of preference in the public works to be -undertaken in Shan-tung, she soothes the irritation of the English by -making Kiao-chau a free port; but, notwithstanding the antipathy which -exists at heart between the two nations and the progress of German -commerce, often at the cost of British trade, and thanks to the more -obliging manners and greater activity of the German merchants, a -distinct amelioration has taken place since the end of 1898 in the -relations between the two Governments, and Germany seems for the present -to have turned her back upon the Franco-Russian group in the Far East in -order to support British policy. One province alone in China is not -enough for her commercial enterprise, and she fears to see protection -closing the other ports. - -We now come to Russia. Her total commerce with the Celestial Empire does -not amount to more than about £3,000,000, half of which passes overland -by way of Siberia. Petroleum as an import and tea as an export are the -two great articles of Russian trade with the Celestial Empire. There are -very few Russians living in China, and those who do so are mainly -established in the port of Hankow. Russia’s objects in the East are -almost entirely political, and it is very probable that her protective -tariff will follow her territorial aggrandizement. Being already -mistress of Manchuria, she officially fixed the southern limits of her -sphere of influence, at the time of the affair of the Niu-chwang -Railway, at the Great Wall. To the north is a vast stretch of land -almost entirely desert. In all probability this limit is merely -temporary, and possibly none really exists in Russian aspirations; but -before declaring her policy she awaits the completion of the -Trans-Siberian Railway. The Empire of the Tsar, notwithstanding the -60,000 to 80,000 men already massed between the Amur, Korea, and -Pe-chi-li, does not yet feel sufficiently safe to take a step forward -for fear of bringing herself into conflict with England and Japan. The -day the Trans-Siberian Railway is finished a step southwards may no -doubt be made. The antagonism between Russia and Great Britain, both of -whom aspire to be the leading Asiatic Power, will then no doubt become -bitterer than ever. - -The policy of France has been more often than not ostentatious, timid at -heart and often vexatious in form. She has made a great fuss over a few -commercial advantages obtained in the sterile provinces which border on -Tongking, and she has opposed England without doing her any injury with -respect to the opening of the West River. In certain affairs relating to -European concessions at Shanghai and Hankow, France has unfortunately -succeeded not only in vexing England, but in alarming the Germans, -Americans, and Japanese by the excessive regulations which she has -introduced in those territories which have fallen into her hands. It -does not seem, however, that the French have contrived to obtain -sufficient compensation for the enmities which they have provoked in -defending, not without peril, interests which after all were not their -own. - -The part which France has wished to play in China has not been a -strictly commercial one. French highly-finished and expensive fabrics -are of no good in the Chinese market. If she only had the common-sense -and enterprise to send to Tongking first-class weavers, and establish -there a manufactory under French direction, with cheap native labour, -she should soon be able, if she copied the cotton industries of India, -to compete with Japan in the Chinese market. It is therefore the -exportation of capital which ought to be her object in the Far East, in -China as well as in Indo-China. Notwithstanding their activity, it is -not countries like Japan and Russia, which are without capital, that can -attempt to exploit the riches of China, but countries that are already -advanced in civilization like Germany, the United States, and above all, -France and England, who, by the introduction of the vast resources of -their capital, are in a position to work the mines, railways, and other -resources of the Middle Kingdom. If, instead of trying to obtain -exclusive privileges in a poor region, which are of no use and only -irritate other nations, France had supported them in their ‘open door’ -policy, she would have gained a good deal, without losing anything from -the purely commercial point of view, and thus Frenchmen might have -placed themselves on a common footing with men of all nations, in the -same manner that the English and the Germans contrived to come to an -agreement in business transactions, notwithstanding the divergence which -tends to separate them more and more, and she would then have been able -to place her capital to great advantage, and thereby have added -immensely to her prosperity, not only abroad but at home, as was the -case under the Second Empire, when she covered Europe with railways. - -France might, moreover, from the purely political point of view, have -played a conciliatory part, and have thus managed to prevent the -dominant influences at Peking from becoming too exclusive, which might -ultimately result in a terrible conflict, and she should have worked to -maintain the independence of China. Now that the Chinese are permitting -Europeans to take their riches in hand by constructing their railways -and exploiting their mines, it seems to us that France ought to allow -her to retain a sort of communal existence, in which the civilized -nations might carry on their economic activity precisely as they do in -Turkey, with the difference that the Empire of the Son of Heaven is much -vaster, richer, and populated by a far more industrious people than that -of Sultan Abd-ul-Hamid. - -This is, of course, a solution of an apparently temporary character, but -which might have a chance here, as elsewhere, of lasting longer than a -score of other solutions which are deemed definitive, always provided -that the Powers do not exert too much pressure on the feeble Government -at Peking, and especially if Russia, once the Trans-Siberian Railway is -finished, does not insist upon her demands in so violent a manner as to -provoke simultaneous action on the part of the Powers, and thereby bring -about a partition. The destinies of the Celestial Empire are, however, -in a great measure in the hands of the Tsar, who has, fortunately, -already given many proofs of sagacity. - -The maintenance of the Chinese Government seems for the moment -preferable, even in the interests of the opening up of the country and -in the introduction of our civilization in its immense territory, to the -partition of China between the various European nations. We do not say -this because we believe that the Chinese Government is converted to -progress, for we hold that, with very few exceptions, those who direct -the fortunes of the Chinese Empire are quite as fossilized in their -prejudices, as firmly believe in their decrepit wisdom, as eager to -prove their hatred of Western civilization, and, moreover, as corrupt, -as ever they were. At the same time, they are convinced of the -impossibility of China resisting the encroachments of European -civilization, and as resigned as ever to yield to external pressure. -Undoubtedly the era of subterfuges on the one side and of menaces on the -other is by no means closed, and in spite of reforms which have been, -and are still to be, obtained in the future by Europeans, a considerable -part of the pecuniary advantages to be obtained from the transformation -of China will remain in the hands and up the sleeves of the mandarins. -But if progress is somewhat retarded by this resistance, which, after -all, will only be temporary, it will be better so than that it should be -introduced too suddenly and cause unnecessary trouble. Meanwhile, the -Government of Peking plays an extremely useful part. Some people have -not hesitated to say that if it ceased to exist progress would be much -more rapid, forgetting that anarchy would ensue, the end of which would -be as difficult to foresee as it would be to find a means of terminating -it, or of discovering a manner in which any European Government could -govern 200,000,000 Chinamen. The losses which the re-establishment of a -stable regime would entail, and the vast expense of subduing rebellion, -would certainly exceed those resulting from the procrastination under -the actual form of Government. - -At the end of a certain period it is highly probable that the march of -events may be accelerated, and when the mass of the Chinese people have -been placed in contact with the results of Western progress, it is very -probable that its great common-sense will do the rest. It is an appeal -to their essentially commercial and money-making instincts that we must -make if we wish to convert the Chinese, the most realistic and the least -idealistic of nations. Railways will be the best missionaries of -civilization in China. - - - - - INDEX - - - A - - Advances, small, made to immigrants into Siberia, 47 - - Agricultural zone, 5, 7; - extent, 8; - population, 10 - - Agriculture, Siberian peasants’ ignorance of, 24, 25; - products of Japan, 125, 129; - novel methods of manuring, 130 - - Ahmar Dabam Mountains, 12 - - Ainos, the, 85 - - Albazine, heroic defence of, 3 - - Alexander III. decrees the creation of the Trans-Siberian Railway, 66 - - Alexandrofsk, prison of, 54 - - Altai Mountains, the, 10; - valleys of the, 47 - - Amur province annexed by Russia, 13; - population, 13; - free from all special Custom duties, 33, _note_; - number of immigrants annually, 47; - Russian immigrants have to face a large Asiatic contingent, 49; - Buddhists in the province, 51; - only likely to attract Russians, 53 - - Amur River, Khabarof, establishes himself on the, 3; - immigrants settle in the region, 47; - damp climate, 47; - Government assists colonization in the Amur basin, 48 - - Armstrong, Whitworth, and Co. construct the ferry-boats for Lake - Baikal, 69 - - Army, Japanese, strengthened, 141; - excellence of the troops, 166, 167 - - Art, Japanese, withstands Chinese influences, 87; - under the Tokugawas, 100; - art industries, 119; - hasty production and deterioration, 137 - - Artillery employed at the naval battle of Shigutake, 93 - - Aryans, the, 172 - - Asiatic Ocean, tribes in the region of the, 6 - - Astrakhan annexed by Russia, 1 - - - B - - Baikal, Lake, beauty of, 12; - used in the transport of tea, 32; - ferry-boats to convey trains across, 66; - its size, 69 - - Barabinsk Steppe, the, 11 - - Barley in Siberia, 7, 24 - - Barnaoul, 38; - attractive to immigrants, 47 - - Beer, excellent, at Irkutsk; - Japanese beer, 120 - - Behring Straits, native races in the district of the, 52 - - Berizof on the Obi, climate, 5 - - Berlin, distance to Vladivostok and Port Arthur, 76 - - Biisk attractive to immigrants, 47 - - Birch, predominance of the, 9 - - Black Current, the, 5 - - Blagovyeshchensk, its prosperity, 30; - fruit and vegetables brought to, by Chinese, 51 - - Blue River, mouth of the, 188; - its banks, 235 - - Brandt’s, Herr von, estimate of Chinese revenue, 219 - - Bridges, Siberian, carried away by inundations, 59; - bridges of the Trans-Siberian Railway, 68 - - Britain, Great, trade with Siberia, 62; - important commerce with Japan, 139; - Japan’s friendship for her, 168; - new commercial treaty with Japan, 179, 180; - concessions made to, by China, 240; - she turns her back on China for Japan, 244; - the treaty with France concerning Yunnan, 262; - she regains her position in China, 263; - public wrath at the German seizure of Kiao-chau, 269; - the ‘open door’ policy, 270, 271, 274; - offer of a loan to China, 270; - important convention with China regarding the Yang-tsze-Kiang basin, - etc., 271; - danger of war with Russia, 272; - Wei-hai-wei and Kowloon ceded to Great Britain, 273; - the English public still dissatisfied, 274; - the Niu-chwang Railway affair, 275; - Great Britain’s commerce with China, 272, 273; - better relations with Germany, 286 - - British bombard Kagoshima, 106 - - British Columbia, temperate climate, 5 - - Brushes, Japanese, 120 - - Bubonic plague, microbe of the, discovered by a Japanese, 177 - - Buddhism practised by the Buriats, 12; - in Trans-Baikalia and the Amur, 51; - introduced into Japan, 86; - purer in Japan than in China, 87; - degenerated in China, 202 - - Buriats, the, 12; - in Trans-Baikalia, 51; - in the Amur district, 51 - - Butter scarce in Siberia, 19; - exported to Russia, 22 - - - C - - Camels employed in the tea trade, 34 - - Canada compared with Siberia, 4; - rivers and agricultural area, 4; - position superior to that of Siberia, 4, 5; - difference between Canada and Siberia, 55 - - Canton, the foreign mart of China, 229 - - Catholics not tolerated in Russia, 14, 15; - their churches in all large Siberian towns, 15 - - Cattle, very numerous in Siberia, 22; - exported thence to Europe, 22; - scarcity in Japan, 128 - - Cedar-trees, Siberian, 11; - their seeds eaten by the Siberians, 11 - - Cereals in Siberia, 7; - a lengthy summer necessary for their cultivation, 8; - in the valleys of the Upper Yenissei and Obi, 21; - the harvest, 23; - unfavourable climate in Siberia, 25; - exported, 31 - - Chancellor first enters Russia viâ the White Sea, 61 - - Chartered Company, a, established under the Strogonofs, 2 - - Cheliabinsk in the Great Plain, 9; - scenery, 9; - refuges for immigrants at, 46 - - China allows Russia to build the Manchurian Railway, 67; - her interest in it, 72; - commercial class have always been honoured in China, 141; - Japan her best friend, 167; - China compared with Turkey, 183; - density of the population, 184; - enormous coal and copper beds untouched, 184; - China more backward than India or Japan, 185; - the significance of the Japanese War, 185; - end of China’s isolation, 186; - possible results of her dissolution, 187, 281; - first impressions, 188; - cultivation of the soil, 190; - Peking, 190; - Hien-feng’s hunting excursion, 195; - ruin of the once fine highroads, 199, 201; - hills never cultivated, 202; - squandering of money, 203; - general decay, 203; - the mandarinate the curse of China, 204; - the literati, 204–206; - corruption, 206, 217; - how the governing class is selected, 208; - the causes of her isolation, 209, 210; - the non-existence of any martial spirit among the people, 210; - irregularities in the Government, 211; - long existence of the State, 212; - patriotism unknown, 213; - population, 214, _note_; - taxes light, 218, 219; - total revenue, 219; - natural disasters, 220; - population does not increase, 220; - rapacity of officials, 220, 221; - the result of the opening up of the country, 227; - the Treaty of Shimonosaki, 228, 236; - opposition to foreigners, 229; - nothing to be expected from the Government, 236; - industries, 237, 238; - increase of wages, 238, 239; - industries still limited to the Treaty Ports, 240; - China’s commerce, 241, 282–286; - her collapse after the War, 242, 243; - England turns her back on China, 244; - North China coveted by Russia, 246; - the intervention of Russia, France, and Germany, 247; - Russia better liked than any other Western Power, 248; - China becomes alarmed at Russia, 251; - Russian interference in the War settlement, 252; - a foreign debt contracted, 253; - it leads to further foreign interference, 254; - Russia becomes guarantor for China, 255; - Russian influence predominant, 258; - concessions to Germany, 259; - to France, 259–261; - England regains her position in China, 263, 264; - railway concessions, 267, 268; - Germany seizes Kiao-chau, 268; - wrath in England at this act, 269; - important concessions to England, 271; - England declares the ‘open door’ policy, 271, 274; - China leases the Liao-tung Peninsula to Russia, 271, 272; - concessions to France, 272; - Wei-hai-wei and Kowloon ceded to England, 273; - the Niu-chwang Railway affair, 275; - progress made in China, 275; - germs of disaffection, 276, 277; - the Palace Revolution of September, 1898, 277, 278; - the government of the Empress Dowager, 278, 279; - difference between China to-day and Japan in 1868, 279, 280; - friendly feeling for Japan, 285; - the partisans of the ‘open door,’ 285; - the present government preferable to a partition, 288; - railways the best missionaries, 289 - - Chinese at Vladivostok, 13, 50; - supply Blagovyeshchensk with fruit and vegetables, 51; - also Khabarofsk, 52; - Chinese emigration to Eastern Siberia, 52; - their distinctness as a race, 84; - Chinese civilization introduced into Japan, 86; - integrity of Chinese merchants, 140; - patience of Chinese, 184; - their insolence to foreigners, 195; - their energy, 196; - their habit of saving appearances, 196, 197, 203, 216; - the peasantry, 199; - the Chinese alphabet, 206, 207; - the _feng-shui_ geomancy, 209, 225; - patriotism non-existent, 213; - physical and linguistic differences among the Chinese, 214, 215; - their civilization, 216; - love of cunning, 217; - Chinese etiquette, 217; - life very easy for the people, 218; - the people and the Government, 218, 219; - their contented disposition, 220; - resignation, 221; - their indifference to death and cruelty, 221; - suicides out of spite, 222; - why they are bad soldiers, 222, 223; - they might be better, 223, _note_; - filial piety and infanticide, 223; - ancestor worship the cause of non-progressiveness, 223, 224; - unhappy lot of married women, 224; - their immorality, 224; - gambling, the national vice, 224; - opium-smoking, 225; - filthy habits and superstition, 225; - good qualities of the Chinese, 226; - their habit of looking to the past for a type of perfection, 226; - their lack of discernment, 226; - scandalized by Christianity, 230; - Chinese and Western civilization, 230, 231; - appreciation of our administration, 231, 232; - their superstitions about missionaries, 232 - - Chino-Japanese War, significance of the, 185 - - Christianity introduced into Japan, 93; - its great progress, 94; - extirpated, 95; - not accepted by modern Japan, 174; - Christianity in China, 230 - - Chuckchis, the, 6 - - Churches very numerous in Siberian towns, 40 - - Clans, the south-eastern, a danger to the Shogunate, 99; - they join the Mikado against the Shogun, 104; - survival of the clannish spirit in modern Japan, 156 - - Coal, abundant in Siberia, 29, 30; - coal in Japan, 167; - enormous beds in China, 184 - - Commerce, Japanese, enormous increase of, 135–140; - its high standard not maintained, 140; - the Treaty of Shimonosaki and Chinese commerce, 236; - transport of goods in China, 240; - the _likin_ system, 240, 241; - total amount of Chinese commerce, 241 - - Confucius’ works studied by the literati, 206; - his views on filial piety, 223 - - Copper-mines, Siberian, 29, 30; - copper exported from Japan, 140 - - Cossacks encounter little opposition, 2; - they traverse Siberia from end to end, 3; - they disappear as hardy pioneers, 3; - the Cossacks of the Vitim region, 12 - - Cotton industry introduced into Japan, 119; - its wonderful progress, 122; - cotton factories in Shanghai, 237; - total amount of cotton imported into China, 241 - - Custom-house duties in Siberia, 33; - in China, 240 - - - D - - Daimios forbidden to enter Kioto, 97; - the five grades, 97, 98; - their initiation enfeebled, 100; - horror of the barbarians, 104; - they recognise the uselessness of opposing the foreigners, 106 - - Dan-no-ura, the naval battle of, 89 - - Dogs, Siberian, like wolves, 18 - - Dutch the only Europeans allowed to traffic with Japan, 95, 96 - - - E - - Education, its backward state in Siberia, 20; - making considerable progress, 40; - education in Japan, 134, 176, 177; - in China, 206–208 - - Electric light in Siberian towns, 40; - in Tokio, 114 - - Emigration from Russia, 44; - its management, 45 - (_see_ also Immigration) - - Empress Dowager and the Palace Revolution, 278; - a clever woman, 278, 279; - her party known as the Russian, 280 - - England (_see_ Britain, Great) - - English attempts to enter Siberia viâ the Arctic Ocean, 61–62; - an English company creates an annual service to Siberia by this - route, 62 - - Ermak Timoféef seizes Sibir, 2 - - Eunuchs, the, 16 - - Examinations, public, in China, 205; - the subjects chosen, 206, 208; - the ‘new Western culture,’ 207, 208 - - Exiles, two classes of, sent to Siberia, 53; - allowed to settle in towns, 54; - occupations, 54; - families allowed to accompany them, 55; - their number in 1894, 55; - the artillery captain at Kluchi, 57 - - - F - - _Feng-shui_ geomancy, Chinese, 209, 225 - - Ferry-boats to convey trains across Lake Baikal, 66, 69 - - Fetish-tree, a, 12 - - Finance, Japanese, brilliant condition before the war, 143, 144; - the programme of expansion, 145; - subvention to Formosa, 146; - large loan required, 146; - scarcity of cash, 147; - a foreign loan, 148; - the revenue of 1897–1898, 149; - increase of taxation, 149; - new sources of revenue, 150; - taxes not really heavy, 150–152; - other possible sources, 151 - - Fir-trees, Siberian, 6, 10 - - Fishing industry, importance of Japanese, 128 - - Flowers, Siberian, 11, 23; - Japanese love of flowers, 133 - - Foreigners, Japanese suspicion of, 178 179; - the commercial treaties, 178–180; - the land tenure difficulty, 180, 181; - foreigners in China, 228; - demand a free hand to trade, 229; - opinion of Chinese about them, 230–233; - before the war, 235, 236; - Treaty of Shimonosaki, 236; - the literati and foreigners, 277 - - Forest Zone, the Great, 5; - its trees, 6; - marshlands and severe climate, 7; - may become of great value, 7; - population, 7 - - Formosa, Japanese subvention to, 146 - - France, why attracted to Tongking, 185; - she co-operates with Russia and against Japan, 247; - her sacrifice in turning from Japan, 249; - Russia endeavours to draw her into warlike demonstrations against - Japan, 250; - ‘advantages’ gained by her intervention, 259, 260, 262; - her treaty with England concerning Tongking, 262; - France the protectress of Catholicism in China, 263; - she suffers a check in China, 264; - more concessions obtained, 272, 273; - the part she ought to play, 288 - - French settlers in Siberia, 15; - the Government generally indulgent towards them, 53 - - Fujiwara family, the, retains the Prime Ministership, 88 - - Fukuzawa, Mr., editor of the _Jiji Shimpo_, 103 - - Furniture, absence of, in Japanese houses, 131 - - Furs, exported from Siberia, 31 - - - G - - Gambling, the national Chinese vice, 224 - - Germany, commerce with Japan, 139; - she co-operates with Russia and France against Japan, 247; - reason for so doing, 249, 250; - small advantages obtained in return, 259; - she seizes Kiao-chau, 268; - constitutes Shan-tung a sphere of interest, 271; - her commerce with China, 286; - better relations with England, 286 - - Glass in Japan, 120 - - Gold-mines, Siberian, in the Forest Zone, 7; - employ relatively few people, 17; - their exploitation and yield, 27, 29; - Government the only buyer of Siberian gold, 28; - bad system of taxation and other drawbacks, 28; - primitive implements used, 28; - the most important veins generally difficult to get at, 28; - mining centre removed to the banks of the Amur and Lena, 29; - exploitation only granted to Russian subjects, 53 - - Great Wall of China, the, 201–203 - - - H - - Hankow, on the Yang-tsze, the great tea mart of China, 34; - projection of a railway from Peking to Hankow, 268 - - _Hara-kiri_, the ferocious custom of, in Japan, 98; - in China, 222 - - Hart, Sir Robert, 240 - - _Heimino_, or commoners of Japan, 99; - _heimino_ in the public offices, 156 - - Henry, Prince, and the ‘mailed fist,’ 269 - - Hideyoshi reduces the daimios to obedience, 91; - orders all missionaries to leave Japan, 94 - - Hien-feng’s hunting excursion, 195 - - High-roads of China, dilapidated condition of the, 199, 203 - - Hitotsubashi, tries to retrieve the Shogunate, 106; - his overthrow, 107 - - Hong-Kong seventeen days from London viâ Siberia, 77; - commerce with Japan, 139; - Chinese in Hong-Kong, 231, 232; - lease of the surrounding heights to England, 273; - her total commerce, 282 - - Horses sometimes difficult to procure on the Siberian postal-road, 21; - their great number in Siberia, 22; - horses in Japan, 128 - - Hu-nan, coal-beds in, 184 - - - I - - Iemitsu enfeebles the initiative of the daimios, 100 - - Ieyas, Tokugawa, rises to power, 92; - he reduces the Court to poverty, 97; - creates divergencies among the daimios, 99; - and revives the Chinese classics, 100 - - Immigrants into Siberia almost exclusively peasants, 45; - Tobolsk a great meeting-place for them, 45; - the routes taken, 45; - length of the journey, 46; - refuges erected for their accommodation, 46; - those coming from same districts grouped together, 46; - regulations for their settlement 46, 47; - small advances made to them, 47; - where they settle, 47; - many return again to Russia, 48 - - Imperial canal, Chinese, ruinous condition of the, 203 - - Indemnity, Chinese War, 145; - paid in gold, 146, _note_; - the Liao-tung indemnity, 251–252 - - India more advanced than China, 185 - - Industries, Japanese, 118; - fancy goods, 119; - glass, brushes, and foundries, 120; - jute carpet and match industries, 121; - enormous progress of cotton, 122; - Japanese own all their own industries, 122, 123; - scarcity of workmen, 123; - abuses in the employment of women, 123; - hours of labour, 123; - holidays, 124; - increase of wages, 124; - diminution of capital, 124; - fisheries, 128; - Chinese industries, 237; - women employés, 238; - their wages, 238, 239; - industries limited to the free ports, 240 - - Infanticide in China, 221 - - Inland Sea, the, of Japan, 112; - its light-houses, 112 - - Inundations in Siberia, 59 - - _Iourdis_, or Kirghiz huts, 46 - - Irbit, the great fair at, 35 - - Irkutsk, difference between the Customs on tea at Odessa and Irkutsk, - 36; - total Customs in 1896, 37; - population, 38; - the theatre, 41; - Irkutsk once capital of Siberia, 42; - its excellent beer, 54; - Government of, population in 1897, 12, 13; - number of immigrants annually, 47 - - Iron mines, Siberian, 27, 30 - - _Isbas_, the, or Siberian peasants’ cottages, 18; - interior ornamentation, 23 - - Islamism professed by the Kirghiz, 10 - - Ito, Marquis, 160,162; - the Ito programme, 144, 145 - - Ivan the Terrible, 1; - grants the Strogonofs trading privileges, 2 - - - J - - Japan, the Black Current, 5; - her transformation, 81, 82; - European scepticism as to military success, 82; - early history, 83; - its settlement, 84; - introduction of Chinese civilization, 86; - also of Buddhism, the silkworm, etc., 86; - resemblance of the adoption of Chinese civilization in the seventh - with that of European in the nineteenth century, 87; - the system of heredity, 87, 88; - real authority very rarely vested in the man supposed to exercise it, - 88; - feudalism established, 88; - dissensions in the Government, 88; - the Government overthrown by Yoritomo, 89; - increasing power of the daimios, 89; - the Shogunate, 89, 90; - non-interference of the Mikado in the Government, 90; - civil wars, 90; - pitiable condition of Japan at the beginning of the sixteenth - century, 90, 91; - suppression of the independence of the nobles, 91; - Ieyas rises to power, 92; - arrival of the Portuguese in Japan, 92; - St. Francis Xavier introduces Christianity, 93; - great progress made by it, 93, 94; - material progress, 94; - Hideyoshi orders all missionaries to leave Japan, 94, 95; - Christianity extirpated in Japan and exclusion of foreign influence, - 95; - Dutch and Chinese only allowed to trade with Japan, 95, 96; - the three ancient classes of the people, 97–99; - the daimios divided by Ieyas among themselves, 99; - Japan under the Tokugawas, 100; - again under Chinese influences, 100; - the causes of the Revolution of 1868 deep-rooted, 101; - decline of the Shogunate, 101; - penetration of Western ideas into Japan, 102; - the United States demands the opening of the ports, 103; - ports opened, 104; - overthrow of the Shogunate, 104–107; - necessity of adopting Western civilization in all branches perceived, - 107; - sweeping reforms, 108; - removal of the Court to Tokio, 108; - the Satsuma insurrection, 108; - modern Japan, 109; - religious toleration, 111; - Japan the Great Britain of the Far East, 118; - her industries, 118–124; - essentially an agricultural country, 125; - agricultural products, 125, 126, 129, 130; - scenery, 126; - density of the rural population, 126; - small area of cultivable land, 127, 128; - scarcity of domestic animals, 128; - education, 134; - increase of the population, 134; - foreign commerce, 135–140; - trade despised in ancient Japan, 140; - brilliant condition of her finances before the war, 143, 144; - extensive programme of expansion, 144, 145; - large loan required to meet same, 146; - a foreign loan, 148; - taxation, 150–152; - instability of Parliaments, 154; - the clan spirit in modern Japan, 156; - the Parliamentary system, 156–163; - importance of Japan’s military forces, 165; - her coal, 167; - Japan China’s best friend, 167; - her friendship for England and distrust of Russia, 168; - colonizing ambitions, 170; - her thorough transformation, 174; - refusal to accept Christianity, 174; - the civil status, 175; - railway and post 176; - carelessness and unpunctuality, 177; - inexperience, 178; - hostility to foreigners, 178; - renewal of the commercial treaties, 178–180; - land tenure, 180; - her foreign missions, 182; - Japan more advanced than China, 185; - the Treaty of Shimonosaki, 228; - England suddenly favours Japan, 244; - Japan leaves Liao-tung in consequence of the demand by Russia, - France, and Germany, 247; - her fears of Russia, 247, 251; - Russia’s warlike intentions against Japan, 250; - China desires an alliance, 251; - compensation for leaving Liao-tung, 251, 252; - Japan’s high-handed policy in Korea, 256, 257; - agreement with Russia regarding Korea, 258; - Japan prepares for a conflict with Russia, 267; - her commerce with China, 284; - good relations with China, 285 - - Japanese in Vladivostok, 50; - origin of the Japanese, 84; - quite distinct from the Chinese, 85, 171; - the early Japanese, 85; - the Shinto religion, 85; - their power of assimilation, 93; - costumes, 111, 115, 132; - proud of their victory over the Chinese, 112; - their houses, 114, 115; - the children, 115, 116; - European costume, 116; - their industries in their own hands, 122, 123; - their food, 130; - dwellings of the peasantry, 131; - disuse of furniture, 131; - freedom of the women, 132; - artistic instinct of the Japanese, 132; - cost of living, 133; - charges brought against merchants, 140; - Japanese do not yet understand the value of time, 141; - the three classes of society not exclusive, 155; - indifference to politics, 163; - their hardiness, 166; - lack of inventiveness, 177; - attention to detail, 177; - unpunctuality, 177; - indifference to death, 221 - - Jews in Siberia, 15 - - Jimmu-Tenno, first Emperor of Japan, 83, 84 - - Jinrikisha, the, in Japan, 116; - the fares, 117; - in China, 189 - - Junks, Japanese, rapidly disappearing, 112 - - Jute carpet-making at Osaka, 121 - - - K - - _Kaborski tchaï_, the, 9 - - Kagoshima bombarded by the British, 106 - - Kainsk, the Jerusalem of Siberia, 15 - - Kaiping, coal-mines at, 189 - - Kalmucks, the, 10 - - Kami, or superior beings, 85 - - Kamtchatka reached by the Cossacks Alexief and Dezhnief, 3 - - Kang-Yu-Wei, the Reformer, 278; - his party known as the Anglo-Japanese, 280 - - Kansk, the refuges for immigrants at, 46 - - Kara Sea, navigation only possible during six weeks, 62 - - Kazan, the Tatar kingdom, annexed by Russia, 1 - - Khabarof, the Ataman, establishes himself on the Amur, 3 - - Khabarofsk, the military element at, 39; - its few women, 51, 52 - - Kiakhta, tea passing through, 32; - the three parts of the town, 32 - - Kiao-chau seized by the Germans, 268; - made a free port, 286 - - Kioto, feudal princes never allowed to enter, 97; - Court removed from Kioto to Tokio, 108; - population, 118; - industries, 121 - - Kirghiz Steppes crossed by the Russians in 1847, 3 - - Kirghiz tribe, the, 10; - number and religion, 10; - they export their cattle to Europe, 22 - - Kiu-Siu settled by Mongolian pirates, 84 - - Kobylkas, the, 25 - - Korea, Japan has a free hand in, 246; - Russian activity, 256; - high-handed conduct of the Japanese, 256; - murder of the Queen, 257; - Russia’s offer of service, 257; - the agreement between Russia and Japan, 258; - Russia renounces active intervention in Korea, 272 - - Koreans settled in and about Vladivostok, 13, 50–53; - Koreans introduce the art of writing into Japan, 86 - - Kowloon, the peninsula of, ceded to England, 273 - - Krasnoyarsk, the theatre at, 41; - the English-Siberian Company establishes an agency at, 62 - - Kuang-Su, Emperor of China, 277; - his reforming tendencies, 278 - - Kuznetsk attractive to Siberian immigrants, 47 - - - L - - Lamuts, the, 6 - - Land-owners, rich, greatly needed in Siberia, 26 - - Land tenure in Japan, 180 - - Larches, great height of the, 6 - - Leather, Russian, imported into Siberia, 26 - - Lena, River, discovered in 1637, 3 - - Letters, time occupied to reach the Far East shortened by one-half by - the Trans-Siberian Railway, 79 - - Liao-ho, River, 73 - - Liao-tung, peninsula of, the Japanese ordered to quit, 247; - Japan receives compensation for same, 251, 252; - Russia obtains the peninsula, 271, 272 - - Li-Hsi, King of Korea, his vacillating conduct, 257 - - Li Hung-Chang commences the Peking Railway, 189; - his immense fortune, 217; - Li and the war settlement, 251; - his tour to Europe a sort of punishment, 267; - he returns to power, 278 - - _Likin_, or Chinese inland Customs, total amount, 219; - a pernicious system, 240, 241 - - Literati, the, 204; - the three honorary degrees, 205; - the public examinations, 205; - syndicate for helping them on, 206; - the subjects they are examined in, 206; - no progress to be expected from them, 211; - their hatred of foreigners, 232, 233, 277 - - Littoral province annexed by Russia, 13; - population, 13, 51; - immigrants arriving by sea, 44; - preponderance of the male over the female sex, 51; - Russians only slightly in the majority, 52 - - London, distance to Vladivostok and Port Arthur, 76 - - - M - - Manchu Dynasty, the, dethrones the Mings, 199 - - Manchuria, Chinese activity in, 52; - Russians exploring Manchuria, 66, 67; - Chinese Manchuria, 73 - - Manchurian Railway, China allows Russia to build the, 67; - cannot be completed in contracted time, 67; - absolutely in Russia’s hands, 71; - its length, 72, 73; - difficulties to be overcome in construction, 73; - great political importance, 74; - Port Arthur the terminus, 74; - its cost, 75 - - Manchus, the, oppose the Russians in Siberia, 3; - they prosper in the Amur and Littoral provinces, 13; - number, 51 - - Mandarinate, the, never acclimatized in Japan, 87; - the curse of China, 204; - not hereditary, 205; - therefore the more pernicious, 209; - cowardice of the military mandarins, 223; - hatred of foreigners, 232, 233; - looks upon China as a prey, 248 - - Marshlands on the banks of the Obi and the Irtysh, 7 - - Match industry, Japanese, 121 - - Merchants, Siberian, 17; - charges brought against Japanese merchants, 140; - merchants in ancient Japan, 141; - honesty of Chinese merchants, 240 - - Mikado, almost a god, 85; - Imperial self-effacement, 88, 90; - the Court reduced to absolute poverty, 97; - the Imperial family universally respected, 103; - agreement with the south-western clans against the Shogun, 104; - the Mikado refuses to acknowledge the Shogun, 105; - he ratifies the treaties of 1865, 106 - - Milk, excellent, in Siberia, 22 - - Millet in China, 199 - - Mings, Tombs of the, 199, 200 - - Minusinsk, the centre of settlement in Siberia, 48 - - _Mir_ system introduced in Siberia, 24 - - Missionaries, female, 230; - Chinese superstitions regarding missionaries, 232 - - Moji, rapidly rivalling Nagasaki, 112 - - Mongolia, Russian, 12 - - Mongolian pirates settle in Kiu-Siu, 84 - - Mongols, the Kalmuck, 10 - - Mosque, the northernmost in the world at Tomsk, 10 - - Mosquitoes, troublesome, in Siberia, 9 - - Mouravief-Amurski, Count, favours the Trans-Siberian Railway, 64 - - Mujiks, 10 - (_see_ also Siberians) - - - N - - Nagasaki, Christians in, 94; - Nagasaki the only port left open to European commerce, 96; - penetration of Western ideas into Japan through Nagasaki, 102; - its scenery, 110; - the chief coaling port on the Pacific, 111 - - Nan-kow, 201 - - Natives of the Tundra Zone, 16; - declining tribes, 13, 52 - - Navy, Japanese, strengthened, 141; - its importance, 165 - - Nertchinsk, treaty of, 3; - corn ripens there, 8; - the silver mines now of little value, 29; - now merely a huge village, 39 - - Newspapers, Japanese, 163 - - Nicholas II. stops transportation into Siberia, 53 - - Nikko, magnificent temples at, 202 - - Niu-chwang, railway being laid to; - the Niu-chwang Railway affair, 275 - - Nobunaga Ota seizes the government, 91 - - - O - - Oats, 7, 24 - - Obi, climate in its upper valley, 21; - gold-mines exhausted in its basin, 29; - the Upper Obi attracts most Siberian immigrants, 47; - stores landed at the mouth of the Obi, 62; - canal between the Obi and the Yenissei, 65 - - Odessa, enormous Customs on tea at, 36 - - Okhotsk, the, discovered, 3; - native tribes in the region of the, 52 - - Olekma, a tributary of the Lena, 7 - - Omsk, situation of, 38; - the Trans-Siberian Railway, 45 - - Opium-smoking in China, 225, 241 - - Opium War, the, 228 - - Orthodox Church, Kirghiz converted to the, 10; - it abstains from propaganda in China, 248 - - Osaka, the Manchester of Japan, 118; - its industries, 119–121; - construction of a new harbour, 120 - - Ostiaka, the, 6; - their origin, 10 - - _Ostrogs_, or Siberian block-houses, 3 - - - P - - Paris, distance to Vladivostok and Port Arthur, 76; - also to Tokio, 77 - - Parliaments, Japanese, instability of, 154; - composition of the two Chambers, 157, 158, _note_; - opposition to the clan Cabinets, 157–159; - a dissolution, 159; - the various parties, 160, 161; - signs of improvement, 162, 163 - - Pe-chi-li, Gulf of, Russia dominates the, 74; - its flatness, 188 - - Peking, the railway at, 77; - the city and walls, 191, 192; - street scenes, 192, 193; - shops, 193; - the main thoroughfares and side streets, 194; - houses, 194; - scene from the walls, 195; - insolence of the people to foreigners, 195; - monuments, 195, 196; - its decay, 196; - the environs, 199; - entry of the Allies into Peking, 228; - projection of a railway to Hankow, 268 - - _Père Marquette_, size of the, 69 - - Peter the Great’s wish to extend Russia westwards, 3 - - Petersburg, St., distance to Vladivostok and Port Arthur, 76 - - Petroleum, use of, by the Japanese, 114 - - Pigs non-existent in Japan, 120 - - Pine-trees, Siberian, 6, 11 - - Pinto, Fernan Mendez, the Portuguese navigator, arrives in Japan, 92 - - ‘Pity of the Slav,’ the, 21 - - Podorojne, the official passport for Siberia, 58 - - Population, Siberian, in 1851, 3, 4; - in 1897, 4, 13; - superiority of the Russians in Western Siberia, 10; - in the Amur and Littoral, 13, 14; - Asiatics in the Amur, 49; - annual increase of the population, 55; - rural population of Japan, 126, 127; - its annual increase, 134; - population of China, 213, 214, _note_ - - Port Arthur better placed than Vladivostok, 49; - to be the principal terminus of the Trans-Siberian Railway, 67; - its distance from the European capitals, 76; - Russia obtains the lease of Port Arthur, 271; - it is weakened by Wei-hai-wei, 273 - - Ports, Chinese, 188 - - Portuguese, first appearance in Japan, 92; - great influx of the, 93 - - Postal-road of Siberia, the, 11; - its animation, 21; - horses sometimes difficult to obtain, 21; - eight large towns situated on it, 38; - cost of travelling, 57, 58; - fairly well kept, 58; - its monotony past Lake Baikal, 58 - - Postal service, Japanese, cheapness of the, 176 - - Post-stations, Siberian, each provided with forty horses, 21; - the postmaster at Kluchi, 57; - their appearance, 60; - uncleanliness, 61 - - Potatoes in Japan, 130 - - Powers’ change of tone towards China after the war, 185; - their surprise at China’s downfall, 243 - - Protestants not tolerated in Russia, 14, 15; - their churches in all large Siberian towns, 15 - - - R - - Railway loan, Japanese, 145; - extension of lines, 150; - cheapness of fares, 176; - railway concessions granted by China, 267, 268 - - Raskolniks, the, 16 - - Reindeer, the, in Northern Siberia, 6 - - Religion, Japan refuses to accept our, 174; - the Chinese and our religion, 230 - - Restaurants on the Trans-Siberian Railway, 78, 79 - - Rice, cultivation of, in Japan, 126; - annual production, 129; - its preponderance, 130; - commerce in, 138 - - Rivers of Siberia covered for months by ice, 4; - villages on the banks of the most important, 11; - Chinese rivers, 188 - - Russia, expansion eastwards, 1; - abandons the lower Amur, 3; - her colonization, 4; - the Empire as a gold-producing centre, 27; - overland commerce with China, 32; - population, 43; - emigration, 44; - her subjects only allowed to work the Siberian gold-mines, 53; - concessions to the English-Siberian Company, 62; - allowed by China to build the Manchurian Railway, 67; - which is absolutely in the hands of Russia, 71; - Japan’s distrust of, 168; - her new policy in China, 186; - Russia displeased by the war, 245; - desires an outlet to the sea, 245; - she covets North China, 246; - Russia, France, and Germany order Japan to quit Liao-tung, 247; - Japan’s fear of Russia, 247; - better liked than any other European Power by China, 248; - her warlike intentions against Japan, 250; - China becomes alarmed of Russia, 251; - her influence in the war settlement, 251, 252; - Russia stands guarantee for China, 255; - her activity in Korea, 256; - offer of service to Korea, 257; - agreement with Japan in Korea, 258; - Russia’s preponderating influence, 258, 259; - she obtains the lease of Port Arthur, 271, 272; - danger of war with England, 272; - the Niu-chwang Railway affair, 275; - Russia’s interests in China political, 286 - - Russians, their religious toleration, 14; - manner of taking tea, 31, 32; - prejudice against tea conveyed by sea, 34; - Russians naturally sociable, 59; - their nomadic habits, 70 - - Russo-Chinese Bank established, 255, 256 - - - S - - Saigon, 77 - - Saigon, Marshal, quells the Satsuma insurrection, 108 - - _Saké_, the Japanese drink, 130, 131 - - Sakhalin, Island of, population, 13; - inveterate criminals sent to, 54 - - Samoyeds, the, 6; - their number, 10 - - _Samourai_, the, 6; - become hereditary, 90; - their position in ancient Japan, 98; - opposed to the Shogunate, 101; - correspondence between certain _samourai_ and Europeans, 102; - wearing of the two swords prohibited, 108; - public offices in their hands, 156 - - Satsumata-Choshiu combination, the, 156, 157; - its rule, 161, 162 - - Sayan Mountains, the, 12 - - Scenery of Central Siberia, 9 - - Selenga River, 12 - - Serfdom never existed in Siberia, 20 - - Shanghai two days from Port Arthur, 77; - the town, 235; - industrial activity at, 237; - railway to Woosung, 268 - - Shan-tung, coal-beds in, 184; - Germany constitutes Shan-tung a sphere of interest, 271 - - Sheep unknown in Japan, 128 - - Shimonosaki, Strait of, 112; - treaty of, 228; - Article 6, 236, 246 - - Shintoism, 85; - its rites, 86 - - Shogunate, the, 89, 90; - the _kammong_ daimios allied to the Shogunate, 99; - the southern clans dangerous to it, 100; - its decline, 101; - frightened at America’s demand for the opening of the ports, 104; - its enemies, 104; - powerlessness, 105; - its abasement, 105; - last bid for power, 106; - and total overthrow, 107 - - Siberia, its conquest by Russia, 2; - treated as a penal settlement, 3; - opened to colonization, 3; - population, 3, 4, 13, 55; - Siberia compared with Canada, 4, 5, 55; - its rivers, 4; - climate, 5, 25; - the three zones, 5–7; - its scenery, 9, 11, 12; - conditions of existence better in Siberia than in Russia, 9; - the Russian population in the West, 10; - religious toleration, 14–16; - Siberia a prolongation of Russia, 15, 17, 49; - absence of great landlords, 17, 26; - land rented to farmers, 18; - primitive methods of cultivation, 21, 25; - domestic animals, 22; - the more populous regions, 23; - land tenure, 24; - lack of means of communication, 25; - mineral wealth, 27–29; - limited industries, 30; - the tea traffic, 31; - other commerce, 37; - towns, 38, 39; - immigration, 43–48; - transportation of convicts, 53–55; - what is needed, 55; - loneliness of the country, 58; - inundations, 59; - a cross-country journey, 61; - Siberia entered by the Arctic Ocean, 61–63; - trade between England and Siberia, 62; - the Ural Railway, 65; - trans-continent river and rail system fails, 65, 66; - the Trans-Siberian Railway, 66–75; - the transformation it will effect, 79, 80 - - Siberians, conditions of peasant life, 9, 10; - better off in Siberia than in Russia, 18; - their ignorance of hygiene, 18; - apathy of the peasants, 19; - their favourite texts from Scripture, 20; - the ‘pity of the Slav,’ 21; - the traffic on the postal-road, 21; - ignorance of the peasants of agricultural science, 24, 25; - rich, 41; - do not like the new railway, 42; - nor immigration, 46; - their resignation, 59 - - Sibir, Tobolsk erected on its site, 2 - - Silk imported into Siberia, 37; - Chinese silk exported, 241 - - Silver mines, Siberian, 28 - - Stanovoi Mountains, the, 47 - - Stretensk on the Amur, 25 - - Strogonofs obtain trading concessions, 2 - - Suiko, Empress, 87 - - Sungari River, 73, 74 - - Summer Palace, the, 202, 203 - - Sze-chuan, coal-beds of, 184 - - - T - - Tarantass, the, 57 - - Tatar, kingdoms annexed, 1; - Tatar driven southwards, 2; - the Kirghiz, 10–22; - Tatar women in China, 193 - - Taxes, Japanese, 150, 151; - Chinese, 218, 219 - - Tea, traffic in Siberia, 31; - routes taken, 32, 35; - tea passing through Kiakhta, 33; - duty, 33, 36, 37, _note_; - Hankow the great tea mart in China, 34; - Nijni-Novgorod, 35; - difficulties of transport, 36; - its value, 36; - total amount exported from China, 241 - - Telega, the, 45 - - Telephone, the, in Siberia, 40; - in Tokio, 114 - - Temples, Chinese, 202 - - Theatres, Siberian, 41 - - Tien-tsin, the railway at, 77, 189; - the town, 189; - inundations, 190; - the Treaty of Tien-tsin, 228; - industry at, 237 - - Tiumen, 11 - - Tobacco introduced by the Portuguese into Japan, 94; - its cultivation, 130 - - Tobolsk, its erection, 2; - the ancient capital of Siberia, 38; - a meeting-place for immigrants, 45 - - Tobolsk, the Government of, 10; - population, 13; - education in, 20, 23; - excellent soil, 24; - number of immigrants, 47 - - Tokio, distance to Vladivostok, 77; - removal of the Court to, 108; - railway to Yokohama opened, 108; - population, 113; - its up-to-datedness, 114; - fires, 114, 115; - means of getting about, 116; - badly lighted, 117 - - Tokugawa, the, 100 - - Tomsk, the mosque at, 10; - the neighbouring country, 11; - population, 38; - its new university, 40; - theatre, 41 - - Tomsk, Government of, population, 13, 23; - excellent soil, 24; - number of immigrants annually, 47 - - Tongking, its copper-mines attract the French to, 185; - Customs lowered, 260; - poor country in the neighbourhood, 262 - - Towns, absence of large, in Siberia, 38; - those along the highroad, 39; - their appearance, etc., 39–41 - - Trans-Baikalia, climate, 5; - scenery, 12; - population, 13; - Buddhists, 51 - - Trans-Siberian Railway, 10; - destined to revolutionize Siberia, 42, 56; - why originally designed, 64, 65; - the Ural Railway, 65; - Alexander III. decrees its execution, 66; - how it will cross Lake Baikal, 66, 69; - length, 66, 73; - the Manchurian section, 67; - its construction easy, 67, 68; - bridges, 68; - workmen, 70; - its cost, 70; - distance viâ the Trans-Siberian Railway to the Far East, 76; - the _train-de-luxe_, 77; - journey to the Far East much shortened by it, 77; - fares, 78; - restaurants, 78, 79; - too expensive for heavy merchandise, 79; - facilities for forwarding letters to the East, 79; - Russia awaiting its completion, 259 - - Treaties, Japanese commercial, 178–180; - treaties respecting foreigners in China, 228 - - Treaty Ports, list of Chinese, 234, _note_; - Shanghai, 235, 237–239; - industries limited to them, 240 - - Trees of Siberia, 6 - - Troitskosavsk, 32, 33 - - Troops, Russian, in the East, 13, 166 - - Tundra Zone, the, of Siberia, 5; - area and population, 6 - - Turki population of Siberia, 14 - - - U - - United States demand the opening of Japanese ports, 103; - their commerce with China, 284 - - University at Tomsk, the, 40 - - Ural Railway opened in 1880, 60 - - - V - - Vegetables not cultivated in Siberia, 19 - - Verkhoyansk, its severe climate, 6 - - Villages of Siberia, 11; - resemblance to those of Russia, 18; - Japanese villages, 131 - - Vitim, military government of, 12 - - Vladivostok, the sea covered with ice in winter, 5; - the military element at, 38; - Vladivostok not so good as Port Arthur, 49; - the town and harbour, 49; - population, 50; - the journey to, 56; - main terminus of the Trans-Siberian Railway removed to Port Arthur, - 67; - Vladivostok a point of vantage, 74; - distance from Vladivostok to the European capitals, 76; - to Tokio, 77; - Chinese in, 232 - - Voltaire’s idea of a Siberian highroad, 64 - - - W - - Wages in China, increase of, 238, 239 - - Wei-hai-wei ceded to England, 273 - - Western civilization not a monopoly of one race, 172 - - Wheat in Siberia, 7, 24; - in China, 199 - - Wiggins, Captain, enters the mouth of the Yenissei, 62 - - Witte, M. de, chief promoter of the Manchurian Railway, 71; - his successful Chinese financial policy, 255 - - Women, Japanese, freedom of, 132; - Chinese, 193; - they never work in the field, 199; - binding of their feet, 221; - their unhappy lot when married, 224; - immorality, 224 - - Women and children employed in Japanese match factories, 121; - their unhealthy lodgings, 123; - conditions of labour, 123, 124; - women and children in Shanghai, 237, 238; - their wages, 237 - - Wood, very dear in China, 34; - used for architectural purposes, 202 - - - X - - Xavier, St. Francis, visits Japan, 91; - introduces Christianity there, 93 - - - Y - - Yablonovoi Mountains, the, 67 - - Yang-tsze-Kiang, dense population of the valley of the, 184; - no part of its basin ever to be ceded, 271 - - Yakutsk, climate, 6; - population, 13; - the eunuchs, 16 - - ‘Yellow Peril,’ the, 186, 239; - if Japan and China united, 246 - - Yellow River, coal-beds on the banks of the, 184; - its mouth, 188 - - Yenissei, Government of the population, 12, 13; - immigrants, 47, 48 - - Yenissei River, its mouth reached in 1636, 3; - gold-mines near it, 7; - its beauty, 11; - Captain Wiggins enters it in 1874, 61, 62; - canal between the Yenissei and the Obi, 65 - - Yokohama, railway opened to, 108; - the third port in the Far East, 113 - - Yoritomo overthrows the Taira, 89; - his ingratitude, 89; - first Shogun, 89 - - Yoshitsune wins the Battle of Dan-no-ura, 89; - his adventures and death, 89 - - Yunnan, copper-mines of, 184; - a poor province, 261 - - - Z - - Zaïmka system in Siberia, the, 24 - ------ - -Footnote 1: - - Mr. Richard Davey is responsible for the translation of this work, but - I have added a footnote here and there (signed by my initials), and I - have revised the spelling of the proper names to bring them into - accordance with English usage. To forestall the charge of - inconsistency, I may say that I have acted on the principle generally - adopted in the spelling of European proper names, that is, I have - retained improper spellings consecrated by long custom—for instance, - Chefoo, Suchow, Hankow, Kowloon, just as we write Florence, Munich, - Naples, Moscow. But names not yet regularly Europeanized I have - spelled according to a consistent and more reasonable system of - transliteration-as Kiao-chau, Pe-chi-li, Kwei-chau. The French - spelling of Chinese proper names looks very strange to an English eye, - and would convey a wholly false impression to an English ear. - -Footnote 2: - - The _Times_, September 13th, 1900. - -Footnote 3: - - For example, the writer signing himself ‘Diplomaticus’ in the - _Fortnightly Review_ for September, 1900, airily dismisses as - ‘illusions’ the belief that ‘China was gradually crumbling to ruin, - that she was incapable of organized resistance to the foreigner, that - her millions were unconscious of a national spirit and incapable of - progress.’ Each one of these ‘illusions’ is an elementary fact about - China, except so far as foreign help and guidance may alter it. - -Footnote 4: - - The _Times_ special correspondent, September 11th, 1900. - -Footnote 5: - - Written especially for the American edition by the author. - -Footnote 6: - - The position of the Manchu Dynasty in China is somewhat analogous to - that of the Shogunate in Japan, which was also caught some forty years - ago between the national sentiment and the foreigner. But in Japan, - when the Shogunate fell, there remained the divine Emperor, whose - prestige covered all the reforms which enlightened statesmen carried - out. In China, after the Manchu Dynasty, nothing remains but chaos. - -Footnote 7: - - ‘Yermak,’ the millstone, was the nickname given to Vassil, son of - Timothy, a tracker of the Volga, because he ground the corn for his - party. He was not a Cossack by birth, but joined the Don Cossack - pirates.—H. N. - -Footnote 8: - - The import of Ceylon tea into Russia is already large, and is - increasing rapidly.—H. N. - -Footnote 9: - - All that part of Siberia situated east of Baikalia forms a sort of - neutral ground free of the Custom-house. Only spirits, tobacco, sugar, - mineral oils, lucifer matches, and in general all articles of the same - character which are subject to excise duty in Siberia proper, pay - Custom-house duties when they are sent for sale to the Siberian ports - on the Pacific. All other goods have only to pay ‘customs’ if they are - forwarded to parts of the Empire west of Baikalia, and these are paid - at Irkutsk, through which everything is obliged to pass. Tea going - from Kiakhta pays duty at Irkutsk. - -Footnote 10: - - By means of an ice-breaking steamer vessels are now able to leave or - enter Vladivostok harbour at any time. - -Footnote 11: - - The Tsar appointed a Commission to inquire into the whole question of - transportation to Siberia, with a view to its cessation. The - Commission is now understood to have reported in this sense.—H. N. - -Footnote 12: - - The author is misinformed here. The _Baikal_, the great ice-breaking, - train-carrying steamer, and the _Angara_, a smaller passenger-boat, - have both been designed, constructed, and set up on Lake Baikal by Sir - W. G. Armstrong, Whitworth and Co., Ltd., of Newcastle-on-Tyne.—H. N. - -Footnote 13: - - The official estimate of the total cost of the railway is over - £80,000,000, of which over £50,000,000 were spent by the end of - 1899.—H. N. - -Footnote 14: - - This train has been running for a year as far as Irkutsk.—H. N. - -Footnote 15: - - A _koku_ equals 4·95 bushels. - -Footnote 16: - - In 1899 (to December 25) 423,646,605 yen or £42,364,660.—H. N. - -Footnote 17: - - The Japanese took care to stipulate that the indemnity should be paid - in gold at the exchange of the tael in 1895, which allowed them to - know exactly on what amount of money they could count, which was of - extreme importance to them, Japan having adopted the gold standard, - and the greater part of the indemnity being destined to be spent in - purchases in Europe and the United States. - -Footnote 18: - - Many of the daimios, whose personal property was very small, are now - extremely poor. The largest fortunes in Japan are those of the - merchants and bankers, who under the old regime used to hide their - wealth to avoid taxation. - -Footnote 19: - - The Japanese Parliament is composed of two Chambers—the House of - Lords, or Peers, to which belong (1) the Princes of the Blood (13); - (2) all the Princes and Marquises (40); (3) such representatives as - are elected for seven years by the Counts, Viscounts, and Barons - (123); (4) members who are nominated for life by the Emperor (100); - (5) members elected, one for each department, and selected from among - the fifteen more important personages of the department over thirty - years of age (45). The Chamber of Deputies is composed of 300 members, - one for every 128,000 inhabitants, and is elected by all Japanese - subjects over twenty-five years of age who have resided in an - electoral district for a term of twelve months, and who pay 30s. - direct taxes. To be elected, the candidate must be over thirty years - of age and fulfil the same conditions as above. The heads of noble - families can neither be electors nor elected to the Lower Chamber. In - 1895 there were 467,887 voters (11 per 1,000 inhabitants), and in all - 517,130 persons (12 per 1,000), paying more than 30s. direct taxes. - Among the first class there were 21,070, and among the second class - 25,405 _shizoku_, or ancient _samurai_, from which fact we may take it - for granted that there are fewer rich men among the ancient _samurai_ - than among the rest of the population. As to the nobles, so-called - _kwazoku_, at least a third of the heads of noble families pay less - than 30s. The proportion of _shizoku_ among those having the right of - vote is less than 5 per cent. - -Footnote 20: - - In normal times, before the exceptional augmentation of the effective - resulting from the events of 1898, England had in the Far East only - twenty-six vessels, and even now her fleet is still inferior to that - of Japan. - -Footnote 21: - - At the present time the Russian troops in Manchuria and the Lower Amur - do not exceed 60,000 men. - -Footnote 22: - - ‘Politics and Peoples of the Far East.’ London: Fisher Unwin. 1895. - -Footnote 23: - - The population of China has been very variously estimated. There exist - official statistics, but the question is, what faith can be placed in - them? The ‘Statesman’s Year Book,’ which is generally well informed, - returns 383,000,000 for China Proper, and 402,000,000 for the entire - Empire. Some travellers, however, are of opinion that these figures - should be greatly modified, and hold that the correct medium is - between 200,000,000 and 250,000,000, because the mountainous regions - are very thinly populated, and travellers erroneously form an opinion - from the condition of the valleys through which they pass, which are - generally densely populated. - -Footnote 24: - - Quoted by Mr. Henry Norman, ‘Peoples and Politics of the Far East.’ - -Footnote 25: - - The admirable and even gallant conduct of the Chinese Regiment from - Wei-hai-wei under its British officers in the recent severe fighting - about Tien-tsin affords a striking confirmation of M. Leroy-Beaulieu’s - words.—H.N. - -Footnote 26: - - The following is the list of the Treaty Ports: To the north of the - Blue River, Niu-chwang, Tien-tsin, Chefoo, and near the mouth of the - river Shanghai and its annex, Wusung. On the Yang-tsze-Kiang: - Chin-Kiang, Nanking, Wuhu, Kiu-kiang, Sha-shi, Hankow, It-chang, - Chung-king—in all eight river stations, of which Nanking is not really - ‘open,’ although mentioned in the French treaty of Tien-tsin. Not far - from Shanghai is Suchow, on the inland canals. On the coast south of - the Blue River are Hangchow, Ning-po, Wenchow, Foochow, Amoy, Swatow. - At the mouth of the West River is Canton, and higher up the river - Samshui, Wuchow, and since the spring of 1899 Nanning-fu. On the Gulf - of Tongking: Pakhui, and in the island of Hainan, Hoi-how. The open - towns on the frontier of Indo-China are: Lung-chau, Mongtse, Ho Kau, - Szemao, Tchoun-ning-fu, and a sixth, Tong-hing, is not as yet - occupied. The open ports were in 1842, according to the Treaty of - Nanking, only five in number, but were increased by the treaty of - Tien-tsin to nineteen; others were opened by the treaty of Shimonosaki - in 1895, and by the convention with England signed in 1897. A more - recent treaty with this Power (1898) promises, but without fixed date, - however, the opening of three new ports: Kin-chau in Manchuria, - Fu-ning in Fo-kien, and Yo-chau in Hu-nan (opened in December, 1899). - -Footnote 27: - - The story of the improper salute was a newspaper fiction. No - foundation for it has ever been adduced. The ‘threats’ after the - sinking of the _Kow-Shing_ were wholly unofficial, and the matter was - referred to arbitration by the two Governments.—H. N. - -Footnote 28: - - It is to be regretted that the author does not give the name of the - newspaper in which he read this ludicrous utterance; we should - doubtless then see that it is far from representative of British - opinion.—H. N. - -Footnote 29: - - M. Leroy-Beaulieu cannot seriously believe that the independence of - China is threatened by Great Britain. British policy is, as it always - has been, to maintain her independence by every means.—H. N. - - - - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - -Transcriber’s note: - - 1. Silently corrected typographical errors and variations in spelling. - - 2. Anachronistic, non-standard, and uncertain spellings retained as - printed. - - 3. Footnotes have been re-indexed using numbers and collected together - at the end of the last chapter. - - 4. 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- clear: both; - font-weight: bold; - font-size: 190%; - margin-top: 0em; - margin-bottom: 1em; - word-spacing: 0em; - letter-spacing: 0em; - line-height: 1; } - h2.pgx { text-align: center; - clear: both; - font-weight: bold; - font-size: 135%; - margin-top: 2em; - margin-bottom: 1em; - word-spacing: 0em; - letter-spacing: 0em; - line-height: 1; } - h3.pgx { text-align: center; - clear: both; - font-weight: bold; - font-size: 110%; - margin-top: 2em; - margin-bottom: 1em; - word-spacing: 0em; - letter-spacing: 0em; - line-height: 1; } - h4.pgx { text-align: center; - clear: both; - font-weight: bold; - font-size: 100%; - margin-top: 2em; - margin-bottom: 1em; - word-spacing: 0em; - letter-spacing: 0em; - line-height: 1; } - hr.pgx { width: 100%; - margin-top: 3em; - margin-bottom: 0em; - margin-left: auto; - margin-right: auto; - height: 4px; - border-width: 4px 0 0 0; /* remove all borders except the top one */ - border-style: solid; - border-color: #000000; - clear: both; } - </style> -</head> -<body> -<h1 class="pgx" title="header title">The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Awakening of the East, by Pierre -Leroy-Beaulieu</h1> -<p>This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States -and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no -restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it -under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this -eBook or online at <a -href="http://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you are not -located in the United States, you'll have to check the laws of the -country where you are located before using this ebook.</p> -<p>Title: The Awakening of the East</p> -<p> Siberia—Japan—China</p> -<p>Author: Pierre Leroy-Beaulieu</p> -<p>Release Date: February 3, 2020 [eBook #61310]</p> -<p>Language: English</p> -<p>Character set encoding: UTF-8</p> -<p>***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE AWAKENING OF THE EAST***</p> -<p> </p> -<h4 class="pgx" title="credit">E-text prepared by Richard Tonsing<br /> - and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team<br /> - (<a href="http://www.pgdp.net">http://www.pgdp.net</a>)<br /> - from page images generously made available by<br /> - Internet Archive<br /> - (<a href="https://archive.org">https://archive.org</a>)</h4> -<p> </p> -<table border="0" style="background-color: #ccccff;margin: 0 auto;" cellpadding="10"> - <tr> - <td valign="top"> - Note: - </td> - <td> - Images of the original pages are available through - Internet Archive. See - <a href="https://archive.org/details/awakeningofeast00lero"> - https://archive.org/details/awakeningofeast00lero</a> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p> </p> -<hr class="pgx" /> - -<div class='titlepage'> - -<div> - <h1 class='c001'>The<br /> Awakening of the East<br /> <span class='large'><em>SIBERIA—JAPAN—CHINA</em></span></h1> -</div> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c002'> - <div>BY</div> - <div><span class='xlarge'>PIERRE LEROY-BEAULIEU</span></div> - <div class='c002'><em>With a preface by</em></div> - <div><span class='xlarge'>HENRY NORMAN</span></div> - <div><em>Author of</em></div> - <div>“<span class='sc'>People and Politics of the Far East</span>,” “<span class='sc'>The Real Japan</span>,” <span class='fss'>ETC.</span></div> - <div class='c002'><em>NEW YORK</em></div> - <div><span class='large'>McCLURE, PHILLIPS & CO.</span></div> - <div><em>M C M</em></div> - </div> -</div> - -</div> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c003'> - <div>Copyright, 1900,</div> - <div>By <span class='sc'>McClure, Phillips & Co.</span></div> - <div class='c004'>First Impression, November, 1900</div> - <div>Second Impression, January, 1901</div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='pbb'> - <hr class='pb c004' /> -</div> -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_v'>v</span> - <h2 class='c005'>PREFACE<a id='r1' /><a href='#f1' class='c006'><sup>[1]</sup></a></h2> -</div> - -<p class='c007'>M. Leroy-Beaulieu’s work appears in English at a singularly -appropriate moment, and I believe that those who know -most about the Far East will be the warmest in its praise. -Its personal observations are acute, its statistics have been -conscientiously gathered and carefully collated, they are -scrupulously restricted to the particular matters they are -intended to illuminate, while most valuable of all is the -author’s political sagacity, and the detachment, so to speak, -of his attitude as an observer and investigator. If one may -say so without offence, this is rare in a writer of M. Leroy-Beaulieu’s -nationality. A Frenchman is usually so good a -Frenchman that he cannot divest himself, even for an hour, of -the preferences and prejudices of his own land and race. -When, however, you do find a Frenchman who by temperament, -research, and travel has attained to a cosmopolitan -impartiality, then nobody dwells in so cool and clear an -atmosphere as he. The present volume, I venture to say, is -<span class='pageno' id='Page_vi'>vi</span>an example of this, for if there were no name on the title-page, -and the word ‘we’ were not used of the French people, it -would be impossible to discover the writer’s nationality from -his work. Hypercriticism might perhaps remark that M. Leroy-Beaulieu -is just a little too ready to welcome as fact malicious -little anecdotes directed against ourselves, such as the ingenious -fiction that the British admiral saluted the Japanese admiral’s -flag outside Wei-hai-wei before sunrise in order that the guns -should awaken the sleeping Chinese seamen to a sense of their -peril, not to mention his ready acceptance as typical of the -‘insatiable British public’ of the amusing boast of some unnamed -English newspaper that we might, if it pleased us, build -a railway from the mouth of the Nile to the mouth of the -Yang-tsze. But, on the whole, he probably approaches as near -to the ‘impartial spectator’ of an old-fashioned philosophical -hypothesis as it is given to anybody in this prejudiced world to -do; and assuredly the brilliant ability with which he has -analyzed and summarized national and international situations -of the greatest delicacy and complexity speaks for itself.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Beyond question the future of the Far East is the gravest -matter before the civilized world to-day. For many generations -the Eastern Question caused Sovereigns to turn restlessly in -their beds and diplomatists to start at a footfall; but, as Lord -Rosebery was quick to point out, there arose not long ago a -Far Eastern Question much more embarrassing, much more -complicated, much more pregnant with disaster. It presents -itself at this moment under three chief aspects: the approaching -completion of a Russian continuous line of railway from -Europe to the China Sea, the frontier of Korea, and the gates -of Peking; the startling entry of Japan into the comity of -peoples as a great naval, military, and civilizing power; and -the course of events which has led to the occupation of the -Chinese capital by the allied forces of eight nations. It is -precisely with these three topics that M. Leroy-Beaulieu deals, -and there will be no need to recommend them to the earnest -<span class='pageno' id='Page_vii'>vii</span>attention of British readers if the latter realize—as they should—that -behind the third there looms without doubt the appalling -spectre of a European War.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The Trans-Siberian Railway has been greatly hindered by -the Chinese rising in Manchuria. For practical purposes it -can hardly be said to exist beyond Irkutsk, for although the -line is completed as far as Stretensk, there is yet a lack of -rolling-stock, and the dreary voyage by steamers of different -draughts down the Shilka and Amur rivers to Khabarofsk, -where the line to Vladivostok is met, deprives the railway -route as yet of all its advantages over the sea-route from Europe. -The last passengers who came from Vladivostok to Moscow -before the interruption of traffic spent thirty-eight days on the -journey, and it will have been noticed that by far the larger -part of the reinforcing Russian troops, horses, and <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">matériel</span></i> -were despatched to the Far East from Odessa, no small portion -in British transports. The Manchurian section of the great -railway has from the first, even in times of peace, presented -great difficulties of climate, lack of supplies, and hostility of -the native population, but now a considerable part of the work -executed has been destroyed, the Russian forces have not yet -succeeded in clearing the country of the Chinese troops and -irregulars, a large garrison will have to be maintained to -protect the works in hand, and a long delay over the original -estimated dates of completion is inevitable. All this, however, -is nothing but a question of date. In national strategic enterprises -of this kind Russia works with speed and tenacity. -What has been destroyed will be built more solidly than -before; it is even probable that recent events, as they will -undoubtedly give Russia a freer hand, will enable her to -secure a shorter, and therefore more effective, route from her -Siberian line to China. It will not, in any case, be many -years before Port Arthur and Peking will be within a fortnight’s -railway journey of Moscow. Before then that railway will have -developed agricultural and mineral wealth along its route to a -<span class='pageno' id='Page_viii'>viii</span>degree undreamed of by those who have not studied its prospects -on the spot, and it will be defended and served by every kind -of protective and paternal legislation. Moreover, when need -arises, every mile of the line, every station and warehouse and -water-tank, every station-master, every engineer, every conductor, -every patrolling convict, every locomotive, every -carriage and every waggon, will be placed by a stroke of the -pen at the absolute disposal of the Minister of War, while -every railway in European Russia will be called upon to supply -whatever may be lacking. Russia has one great advantage -over other countries in times of crisis—private interests cease -to exist. It must not be forgotten, also, that the Trans-Siberian -Railway is only one of Russia’s great strategic lines -towards the East. Before it is finished, her Trans-Caspian -Railway, which is already not only a military, but positively a -commercial success, will be joined to it, and will have brought -the frontiers of Persia and Afghanistan, and another frontier of -China, within a week of the military centre of European -Russia. Whether from the point of view of intercommunication, -of commerce, or of diplomacy and arms, no single -development so significant and so far-reaching in its consequences -has occurred in the modern world.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The second aspect of the Far Eastern Question is at last -happily appreciated by all. The ‘child of the world’s old age,’ -Japan, has grown to manhood. It is exactly eighteen years—the -age at which Sovereigns attain their majority—since Count -Inouye first proposed to the sixteen treaty Powers—including -Peru and Hawaii!—that Japan, in return for certain concessions -to foreigners, should be endowed with a measure of judicial -autonomy. Great Britain, to her honour be it ever remembered, -led the way in this, and Japan is now a nation as independent -as ourselves—the first Oriental people to be placed absolutely -on a par with the conquering and jealous West. In no respect -has she shown herself unworthy of the faith placed in her. In -art alone has she retrograded, but that will not be held a -<span class='pageno' id='Page_ix'>ix</span>special reproach to her by those among us who look back six -centuries for their artistic inspiration. In finance, in law, in -science, in education, in manufacture, she has already attained -a higher level than many so-called civilized nations, and she is -progressing fast. In directions unfortunately still more calculated -to compel the respect of other peoples—a very powerful -army and navy, perfectly equipped, admirably disciplined, and -instinct with the magnificent courage of the old feudal warriors—her -advance has taken the unthinking world by surprise. But for -her prompt and unselfish action in China, and the large force -which her first-rate military system enabled her to despatch -without delay, Europe and America would to-day be mourning -the most horrible massacre of modern history. At this -moment Japan and Great Britain are the only nations striving, -and, if necessary, probably ready to fight, to keep China independent -and undivided, open to the trade of all the world -on equal terms, without selfish reservations on the one hand, -and without trembling before party recriminations on the -other.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The Far Eastern Question, however, holds the stage at this -moment by its third aspect. China, the eternally unoriginal, -has repeated herself once more, as every student of the Far -East has foreseen she would. This time the repetition is extraordinary -exact, as a reviewer of the new edition of Lord Loch’s -‘Personal Narrative’ of 1860 has just pointed out. ‘It is impossible,’ -he says, ‘to read it without being struck by the resemblance, -down even to details, between the situation in -China and that of exactly forty years ago. Then, as now, a war -party led by an Imperial Prince was in the ascendant; a war -was forced on European Powers by a gross breach of a solemn -treaty, two Ambassadors on their way to Peking being fired on -and obliged to return; the armies of those Powers had to march -on the Chinese capital; the Chinese authorities in the provinces -were frantic in their eagerness to negotiate so as to stop -the advance of the allied army on the capital. Li, then only a -<span class='pageno' id='Page_x'>x</span>provincial Governor, had his little proposals for settling everything -to his own satisfaction. The Emperor had fled from the -capital, and the lady who is now Empress Dowager had fled -with him, and in many other respects history is just now -repeating itself with curious fidelity.’<a id='r2' /><a href='#f2' class='c006'><sup>[2]</sup></a> But forty years ago -there was no occupation by eight nations, and no five great -Powers endeavouring to checkmate one another’s plans. -Indeed, there was then no Far Eastern Question at all. But -though we have changed, China remains the same. Her -rooted hatred of foreigners, her treachery, her lies, her sickening -cruelty, her utter inability to reform herself, to eradicate -corruption, to form an army or a navy—to be, in a word, a -nation—remain precisely as they have always been. Writers -with no first-hand knowledge of China have not unnaturally -fallen into the error of thinking that because small-bore rifles -and Krupp guns have been found in the hands of the Chinese -troops, who have used them with effect in beating back for a -time foreign forces, therefore China has at last laid to heart -the lessons of her defeat by Japan, and has become a military -Power to be reckoned.<a id='r3' /><a href='#f3' class='c006'><sup>[3]</sup></a> It is a complete misapprehension. -The Boxers fought recklessly, like the Mahdists, from a -belief in their own magical invulnerability; but the regular -troops hardly even attempted to withstand a foreign attack in -anything like equal numbers, except from behind strong walls, -and not always then. Describing the capture without a shot -or a blow of several forts and magnificent guns, that had never -been fired since they were bought, an eye-witness says: ‘Only -the most complete demoralization, utter rout, and headlong -<span class='pageno' id='Page_xi'>xi</span>flight of the Chinese could explain the abandonment of such -valuable guns, gear, and equipment.’<a id='r4' /><a href='#f4' class='c006'><sup>[4]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c008'>I dwell upon this point because there is great danger of it -being overlooked at the present crisis—by some from ignorance, -by others from design. As the missionary said to M. Leroy-Beaulieu, -‘Those who most despair of China are those who -know her best’; and the author’s own conclusion that ‘any -reform from the inside is out of the question, no matter from -how high the initiative starts,’ is the conviction of all students -of China, except those who have never been within ten thousand -miles of her coast. This very weakness, coupled with her -malleability, even to the profession of arms—witness the gallant -conduct of the Chinese Regiment from Wei-hai-wei under its -British officers—is the kernel of the danger of the present -situation, for the nation that should be free to organize China -would be a menace to the rest of the world. Those who aim -at conquest are therefore playing for a high stake, and their -inspiration is more cogent than that which urges others to the -defence of mere trading opportunities. The course of the -coming century depends upon the result of this trial of statesmanship. -Woe betide England if her leaders fail her now!</p> - -<div class='lg-container-r'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>HENRY NORMAN.</div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_xiii'>xiii</span> - <h2 class='c005'>CONTENTS</h2> -</div> - -<table class='table0' summary='CONTENTS'> - <tr> - <th class='c009'></th> - <th class='c010'> </th> - <th class='c011'><span class='small'>PAGE</span></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012' colspan='2'>INTRODUCTION</td> - <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_xv'>xv</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr><td class='c013' colspan='3'><em>PART I.—SIBERIA</em></td></tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <th class='c009'><span class='small'>CHAPTER</span></th> - <th class='c010'> </th> - <th class='c011'> </th> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'>I.</td> - <td class='c010'>THE ORIGINS OF RUSSIAN EXPANSION IN SIBERIA AND THE NATURAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE COUNTRY</td> - <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_1'>1</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'>II.</td> - <td class='c010'>THE LAND OF SIBERIA AND ITS INHABITANTS</td> - <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_9'>9</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'>III.</td> - <td class='c010'>AGRICULTURAL SIBERIA AND THE RURAL POPULATION</td> - <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_17'>17</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'>IV.</td> - <td class='c010'>MINERAL RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES</td> - <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_27'>27</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'>V.</td> - <td class='c010'>SIBERIAN COMMERCE AND THE TRANSPORT OF TEA</td> - <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_31'>31</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'>VI.</td> - <td class='c010'>SIBERIAN TOWNS</td> - <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_38'>38</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'>VII.</td> - <td class='c010'>IMMIGRATION</td> - <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_43'>43</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'>VIII.</td> - <td class='c010'>MEANS OF COMMUNICATION IN SIBERIA</td> - <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_56'>56</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'>IX.</td> - <td class='c010'>THE TRANS-SIBERIAN RAILWAY</td> - <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_64'>64</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'>X.</td> - <td class='c010'>THE RAILWAY THROUGH MANCHURIA</td> - <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_71'>71</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'>XI.</td> - <td class='c010'>THE ALTERED RELATIONS BETWEEN EUROPE AND THE FAR EAST RESULTING FROM THE TRANS-SIBERIAN RAILWAY</td> - <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_76'>76</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr><td class='c013' colspan='3'><em>PART II.—JAPAN</em></td></tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'>I.</td> - <td class='c010'>THE ORIGIN AND PAST HISTORY OF JAPAN</td> - <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_81'>81</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'>II.</td> - <td class='c010'>JAPAN AND THE REVOLUTION OF 1868</td> - <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_97'>97</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'>III.</td> - <td class='c010'>MODERN JAPAN</td> - <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_110'>110</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'>IV.</td> - <td class='c010'>JAPANESE INDUSTRY</td> - <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_118'>118</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'>V.</td> - <td class='c010'>RURAL JAPAN</td> - <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_125'>125</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'>VI.</td> - <td class='c010'>DEVELOPMENT OF JAPANESE COMMERCE</td> - <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_135'>135</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'>VII.</td> - <td class='c010'>THE FINANCES OF JAPAN</td> - <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_143'>143</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'>VIII.</td> - <td class='c010'>THE DOMESTIC POLITICS AND PARLIAMENT OF JAPAN</td> - <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_154'>154</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'>IX.</td> - <td class='c010'>JAPAN’S FOREIGN POLICY AND HER MILITARY POWER</td> - <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_164'>164</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'>X.</td> - <td class='c010'>THE FUTURE OF WESTERN CIVILIZATION IN JAPAN—RELATIONS BETWEEN JAPANESE AND FOREIGNERS</td> - <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_171'>171</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr><td class='c013' colspan='3'><span class='pageno' id='Page_xiv'>xiv</span><em>PART III.—CHINA</em></td></tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'>I.</td> - <td class='c010'>THE CHINESE PROBLEM</td> - <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_183'>183</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'>II.</td> - <td class='c010'>THE CAPITAL OF CHINA</td> - <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_188'>188</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'>III.</td> - <td class='c010'>THE COUNTRY IN THE NEIGHBOURHOOD OF PEKING—NUMEROUS SIGNS OF THE DECLINE OF THE EMPIRE</td> - <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_198'>198</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'>IV.</td> - <td class='c010'>THE LITERARY AND MANDARIN CLASS—PRINCIPAL CAUSES OF THE DECADENCE OF THE EMPIRE</td> - <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_204'>204</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'>V.</td> - <td class='c010'>THE CHINESE PEOPLE AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS</td> - <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_212'>212</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'>VI.</td> - <td class='c010'>FOREIGNERS IN CHINA—THE ATTITUDE OF THE CHINESE TOWARDS WESTERN CIVILIZATION</td> - <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_228'>228</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'>VII.</td> - <td class='c010'>THE POSITION AND WORK OF FOREIGNERS IN CHINA</td> - <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_234'>234</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'>VIII.</td> - <td class='c010'>CHINA AND THE POWERS</td> - <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_242'>242</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'>IX.</td> - <td class='c010'>RUSSIA, FRANCE, AND ENGLAND IN THE FAR EAST IN 1895–97</td> - <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_253'>253</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'>X.</td> - <td class='c010'>CHINA AND THE POWERS 1897–99—‘SPHERES OF INFLUENCE,’ AND THE ‘OPEN DOOR’</td> - <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_266'>266</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c009'>XI.</td> - <td class='c010'>THE FUTURE OF CHINA—MAINTENANCE OR PARTITION OF THE CELESTIAL EMPIRE?</td> - <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_276'>276</a></td> - </tr> -</table> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_xv'>xv</span> - <h2 class='c005'>INTRODUCTION<a id='r5' /><a href='#f5' class='c006'><sup>[5]</sup></a></h2> -</div> - -<p class='c007'>This book is the result of personal observations made in the -course of a journey through Siberia, China, and Japan, lasting -over a year, and is supplemented by information derived -chiefly from official and carefully collated documents. Asia, -the largest of the five Continents, is still the most densely populated; -but after being the cradle of civilization, it has been for -many centuries dead to all progress. It is in the awakening of -this vast Continent through the influx of men and ideas from -the West, by the application of modern science to the exploitation -of its wealth, that consists the phenomenon which we -are witnessing at the present time, and to the examination of -which the author devotes the following pages.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The effect of European action in Asia does not, it is true, -date from our time; it began as soon as the Asiatic invasion -of Europe had ceased. In the sixteenth century, whilst the -Russians were settling in Siberia, we find the Portuguese landing -on the coasts of India, China, and Japan. For a long time, -however, the influence of the West was merely superficial. -By the middle of the nineteenth century it had scarcely reached -India and a few points on the coast of Asia Minor; all the rest -of Asia remained obdurate. Siberia was almost a desert, unexplored, -without any communication with the outer world; -China a stranger to all progress; and Japan hermetically sealed. -Thus, all the temperate zones of Asia, those best suited to the -white race, as well as those inhabited by the most numerous, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_xvi'>xvi</span>industrious, and vigorous populations, regarded from whatever -point of view, were fifty years ago completely outside of -European influence. At this moment two facts of vital importance -have become prominent, which have been passed -over almost unnoticed by European nations, greatly preoccupied -by other questions. In 1854, Japan began to open -her ports to foreigners; and Russia, descending almost simultaneously -from the glacial solitudes of the Okhotsk Sea, -seized, at the expense of China, the banks of the Amur, thus -coming into actual contact with the Celestial Empire, which -hitherto she had only reached through deserts, advanced -her frontier up to the boundaries of Korea, and acquired a -port on the Pacific (latitude 43°), free of ice nearly all the year -round. This was the moment when that awakening of Northern -and Eastern Asia began which has become more and more -active, especially during the last ten years.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Immediately after the conquest of the Province of the Amur, -Count Muravief-Amurski, one of the prime movers in the -expansion of Russia, foresaw under what conditions the Muscovite -Empire could make its power felt in the Far East, and -suggested the construction of a Trans-Siberian Railway, which, -thirty years later, was undertaken by Alexander III. In building -it, his main idea was to open a strategic route to facilitate the -passage of his troops into China. The Trans-Siberian Railway -was thus constructed far less in the interests of the country it -traversed than for those of the countries at its opposite extremities. -But it was presently discovered that the southern -portion of Siberia through which the line runs possessed a -climate scarcely more severe than that of Manitoba and of the -far west of Canada, an equally fertile soil, with even better -irrigation and still greater mineral wealth, the development of -which was only prevented by the complete absence of any -means of communication.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Now Siberia, instead of being shut off from the rest of the -world, will be traversed by one of the most frequented routes -<span class='pageno' id='Page_xvii'>xvii</span>in the universe, and its southern zone will become one of the -richest possessions of the white race. The Russian peasants -have a natural tendency to emigrate, and since the abolition -of serfdom have been invading Siberia in great numbers, -and rapidly settling there. More than 200,000 emigrants -arrive there every year, and the births greatly outnumber -the deaths, so that the population of the Asiatic domains -of the Tsar is annually increased by more than 300,000. -Russian colonization doubtless has its drawbacks, the most -serious among which are lack of capital and absence of -education and enterprise among the labouring classes. In -spite of this, one fact remains: thanks to the Trans-Siberian -Railway, a numerous white population is already occupying -the whole North of Asia, from the Urals to the Pacific, -and thus Russia can meanwhile make the full weight of her -power felt in the Far East, which will certainly prove of incalculable -benefit to the advance of modern civilization throughout -Asia.</p> - -<p class='c008'>While Siberia was being colonized, and the Trans-Siberian -Railway was assuming definite shape, Japan was accomplishing -her extraordinary transformation. In 1854 the Powers, -under threat of bombardment, forced open the gates of this -feudal State, whose customs differed from ours more than those -of any other Asiatic country, and the entrance to which was -forbidden to foreigners under pain of death, and which for -ten years was the scene of numerous outrages against them. -Forty-five years later new Japan deals on a footing of -equality with the European Powers; its admission to the -number of civilized States is signalized by the suppression -of the extra-territorial privileges of the Europeans, and it -has become a centre of great industry, whose cotton stuffs -compete in China with those of India, America, and Great -Britain. European steamers supply themselves from her -coaling-stations; her foreign commerce amounts annually to -£44,000,000 sterling; her soil is intersected by 3,125 miles -<span class='pageno' id='Page_xviii'>xviii</span>of railway; a crowd of little steamers, often native built, ply -along her coasts, whilst regular lines of steamers fly her flag -in the ports of Europe, America, and Australia; her fleet is -the most powerful in the Pacific; her army, which crushed -China five years ago, formed the bulk of the international -troops that recently marched to the relief of the foreign Legations -threatened by the Chinese. Before these realities the -scepticism of those who have so long jeered at these Asiatics -playing at being Europeans must perforce turn to admiration.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Many people, however, find it difficult to believe in the -durability and the sincerity of Japan’s transformation. Without -concealing from ourselves that the prodigious work which has -been accomplished in Japan has sometimes been premature, -that imitation of Europe has occasionally been pushed to excess, -that it has even been directed in some points where it would -have been wiser to have remained faithful to national traditions, -we believe—as one of the best informed Japanese we have ever -met assured us—that the great wind from the West which is -blowing upon this country has come to last. We find this -conviction confirmed both by observation of the Japan of -the present and in the lessons taught by her past. Where -the changes have been carried too far, certain unassimilated -and unessential scoriæ will be eliminated, but the better part -of the work will remain and a new Japan be the result, in many -points similar to Europe in the scientific and material sense of -civilization—profoundly modified and brought nearer to the -West, yet differing from us from the social and moral point of -view. In short, we have confidence in the future of Japan, if -she only takes the lessons she has received to heart, and if -she be not over-proud of being the ‘Great Britain of the Far -East,’ and is not carried away by a spirit of aggrandizement -that may exhaust her resources. The prudent policy which -she appears to have adopted in the face of the present crisis -in China is, however, of a character well calculated to reassure -her friends.</p> - -<p class='c008'><span class='pageno' id='Page_xix'>xix</span>The study of the Chinese problem closes this volume. The -Celestial Empire, so far from being revivified like its neighbours, -has resolutely made no concession to Western civilization. -As long as China had only to trouble over the intermittent -and not far-reaching action of Western Powers, -distracted by a thousand other cares, and whose commercial -activity found outlets in other directions, she had not much -difficulty in maintaining her isolation.</p> - -<p class='c008'>From the moment, however, when she found herself face to -face with near and powerful neighbors, rejuvenated nations, -from whose eyes her incurable weaknesses were not screened -by the illusion of distance, she was destined, if she did not yield -with a good grace, to be swept along by the torrent of innovation -which she has so long and so vainly sought to resist. Japan, -by her victories in a war which was in reality a war of Western -Science <em>versus</em> Chinese Routine, a war of Progress against -Stagnation, in 1895 forced open the gates of China. If she had -not done so then, undoubtedly Russia would have achieved -the same work a few years later, after the construction of the -Trans-Siberian Railway. The Middle Kingdom no longer -frightens the world by its vastness, and those innovations which -it abhors are now thrust upon it by foreigners; thus has -been brought about a situation pregnant with political and -economical consequences still further complicated by the -rivalries of the European nations vying with each other to -realize a transformation from which they hope to reap enormous -advantages.</p> - -<p class='c008'>We have also endeavoured in this book to note down -the salient features of the present position, the knowledge -of which may serve to throw a light on the future of the -Celestial Empire. Firstly, by recalling the detestable Government -imposed upon China by the all-powerful class of <em>literati</em>, -who remain petrified in their stubborn pride, incurable -routinists, and hostile to progress; then, in contrast to the -decrepitude of this Government, the vitality of the people, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_xx'>xx</span>whose undeniable defects are compensated by an endurance, -perseverance, and commercial ability of the highest order; the -attitude of this people towards Europeans and their civilization, -the part hitherto played by the latter, their trade in the ports, -and the quite recent beginnings of great industries in these -very ports; the concessions for various undertakings granted -during the last four years to these very Europeans who are at -last emerging from the few acres in which they had hitherto -been penned at infrequent points along the coast or on the -banks of the Yang-tsze, and who are abandoning their exclusive -devotion to trade in order to carry out a system of real colonization -by applying Western methods to the realization of the -wealth of China; and finally the disquieting spectacle of the -Powers in rivalry around this decrepit Empire, on which none -dare lay a too heavy hand lest it crumble away and they lose -the best pieces, which each of them dreams eventually of -annexing.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Since this book was published in France, in April this year, -a particularly grave crisis has arisen in China. The most -violently reactionary faction in the Court of Peking has seized -the reins of power and has headed a movement for the extermination -of the foreigner; the regular army, making common -cause with the fanatical adherents of secret societies, has besieged -in their Legations the Ministers of all the nations, and -has opposed the onward march of the troops despatched to -their relief; hundreds of missionaries and thousands of native -Christians have been butchered throughout the Empire, and -everywhere, even in the Treaty Ports, the security of Europeans -has been menaced. These appalling events have, it would -seem, taken Europe quite unprepared, although warnings were -not wanting. A perusal of a file of the Hong-Kong and -Shanghai newspapers will easily prove that great uneasiness -prevailed as far back as last spring, if not in the Legations, at -any rate in the Treaty Ports.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The present crisis will, it is true, not be a matter of much -<span class='pageno' id='Page_xxi'>xxi</span>surprise to those who have studied China. The reader will -notice several passages in this book in which we are reminded -of the necessity of proceeding with the utmost caution in introducing -progressive measures into the ancient Empire, if we -wish to avoid an outbreak culminating in a sanguinary upheaval -and the possible collapse of that worm-eaten structure. It -would appear, however, in fact, that during the past three -years the ill-advised action of Europe has done everything -to bring about such a disaster.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Too numerous railway and mining concessions, preliminary -works commenced simultaneously in a great number of localities, -without sufficient regard for the superstitions of the natives, -the invasion by foreign engineers and foremen with overbearing -manners, could not but irritate the Chinese, and prepare the -ground for agitators and agents of the secret societies and -(unemployed) literati who swarm everywhere. The violent -action of Germany at Kiao-chau, followed by the seizure of -many points on the coast by the other Powers, readily induced -the Court and literati to believe that the Foreign -Powers intended to partition China, and treat her as a conquered -country.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The governing classes among the Chinese have little patriotism, -as we understand it, but they tremble for their salaries -and privileges, and, in common with the populace, they -beheld with horror the prospective violation of their ancient -customs. They could not therefore be expected to repress -with any energy disturbances with whose authors they were in -cordial sympathy. Again, the dynasty of foreign origin which -reigns in China is now worn out and tottering; it knows that -any concession made to the foreigner will be turned to its disadvantage, -that the best means of recovering prestige is to -pose as the enemy of the Western civilization; it has even to -fear that any great opposition on its part to popular prejudice -may one day lead to its being swept away.</p> - -<p class='c008'>What wonder, then, that under the rule of the old Dowager -<span class='pageno' id='Page_xxii'>xxii</span>Empress—an energetic Sovereign, perhaps, but ignorant, like -the harem recluse she is, and, moreover, passionate, like most -women—the Court viewed benignly the organization known -as the <em>I-ho-chuan</em>, almost literally, ‘League of Patriots,’ -which we call ‘Boxers,’ who first spread themselves over Shan-tung, -where the foreigners had displayed the greatest brutality -and tactlessness! The creatures of the Empress, narrow-minded -and brutal Manchu princes, mandarins of an ultra-reactionary -type, who, having never been brought into contact -with Europeans, are ignorant of the latter’s strength—all these -people whom the Palace revolution in September, 1898, exalted -to power, and who exercise it without control since the exile -of Li Hung-chang to his distant Viceroyalty of Canton, have -not learned how to observe the precautions which at one time -guided that wily old fox.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Imperial edicts have favoured the Boxers, ‘those loyal subjects -who cultivate athletics for the protection of their families, -and who bind together different villages for the purpose of mutual -protection.’ In this association, affiliated with other secret -societies, it was sought to discover a prop for the dynasty -both at home and abroad. Arms were procured from Europe, -intended either for the rebels or the regular army, and then, -as always happens with feeble Governments in times of trouble, -it was found impossible to stem the torrent so easily let loose, -and increasing violence soon got the upper hand. The -Empress even appears to have been overwhelmed by factions -more reactionary and fanatical than herself—factions at whose -head stands Prince Tuan, father of the recently adopted heir-presumptive.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Such is the genesis of the present crisis. What are to be -the consequences? They would be very grave if the chiefs of -the movement hostile to foreigners removed the present Emperor -to some distant place, and refused to negotiate on anything -like reasonable terms, or if, leaving him in the hands of -the Europeans, they should raise a competitor against him. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_xxiii'>xxiii</span>The Emperor, whose accession to the Celestial throne is, in any -case, according to Chinese ideas, irregular, and who has exasperated -the mandarins by his attempts at reform, would thus -run a great risk of being considered a usurper, both in the eyes -of the people and the literati. What could the Powers do in -such a case? We hardly dare dream of such a laborious, -costly, and deadly undertaking as would be an expedition -five or six hundred miles from the coast into the heart of a -country like China, devoid of good means of transport, and -where a large European army would find existence difficult. -Besides, in the midst of complete anarchy and civil war, the -Powers, whose union is already so unstable, would be forced -to interfere, with the risk of irreparable disputes arising between -them all at the finish.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Even if the Court should come to terms and no competition -for the Empire arise, the situation in China will -none the less present great difficulties. The installation in -Peking of an Emperor surrounded by councillors approved by -the West and watched by a foreign garrison, which would be -the most desirable end of the present acute crisis, would not -suffice to restore order throughout the Empire. All the elements -of agitation are now at boiling-point, and it is even to be -feared that ere the allies are able to act vigorously on the -offensive, the anti-foreign movement will have gained ground -in the provinces. The prestige of the Manchu dynasty, -greatly damaged already, will be still further lowered when -the Emperor is exhibited as the puppet of the West. Ambitious -aspirants of all sorts, Chinese patriots inimical to both -Manchu and foreigner, even legitimate representatives of the -ancient Ming Dynasty, will all of them seek to profit by this -state of things, and, fishing in troubled waters, cause thereby -a general recrudescence of insurrection, fomented by the secret -societies. Will the Chinese Government succeed in repressing -them by its own forces? This is not at all certain, and in that -case will Europe charge herself with all the political, military, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_xxiv'>xxiv</span>and financial risks involved in the exercise of such an avocation -and become the police of China?</p> - -<p class='c008'>It will perhaps be said that if the Manchu Dynasty can no -longer maintain itself, it may be best to leave it to its fate -and allow it to be replaced by another. A new, popular, and -strong Government would then appear upon the scene, which -would find it easier to observe the engagements imposed -upon it.<a id='r6' /><a href='#f6' class='c006'><sup>[6]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c008'>But apart from the fact that this new Government might -perhaps be very hostile to foreigners and difficult to bring -to reason, the Manchus are not yet stripped of all power, -and their overthrow would not be effected without a devastating -civil war, lasting probably many years. Europe is -now too much interested in China to encourage such a catastrophe.</p> - -<p class='c008'>On the other hand, nobody desires the partition of the -Celestial Empire. To begin with, the chief eventual rivals are -not ready: Russia has not completed her Trans-Siberian Railway; -England is hampered with her interminable war in South -Africa; the United States, with a large portion of its population -opposed to outside extension, insists that no part of the Middle -Kingdom shall be closed to them—in other words, that it shall -not be dismembered; Japan has not completed her armaments; -her finances require careful attention, and she feels, besides, -that she cannot act alone. France has every reason for averting -a partition, in which her share (the provinces adjoining -Tongking) would be a very poor one; and finally, the present -insurrectionary movement should prove to the world—including -Germany, who took so indiscreet an initiative at Kiao-chau—that -it would not be easy to govern the Celestials after -<span class='pageno' id='Page_xxv'>xxv</span>European methods, and that the mere task of establishing order -in a large colony carved out of China might be beyond the -strength even of the European Powers.</p> - -<p class='c008'>This being the case, the only policy possible for all countries -is to abandon for the present their personal aims, and to -endeavour in unison to patch up the Manchu system. To -depart from this line of action is to proceed to disaster. But -the Powers will have to display some wisdom for a few years -to come if this bolstering process is to have the least chance -of success. The Court and the populace of the capital should -be given a not-easily-forgotten lesson: let the instigators of -the proposed murders of the ministers be delivered up and -made to pay for their cowardly conduct; if necessary, even -let their bodies be left unburied, which, in the eyes of the -Chinese, is the most terrible of all punishments; let the old -Empress be exiled if it should appear necessary to remove her -from power. But after all this is done, let the legal order of -succession be respected. While putting pressure on the Court -to appoint moderate or even slightly progressive men to the -head of affairs, avoid a too direct and a too evident interference -in the selection of rulers, which would be perilously inadvisable. -On the one hand, the Powers would soon cease to act in -unison, each considering such and such a grand mandarin -more or less its friend and such another its enemy; and on -the other hand, the men chosen would lose all authority, as -they would be looked upon as agents of the foreigners. Against -this, it is absolutely indispensable that Peking and Tien-tsin -should be occupied during several years by a strong garrison, -otherwise it will be said that the foreign soldiery have departed -through fear, and that the permanent fortification of -Ta-ku should be forbidden.</p> - -<p class='c008'>These last measures doubtless involve certain inconveniences, -granting the difficulty of maintaining harmony between the -various Powers, but if they should be neglected the lesson -would risk being too soon forgotten, as were those of 1860 and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_xxvi'>xxvi</span>1894–95; moreover, they would provide a means of permanent -pressure on the Chinese Government.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Nevertheless, if it is important to strike hard at the centre, -the more reason have we to refrain from any act calculated to -lower in the provinces the prestige and the authority of a regime, -the sources of whose weakness are already numerous. The -threat of popular risings will continue one of the serious -dangers of the position in the Far East; to avoid them, we -must not seize upon the first incident that arises as a pretext -for demanding concessions, the extortion of which disturbs -and estranges the mandarins, whilst their execution irritates -the people. If we do not accept such a course, we run the -risk of creating permanent anarchy. The surest way of obtaining -tranquillity in China would be a formal, or at any rate a -tacit, international understanding binding the Powers for some -years not to support at Peking any demand for a concession as -long as the greater number of railways now under construction -are not completed. That would, moreover, enable European -capitalists, who have not been very eager to take up Chinese -loans, to ascertain the value of their investments in the Middle -Kingdom. We believe that the business and practical sense so -highly developed in the Chinese will induce them to become -reconciled to the material side of our civilization, but by multiplying -simultaneously in every direction preliminary works, say, -for railways, we annoy them and wound their susceptibilities -before giving them a chance to appreciate the advantage of -our innovations, not to mention the economical disturbance -arising therefrom.</p> - -<p class='c008'>In conclusion, although patriotism is at a low ebb in the -Middle Kingdom and the military spirit still lower, we might, -by worrying the Chinese too much, end by creating the one -and resuscitating the other. In any case, if the Chinese make -bad soldiers—chiefly because they have detestable officers—they -are first-class rioters. Wherefore any idea of dividing -China, either now or at some future time, seems to us ill-advised. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_xxvii'>xxvii</span>Passing events will have taught a useful lesson, -should they bring Europe to abandon once and for ever this -fatal idea. It was very wisely said in the English Parliament -during the present crisis that ‘China must be governed by the -Chinese and for the Chinese,’ which does not mean that it -should be governed against the foreigners. Let us hope that -all Europe will frankly take to heart this sagacious remark.</p> - -<div class='lg-container-r'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>PIERRE LEROY-BEAULIEU.</div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='section ph1'> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c003'> - <div>THE</div> - <div>AWAKENING OF THE EAST</div> - </div> -</div> - -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_1'>1</span> - <h2 class='c005'><em>PART I.—SIBERIA</em></h2> -</div> - -<h3 class='c001'>CHAPTER I.<br /> <span class='large'>THE ORIGINS OF RUSSIAN EXPANSION IN SIBERIA AND THE NATURAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE COUNTRY</span></h3> - -<p class='c014'>Antiquity of Russian expansion in Asia, which is contemporary with that of -Western Europe in the New World—Analogy between the North of -Asia and the North of America—The three natural Zones of Siberia—Their -climate, extent and capabilities—The Polar Zone is absolutely -sterile and uninhabitable—The Forest Zone—The Meridional Zone, -which is both cultivable and colonizable.</p> - -<p class='c007'>No sooner had Russia shaken off the yoke of the Tatars which -weighed upon her for three centuries, and left its mark so -deeply impressed as to be still visible, than, reformed and -united, she began to expand beyond her natural confines. In -this she only imitated the example of Spain, which a short -time previously had been delivered from the Moors and united -under the sceptre of Ferdinand and Isabella. Being essentially -a continental country, without easy access to the sea, and -having no difficult frontier to bar her expansion to the East, -Russia turned her attention in that direction, and, defeating -her old masters, annexed the Tatar kingdoms of Kazan and -Astrakhan. This conquest extended her frontier to the immediate -neighbourhood of the Ural Mountains. In the second -half of the sixteenth century Tsar Ivan the Terrible found -<span class='pageno' id='Page_2'>2</span>himself possessor of vast but sparsely-peopled regions, at a -great distance from his capital, and extremely difficult of direct -administration.</p> - -<p class='c008'>It is a remarkable coincidence that under these circumstances -an organization should have been formed in Russia -almost spontaneously with others of the same kind which were -to prove of such great utility in the West—<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">i.e.</span></i>, a great colonizing -company, under Imperial charter. The Strogonofs, very rich -merchants, who had extended their sphere of trading operations -as far as the basin of the Kama, the great affluent of the -Volga, addressed in 1558 a petition to the Tsar, in which they -demanded a concession of the lands in that region, promising -at the same time, in consideration of the grant, to build a -city, develop the resources, and defend the country against -the attacks of savage tribes. Ivan the Terrible acceded -to their request, accorded them divers trading privileges, and -conferred upon them the right to administer justice and to -levy troops. Thus was organized a regular chartered company -analogous with the East India Company and with those more -recently formed in South Africa and on the banks of the Niger. -The company in question began the conquest of Siberia.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The Strogonofs, once established on the Kama, experienced, -as generally happens when a civilized people finds itself in -contact with barbarous tribes, the necessity of extending -further eastwards at the expense of their Tatar neighbours, -if only to protect themselves from their depredations. In 1581 -the Tsar gave them permission to employ a celebrated Cossack -pirate, Ermak Timoféef,<a id='r7' /><a href='#f7' class='c006'><sup>[7]</sup></a> who seized the city of Sibir, or Isker, -then capital of Khan Kuchun, the principal Tatar chief of -Western Siberia. Six years later the present city of Tobolsk -rose on the site of Sibir.</p> - -<p class='c008'>We will not attempt to narrate the history of the conquest -of Siberia, which strongly resembles the taking of North -America by French pioneers at about the same time. When -the Tatar tribes of the West had been driven towards the -Southern Steppes, the Cossacks encountered little opposition -from the poor hunters and fishermen whom they found in the -district. In summer these Cossack adventurers navigated -the rivers in canoes, whilst their winters were spent in block-houses, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_3'>3</span>or <em>ostrogs</em>, surrounded by palisades not unlike the forts -erected by the Hudson Bay Company. Soon they became -very numerous, being attracted from the more civilized parts of -Russia by the growing profits of the fur trade. In 1636 they -had reached the mouth of the Yenissei, and a year later arrived -on the banks of the Lena. In less than two years—that is, in -1639—they had discovered the shores of the Okhotsk, and fifty -years later the whole continent had been traversed from end to -end. In 1648 the Cossack adventurers Alexief and Dezhnief -doubled the eastern extremity of Asia, and arrived at Kamtchatka, -and in 1651 the Ataman Khabarof established himself -on the Amur, where he discovered other adventurers, who had -already descended this river in 1643. At this juncture the -Russians found themselves face to face with the Manchus, who -had just conquered China, and notwithstanding the heroic -defence of their fortress at Albazine on two occasions, they -were obliged in 1688 to abandon the middle and lower basins -of the Amur to the Sons of Heaven in accordance with the -treaty of Nertchinsk, a territory which they only reconquered -from the degenerate Chinese in 1858.</p> - -<p class='c008'>To the west as well as to the east of Siberia the Russian -frontiers remained scarcely altered until about the middle of -the present century. It was only in 1847 that the Tsar’s -troops were able to cross the arid zone of the Kirghiz Steppes. -The policy of Peter the Great was directed towards Europe, -and his dream was to extend Russia towards the West by the -conquest of Constantinople—a fact which accounts for the -extinction of zeal on the part of Russia with respect to her -Asiatic possessions, which were now treated merely as penal -settlements or as fields for scientific investigation, whenever -the Sovereigns took it into their heads to become specially -interested in such matters. The increase of Imperial authority -and the more regular organization of the State had in the -meantime subdued the adventurous and enterprising spirit of -the Cossacks, and that particular class of men, half soldiers, -half brigands, who had proved themselves such hardy pioneers -at an earlier epoch, now disappeared, and in the middle of -the eighteenth century Siberia was opened as a field of colonization. -In spite of the many obstacles which the system of -serfdom in Russia placed in the way of peasant emigration, in -1851 the population of Siberia had reached 2,400,000, a figure -which, although not very large considering the immensity of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_4'>4</span>the country, was in excess of the population of Canada at the -same period, which numbered only 1,800,000 souls. From -this point of view the Russians had no reason to be ashamed -of their colonization, and, as a matter of fact, have none to-day. -According to the census of January, 1897, there were -5,731,732 Siberians living on a territory of 4,812,800 square -miles, whereas in 1891 there were only 4,833,000 Canadians -inhabiting the 3,721,800 square miles known as the Dominion. -The density of the population of Northern Asia is not much -inferior to that of British North America, and it must not be -forgotten that the conditions of life in Siberia are greatly -inferior to those of Canada.</p> - -<p class='c008'>A comparison of the natural conditions existing in the -northern regions of the old and the new world shows that -they are nearly identical. Both consist for the most part of -vast expanses of flat country, often covered with magnificent -forests, and quite as frequently barren. Siberia, like Canada, -is irrigated by noble rivers, which under a milder climate -would constitute a superb network of intercommunication; -but unfortunately both countries are hampered by an extremely -rigorous climate, which imprisons these fine rivers during -many months of the year under an impenetrably thick coating -of ice. In the north of Siberia as well as of Canada the -country is so intensely cold as to render agriculture impossible. -That part, therefore, of both countries which is capable of -exploitation is of extremely limited extent, consisting both in -Russian Asia and in British North America of a ribbon-like -zone some 3,720 miles in length and from 250 to 300 in width.</p> - -<p class='c008'>If Siberia resembles Canada in some things, it must be confessed -that the latter country has every advantage in point of -beauty and position. In the first place, Siberia is more to the -north; that portion which approaches nearest to the Equator is -situated about 43° latitude—that is to say, a little more to the -north than the extreme south of Upper Canada, and, being on -the Pacific, it is most distant from European Russia, whereas -the corresponding part of Canada is the nearest to England, -and washed by the Atlantic, the St. Lawrence, and the great -lakes. On the other hand, that part of Siberia which is closest -to Russia is covered to the south by barren steppes or by -mountains which confine the centres of civilization between -54° and 57° latitude. Moreover, whereas the coast of Canada -on the Pacific enjoys a much milder climate than the country -<span class='pageno' id='Page_5'>5</span>situated on the other side of the Rocky Mountains, the regions -of Siberia which border the Great Ocean are just as frigid as the -rest of the country. The heights which separate the basin of -the Amur from that of the Lena are not sufficiently elevated to -form a barrier against piercing north winds, and the Japanese -Archipelago interposes itself between the coast and the warm -waters of the Black Current, which plays the same part in the -Pacific as the Gulf Stream in the Atlantic. Thus it happens -that the climate of Trans-Baikalia, where the rivers which, -when united, form the Amur take their source, is one of the -most rigorous in Siberia, and the sea is covered with ice in the -port of Vladivostok, which lies in the same latitude as Marseilles, -whereas, opposite on the American coast, seven degrees -northward, the winters of British Columbia are not more severe -than those of Holland or the West of Germany.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Notwithstanding its terrible climate, Siberia is not entirely -uninhabitable; indeed, even on the borders of the Arctic -Ocean humanity is represented by a few aboriginal Polar -tribes, who wander from place to place in sledges drawn by -dogs, and usually followed by a numerous herd of reindeer. -The white man, however, cannot endure the conditions prevailing -in the extreme north, and it is therefore necessary -with a view to colonizing that one must learn to distinguish -between the different parts of Siberia.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The country has been judiciously divided into three zones, -which are, proceeding from north to south, the Tundra (or -Arctic Moss) Zone, the Great Forest Zone, and lastly the -Agricultural Zone; the south and south-west of the last-named -includes the steppes, as well as the Altai and Sayan -Mountains. It would be impossible to trace a line of exact -demarcation between these different zones, for the transition -is extremely gradual; but, speaking generally, the land situated -north of 63° and 64° latitude is barren of all vegetation excepting -mosses and lichens. The subsoil is eternally frozen, but -the surface thaws in summer very slightly, thereby turning -the country into one vast marsh. The rivers remain frozen -during nine months of the year. Under these circumstances, -cultivation is out of the question. To the south-western -limit of this zone, at Beriozof on the Obi, the medium temperature -all the year round is 5° C. below zero, and in winter -it goes down to 23°. The average in summer is 13·5°, and -that of the hottest month 18°, which is about the same as -<span class='pageno' id='Page_6'>6</span>the heat in Paris in July; but the warm weather lasts so short -a time as to be useless for agricultural purposes. To the -east the climate becomes rapidly severe, and at Verkhoyansk, a -village situated in the Yakutsk district, latitude 67°, one of the -coldest regions in our hemisphere is reached. The average -throughout the year is 17° C. below zero; during the three -winter months it is 47°, and in January 49°. The minimum is -about 68° below zero. What characterizes this dreadful region -is that to the extreme cold in winter succeeds a very short but -relatively warm summer. The medium thermometrical reading -during the warm season is 13°, which rises to 15° for the month -of July, during which the mercury sometimes rises to 25° in -the shade. The difference between the temperature of the -warmest and the coldest months of the year is about 64°, that -is to say, four times what it is in Paris. It is very remarkable -that in whatever direction you go from Verkhoyansk, even -northward, the climate becomes less rigorous, thanks to the -comparative mildness of the winter. As to the summer, it -scarcely merits the name, falling to 9° and even to 3° C. on the -borders of the Arctic Ocean.</p> - -<p class='c008'>In such unfavourable conditions, it is not surprising that -the 1,600,000 square miles which comprise the Tundra Zone -only support between 60,000 and 80,000 inhabitants, mostly -Samoyeds, Ostiaks, Chuckchis, Lamuts, and other miserable -Arctic tribes, among whom live, or rather vegetate, a few -Russian officials and a fairly numerous group of exiles. The -reindeer, whilst serving as a means of transport, is also used as -food, and its hide furnishes the natives with clothing. There -is no other domestic animal excepting the powerful Polar -dog which drags the sleighs. Whether this part of Siberia -will ever become of any ultimate use is at present hard to say, -but we may take it for granted that it will only be through the -discovery of a mineral wealth, the existence of which is unknown -at the present time, that the Polar Zone of Siberia will ever -attract even a temporary settlement of colonists.</p> - -<p class='c008'>To the south of the Tundra begin the Great Forests. At -first the trees are sparse and stunted, and only an experienced -botanist can recognise the distinctive characteristics of the -larch; the trees, however, become loftier as the climate -moderates and the summer lengthens. The larches, firs and -pines rise to a great height, and become at last so thick as to -prevent the sun drying the damp soil of the Taiga, or primeval -<span class='pageno' id='Page_7'>7</span>forest. The banks of the rivers are invariably covered by -immense marshes, the most extensive of which are those to be -met with in the neighbourhood of the Obi and the Irtysh. -When the snow begins to melt, the inundations extend to -considerably over six miles on either side of the ill-defined -river-banks. The climate of this region is extremely severe, the -winters frightfully cold, but the summers fairly warm. The -frost lasts only seven instead of eight months; the subsoil, -however, is eternally frozen, and agriculture is only possible in -certain spots and demands constant attention. It is evident, -however, that this zone, which covers about 2,320,000 square -miles, that is to say about half Siberia, will never be able to -support a dense population; still, with its great forests it is -much more valuable than the more northern or Polar regions. -If it is possible to prevent these Siberian forests from undergoing -the same process of devastation which has befallen those -of Northern America, they may become of enormous value. -Moreover, there exist in their midst some very important gold-mines, -especially near the Yenissei and in the basin of the -Olekma, one of the tributaries of the Lena, not a few of which -are already being satisfactorily exploited. There is therefore -hope that in due time these vast regions now covered with -forests and marshes may be able to support a much larger -population than the actual one, which does not exceed 700,000 -souls, mostly Russians and natives.</p> - -<p class='c008'>If we abstract from the total extent of Siberia the -1,600,000 square miles of Tundra, and the 2,320,000 square -miles of forest land, there remain nearly 900,000 square miles -which form the cultivable zone, the only one which will ever be -capable of supporting anything like a dense population. This -region is not perceptibly distinguishable from that of the -forests by any marked change in the landscape, unless it be to -the west, where the great green trees that usually flourish in -milder climes form an agreeable contrast to the everlasting -pines and firs. Then, again, the presence of cereals is very -noticeable, the late summer being of sufficient length to -enable wheat, barley and oats to ripen. So long as the seed -remains under the snow it matters little how intense the cold -may be above; but when once the snow melts it becomes -absolutely necessary for the heat to be sufficiently great during -a prolonged period to enable the grain to germinate, and above -all it is necessary that the autumnal frosts should not occur -<span class='pageno' id='Page_8'>8</span>before the corn has had sufficient time to ripen. At Nertchinsk -in Trans-Baikalia the winter is often much more rigorous than at -Beriozof on the Obi, and yet corn ripens in the neighbourhood -of the first-named town, for the simple reason that the temperature -between May and September, although not many degrees -higher, remains equable much longer. It is rather to the -brief period during which the sun has any power than to the -intensity of the heat or the excess of cold that may be attributed -the difficulty of rendering these extreme northern regions of -any agricultural value. Notwithstanding that the cultivable -zone of Siberia is so extremely limited, it covers an area five -times the size of France and equal to half the cultivable sphere -of Russia in Europe, which is also afflicted with glacial and -sterile zones. This more fortunate section of Siberia may, and -doubtless will, offer for a long time to come an admirable field -for Russian emigration.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_9'>9</span> - <h3 class='c001'>CHAPTER II<br /> <span class='large'>THE LAND OF SIBERIA AND ITS INHABITANTS</span></h3> -</div> -<p class='c014'>Siberia a prolongation of Russia in Europe—Marked resemblance in -scenery and climate between the two countries—Insignificance of the -indigenous population, especially towards the West—Facilities of colonization—Preponderance -of the Russian element in the agricultural -zone—Indigenous elements: Polar tribes diminishing; Mongol population -increasing, but much more slowly than the Russian—Asiatic -immigration to the east of the cultivable zone—Heterogeneous elements -imported from Europe—Jews and Raskolniks.</p> - -<p class='c007'>After crossing the beautifully wooded valleys and the chain -of hills known as the Ural Mountains, the traveller arrives at -Cheliabinsk, situated in the Great Plain, and can scarcely -believe that 1,200 miles of railway separate him from Moscow, -so striking is the resemblance between the scenery around -him and that of Central Russia, notably in the Governments -of Tula and Riazan. In the open spaces rise tufts of -delicate verdure, beyond which, here and there, appear the -gray outlines of some village, consisting of rows of wooden -houses surrounded by fields. The only striking difference -between the appearance of this country and Central Russia -consists in the predominance of the birch between the Ural -and the Obi. For nearly 1,200 miles no other tree shades the -absolutely flat country. It is the same with the wild flowers, -among which I noticed the <em>Kaborski tchaï</em>, with its long pink -spiral blossoms, which recall those of the digitalis. It is not -surprising that a Russian territory bearing such a singular -resemblance to the mother country should prove attractive -to Russian emigrants. The winter here, however, is undoubtedly -both longer and colder; the summer is a little hotter, -and the mosquitoes much more troublesome; but, on the other -hand, land is freer, and the peasant is no longer confined -<span class='pageno' id='Page_10'>10</span>in the very narrow space granted in the old country to -his father at the time of the emancipation of the serfs, -and which, at his death, he has been obliged to share with -his brothers. If one is surprised to notice during the first few -days’ journey by the Trans-Siberian Railway so few villages, -the reason is not far to find. The line passes a little to the -south of the colonized region, and borders the insufficiently-watered -steppes where the Kirghiz graze their cattle. From -time to time the traveller perceives in the plain the circular -huts and even the tents of these nomads, and not unfrequently -at the stations he may meet with a number of them, with their -beady black eyes, their yellow complexions, and their closely-shaven -heads contrasting picturesquely with the fair locks and -long yellow beards of the red-shirted Mujiks. A little to the -north, after passing the Obi, the Kirghiz disappear, although -the town of Tomsk still possesses a mosque, said to be the -most northern in the world.</p> - -<p class='c008'>It is estimated that these Tatars do not exceed 90,000. The -majority profess Islamism, whilst a few have been converted to -the Orthodox faith, and a smaller proportion still remain -pagans. Only a fraction dwell in the towns. Besides this -Tatar tribe, some 20,000 Mongols, called Kalmucks, inhabit -the Altai Mountains. In the north may still be found other -aborigines of a very inferior type, known as Ostiaks. They are -supposed to be of Finnish origin, and do not exceed 40,000 in -number, and are exclusively engaged in hunting and fishing. -It is stated that at one time they were fairly civilized, but they -have been gradually driven back by the Russians into the -Arctic and sterile regions, and have become decimated by -drink and other vices, the unfortunate result of contact with a -superior race. Further north of the forest-line and the -Tundra region wander a few Polar tribes called Samoyeds, -who, owing to the extremely arid nature of the soil and the -rigour of the climate, have never come into contact with -European civilization. There are about 20,000 of them, and -owing to the unfavourable social and climatic conditions under -which they exist, it is not likely that they will increase. The -purely Russian population, to whom the agricultural zone -almost exclusively belongs, forms about nineteen-twentieths of -the 3,356,000 inhabitants of Western Siberia, which itself -contains three-fifths of the population of all Siberia.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The richest section of the Government of Tobolsk consists -<span class='pageno' id='Page_11'>11</span>of a narrow band of land running between the marshes of the -northern regions and the sterile steppes of the southern. At -Tomsk this cultivable zone widens when it passes the Obi, and -the character of the scenery changes to pleasant hills and valleys, -in which latter the earth is still sufficiently thick and rich to -entirely cover the rocky formation below. The leaf-bearing -trees are finer, and are interspersed with splendid specimens of -Siberian fir and the extremely picturesque Siberian cedar-tree. -Occasionally these trees group themselves together, and form -a sort of wood or plantation; at other times they grow singly -along the roadside, being thus cultivated in order to supply -sleepers for the railway or as superior fuel. The fields are -full of beautiful flowers, and the general appearance of the -country is that of a fine park, forming a very agreeable contrast -to the monotonous Barabinsk Steppe, with its infrequent and -stunted birches. The plateau which stretches between the -two rivers Tom and Chulym, affluents of the Obi, at a height -of between 800 and 900 feet above the level of the plain, is -extremely fertile, the vegetation being most varied, and the -whole region is vastly superior in point of picturesqueness to -any hitherto visited. The valley of the Yenissei, dominated -to the east by mountains and traversed by the magnificent -river, is extremely beautiful. The water runs rapidly, is remarkably -clear, and in more than one place the majestic stream -widens to over 1,000 yards.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Once the traveller has passed the Yenissei, he leaves the -tedious plains behind him, and finds himself among pleasant -hills and valleys, which are rapidly becoming highly cultivated. -The post-road, which crosses from the west to the east, from -Tiumen, at the foot of the Ural, to Stretensk on the Amur, -sometimes follows the course of the rivers, and at others rises -to a considerable height above them. On either side rise -veritable walls of gigantic Siberian pines, with red trunks, -sombre verdure, interspersed by magnificent larches of a -lighter shade of green and of more regular shape, and by -fir-trees and cedars, whose cones contain those little seeds which -the Siberians are so fond of chewing. On the banks of the -more important rivers, and at every ten to twenty miles’ distance, -the traveller now passes numbers of little towns and villages, -surrounded by arable land, which form, however, but very insignificant -oases in the midst of these interminable forests. It is, -however, along this post-road, in the valley of the Yenissei, and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_12'>12</span>on the banks of two or three other rivers, that almost the entire -population of Central Siberia is concentrated. Here, as elsewhere, -the Russian element predominates; for out of the -570,000 inhabitants of the government of Yenissei there are -not more than 50,000 natives, who, moreover, live principally -in the forests to the north.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The population of the Government of Irkutsk includes about -500,000 inhabitants, of whom 100,000 are Buriats, mostly -shepherds and farmers. They were originally Mongols, and -still practise Buddhism, and live principally on the slopes of -the Sayan chain of mountains, which runs close to the Chinese -frontier. To the east of the great Lake Baikal, which is 440 -miles in length by 30 to 60 in width, and which by reason of its -mountainous shores recalls the lakes of Scotland, is a region -that contains the only really beautiful scenery in Siberia. This -section of the country has always entertained close relations -with China. Trans-Baikalia in former times supplied the -Emperors at Peking with their finest game. The whole district -of the Verkhne-Udinsk, comprising the basin of the Selenga, -the principal affluent of the Baikal, is frequently and not inappropriately -called Russian Mongolia. On the summit of the -Ahmar Dabam, a chain of mountains which dominates Lake -Baikal, I perceived for the first time a fetish-tree with its -branches bedecked with parti-coloured rags. On the eastern -slope I also discovered a Lamasery. The scantily cultivated -plateau to the north, which is watered by the Vitim, a tributary -of the Lena, was, it appears, not populated at the time of the -arrival of the Russians, and even to-day it only contains a few -villages peopled by wretched Mujiks. This region before the -annexation of the right bank and of the lower valley of the -Amur was used as a sort of military encampment. At the -present time it is governed by a military régime, whose administration -is concentrated in the hands of a Governor, invariably -a general in the army. Of the 670,000 inhabitants, -one-third are natives, one-third peasants, or inhabitants -of its gloomy little towns, and the other third consists -of Cossacks, who are only distinguishable from the peasants -by wearing a yellow band on their caps and trousers. Instead -of paying taxes, they have to submit to certain military obligations. -Although they are Cossacks by name and by race, -they possess none of the brilliant military qualities which distinguish -their European kinsmen. The two territories annexed -<span class='pageno' id='Page_13'>13</span>by Russia in 1858 at the expense of China, the Province of -the Amur, and the southern portion of the Littoral Province—the -only one which is of the least value—are scarcely inhabited, -and were even less peopled at the time of the arrival of the -Russians, when they possessed not more than 10,000 Manchus, -and about as many natives, engaged in hunting and fishing, -and belonging to several declining tribes. The Manchus have -remained and are prospering; the other tribes are gradually -passing away. Some 20,000 or 30,000 Korean and Chinese -emigrants have settled in the neighbourhood of Vladivostok. -The Russian immigration, however, forms at least five-sixths -of the 112,000 inhabitants of the Province of the Amur, and -more than two-thirds of the 214,000 of the coast province, of -whom 30,000 natives live in the Arctic regions, where the -whites leave them in peace. The newly-acquired Chinese -territory includes at least 140,000 Russians out of the 175,000 -inhabitants. It must, however, be remembered that this -remarkable majority is mainly due to the concentration of -troops which has taken place since the Chino-Japanese War, -which so profoundly modified the political condition of the -Far East.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The following table is formed from official sources—chiefly -from the census taken on January 28, 1897, and marks the -area and the total population of the nine Siberian provinces:</p> - -<table class='table1' summary=''> - <tr> - <th class='btt bbt c015'></th> - <th class='btt bbt blt c016'>Square Miles.</th> - <th class='btt bbt blt c016'>Total Population.</th> - <th class='btt bbt blt c016'>Natives and other Asiatics.</th> - <th class='btt bbt blt c016'>Area of Agricultural Zone, Square Miles.</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Tobolsk</td> - <td class='blt c017'>536,600</td> - <td class='blt c017'>1,438,655</td> - <td class='blt bbt c017' rowspan='2'>180,000</td> - <td class='blt bbt c017' rowspan='2'>270,800</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='bbt c015'>Tomsk</td> - <td class='bbt blt c017'>328,000</td> - <td class='bbt blt c017'>1,917,527</td> - - - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Yenissei</td> - <td class='blt c017'>987,400</td> - <td class='blt c017'>567,807</td> - <td class='blt c017'>45,000</td> - <td class='blt bbt c017' rowspan='2'>193,400</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='bbt c015'>Irkutsk</td> - <td class='bbt blt c017'>280,800</td> - <td class='bbt blt c017'>501,237</td> - <td class='bbt blt c017'>100,000</td> - - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Yakutsk</td> - <td class='blt c017'>1,535,900</td> - <td class='blt c017'>283,954</td> - <td class='blt c017'>250,000</td> - <td class='blt c017'> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Trans-Baikalia</td> - <td class='blt c017'>229,800</td> - <td class='blt c017'>669,721</td> - <td class='blt c017'>200,000</td> - <td class='blt c017'>139,200</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='bbt c015'>Amur</td> - <td class='bbt blt c017'>172,900</td> - <td class='bbt blt c017'>112,396</td> - <td class='bbt blt c017'>18,000</td> - <td class='bbt blt c017'>104,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c015'>Littoral</td> - <td class='blt bbt c017' rowspan='2'>741,400</td> - <td class='blt c017'>214,940</td> - <td class='blt bbt c017' rowspan='2'>70,000</td> - <td class='blt bbt c017' rowspan='2'>147,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='bbt c015'>Island of Sakhalin</td> - - <td class='bbt blt c017'>25,495</td> - - - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='bbt c016'>Total</td> - <td class='bbt blt c017'>4,812,800</td> - <td class='bbt blt c017'>5,731,732</td> - <td class='bbt blt c017'>863,000</td> - <td class='bbt blt c017'>854,400</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p class='c008'>The southern agricultural region of Siberia, in contradistinction -to the frozen zone to the north, is mainly inhabited -<span class='pageno' id='Page_14'>14</span>by European settlers. The proportion of these over the -native population is greatest in the west, and decreases towards -the east, where, however, it still remains superior by about -two-thirds, so that we need not hesitate to conclude that -out of the 5,000,000 people living on this long strip of land, -more than four million and a half are of European origin. -Nevertheless, it must not be forgotten that the indigenous -Mongol and Turki population, which is immensely superior to -the poor tribes of fishermen and hunters who wander about -the northern zone, does not diminish, but continues to increase, -much less rapidly, however, than the Russians, who are constantly -being reinforced by emigration. Fortunately the -feeling between these two distinct elements is excellent; the -Russians, being of Oriental extraction, do not hold those racial -prejudices which are so marked among the Anglo-Saxons. -The religious question, which is of course an obstacle to any -attempt at a fusion between the Orthodox and the Buddhist -population, is also not very intense or intricate. The -Russian is essentially tolerant, in opposition to his Government, -which is the reverse. The Orthodox emigrants have -no objection to a Pagoda or a Lamasery being erected alongside -of their own churches and monasteries. I remember -seeing, while travelling, from Cheliabinsk to Omsk, the Metropolitan -of the last-named town, who happened to be in the -train, get out at a certain station to visit a church which was -being built, and to bestow his benediction upon a crowd of -Mujiks who had assembled for the purpose of receiving it. -Whilst the ceremony was in progress, a few feet further on five -Tatar travellers had stretched their carpets, and, with their -faces turned Meccawards, were going through the elaborate -gymnastics connected with Mussulman devotion. The Mujiks, -who were crowding forward to kiss their priest’s hand, never -dreamt of disturbing the Mohammedan worshippers, but -watched them quite respectfully. I doubt very much whether -in any part of Europe three centuries ago, when the populace -was not more developed in the intellectual sense than are these -poor Mujiks, such a scene of tolerance could ever have been -witnessed. The Russian Government accords the utmost liberty -to its subjects in Asia in matters of religion. The origin of -Russian official intolerance in Europe is in the main purely -political, and if it considers Buddhists and Mussulmans in -Siberia less objectionable than Catholics and Protestants, it is -<span class='pageno' id='Page_15'>15</span>simply because the followers of these divergent creeds are the -representatives of former and very dangerous enemies, and are, -moreover, perpetually endeavouring to impose their doctrine -upon anyone with whom they come into contact.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The Russian colonization of Siberia has been carried out -without the aid of any other European nationality. There are -only a few hundred other Europeans settled in the country, -the greater number of whom are French people. I was much -amused at the little station at Sokur, about nine leagues from -the Obi, to find a buffet kept by a Frenchwoman, a peasant -who had married a Bessarabian, and who had only been in -Siberia a year, after having, however, spent several in Southern -Russia. Her buffet was arranged with a greater degree of -taste and comfort than those in charge of the Russians, who, -however, keep everything scrupulously neat and clean. The -worthy lady had forgotten her fluent French, but had not yet -acquired fluent Russian. At Tomsk I fell in with another -Frenchwoman, who kept a bookshop, and in nearly all the -towns along the great post-road at Irkutsk, Blagovyeshchensk, -Khabarofsk, and Vladivostok, I found French shopkeepers, -some of whom had been thirty years in the country. They -seemed to entertain a distinct preference for photography.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Now that Siberia is at last thrown open to civilization, -foreigners will, of course, become much more numerous, and -already many engineers are to be found in various parts of the -mining districts; but for all this, I do not think that at any -period the Russian colony will be greatly influenced thereby.</p> - -<p class='c008'>We may, therefore, conclude that, from the ethnological -point of view, as well as from the geographical, Siberia is -merely a prolongation of Russian Europe, or of what is known -as Greater Russia. It is true that a few heterogeneous -elements exist of the same sort as those to be met with in -Russia itself: Poles and Germans from the Baltic provinces, and -the descendants of exiles, or even exiles themselves; and thus -it comes to pass that in all the larger towns, at Tomsk, -Krasnoyarsk and Irkutsk, Catholic and Lutheran churches -abound. On the other hand, there are synagogues in nearly -all the secondary towns. Israel is fully represented in Siberia, -and the little town of Kainsk between the Omsk and the -Obi is popularly known as the Jerusalem of Siberia. There -are also about 100,000 Raskolniks, followers of a reform -which took place in the liturgy of the Orthodox Church in the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_16'>16</span>seventeenth century. This, however, is, needless to say, a -purely Russian contingent. The Raskolniks exist in every part -of Siberia, but in the province of the Amur they form about a -tenth of the population, and are also very numerous in Trans-Baikalia. -They are mainly the descendants of people belonging -to this particular sect, who were originally exiled from -Russia in the eighteenth century. Their chief peculiarity -consists in their love of temperance and horror of every sort of -innovation. Nothing would induce them to take even a cup of -coffee or tea. In our time the members of certain curious -sects, that of the Eunuchs, for instance, are exiled into Siberia, -and confined to a village in the territory of the Yakutsk, in the -Tundra Zone. According to the belief of these eccentric -persons, Napoleon I. was a reincarnation of the Messiah, and -they believe he rests in the sleep of death on the shores of -Lake Baikal until a time when an angel shall awaken him and -place him at the head of an amazing host destined to establish -the reign of God in all parts of the world. The Raskolniks, -owing to their temperate habits and their industry, are generally -considered to be a very valuable element in the population of -the country.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_17'>17</span> - <h3 class='c001'>CHAPTER III<br /> <span class='large'>AGRICULTURAL SIBERIA AND THE RURAL POPULATION</span></h3> -</div> -<p class='c014'>Enormous preponderance of the rural and peasant population in Siberia—Siberian -Mujiks—Their rude and primitive manner of life—Excellent -quality of the land, and backward methods of cultivating it—Mediocre -and irregular manner of raising cereals—The necessity and difficulty -of improving agricultural operations—The absence of large and enterprising -ownership in Siberia a disadvantage.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Siberia resembles Russia not only in the matter of its immensity, -its loneliness, the duration of its winters, monotonous -expanse of its plains and enormous forest lands, but -also in the leading characteristics of its peasantry; but in -Asia and Russia these seem accentuated, possibly by reason -of the peculiarity of the surroundings among which they are -compelled to live. Even more than in Russia is this class of -the people essentially rural; the exploitation of the gold-mines -is the only other industry of any importance, and it employs -relatively few people in comparison with its yield.</p> - -<p class='c008'>In Siberia great landlords are conspicuous by their absence. -The only nobles mentioned by the official statistics are a few -functionaries whose lands will be found on the other side of -the Ural, and the only rich people in the country are the -merchants residing in the towns, who occasionally add to -their incomes, mainly derived from trade, by a certain interest -in mining speculations. Some of these worthy people build -themselves handsome country houses, but they do not take -much interest in agriculture. A few concessions of land were -made in the middle of the century, but they have long since -passed out of the hands of their original owners into those of -the Mujiks, to whom they have been ‘let,’ but these do not -appear to care about their prosperity. All the rest of the land -<span class='pageno' id='Page_18'>18</span>belongs either to the Government or to small farmers, who rent -it from the Crown.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The Siberian peasant lives exactly as do his brethren in -Russia, in villages or hamlets. Isolated houses are rare, the -agglomeration of dwellings being an absolute necessity of the -conditions of that collective and communal proprietorship -which prevails throughout the Tsar’s dominions. A Siberian -village is, therefore, a reproduction of a Russian village. On -either side of the road is a succession of low, one-story -houses built of dark wood, and separated from each other by -yards, at the back of which are the stables. The appearance -of these dwellings is exceedingly dreary, for they are invariably -built of rough wood, blackened by age. Occasionally, however, -some few planks are painted a vivid white. The usual doleful -aspect of these villages is sometimes enlivened, especially in -the larger ones, by the presence of a brick church, with -cupolas painted a vivid green. In the hamlets these chapels -are only outwardly distinguished from the rest of the <em>isbas</em> by -an iron cross.</p> - -<p class='c008'>If anything, the general appearance of these Siberian -villages is even more dreary and depressing than that of their -counterparts in European Russia, where the houses are often -gaily painted. Here they are built entirely of unhewn wood, -like the log-huts of the Far West. Then, the few domestic -animals to be seen wandering about the roadway are not -reassuring, for the dogs look like wolves, and the enormous -black pigs like wild boars. Nevertheless, I am of opinion that -the Siberian peasant is better off than his Russian brother. -His <em>isbas</em> are certainly more spacious, although, to be sure, six, -seven, and even ten, persons are usually crowded into two or -three tiny rooms, the immense stove in the centre of which, in -winter, is usually used as a bedstead by the entire family, whereby -whatever air otherwise might be admitted is hermetically -excluded. For all that, I have never seen in Siberia any of -those miserable hovels to be found in Russia, but undoubtedly -the manners and customs of the Siberian peasants are even -more primitive than those of the Russians. They possess less -knowledge of hygiene and cleanliness, and are absolutely -ignorant of everything calculated to render life in the least -degree agreeable or rational. During the six winter months -the Siberian keeps his house rigorously shut, excluding even a -breath of air; in summer he does the same, for the double -<span class='pageno' id='Page_19'>19</span>windows of the two or three very small sleeping-rooms -are never opened on any pretext. These Siberian peasants -are, moreover, astonishingly lazy and apathetic. Their only -pleasure in life consists in dreaming away the time whilst -smoking their pipes, and in drinking <em>vodka</em>, not to enliven -themselves, but simply to get dead-drunk. Whilst the men -are at the public-house the women stand by their open doors, -listless and gossiping, indolently watching their fair-haired -children, who, with only a red shirt on, fabricate the time-honoured -dirt-pies of universal childhood in the mud or else -roll about in the dust. Work is limited to what is absolutely -indispensable, and the Siberian peasant is much happier doing -nothing than in working to obtain what his fellows in other -countries would consider the necessaries of life, but which he -looks upon as ludicrously superfluous. Every village possesses -a herd of cows, which you may watch in the early morning -hours straggling off to the pastures, driven along by two or -three old men or urchins, and although you can always get -excellent milk, butter is very scarce, and cheese unknown. As -to a garden, even for the cultivation of necessary vegetables, I -have never seen one in the hundred villages I have visited, -excepting, indeed, in Trans-Baikalia, where I perceived one or -two attached to the <em>stanitsas</em> belonging to some Cossacks. It is -not because vegetables will not grow, but because the peasants -will not cultivate them. In the towns in the Amur district, -such as Blagovyeshchensk, Khabarofsk, and a few others, vegetables -are to be obtained, but even these are brought over by -the Chinese from the opposite bank of the river.</p> - -<p class='c008'>In addition to laziness, the Siberian peasant adds the most -surprising obstinacy, which is not precisely a bad quality, when, -as in the case of the English, it serves to increase their dogged -activity; but in Siberia it is simply another incentive to do -nothing. Once a Siberian peasant has made up his mind to -play <i><span lang="it" xml:lang="it">dolce far niente</span></i>, no power, Divine or human, will induce -him to budge. I have often heard Europeans say that Siberia -is the only country where you cannot get work done even for -money; and this is perfectly true, for on certain holidays it -matters little what you may offer, you will not get a coachman -to take you a five-mile drive. The Siberian would rather lose -money than earn it against his will.</p> - -<p class='c008'>If inertia is happiness, then the Siberians must be the -happiest people on earth. They disdain progress and would -<span class='pageno' id='Page_20'>20</span>rather die than better their condition. Their motto is, ‘What -sufficed for our fathers is surely good enough for us,’ and this is -the invariable answer a peasant will give you if you venture to -suggest any sort of change for the better in his condition. His -favourite texts from Holy Scripture are those which flatter his -habit of intellectual stagnation, those which preach resignation -and abstention, but certainly not those which teach action and -effort. ‘He who is contented with little will not be forgotten -by God,’ was the text I once saw stuck up in the waiting-room -of one of the dirtiest stations in Trans-Baikalia. It struck me -as being particularly appropriate, both to the place and the -people. The prevailing lack of energy and perseverance, which -has been noticed by travellers in every part of the Tsar’s -Empire, seems to me to be one of the radical characteristics of -the Russian nature. It may possibly derive its origin from the -influences of Tatar blood, which was so largely infused among -the lower classes of Russians from the thirteenth to the sixteenth -century at the time of Tatar domination. Then, again, -it must be remembered that extreme cold, like extreme heat, -produces apathy, especially upon the men, who are thereby condemned -to remain for many months inactive, and whose minds, -owing to their excessive ignorance, are a blank.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Siberian peasants are supremely ignorant. In 1894 the -Government of Tobolsk, the most progressive of any in respect -of education, numbered only 19,100 children frequenting the -schools out of a population of 1,400,000 souls. In the towns -the proportion of scholars was 4·63 per 100, but in the country -districts it did not rise to 1·05. One must not, however, be -too severe on the Siberians for showing so poor an educational -result, for we must not forget the enormous distance between -village and village, and the difficulties of obtaining schoolmasters, -owing mainly to the excessive ignorance in which the -lower orders of Russians are plunged. Notwithstanding the -very considerable progress which has been made in this direction -in the last few years, there is probably no country in the -world where reading and writing would be of greater advantage, -for during at least one-half of the year the Siberian has -literally nothing to do but to think, or, better, to dream, his -life away.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Serfdom has never existed in Siberia, which accounts for the -Mujiks having a much more independent air than their brethren -in European Russia. They have, however, in common with -<span class='pageno' id='Page_21'>21</span>these latter, that peculiar sort of charity which has been well -called the ‘pity of the Slav.’ It is, however, not an active -virtue, but a sort of dreamy pitifulness which induces these -poor people to help each other, but does not prevent them -from being exceedingly suspicious of strangers. They will, -however, invariably leave on the sill outside their windows a -hunk of bread or a jug of milk for the benefit of some escaped -convict or some wretched outcast. Unfortunately, however, -the extreme ignorance and the innate laziness of these people -prevent their extracting from the soil much that, at a very -small cost of labour, would greatly increase both their wealth -and their comfort.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The soil of Siberia is exceedingly rich. The famous -<em>tchernozium</em>, or black earth of Southern Russia, covers a great -part of the Meridional Zone of the provinces of Tobolsk and -Tomsk. The upper valleys of the Obi and the Yenissei, -sheltered from the north winds, enjoy a milder climate than -the plains, and are excellent for the growth of all sorts of -cereals. On the borders of the Angara, the great tributary of -Lake Baikal and on that of the Lower Amur, and its tributary -rivers and its affluents, which are marshy, there are enormous -tracts of extremely fertile land, but the methods of cultivation -are of the most primitive. Then, again, the vast majority of -the rural population obstinately refuses to work in the fields. -All along the great postal highway, which stretches from the -Ural to the Amur, and beyond to Kiakhta, the manner in which -the peasants earn their living is considerably modified. They -exist by trafficking along this main road, along which pass -manufactured goods imported from Europe, which are forwarded -to Central Siberia, the great caravans of the tea merchants, the -gangs of exiles, and lastly the ordinary travellers. As this -road is the only one which goes from west to east, it is very -animated. Even in summer, when the traffic is not so active—the -tea caravans only pass in winter—I have rarely seen fewer -than 100 transports of one sort or another per day. Although -every postmaster is obliged to keep no fewer than forty horses, -and each carriage rarely requires more than three, occasionally -it is impossible to secure a conveyance, and one is obliged to -ask the peasants for assistance, which they are very ready to -afford, making you pay from three to four roubles (six to eight -shillings) for a relay of twenty-five <em>versts</em> (sixteen miles), a sum -which, if they see that they have to deal either with somebody -<span class='pageno' id='Page_22'>22</span>who is in a great hurry, or with a wealthy traveller, they persistently -increase in the most barefaced manner. In winter -the transport of tea also enables them to make considerable -sums of money.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Thus it is that the country folk in these latitudes neglect -agriculture, considering it merely as an accessory. In the -neighbourhood of the villages you will find a few fields and -pastures, where the cows, horses, and sometimes a few black -sheep, are sent out to graze under the care of two or three boys -or old men, or sometimes without any shepherd at all. A -wooden barrier prevents their escaping into the neighbouring -forest.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The number of horses in Siberia is very great. In the -government of Tomsk in 1894 there were 1,360,000 horses to -a population of only 1,700,000, that is to say, 80 horses per -100 inhabitants. In the government of the Yenissei the -proportion is over 90 per 100 inhabitants, and the same -proportion prevails in the government of Irkutsk. Almost the -only other country where there are almost as many horses as -men is, besides Russian Central Asia, the Argentine Republic, -where there are 112 per 100 inhabitants. In the United -States there are but 22, and in France only 7. The proportion -of horned cattle is also very considerable, being about -60 per 100 inhabitants, rising in Eastern Siberia, in Tobolsk -and Tomsk, to 80, whereas in the Yenissei and Irkutsk districts -there are about 3 beasts per family. The greater part of these -are cows. Bullocks are very scarce, not being employed either -for food or burden. It is only along the Kirghiz Steppes, in -the country traversed by the Trans-Siberian railway between -the Urals and Omsk, and the region immediately below this -line, that milk is used. The rain falls in this region very -slightly, and the land is not cultivable, but purely arable, and -as the Kirghiz are extremely capable herdsmen, the results are -very satisfactory, and they export their cattle largely into -Russian Europe, and even beyond. I remember coming -across a train full of bullocks which were being conveyed to -St. Petersburg, and I know of at least one large house in -Moscow which receives weekly from the little town of Kurgan, -situated on the railway line, many thousands of pounds of -butter, a great part of which is exported thence to Hamburg.</p> - -<p class='c008'>If one wishes to become acquainted with the real Siberian -farmers, one must leave aside the highroads and plunge -<span class='pageno' id='Page_23'>23</span>into the country. True, the villages become much less -numerous, but then they are surrounded by more extensive -fields. In those districts which were first colonized in the -Government of Tobolsk some rather thickly-peopled places -are occasionally to be found, especially in the northern steppe -between 55° and 58° latitude. In the Government of Tomsk -a more inhabited region will likewise be met with to the south -of the zone of the immense but well-wooded marshlands; but -in this province, as in that of the Yenissei, the southern -portion, instead of being covered by sterile steppes, contains -the magnificently wooded valleys of the upper Obi, the -Yenissei, and their affluents, which very naturally attract the -greater number of Russian emigrants.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The agricultural resources in the districts of Barnaul, Biisk, -Minusinck and Kansk, are extremely rich, and, besides excellent -land, splendid water, and a relatively mild and agreeable -climate, there are a variety of minerals. More to the east, -if we wish to avoid the ever-silent desert, or the <em>taiga</em>, we -must, on leaving the highroad, enter some of the valleys at the -foot of the mountains on the Chinese frontier, on the borders -of which the whole population is at present concentrated. -The aspect of this region, however, differs very little from that -crossed by the post-road between Irkutsk to the great -prison of Alexandrof, where we behold fine wheat-fields and -herds of cattle wherever there is an opening in the thick but -marshy woodlands. Excepting for the extent of the cultivated -lands which surround them, the appearance of the villages, -however, does not change in the least. There is never a -vestige of a garden or of any sort of verdure near the houses, -unless, indeed, it be a few flowers growing in pots, which are -never arranged on the ledge outside the window, but in the -interior, and form, together with a few icons and the portraits -of their Imperial Majesties, the only attempt at ornamentation -indulged in by the inhabitants of these essentially comfortless -and inartistic dwellings.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The only crops of the least value in Siberia are those of -the various cereals, of which about 150,000,000 bushels are -harvested, mostly in the western part of the country, which is -not only the most thickly populated, but also the freest of -forests.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The rest of Siberia, that is to say, the provinces watered by -the Amur and the territory of the Irkutsk, which are very thinly -<span class='pageno' id='Page_24'>24</span>peopled, does not produce a total of more than 5,500,000 -bushels. Wheat, generally sown in spring, and oats form -each about 30 per cent. of the total cereal product of Siberia. -The balance is made up of rye, barley and buckwheat. The -arable land has to undergo, especially when first reclaimed -from the steppe, the usual process of preparation, manuring, -etc. The Siberian peasants have not acquired even the most -rudimentary knowledge of agricultural science, and, consequently, -often have to abandon their farms. On the other -hand, in certain favourable regions, in the Governments of -Tobolsk and Tomsk, where the earth is exceptionally rich, the -pastures have gone on fairly well for over a hundred years -without any sensible diminution in the excellence of their grazing -properties. However, land is so abundant in Siberia that often -the peasants, when they find after they have reclaimed it that -its productive qualities decrease, rather than be bothered with -a repetition of the processes of manuring, etc., pack up their -traps and migrate elsewhere, literally, to ‘fresh woods and -pastures new,’ where probably the foot of man has never trod.</p> - -<p class='c008'>In Siberia, as stated already, great land-owners are non-existent. -The soil is, therefore, exclusively in the hands of the -peasants, but up to the present the <em>mir</em> collective communal -property-ship, as is found throughout Russia, is quite exceptional, -and then only in the more sparsely peopled parts of the west. -Since 1896, however, the Government has decided to introduce, -if not practically, at least theoretically, the <em>mir</em> principle as -it exists in European Russia. Nevertheless, in Siberia the -commune is not supposed to possess property, but simply to -hold it on the principle of usufruct, the whole land belonging -to the Crown. In those parts of the country which are nearly -uninhabited the <em>zaïmka</em> system still holds good, whereby a -peasant, although he may be a resident in a village, is allowed -to build himself a hut on the steppe or in the forest where he -passes the summer, and where he can cultivate and even -enclose one or two large fields which are supposed to belong -to him, and which he can sell or give away as he pleases, and -which, in point of fact, he owns by right of being the first -occupant; but this system is only provisional. With the -increase of population it gives place to another, whereby the -peasant is not considered an absolute proprietor, but only for -so long as he chooses to cultivate his land properly. From -the moment he ceases to comply with this condition another -<span class='pageno' id='Page_25'>25</span>man can take his land. Everybody is allowed to cut hay in -the prairies where he likes, and the pastures and woods are -common property. On the other hand, it is forbidden to -enclose any forest or pasture-land.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The climate of Siberia is naturally opposed to the cultivation -of cereals, which have to struggle against droughts, autumnal -fogs, and late and early frosts. During the last ten years some -very interesting meteorological observations have been made at -Irkutsk, whereby it has been discovered that July is the only -month in which it never freezes. Then, again, in the government -of Tobolsk, and to the west of that of Tomsk, in addition to these -climatic drawbacks, the crops are often devastated by myriads -of <em>kobylkas</em>, a sort of locust or grasshopper which comes from -the Kirghiz Steppes. Under these circumstances, agriculture -in Siberia may well be said to be an even more arduous way -of earning a livelihood than it is in Russia proper. It not -unfrequently happens that the crops fail utterly, and during -the last ten years it has been noticed that these disasters are -mainly due to increasing impoverishment of the soil. The -irregular condition of the crops is all the more disastrous in -Siberia because of the lack of means of communication -which impedes the easy transport of corn from one district to -another, and results in enormous fluctuations in prices, that -often spell ruin to the unfortunate peasants. The introduction -of the railway to Irkutsk occasioned a notable reduction in the -price of bread in Eastern Siberia, but, on the other hand, the -principal line, unfortunately, transports agricultural products -from Siberia to the region of the Volga.</p> - -<p class='c008'>But a matter which is even of greater importance than that -of intercommunication are the extremely antiquated methods of -cultivation which the peasants insist upon retaining. In the first -place, their notions of preparing the reclaimed soil for culture -are absolutely barbarous. All they do is to scratch up the -immediate surface of the earth with a sort of plough which -dates from the Iron Age, and then sow their crop. When the -field is exhausted, which, not having been properly manured, -it very soon is, it is abandoned for a period of years until it -recovers some of its reproductive qualities. With improved agricultural -implements the earth could be more deeply ploughed, -and at a very little distance beneath the surface it is almost invariably -extremely rich. The question is how to induce the -peasants to change methods which have been handed down to -<span class='pageno' id='Page_26'>26</span>them from their ancestors through the ages. It is of course -much to be regretted that in Siberia there exists no great land-owners -wealthy enough to introduce modern improvements, and -thus teach their humbler neighbours the value of progress by -practical illustration; but until means of communication are -facilitated and improved it will be difficult to induce men of -wealth and education to settle in a country which, however -naturally rich it may be, is, to say the best of it, exceptionally -unattractive. Even in Russia, where so many noblemen, owing -to the great losses which they sustained at the time of the emancipation -of the serfs, have abandoned their lands to the peasants, -and have retired to the larger towns, there are yet to be found -men who have had the courage to face reverses, and who have -taken their estates in hand on scientific principles, introducing -the latest improvements in agricultural implements, and thereby -have influenced for the better the peasantry by even inducing -some of them to abandon their primeval methods of agriculture. -This desirable state of affairs, however, cannot exist in -Siberia, at least for the present. Then, again, there is another -advantage which would accrue from the presence of rich land-owners -in Siberia, namely, contact with persons of superior -education and culture, which in the end would doubtless affect -the peasantry for the better. In Russia the peasantry form a -compact body which, by reason of its singular position in the -social sphere, is absolutely unable to receive or absorb any -influences from the more educated classes. This is a state of -affairs which it is highly desirable should cease in the Asiatic -colonies, where at present it is even more strongly marked -than in Russia itself. The problem of the future of Siberia is -the possibility and feasibility of inducing important land-owners -to settle in the country.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_27'>27</span> - <h3 class='c001'>CHAPTER IV<br /> <span class='large'>MINERAL RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES</span></h3> -</div> -<p class='c014'>Importance of the Siberian mines—The gold-mines—Insufficiency of -organization principally due to unfavourable climatic influences—Railway -extension would bring about an increase in the value of the mining -industries—Silver, copper, and iron mines.</p> - -<p class='c007'>However productive Siberia may eventually become, it can -never solely depend for its prosperity upon its agricultural -resources. Happily, the subsoil is richer than the upper crust, -on account of the great abundance of ore of various kinds -which it conceals. The gold and silver mines, however, alone, -up to the present, have been worked to any extent, although a -few of the iron mines have been slightly exploited. Even in -the case of gold, however, only the alluvial mines have been -touched in those valleys where gold exists, and nowhere have -the rock veins been opened. More can hardly be expected -in a country which is nearly destitute of the proper means -of transport; hence the extreme difficulty of conveying the -necessarily heavy and elaborate machinery required for -the extraction of the gold from the rock. Then, again, -the rock ore is only to be found at great distances from -inhabited centres in unexplored forests and mountainous -regions. The diggings, on the other hand, are much easier, -demanding no other implements than a sieve and a spade. -The siftings have been exploited in great numbers from end to -end of Siberia, their takings proving, since 1895, equal to two-thirds -of the gold product of the whole of the Russian Empire, -the fourth largest gold-centre in the world, coming immediately -after the United States, Australia, and the Transvaal. The -amount of gold abstracted from the Siberian mines since 1895 -amounts to not less than £5,000,000, and this figure, high as -<span class='pageno' id='Page_28'>28</span>it is, is, in all probability, much under the mark, the miners -very often retaining a good deal of their findings for themselves. -The Government is the only buyer of Siberian gold. It has -the right to claim on purchasing the gold from the miners -between 15 and 20 per cent. of the ore. This system of taxation -is extremely pernicious, since it tempts the miners, as -already stated, to conceal the real amount of their takings. -An increase in the surface tax would compensate for the suppression -of the official claim upon the net product, and would -put an end to a great deal of fraud. I have been assured that -a reform in this sense may soon be expected. The enforced -obligation of selling to the State becomes, in the long-run, exceedingly -irksome to concessionaires, because it forces them to -send their gold to a great distance, to the laboratories at Tomsk -and Irkutsk, where the official agents analyze it to determine -its value, whereas, of course, it would be much simpler to send -it direct to Europe, and there sell it to speculators who would -promptly pay the price demanded. Another drawback in the -present system is that the miners have often to wait a long -time for ready cash, which is absolutely necessary to them in -their business. Sometimes the Government keeps them waiting -until their gold has reached St. Petersburg, and they are -ultimately obliged to discount it according to the very high -tariff rates prevailing in Siberia. The transport of the metal to -Europe by the State is as expensive as it is troublesome, since -it has to be conveyed to Moscow and St. Petersburg in charge -of a military escort. I have on several occasions seen between -the Yenissei and Lake Baikal carts bringing gold from the -mines, escorted by three or four soldiers ready to fire on the -least signs of possible attack. Another drawback to the -Siberian mining industries are the primitive implements used -in abstracting the ore from the soil, which, as M. Levat, a distinguished -engineer, very truly observed to me, were of a sort -that apparently dated from the days of Homer. Under these -circumstances, it is the custom in Siberia to work the surface -of the mine only, and after enough ore has been extracted -from it, to abandon the place entirely.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Owing to the geological formation of the country, the more -important Siberian mines will not be found, as in California, -on the mountain slopes, but at depths covered by marshlands. -Their exploitation, therefore, is much more costly, as it is -necessary before commencing operations to cart away an -<span class='pageno' id='Page_29'>29</span>immense quantity of the upper surface of the earth. Hence it -happens that if a mine is disturbed at the surface, and then -abandoned by the miners, it is, so to speak, spoilt, as any -attempt to work it again in all probability will result in disappointment. -For this reason, many excellent mines in the -basin of the Obi and of the Yenissei have been already exhausted, -and the centre of the mining industry in these regions -has been transferred to the banks of the Amur and the Lena, -and this notwithstanding the many difficulties the miners have -to face, as the soil hereabouts is invariably frozen for about -twenty yards in depth, and work can only be pursued for about -120 consecutive days in the year. The miners’ salaries, too, -are exceedingly high. In the diggings at Olekma, an affluent -of the Lena, wages are 3s. 4d. per diem, that is to say, double -what they are on the Yenissei, and eight times as much as in -the neighbourhood of Semipalatinsk, where the Kirghiz workmen -receive only fivepence. Notable progress, however, has -been made in these regions during the last few years, as the -mines are gradually leaving the hands of adventurers and small -associations, to be concentrated in those of important companies, -financed by the richer Siberian merchants, and even by -large Russian firms. The great mining company of Olekma -extracted in 1880 £1,000,000 worth of gold, and maintained -its reputation at £680,000 in 1896, proving this mine to be -one of the richest in the world. With the introduction of -proper means of transport, and, above all, a liberal reform in -the legislation, doubtless the Siberian mines would become -infinitely more valuable than they are at present.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Already European capitalists are paying attention to Asiatic -Russia, and one or two important groups of French mining -engineers during the past three years have been inspecting -those parts of the country which are said to be richest in ore. -I was never more surprised than to find on board a boat on -the Amur two English engineers, whose acquaintance I had -made in December, 1895, in the far-away goldfields of the -Transvaal. All that the mines of Siberia need to become of -enormous value are sufficient capital and up-to-date methods -of working them. The silver mines of Nertchinsk, which in -old times had an unenviable reputation as the site of the most -terrible Siberian penal settlement, are now of little value. On -the other hand, copper, iron, and coal-beds are distributed in -great abundance in various parts of the country, and seem to -<span class='pageno' id='Page_30'>30</span>constitute its principal and most permanent source of wealth. -The copper mines have not been exploited at all, but are -known to exist in the Upper Yenissei, in the districts of the -Minusinsk, celebrated throughout Siberia for its agricultural -prosperity; others may be discovered more to the west, on the -Irtysh. Iron is found in great quantity in the western regions, -in the Altai Mountains, on the borders of the Yenissei, and in -the valley of the Angara, and to the east in Trans-Baikalia, -where its iron mines have been fairly well exploited, but hitherto -not on any considerable scale. Coal will certainly be found in -considerable abundance in the western plains, and in the last -few years a vast coal area has been found, beginning about -150 miles south of the Trans-Siberian line near the town of -Kuznetsk, and extending to the Upper Obi. In 1887 a new -and still larger field was discovered at about 80 miles east of -Tomsk, and, moreover, close to the railway line. At the extremity -of Siberia, near Vladivostok, and, consequently, close -to the sea, other coal-beds have been opened of late.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Siberian industries are at present very limited, and consist of -a few unimportant distilleries, breweries, brick-kilns, match -manufactories, etc. It is therefore evident that for some long -time to come the inhabitants will be compelled to devote their -attention and energies to the development of the natural products -of the soil. All new countries are forced to do this in -the first stages of their civilization, and since the United States, -New Zealand, and Australia failed in manufactures in their -earlier days, Siberia may surely content herself by following in -their wake.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_31'>31</span> - <h3 class='c001'>CHAPTER V<br /> <span class='large'>SIBERIAN COMMERCE AND THE TRANSPORT OF TEA</span></h3> -</div> -<p class='c014'>Special character of trade in Siberia—Importance of the tea transport—Kiakhta—The -annual arrival of tea at the Irkutsk Customs-house—Road -followed by the tea caravan—Dilatory and expensive methods -of transport—Comparison between the land road viâ Kiakhta and the -sea-route viâ Odessa—Other articles of commerce, exportation of -cereals, etc.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Commerce is much more important in Siberia than either -agriculture or manufacture, and forms the basis of all the -great fortunes that have been made in the country. Siberian -commerce is mainly concerned with transport, and if we -except the traffic in gold by the Government, the only other -objects of export are cereals and furs. The importation, -on the other hand, is very limited, consisting merely of manufactured -articles necessary for the material comfort of a very -scanty and primitive population, whose wants are correspondingly -few. The commerce of the country would be infinitesimal -were it not that nearly all the tea consumed in Russia -passes through Siberia.<a id='r8' /><a href='#f8' class='c006'><sup>[8]</sup></a> Tea in Russia occupies even a more -important position than it does in England. The average -Russian takes between a dozen and fifteen cups per day, and -he will not travel without his tea, tea-pot, and his sugar, and -the <em>samovar</em>, a sort of glorified kettle, is never absent from -every table in Russia, and is always full of hot water ready to -moisten the leaves of the plant that comforts but does not -intoxicate. The Russians make their infusion very weak, -pouring the boiling water a great many times over the same -leaves. The peasantry, unlike the English of the lower classes, -who like their tea very strong, use the same leaves over and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_32'>32</span>over again until the decoction ends by being only straw-coloured -water. This explains the fact that whilst the Russians drink -three times as much tea as the English, the quantity of it -imported into Russia is at least two-thirds less than that which -China and India send annually to Great Britain.</p> - -<p class='c008'>It was by the overland route that the Russians first came in -contact with the Chinese somewhere towards the end of the -seventeenth century, and their commerce with the Celestial -Empire continued until the middle of the present century exclusively -overland. Almost all the tea which enters Russia has -to pass through the town of Kiakhta, about 180 miles south-east -of Irkutsk as the crow flies, but 430 miles by the postal-road, -which is only used during two short periods of the year, -the first in December and the second in spring, when, owing -to the quantity of ice on Lake Baikalia, navigation is impossible. -During the rest of the year the tea is transported across -the lake, in winter on sledges, and in summer by steamers, -whereby not less than 93 miles are gained. Occasionally, -as, for instance, on the banks of the Solenga, the road rises to -about 4,000 feet above the level of Lake Baikalia. Here the -scenery becomes extremely fine, and the traveller obtains -between the branches of the magnificent trees glimpses of the -beautiful lake far below, forming a very welcome change to the -monotony of the plain in which the caravans spend the greater -part of their journey. Kiakhta consists of three parts: the -town of Troitskosavsk, about two miles north of the Russo-Chinese -Frontier; the town of Kiakhta proper, which is -on the immediate frontier, but on Russian territory; and separated -from the last only by a strip of neutral ground a hundred -yards wide is the Chinese town of Maimatchin. Troitskosavsk -is the most important of the three, and offers an exceedingly -agreeable aspect to the traveller who has been obliged to climb -up the reverse side of the steep and barren hill overlooking the -town. The houses lining the road are of wood, comfortable, -and painted a light colour. Even the lateral streets are well -kept, and it is, taking it for all in all, the cleanest town I have -seen in all Siberia. One soon realizes that the tea trade -supplies the whole population with ample means of earning a -livelihood, and also that the wealthy take an interest in their -town. On one side of the road, for instance, is the communal -school, built out of funds originally intended for the erection -of barracks, but, soldiers not being required, the place was -<span class='pageno' id='Page_33'>33</span>converted into a school, munificently supported by the merchants -of the city. The children pay a small entrance fee. Opposite -stands another very large educational establishment, also supported -by voluntary contributions.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The dwellings of the principal tea merchants are situated at -Troitskosavsk, whose population numbers quite 7,000 souls; -but it is at Kiakhta,<a id='r9' /><a href='#f9' class='c006'><sup>[9]</sup></a> on the frontier, that the tea-leaves are -manipulated. The two towns are linked by an excellent road, -which passes between desolate-looking sand-hills, sparsely -covered with wretched fir-trees. The blue outline of the -mountains of Mongolia closes in the horizon to the south. The -houses of the wealthier inhabitants are painted white, as is the -church, the interior of which is extremely rich with massive -silver candelabras and a gorgeous <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">iconostase</span>. Beyond a group -of <em>isbas</em>, where the workmen dwell, and half hidden by the -cupolas of the church, stands the vast but very low one-storied -building of the Tea Warehouse. Such is Kiakhta, through -which passes annually into the Russian Empire from 40,000,000 -to 60,000,000 pounds of tea, costing, before the Custom duties -are paid, between £1,500,000 to £2,000,000. The following -are the figures obtained from the tea registers during the last -five years, kindly supplied to me by the authorities at Kiakhta.</p> - -<table class='table1' summary=''> - <tr> - <th class='btt bbt c018'>Year.</th> - <th class='btt bbt blt c018'>Weight of Tea.</th> - <th class='btt bbt blt c018'>Value of Tea.</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c019'>1892</td> - <td class='blt c020'>42,596,500 lbs.</td> - <td class='blt c019'>£1,672,143</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c019'>1893</td> - <td class='blt c020'>43,123,250 〃</td> - <td class='blt c019'>1,659,134</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c019'>1894</td> - <td class='blt c020'>51,086,900 〃</td> - <td class='blt c019'>1,932,318</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c019'>1895</td> - <td class='blt c020'>52,439,500 〃</td> - <td class='blt c019'>2,043,086</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='bbt c019'>1896</td> - <td class='bbt blt c020'>55,369,200 〃</td> - <td class='bbt blt c019'>2,128,402</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p class='c008'>The tea begins to pour into Kiakhta in winter from the -month of November to February. In December it is not at -all an uncommon thing to see as many as 5,000 boxes delivered -<span class='pageno' id='Page_34'>34</span>daily. The total number of boxes of tea which passed the -Customs in 1896 was 412,869.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The tea harvest in China takes place generally in spring, -the first gathering of the leaves occurring in April, the fourth and -the last in June. The latter is compressed into bricks, is of -very inferior quality, and bought only by the poorer people. -The great tea-market is Hankow on the Yang-tsze. All the -great Russian houses have representatives who arrive here -annually to purchase, and expedite the tea either by sea, viâ -Odessa, or overland by Kiakhta. We must not, however, -imagine that caravan tea, which the Russians consider to be the -finest, is all carried overland. Far from it, but then the purchasers -are not supposed to know this, as there exists a prejudice to -the effect that tea which travels by water is thereby deteriorated, -which is nonsense, since all tea must perform a journey by -water of greater or less length. Even that which is destined -for Kiakhta is sent by boat to Tien-tsin, whence it has to -ascend the Pei-ho on junks, and it is only packed on the -camels’ backs at Kalgan, at the foot of the Great Wall. Thence -it has to perform a journey of not less than 900 miles across -the desert before it reaches Urga, the sacred town of Mongolia, -which is situated at a distance of 160 miles south of -Kiakhta. Transport can only take place in the month of -October, when the roads begin to get hardened by the first -frosts, and the camels have returned from the pasture lands -where they pass the greater part of the summer. These -camels are hired from the Mongolians, and there is great -competition among the merchants to secure them, the Russians -endeavouring to obtain the greater number of beasts before -anybody else so as to secure the first crop of tea. A certain -quantity of tea is also brought to Kiakhta on little Mongolian -carts, which invariably return home carrying with them three -pieces of wood, an article which is almost valueless in Siberia, -but very dear in China, where it is resold at a profit.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The camels are unloaded at Kiakhta, and the wicker-boxes -or baskets, each containing from 100 to 160 pounds of tea, are -divested of the light covering of camel’s hair which sufficed to -protect them during the journey across the Desert of Obi, where -rain is almost unknown. For the rest of the journey through -Siberia it is necessary to screen them with a waterproof covering -made of camel’s hide, the hair being turned inwards. Whilst -the process of enveloping the boxes is proceeding it is almost -<span class='pageno' id='Page_35'>35</span>impossible to bear the intolerable stench. The tea, compressed -into bricks, each weighing two pounds and a half, is -next sorted, dusted, and those which have been in any degree -damaged are separated from the rest and sold at a low price. -Then the whole of the tea, be it in leaf or brick, is packed on -the sleighs and conveyed, as already stated, across country, -partly by water, partly over the routes already described. At -Irkutsk, however, the Custom-house officers examine a few of -the cases, and stamp the rest with a leaden brand, and the -caravan is allowed to proceed to its destination.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The earlier teas which arrive are conveyed by sledge to -Irbit, a town on the eastern slopes of the Ural, but beyond -the confines of Siberia, and in the Government of Perm. -Between February 1st and March 1st Irbit is the scene of an -immense fair, which attracts merchants from all parts of Siberia. -The principal goods dealt in are Chinese tea, furs from the -north and east, and light manufactured articles from Russian -Europe. The total sold in the year 1880 amounted to -£5,286,000, which has been considerably exceeded since.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The principal tea caravans do not arrive in the region of the -Obi before the beginning of April, the sleighs proceeding very -slowly, and the stoppages by the way being frequent. Boats -convey the fragrant merchandise between Tomsk, Tura, and -Tiumen, terminal stations on the Ural Railway, whence they -are conveyed to Perm. Here they are shipped up the river -Kama, and finally embarked on the Volga and taken to Nijni-Novgorod, -the chief centre of the tea trade in Russia. Thence -the railways distribute the merchandise over the empire. The -results of the tardier crops arrive at Irkutsk, where they are -embarked on the Angara and conveyed by boat to the meeting -of that river with the Yenissei, where, as it is impossible to -ascend the latter, the rudely-constructed boats in which it has -hitherto performed the journey are broken up and sold for -firewood. By this road only 330 miles are performed by -land to Tomsk. Some of the merchants, in order to avoid -as much as possible the overland route, take a much longer -one by water viâ Uliasutai, a city in Western Mongolia on -the Upper Yenissei. The above will suffice to give the -reader an idea of some of the exceptional difficulties which the -tea merchants have to encounter in conveying their very perishable -freight across Northern Asia into Russia, the journey -taking not less than a year from the date of the gathering of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_36'>36</span>the leaves. The following official data, registered in 1893, of -the expense incurred in conveying a single pood, or thirty-six -pounds (English), of tea from Han-Keou to Nijni-Novgorod -will suffice to afford a fair notion of the great cost of transport.</p> - -<table class='table2' summary=''> - <tr> - <th class='c010'></th> - <th class='c021'>£</th> - <th class='c021'><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">s.</span></i></th> - <th class='c022'><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">d.</span></i></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c010'>From Han-Keou to Kiakhta viâ Tien-tsin and Urga</td> - <td class='c023'>0</td> - <td class='c023'>15</td> - <td class='c011'>5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c010'>Manipulation at Kiakhta and transport to Irkutsk</td> - <td class='c023'>0</td> - <td class='c023'>6</td> - <td class='c011'>4</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c010'>From Irkutsk to Nijni (by sledge to Tomsk, water to Tiumen, railway to Perm, and thence by water)</td> - <td class='c023'>0</td> - <td class='c023'>12</td> - <td class='c011'>9</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c010'>Insurance from Tien-tsin to Nijni, 2¼ per cent</td> - <td class='c023'>0</td> - <td class='c023'>1</td> - <td class='c011'>10½</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c010'>Interest on capital</td> - <td class='c023'>0</td> - <td class='c023'>3</td> - <td class='c011'>2</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c010'> </td> - <td class='c023'><hr /></td> - <td class='c023'><hr /></td> - <td class='c011'><hr /></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c024'>Total</td> - <td class='c023'>£1</td> - <td class='c023'>19</td> - <td class='c011'>6½</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c010'> </td> - <td class='c023'><hr class='double' /></td> - <td class='c023'><hr class='double' /></td> - <td class='c011'><hr class='double' /></td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p class='c008'>On the other hand, the same quantity of tea transported -from Hankow to Nijni, viâ the Suez Canal and Odessa, and -thence by train to Nijni, costs only thirteen shillings. From -these facts it can easily be understood that the great commerce -of Kiakhta is purely artificial and abnormal, and exists simply -thanks to the enormous difference between the Custom-house -duties at Odessa and those at Irkutsk. At the former place -the duty is £3 6s. per pood, or thirty-six pounds, for all kinds -of tea, whereas at Kiakhta it is only £2 on leaf tea and -5s. 4d. on brick. The insignificance of this latter tax is very -important, because brick tea is the only sort which is used in -Siberia east of the Volga, the greater part of the leaf tea being -forwarded to Russia. On the other hand, notwithstanding its -many inconveniences, the tea transport across Russia is a most -important factor in Siberian existence, since it furnishes the -means of livelihood to thousands of people living along the -great postal-road, and indeed is a sort of subvention which the -Russian tea-drinkers pay to Siberia, and one which the Government -very wisely keeps up by maintaining the high tariff at -Odessa. It is interesting to follow the increasing value of a -pood (thirty-six pounds) of tea on its way from Irkutsk to Nijni. -On entering Siberia at the former place from China it only -costs £2 5s. By this time it is already paying the cost of its -transport from Hankow, the expenses of insurance, etc., costing -about £1 3s., the Custom-house duties amount to about -£2, that is, £3 2s. credit, and the transfer thence to Nijni -will add about thirteen shillings to its value; so that when we -take into account an interest of three shillings on the capital -employed we find that a product which cost less than ten -<span class='pageno' id='Page_37'>37</span>roubles where it grew and where it was first purchased, by the -time it reaches the market costs forty-eight roubles, nearly five -times its original value. On the greater part of the leaf tea -which passes through Odessa, the Russian pays on every pound -of tea at 3s. 2d. he purchases 1s. to the Treasury. The -total amount of Custom-house duties paid on tea at Irkutsk -amounted in 1896 to £1,050,361.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Independently of tea, the land commerce between the Russian -Empire and China is, comparatively speaking, insignificant, and -rarely exceeds £265,000. The principal object of import -is Russia leather, and the chief article from China is a very -light but strong sort of silk, much worn in Siberia during the -summer. For the rest, the trade between Siberia and Russia -consists mainly in cereals and flour, but it is difficult to obtain -exact statistics on account of the many lines of communication -which have been recently opened since the introduction -of the railway.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_38'>38</span> - <h3 class='c001'>CHAPTER VI<br /> <span class='large'>SIBERIAN TOWNS</span></h3> -</div> -<p class='c014'>Scarcity of towns and their slight importance—Their administration and -commerce—Resemblance to the towns in the Russian provinces—Introduction -of telephones and electric light—Intellectual progress—University -at Tomsk—The drama at Irkutsk—The crisis through -which these towns are passing.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The absence of large manufactures doubtless accounts in a -measure for the fact that Siberia, according to the census of -1897, only contains eleven towns inhabited by over 10,000 -souls. Eight of these (including the two cities of Tomsk and -Irkutsk, which have each 50,000 inhabitants) are situated on -the postal-road which passes from the foot of the Ural to -Tiumen, to terminate on the shores of the Pacific at Vladivostok; -Omsk is situated somewhat to the south of the old -postal-road, at the point where the Trans-Siberian Railway -crosses the Irtysh; Tobolsk, the old capital of Siberia, which -has greatly declined in our day, is built at the meeting of the -Irtysh and the Tobol, and also close to the junction of the two -great highroads. Barnaoul, on the Upper Obi, is the only -Siberian town of any importance which is not within easy reach -of either the railway or the postal-road, but then it has the -advantage of being situated in the centre of the most highly -cultivated part of the country. There exist, also, a number -of other small towns, situated on the two main arteries and in -the more fertile valleys. All of them are centres for the distribution -of manufactured articles imported from Europe, and -also depots whence the products cultivated in their neighbourhoods -are collected and expedited. All these towns are seats -both of administration and commerce, and the local capitals -are always, with the sole exception of Tobolsk, the biggest -<span class='pageno' id='Page_39'>39</span>towns in the district, and contain the dwellings of the officials -and other functionaries, which add greatly to their handsome -appearance. In the region of the Amur and the Littoral -garrisons have been introduced, which lend considerable animation -to the place. At Vladivostok in 1895 the Russian -population consisted of 2,780 civil servants, 189 exiles, 555 -functionaries and priests (including their wives and children), and -10,087 officers and soldiers with their families. At Khabarofsk -the official element is still more preponderating. With the exception -of Blagovyeshchensk, situated at the meeting of the -Amur and the Zeya, which owes its prosperity to the neighbouring -gold-mines, the towns of Eastern Siberia are nothing more -or less than camps or huge villages like Chita or Nertchinsk, -with very low <em>isbas</em>, or wooden houses, prodigiously broad -streets, vast open spaces, the whole dominated generally by the -enormous white mass of some official edifice or other.</p> - -<p class='c008'>In the west, however, between the Ural and Lake Baikal, -towns exist in the European sense of the word. It cannot -be said, however, that they are remarkable for their monumental -beauty, but they possess a certain measure of picturesqueness, -and bear a striking resemblance to the provincial -towns of Russia proper, such as Saratof or Samara, or some -quarters of Moscow itself. The houses are nearly all built -of black wood like those peppered all over the country, and -are built on either side of the long streets at a little distance one -from another, and rarely, if ever, embellished by a garden or -any attempt at external decoration. The streets cross each other -at right angles, and are made as wide as possible, on account of -the numerous fires, against which every precaution has to be -taken, and people are actually requested not to smoke on the -great wooden bridge which crosses the Angara at Irkutsk. In -certain wealthier quarters of the towns a story is usually added -to the houses, which are painted white, gray, or some other -conspicuous colour. Occasionally one comes across a stone -building two or three stories high, usually either the shop of -some rich merchant or official, or else a museum, hospital, -gymnasium, college for boys or school for girls, or sometimes -an immense barracks.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The appearance of these dwellings when grouped together on -the hill-tops, as at Omsk, is agreeable, especially so as they are -interspersed with the bright-coloured cupolas of the churches. -As to the latter, they are innumerable. There is literally -<span class='pageno' id='Page_40'>40</span>one at every corner. Standing at the centre of the cathedral -square at Irkutsk, I was able to see no less than seven at a -glance. They are all exactly alike, usually painted blue or -rose-colour, surmounted by one big cupola, and surrounded by -a lot of smaller ones brightly gilt or silvered, and produce -an excellent effect in the sun or on a clear moonlight night. -Internally they possess all the barbaric splendour of Russian -churches, and are a blaze of gilt icons and crystal chandeliers.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Take them for all in all, Siberian towns are far pleasanter to -visit than one might imagine. The streets, as a rule, possess a -wooden pavement, but after a heavy rain they are very apt to -become impassable. A gentleman at Tomsk once assured me -that on one occasion when the snow melted a bullock was -drowned in the surging mass of water rolling past his door. -But, after all, the streets of Chicago and New Orleans are not -very well kept, and where the climatic variations are so extreme, -it is doubtless almost an impossibility to keep the streets in -anything like proper order. Otherwise, the telephone is to be -found in all the more important towns, and when the visitor -looks up and sees such an amazing number of wires stretching -across the streets from pole to pole, he might readily imagine -himself in America. The electric light has also been introduced -even at Tomsk and Irkutsk. Means of locomotion have by no -means been neglected, and you can hire a quick-going little -Russian cabriolet for twenty kopecks, or sixpence the fare! -What astonishes one most, however, is that, as in Russia, there -is scarcely any movement in the streets of these towns, notwithstanding -that they are centres of a very active commerce.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Education has made considerable progress in the towns of -Siberia, and the wealthier classes are not behindhand in assisting -the Government in this direction. At Tomsk a University -has recently been established in an immense and very handsome -edifice, which contains at present some 500 students. -Admission has been wisely rendered much more easy than it -is in Russia, and it is expected that before long a faculty of -Law will be established, in which the students will be able -to study the new legal reforms which Alexander II. introduced -some years ago into the judicial system of Russia. -Other professorial chairs will be introduced before long in -addition to that of Medicine, which is already very well -attended. The library contains over 200,000 volumes, the -greater part gifts from private benefactors, and not a few of the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_41'>41</span>rarer editions of French and English classics must have -originally belonged to libraries dispersed at the time of the -French Revolution. A number of comfortable houses have -been built in the park attached to the University (only a very -short time ago virgin forest) for the benefit of students, who -can there receive board and lodging at a very moderate price. -In addition to the University, another huge educational -establishment, an Institute of Technology, is in progress of -construction. Tomsk, although it is somewhat out of the way -for commercial purposes, appears to me destined to become -before long the intellectual centre of Siberia.</p> - -<p class='c008'>All the Siberian towns possess a theatre. The one at Tomsk -was built by a rich merchant some years ago, and during the -winter months two permanent troupes give on alternate nights -representations of opera and drama. Troupes of Russian -actors occasionally visit Siberia, and I remember once seeing -two artists, who enjoy great popularity at Moscow, give at -Krasnoyarsk a representation in Russian of Shakespeare’s -‘Taming of the Shrew,’ and on the following evening an excellent -performance of ‘Madame Sans-Gêne.’ These plays were -attended by large and highly appreciative audiences. At Irkutsk -there is a really magnificent theatre capable of accommodating a -thousand persons, the erection of which cost not less than -£32,000. It was built entirely by public subscription, at the -head of the list being the Governor. The prices of admission -are—stalls 6s. 8d. in the front row; 2s. 2d. in the back seats; -1s. in the first row of the second gallery, and 6d. in the third. -These latter are the cheapest seats in the house. Unfortunately, -of late years, the wealthier classes show a distinct -tendency, thanks to facilities of travel, to spend their money in -Russia, and even in Paris, and the rich merchants are no longer -inclined to dazzle the Siberians by a somewhat barbaric -display of their wealth. At Moscow and Petersburg, doubtless, -they find a greater variety of amusements, and no need, in -order to spend their money, to follow the example of a certain -Siberian millionaire who used to wash his chamber-floor with -champagne. Other times, other manners. If the principals -go to St. Petersburg, their representatives remain behind, and -although they are unable to make any very ostentatious -display, nevertheless, they contrive to live comfortably. The -position also of the officials, owing probably to the increased -facilities of communication and the spread of education, has -<span class='pageno' id='Page_42'>42</span>lost a good deal of its former importance, and governors of -provinces, who were in days of yore kings or demigods, are -no longer looked upon with any sense of awe, everybody -being aware that they receive their daily orders by telegraph -from St. Petersburg. Irkutsk, which in former times was the -capital, is now only a large provincial city. The grand old -Siberian hospitality is disappearing rapidly, and there are not -wanting, even in Siberia, old-fashioned people who curse the -Trans-Siberian Railway, which is destined sooner or later to -revolutionize the manners and customs of Northern Asia.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_43'>43</span> - <h3 class='c001'>CHAPTER VII<br /> <span class='large'>IMMIGRATION</span></h3> -</div> -<p class='c014'>Causes of Russian emigration to Siberia—Its increasing importance—Absolute -necessity for State intervention in the colonization of Asiatic -Russia—Roads followed by the emigrants—Land concessions—Provinces -towards which they direct themselves—Colonization of the -Province of the Amur and the Littoral—Vladivostok—Chinese, -Koreans and Japanese—Exiles and convicts—Conditions for the development -of Siberia—Favourable and unfavourable elements—Necessity -of employing foreign capital.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The immigrants who arrive in Siberia are almost without -exception peasants. According to the census taken last -January, there were in Russian Europe, exclusive of Finland -and Poland, whose inhabitants rarely, if ever, emigrate, only -94,000,000 inhabitants scattered over a surface of 1,875,000 -square miles, that is to say, fifty inhabitants per square -mile. One would imagine, therefore, that there was ample -space for all the subjects of the Tsar in his European territories; -but the great northern Governments of Arkhangelsk, Vologda, -and Olonetz, which occupy over a quarter of this area, and in -which agriculture is almost impossible, do not contain more -than 2,000,000 inhabitants in 540,560 square miles. Then, -again, a great number of the Governments situated to the -north of Moscow consist of only very inferior marshlands, -and are but poorly populated, and, what is more, seem unlikely -ever to improve. The majority of the inhabitants of -the empire are therefore concentrated in the south, where the -population is relatively dense, especially in the Governments of -Kursk, Penza, Tambof, Orel, Voronej, and notably so in Little -Russia, which is all the more remarkable when we consider -that these regions are exclusively agricultural, and that the -methods of farming are still very primitive. Notwithstanding, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_44'>44</span>however, the rapid development of industry in Russia, many -years will pass before these regions will be capable of supporting -a population equal to that of Central or Western Europe, -where the natural conditions are more or less identical. It is -not therefore very surprising that a fraction of the population of -Russia should go in search of better climes, and direct itself -towards Southern Siberia, a more attractive and fertile country -than Northern Russia.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Emigration, it must be borne in mind, is but a small item in -the natural causes of the increase of the Russian population. -The annual excess of births over deaths rises to about 1,500,000 -in the whole of the Empire, and is from 1,100,000 to 1,200,000 -in European Russia (Poland and Finland always excepted). -The emigration towards Asia has up to 1895 scarcely exceeded -a tenth of this figure, and does not even now reach more -than a fifth or a sixth. According to an official work published -at the end of 1896, the ‘Statesman’s Handbook to Russia,’ -we find that during 1887–95, 94,000 families, forming an aggregate -total of 467,000 persons, established themselves in -Siberia. The average therefore would be about 52,000 souls -per annum, but the last few years have witnessed a visible -increase. The above figures do not apparently include -emigrants who are destined for Central Asia (general Government -of the Steppes and Turkestan), to which the total rarely -exceeds 10,000 per annum. According to information received -direct from Siberia, about 63,000 emigrants arrived in 1894 -over the Ural from European Russia. On the other hand, -3,495 entered Siberia by sea, landing in the great Littoral -Province on the Pacific. Lately the emigration movement -has become much more active, and we should not be far out -of our reckoning if we estimated the number of emigrants -into Siberia for the years 1897 and 1898 as about 200,000 for -each year. The number of persons who seek permission to -leave Russia for Siberia is becoming greater every year. Many, -however, are discouraged and even refused the necessary -papers, so as to avoid burdening the newly-settled country with -a superfluity of people who generally arrive without a penny in -their pockets. It is natural in a country where the peasantry -are still so primitive and ignorant as in Russia that the Government -should closely watch the movements of emigrants, who -might, on finding exaggerated promises and illusions dispelled, -become troublesome and even dangerous. The following is -<span class='pageno' id='Page_45'>45</span>the manner in which these matters are generally organized -in European Russia. When several families belonging to a -<em>volost</em> express a wish to emigrate they are requested to determine -in what part of Siberia they desire to establish themselves. -If the applicants are deemed suitable, two of their -number, selected as delegates, visit the parcel of land which has -been allotted to them, and on returning they are able to inform -their friends as to the exact nature of the place to which they -are destined. Formerly, the emigrants were allowed to choose -their own land, which, as they were almost invariably very inexperienced, -was usually quite unsuited to their requirements, -and they either went further afield or, disgusted, returned -home. In order, therefore, to prevent a recurrence of this unsatisfactory -state of affairs, the sensible system of sending on -two delegates or pioneers has been established.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The method selected by emigrants entering Siberia was, until -quite recently, to ascend the Kama, and take the Ural Railway -at Perm for Tiumen; thence, at this terminus, they embarked -either on the Tobol, the Irtysh, or the Obi for Tobolsk, which -used to be a great rendezvous for the emigrants. In 1893 the -Siberian Railway had not reached Omsk, and out of 63,000 -emigrants, 56,500 had entered Asia by the Tiumen, and 6,500 -only had taken the Trans-Siberian Railway to Kurgan. Among -the first, 36,500 followed the waterway which I have just -described, and 20,000 performed the journey in carts. To-day -the greater number are transported by the railway to the station -nearest to the town selected for their future residence, or to the -extreme limit of the line, if they are going farther east. There -they are obliged to take the <em>telega</em>, a sort of Russian cart, -shaped like a trough, on four wheels. I have often met on the -highroads in Siberia long lines of these carts, each containing -several persons, men, women and children, with their labouring -tools and household belongings. The scene is very picturesque, -especially towards evening, when the worthy folk encamp on -the highroad: the men unsaddling the horses, the women going -to the well for water, and the children playing about, whilst -some old man, seated on the wayside, reads the Bible out aloud -to a group of eager listeners. Sometimes the journey exhausts -the resources of the family, and I have seen in Trans-Baikalia -a caravan of Little Russians come to a full-stop for want of -money, and the good people, encamped on the highway, -quietly awaiting the arrival of the district Immigration Agent, to -<span class='pageno' id='Page_46'>46</span>obtain from him the supplies necessary to enable them to -continue the journey. Emigrants who travel by <em>telega</em> from -their old home in Europe to the new one in Asia often -consume as much as a whole year in the journey from Little -Russia to the Amur, albeit the travellers frequently spend as -many as three months at a time working on the railway, in -order to add a little to their scanty supply of cash.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The majority of the emigrants arrive in spring. In the -principal towns on the route refuges have been organized for -their shelter. A number of these are to be found at Cheliabinsk -at the foot of the Ural. I visited that at Kansk, the -centre of a much-frequented region in the Government of -Yenissei. Twenty <em>iourdis</em>, or enormous huts, built on the -model of those used by the Kirghiz and from ten to twelve feet -in diameter and nine feet in height, with an extinguisher shaped -roof covered with camel’s hide, were here erected for destitute -emigrants. A spacious hospital, kitchens and a Russian bath -were at the time nearly completed. A winter habitation with an -immense stove had also been erected, but there are not many -emigrants travelling during the worst months of the year. All -these buildings are of wood, after the fashion of most Russian -houses, and seemed fairly comfortable. Three young women -from the town acted as voluntary nurses attached to the hospital.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Emigrants who come from the same district in European -Russia are as a rule grouped together in the same village, and, -as far as possible, everything is done to prevent the crowding -together of people who come from divergent provinces, which -might give rise to trouble. Thus, the officials always endeavour -to avoid mixing the ‘Little Russians’ with the ‘Great Russians,’ -and never to introduce new-comers into villages already -inhabited by old Siberians, who do not look upon emigration -in a very favourable light, for the simple reason that formerly -they could occupy as much land as they liked and redeem as -much of it as they chose, whenever their own fields became -exhausted, and they could, moreover, even tramp off in another -direction in quest of better land if the spirit moved them so to -do. The arrival of a great number of new people has naturally -put an end to these irresponsible movements, and consequently -given rise to a great deal of discontent.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The following are a few rules which have been adopted -recently for the formation of fresh settlements, on the <em>mir</em> -system of Russian collective communal proprietorship, which -<span class='pageno' id='Page_47'>47</span>the Government has decided to introduce into Siberia. Fifteen -dessiatines (37 acres) are given gratuitously to each man, and -a sum of 30 roubles (about £3 1s. 8d.) can, if necessary, be -advanced to each family immediately. Formerly it was -necessary to await authorization from the Government at -St. Petersburg, even for this small amount, before it could be -paid, but, now, happily, it has been decided to leave the matter -in the hands of the functionary who is placed at the head of -the Immigration Bureau of the district, whereby a great deal of -trouble and misery is avoided. Other sums of money can be -advanced from time to time up to £9 10s. if the applicant is -deemed worthy. Theoretically this money ought to be repaid -at the end of ten years, which, needless to say, it rarely, if -ever, is.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Of the 63,000 persons who arrived in Siberia from over the -Ural in 1894, the majority, 38,000, settled in the Government of -Tomsk, 17,000 proceeded to the Amur, 3,800 to the Steppes, -2,100 to the eastern Governments of Yenissei and Irkutsk, and -2,100 to the Government of Tobolsk. These figures do not -include the 3,495 who entered the Littoral Province by sea. -The region which appears to attract the most emigrants is that -of the Upper Obi and its affluents, including the regions of -Barnaoul, Biisk, and Kuznetsk in the Government of Tomsk. -In these sheltered valleys, which descend from the Altai range, -the climate is relatively mild and the land excellent. After this -comes the region of the Amur, where the emigrants are -almost exclusively Little Russians, who generally established -themselves in the region extending along the Lower Zeya to -the east of Blagovyeshchensk and the Bureya. The climate, -however, is much colder than in the Government of Tomsk, -and although the richest part of the Amur has been selected -for the principal centre of colonization, the damp is excessive -on account of its proximity to the great water and to the very -thick forests which cover almost the whole country. The -valleys, even on the borders of the Amur and its affluents, are -often inundated, and always marshy, and have, moreover, up -to the present resisted all attempts at cultivation. The -plateaux to the north of the Stanovoi Mountains possess a -better kind of soil, and form a more favourable zone, -although even here cereals have a tendency to produce, -much to their detriment, a superabundance of weeds. The -Government, which, for political reasons easily understood, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_48'>48</span>has hitherto assisted colonization in the basin of the Amur, has -refused until quite lately to extend the movement to the region -of the Yenissei, being possibly under the impression that an -excessive scattering of the new population ought as much -as possible to be avoided. Now that a considerable part of -the richer lands of Tomsk is occupied, it has been deemed -advisable to make an advance towards the east; therefore, in -1896 19,000 colonists were settled in the Government of the -Yenissei, notably in the districts of Minusinsk, on the upper -river, which enjoys nearly the same advantages as the Upper -Obi, and Kansk more to the east, which is now the most -active centre of settlement. The Government of Irkutsk, -which apparently contains a lesser supply of likely land, will -doubtless attract official attention later on.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Settlers who have been for some considerable time in -Siberia appear generally satisfied with their lot, and although -they may not endorse the optimistic affirmations of the -official world, the majority of their villages appear more prosperous -than those they abandoned in Russian Europe. It -could hardly be otherwise if they worked hard, since they are -allotted abundance of good land and a small pecuniary -advance to assist them with preliminary expenses. Nevertheless, -a number of them return to Europe every year. In 1894 -as many as 4,500 went back, and, I fancy, if the truth were -known, a great many more. I once asked an official in charge -of the emigrants at Kansk, a very amiable, well-informed man, -who takes a great interest in his duties, why so many of these -good people wanted to go home again. He replied that not a -few peasants emigrated into Siberia under the illusion that they -would be much better off, and not have to work so hard, but -when they found that they had to labour as hard as ever, they -soon got tired, packed up their traps, and returned home. -Others complain of the climate, not so much, as we might -imagine, of the winter as of the summer, when the mosquitoes -are a perfect plague. Some suffer from home-sickness, -especially the women, who regret their former surroundings, -and who by incessant complaints and lamentations end by -worrying their husbands to return. This, however, is not -peculiar to Siberia or to the Russians, for it has even been -noticed in the United States, where young colonists are often -obliged to give up their farms because their wives find an -isolated country life insupportable.</p> - -<p class='c008'><span class='pageno' id='Page_49'>49</span>In the greater part of Siberia the population, as we have -already observed, is exclusively Russian. The native element -may almost be described as non-existent. From the ethnological -point of view, the region from the Obi to the Yenissei is -already, and tends to become more and more so, a prolongation -of European Russia. In the government of the Amur it is, -however, otherwise, for the Russians have to face a native -population, and the colonists who have come from the -European dominions of the Tsar find themselves obliged to -compete with a rather formidable Asiatic contingent. On this -side the centre of Russian influence is at Vladivostok, a town -which was only founded about forty years ago, but which the -Trans-Siberian line will eventually lift to extreme importance. -The only shadow in the picture is that during three or four -winter months the harbour is covered with ice. The noble -bay, which the English formerly named after Queen Victoria, -and which the Russians have now placed under the patronage -of Peter the Great, is one of the most magnificent in the world, -in which the whole Russian fleet could easily find shelter; but, -unfortunately, although it is in the same latitude as Toulon, -it freezes very easily.<a id='r10' /><a href='#f10' class='c006'><sup>[10]</sup></a> For this reason Vladivostok may suffer -considerably from the greater attractions of Port Arthur, which -is even better placed at the head of the line of communication -towards the Celestial Empire, and is, moreover, free from ice -the whole year round. Nevertheless, the town will remain the -seat of many important military establishments, which are -already in existence, and which it would be exceedingly expensive, -and by no means easy, to remove elsewhere.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Splendidly situated at the head of a peninsula about twelve -miles long, separating two deep bays, whose shores, however, -are absolutely sterile, Vladivostok faces the principal and the -more eastern of the two ports, which happens, also, to be the -safest. The town contains a number of stone houses several -stories high, built on the rather steep sides of the hills, and -presents quite an imposing appearance, especially after the -little wooden-housed towns in the interior of Siberia. Although -it lacks the extraordinary animation of its contemporaries, -Vancouver, Tacoma, and Seattle, for instance, on the other -side of the Pacific, its streets are the liveliest I have seen -between Moscow and Nagasaki. It soon becomes evident -<span class='pageno' id='Page_50'>50</span>that one is in the Far East here. The streets are crowded with -pigtailed Chinese in blue, with Koreans in white, and Japanese -in their national costumes. Among these Asiatics move soldiers -and sailors, so that the European civilian costume is scarcely -represented at all, and the majority of those who do wear it -are Japanese. The day after my arrival happened to be the -feast of St. Alexander Nevsky, one of the great Russian holidays, -which coincided with a Chinese festival, so that the whole place -was a blaze of Celestial bunting, gold-edged yellow triangular -shaped flags, emblazoned with heraldic dragons, far out-numbering -those of the Russians. Figures confirm the impressions -of experience, and the following show the manner in which the -population of Vladivostok was subdivided in 1895:</p> - -<table class='table1' summary=''> - <tr> - <th class='btt bbt c020'></th> - <th class='btt bbt blt c018'>Men.</th> - <th class='btt bbt blt c018'>Women.</th> - <th class='btt bbt blt c018'>Total.</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>Nobles</td> - <td class='blt c019'>290</td> - <td class='blt c019'>228</td> - <td class='blt c019'>518</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>Priests and their families</td> - <td class='blt c019'>19</td> - <td class='blt c019'>18</td> - <td class='blt c019'>37</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>Russian civil population</td> - <td class='blt c019'>1,691</td> - <td class='blt c019'>1,089</td> - <td class='blt c019'>2,780</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>Soldiers and families</td> - <td class='blt c019'>9,232</td> - <td class='blt c019'>855</td> - <td class='blt c019'>10,087</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>Exiles and families</td> - <td class='blt c019'>117</td> - <td class='blt c019'>72</td> - <td class='blt c019'>189</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>Other Europeans</td> - <td class='blt c019'>46</td> - <td class='blt c019'>26</td> - <td class='blt c019'>72</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>Japanese</td> - <td class='blt c019'>676</td> - <td class='blt c019'>556</td> - <td class='blt c019'>1,232</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>Chinese</td> - <td class='blt c019'>5,580</td> - <td class='blt c019'>58</td> - <td class='blt c019'>5,638</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='bbt c020'>Koreans</td> - <td class='bbt blt c019'>642</td> - <td class='bbt blt c019'>177</td> - <td class='bbt blt c019'>819</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='bbt c018'>Total</td> - <td class='bbt blt c019'>18,293</td> - <td class='bbt blt c019'>3,079</td> - <td class='bbt blt c019'>21,372</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p class='c008'>In 1895 the population had considerably increased, mainly -in consequence of the barracks and of the increase of Russian -and Asiatic emigration. It has been observed that since the -Chino-Japanese War the Koreans have developed a distinct -tendency to establish themselves on Russian soil.</p> - -<p class='c008'>As in California and Australia, the Chinese who arrive in -Vladivostok do so without bringing their wives. They are -mainly engaged as workmen, domestic servants, boatmen, etc. -When they have amassed a small fortune they return home. -Many of them, indeed, pass the winter in Shan-tung, in the -neighbourhood of Chi-fu, of which latter place they are nearly -all natives. The Japanese are, likewise, engaged in petty trade, -and a considerable number of them are hairdressers. It is also -whispered abroad, and pretty freely, too, that not a few of them -are spies. A high code of morals would condemn the manner -in which the majority of the Japanese here gain their livelihood. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_51'>51</span>As to the Koreans, being very strong, they are better -adapted for hard work, and have supplied a number of hands -on the railway. They are more numerous in the environs of -Vladivostok than in the town itself—and they are highly appreciated -by their employers, the administration affording them -small allotments on account of their industrious and peaceful -habits.</p> - -<p class='c008'>It is not only at Vladivostok that the influence of the Far -East appears, but throughout the entire government of the -Amur. From the moment one enters Trans-Baikalia one is -brought into immediate contact with the Mongol tribe of the -Buriats. As already stated elsewhere, the Yellow Race predominates -in this region, and throughout Trans-Baikalia the -followers of Buddhism form about a third of the population—in -1895, 190,003 out of 610,604. Advancing towards the East, -and leaving aside the older Russian possessions in order to -enter the provinces annexed in 1857, we find that the territory -of the Amur contains 21,000 Manchu Buddhists out of a -population of 112,000 according to the census of 1897. These -Manchus were about the only occupants of the country at the -time of its annexation, and not a few have remained subjects -of the Chinese Empire. Opposite to Blagovyeshchensk there -is a large Chinese village, whence almost every morning a -number of people bring fruit and vegetables to the Russian -town.</p> - -<p class='c008'>In the territory of the Littoral, in that broad zone which -extends from 42° to 70° north, it was estimated in 1895 that -the Russians exceeded 110,000 in a population of 152,000, -the rest being composed of 23,000 natives, 18,000 Chinese, -Koreans and Japanese, and about 1,000 Jews. According to -the census taken in 1897, the population has very considerably -increased. It records 214,940 inhabitants, but these have not -been subdivided into classes, and, moreover, the European -immigration has not been very considerable in the last two -years. A curious observation has been made as to the preponderance -of the male sex over the female, there being -147,669 men as against 67,261 women. The reason for this is -not far to seek, and is mainly due to the fact that the Russian -immigrants generally arrive with their families, whereas the -military element, exceeding 40,000 in the Littoral Province, -and the Chinese are not encumbered with women-folk. -Khabarofsk, essentially a garrison town, and the capital of the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_52'>52</span>government, has out of a population of 14,932 only 3,259 -women. Its appearance is, therefore, quite martial, and its -picturesqueness is considerably improved by the presence of a -number of Chinese junks in the harbour, that, as is the case -at Blagovyeshchensk, Sydney and Melbourne, bring excellent -vegetables from the fertile kingdom of the Son of Heaven. -Apart from the troops, the Koreans, the Chinese and the -Japanese form at least a quarter of the population of the -Littoral, and, combined with the natives, reach a total which is -only slightly overtopped by the Russians. There are not -wanting those who disapprove of this high proportion of the -Yellow Race in the three territories forming the Government of -the Amur, but without any justifiable reason. The Buriats, -for instance, are by no means a decreasing element in the -population, and the Russians are distinctly prolific, whereas -the Chinese immigration, if it ever takes place on any considerable -scale, will have to cross the Desert of Gobi, an obstacle -which will delay it for a long time to come. In the other -two territories, the indigenous population, mostly fishermen -and hunters of a very primitive sort, is undoubtedly visibly -diminishing, excepting in the ice-bound regions of the Okhotsk -and Behring Straits, whither, too, Manchus, Chinese and -Koreans are flocking in considerable numbers. All these -Asiatics are hard-working, live upon less than the Russians, -and are much more industrious and often hire from the -European immigrants strips of land which they cultivate with -much better results. The small trade of the towns is almost -entirely in the hands of the Yellow Race. Although the -Chinese immigration is more or less of an ephemeral nature, -it is very likely to become exceedingly numerous, especially -in the towns and their suburbs, and might in the course of -time render the competition of the Whites extremely difficult, -and necessitate interference on the part of the Russian -Government to limit the sphere of Chinese labour. In any -case, it is quite certain that if Manchuria, as a consequence -of the introduction of the railway, ever comes under the -dominion of the Tsar, it is highly improbable that its so doing -will increase the immigration of the Russians, mainly on -account of the surprising activity of the Chinese in colonizing -this part of their empire. At the present time the Government -is more preoccupied with the European than with -the Asiatic immigration, and, whereas it never refuses a grant -<span class='pageno' id='Page_53'>53</span>of land to the Koreans, it very frequently does so to the -Europeans, excepting by special and exceptional favour. I -am obliged to admit that the Government has, as a rule, been -very indulgent towards the French, several of whom have -obtained grants at Blagovyeshchensk, although a refusal was -given to a Frenchman to buy land notwithstanding that he -had lived in the country for over thirty years. As to the gold -mines, their exploitation is only granted to Russian subjects. -The whole country east of Baikalia, that is to say, the Government -of the Amur, is at present freed from paying Customs -duties, excepting on spirits, tobacco, sugar and other articles -which in Russia pay excise duty. This part of Siberia is never -likely to become attractive to Europeans of other nationality -than the Russians. On the other hand, undoubtedly, in the -course of time, European capital will be much employed in -this part, and some enterprising merchants and engineers may -even eventually establish themselves in the country, which will -surely prove to its interest, and not to its detriment.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Independently of voluntary immigrants, Siberia used to receive -annually a great number of political and other exiles and convicts. -By a <em>ukaz</em>, issued in 1899, Tsar Nicholas II. put a stop to -the old and cruel system of exiling suspects and convicts into -Siberia,<a id='r11' /><a href='#f11' class='c006'><sup>[11]</sup></a> which ought undoubtedly to result in much good; -for when a country begins to be thickly peopled with free immigrants -it is unwise to continue to use it as a penal settlement. -These exiles may be divided into two principal groups: firstly, -political, often very honest and amiable people, such as -students who have taken part in a manifestation hostile to -the Government; Poles, compromised in recent insurrections; -Catholics and Protestants who have displayed too much zeal -in the affirmation of their religious opinions; and Raskolniks, -whose peculiar theological opinions have already been described. -The second category includes less estimable people: youths -of good family of by no means irreproachable character, who -have been sent to meditate on their shortcomings for a certain -number of years, and repent of their follies at their leisure on -the pleasant banks of the Obi or the Yenissei; and certain -functionaries of good family who have been guilty of appropriating -money officially entrusted to them. Of these unfortunate -<span class='pageno' id='Page_54'>54</span>people, those who have been guilty of minor offences -are sent to Western Siberia, where they often obtain employment -as servants and coachmen. On the other hand, those -who have committed graver offences, and who have been -condemned to hard labour, undergo their punishment in -Eastern Siberia, in Irkutsk, Yenissei, or in Trans-Baikalia, and -must remain there. Inveterate criminals, murderers, and -escaped galley-slaves, are sent to the island of Sakhalin, opposite -the mouth of the Amur, where, even at the expiration of their -terms, they are obliged to end their lives. Those political -exiles who are not punished for grave offences are also relegated -to the west, where the climate is fairly temperate. The graver -the charge and the heavier the sentence, the farther are they -sent eastward, even to the icy territories of Yakutsk, Verkhoyansk, -Nijne Kolymsk, and Ust-Yansk. To these regions -are also relegated the members of the strange sect of Eunuchs. -The majority of these people, unless indeed they are very -gravely compromised, after being obliged to reside three, or -even ten, years in a village, are allowed to settle in a town, to -go freely all over Siberia, and even at the expiration of a certain -number of years to return to Russia. They not infrequently -make themselves extremely useful. Many Poles become innkeepers, -and I know of one at least who is a Doctor of Law, and -who speaks excellent French. At Irkutsk one can get good -beer, a beverage elsewhere execrable, a boon entirely due to -the enterprise of an exile from the Baltic provinces. In -the extreme north not a few exiles employ their time with -scientific and meteorological studies. Here I may observe that -I have never seen any of the exiles in Siberia ill-treated, and -even the chain which some of them are obliged to wear did -not seem to me very heavy. The great prison of Alexandrofsk, -near Irkutsk, is admirably managed, its rules being very mild. -Nevertheless, I must confess that I only visited what the -officials chose to show me. All I can say is that, according to -my experience, if there are exiles who are habitually badly -treated, they must be very few in number. Of course, I can -say nothing in extenuation of the system of transporting a -young man or even a young woman to languish in a dreary -village buried in the depths of a forest or the Tundra, merely -because they happen to have taken an over-prominent part in -some political or students’ demonstration.</p> - -<p class='c008'>One curious fact connected with this system of Russian -<span class='pageno' id='Page_55'>55</span>transportation is that the wives and children of the exiles are -often authorized to follow the condemned man, which they -very frequently do, although in some cases the law considers -the marriage bond annulled by the mere act of condemnation, -the unfortunate exiles being considered civilly dead. The -families of these poor people often endure such terrible privations -that local committees have been founded, under the -patronage of the authorities, to assist them. In 1894, in the -five Governments of Tobolsk, Tomsk, Yenissei, Irkutsk, and -Yakutsk, 15,000 exiles and their families arrived.</p> - -<p class='c008'>In a single and not particularly favourable year, the population -of Siberia was increased by about 85,000 persons, of whom -about 66,495 were free immigrants. The natural increase was -almost equally great, rising, according to the statistics, to -78,000, exclusive of the Littoral Province, which, if taken into -account, ought to raise the population by 80,000. On a population -which we may estimate at 5,300,000 at this period, there -must have been about 250,000 births, that is 47·5 per 1,000, -and 172,000 deaths, or 32·4 per 1,000. The birth-rate, therefore, -is exceedingly high, and the death-rate, when the conditions -of the country are considered, certainly not abnormal. In -1898 the immigration, owing to the opening of the railway, was -greatly increased, to the extent even of 200,000 souls. It is -not therefore a lack of population which is ever likely to affect -the future of Siberia. The natural resources of the country -can be justly compared with Canada, which it exceeds in size, -and also, to a slight extent, in population; but the difference -between the two countries, in point of economic development, -is very great. What is wanted in Siberia is less the creation -of a great number of complex industries, for which the country -is not yet ripe, than the introduction, as already stated elsewhere, -of up-to-date methods of exploiting the natural resources -of the country, which can only be borrowed from foreign -countries, and it will only be by opening wide its doors and by -receiving strangers without jealousy or unwarranted suspicion -that Russia will ever be able to obtain from her gigantic enterprise -in Trans-Siberia a return worthy of the great wealth of a -country which must eventually be placed on the same footing -as any other in point of civilization and progress.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_56'>56</span> - <h3 class='c001'>CHAPTER VIII<br /> <span class='large'>MEANS OF COMMUNICATION IN SIBERIA</span></h3> -</div> -<p class='c014'>Absolute insufficiency of the present means of transport—Coaches and -sleighs—The tarantass: price, length and conditions of travelling by -this means of locomotion—Navigation—Scheme for penetrating into -Siberia by the Arctic Ocean and its recent success—Absolute necessity -of more railways.</p> - -<p class='c007'>In order to form a fair idea of the revolution which the Trans-Siberian -Railway is likely to bring about in the economical and -political conditions of Northern Asia, it will be as well to glance -at the actual conditions of the present means of travel and -transport in the country. The most rapid means of locomotion -at the disposal of travellers only yesterday, as it were, was -in summer the stage-coach, and in winter the sleigh. Twenty -years ago, to go to Vladivostok (6,000 miles distant) the -traveller took the coach at Kazan, on the Volga, the journey -occupying not less than two months in the more favourable -season, when a coat of snow, as solid as marble and as smooth -as velvet, replaces the usual mud and slush on the Siberian -roads. Later on, with the progress of navigation and the construction -of a railway across the Urals, the starting-point for -this journey was removed further on to the most eastern point -touched by the steamboats, in the basin of the Obi at Tomsk. -In summer this route shortened the journey viâ Krasnoyarsk, -Irkutsk, and Chita about 1,875 miles, at the end of which one -reached the Amur, where navigation recommenced. Since -1896 the Trans-Siberian has passed Tomsk, and now the -starting-point of the road journey has gone gradually farther -afield, and is now daily receding more to the east.</p> - -<p class='c008'>In the summer of 1897 the railway had already reached the -little town of Kansk, about 160 miles beyond the Yenissei, and -it was here, or at the Kluchi station, some 65 miles further on, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_57'>57</span>that one hired a coach. It is, however, wiser to buy one’s -tarantass, in order to avoid the trouble of unloading luggage -at each stage, and, again, the coaches hired out by the postmasters -are much less comfortable.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The station-master at Kluchi, to whom I had been recommended, -like many other subordinate officials in Siberia, -was an exile, who in better days had been a captain in the -artillery, and, moreover, the cashier of his regiment. One fine -day, in a fit of over-generosity, he unluckily lent a sum of -money, abstracted from the cash-box, to a comrade who had -lost very considerably at the gaming-tables. Fate avenged the -regiment in the shape of an inspector, who inopportunely -arrived upon the scene, examined into affairs, and forthwith -ended the military career of the unlucky officer. After fourteen -years’ exile in Siberia this indiscriminately good-natured -individual has become chief inspector of a little railway-station, -and adds to his small income by letting out tarantasses to -travellers. He sold me for £18 the best of his vehicles, -which, I was assured, had recently been used by a distinguished -official, but, nevertheless, I had to get rid of it, when I took -the steamer on the Amur two months later, for about £7.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Jules Verne, in ‘Michael Strogoff,’ has introduced and -popularized the tarantass. It is a vehicle without springs, with -a body about six feet long, like a trough supported on three -broad planks of wood, and mounted upon two very low -axles nine to ten feet apart. An immense hood protects -the back part of the carriage from the rain, and by buttoning -the leathern apron fixed to the front, one can keep -one’s self almost hermetically screened from the weather. -The tarantass, if it is not particularly comfortable, has the -advantage of being very strong. It possesses nothing in the -shape of a seat, and one is obliged to lie full-length on a litter -of hay or upon the luggage, unless, indeed, from time to time, -in order to change position, one cares to sit on the edge of -the vehicle or else alongside the coachman. The horses are -supplied by the postmasters at the rate of three kopecks, or -three farthings, per verst for each horse, and, moreover, one has -to pay a fixed tax of about fivepence per horse at each relay. -The team consists usually of three horses, and the relays are -found at a distance of about sixteen miles apart. The expenses, -therefore, for this short distance amount to about five -shillings, inclusive of a tip to the coachman, so that there -<span class='pageno' id='Page_58'>58</span>is not much to complain of in that respect. The same tariff -applies in winter, but in the intermediary seasons, from -March 5 to May 15, and from September 15 to December 1, -when the thaw sets in and the roads are very heavy, a -fourth horse is needed, and the expense is increased about -one quarter. I used frequently to ask Siberians how many -miles could be performed in this sort of vehicle. Of course, -almost everybody gave me a different answer. One high -official in Tomsk informed me that it could undertake as -many as 400 versts in twenty-four hours. ‘Do not imagine -you can go more than from sixty-five to eighty,’ said the -station-master, and as it was he who had sold me my tarantass, -I came to the conclusion that his rather dismal prognostic was -the true one. As a matter of fact, everything depends upon -the condition of the roads, and also as to whether the traveller -has supplied himself with a <em>podorojne</em>, an official document -usually granted to Imperial couriers and to high officials, and -which enables its possessor to avoid being detained at the -various stations on the road. Fortunately, as I had one of -these documents, I was able to make between 90 and 120 -miles in twenty-four hours.</p> - -<p class='c008'>I cannot describe the scenery by the way as particularly -interesting. The road cuts through the forests of pines and -larches, and is, as a rule, fairly well kept, and about as broad -as the best of our national routes in France. From time to -time the wall of verdure opens out to give way to a clearing, -along which one perceives rows of wooden houses, indicating -the existence of some village or other, the name of which is -printed on a post, that also supplies information as to the -number of inhabitants of each sex. One soon gets tired of the -beauty of the trees, and, to be truthful, also of the rather -monotonous convoys of <em>telegas</em> loaded with merchandise, -waggons with gold, escorted by soldiers, and of the interminable -caravans of emigrants. As one passes the Baikal the -road becomes less and less frequented, and more and more -monotonous and dreary, especially in the dismal steppe, with -its stunted growth, through which flows the Vitim, an affluent of -the Lena. The road now meanders through marshy prairies, -and is merely indicated by the line of gray telegraph-posts -stretching off towards the horizon.</p> - -<p class='c008'>In order to break the intolerable monotony of these very -long journeys, it is usual to invite one or two other travellers -<span class='pageno' id='Page_59'>59</span>to share expenses, and these are not difficult to find, for the -Russians are naturally sociable and quite free from stiffness or -conventionality. I was rather surprised on one occasion to -find the wife of an official in Trans-Baikalia who, to join her -husband, had performed the journey from Vladikavkaz, 4,000 -miles by rail and 1,000 miles by road, in the company of an -officer with whom she was only slightly acquainted. The -Russians were not more astonished at this than Americans -would have been. The general insecurity of the country is -probably responsible for the ease with which people make -acquaintances. Those who like to deal in horrors are by no -means behindhand in relating appalling stories of travellers -who have been waylaid by escaped convicts and murdered in -the heart of the forest. ‘Have you your revolvers?’ asked the -postmaster, on the evening of my first journey in my tarantass, -and just as we were about to start. ‘Three travellers were -assassinated on this relay only fifteen days ago,’ continued he, -and then he gave us a horribly detailed account of the circumstances. -I had no revolver with me, and never had any -reason to need one, and I rather doubted the authenticity of -these gruesome stories. The real danger which travellers in -Siberia have to encounter is that of having the rope which -attaches their luggage to the back of the tarantass artfully cut -and their portmanteaus carried off. Accidents are rare, as the -tarantass is generally very strongly built. It is somewhat -alarming, however, when at the head of a steep incline, to -watch the coachman exciting his horses into a gallop by the -wildest gesticulations, but one soon learns that the danger in -this case is merely apparent.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Considerable patience is certainly needed on these Siberian -journeys, for the roads are often appallingly bad, especially -when the inundations set in after a thaw, when even the -bridges are carried off by the torrents. Then, again, what is -particularly exasperating is the passive air of resignation -assumed by all concerned, postmaster and coachman, and -even by one’s travelling companions. Accustomed as these -people are to live in a climate in which the forces of Nature -defy the ingenuity of man, they are very apt, especially as they -have nothing on earth else to do, to shrug their shoulders at -the inevitable, and to avoid with supreme skill troubling -themselves about the ways and means of bettering things. I -remember on one occasion, after having been assured at -<span class='pageno' id='Page_60'>60</span>Kiakhta and Chita that if I persisted in continuing my journey -I was exposing my life, being landed in a ford into which one -of the wheels of the tarantass stuck. To extricate it, we had -to work for over an hour in the cold water and in the dim -dawn, and even then we were only able to do so with the help -of two Buriats who were passing that way, and who lent us -their horses to assist us in getting out of this unpleasant fix. -With the sole exception of this mishap I had very little to -complain of. It is in the post-stations, however, that one’s -patience is put to the test and that one realizes the force of a -truism made by a certain English author, who began a book -on Siberia with the following singular aphorism: ‘In Siberia -time is not money.’ One crosses the threshold of these rather -doleful-looking houses, which become more and more lugubrious -as one advances eastward, with a feeling akin to dread.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The postmaster is almost invariably to be found seated in -front of a very dirty register, and generally grunts out his -answers to your inquiries as to whether he has any horses -ready, ‘You will have to wait two or three hours, possibly until -the next morning,’ after which pleasant piece of information -you pass into the common waiting-room, usually furnished -with a few chairs, two or three tables and one or two old sofas. -On the wall hang an ikon or so, the inevitable portraits of their -Majesties, and a few frames with the usual printed instructions -and regulations. Then comes a sort of glorified bill-of-fare, -from a perusal of which you learn the names of a number of -succulent dishes, but, unfortunately, the last line informs you -that the postmaster is only obliged to supply you with black -bread and hot water, the last article being intended to make -tea, with which, together with sugar, every traveller supplies -himself before starting. Nearly always, however, one finds -excellent eggs and milk. It is wise in travelling in Trans-Baikalia -to take a supply of preserves, which you can procure -in any large Siberian town.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The travellers, however, whom one meets in these resorts -are generally exceedingly friendly, very willing and even eager -to share their provisions. Seated round the great copper -samovar, conversation becomes cordial and intimate, everybody -calling each other, regardless of age or sex, by their Christian -names, ‘Nicholas Petrovitch,’ ‘Paul Ivanovitch,’ ‘Elisabeth -Alexandrovna,’ and so forth. Constantly, when on the journey, -one often falls in with the same people, and thus acquaintance -<span class='pageno' id='Page_61'>61</span>soon ripens into intimacy. But, although these gatherings -round the samovar are very agreeable, and enable one to study -the pleasanter qualities of the Russian people, it is not advisable -to pass the night in any of the hostelries along the road, for all -the insecticide powders ever invented will not insure a quiet -night.</p> - -<p class='c008'>However interesting, therefore, a cross-country journey -through Siberia may be, it is not exactly of the kind one would -recommend for a pleasure trip, although many Russian ladies, -even of the highest rank, frequently undertake it, but I do not -recommend it to delicate people. When supplied with a -<em>podorojne</em> and the weather is fine the journey is pleasant -enough, but it must not be forgotten that it takes seven weeks -to go from the Ural to Vladivostok. In winter the journey by -sleigh from the Volga takes two months, but if it takes so long -for a traveller, what must it be for merchandise! Commerce, -therefore, on account of the backward condition of the land routes, -is obliged in Siberia to make use of the splendid watercourses, -but even these are paralyzed during seven months of -the year by thick coatings of ice, and, what is still worse, they -all flow towards an ocean eternally blocked by icebergs.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Recently some very hardy experiments, crowned so far with -partial success, have been made to penetrate to the heart of -Siberia by the Polar Sea when navigation is free during certain -weeks of the year. It will be remembered that it was by the -White Sea that European commerce, represented by an -Englishman named Chancellor, first entered Russia in the -sixteenth century. It is therefore not to be wondered at that -attempts have been made to penetrate into Siberia by the -mouths of the Obi and the Yenissei, which are situated at no -greater distance than 1,000 to 1,200 miles from the northernmost -part of Norway, where the sea is always free from ice. -M. Sidorov, a Russian gentleman of ample fortune, in the -middle of the present century, devoted himself to carrying -out this scheme, and notwithstanding that he was discouraged -by the leading scientists of the day, who considered -it impracticable, he promised a very ample reward to the -captain of the first ship which should enter the Yenissei. Two -expeditions, attempted in 1862 and 1869, failed; but in 1874 -an Englishman named Wiggins, captain of the <em>Diana</em>, succeeded -in passing the Straits of Kara, which separate Novaya -Zemlya from the continent, on the frontiers of Europe and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_62'>62</span>Asia, and thus was able to effect a passage into the estuary of -the Yenissei. More successful attempts were made in the -following years, and in 1878 iron, groceries, machinery, and -other articles, were landed at the mouths of the Obi and the -Yenissei. In 1887 an English company was formed to carry -on a regular service at the close of each summer between -England and the North of Siberia, but unfortunately the first -year was not successful, the goods not being of a profitable -character. On the succeeding voyage the vessel could not pass -the Straits of Kara, and had to return home. Subsequently a -new company was formed, but with disastrous results. These -ineffectual attempts, however, did not discourage the English, -and the scheme for navigating the Arctic Ocean was reassumed -on a larger basis in 1896, when three steamers entered the -Yenissei and ascended that river to Turukhansk, about 600 -miles from its estuary, where their goods were transferred to -large barges and conveyed to Krasnoyarsk. The merchandise, -which included seven steam-engines, was sold for a fair profit. -This English company has now installed an agency at Krasnoyarsk, -and the Russian Government, in consideration of the -great services which it has rendered at great risk in attempting -to create a regular service through the Arctic Ocean into -Western and Central Siberia, has reduced the customs duties -on all goods introduced by it by one-half, and indeed has -completely abandoned its claims on a number of articles such -as grocery and machinery. Moreover, so pleased has the -Russian Government been by this courageous attempt that it -has granted some very valuable mining concessions on this -river. In 1897 six English steamers returned to Turukhansk, -and quite a fleet of them was directed to the mouth of the Obi, -hitherto somewhat neglected on account of the shallowness of -the water. Moreover, an attempt has recently been made to -create an export trade between Siberia and England, and a -cargo of corn brought by the company’s barges to the point -where their ships are anchored was soon afterwards happily -transported to Europe. In 1898 the same company met with -identical success. Thus far this enterprise has been very -fortunate. Needless to say, the Kara Sea and the straits which -border upon it are, up to the beginning of August, blocked with -ice, concentrated there by the different currents, and the -season during which navigation is possible lasts only from six -weeks to two months, between August and September. The -<span class='pageno' id='Page_63'>63</span>ships used in this particular service must leave Europe a little -beforehand, so as to await at the Straits of Kara a favourable -opportunity to penetrate to the mouth of the rivers, ascend -them, discharge and recharge, and start again as quickly as -possible. The time is exceedingly limited during which the -barges can transport their cargoes into the interior and reascend -the Siberian rivers ere these are frozen over, and this -especially is the case on the Yenissei, whose currents, even at -Krasnoyarsk, are not more than six miles an hour, attaining, however, -twelve miles between Krasnoyarsk and Yenissei. Therefore -it is impossible to perform more than seventy to eighty -miles a day, and it must be remembered that between Turukhansk -and Krasnoyarsk the distance is about 1,000 miles, and -that in the beginning of October navigation is suspended. -Under these conditions it is not likely that more than one -service a year can ever be organized, although possibly, when -the peculiarities of the icy regions of the Kara Sea are better -known, it might be otherwise. It should also be mentioned -that the vessels engaged in this particular trade have not been -built expressly for it, but are ordinary cargo-boats, which can -be engaged during the rest of the year trading in pleasanter -climes. If the present company establishes itself definitely it -will be extremely fortunate, not only for the town of Krasnoyarsk, -but for the whole of Siberia, which will thus be able -to export, by a very cheap route, the excess of its harvests and -perhaps also some of its superb wood, and receive in exchange -from Western Europe manufactured articles and machinery, -hitherto exclusively supplied from Moscow. Therefore the -opening of the Trans-Siberian Railway, combined with the -passage of navigation through the Arctic Sea, will necessarily -benefit Asiatic Russia very considerably, and help that country -to obtain freer communication with the rest of the world, -and thereby enable it eventually to become completely -modernized.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_64'>64</span> - <h3 class='c001'>CHAPTER IX<br /> <span class='large'>THE TRANS-SIBERIAN RAILWAY</span></h3> -</div> -<p class='c014'>Origin of the Trans-Siberian Railway—At first considered only from the -strategic and political point of view—Completion of the Ural Railway—Project -of utilizing the navigable routes to unite Russia to the -Amur—Difficulties encountered owing to the severity of the climate—Alexander -III. in 1891 decides to lay a line between the Ural and the -Pacific, and determines the conditions of its construction—The various -sections of the line and its deviations across Manchuria—Condition of -the works in 1892, and the speed with which it has been constructed—Russia -now possesses (1900) a line of mixed communication by -train and boat passing from the Ural to the Pacific, and in 1904 a -complete line will pass directly from the Ural to Port Arthur, a -distance of over 4,130 miles—The monster ferry-boats in course of -construction to convey passengers across Lake Baikal—The success of -the enterprise.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The idea of making an overland road from Russia to the Far -East and the Pacific probably germinated in the fertile brain of -Voltaire, who, in a letter to Count Schuvarof, dated Ferney, -June 11, 1761, said ‘that it ought to be possible to travel from -Russia direct to China without having to cross any considerable -mountain pass, just as one can go from St. Petersburg to Paris -without leaving the plain.’ The matter was even more -practically defined, nearer our own time, by Count Mouravief-Amurski, -who, after he had annexed the province of the Amur -to Russia, favoured the idea of building a Trans-Siberian railway, -and, in the meantime, encouraged the creation of a postal -highroad from the Urals to the Amur, which, he considered, -would greatly strengthen Russian prestige on the shores of the -Pacific.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The Trans-Siberian Railway, it may be remarked, was not -originally designed merely in the interests of Siberia, but as a -means of uniting Europe with the rich countries of the Far -<span class='pageno' id='Page_65'>65</span>East, in such a manner as to avoid the necessity of passing any -length of time in the rude and sparsely-peopled intermediary -territories. Even after the project was definitely accepted by -Alexander III., the political and strategical considerations of -the problem were deemed of far greater importance than the -commercial; but presently it transpired that Siberia was not -quite the forlorn country hitherto imagined, but that it possessed -certain resources of great value, which might easily be -developed, provided rapid communication with the rest of the -empire was organized.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The first step in the right direction was the construction of -the Ural Railway, opened in 1880, which united Perm on the -Kama with Tiumen on the Tobol, a river flowing into the -Irtysh. The increasing necessity of developing the important -gold and iron mines in the Urals was doubtless the principal -motive why this line was completed; but presently it proved -to be of vast importance to the rest of Siberia, since, by -combining the river with the land routes, it became possible, -at least during five or six months of the year, to reach Tomsk -in a relatively short period.</p> - -<p class='c008'>At that time it was thought the opening of this trunk line -would be detrimental to the scheme of a complete Trans-Siberian -railway, for once the junction of the navigable tributaries of -the Obi with those of the Volga was accomplished, it was -deemed desirable to connect Russia with its possessions in the -Far East by uniting in the same manner the basin of the Obi -with that of the Yenissei, and finally the latter with the affluents -of the Amur, and so with the Pacific. A railway from the Obi -to the Yenissei was not thought necessary, a canal being all -that was required. In 1882, therefore, the construction of a -canal was undertaken between the Ket, a tributary of the Obi, -and the Kass, an affluent of the Yenissei, the distance not -being more than 126 miles. The canal in question, which -traverses a series of virgin forests, when completed, unfortunately, -however, did not realize expectation. To the east -of the Yenissei its promoters encountered formidable obstacles -from the ice and from the numerous rapids that disturb the -current of the Angara, and all attempts to ascend that river -have hitherto failed.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Notwithstanding these difficulties, the enterprising engineers -hoped to the last to be able to modify some of them, but have -not succeeded in so doing. Thus, it soon became evident -<span class='pageno' id='Page_66'>66</span>that if any practical means of communication was to exist -between Russia and the Pacific, it could only be by some -method independent of climatic irregularity. The late Tsar, -Alexander III., very readily understood that the mixed rail -and river system, with its many inconveniences of loading and -unloading, and its ice blockades, was, comparatively speaking, -useless. Hence the great encouragement and assistance which -his Imperial Majesty gave to the creation of the Trans-Siberian -Railway, in which he took the deepest interest, being quite of -opinion that its completion was of vital importance to the -improvement and well-being of an immense section of his -Empire. In less than eight years from the day he signed the -Imperial decree authorizing its immediate execution trains -began to run over 3,300 miles, uniting the upper region of the -Amur with Europe and the lower section of that river with the -Pacific. Without entering into further particulars of the -various routes proposed and subsequently given up, suffice it to -say that at present the excellent idea of creating a line running -along the shores of Lake Baikal from Irkutsk to Misofsk has -been temporarily abandoned, and that a short line of forty-four -miles between Irkutsk and Listvenitchnaya now runs to the -western shores of that lake, where the trains will ere long be -shunted directly on board ferry-boats built on the well-known -American system, and thus travellers will be able to continue -their journey to the Far East without leaving the train.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The Trans-Siberian Railway between Cheliabinsk and Vladivostok -now includes a main line some 4,125 miles in length, -plus two branch lines, one 104 miles and the other 410 miles -in length, which unite with the Upper and Lower Amur.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The Western Siberian Railway was finished in 1895; the -Central Siberian and the section between Irkutsk and Baikal -in 1898. Trains can now run over 2,152 miles of rail. The -478 miles of the Ussuri line, of which 67 miles belong to the trunk -line, were not opened until 1897. The many difficulties of the -Trans-Baikalian line, which somewhat retarded its completion, -having been overcome, it was inaugurated quite recently, -whereby 2,814 miles out of the total 4,125 miles were rendered -free for traffic. The line to Ussuri was finished three years -ago, and the rail having been laid between Onon and Stretensk, -the Russians have now (1900) a complete land and river system -of intercommunication to the Pacific.</p> - -<p class='c008'>For some years past a number of Russian officers and engineers -<span class='pageno' id='Page_67'>67</span>have been quietly exploring Manchuria, with very interesting -results. In 1895 the Chinese Government, after the Chino-Japanese -War, accorded, as a token of gratitude to Russia for -her share in the combined intervention with France and -Germany in her favour, the privilege to build a railway through -this important province, and, moreover, to occupy the country -during its construction, the better to protect both works and -workmen. This circumstance brought about a great modification -in the original route of the Trans-Siberian line. The -section in the Amur from Stretensk to Khabarofsk was -abandoned and replaced by a Trans-Manchurian Railway -which leaves the station at Onon, 104 miles east of Stretensk, -to rejoin the original line at Nikolsk, about 67 miles from -Vladivostok, and thus has a mixed route of rail and river been -created which brings Europe and the Pacific into direct -communication during the summer months. The train now -conveys travellers from the Ural to Stretensk; thence by boat -to Khabarofsk, whence the line continues uninterruptedly to -Vladivostok. As to the great Manchurian line, it cannot be -completed, even according to the letter of the concession, before -1904, so numerous and so very great are the natural and other -obstacles which have to be overcome. A notable modification -has, however, already been made in the original plan. -Vladivostok is now no longer to be the main terminus, which will -be transferred to Port Arthur, 530 miles further south. The -advantages to commerce to be derived from this project will -doubtless soon and amply compensate for the extra labour and -expense.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The great difficulties of constructing the Trans-Siberian -Railway were mainly due to its abnormal length. Whereas -the Americans had only 2,000 miles to cut in creating their -line between the Mississippi and the Pacific, the Russians thirty -years later had to lay down more than 4,000 miles of rail in -order to reach the same ocean from the Ural. Otherwise -their difficulties were very much less formidable than those -which at times nearly baffled even the ingenuity of the -Americans. Happily there are no Rocky Mountains or Sierra -Nevada in Siberia to traverse at a great height, but only -comparatively low ranges like the Yablonovoi, or ‘Apple-Tree -Mountains,’ so-called from their rather dumpy shapes. Then, -again, although Siberia is at present not more densely inhabited -than was the Far West from 1860 to 1870, it contains no such -<span class='pageno' id='Page_68'>68</span>desolate regions as the plateaus of Utah and Nevada. It may, -therefore, be safely affirmed that from the engineering point of -view the task was a comparatively easy one, although the line -has to pass over an exceedingly varied country after leaving the -Ural, and through interminable plains, to reach the undulating -regions between the Obi and the Yenissei, where it ascends -a chain of hills at an altitude of not less than 2,000 feet on the -road from the Yenissei to Irkutsk. On the eastern shore of -the Baikal the railway gradually ascends to an altitude of not -less than 3,500 feet above the level of the water, whence it -descends in rapid zigzag into the valleys of the Ingoda and -the Chilka, cuts the abrupt spurs of some very high mountains, -and passes into marshlands where, by the way, the engineers -have had to overcome their greatest obstruction, mainly due -to the unstable condition of the soil. When, therefore, we take -into consideration that between the Amur and the Ural there -is not a single tunnel, we may safely conclude that, if it were -not for its enormous length, this now famous line has not been -from the engineering point of view as arduous an undertaking -even as have been, for instance, some of the much shorter -lines nearer home, across the Alps and the Cevennes.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The bridges, on the other hand, are very remarkable and -numerous, and some of them required great skill in their -construction, since they span the more important rivers of -Siberia, which, with the exception of those in the basin of the -Amur, invariably flow due north. There are four principal -bridges, of which two cross the Irtysh and the Obi respectively, -each 2,750 feet in length; the other two span the Yenissei -and the Selenga, and are about 3,000 feet in length. These -four bridges were exceedingly costly, necessitating the erection -of stone piles of prodigious strength, capable of resisting the -shock of the enormous masses of floating ice. The minor -bridges, some of them 700 to 900 feet in length, are very -numerous, but, beyond the difficulty of fixing them firmly a -great distance on either side of the rivers, owing to the marshy -nature of the soil on the immediate banks, it needed no -superlative skill on the part of the engineers who superintended -their erection.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Altogether the most remarkable feature of the line will be -the manner in which the trains are eventually to be transported -across the Baikal, the largest lake in Asia. In America and in -Denmark the system of running a train on to a monster ferry-boat, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_69'>69</span>crossing considerable expanses of water, has now been -in practical use for many years; but the distances hitherto -have never exceeded seventy miles. The Toledo, Ann Harbour, -and Northern Michigan Railroad possesses a service of ferry-boats -that convey the trains across Lake Michigan, a distance -of about seventy miles. The <em>Père Marquette</em>, the biggest ferry-boat -in the world, so-called in honour of the celebrated Jesuit -missionary and explorer, is 344 feet in length by 54 feet in -width, and possesses four lines, whereby it can carry thirty -freight cars and sixteen very up-to-date passenger corridor -carriages. The difficulties to be surmounted with respect to -Lake Baikal are happily less than those to be encountered on -Lake Michigan. The distance from shore to shore, to begin -with, is considerably less. Between Listvenitchnaya, otherwise -the ‘Larches,’ to Misofsk is only forty miles. Notwithstanding -the excessive cold, the Baikal does not freeze until quite late -in January, on account of its great depth, 4,200 feet, of which -2,900 feet are below the level of the sea, forming a prodigious -volume of water which takes a very long time to freeze, and an -almost equally long time to thaw, for its temperature rarely -rises, even in summer, above 5° C. During eight months of -the year Lake Baikal is free and navigable, and it is believed -that two crossings a day, always in the same channel, may -eventually reduce the thickness of the ice in winter.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The building of these enormous ferry-boats has been entrusted -to a well-known American firm.<a id='r12' /><a href='#f12' class='c006'><sup>[12]</sup></a> They are to be -larger than the <em>Père Marquette</em>, and provided with special -contrivances for cutting the ice as they force their passage -through it, and they are, moreover, intended to go at the rate -of thirteen and a half knots an hour in free water, and four -knots when cutting through the ice. The passage will take -nine hours in winter and about two and a half hours in summer. -Unfortunately, storms are very sudden and frequent on Lake -Baikal, and, moreover, in summer travelling is often impeded -by dense fogs, and it occasionally happens that boats are -detained for hours and even days at a time before they dare -venture across. It will certainly be very unpleasant for the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_70'>70</span>passengers to be kept for many hours at Listvenitchnaya or -Misofsk waiting for the weather to clear. However, they can -take heart of grace; for not so very long ago they might have -been detained for days at some out-of-the-way post-house, in -company with a regiment of most unpleasant and unnameable -bedfellows!</p> - -<p class='c008'>The difficulties of obtaining workmen for building this -railway were not so great as might have been expected, thanks -to the nomadic habits of the Russians, who think very little of -leaving their wives and belongings at home, and going hundreds, -even thousands, of miles away in search of employment. Then, -again, there were already a considerable number of workpeople -to be obtained on the line itself; for, as already stated, the -population of Siberia is concentrated on the old postal-road, -which runs in many points parallel to the railway. Convict -labour was not greatly used, and when it was it proved unsatisfactory, -and was soon more or less abandoned. The line, -however, has taken an unusually long time to finish, because -the only season during which work can be carried on in Siberia -lasts but six months; but this probably proved attractive to the -Russian and Asiatic workmen, as it gave them ample time, -when the ground was thickly covered with snow, to return to -their cabins and indulge in those day-dreams so dear to them -and to all Orientals.</p> - -<p class='c008'>It is difficult to estimate the exact cost of the line, but it -was at first reckoned at over £40,000,000 sterling,<a id='r13' /><a href='#f13' class='c006'><sup>[13]</sup></a> of which -unfortunately a considerable percentage was absolutely wasted, -if not worse. Grave charges have been brought against a great -number of people in connection with this line, and doubtless -with reason; for it must not be forgotten that the notions of -honesty entertained in Asiatic Russia are apt even now to be -distinctly Byzantine. However, be this as it may, Russia can -be congratulated upon having completed a brilliant achievement, -which no other nation, except perhaps England or -America, would have dared to undertake, especially in so short -a time.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_71'>71</span> - <h3 class='c001'>CHAPTER X<br /> <span class='large'>THE RAILWAY THROUGH MANCHURIA</span></h3> -</div> -<p class='c014'>Concessions granted by China to construct the Manchurian Railway—The -East Chinese Railway Company and its statutes—Method of construction -and utilization of the waterways—Military and political -advantages—Branch to Port Arthur—Rapid progress already made.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The completion of the Manchurian Railway will take place -in a few years, and if there has been an apparent delay in its -construction, it must not be forgotten that the harder work had -already been finished on the Trans-Siberian line when the plans -for the Chinese scheme were only just drawn up, and also that -the obstacles to be overcome in Manchuria are infinitely greater -than any that presented themselves in Siberia. These obstacles -are mainly the result of the natural formation of the soil. As -to the alleged political difficulties, they are very unimportant, -although the line does pass through a Chinese province.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Notwithstanding that it was nominally conceded to an -anonymous society, the line is absolutely in the hands of the -Russian Government, to confirm which statement we have -only to study the statutes of the East China Railway -Company, which were drawn up by the chief promoter, -M. de Witte, and formulated by the Russo-Chinese Bank -between August 26 and September 8, 1896, after the signing -of the Convention between the Russian and the Chinese Governments. -According to these statutes, which were approved of -by the Russian Government on December 4 to 16, 1896, -and published in the <cite>Messager Officiel de l’Empire</cite>, ‘the -shareholders must be either Russians or Chinese. The concession -lapses at the end of eighty years from the day of the -opening of the completed line. The bonds can only be issued -on demand, and then only with the consent of the Russian -<span class='pageno' id='Page_72'>72</span>Minister of Finance. The Russian Government guarantees -payment of the interest and the redemption of the bonds. -The company is managed by a committee, comprising a -President and nine members, of whom one is Vice-President, -divided between Peking and St. Petersburg. The President is -chosen by the Chinese Government only; the other members -of the committee are usually elected at a general meeting of the -shareholders. The chief duty of the President is to watch -over the interests of the Chinese Government. The Vice-President -is supposed to interest himself exclusively in the -management of the company. The Russian Government has -a right to superintend the progress and development of the -works, both during the period of construction and of exploitation. -The Russian Minister of Finance has, moreover, the -right to ratify the nominations of the Vice-President, chief -engineer, and of all other officials, and to approve or otherwise -of any modifications which may be suggested during the -construction of the line.</p> - -<p class='c008'>These and other regulations, to which we need only allude, -prove the preponderating influence of Russia in the undertaking, -and we should, moreover, remember that the majority -of the shares are in the hands of the Russian Government. -It is therefore obvious that the Chinese President is but a -mere figurehead, and that the whole enterprise is exclusively -Russian. As a matter of fact, the only important reservation -made in the interests of China is the following: ‘After -a lapse of thirty-six years from the date of the completion -of the line, the Chinese Government will have the right to repurchase -it, and to assume all the responsibilities of the said -company.’ If China does not avail herself of this right of -repurchase, she will not enter into possession of the line and -its dependencies until the conclusion of the eighty years from -the date of its inauguration originally stipulated, under which -circumstance she will certainly have a very long time to wait. -The statutes also declare that the works must begin not later -than August 16 to 28, 1897, and that they must be finished in -six years, that is to say, in 1903, but, as a matter of fact, it is -not likely that everything will be ready by that time, owing to -the many obstacles the engineers have to overcome.</p> - -<p class='c008'>According to a project accepted in 1897, the Manchurian -line from Onon to Nikolsk will be 1,200 miles in length, of -which 890 miles will pass through the Celestial Empire, and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_73'>73</span>310 miles through Russian territory. The total distance by -rail from Cheliabinsk to Vladivostok will be 4,072 miles instead -of 4,640, as stated in the original scheme, including the 40 -miles across Lake Baikal.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Chinese Manchuria is composed of the two basins of the -Sungari, the great affluent of the Amur, which joins this river -between Blagovyeshchensk and Khabarofsk, and of the Liao-ho, -which flows into the treaty port of Niu-chwang in the Government -of Pe-chi-li. Between these two basins lies a zone of -steppes, quite destitute of water, an eastern prolongation of the -great Desert of Gobi, and 130 miles in width. To the east of -the north and north-west of Manchuria rises a chain of lofty -mountains, which separate the valleys of the Amur and its -tributaries, the Argun and the Ussuri, from the great inland -and very marshy plain watered by the Sungari and its tributary -rivers.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The new line will, after leaving Onon, have to cross a lofty -chain of mountains south of Trans-Baikalia, 265 miles in -length, at a height of over 3,000 feet, and then descend into -the valley of the Argun, to finally enter an absolutely deserted -mountainous region, unexplored until the arrival of the engineering -mission, some 130 miles long. Thence it will have to be -carried over a height exceeding even the 3,000 feet above -mentioned, and for another 330 miles will run at a height -varying between 300 to 600 feet above the level of the Sungari -plain, to again rise to 1,950 feet in order to cross another lofty -range before redescending to Nikolsk, which is 130 feet above -the level of the sea. To the difficulties thrown in the way of -rapid progress by the great height and precipitous nature of -the Manchurian Mountains must be added those created by -the unstable condition of the soil, which, according to some -travellers of my acquaintance who have explored this district, -consists of one immense lake of mud. Fortunately, however, -it seems that at about three or four feet below this objectionable -surface exists a solid bed of gravel, which may afford an -excellent foundation for the line. These unfavourable conditions -were at first deemed so insurmountable that at one -time many pessimists were of opinion that it would be wiser -to abandon the Manchurian scheme altogether, and return to -the original plan of passing through the valley of the Amur. -The Tsar, however, held firm to his purpose, and the order -was promulgated by His Majesty in 1898 to forthwith undertake -<span class='pageno' id='Page_74'>74</span>the construction of that portion of the line between Onon -and the Argun situated in his own territory. The waterways -in Chinese territory have been utilized precisely as those in -Siberia. In order to ascend the Sungari a number of flat -steam-tugs were ordered from Newcastle-on-Tyne. They -are unusually shallow, only drawing two feet of water, are -supplied with engines of 500 horse-power, and intended to -convey the rails. These are brought from Europe, viâ Vladivostok, -over the Ussuri line. I remember in September -being at Iman, where the Vladivostok line reaches the Ussuri, -and watching with great interest one of these immense boats in -process of reconstruction. I cannot help thinking, however, -that the Argun would be better for the transport of heavy -railway material than the shallow Sungari.</p> - -<p class='c008'>If the Russian Government so promptly determined to carry -out the construction of the Manchurian Railway, it was rather -on account of important political considerations than of any -shortening of the route. This railway, it must be borne in -mind, passes at less than 330 miles from the extreme north -of the Gulf of Pe-chi-li, whereas by the Amur line the distance is -double, and even then, after arriving at Vladivostok in order -to reach Pe-chi-li, an unexplored and uninhabited mountainous -district which extends north of the Korean Frontier would -have to be passed. From the plain of the Sungari Russia can -easily send troops to Mukden and Niu-chwang, and if necessary -even to Peking, whereas from Vladivostok she would find -it very difficult, if not absolutely impossible, to transport them -by land, and, moreover, there she is by no means complete -mistress of the sea.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Vladivostok already contains a number of important maritime -establishments, the harbour is excellent, and in case of a war -with Japan it would be a most important point of vantage. -Russia, however, calculates that by means of the Manchurian -Railway she will be able to transfer the Trans-Siberian terminus -five degrees south of Vladivostok, to Port Arthur, whereby she -dominates the Gulf of Pe-chi-li and both the land and sea -routes leading to the Chinese capital. This scheme has been -absolutely decided upon since 1898. The branch lines which -unite the harbours of Port Arthur and Talien-wan to the -nearest point of the East Chinese Railway, close to the -town of Kirin, are being pushed on as actively as possible. -Thousands of tons of rail, as well as a number of railway-engines, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_75'>75</span>have already arrived from France and America at -Port Arthur and Niu-chwang, and another branch of the -Russian Railway is being laid in the direction of this last-named -port. The branch from Port Arthur is about 530 -miles, so that the total length of the Trans-Siberian line will not -be greatly increased by this deviation, which will bring it to a -full-stop at the extremity of the peninsula of Liao-tung, on the -shores of a sea which is always free of ice. The total increase -in the expenditure will not exceed £5,000,000.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_76'>76</span> - <h3 class='c001'>CHAPTER XI<br /> <span class='large'>THE ALTERED RELATIONS BETWEEN EUROPE AND THE FAR EAST RESULTING FROM THE TRANS-SIBERIAN RAILWAY</span></h3> -</div> -<p class='c014'>The distance between Europe and the Far East by the Trans-Siberian—Diminution -of the time and expense of the sea-route—China and Japan -within two weeks of Paris and London—Luxury and comfort on board -the Far East express—The difficulty of transporting merchandise, -which must remain much more expensive than by the sea-route—Importance -of the Trans-Siberian Railway as a means of diffusing -civilization in the Far East.</p> - -<p class='c007'>As already stated, between 1904 and 1905 at the latest, a continuous -railroad will bring Europe in touch with the shores of -the Pacific. The distances between Paris, Berlin, and London, -and Vladivostok and Port Arthur are as follows:</p> - -<div class='lg-container-b c025'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>5,852 miles from St. Petersburg, viâ Moscow.</div> - <div class='line'>6,370 miles from Berlin.</div> - <div class='line'>7,044 miles from Paris.</div> - <div class='line'>7,104 miles from London, viâ Dover and Ostend.</div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<p class='c008'>European expresses would traverse the longest of these -distances in one week; but it must be remembered that it is -not at present possible for trains to run over the Siberian -Railway at such high speeds as from forty to fifty miles an -hour. These are only possible upon the very substantial lines -of Western Europe, and are indeed much in excess of what is -achieved by the American Trans-Continental trains, once they -cross the Mississippi, or by the Canadian Pacific, the speed on -which between Montreal and Vancouver rarely exceeds twenty-five -miles, and even this relatively low rate cannot be expected -at first on the Trans-Siberian Railway. The rails are very light, -especially on the first or western sections, and the whole railroad -is, in many places, as is often the case in America, rather -<span class='pageno' id='Page_77'>77</span>primitively constructed. It is therefore calculated that the -Far East express, the weekly <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">train-de-luxe</span></i>, which is to be -organized as soon as the line is completely finished,<a id='r14' /><a href='#f14' class='c006'><sup>[14]</sup></a> will -take not less than twelve days to perform the journey between -London or Paris and Vladivostok and Port Arthur, which will -not necessitate a greater speed than twenty miles an hour -over the Siberian lines. When, however, the system is better -managed and placed on the same footing as that of the -Canadian Pacific, the journey may possibly be performed in -a few hours under eleven days. The Trans-Siberian route will, -once it is opened, be incomparably the shortest route between -Europe and the Far East. It takes from Vladivostok to the -Japanese ports of Nawoyetsu and Niigata on the Japanese Sea, -a distance of about 480 miles, about forty hours by steamer. -From thence, about 280 miles of rail, traversed in fifteen hours, -will bring the capital of the Mikado within two and a half days -from Vladivostok, and about fifteen days from Paris. On the -other hand, the Chinese line, which is now being reorganized -by an English company between Peking and Tien-tsin, and -from thence to Shan-hai-kwan at the foot of the Great Wall, is -being extended to Niu-chwang, where it will join the Russian -lines, and thus the journey from Paris and London to Peking -can be performed in between thirteen and fifteen days. Shanghai, -the principal port of China, is distant 575 miles from Port -Arthur, and can be reached in two days, and thus Hong-Kong -will be only seventeen days’ journey from London. It now -takes thirty-four days at least to get from Paris or London to -Yokohama viâ the Suez Canal, and twenty-one viâ Canada, -and certainly not less than twenty-eight days to reach Shanghai -by either route. Twenty-five days are required to get to Hong-Kong -viâ Suez, and thirty viâ America, and although this port -is situated in the tropics, it could be reached much more expeditiously -viâ Siberia than round by India. The Marseilles -steamers touch at Saigon after a voyage of twenty-three days, -but it is not probable that they will be able to compete in the -matter of speed with the Trans-Siberian Railway. The capital -of Cochin China, however, marks the extreme limit of this -sphere; but all places situated to its north and east—Japan, -Tonkin, China, and the Philippines—can be brought immeasurably -nearer to Europe than was certainly ever imagined by -<span class='pageno' id='Page_78'>78</span>Voltaire when he wrote his letter to Count Schuvarof. It is -therefore evident that, even if the maritime companies do their -utmost to increase the speed of their boats, they will never be -able to convey travellers to Peking, Hong-Kong, Shanghai, -Tokio or Manila, in anything like the short space of time -taken by the Trans-Siberian.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Another great advantage of the Trans-Siberian line is the -diminution of the expense, which will be considerably less than -that charged by the steamers. The price of a first-class passage -from Marseilles to Hong-Kong, Shanghai, or to one of the -Japanese ports, is uniformly about £70, to which must be -added another £5 for travelling expenses from London to the -starting-point. Viâ Canada the expense is about the same, -whereas by crossing Siberia it will cost something like half. -The Russian tariff is an extremely reasonable one, especially -for great distances, and it is calculated that the prices from the -German frontier to Vladivostok or Port Arthur will be by the -ordinary trains about 11 guineas first class, and £5 third. By -the <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">train-de-luxe</span></i> from the Russian frontier to the end of the -journey it will be £18. To these expenses must, however, -be added those which are always inclusive on board ships, but -never on the trains—such as food, service, etc., which, however, -are never alarmingly high on the German or Russian -lines. If we add to the above the price of the ticket from -Port Arthur to Shanghai, £6, to Hong-Kong, £12, it is clear -that the cost of the journey will be about £32 from Paris to -North China and Japan, and £40 to Southern China—in a -word, half what is charged at present.</p> - -<p class='c008'>A rather alarming question arises as to how people will be -able to endure the inevitable fatigue of passing twelve days -continuously in a railway-carriage. Habit is second nature, -and although there is no other line in the world of such great -length, nevertheless countless Americans think nothing of -spending a week or ten days constantly travelling by train. It -must be remembered, too, that the carriages intended for this -line will be built expressly, and contain every conceivable comfort -and modern improvement. A long corridor down the -centre of the compartments will enable passengers to take -exercise; and, needless to say, everything will be arranged for -the comfort of the sleeping department, and for the heating of -the carriages in winter. Already those lines which have been -opened in Siberia are supplied with restaurants providing very -<span class='pageno' id='Page_79'>79</span>good food, and usually under the management of a Japanese, -whose head cook is well skilled in the concoction of cosmopolitan -dishes, and whose waiters leave nothing to be desired -in point of cleanliness and civility. Even now, in out-of-the-way -stations, where, a few years ago, the foot of man had never -trod, travellers who have exhausted their store of novels may -find a bookstall fairly well supplied with current fiction and -guide-books.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The Russian Government, however, in its zeal for the comfort -of Trans-Siberian travellers, has made arrangements for the -installation of a super-excellent restaurant, a well-stocked -library, and, in short, of all those many luxuries hitherto which -are the joy and boast of Americans. One cannot expect the -comfort of a first-class liner in a narrow, box-like train; but -then we must remember that the passengers on board these -floating palaces have to endure many miseries in the shape of -sea-sickness and the numerous ills which invariably accompany -a journey through the Torrid Zone. There can be no question -as to the superiority of the Trans-Siberian route to the Pacific -over the Canadian, inasmuch as the latter includes two long -sea-journeys. In summer the Trans-Siberian line will be undoubtedly -very pleasant, and even in winter the carriages can -be kept warm, and, moreover, there need be no fear of an unexpected -visitation from an avalanche as there is in Canada. -And thus, in the course of a few years, the irrepressible globetrotters -of the two worlds, as well as the business man, to whom -‘time is money,’ will find a new and rapid means to reach -countries which distance and the difficulties of travel have -hitherto placed beyond the reach of only the most enterprising -or of those who do not mind a very long sea-voyage. From -the purely commercial side of the question, however, there can -be no doubt that a very long time may elapse before the Trans-Siberian -Railway can compete with the sea route in transporting -heavy merchandise to and from the Far East, and the -great commercial centres of Europe and Asia. Still, certain -lighter articles—silk and tea, for instance—can certainly be -brought in fair quantities, viâ the Siberian line, at a reasonable -price. One of the great advantages of the line will be the -facilities it offers for forwarding letters to and from China, -Japan, etc., in considerably less than half the time now taken.</p> - -<p class='c008'>As to the social transformation which must inevitably result -from the constant passage of so many people belonging to the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_80'>80</span>highly civilized nations of the west, through a country hitherto -so backward as Siberia, it may well be summed up as incalculable. -That Russia will specially benefit by the creation of -a line which she has built at an enormous cost is but just, -and, moreover, surely the reward for her courage and enterprise. -At the same time, civilization will also find a common -interest in the amazing difference which so important a factor -must inevitably create in the history of progress in the Far -East.</p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_81'>81</span> - <h2 class='c005'><em>PART II.—JAPAN</em></h2> -</div> - -<h3 class='c001'>CHAPTER I<br /> <span class='large'>THE ORIGIN AND PAST HISTORY OF JAPAN</span></h3> -<p class='c014'>Different opinions respecting Japan and the reforms which have been -carried out in that Empire within the past few years—Necessity of -understanding something of Japanese history in order to appreciate -the recent transformation in the country—Origin of the Japanese—Early -history—The Mikados—The Japanese adopt Chinese civilization -between the fifth and eighth centuries of our era—Inability for -the Japanese to accept certain Chinese institutions—Decline of the -absolute power of the Mikados—Military government adopted in the -twelfth century—Japanese feudalism—Increase of power among the -feudal lords in the fourteenth century—Civil wars and anarchy in the -fifteenth century—Order re-established and the Government centralized -through the action of the great military chieftains at the end of the -sixteenth century—Foundation of the dynasty of the Tokugawa -Shoguns—Europeans in Japan in the sixteenth century—The Japanese -accept our civilization with enthusiasm—Rapid spread of Christianity—Reaction -in the seventeenth century—Purely political causes—Persecution -of Christians and the expulsion of foreigners—Japan isolated -during nearly two centuries.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The absolute isolation which Japan preserved for over three -hundred years and her systematic rejection of any attempt at -the introduction of even a ray of Western civilization, is not, -it must be confessed, without fascination for all who take -interest in the history of a people who, during the last -thirty years, have become so popular and so progressive as -the Japanese. Suddenly, and without any explicable cause, -the country, which was as carefully sealed to the outer world as -the enchanter’s famous casket, was thrown wide open, not only -to admit, but even to court, foreign progress, science and -civilization, and now Japan has definitively accepted without -<span class='pageno' id='Page_82'>82</span>any hesitation the most absolute changes and audacious innovations -in her political and social systems, and has effected a -transformation in her manners, ideas, and customs, not to -mention costumes, such as has never before been achieved by -any other nation in so brief a space of time.</p> - -<p class='c008'>At first Europe watched this extraordinary evolution with -interest, not unmingled, however, with scepticism, finding it -difficult to take seriously what might in the end prove but a -passing fashion or the result of caprice. Many, indeed, felt -anxious lest the introduction of modern civilization into a -country so deliciously quaint and fascinating as Japan might -destroy the charm of a population of artists, and, moreover, do -irreparable damage to that exquisite art for which it is so -justly celebrated. For many, Japan ought to have remained -the land of lovely china, of rich lacquers, of <em>kakimonos</em>, <em>musmes</em> -and chrysanthemums. Indeed, who could be expected to -believe that the home of the <em>geisha</em> and of all sorts of dainty -delights, of dwarf trees and liliputian tea-gardens, could -possibly acclimatize the smoky industries, the strict militarism -and the matter of fact judicial and political systems of our -humdrum civilization? As well expect such a transformation -in a world of butterflies and glittering dragon-flies as in the -Empire of the Mikado. One eminent writer declared that -‘the Japan of to-day is but a bad translation’; and yet another -says: ‘I find Japan a sort of anæmic dwarf. I know that she is -of antediluvian antiquity, but for all that I cannot help thinking -this little old mummy, bedecking herself in the trappings -of Western civilization, supremely ridiculous.’ This was the -opinion held not only by casual visitors to Japan, but also by -not a few who had lived for years in the country, and who -were never happy excepting when contrasting the solid qualities -of the Chinese, their circumspection, their prudence, and their -profound attachment to ancient customs, with the intense -vanity and frivolity of the Japanese.</p> - -<p class='c008'>What could not be achieved by twenty-five years of hard -work and peaceful progress in the way of convincing Europe of -the earnestness of her intentions Japan did in less than six -months by her military successes. When Europe beheld the -triumphant achievements of the Mikado’s army, she had to -confess that Japan was not quite the butterfly she had -imagined, and began to study with greater attention the -remarkable work which had been accomplished in that Empire. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_83'>83</span>But the wonderful progress made in Japan during the last -half of this century would not seem so extraordinary were -the history of the Land of Flowers and its people better -known. By the light of the past, the Revolution of 1868, -which led to the suppression of the feudal system in Japan, -and to the opening of the ports throughout the country, -becomes clear and sequent.</p> - -<p class='c008'>In the fifth century of our era Japanese history begins to -assume definite form, and the chronicles of the Kojiki and the -Nihongi, which were written in the eighth century, cease to -record mythological events and to deal with those purely -human. Since that date the ancestors of the present Emperor -have been ruling sovereigns over the two meridional islands -Kiu-Siu and Sikoku, and the south-western section of the -great Island of Hondo. According to tradition, they had -already been reigning princes for over a thousand years, and -their history, like that of almost every other great dynasty, -stretches back into the night of time, when the world was -peopled by gods and demigods. The first Emperor, Jimmu-Tenno, -was a grandson of Amaterasu, Goddess of the Sun, -herself a great-granddaughter of the gods Izanaghi and -Izanami, who were the actual founders of Japan. We next -learn that Japan sprang direct from the hands of the gods, -whereas all the other countries of the world, even those from -whom she is pleased to accept modern civilization, originated -through the evolution of natural forces. Jimmu-Tenno having -alighted on this earth from heaven on the island of Kiu-Siu, -passed thence viâ the Inland Sea to Hondo, where, after -conquering ‘people of the same race as his own subjects,’ -who inhabited these parts, he subdued the whole of the western -part of the island, even to the zone of the central forests, ‘which -were peopled by barbarians.’ In the year 660 <span class='sc'><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">B.C.</span></span>, he established -himself in the province of Yamato, where they pretend in our -day to have discovered his tomb. It is from this very early date -that the Japanese begin their history. Jimmu-Tenno was succeeded -by several generations of Mikados, of whom the first -seventeen were centenarians, who lived between a hundred and -a hundred and forty years each. In those distant times, the gods, -it seems, took the same personal interest in Japanese affairs as -they condescended to do in those of the Trojans. The history, -however, of Japan, in its legendary period, like that of most -other countries, is exceedingly sketchy and contains nothing of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_84'>84</span>a positive character until the year 200 <span class='sc'><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">A.D.</span></span>, when an Amazonian -Empress, who rejoiced in the rather startling name of Jingo, -headed a successful campaign against the Koreans.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Contemporary historical research has resulted in clearing -away a good deal of the mist which shrouded in a veil of mystery -the primitive history of Japan. It would seem, however, for -instance, that some centuries before our era the Mongolian -pirates indulged in frequent incursions upon the western coast -of the country in much the same unpleasant manner as did, -some thousand years later, the Normans in Europe. After -exterminating the natives, who were not numerous, they -established themselves, together with their wives and families, -in the island of Kiu-Siu. Later on, an illustrious chief, who -turns out on closer acquaintance to be none other than -Jimmu-Tenno, of legendary fame, crossed over to the great island -and ‘found it peopled by inhabitants of the same race as -himself’; hence it becomes evident that there were two distinct -migrations from the mainland of the ancestors of the actual -Japanese, a fact confirmed in a double cycle of heroic legends, -one of which deals with the island of Kiu-Siu and the other -with the province of Idzuma, situated on the west coast of -Hondo, an island opposite Korea.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The Japanese, therefore, form a part of the great family -scientifically known as the Uralo-Altaic, which includes the -Finns, the Hungarians, the Turks, the Mongols and the -Koreans. The different branches of this family appear to be -less closely united than are those of the white race, but on the -other hand, their languages, which are distinctly agglutinant, -have certainly a common origin. It should be remarked that -the Chinese do not form part of this group, constituting a -family quite apart, whose language is distinctly monosyllabic -and rhythmic. Their handwriting, however, was adopted by the -Japanese between a thousand and twelve hundred years ago, -as were also a number of words describing objects which up -to that time were unknown to them, and probably introduced -from China. If it is an undoubted fact that the Chinese and -Japanese belong to the Yellow Race, the link which unites -them is quite as remote as that which exists between a Frenchman -and a German on the one hand, or an Arab and a Kabyle -on the other. A superficial analogy between the Chinese and -the Japanese must not mislead us. The very sparse indigenous -race which the Korean immigrants found upon the south and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_85'>85</span>south-west of Japan were of the same family as the Ainos of -our time, of whom some 15,000 still linger in Yezo, the great -southern island of the Archipelago; and, moreover, they belonged -to the same race as the Ghilaks of the Amur, and the -tribes to the north-east of Siberia. These Ainos, who exist -by hunting and fishing, are considered to be the hairiest people -on earth; they are mere savages, quite as dirty in their habits -as the Japanese are clean. They had in all probability little -or nothing to do with the formation of the actual population.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The civilization of the ancient Japanese until the fifth or -sixth century of our era was, it seems, most primitive. Writing -was unknown, and the people were but just emancipated from -the Stone Age, their knowledge of the use of metal being very -limited. They owned a few domestic animals, the horse and -the dog, and also poultry. They cultivated rice, millet, barley, -two sorts of peas, and in addition to these cereals the sea and -the rivers supplied them with fish, and the forests with flesh. -They apparently ate more meat than do their descendants of -the present day, a fact due, of course, to the introduction of -Buddhism, whose followers are, or should be, vegetarians. As -to their houses, they were of wood and extremely simple.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The Shinto religion, which has become once more the State -religion, has a mythology formed out of legends dealing with -the generation of the gods who preceded the advent of the -Imperial family. Out of the eight hundred myriads of divinities -only some half-dozen are now venerated. Among these is -Amaterasu, Goddess of the Sun, and ancestress of Jimmu-Tenno. -The spirits of the deceased Mikados and of certain heroes are -known as <em>Kami</em>, ‘superior beings,’ and are honoured by this -title, as are also the ancestors of each family. Beyond this -Shintoism recognises neither dogma nor ethics. A writer of -the last century thus apologizes for this easy-going creed. ‘It -was,’ says he, ‘invented by the Chinese, because they are a very -immoral people; but in Japan morality is not needed, since the -Japanese have only to act according to the dictates of their -hearts to do well. To obey the Emperor, who is the descendant -of the gods, and almost a god himself, and follow one’s natural -inclinations, are the only precepts imposed upon its followers -by Shintoism, and a pilgrimage to the nearest temple once a -year the only kind of divine service exacted. There are no -public ceremonies, excepting an occasional hieratic dance performed -by young girls. In the wooden temples roofed with -<span class='pageno' id='Page_86'>86</span>bark, which are supposed to reproduce the habitations of the -primitive Japanese, there are no ornaments, no sculpture, and -no representations whatever of the Divinity. The priests, who -wear no distinctive costume, and who lead the lives of ordinary -citizens, occasionally don a rich garment with long flowing -sleeves, go to the various temples and perform certain very -simple rites in the presence of a mystic mirror to be found in -every temple, a facsimile of one given by the Goddess of the -Sun to her grandson Jimmu-Tenno, as an emblem of purity. -A white horse will also sometimes be seen within the precincts -of the temples. The only sacrifice is the offering of fruits, fish, -wine, and rice, accompanied by the recitation of certain prayers -in the ancient Japanese language; this is, it must be confessed, -an exceedingly primitive cultus, but it was the only one known -in Japan until the sixth century, at which epoch began the great -development of Chinese civilization in Japan, originally introduced, -however, by the invasion of Korea by the Japanese -armies at the commencement of the third century. The Korean -envoys who brought the annual tribute to their Japanese -conquerors eventually became the pioneers of civilization -among the more primitive race which had overcome them. -They brought into the country, for instance, in the year 284 -the art of writing. Possibly this date is erroneous and ought -to be 400, the period when, according to a very ancient tradition, -the first mention of medicine is made in the national history, on -the occasion of the grave illness of the then reigning Mikado, -who was cured by a Korean physician. Then followed the -silkworm, and the mulberry-tree, the arts of spinning and -weaving. Finally, in 552 the first image of Buddha appeared, -and eventually led to the introduction of the religion of Sakyamuni.</p> - -<p class='c008'>From this period until the beginning of the seventh century -there was a perfect invasion of the arts, customs, and opinions, -religious, social, and political, of the neighbouring continent. -Then was for the first time displayed that ardour which is so -peculiar to the Japanese, and, if I might so say, also of that rage -for civilization—true, it was then only Chinese civilization—which -characterizes them at the present day.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Buddhism triumphed without formidable opposition, and at -the beginning of the seventh century there were not less than -forty-six temples and 1,385 priests or Buddhist monks in -Japan. The Chinese calendar was adopted, the language, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_87'>87</span>writing and literature of China were studied with enthusiasm. -Ambassadors and special missions were sent to the continent -to examine on the spot the religion, the arts, the industries -and also the government of the Chinese and their political and -judicial system. Thus it so came to pass that feudalism was -introduced centuries before it was imposed upon Europe after -the fall of the Roman Empire. At the death of the Empress -Suiko in 628, under whose reign all these reforms took place, -Japan was completely remodelled after the image and likeness -of China. The remarkable feature about this transformation -is its resemblance to the revolution now in progress. It was -effected without the least opposition or violence. The methods -used then were the same as those which are being employed -to-day: the sending forth of missions and the employment -of foreigners by the Government to study and introduce -everything that was likely to improve the country and its -people. Above all, there existed a universal goodwill and -eagerness to stimulate the advance movement. Japan, therefore, -by her wonderful powers of assimilation, was suddenly -converted from a barbarian to a civilized country. Nevertheless, -however deep-rooted was the influence of China, it -did not interfere with the architecture and the art of the -Japanese, which remained distinct. The good sense of this -able people taught them to distinguish between the different -elements in the civilization which they were introducing, to -reject those which did not suit them, and to transform others -which were better fitted to their inclination. A reaction, -however, set in between the eighth and the eleventh centuries -which enabled the Japanese to recover sufficient of their -identity and yet retain most of the innovations in their -industries, agriculture, and fine arts, in the culture of which latter -they eventually surpassed their masters. The new religion -suited them admirably, and it remains to this day much less -corrupt in Japan than it is among the Chinese themselves. -The official and administrative system introduced from China, -being opposed to the natural bent of the Japanese mind, was, -however, soon rejected, and they returned to their own, which -suited them better.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The mandarinate was never acclimatized, and the principle -of heredity always remained in force. The divers degrees of -dignity, at first twelve in number and then nineteen, were -never given, as in China, to individuals, but to families as -<span class='pageno' id='Page_88'>88</span>hereditary titles. The position, for instance, of Prime Minister, -or <em>Kwambaku</em>, became hereditary in a great family of the -Court, that of the Fujiwaras, from which, moreover, according -to tradition, the Empress was invariably selected. Then began -to manifest itself that very peculiar trait in the history of Japan -of real authority very rarely being vested in the hand of the -man supposed to exercise it. The Mikado, who, from the -ninth century onwards, was invariably a child, and abdicated -in youth to retire into a monastery, is supposed to reign and -yet never govern. This was the beginning of a system of -Imperial self-effacement which lasted over a thousand years. -Presently we discover that the hereditary <em>Kwambaku</em> also -exercises no authority, which is exactly the opposite of what -took place in Europe in the Middle Ages, where, if a Sovereign -retired into privacy, his Prime Minister was pretty certain to -become forthwith correspondingly prominent. In the Middle -Ages, at an epoch when Europe was engaged in fighting -and slaughtering, the Court of Kioto was a centre of art, -pleasure and poetry, in which, however, authority was completely -set aside.</p> - -<p class='c008'>In the meantime, feudalism established itself in the country. -Side by side with the effeminate aristocracy of the <em>kuges</em>, -certain nobles descended from collateral branches of the -Imperial family, and who in their time had occupied great -official positions, both in the provinces and in the capital, leaving -subalterns to fulfil their duties, now formed themselves into -a military and territorial aristocracy, and, whilst profound peace -reigned in the greater part of the country, carried on a war -against the Koreans in its south-eastern limits, and against the -Ainos, who had been driven back to the north of Hondo, -in the north-east. The custom imported from China by the -Japanese of separating the civil from the military functionaries, -combined with a genius for heredity, led in the course of time -to the creation of many great military families, under whose -authority or lead clans of soldiers grouped and gradually -separated themselves from the rest of the population. The -chiefs of these clans in due time became, especially in the tenth -century, in the north and eastern provinces, independent, so -that by degrees their influence during the two succeeding -centuries in the Government was paramount, and the Court -of Kioto was the object of perpetual dissensions between two -great military families, the Taira, and the Minamoto, both -<span class='pageno' id='Page_89'>89</span>descendants of Emperors of the eighth and ninth centuries. -They had each a claimant to the Imperial throne, who was -invariably an infant. A Taira, Kiyomori, governed Japan from -1156 to 1181 in the position of Prime Minister. He ordered -the Minamoto family to be massacred; one or two of its -members, however, escaped, among them Yoritomo, the son of -the chief. In due course of time this Yoritomo created a -revolution in Kwanto in his own favour. Upon learning of the -death of Kiyomori he straightway marched upon Kioto in -company with his bastard brother, Yoshitsune, who had escaped -from a monastery to which he had been relegated. Between -them they seized the capital and proclaimed a child of -seven years of age Emperor in the place of the Mikado -Antoku, who was not much older, and who was carried off by -the Taira to the island of Kiu-Siu. The great naval battle of -Dan-no-ura, won by Yoshitsune in 1185 at the mouth of the -Inland Sea, completed the ruin of the Taira, who, together -with their Emperor, were nearly all slain in the disaster to their -fleet, which made Yoritomo master of Japan.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Yoritomo behaved with the utmost ingratitude to his brother -Yoshitsune, who had so largely contributed to his success. -He ordered him never to appear again at Court, and sent a -group of assassins to pursue him to the farther end of the -island. His life was frequently saved, thanks to the shrewdness -of the giant monk Benkei and the devotion of the dancing-girl -Shidzuka. The adventures of the brave Yoshitsune and -his death by suicide has supplied Japanese literature with a -number of interesting and picturesque legends not unlike those -which delighted our ancestors in the Middle Ages.</p> - -<p class='c008'>After these events, the feudal system was firmly established -in Japan for over seven centuries, and we hear no more of -Chinese methods of administration. This is mainly due to the -warlike character of the Japanese people and to the increasing -power of the feudal chiefs, who had naturally, in order to -maintain their reputation, to keep the country in a perpetual -ferment of political or civil war. The striking difference -between the feudal system in Japan and that which existed -contemporaneously in Europe is that the Japanese ruler was -never the Sovereign. He was called the Shogun, or Sei-i-tai-Shogun, -literally, ‘General charged with the duty of subjugating -the barbarians.’ This title was first bestowed upon -Yoritomo in 1192. It was the Shogun’s duty to govern. In -<span class='pageno' id='Page_90'>90</span>theory he was responsible to the Emperor, whose humble -servant he was supposed to be. As a matter of fact, the -Mikado had long since ceased to interfere in the government, -and lived in the palace of Gosho at Kioto in the midst of -luxury, his generals and ministers paying him no other respect -than that of mere ceremony.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The new power of the Shogunate instituted by Yoritomo -was not long before it also became attenuated. In 1198, immediately -after the death of its founder, his father-in-law, Hojo -Tokimasa, seized the reins of government, and in 1219 the -posterity of Yoritomo was already extinct. The supreme -authority was by this time definitely vested in the family of -the Hojo, whose chief took the title of Shikken, or Regent, -and chose and dethroned the Shoguns, usually children, at his -pleasure, selecting them either from the Imperial family or from -that of the Fujiwaras. The period during which this curious -regime lasted is perhaps the most brilliant and the most prosperous -in the history of Japan in the Middle Ages; but -eventually Japan fell into a sort of feudal anarchy, bearing a -close affinity to that which existed in Germany at the same -epoch. The power of the Hojos was finally broken in 1334, -thanks to the combined action of the feudal lords, aided by a -Mikado named Go-Daigo, who happened for once to be possessed -of some energy. The executive, however, did not -remain long in the hands of this Emperor. His chief lieutenant, -Ashikago Takauji, rose up against him, obliged him to -flee from his capital, and replaced him by another member of -the Imperial family, at the same time electing himself Shogun. -From 1337 to 1392 Japan had two rival dynasties of Mikados. -Notwithstanding these disturbances, the Court of the Shoguns -Ashikagas was very often extremely brilliant, both from the -literary and the artistic point of view. During the fifteenth -century civil wars raged again, and the authority of both -Mikado and Shogun consequently dwindled into insignificance. -In the provinces the warriors, known as <em>samourai</em>, gradually -became hereditary, recognising no authority but that of their -feudal lords, the daimios. The country became poor, the -population rapidly dwindled, and all the arts except that of -the armourer tended to disappear. The opening years of the -sixteenth century beheld Japan in a pitiable plight indeed, the -population decimated by terrible epidemics and earthquakes, -as well as civil wars, and such was her condition that she might -<span class='pageno' id='Page_91'>91</span>have been compared to France after the Hundred Years’, or -Germany after the Thirty Years’, War. When St. Francis -Xavier visited the country in 1550 he was appalled by its -misery. It was a far cry then from the Japan of his days to -the Cipango, the golden land of promise so greatly vaunted by -Marco Polo three centuries earlier. The feudal system in -Japan, however, had been of great use in forming the character -of the people; it preserved in them those virile qualities so -conspicuously absent among the Chinese.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The close of the sixteenth century witnessed the decline and -fall of feudalism throughout the Empire, which led to the re-establishment -of centralization. This was due to the energy of -three great military chiefs, Nobunaga, Ieyas, and Hideyoshi, -the first of whom was descended from the Taira and the second -from the Minamoto, and therefore both were essentially aristocratic. -The third, however, was about the only personage in -medieval Japan who ever rose from the ranks to occupy a -towering position in the State. Ota Nobunaga, after having -considerably aggrandized the very small principality which he -had inherited from his father, interfered in the quarrels of a -succession of Shoguns, and deposing in 1573 the last Ashikaga, -seized the Government as Prime Minister, and compelled the -daimios to obey him. He curbed the encroachments of the -Buddhist monks, who had accumulated during the long period -of the civil wars immense landed estates; but at last, hemmed -in by his many enemies, this remarkable man ended his career -by disembowelling himself, an unpleasant but evidently popular -method of committing suicide with the Japanese.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Hideyoshi, who from groom had become principal lieutenant -to Nobunaga, extinguished all further spirit of resistance on the -part of the feudal barons. Once Japan was united, he wished -to establish its power beyond the limits of the Empire, and for -this purpose sent an expedition into Korea, which, however, -only resulted in ruining that country, thanks to the quarrels -and dissensions which took place between the Japanese -generals, some of whom were Christians and others Buddhists.</p> - -<p class='c008'>At the death of Hideyoshi in 1598, the power of the daimios, -even that of the great princes of the south-west, Choshiu and -Satsuma, was already much attenuated, and everything was -ready for a change similar to that which took place in France -under Louis XI. It led to the quasi-independence of the lords -being suppressed in favour of a feudality of a purely domestic -<span class='pageno' id='Page_92'>92</span>character. The principal factor in this change was Tokugawa -Ieyas, who had been one of the chief generals of Nobunaga -and Hideyoshi. Placed by this last at the head of the council -of the regency, which had to exercise power during the -minority of his son Hideyori, Ieyas was not long before he -quarrelled with his co-regents. Assuming the command of an -army, recruited in the north and the east of the Empire, he -in 1600 defeated at Sekigahara the united forces of the clans -of the south and the west, and thus made himself master of -Japan. Instead of a purely ephemeral sovereignty, he founded -a dynasty and a régime which lasted for 250 years, as the result -of his ability and that of his son and grandson. Before proceeding -further in detailing the political and social organization -of this interesting country, it will be well to pause and consider -an event of supreme importance which took place in the sixteenth -century, and the effect of which explains much that is -now happening. I refer to the period of the great Portuguese -colonization, when that now small kingdom had annexed vast -possessions in the Indies, and had added new ones in Cochin -China and in the south of China to her Empire.</p> - -<p class='c008'>In 1542, three Portuguese, who had taken passage on board -a Chinese junk, were wrecked upon the southern coast of -Japan. Among the other passengers happened to be a Chinaman, -who volunteered as interpreter. He seems, however, to -have entertained for foreigners the same contempt as that in -which they are held by his compatriots in this year of grace -1900. He described the Portuguese to the Japanese as people -who were very little better than savages, who did not know how -to write Chinese, and as being, moreover, profoundly ignorant -of the art of eating their food with chopsticks. We may -conclude, therefore, that these worthy Portuguese did not -produce a very favourable impression. In 1545, the navigator -Fernan Mendez Pinto arrived at the little island of Tanegashima, -to the south of Kiu-Siu, and was well received by the -feudal lord of that district. The powerful Prince of Bungo, -father-in-law to the Lord of Tanegashima, having heard of the -strangers, invited them to his capital in the north-east of Kiu-Siu, -and entertained them very handsomely. Pinto was so -favourably impressed by all he saw that two years later he -returned to the same spot, carrying off with him two Japanese -fugitives from justice. They had the fortune of being converted -to Christianity by St. Francis Xavier, and served him as interpreters -<span class='pageno' id='Page_93'>93</span>when the renowned Jesuit missionary landed on -August 15, 1549, at Kagoshima, the capital of the Prince of -Satsuma. The earliest converts were a few relatives of the interpreters. -The Prince received the saint very favourably, and -the Princess insisted upon him composing for her benefit a -summary of the Articles of the Christian Faith, together with -the translation of the principal prayers. St. Francis immediately -edited a Japanese version of the Catechism and a translation of -the Credo. Unfortunately, in the course of time the Prince of -Satsuma was much offended by certain Portuguese sailors, who, -probably on account of the obstacles they encountered in the -attempt, refused to land in his dominions, and betook themselves -and their merchandise further on to those of his -rivals. Greatly annoyed at their behaviour, the prince now -ordered the missionaries to quit his dominions. St. Francis -obeyed and proceeded to the capital of the Prince of Bungo, who -was highly delighted to see him, and assisted him in a number -of ways to found churches and missions, so that when the great -missionary left Japan in 1551, Christianity was fairly established -in the country. Presently Japan was inundated with Portuguese -missionaries, sailors, and merchants. The Japanese, -with an eye as much to business as to social improvement, -encouraged this influx of strangers in the hope of its leading -to a profitable commerce being established between -the two countries. The Jesuits, too, whose influence the -Japanese quickly recognised, were treated with the utmost -cordiality and respect. So great was the Japanese power of -assimilation, that Mendez Pinto tells us that, having made a -present of an arquebus to the Prince of Tanegashima, that -potentate caused it to be imitated, and very soon afterwards -the navigator was shown six weapons exactly like his own. A -few months later there were 30,000 distributed in the province -of Bungo, and 300,000 throughout the country. These figures -may be taken with a grain of salt; nevertheless, there must have -been a very firm foundation for the story. In 1582, forty years -after the arrival of the Portuguese, artillery played a great -part in the Battle of Shigutake, one of Hideyoshi’s greatest -victories.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Whether material or spiritual motives were at the bottom of -the rapid progress made by Christianity at this period it would -be difficult to say. Princes, literary men, priests, even Buddhists, -rich and poor alike, presented themselves in hundreds to -<span class='pageno' id='Page_94'>94</span>receive baptism, and even Nobunaga, if he did not actually -profess the new religion, at any rate favoured its propaganda. -At the time of his death in 1582 there were fully 600,000 converts -in the centre and the south of Japan; half the daimios -in the island of Kiu-Siu had embraced Christianity, together -with the greater part of their subjects; the Prince of Tosa, in -the island of Sikokou, and many daimios in the centre and -west of the great island had also been baptized. There were -not less than 200 churches, some of which were even situated -in the capital of the Empire. In Nagasaki, which in 1567 had -become the centre of foreign commerce, there was scarcely a -pagan left. In 1582 an embassy, sent to Rome by the Princes -of Bungo, Arima and Omura, was solemnly received by Pope -Sixtus V. It afterwards proceeded on a tour through Portugal, -Spain, and Italy. Although Hideyoshi apparently did not -display the same enthusiasm for Christianity as did his neighbours, -nevertheless, their number continued to increase; and -during the last ten years of the sixteenth century it is believed -there were over a million converts to the Roman Church out -of a population of between eight or ten millions, a marvellous -record for fifty years’ missionary labour. Unfortunately, it was -not to last long, although, to be sure, the brief epoch of its -success was marked by a material progress quite as astonishing -as the spiritual, for, with the religion of the Europeans, the -Japanese had adopted a great many of their arts and industries. -Tobacco, for instance, began to be cultivated, and boats built -on European models transported Japanese trade as far afield -as the Gulf of Mexico. Strangers could travel from one end -of the country to the other without fear of being molested by -the natives, and St. Francis Xavier had every reason to say -that the ‘Japanese nation was the delight of his heart.’ Presently -Hideyoshi became alarmed lest the system of government -which he had formulated might eventually be overthrown -through the missionaries and by possible religious wars occasioned -by so abrupt a change in the opinions and ethics of an -entire nation. He feared lest the admission into the country -of so many merchants and missionaries might not be the -prelude to another invasion of a hostile character, resulting in -the conquest and annexation of Japan to some European -power or other. It is even said that a Portuguese captain was -sufficiently imprudent to inform Hideyoshi that the King, his -master, had the intention of sending priests into the dominions -<span class='pageno' id='Page_95'>95</span>of the Mikado with the object of ultimately landing troops, -who, aided by the native Christians, should effect his overthrow. -Whether these words were ever spoken or not is uncertain, but -they were undoubtedly the expression of the thoughts of contemporary -European Sovereigns, a fact which the Japanese -soon learnt when they came to be a little better acquainted -with the proceedings of the Portuguese in India. In a word, -the suspicions of the Japanese rulers were awakened, and even -the brilliant services rendered by the Christian General Konishi -could not efface them, and the impression was further increased -by the rivalry which existed between the Jesuits and the Franciscans, -and also between the Portuguese, the Spaniards, the -English and the Dutch, who were perpetually accusing each -other of most malevolent designs. In 1587 Hideyoshi issued an -edict ordering all missionaries to leave Japan within twenty-four -days, which, however, remained a dead-letter until 1597, when -it was put into force—in consequence of the imprudence of the -Spanish Franciscans, who began preaching in the open air, and -even in the streets of Kioto, which resulted in a riot and in seventeen -native Christians being put to death at Nagasaki. Ieyas -continued the persecution throughout 1614, as did his son and -grandson, who, between them, contrived to extirpate Christianity -in every part of the Empire before 1638. For years the inhabitants -of Nagasaki were condemned to trample upon the Crucifix -in the presence of the authorities, and even as late as 1868 -placards were still to be seen stuck up in the streets offering -rewards for the denunciation of members of the ‘forbidden, -lying, and corrupt sect.’</p> - -<p class='c008'>The immediate result of this persecution, which was extremely -severe, was the exclusion from Japan of all outside -influence, for the foreigner and Christianity had become in the -eyes of the Government a moral, social, as well as political -dissolvent. The evil conduct of the European sailors, who, -even according to the statement of the missionaries themselves, -had carried off women and children in great numbers, to sell -into slavery at Manila or Macao, and their dissolute behaviour -generally, cast opprobrium upon the religion which they professed, -and thus it came to pass that the Japanese accused the -Christians of not practising the ethics they taught, but, on the -contrary, of giving a bad example by their disrespect to parents, -superiors, and to all in authority.</p> - -<p class='c008'>In 1609 and 1611 Ieyas granted the Dutch the right of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_96'>96</span>trading all over the island, but his son, Hidetada, being -suspicious of their good intentions, closed all harbours to -them, excepting those of Hirado and Nagasaki in the island of -Kiu-Siu, and, furthermore, prohibited the Japanese from -leaving their country under any pretext. From 1637 the -Dutch and the Chinese alone were authorized to trade in -Japanese waters, and then only through the port of Nagasaki. -Confined within the narrow limits of the island of Deshima, -condemned to submit to the most abject humiliations, and -never allowed to go ashore excepting once a year on a special -mission to Yedo, when they conveyed presents to the Shogun, -before whom they had to crawl upon their hands and knees, -the agents of the Dutch East India Company entertained with -Japan commercial relations of the scantiest kind. With this -sole exception, Japan, which had acted in so liberal a manner -towards foreigners, became in a short time a sealed book to -the outer world.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_97'>97</span> - <h3 class='c001'>CHAPTER II<br /> <span class='large'>JAPAN AND THE REVOLUTION OF 1868</span></h3> -</div> -<p class='c014'>Progress demoralized in Japan under the Shoguns Tokugawa—Imperial -Court, Mikado and <em>kuges</em>, feudal society, Shogun, Daimios, <em>samourai</em>, -and people—Foundation of the political régime—Military preponderance -of the Shogun—Seclusion of the Mikado—Divisions among the -Daimios—Exclusion of strangers—Artistic development and economy—Progress -of civilization—Decline of the Shogunate—Position of -Japan in the middle of the nineteenth century—Foreigners begin to -re-enter the country in 1854—Scandal created by the opening of the -ports—The Court and the clans in the south-west provinces hostile -both to Western civilization and the Shoguns—Fall of the Shogunate—Restoration -of the Mikado and introduction of European civilization.</p> - -<p class='c007'>We have already seen that the Emperor, or Mikado, was -deprived of all authority, and retained only the outward -attributes of his Imperial dignity. He dwelt in his palace of -Gosho surrounded by 155 <em>kuges</em>, or noble families, all of whom -were descended from the Imperial house, but whose duties -were merely ceremonial. In order to prevent any possibility -on their part of the <em>kuges</em> interfering with him, Ieyas reduced -the Court to absolute poverty. He fixed the civil list of the -Mikado—according to custom, in kind—at 9,000 <em>kokus</em>,<a id='r15' /><a href='#f15' class='c006'><sup>[15]</sup></a> or -44,550 bushels of rice; as to the <em>kuges</em>, many of them lived in -the most straightened circumstances. To still more completely -isolate the Mikado the feudal princes were never on any -pretext allowed to enter Kioto.</p> - -<p class='c008'>These princes, or daimios, who were the leaders of the -military order, of whom the Shogun was the chief, were divided -into five classes, according to their precedence and importance: -firstly, the three great Gosanké families, who reigned over the -provinces of Owari, Kii and Mito, and were descended from -<span class='pageno' id='Page_98'>98</span>the three elder sons of Ieyas: they enjoyed the privilege of -electing from amongst their number the Shogun in case of the -failure of direct heirs; secondly, the sixteen <em>kokushu</em> daimios, -whose ancestors possessed their fiefdoms before the elevation -of Ieyas, which he had considerably reduced as a punishment -for their having taken up arms against him, and whose revenues -ranged between 750,000 and 5,000,000 bushels; thirdly, the -nineteen <em>kammong</em> daimios, who were the immediate relatives -or vassals of the Tokugawas, and descendants of Ieyas’ -favourite generals, among whom he distributed the fiefdoms he -had confiscated from his enemies: they were eventually the -chief supporters of the Shogunate, being, however, not so rich -as the above, possessing only between 50,000 and 1,600,000 -bushels of revenue; fourthly, the 88 <em>tozamma</em> daimios; and -fifthly, the 110 <em>foudai</em> daimios, who were not infrequently -cadets of one of the two preceding classes. They possessed -an income of at least 50,000 bushels, but rarely more, and -their estates were proportionally small. Nevertheless, there -were eight <em>tozammas</em> and sixteen <em>foudais</em> who enjoyed between -them a revenue of 500,000 bushels, and, who, when united, -were sufficiently powerful to be very troublesome.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Next came the <em>samourai</em>, forming about a twentieth of the -entire population of the Empire. They were a distinct military -class under the daimios, and were distinguished by wearing, -even in infancy, the two swords Ieyas called the ‘living soul -of the <em>samourai</em>.’ Excepting in one or two principalities at -the extreme south, notably at Satsuma, they were never agriculturists, -but, despising all manual labour, lived on salaries paid -by their chief. Exceedingly brave and punctilious in all points -of honour, they were addicted to vendetta, and added to their -other peculiarities the ferocious custom of <em>hara-kiri</em>, which -obliged them on the least insult to disembowel themselves -with a small sword, an unpleasant rite into which they were -initiated when still very young. They were ever ready to shed -their blood for their prince and fanatically attached to their -clan. It was from them that the troops, as well as all the -minor officials in the various principalities, were recruited. -The <em>samourai</em> were not only military, but literary, and corresponded -to our professional classes, and their opinions only -had the slightest influence on the affairs of the country. -When a <em>samourai</em>, for some reason or other, found himself -without a master, either because he had been expelled from -<span class='pageno' id='Page_99'>99</span>his service or his lord had been deprived by the Shogun of -his titles and estates, he sometimes turned <em>ronin</em>, or knight-errant, -more often than not a brigand, and occasionally a -redresser of wrongs, but as a rule a fellow capable of the worst -sort of crime as well as of the most heroic acts of chivalry. -In times of trouble these <em>ronin</em> were wont to form themselves -into bands and offer their services to a popular prince, and -when accepted, their opinion and influence sometimes became -of considerable weight.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Nineteen-twentieths of the population consisted of the <em>heimin</em>, -or commoners. Of this class the peasantry was by far the -most numerous and esteemed. Next came the artisans, then -the merchants, for be it remembered that feudal Japan, like -feudal Europe, held trade and tradesmen in supreme contempt. -Finally the two classes of pariahs, the <em>eta</em>, or ‘dirty people,’ -who followed the profession of leather-dressers, tanners, curriers, -knackers, grave-diggers, etc., then the <em>hinin</em> (not men), and the -beggars.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Only on certain rare occasions, when a daimio wished to -increase the number of his men-at-arms, and recruited some of -his <em>samourai</em> from the <em>heimin</em>, or, again, when a <em>ronin</em>, tired of -vagabondage, embraced some trade or other and contrived to -lose himself among the people, were the barriers between class -and class ever broken down, and thus society in Japan remained -strictly confined within its narrow boundaries for over two -centuries. Notwithstanding these restrictions, the country -enjoyed during this period a profound peace and great prosperity. -Both Ieyas and Iemitsu understood to perfection how -to apply the maxim, ‘Divide in order to reign,’ whereby they -broke up the influence of the daimios, which, when united, -might have proved formidable. This they contrived to do by -isolating them from the Imperial Court, and creating between -them divergences of interest, and by fermenting among them -a spirit of hatred and jealousy. Ieyas had not dared dispossess -all his adversaries after his victory, but he confiscated a part at -least of their domains, out of which he created a number of -fiefs, which he distributed among his allies and soldiers. The -descendants of these, the <em>kammong</em> and <em>foudai</em> princes, being -ever at war with the <em>kokushu</em> and the <em>tozamma</em>, obtained protection -from the Shoguns by establishing a common bond of -interest, being fully aware that the downfall of the Tokugawas -would be sure to involve their own.</p> - -<p class='c008'><span class='pageno' id='Page_100'>100</span>A danger undoubtedly presented itself to the south-east -of the Empire, for here the domains of the <em>kokushu</em> princes -of Choshiu, Satsuma and Hizen and others nearly as powerful -formed a continuous line of territory, and consequently a storm -rising in that quarter might have been fatal to the Shogunate; -but so long as these great vassals received no support from -a foreign power, the military preponderance of the Shogun -was safe. This state of affairs eventually gave rise to a -rigorous exclusion of foreigners. Divided among themselves, -isolated from all external influences, deprived of all communication -with the Court, the daimios in due time lost a great deal -of influence in their own principalities. By virtue of the -Sankin law, promulgated in 1635 by Iemitsu, and solemnly -ratified by the Mikado, they were compelled to sojourn at least -one year out of two at Yedo, and to leave their women and -children during the following year in that capital as hostages. -In this manner their initiative was enfeebled, and as they were -obliged in great part to leave the administration of their own -affairs in the hands of subordinates, they soon became mere -idlers, under the constant supervision of a swarm of spies, who -reported to the Shogun any attempt on their part to resist his -authority, or to conspire against him. Notwithstanding its -many drawbacks, this administrative system, although it unquestionably -weakened the political character of the Japanese, -was in the long-run, by securing a prolonged peace, exceedingly -beneficial to the country, especially as regards the development -of art and literature, and it is from the period of the Tokugawas -that dates all that is finest in Japanese architecture, painting, -sculpture, lacquering, including the temples of Nikko and the -noblest specimens of Satsuma faience. In the meantime civilization -had made rapid progress, and the intellectual influence of -China upon Japan was paramount. The Chinese classics, -formerly neglected by the Japanese, were now, thanks to the -initiative of Ieyas, studied with ardour both at the Court of -his successors and at that of the Mikado, and were even publicly -taught in the ever-increasing number of schools. And thus it -came to pass that when the Europeans returned in 1854 they -found Japan more completely under the influence of Chinese art -and literature than had their ancestors in the sixteenth century.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The causes which brought about the revolution of 1868, -which resulted in the suppression of the Shogunate and of -feudalism, and in the rapid introduction of European civilization, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_101'>101</span>were quite as important and as deeply rooted in the hearts -of the people of Japan as were those which led to the French -Revolution in 1789, which, it will be remembered, had been -brewing for a very long time before its eventual outbreak. -Politically, the decadence of the Shogunate commenced in -1652, after the death of Iemitsu, and especially at the beginning -of the eighteenth century, when the Tokugawas began gradually -to decline, precisely as had done the various dynasties that had -preceded them. Surrounded by a brilliant court and enlightened -patrons both of arts and letters, the Shoguns disdained -occupying themselves with public affairs, which they -left in the hands of the Gorogio, a council composed of five -<em>foudai</em> daimios and their subordinates. This substitution of a -rather effete bureaucracy for the old but energetic feudal -system soon inspired the great vassals with a hope of being able -to overthrow their former masters. They perceived that it was -easy to pick a hole in the Shogunate from the doctrinal point -of view, even in the name of those very Confucian theories -upon which they had the pretension to base their supremacy. -As a matter of fact, although the system of paternal government -extolled by the illustrious Chinese philosopher is by no means -opposed to feudalism, when closely examined into, it shows -that there was no place in it for the Shogunate, since it does -not admit of any intermediary between the father and his -children.</p> - -<p class='c008'>At the same time, in the eighteenth century a whole college -of literary men and a distinct school of literature rose, -whose principal object was the study of the ancient texts, to -collate, publish, and interpret them, whereby certain political -and religious conclusions were arrived at, tending to prove -that the only legitimate power in Japan was the autocracy of -the Mikado, the descendant of the gods, and the only true -religion Shintoism, and that patriotism, moreover, demanded -the restoration of the ancient political and social organization -which had existed in the Empire long before the introduction -of Buddhism, feudalism, and of Chinese ideas in general. If -these theories did not interest the people, they certainly, and -very effectively, created a breach between the literary classes -and the <em>samourai</em>, on the one hand, and the Shogunate and -its supporters, who by this time had become not only unpopular -with the productive classes of the nation, but were -even looked upon in the light of a tax, against which the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_102'>102</span>people very naturally rebelled, failing to see why they should -be called upon to support an idle and otherwise useless caste.</p> - -<p class='c008'>In 1700 the Government, financially embarrassed, was compelled -to diminish the number of charges imposed upon it by -the feudal system, and to increase taxation, whereupon the -merchants deemed it prudent to conceal the exact amount of -their fortunes, and the peasants, who paid their lords a third -or a half of their harvests, were not infrequently ransomed by -the <em>ronin</em>. Under these circumstances the feudal system could -no longer endure, since it was now brought into contact with a -society richer and better organized than itself, and thus it -became impossible for the Japanese Government to prevent -the penetration into the Empire of European ideas, which -filtered through the one port, Nagasaki, left partially open for -the benefit of the Dutch. From the eighteenth century onwards -certain young <em>samourai</em> were always to be found at this -port endeavouring to place themselves in contact with the -Dutch. The Shogun Tzunayoshi (1650–1709) pretended not -to notice what was happening, although his Government was -ostentatiously endeavouring to repress any kind of intercommunication -between the natives and foreigners.</p> - -<p class='c008'>It appears that medicine was the first science which excited -the interest of the youthful Japanese students. They at first -managed to obtain from the Dutch some books, containing -anatomical plates, which both interested and surprised them -on account of the great difference which existed between the -figures represented in these works and the fantastic theories -invented by the Chinese doctors. At considerable risk, for the -laws on the subject were extremely severe, they secretly experimented -upon a corpse, in order to compare the results -with the anatomical sketches they had obtained from Europe. -This led to their procuring a Dutch treatise on anatomy, which, -with great difficulty, they translated into Japanese, spending -sometimes as much as a whole day upon a single phrase. -Before the end of the eighteenth century several Dutch-Japanese -dictionaries were compiled, and a good many -European works were translated and published privately, and -read with all that ardour which fear of persecution ever engenders.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Before the commencement of the present century these -studies produced practical results, and the country was peppered -with furnaces and windmills built after Dutch models. It led, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_103'>103</span>also, to the introduction of several novel industries, which were -evidently inspired by some occult European influence. However -feeble these beginnings may have been, both European -and modern Japanese writers attach a great importance to this -early initiation of a certain number of able and learned men to -at least one of the languages, and to some of the sciences of -the West. It prepared the way for many ardent advocates of -European civilization to influence the Japanese to accept -European ideas. This was the impression conveyed to me at -Tokio by that very able gentleman Mr. Fukuzawa, the editor -of the most important newspaper published in Tokio, the <cite>Jiji -Shimpo</cite>, or ‘Times,’ who is also founder and director of one of -the largest free schools in Japan. He himself had studied -Dutch between 1840 and 1850, when quite a young man, and -showed me a book translated from the Dutch and published in -Tokio in 1770. ‘The days,’ said he, ‘of the old régime in -Japan were counted when in 1854 the Americans forced my -country to open her ports, and the Shogunate, which had -become exceedingly unpopular, undermined on all sides, -crumbled to the dust.’</p> - -<p class='c008'>The situation of Japan in the middle of the nineteenth -century was therefore not unlike that of France on the eve -of the Revolution; but, fortunately, above the honeycombed -Government, doomed to fall at the first serious outbreak of -popular displeasure, Japan possessed the Imperial dynasty, a -power universally respected, all the more so because it was -so completely exempt from interference in public affairs; -towards it every heart turned in the hour of trouble, and the -remarkable reforms were accepted in its name as proceeding -from a Sovereign who ruled by Divine right. In 1853 -an event occurred which more than any other tended to the -overthrow of the Shogunate. An American squadron, consisting -of four men-of-war, under the command of Commodore -Perry, appeared in the Bay of Yedo with the object of presenting -a letter from the President of the United States to the -Shogun demanding the conclusion of a treaty of commerce and -the opening of the ports. It was in vain that the Bakufu (the -Government of Yedo) tried to induce the Commodore to -proceed to Nagasaki and to employ the mediation of the -Dutch and Chinese. Perry replied that he would only accord -a few months for the delivery of the answer he demanded, and -promised to return and fetch it in the following year. The -<span class='pageno' id='Page_104'>104</span>Government of Yedo was taken by surprise, and feeling that -it was impossible to resist the importunate and imperative -strangers, and alarmed at the grave consequences which might -result from the opening out of the country, addressed a circular -to the daimios detailing the facts and asking their advice. Some -of them suggested the opening of only one or two ports for a -limited time, say three or four years, as an experiment, but the -greater number—Prince Mito, chief of the house of Tokugawa, -at their head—were of a contrary opinion, and counselled that -no concession should be granted, and that the country should -forthwith arm itself and prepare for resistance. Nevertheless, -when Perry returned some time afterwards, a treaty was signed -permitting the opening of the two ports of Shimoda and -Hakodate, and, moreover, granting permission for the establishment -of an American consulate (1854). This official took -up his residence in 1857, just as France, England, and Russia -had frightened the Shogun by a naval display into granting -them like privileges, which were still further augmented by a -new convention promulgated in 1858.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The prolonged isolation in which the feudal lords of Japan -had hitherto lived had filled them with a horror of all things -foreign, so that the concessions made by the Shogun very -naturally produced an extraordinary fermentation among the -military classes, who considered all these privileges bestowed -upon the barbarians as so many outrages to the national dignity. -The Imperial Court was not less scandalized. When the -Mikado first heard of the arrival of so many Westerners on the -sacred soil of Japan, he ordered public prayers to be said at -Ise, the most holy temple in Japan, and presently a secret -understanding was arrived at between the Court of Kioto and -the clans in the south-west, who, although they were perfectly -sincere in their detestation of the strangers, nevertheless thought -this incident afforded an excellent chance for satisfying their -hereditary rancour against the Tokugawa and a possibility of -annihilating their power. When confronted by these dangers, -the Shogun endeavoured to shirk his responsibility, and turned -to the Mikado, asking him to confirm the treaties which he -had himself concluded. A statesman of great energy and of -progressive tendencies, Ii-Kammon-no-Kami, now determined -to intimidate the Mikado and obtain from him at any cost the -desired signature, which under such circumstances at another -period would have been a mere formality. But this able man -<span class='pageno' id='Page_105'>105</span>was assassinated in 1860 by the <em>ronin</em>, who, in accordance -with Japanese usage, presently published a patriotic declaration -justifying their crime. Needless to say, the Shogun, in -his vain attempt to reconcile both parties, fell to the ground, -like the man in the proverb who sought to seat himself between -two stools. The audacity of his adversaries increased, and the -Imperial Court and the daimios began to interfere without the -slightest hesitation in the affairs of State. In 1862, against -all precedent, the Prince of Satsuma, in going to Yedo, passed -by Kioto, and undertook to escort thither a <em>kuge</em>, who was -carrying Imperial despatches to the Shogun, and invited him -to appear before the Emperor. The Bakufu now found itself -so absolutely powerless that it was obliged to submit to all -demands, including destitutions and reintegrations of dignitaries, -together with the permission for the daimios to leave -Yedo with their families; and thus was the first step taken -towards the ultimate ruin of the time-honoured Shogunate.</p> - -<p class='c008'>For the first time in two hundred and thirty years a Shogun—a -minor—went up to Kioto in March, 1863, preceded by the -Regent. The Mikado left his palace, and, contrary to secular -etiquette, went in solemn state to the temple of the God of -War, where he bestowed the sword of honour upon the Shogun -as the ensign of supreme command with which he was to expel -the barbarians. The Shogun’s second visit to Kioto in 1864, -on the other hand, witnessed his complete abasement; for the -Court no longer accepted his decrees, and refused him any -further control over their finances. In a word, from being -master he had now become servant. Amongst those who immediately -surrounded the Emperor, there were still many who -revolted at the idea of his being allowed to occupy himself -with the government of the Empire, and their so doing gave -the rebel clans in the south-west time to reorganize themselves. -After a short attempt at revolt, they soon came to the -conclusion that further dissensions would only play into the -hands of their enemies, and from 1865 the majority of the -<em>samourai</em> had joined a general conspiracy which it was -hoped would result in the ruin of the already crumbling -Shogunate. Still, the cry of ‘Death to the barbarians!’ was -not so easily suppressed, and hatred of the foreigner remained -for some time yet extremely fierce among the masses. -The governing classes, however, who had been brought into -contact with Europe, began to see that it was useless resisting -<span class='pageno' id='Page_106'>106</span>its power, especially after Kagoshima, the capital of Satsuma, -was bombarded in 1863 by a British squadron as a punishment -for the murder of Mr. Richardson by the Prince’s escort. The -daimios and their councils no longer closed their eyes to the -existing condition of affairs, and recognising the uselessness -of resisting Powers which were armed with such formidable -engines of war, they changed their policy as by magic, -loaded the foreigners with honours, opened their ports to -them, and even made preparations to place the Japanese army -under the same régime as that of civilized nations. This -conduct was not wholly disinterested, for they were shrewd -enough to perceive the commercial advantages which might -ultimately accrue to them as a reward for their liberality. The -Court followed their example, and two years after having -issued an order to ‘sweep the strangers from the soil of Japan’ -as if they were so much dust, the Emperor ratified the treaties -of 1865 at the demand of the Shogun, who had come to Kioto -with 70,000 men to suppress the open revolt of the Prince of -Choshiu.</p> - -<p class='c008'>This struggle between the Tokugawa and a subordinate -vassal was their last and supreme effort to regain power. Unfortunately -for them, they were crushed in the attempt, and -their military prestige was for ever destroyed. The Regent -Hitotsubashi, who succeeded the young Shogun, who died on -September 19, entertained no illusions as to the gravity of his -position. He was by this time firmly convinced that it was -absolutely necessary radically to modify the constitution of the -country, and feeling certain that it would be useless any longer -to resist so powerful and popular a wave of progress, he determined -to associate himself with the new ideas, in the hope -thereby of preserving some measure of his family’s former -influence. He therefore entreated the Emperor to summon a -council of the principal daimios, who accordingly assembled at -Kioto in 1868, with the result that they one and all advised the -Emperor to allow the centralization of the Government to take -place at once, as being absolutely necessary to the welfare of -the country. The Prince of Tosa, one of the chiefs of the -south, addressed a letter to the Shogun, in which he informed -him of the results of the meeting, and that they had acknowledged -the supremacy of the Emperor. Hitotsubashi, seeing -that resistance was of no further avail, sent in his resignation, -which was accepted, with the condition, however, that he should -<span class='pageno' id='Page_107'>107</span>continue to direct public affairs until after the general assembly -of all the daimios. The southern clans, fearing that the Tokugawa -might still be able to recover their power, made a bold -move, and attempted to seize the person of the Mikado. On -January 3, 1868, the Imperial seal was stolen, and a decree -issued handing over the guardianship of the palace to the -<em>samourai</em> of Satsuma, Hizen and Tosa. On the following day -the Shogunate was formally abolished. Hitotsubashi retired to -Osaka with his army, where, trembling lest he might fall into -some trap skilfully prepared by his enemies, and refusing to -listen to any overtures, even the offer of a high position in the -new Government, he marched with his men on Kioto; but the -unfortunate Shogun was now treated as a mere rebel, and when -he beheld the troops of the hostile clans carrying the embroidered -standard of the Mikado, he realized that he was -betrayed by his own people, and fled by sea to Yedo, where he -surrendered unconditionally to Prince Arisugawa, commander -of the ‘Army of Punishment,’ The princes of his family were -the first to rally round the Emperor; others of his partisans -struggled for a brief time with an adverse fate, but were finally -overcome, and thus a revolution which began with the cry of -‘Down with the foreigners!’ and was provoked by the daimios -and the <em>samourai</em>, the representatives of feudalism, against the -authority of the Shogun, ended in the destruction of feudalism, -and in the definite introduction into Japan of Western civilization.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Soon afterwards, when the Imperial Court began to better -understand foreign manners and customs, the <em>kuges</em>, the more -intelligent among them, from being antagonistic became their -staunchest friends and supporters. Presently the mass of the -people, following the lead of their superiors, enthusiastically -accepted the new idea that Japan could no longer live isolated. -Their rulers had the distinct merit of understanding that in -order to become the equal of the Western nations, if only from -the simple point of view of material progress, it would not suffice -for Japan to borrow their cannons and their guns, or even their -military training, an experiment which had signally failed -with other Oriental Powers; but that if Western civilization -was to be of the least good to Japan, it was absolutely necessary -to accept it in all its branches, civil, industrial and commercial, -as well as military. The promoters of the movement, the -ministers and agents of the great lords, had no more interest in -<span class='pageno' id='Page_108'>108</span>maintaining feudalism than had, after the Revolution, the -inferior clergy and squires in the Government of France before -1789. The first step in the suppression of feudalism was the -abolition of the privileges of the <em>samourai</em>, who might, had -they been allowed to retain them, have become troublesome.</p> - -<p class='c008'>In 1876 the carrying of the two swords, their erstwhile distinguishing -insignia, was prohibited. The stipends which they -had previously received from their lords, and of which the State -had possessed itself, were capitalized, and the territorial revenues -of the daimios, which were at first compensated by annual -pensions, were transformed in the same manner. These -changes, which were undoubtedly beneficial to the bulk of the -population, nevertheless brought about a great deal of misery, -by throwing a number of people who had hitherto enjoyed all -the privileges of fortune into humble circumstances. The -peasantry benefited most by the new form of Government, and -became, without having to pay anything, in a very short -time owners of the land which they had hitherto only held -as tenants, and, moreover, no longer obliged to pay a tribute -to their feudal lords, but only a small tax to the Central Government. -Needless to say, there was considerable resistance on -the part of the two millions of people whom these new laws -deprived of privileges which they had enjoyed for centuries, -but these were easily and speedily suppressed. From 1869, -in order further to mark the rupture between the old and the -new order of things, the residence of the Emperor was transferred -from Kioto to Yedo, now known as Tokio. In 1872 -the first Japanese railway was opened between the new capital -and Yokohama. The old-fashioned <em>samourai</em> were at first -dreadfully scandalized when they saw the Emperor, against -all precedent, driving about among the lower classes in an open -carriage. But the invading wave was too strong for resistance, -and presently a number of <em>samourai</em> of their own accord, -especially in the capital, gave up the custom of wearing the -two swords. Yet another flicker of the old spirit, however, -reappeared in 1877, when the clan of Satsuma rose and -endeavoured to oppose the introduction of so many innovations. -This rebellion was suppressed by Marshal Saigo, who -lost his life in the affair, leaving, however, behind him a name -still universally venerated in Japan. In 1889 Viscount Mori, -a Japanese statesman of very advanced opinions, was stabbed -by a fanatic on the day of the proclamation of the new Constitution. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_109'>109</span>At present no one in Japan, be he statesman or simple -citizen, unless, indeed, he chance to be some fanatic or other -under the influence of the Buddhist priests in some out-of-the-way -district, dreams of disturbing the pleasant relations which -exist between the native population and foreigners. After the -repression of the rebellion in Satsuma the new Government -was definitively consolidated, and the country fully launched -on the road to complete Europeanization. In 1889 the Parliamentary -system was introduced, and we shall presently see -with what success. It is therefore not saying too much to -assert, before we proceed further, that the wonderful revolution -which has taken place in our day in Japan is not ephemeral, -and that it has now gone too far to be in any danger of reaction. -It is, moreover, quite in accord with the antecedents and the -intellectual spirit of this remarkable people, and therefore -likely not only to become permanent, but even progressive.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_110'>110</span> - <h3 class='c001'>CHAPTER III<br /> <span class='large'>MODERN JAPAN</span></h3> -</div> -<p class='c014'>Japan the country of contrasts—The port and town of Nagasaki—The -navigation of the Inland Sea—Junks and steamboats—Yokohama—Its -population and commerce—Tokio—The telephones and electric -lights—The houses and the streets—The people and their costumes—Means -of transport at Tokio—Jinrikishas and tramways.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The moment the traveller enters the harbour of Nagasaki he -finds himself surrounded by the most extraordinary contrasts. -In the first place, the scenery is quite charming: the mountains -are a delightful green and are thickly draped with foliage, from -which peep out a number of pretty little wooden houses, whose -windows are replaced by sliding paper-panels. The sea is -dotted with rocky islands covered with those picturesque -Japanese fir-trees whose outline is as varied as it is graceful. -Here and there rise from the water curious little fishing-sheds, -the delight of the amateur photographer, which add -considerably to a landscape which looks for all the world like -an animated picture off a Japanese screen. One can scarcely -believe that it is all real, and certainly not that it was at one -time the scene of a terrible tragedy: yet such it was, for from -one of the neighbouring islands in 1638—yclept Pappenberg—several -hundred Christians were cast into the sea. Presently -we see rising in the background a tall chimney with its -streaming cloud of smoke, and the noise of machinery in -motion grating upon our ears reminds us somewhat unpleasantly -that modern civilization has at length penetrated into -Japan, and the better to emphasize this fact, our steamer is -presently surrounded by a fleet of ugly coal-barges, and a -sudden turn brings us face to face with the ships and flags of -all nations—British, French, German, Russian, and American.</p> - -<p class='c008'><span class='pageno' id='Page_111'>111</span>On the other side of the bay, in the docks recently constructed -by the Mitsubishi Company, workmen are busy building -a 5,000–ton vessel. Not far distant, on the southern slope -of the hill overlooking the town, is the European quarter, -situated in the midst of delightful gardens. The elegant -steeple of the Catholic church rises sharply from among the -pine-trees, and contrasts favourably with the massive and very -ugly building—an eyesore on the pretty scene—that disagreeably -emphasizes the very bad taste of the American missionaries, -as also the absolute tolerance which the Government of the -Mikado accords to all denominations in a country where, not -so very long ago, so great was its exclusiveness that even the -shipwrecked were put to a cruel death. As I gazed upon -this charming scene, I could not forbear picturing to myself -how it must have looked fifty years ago when a solitary Dutch -vessel landed its tiny cargo for the benefit of a few foreign -merchants imprisoned in the artificial island of Deshima, the -only spot where they were allowed to live, and even then subjected -to many vexatious humiliations.</p> - -<p class='c008'>In forty-five years Nagasaki has become the chief coaling -port on the Pacific, and as safe for Europeans—perhaps safer—than -many a seaport in Europe itself. Steamers do not -remain long at Nagasaki, where they only touch to coal, but -passengers have time to land for a few hours and visit the -town. Happily, the inhabitants have retained their national -costumes, but the men have unfortunately adopted our very -ugly headgear, and flourish in every variety of bowler and -yachting hat. In the shops one soon perceives the march of -civilization, for they are full of articles imported from all parts -of the world, as well as others imitated from European models, -improved upon, in the artistic sense, by the natives. You can -buy books by all the leading authors almost as cheaply as -in Paris or London, as well as oil-lamps, gas-stoves, photographs -representing recent Japanese battles with the Chinese, -looking-glasses (which were absolutely unknown in Japan until -quite recently), and little terrestrial globes, the sight of which -latter reminded me of an anecdote related by a missionary -when I was in China. At the beginning of the Chino-Japanese -War, the Viceroy of a certain province asked the -Reverend Father to show him where Japan was located, and -he had the pleasure of pointing out to His Excellency, for the -first time in his life, the exact place whence came the warriors -<span class='pageno' id='Page_112'>112</span>with whom his Government was then at war. The Japanese -are very proud of their victory over their colossal neighbour, -and have placed some of the cannon which they took from -her in the principal Shinto temples in the city.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Twelve hours after leaving Nagasaki you pass into the great -Inland Sea, or heart of Japan, to effect an entrance into which -in 1863 required the combined efforts of the fleets of England, -France, Holland, and the United States. Now every great -steamer that trades in the Pacific is free to weigh anchor in -this glorious harbour, which, however, is never open at night -on account of the many dangers to navigation in the Strait of -Shimonoseki, which, by the way, is only a mile wide. As we -passed through it, I perceived quite close to the southern shore -no less than six immense steamers, anchored off the port of -Moji—rapidly becoming a rival to Nagasaki—up to which the -trains bring coal from the mines situated some miles inland. -On the summit of the long range of hills a number of huge -cannon stationed at intervals testify that the coasts of Japan -are by no means unguarded.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Everything has been done by the Japanese Government to -facilitate navigation in this rather dangerous Inland Sea, which -was so hermetically shut to foreigners a half-century ago. In -1895 there were over 149 light-houses, built either by the -State or the local authorities, admirably placed at intervals -along the coast of Japan, the majority, of course, being erected -along the shores of the Inland Sea, which, it must be remembered, -contains not less than 5,000 islands. These light-houses -are all the more necessary because, although the scenery of this -magnificent expanse of water is very beautiful, the currents are -exceedingly strong and dangerous, and the shoals, moreover, -very numerous. An amazing number of little Japanese -steamers of from 80 to 200 tons, and even less, constantly -carry passengers to and fro between the various ports and -towns on these innumerable islands. Mingling among these -are still to be seen a few old Japanese junks, which, however -picturesque, are not of much use in these go-ahead days, -and are rapidly disappearing. Their shape is now only retained -by a few fisher-boats. As a matter of fact, it is no -longer legal to build vessels after the old Japanese model, -excepting on a small scale, as in fishing or pleasure boats. -Such a decree as this would, in any other country, have caused -some unruly expression of public opinion; but in Japan it was -<span class='pageno' id='Page_113'>113</span>otherwise, and the people very reasonably accepted a change -for the better in the time-honoured form of their sea-craft. -After twenty-four hours, of which one or two were passed at -Kobe, we left the Inland Sea behind, and almost immediately -afterwards beheld for the first time the peak of the celebrated -Fusi-yama volcano, rendered so famous by Japanese engravers. -Twenty-eight hours after leaving Kobe we entered -the harbour of Yokohama, which is within fifty minutes’ rail -of Tokio, the capital.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Yokohama was, before the enfranchising of the ports, a -miserable little fishing village containing about a hundred -houses. It was opened to foreign commerce in 1858 in the -place of Shimoda, which was thought to be badly situated. It -is a town of 170,000 inhabitants, having sprung up after the -mushroom fashion hitherto deemed peculiar to America, and is -the third largest port in the Far East, being alone surpassed -by Hong-Kong and Shanghai; but its streets appear much -less animated than those of the last-named ports. The Bund, -the principal thoroughfare by the sea, always seems rather -deserted. On the other hand, on the hill above, to the south -of the concession, is the European quarter, which is full of -delightful houses, surrounded by lovely gardens. There are -about 1,800 foreigners of various nationalities, exclusive of -Chinese, settled here, a good half being English. The port is -very spacious and commodious, and the biggest ships ever -built can anchor quite close up to the quay. The total value -of the exports in 1896 was £6,169,600, the imports £7,280,400, -making a total of £13,450,000, or about half the foreign commerce -of Japan, which, during the same year, reached the -very important figure of £28,500,000.<a id='r16' /><a href='#f16' class='c006'><sup>[16]</sup></a> But this brand new -town is not particularly interesting, and the traveller will do -well to hurry on to Tokio.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The capital of Japan is the largest town in Asia, and the -seventh in the world. On December 31, 1895, it was reputed to -contain 1,268,930 souls, and must by this time, owing to the -rapid increase of its population, have attained 1,400,000. It is -spread over an enormous space, much larger than that occupied -by Paris. The reason why it covers such an amazing extent is -that everybody lives in his own house, which is never more than -one story high, and then, again, nearly every house has its little -<span class='pageno' id='Page_114'>114</span>garden. Under these conditions, it is, therefore, not surprising -that such an enormous population requires unlimited space -in which to accommodate itself. Moreover, Tokio contains -a great many open spaces, and, odd to relate, most of these -are to be found in the centre of the town in the neighbourhood -of the Imperial Palace. These ‘building sites,’ -if one might so call them, were formerly occupied by the palaces -of the great daimios, the majority of which were surrounded -by bastions, supported on a cyclopean stone wall rising from -a deep moat. When the daimios first received permission to -leave Tokio, a few years before the downfall of the old -Government, they retired to their castles in the provinces, and, -at the abolition of the feudal system in 1872, their lands -became, as we have seen, the property of the State. On the -site of several of them immense public buildings have been -erected after the European fashion, among which are the -palaces of the various Ministries, and also the Parliament -House; but many other wide, open spaces are still waiting to -be utilized, and, being weed-grown and disorderly, produce a -distinctly dreary effect. The old ramparts, planted with pine-trees, -which surrounded most of them, are still standing, and -one, embracing the immense park of the Imperial Palace, is -used as a public promenade. As you walk along it, and look -towards the palace itself, it is difficult to believe that you are -in Japan, everything is so very European, and on the other -side the waste land contains a perfect forest of telegraph and -telephone poles, which affirms, and very forcibly, too, that our -civilization is distinctly the reverse of picturesque.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Telephones, telegraph, electric light, gas, petroleum lamps, -etc., are now as plentifully used in Tokio as they are in any -English or American town. It is most amusing to notice as -you pass along the streets, when the paper screens which form -the façade of most of the houses are removed, the artisans -seated at their <em>tatamis</em>, working by the light of an Edison lamp. -When they cannot afford electricity or gas, the Japanese use -petroleum exclusively, but not without some considerable -risk to the safety of a city entirely built of wood. Since a -Japanese house contains next door to nothing in the way of -furniture, and that even in the houses of the rich all valuable -objects of art are usually kept in an iron safe, and only exposed -on state occasions, a fire does not matter so much as it would -in a London mansion or a Chicago ‘sky-scraper.’ A few -<span class='pageno' id='Page_115'>115</span>cushions, coverlets, and household utensils, which are to be -found in every house, are soon put outside the doors, so that -the inhabitants have very little to fear, for their house is only -one story high, and the whole façade consists of paper screens, -which slide into one another when required. The only people -who really have anything to fear from fire are the retail -merchants, whose shops, of course, are well stocked. Fires -are of very constant occurrence, and people are not at all -surprised to wake up in the morning to hear that some hundred -houses have been burnt down during the night.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The authorities at present avail themselves of fires in order -to widen the streets and improve their sanitary condition. -They are now as a rule much straighter and wider than any to -be found in most other Oriental cities, and even, for the matter -of that, in the towns of Southern Europe, and although they -have no side-walks, they are much cleaner than any you will -find in China or Siberia, or, indeed, in most cities of the -United States. Possibly on account of the immense size of -the city, they are nothing like so animated as the streets of -Peking or Tien-tsin, and are much less picturesque than one -might have been led to expect, for the Japanese, both men and -women, after they have reached their tenth or twelfth year -dress very plainly in neutral colours, blue, gray and brown -prevailing. The women, however, enliven the scene by their -bright-hued waistbands and huge bows. As to the children, -especially on holidays, they wear the most vivid colours. -Sometimes you can trace upon their tiny persons an entire -landscape, and at others enormous bunches of flowers dashed -upon a background of scarlet China crape, which decorate -their exceedingly small figures. Their heads are generally close-shaven -when they are infants, but as they grow older the -dignity of age is marked by that funny zone of stiff black hair -which adds so much to the comical appearance of a Japanese -doll. Another peculiarity about these youngsters is that a -smaller one generally hangs on to the back of another so -tightly as to suggest a big barnacle. It is indeed amusing to -watch a little lady of between five and six years of age carrying -her still smaller brother on her back literally from morning to -night, never appearing in the least degree incommoded by what -to children of other nationalities would be a most uncomfortable -position. The little boy accommodates himself to all the -various movements his sister may make. If she tumbles, he -<span class='pageno' id='Page_116'>116</span>tumbles, and if she gets up, up gets he, and it would really -appear as if the younger child formed an integral part of the -elder’s body. European children who are brought up in Japan -fall into this singular habit quite as naturally as the Japanese, -who can fall to sleep in a position which would, one imagine, -have kept awake one of the famous Seven Sleepers of Ephesus.</p> - -<p class='c008'>European costume has undoubtedly made some inroad -throughout Japan, but fortunately not to the extent originally -anticipated. Japanese ladies, who first adopted European -fashions with enthusiasm, at present have nearly returned to -the delightful way of dressing invented by their ancestresses, -so that during the three months I spent in Japan I only once -saw a Japanese lady dressed <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">à la Parisienne</span></i>. The European -costume is now only to be seen at Court on state occasions, -where, it should be observed, the old Japanese Court dress was -not only very ugly and extremely heavy, but most uncomfortable. -A few years ago an order was given that all the officials, -little and great, should wear, when on duty, frock-coats and -straight trousers, but this edict is no longer in force. Nevertheless, -it has become the fashion for Japanese officials of rank -to attend their offices in European costume, but here again -there are already exceptions. English hats of all sorts and -shapes, Tyrolese, bowler, sailor hats, and German caps, are -universally worn by men in every class. Some young gentlemen, -with pretensions to fashion, are adopting the tailor-made -garments of Bond Street and the Rue de la Paix, and although -this is regrettable from the æsthetic point of view, it must be -conceded that our dress is much better adapted for the exigencies -of our modern life than the loose, long-sleeved garments of the -Japanese.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The <em>kago</em>, or palanquin, has absolutely disappeared from -Tokio, and is now only to be found in the mountain districts, -its place having been taken by the jinrikisha. It is now so -well known in Europe, thanks to Japanese exhibitions, that all -I need say is that it is a very small carriage supported by two -very tall wheels, and pulled along by a runner. The jinrikisha -is not, as many imagine, of Japanese origin, but due to the -inventive genius of a foreigner, who made a fortune out of his -invention. It is now used throughout the whole of the -Far East; but Japan remains the land of its predilection, -mainly on account of the extraordinary swiftness and skill of -the native runners, who are unsurpassed in this respect in any -<span class='pageno' id='Page_117'>117</span>other part of the East. There are at the present moment -about 200,000 of these quaint vehicles in various parts of the -Empire, of which about 40,000 are in Tokio. As a rule they -can only seat one person, but a few are built to convey two -passengers, exclusively Japanese; for the jinrikisha is not yet -built that would accommodate a couple of Europeans, even -ladies. The lowest fare is 2½d.; by the hour, 5d.; and for the -half-day, 1s. 3d. These are the prices exacted from Europeans, -but the Japanese pay considerably less.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Independently of the jinrikisha, Tokio possesses a few omnibuses, -and a line of tramways uniting the two stations of Shimbashi, -the terminus of the Western, and Uyeno, that of the -Northern Railway. The extreme length of this tramway is nine -miles, and the fare is 1½d. all the way. The tramcars are driven -by horses, and the number of seats is not limited, people being -allowed to stand up in the middle as in the United States. -In 1895 the company conveyed fifteen million and a half -passengers, paying a return of thirty-five per cent. on a capital of -about £45,000. An electric tramway is now under consideration. -One improvement Tokio certainly stands in need of, -and that regards its lighting. Here and there you may come -across an electric lamp or so; but the principal street illumination -invariably proceeds from those big Chinese lanterns, -lighted by petroleum lamps, which hang outside the shops, -which, fortunately, remain open until quite late; but when the -shutters are up in most of the wooden houses one passes by, -the darkness is quite Egyptian, unless, indeed, it happens to -be a moonlight night. Doubtless, in the course of a very little -time, Tokio will be as well lighted as any other highly-civilized -city.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_118'>118</span> - <h3 class='c001'>CHAPTER IV<br /> <span class='large'>JAPANESE INDUSTRY</span></h3> -</div> -<p class='c014'>Japan the Great Britain of the Far East—Osaka, the centre of Japanese -industry—Great and small industries—Increase of certain industries -hitherto unknown in Japan: glass and match manufactories, breweries, -etc.—Employment of children—Scale of wages—Length of labour -hours—Cotton-spinning—The larger industries—Recruiting of workmen -and women from the rural districts—Abuses denounced by the -press—Increase of wages throughout Japan.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Nothing delights the Japanese more than to hear their Empire -compared to Great Britain, and when we come to think of -it there is a certain analogy between the Archipelago of the -Rising Sun in the Far East and the British Isles in the -West; but the Japanese hope that this resemblance will not -end in a mere geographical comparison, but extend to their -maritime, commercial and industrial development. To their -credit, be it said, they are really working very hard to attain -their ideal. One has only to visit Osaka, the Manchester of -the Mikado’s Empire, to realize the amazing progress made by -the Japanese in the last quarter of the century. This city, -which has a population of about half a million souls, is situated -midway between Kioto and Kobe, about thirty miles distant, -which respectively contain 340,000 and 150,000 inhabitants. -About six and a half miles further on is yet another industrial -centre, Sakai, with a population of 50,000. This region, which -slopes gradually to the Inland Sea, may be described as the -heart of Japan, being its main centre of commercial, agricultural -and industrial activity, and it is the chief tea-market of -the Empire. It was also until 1869 near the political centre; -for Kioto was from the end of the eighth century the capital of -the Mikados, who removed their Court thither from Nara, where -they had previously resided for several centuries.</p> - -<p class='c008'><span class='pageno' id='Page_119'>119</span>Industries on a large scale have only been recently introduced -into Japan, among the earliest being that of cotton-spinning, -established in Osaka in 1882. Before the arrival of the -Europeans, and even up to 1880, nearly all the minor trade -of the country was divided up into a number of small workshops -scattered all over the country. A few large silk manufactories -existed, however, in the more important towns, and at Kioto -there were some fairly important paper factories, and <em>saké</em>-distilleries -(wine made from rice); but these were not numerous, -and only engaged a very few hands. The official statistics for -1894 disclose the existence of 4,732 families manufacturing -the various ceramic products for which Japan is famous, employing -about 23,726 people; 4,407 families, giving employment -to 14,092 artisans, engaged in the manufacture of lacquer-ware; -81,652 matting and straw-plaiting factories; and lastly -600,444 families working 820,585 looms. From this we see -that what might be termed the minor industries of the -country are very numerously represented. In these small -and independent workshops are produced all those numerous -Japanese articles that enjoy a European popularity which -they are not likely to lose for a very long time to come, -Japan having a monopoly in the production of an infinite -number of toys, articles of furniture, paper fans, umbrellas, -boxes, screens, and knick-knacks of every description; and it is -fortunate it is so, on account of the density of the rural -population, and the exceeding smallness of the farms, which -are easily cultivated, leaving their proprietors a great deal of -leisure on their hands, which they wisely employ in making -those countless pretty things that in Europe go by the name of -‘Japanese fancy goods.’ These small workshops now carry on -nearly all the art industries of the country, but no Japanese city -is now without its tall chimneys, rising quite as conspicuously -and unpicturesquely in their suburbs as they do in Europe.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Northward of the cyclopean stone ramparts of the old castle -of Osaka stands the enormous Mint, one of the finest establishments -of the sort in the world, to the east of which is the -Arsenal, where the Japanese turn out all the cannon and -guns necessary for the use of their army. At night the -horizon is crimson with the ruddy glow of the cotton-mills -and other numerous factories. Most of these industries have -only been lately introduced into the country, and the fathers -of many of those who are engaged in them had no idea even -<span class='pageno' id='Page_120'>120</span>of their existence. The Japanese, for instance, until quite -recently, had no conception of the art of glass-blowing. To-day -there are several very important glass factories doing a first-class -trade at Osaka, glass being now much needed on account -of the prevailing use of petroleum lamps, and many people are -beginning to use glass in place of the paper screens which have -hitherto served the Japanese as windows. Breweries have -been established in various parts of the country, and the -principal at Osaka produces admirable beer, largely exported, -even as far as Vladivostok and Singapore. Brushes of every -description, too, are now manufactured in Japan, and exported -in great quantities to the United States. I had the -pleasure of inspecting one of these brush manufactories at -Osaka, which employed 300 men, women and children on the -premises, and 900 others in its various branches in the suburbs. -I experienced some little difficulty at first in gaining admittance -on account of my nationality, and I had even to take an oath -that I would not divulge any of the secrets of the trade. This -precaution was due to some fear that I might possibly introduce -their economical system into France, and thereby do -them considerable mischief in the way of competition. A -curious fact connected with this particular trade of brushmaking -is, that the necessary pigs’ bristles and bone have to -be imported, for the excellent reason that St. Anthony’s pet -animal is practically non-existent in any part of the Empire, so -that the Japanese confine themselves to carving the handles for -the infinite number of brushes which they manufacture, and -in putting the bristles into the variety of objects that require -them. Osaka likewise contains a number of iron-foundries -and ship-yards, in which nearly all the small steamers which -ply between the islands are constructed. Unfortunately the -harbour of Osaka is a very bad one, and, indeed, might almost -be described as non-existent, the entrance to the river being -very sandy, and the exit seaward hopelessly narrow and exposed -to east winds. For this reason the majority of the goods -manufactured at Osaka are exported viâ Kobe, where nearly -all the great English and American steamers touch, and which -is an admirable port. The formation of a large harbour at -Osaka was begun in 1899, at a cost of something like -£2,000,000, assured by a loan of £1,700,000, issued by the -town, in addition to a considerable subvention from the State. -A new industry has recently been introduced at Osaka, that of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_121'>121</span>jute carpet-making, which is likely to become very important, -an enormous number of very cheap and very pretty carpets -having already been exported to the United States and still -more recently to England, where, on account of their excellent -patterns, durability and extreme cheapness, they have suddenly -become extremely popular. The present Exhibition at Paris -will no doubt introduce them into France.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The Japanese copper and tin industries have only recently -been created, and at present do not employ more than eighty -hands. The silk industries are entirely concentrated at Kioto. -Mats and other straw goods, which form a very important item -of Japanese export, are exclusively made in and about the same -city. Undoubtedly the two most important of the modern -Japanese industries are cotton-spinning and match-making. -In 1889, 10,165,000 gross of matches, costing £184,000, were -produced. In 1894, the figures stood at 18,721,000 gross, -valued at £406,800, since when this industry has gone on -increasing by leaps and bounds. Matches, as may well be -imagined, are very cheap throughout the country, and you can -buy two boxes containing each about sixty for five rin, or a -half-sen, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">i.e.</span></i>, half a farthing.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Nothing can be more interesting than a visit to one of these -great match factories, which exclusively employ women and -children, the latter being sometimes under six years of age. -Wages, when compared with those of Europe, are very trifling, -the highest average being 15 sen, or about 3¾d., per diem. -Some of the girls get a little more for pasting on the labels, -which requires considerable skill, and the women who put -the matches in the boxes are paid 4½d. Very clever workwomen, -who by the sheer delicacy of their touch are able to -tell to a match, without the trouble of counting them, how -many go to a box, are paid 7d. Some objection has been -made to the employment of so many infants, but their mothers -do not seem to object, for in the first place the children -add a farthing or so to the general fund, and in the second -they are able to keep them about them, which no doubt saves -them much anxiety. Very few men are engaged in these -match manufactories. The match-boxes are nearly all made -by the workpeople at home in their off-hours, and also in -certain workshops set apart for their manufacture. Japanese -matches are exported in great quantities to Hong-Kong, China -and India.</p> - -<p class='c008'><span class='pageno' id='Page_122'>122</span>The cotton looms are located in stone buildings erected on -Manchester models, and employ many thousands of hands. -The following Custom-house statistics will give an excellent -idea of the progress of this industry:</p> - -<table class='table1' summary=''> - <tr> - <th class='btt bbt c020' rowspan='2'></th> - <th class='btt bbt blt c018' rowspan='2'>Importation of Raw Cotton into Japan.</th> - <th class='btt bbt blt c019' colspan='2'>Spun Cotton.</th> - </tr> - <tr> - - - <th class='bbt blt c018'>Exportation from Japan.</th> - <th class='bbt blt c018'>Importation into Japan.</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <th class='c020'></th> - <th class='blt c018'><em>Tons.</em></th> - <th class='blt c018'><em>Tons.</em></th> - <th class='blt c018'><em>Tons.</em></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>1894</td> - <td class='blt c019'>64,071</td> - <td class='blt c019'>2,067</td> - <td class='blt c019'>9,350</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>1895</td> - <td class='blt c019'>84,739</td> - <td class='blt c019'>2,362</td> - <td class='blt c019'>8,661</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>1896</td> - <td class='blt c019'>99,108</td> - <td class='blt c019'>7,677</td> - <td class='blt c019'>11,810</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='bbt c020'>1897 (10 months)</td> - <td class='bbt blt c019'>117,710</td> - <td class='bbt blt c019'>20,274</td> - <td class='bbt blt c019'>7,185</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p class='c008'>From the above it will be remarked that Japan, in a relatively -very short time, from being almost exclusively an importer -of cotton goods, now exports them to foreign markets, and -with good results. The Custom-house declared in 1898 -£1,109,600 worth of cotton, or 20,269 tons of exports, and -£734,400, or 7,185 tons of imports. The statistics of the -Japanese Cotton Spinners’ Union record the following figures:</p> - -<table class='table1' summary=''> - <tr> - <th class='btt bbt c019'></th> - <th class='btt bbt blt c018'>Mills.</th> - <th class='btt bbt blt c018'>No. of Looms.</th> - <th class='btt bbt blt c018'>Workmen.</th> - <th class='btt bbt blt c018'>Workwomen.</th> - <th class='btt bbt blt c018'>Production of Spun Cotton.</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c019'> </td> - <td class='blt c019'> </td> - <td class='blt c019'> </td> - <td class='blt c019'> </td> - <td class='blt c019'> </td> - <td class='blt c019'><em>Tons.</em></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c019'>31 Dec., 1890</td> - <td class='blt c019'>30</td> - <td class='blt c019'>227,895</td> - <td class='blt c019'>4,089</td> - <td class='blt c019'>10,330</td> - <td class='blt c019'>18,798</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c019'>31 Dec., 1895</td> - <td class='blt c019'>47</td> - <td class='blt c019'>580,945</td> - <td class='blt c019'>9,650</td> - <td class='blt c019'>31,140</td> - <td class='blt c019'>68,106</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c019'>31 Dec., 1897</td> - <td class='blt c019'>61</td> - <td class='blt c019'>839,387</td> - <td class='blt c019'>13,447</td> - <td class='blt c019'>43,367</td> - <td class='blt c019'>97,435</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='bbt c019'>31 Oct., 1898</td> - <td class='bbt blt c019'>61</td> - <td class='bbt blt c019'>1,233,661</td> - <td class='bbt blt c019'>13,447</td> - <td class='bbt blt c019'>43,367</td> - <td class='bbt blt c019'>97,829</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p class='c008'>Nearly half of this cotton is manufactured at Osaka, the -rest at Kobe, and at Okyama, on the Inland Sea, to the west, -and at Yokkaichi, Nagoya and Tokio, to the east. The conclusion -of the late Chinese War gave a great impulse to the -cotton industries in Japan, and necessitated the construction -of new and much larger establishments, and the enlargement -of those already in existence, so that it is calculated that -before long over a million and a half looms will be in activity -in various parts of the country. These very important industries, -it must be remembered, are not subsidized by foreign -capital, or under the direction of foreigners; they are purely -<span class='pageno' id='Page_123'>123</span>and absolutely Japanese; up to the present, however, nearly -all the plant has been imported from England and America.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Until 1897 employers of labour had a good deal of trouble -in obtaining workmen. The townspeople, being engaged in a -great many small industries of their own, were not willing to -abandon them for work which was not likely to prove as remunerative -as their own; in consequence of this the country -districts had to be ransacked for hands, and nearly all the girls -employed in the factories of Osaka are the daughters of small -farmers. They are lodged and boarded by the various companies -in buildings erected expressly for the purpose, a percentage -being deducted from their wages for their keep. Certain -abuses having arisen in their management, a leading -local newspaper, published in English, but really owned and -edited by Japanese, in 1897 called attention to the same in -a series of articles, violently attacking the working organization -of the Osaka cotton-mills. The lodgings of the workwomen -were, it was stated, exceedingly unhealthy; and as to the -morals of the women employed, the less said about them the -better. Then, again, the agents who engaged these young -women were accused of doing so under false promises, and it -was said they even went so far as to intercept their correspondence -with their homes. The editor furthermore condemned -in the severest terms the employment of extremely young -children.</p> - -<p class='c008'>These articles attracted a great deal of attention, and contained -doubtless a certain amount of truth, not unmingled, -however, with considerable exaggeration. The Japanese -employers of labour are, it should be remarked, after all in very -much the same position in which our own were some fifty or -sixty years ago. As to the moral tone of the workgirls, it is -doubtless neither better nor worse than it is in the great manufacturing -centres of Europe and America. At Moscow a -manufacturer informed me that the morals of his workgirls -were very bad, and at Shanghai another gentleman related to -me things on the same subject best left unpublished. The -working hours are not longer in Japan than they were in Europe -thirty or forty years ago. They never exceed twelve hours a -day, from which half an hour must be deducted for the midday -meal. Nevertheless, it is excessive, especially when we -remember that the week’s work is divided into two parts, one -half the hands working all night and the other all day, so that -<span class='pageno' id='Page_124'>124</span>the looms are never at rest. Then they have only two off-days -in the month, on the first and the fifteenth; and there are -only four special holidays in the year, the three first days in -the New Year, and the Emperor’s birthday. Even the first and -the fifteenth are not observed if there is a press of work. If -these hours appear too long, it must not be forgotten that the -Japanese workman, like his brother worker in the South of -Europe, does not labour with the intensity that distinguishes -the Englishman or the American. As to the employment of -women, they are only engaged in the match factories, and their -work is of the lightest.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Nevertheless, attention in Japan is being directed towards -these two very important questions, which will, doubtless, -sooner or later, receive proper attention and be modified. -Wages are already rising, as the workpeople begin to understand -their worth and their own interests, and to know how to protect -them. A danger to which the Japanese industries are -exposed is undoubtedly due to a diminution of capital, the result -of over-production after the late war, which brought about -much the same phase that occurred in the commercial history -of Germany after the Franco-German War. However, the -financial crisis of 1898 and the competition recently created -at Shanghai have created a certain degree of anxiety concerning -the immediate future of Japanese industry; but, on the other -hand, the magnificent results obtained in such a surprisingly -short time, and the courageous manner in which this industrious -people have overcome the many difficulties which beset them in -the earlier stages of their career, must not be forgotten.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_125'>125</span> - <h3 class='c001'>CHAPTER V<br /> <span class='large'>RURAL JAPAN</span></h3> -</div> -<p class='c014'>Predominance of agriculture in the economic existence of Japan—Density -of the rustic population in the plains and lower valleys—Importance -of the Japanese fisheries with respect to the food supply of the people—Principal -crops: rice, tea and mulberry-trees—Absence of domestic -animals—Returns of Japanese agriculture—Small holdings—Japanese -peasantry, their vegetarian or ichthyophagian diet—Their dwellings—Position -of women—Their extreme cleanliness, politeness and good -nature—Cost of living—Amelioration of peasant life in Japan after -the Restoration—Spread of Western civilization and instruction among -them.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Notwithstanding the rapid industrial development which has -recently taken place in Japan, the greater proportion of the -population is still essentially rural, and derives, if not all, at -least the greater part of its means of subsistence from the soil. -Petty industries, however, abound and materially assist this -hard-working people to add to their very small incomes. Along -the indented coasts of the islands, and on the shores of the -Inland Sea, innumerable little villages will be found, whose -inhabitants depend entirely for their subsistence upon the -fisheries, but notwithstanding their importance, Japan may be -described as an essentially agricultural country. It is, also, -the cultivation of the soil which supplies the raw material of -the silk, still one of the staple export industries, and also of -another very important article of exportation, tea. On a total -export in 1896 of £11,650,000 worth of Japanese products, tea -represented £637,200, rice £795,100, raw silk cocoons and silk-ravel -£3,166,600. If we add to these figures about £4,700,000 -worth of miscellaneous products, or 14 per cent., and add also -about £1,200,000, or 4<a id='t125'></a> per cent., of raw or unprepared produce, -we shall find that the aggregate value of agricultural products of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_126'>126</span>all kinds reaches the respectable figure of £5,950,000, more -than half that of the total export. Notwithstanding their importance, -the area devoted to the culture of the tea-plant and the -mulberry-tree is relatively small as compared with that devoted -to rice, which is the staple article of food of the whole of the -Far East. The extensive culture of this latter accounts for the -peculiarity often noticed in Japanese landscapes, that you never -see any of those gentle hill-slopes which are so familiar in -France. The hills rise abruptly from the stagnant waters, and -seem cut into three or four broad step-like terraces, possibly -the result of the action of the water which inundates the rice-fields. -When I was in Japan, in the autumn, the rice harvest -was just over, and the country would have looked very dismal -on account of the drab colour of the muddy soil, divided up -like a chess-board into regular squares, from which the rice -had been recently cut, and now covered by a thin layer of dry -weeds, had it not been for the peculiarly elegant shapes of -surrounding heights which are shaded by those delightful firs -so familiar to us in old Japanese prints. The lace-like curtains -of bamboo clustering here and there added also to the variety -and charm of the scene, which was further enhanced by the -numerous cryptomerias, whose superb foliage contrasted vividly -with the brown and the red of the maples that are invariably -planted around the charming little temples dotted about in all -directions. In the hilly districts the beauty of the trees breaks -the monotony of the rice-fields and of the reclaimed wastelands, -but in the plains and valleys there is not one to be seen, -every inch of land being most carefully cultivated.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The rural population of Japan is marvellously dense, incomparably -more so than in any part of Europe. On an area but -little greater than that of Great Britain and Ireland, Japan -contains 42,270,620 inhabitants, that is to say, 284 souls per -square mile, including the large southern island of Yezo, which -is very sparsely peopled. Not taking this very extensive island -into account, it will be safe to state that the population of -Japan is twice as dense as that of France, and only equalled by -that of Belgium, an absolutely industrial country, whereas at -least 80 per cent. of the Japanese live in the country. Certain -provinces, Shiko and Sitama, for instance, to the north-east of -Tokio, respectively boast of 604 and 709 to the square mile, -although the capital cities of these two provinces contain respectively -only 26,000 and 20,000 inhabitants. The island of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_127'>127</span>Shikoku and the province of Kagawa, on the other hand, which -possesses only one large town, Takamatsu, with 34,000 inhabitants, -has a population that reaches the phenomenal figure of -998 souls to every square mile. In only thirty-six out of forty-six -Japanese provinces, exclusive of Yezo, are there less than -250 inhabitants to the square mile, and in only four, three of -which are at the extreme north and one at the south, is the -population less crowded than in most parts of France. The -following statistical table shows the population, with its relative -density:</p> - -<table class='table1' summary=''> - <tr> - <th class='btt bbt c020'></th> - <th class='btt bbt blt c018'>Square miles.</th> - <th class='btt bbt blt c018'>Population.</th> - <th class='btt bbt blt c018'>Density per square mile.</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>Nippon, Northern</td> - <td class='blt c019'>30,556</td> - <td class='blt c019'>6,455,287</td> - <td class='blt c019'>191</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>Nippon, Central</td> - <td class='blt c019'>37,028</td> - <td class='blt c019'>16,368,995</td> - <td class='blt c019'>442</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>Nippon, Western</td> - <td class='blt c019'>20,922</td> - <td class='blt c019'>9,523,168</td> - <td class='blt c019'>453</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>Island of Shikoku</td> - <td class='blt c019'>7,113</td> - <td class='blt c019'>2,929,639</td> - <td class='blt c019'>412</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>Island of Kiu-Siu</td> - <td class='blt c019'>17,037</td> - <td class='blt c019'>6,524,024</td> - <td class='blt c019'>384</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='bbt c020'>Hokkaido, or Yezo</td> - <td class='bbt blt c019'>36,734</td> - <td class='bbt blt c019'>469,507</td> - <td class='bbt blt c019'>13</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'> </td> - <td class='blt c019'>149,390</td> - <td class='blt c019'>42,270,620</td> - <td class='blt c019'>316</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='bbt c020'>Formosa</td> - <td class='bbt blt c019'>8,995</td> - <td class='bbt blt c019'>2,041,809</td> - <td class='bbt blt c019'>228</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='bbt c020'> </td> - <td class='bbt blt c019'>158,385</td> - <td class='bbt blt c019'>44,312,429</td> - <td class='bbt blt c019'>272</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p class='c008'>Even more remarkable than the population is the small -area of cultivated land required to support such an immense -number of people. Japan is an extremely mountainous -country, and although the plains and valleys, especially in the -east and south, are admirably cultivated, and the rice-fields -occasionally cover hills that slope so close to the sea as not -to allow of the existence of even a small fringe of cultivable -land, the mountain ranges in the interior are still -covered with forests, and even the northern part of the great -island, where the land is excellent, is quite uncultivated. -According to recent statistics, about one-fifth of the total -surface of the country has been reclaimed and subdivided into -a remarkable number of small farms and tenements. The -forest lands, on the other hand, cover 88,632 square miles, of -which 28,544 square miles belong to private owners, 51,834 -square miles to the State or to the various provinces, and -8,254 square miles are Crown lands. The remainder of the -island is occupied by moors, uncultivated tracts of land, extremely -<span class='pageno' id='Page_128'>128</span>extensive in Yezo, where the forests are of vast extent, -and where only 1,269 square miles of land repay cultivation. If -we leave aside the northern island, and only take into consideration -the land occupied by 99 per cent. of the Japanese population, -we discover that, exclusive of 67,571 square miles of -forest land, only 21,234 square miles provide food for 42,000,000 -people, whereas in France there are about 56,917 square -miles devoted to cereals alone, and if we add potatoes, vineyards -and other edibles, we arrive at a total of 75,889 square -miles for a population much inferior to that of Japan; moreover, -France imports provisions very largely from other -countries.</p> - -<p class='c008'>In England and in France, as in most other European -countries, very extensive and superior pasture lands are set aside -for the forage of domestic animals intended for food. In Japan -there is nothing of the sort. On the highroads you will meet -peasants dragging their own carts and waggons, and if you -travel by any other means than the railway, it will be in a -jinrikisha hurried along by human runners, or in a palanquin -carried on men’s shoulders, rarely, if ever, in a carriage or on -horseback. Sheep and goats are absolutely unknown in the -Empire, but I am assured there are a few pigs, although I -never saw any. A European who had lived many years in -Japan assured me he had travelled for twelve hours by rail -without seeing a bullock or a cow; in the west, however, I -myself have often met with cattle. The scarcity of animals is -one of the peculiarities of Japan which most surprises the -traveller. Statistics confirm this impression, for they give only -a return of 1,097,000 head of cattle and 1,477,000 horses.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Doubtless this singularity may be attributed to the predominance -of the Buddhist religion, which prohibits the eating -of flesh, notwithstanding which the Japanese are not above -relishing a fowl, although poultry is nothing like as abundant -as it is in our villages. The very great quantity of fish -eaten doubtless accounts for this enormous population being -able to exist in so mountainous a country on such an -abstemious diet. The various fishing industries for 1894 returned -produce valued at £2,740,000. We have already -mentioned the countless fishing villages which send out a fleet -of not less than 600,000 of those graceful one-sailed junks -that sometimes seriously impede the progress of the numerous -steamers in the Inland Sea. The secondary and very rocky -<span class='pageno' id='Page_129'>129</span>island of Awaju does not contain a single town, but nevertheless -can boast of a population of 198,000 inhabitants, spread -over an area of only 220 square miles, subsisting entirely on its -fishing industries.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The importance of the fisheries does not prevent Japanese -agriculture from taking a foremost position, and it must be -admitted that farming must have reached a high degree of perfection -if the limited space allotted to it can support such a -dense population, a fact all the more remarkable when we -remember that Japan imports very few articles of food. It -is true that in many places there are two crops yearly, -although rice has only two harvests in the southern island of -Shokoku; in many other places, in November, as soon as this -has been gathered, the earth is manured again and sown with -barley, or <em>daikon</em>, a kind of monster turnip. The following -statistics of 1895, which give the extent of cultivated land and -the nature of the various products, will serve to illustrate how -relatively great these are when compared with the area of land -in cultivation.</p> - -<table class='table1' summary=''> - <tr> - <th class='btt bbt c020'></th> - <th class='btt bbt blt c018'>Area in Acres.</th> - <th class='btt bbt blt c018' colspan='2'>Produce.</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>Rice</td> - <td class='blt c019'>6,821,694</td> - <td class='blt c019'>195,612,321</td> - <td class='c020'>bshls.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>Barley</td> - <td class='blt c019'>1,600,632</td> - <td class='blt c019'>33,830,173</td> - <td class='c020'>〃</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>Rye</td> - <td class='blt c019'>1,649,390</td> - <td class='blt c019'>34,377,074</td> - <td class='c020'>〃</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>Wheat</td> - <td class='blt c019'>1,096,257</td> - <td class='blt c019'>19,470,855</td> - <td class='c020'>〃</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>Peas and azuki</td> - <td class='blt c019'>1,318,779</td> - <td class='blt c019'>17,701,808</td> - <td class='c020'>〃</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>Millet</td> - <td class='blt c019'>848,282</td> - <td class='blt c019'>18,633,157</td> - <td class='c020'>〃</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>Buckwheat</td> - <td class='blt c019'>422,928</td> - <td class='blt c019'>5,891,613</td> - <td class='c020'>〃</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>Sweet potatoes</td> - <td class='blt c019'>586,478</td> - <td class='blt c019'>1,865,709</td> - <td class='c020'>cwts.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>Potatoes</td> - <td class='blt c019'>56,727</td> - <td class='blt c019'>18,598,076</td> - <td class='c020'>〃</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>Colza</td> - <td class='blt c019'>374,072</td> - <td class='blt c019'>4,932,246</td> - <td class='c020'>bshls.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>Cotton</td> - <td class='blt c019'>148,649</td> - <td class='blt c019'>471,978</td> - <td class='c020'>cwts.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>Hemp</td> - <td class='blt c019'>51,431</td> - <td class='blt c019'>102,967</td> - <td class='c020'>〃</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>Indigo</td> - <td class='blt c019'>114,999</td> - <td class='blt c019'>579,298</td> - <td class='c020'>〃</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>Tobacco</td> - <td class='blt c019'>88,185</td> - <td class='blt c019'>279,870</td> - <td class='c020'>〃</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>Mulberry-trees</td> - <td class='blt c019'>675,972</td> - <td class='blt c019'>279,870</td> - <td class='c020'>〃</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='bbt c020'>Tea</td> - <td class='bbt blt c019'>123,404</td> - <td class='bbt blt c019'>635,979</td> - <td class='bbt c020'>〃</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p class='c008'>The absence of domestic animals obliges the Japanese to -have recourse to novel methods of manuring the land. The -rice-fields are strewn with green grass, freshly cut in openings -in the forests and on the mountain sides, which, when covered -with muddy water, speedily decomposes; to this lime is sometimes -<span class='pageno' id='Page_130'>130</span>added. Excrements of all kinds are also largely employed -in all fields except those devoted to the cultivation -of rice, and along the coast-line fish manure is much -used.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Everywhere, excepting in Yezo, the cultivation of rice preponderates, -especially in the northern part of the principal -island, mainly because the climate is elsewhere too cold to allow -of any other crop being sown during the winter and spring. -Barley and wheat are grown mainly in the centre of the great -island of Nippon, rye in the western parts of the same -island, and also in the two southern islands of Shikoku and -Kiu-Siu, the last-named of which produces sweet potatoes in -abundance. These were originally imported from Java to Satsuma, -and are still called <em>Satsuma-imo</em>, or Satsuma potatoes. -Tobacco, which was introduced by the Portuguese in the -sixteenth century, and which is universally used all over the -islands, being one of the few customs the Japanese have retained -from their first contact with Europeans, is cultivated -everywhere, except, perhaps, in the north. The mulberry-tree -grows exclusively in the mountainous regions of the -centre, and only in very small quantities in the north. Tea -will be met with, on the other hand, only in the plains, and at -the foot of the lower ranges of hills. From the windows of -the train which passes from Tokio to Kioto, and principally -in the environs of this last-named town, as also of Osaka and -Nara, one sees extensive tea-plantations lifting their deep, green -foliage from the rice-fields.</p> - -<p class='c008'>As may well be imagined, owing to the smallness of his -tenement, the Japanese peasant is by no means rich, and has to -live on very little. In the plains he subsists mainly on rice -boiled in water, precisely as do the workpeople in the towns, a -little fish seasoned with <em>soy</em>, or Japanese sauce, flavours this -very simple menu, which also includes a few eggs, and occasionally -a chicken, a little game, or a wild duck. In the -mountains, where the people are very poor, and rice is considered -a luxury, barley and millet are sometimes substituted. -The fisher-folk replace this almost exclusively vegetarian diet -by the produce of their work. Even among well-off people -in the towns the principal dish at dinner consists of boiled -rice. During meals the usual drink is hot <em>saké</em>, which the -guests offer each other in little cups with a good deal of polite -ceremony. This very weak form of brandy is distilled from -<span class='pageno' id='Page_131'>131</span>rice, and about 150,000,000 gallons of it are consumed annually. -The other great Japanese drink is green tea.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The Japanese peasantry usually live in small villages, -separated from each other only by a few hundred yards. -Sometimes, however, their houses are built in little groups of -four or five, but it is extremely rare to find a peasant’s cottage -quite isolated. Nothing can exceed the simplicity of the -construction of these habitations, which only differ from those -of the townspeople by their lofty and heavy thatched roofs, -which usually contain a granary, and are supported by very stout -wooden pillars, rising from a heap of stones placed on the bare -ground, without any attempt at a foundation. Those walls only -which support the gable are solidly built with clay kept together -by a bamboo lattice. The two principal façades stand back -about a yard inside the pillars, and consist of paper screens -which slide backwards and forwards. At night, or in stormy -weather, these screens are replaced by wooden shutters. The -whole front is thrown wide open when the weather is fine or -there is a ray of sunshine, so that passers-by may have a full -view of the interior. It is this curious fashion of living in -public which most strikes the traveller who arrives in Japan -from China, where you cannot even see what is going on in the -outer courtyard, and is one of the chief characteristics that -differentiate the Japanese from all other Orientals. Another -very striking feature is the scrupulous cleanliness which reigns -in these dwellings, whose only furniture are <em>tatamis</em>, or thick -straw mats, which cover the floor of the whole house, excepting -a space immediately opposite the door where visitors are -expected to leave their boots and slippers.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The total absence of furniture, added to an equal lack of -heating apparatus and to the non-existence of any means of -shutting out cold and draughts, at first gives one an impression -of extreme discomfort, but it must not be forgotten that when -the Japanese adopted Chinese civilization they rejected three -things: chairs, coverlets, and stoves. The Imperial palaces at -Kioto would make one of our humblest cottages, so far as -furniture is concerned, appear quite luxurious. At Hirashima, -a town of 100,000 inhabitants, the principal hotel is kept by a -Japanese, and although lighted by electricity and possessing a -telephone, the guests are expected to sit upon the floor, and only -to warm the tips of their fingers at the two or three little scraps -of burning embers in the <em>hibachi</em>, and in the morning, although -<span class='pageno' id='Page_132'>132</span>it may be freezing, they have to perform their toilet in the -open courtyard. When I was in this city I visited the house -occupied by the Emperor during the Chinese War, and was -shown his study, which contained merely an arm-chair, a few -other chairs, and by way of stove only a <em>hibachi</em>, of exquisite -workmanship, it is true—black lacquer worked over with -gold.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The emptiness of a Japanese peasant’s home is, therefore, -no sign of extreme poverty, and although we may describe him -as poor, as his capital is extremely small, there is no reason to -describe him as destitute. In summer he is dressed as lightly -as possible, and in winter as warmly, always in deep blue, in -contrast to the light blue affected by the Chinese. The men -wear a pair of trousers, or rather a tight-fitting pair of drawers -that reach to the ankles, and an ample vest with pagoda -sleeves. The women, on the other hand, wear one or two -skirts reaching half-way down their legs, and gaiters or stockings -without feet, the whole made of cotton or dark-blue linen -and joining the <em>tabi</em>, or little shoe, which ascends above the -ankle.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Japanese women enjoy greater freedom than any other women -outside Europe. They may come and go wherever and -whenever they like, and chatter with whom they choose. -Whereas in China you never see a woman in a tavern, in Japan -you very frequently see only women. At an inn you are -always received by the wife of your host and by a whole -troop of young girls, who serve you, and keep you company. -The women, when they have finished their household -duties, which are very slight, share with the men the -labour in the fields; and I remember seeing in the neighbourhood -of Kioto a woman with a child on her back helping her -husband to drag a waggon along. One is astonished to perceive -with what persistent good-humour these small but very -hardy people perform their very heavy work. In the midst of -the trying labours of the rice-fields, with their feet benumbed -by the cold mud during the harvest, which is gathered in -November, they are invariably gay and happy. Doubtless -that which contributes most to their cheerfulness is the fact -that they are far ahead of the corresponding class in any other -country in the matter of artistic instinct. There are very few -of them but preserve some curiosity in bronze or lacquer, -which has been handed down by ancestors, and which, of all -<span class='pageno' id='Page_133'>133</span>the scanty heirlooms, is the one thing most valued. They are, -moreover, passionately fond of nature.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Every season of the year has its flowers, wild or cultivated, -from the plum-trees in February to the deep, red-leaved maples -in November, and every district has some particular spot celebrated -for the beauty and abundance of this or that flower. -Thither the whole neighbourhood goes in gay crowds to enjoy -and admire them. In that season of the year when they have -less to do, the peasants, who are indefatigable walkers, under -the pretext of a pilgrimage, go incredible distances to visit some -beautiful site, or a famous temple, usually surrounded by magnificent -trees. Then, again, their domestic industries supply -them with a great deal of light work, which tends to render -their existence less monotonous than it otherwise might be. -In order to give my readers an idea of the cost of living in -Japan, I copy from the <cite>Japan Times</cite> the following table of the -expenses of the family of a schoolmaster in the province of -Rikuzen, in the north of the principal island.</p> - -<table class='table1' summary=''> - <tr><th class='c013' colspan='4'><span class='sc'>Expenses for Three Persons—Husband, Wife, and Infant of from Six to Seven Years of Age.</span></th></tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <th class='c026'></th> - <th class='blt c027'>£</th> - <th class='blt c027'><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">s.</span></i></th> - <th class='blt c027'><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">d.</span></i></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c026'>3 <em>to</em> (1 <em>to</em> = 4 gallons) 3rd quality rice</td> - <td class='blt c028'>0</td> - <td class='blt c028'>9</td> - <td class='blt c028'>2</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c026'>Vegetables and fish</td> - <td class='blt c028'>0</td> - <td class='blt c028'>3</td> - <td class='blt c028'>0</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c026'>House linen</td> - <td class='blt c028'>0</td> - <td class='blt c028'>3</td> - <td class='blt c028'>0</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c026'>Rent of house</td> - <td class='blt c028'>0</td> - <td class='blt c028'>1</td> - <td class='blt c028'>7½</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c026'>Lighting and heating</td> - <td class='blt c028'>0</td> - <td class='blt c028'>1</td> - <td class='blt c028'>6</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c026'>3 <em>sho</em> (1 <em>sho</em> = ⅖ gallon) 2nd quality soy (sauce)</td> - <td class='blt c028'>0</td> - <td class='blt c028'>0</td> - <td class='blt c028'>10½</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c026'>Tea</td> - <td class='blt c028'>0</td> - <td class='blt c028'>0</td> - <td class='blt c028'>7</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c026'>Writing materials</td> - <td class='blt c028'>0</td> - <td class='blt c028'>0</td> - <td class='blt c028'>7</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c026'>Education of child</td> - <td class='blt c028'>0</td> - <td class='blt c028'>0</td> - <td class='blt c028'>5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c026'>Baths every three days</td> - <td class='blt c028'>0</td> - <td class='blt c028'>0</td> - <td class='blt c028'>5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c026'>Taxes</td> - <td class='blt c028'>0</td> - <td class='blt c028'>0</td> - <td class='blt c028'>3½</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c026'>Footgear</td> - <td class='blt c028'>0</td> - <td class='blt c028'>0</td> - <td class='blt c028'>3½</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c026'>Extras</td> - <td class='blt c028'>0</td> - <td class='blt c028'>0</td> - <td class='blt c028'>11</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c026'> </td> - <td class='blt c028'><hr /></td> - <td class='blt c028'><hr /></td> - <td class='blt c028'><hr /></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c018'>Total</td> - <td class='blt c028'>1</td> - <td class='blt c028'>2</td> - <td class='blt c028'>8</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c026'> </td> - <td class='blt c028'><hr class='double' /></td> - <td class='blt c028'><hr class='double' /></td> - <td class='blt c028'><hr class='double' /></td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p class='c008'>Or, in other words, about £1 3s. for the month. To this -must be added £1 10s. a year for clothing, making a total of -£15 2s. for the year. These figures were compiled in 1897, -when the price of provisions had considerably increased. It -must, however, be stated that they exceeded the salary of the -unfortunate teacher, which has not been raised, and is only -£1 a month.</p> - -<p class='c008'><span class='pageno' id='Page_134'>134</span>The peasantry have certainly benefited by the abolition of -the old form of government, and Western civilization is even -now commencing to penetrate among them. They light their -dwellings with petroleum, and, although their notions of the -value of time are exceedingly simple, nearly all of them possess -a watch or a clock. Most have adopted European caps or -hats, and none of the men shave their heads as they did in -olden times; moreover, they never express the least opposition -to the encroachments of modern civilization, but, on -the contrary, invariably display curiosity and a great desire -to try experiments. Public education is theoretically obligatory, -and about 80 per cent. of the boys and 40 per cent. of -the girls attend schools, where they are taught to read and to -write about 100 Chinese characters, as well as the two syllabic -Japanese alphabets, in addition to one or two other general -things. The schoolmasters, having been too hastily recruited, -may have been educated too much on the old-fashioned -Chinese lines; but, nevertheless, modern ideas are making -headway, and in the course of time will undoubtedly carry the -field.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The Japanese people, even in the country, are definitely on -the road to progress. It would be unwise to change everything -from the night to the morning as by the touch of a magician’s -wand, but undoubtedly the first impulse has been given, and -has met with no resistance. From the agricultural point of -view, there can be no question that the Japanese have much to -learn, not so much with respect to those products which they -already cultivate, but to the introduction of others besides the -all-prevalent rice. These reforms will be very difficult to -bring about, for the obvious reason that the small farmers -only accept changes with extreme caution; but in the course -of time they will have to be introduced, especially when we -reflect that the population of Japan increases at the rate of -300,000 souls per annum, and the extent of territory which has -been reclaimed and is in cultivation is so small in proportion -to the density of the population.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_135'>135</span> - <h3 class='c001'>CHAPTER VI<br /> <span class='large'>DEVELOPMENT OF JAPANESE COMMERCE</span></h3> -</div> -<p class='c014'>Progress of Japanese commerce in the last fifteen years—Remarkable -increase of exports and of the importation of raw material—Importation -of capital in the form of machinery for native manufactories—Countries -interested in Japanese commerce—Japanese merchants -accused of occasionally producing inferior articles and not fulfilling -their contracts—The reasons for the excess of imports over exports in -the years 1894–98.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Nothing can better illustrate the rapid progress made in -Japanese commerce during the last thirty years than the -development of her import and export trade, which is regularly -recorded in a pamphlet published by the Japanese -Minister of Finance, both in Japanese and English, entitled -the ‘Monthly Return of the Foreign Trade of the Empire of -Japan,’ which gives the fullest particulars respecting the commercial -operations of the month, as well as a résumé of what -has recently transpired. Each spring a complete volume is -issued which supplies further details, and gives a table showing -the commercial status throughout the preceding year. According -to the figures given in this document, which are extremely -accurate, the exports in 1898 attained the unusually high figure -of £16,570,000, and the imports £27,700,000, making a total -of £44,270,000. The following table displays very clearly the -prodigious advance made in Japanese commerce during the -thirty years included between 1868 and 1898.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The figures in the original document are, of course, given in -Japanese currency, but, for the convenience of English readers, -they are here rendered by their equivalent in English money, -taking the yen at two shillings, the rate it has held for a -considerable time past.</p> - -<p class='c008'><span class='pageno' id='Page_136'>136</span><span class='sc'>Japanese Foreign Commerce.</span></p> - -<table class='table1' summary=''> - <tr> - <th class='btt bbt c019'></th> - <th class='btt bbt blt c018'>Imports.</th> - <th class='btt bbt blt c018'>Exports.</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c019'>1868</td> - <td class='blt c019'>£1,070,000</td> - <td class='blt c019'>£1,550,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c019'>1879</td> - <td class='blt c019'>3,300,000</td> - <td class='blt c019'>2,820,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c019'>1884</td> - <td class='blt c019'>3,220,000</td> - <td class='blt c019'>3,400,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c019'>1889</td> - <td class='blt c019'>6,620,000</td> - <td class='blt c019'>7,020,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c019'>1894</td> - <td class='blt c019'>12,170,000</td> - <td class='blt c019'>11,330,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c019'>1895</td> - <td class='blt c019'>13,870,000</td> - <td class='blt c019'>13,620,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c019'>1896</td> - <td class='blt c019'>17,170,000</td> - <td class='blt c019'>11,780,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c019'>1897</td> - <td class='blt c019'>21,930,000</td> - <td class='blt c019'>16,310,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='bbt c019'>1898</td> - <td class='bbt blt c019'>27,700,000</td> - <td class='bbt blt c019'>16,570,000</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p class='c008'>By studying the statistics published in this official pamphlet, -we find that out of £3,581,200 of indigenous articles exported -from Japan in 1883, £2,713,900 were of a purely agricultural -character, and only £242,200 represented articles manufactured -in the country. This last class consisted only of the various -articles included among the ancient art industries of Japan: -£54,400 worth of ceramics and pottery, £54,300 of lacquer, -£26,100 of paper fans, umbrellas, and fancy goods generally, -etc. The silk industries did not even attain the comparatively -low figure of £9,000. Five years later, in 1888, the situation -was entirely changed. The export of indigenous merchandise -exceeded £6,489,100, of which only 68·6 per cent. instead of -76·4 per cent. represented agricultural produce, 3 per cent. -instead of 3·4 per cent. forestries, 5·2 per cent. instead of 6·7 -per cent. of the total amount fisheries; on the other hand, the -various minerals had risen from 6·7 per cent. to 11·2 per cent., -and manufactured goods rose from 6·8 per cent. to 11·8 per -cent. Japan also exported £350,000 worth of copper and -£300,000 worth of coal. The silk manufactories exported silk -goods to the extent of £168,000, and all the art industries, -with the sole exception of the lacquer, which remained stationary, -rose very considerably in value. To these figures must be -added the returns of certain other commercial products of a -kind totally unknown in Japan a quarter of a century ago—matches, -for instance, of which £74,000 worth were exported.</p> - -<p class='c008'>A glance at the following figures will show of what the -Japanese export trade during the last three years was composed, -and the nature of the goods.</p> - -<table class='table1' summary=''> - <tr><td class='c013' colspan='5'><span class='pageno' id='Page_137'>137</span></td></tr> - <tr><th class='c013' colspan='5'><span class='sc'>Principal Exports from Japan in 1895, 1896, 1897 and 1898.</span></th></tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <th class='btt bbt c026'></th> - <th class='btt bbt blt c027'>1895.</th> - <th class='btt bbt blt c027'>1896.</th> - <th class='btt bbt blt c027'>1897.</th> - <th class='btt bbt blt c027'>1898.</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c026'>Raw silk and cocoons</td> - <td class='blt c028'>£4,800,000</td> - <td class='blt c028'>£2,880,000</td> - <td class='blt c028'>£5,560,000</td> - <td class='blt c028'>£4,200,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c026'>Silk ‘ravel’</td> - <td class='blt c028'>290,000</td> - <td class='blt c028'>280,000</td> - <td class='blt c028'>300,000</td> - <td class='blt c028'>270,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c026'>Tea</td> - <td class='blt c028'>820,000</td> - <td class='blt c028'>640,000</td> - <td class='blt c028'>780,000</td> - <td class='blt c028'>820,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c026'>Rice</td> - <td class='blt c028'>720,000</td> - <td class='blt c028'>790,000</td> - <td class='blt c028'>610,000</td> - <td class='blt c028'>590,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c026'>Camphor</td> - <td class='blt c028'>150,000</td> - <td class='blt c028'>110,000</td> - <td class='blt c028'>130,000</td> - <td class='blt c028'>120,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c026'>Cuttle-fish</td> - <td class='blt c028'>100,000</td> - <td class='blt c028'>110,000</td> - <td class='blt c028'>140,000</td> - <td class='blt c027'>?</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c026'>Coal</td> - <td class='blt c028'>760,000</td> - <td class='blt c028'>890,000</td> - <td class='blt c028'>1,150,000</td> - <td class='blt c028'>1,520,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c026'>Copper</td> - <td class='blt c028'>520,000</td> - <td class='blt c028'>550,000</td> - <td class='blt c028'>580,000</td> - <td class='blt c028'>730,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c026'>Tissues and silk handkerchiefs</td> - <td class='blt c028'>1,530,000</td> - <td class='blt c028'>1,200,000</td> - <td class='blt c028'>1,320,000</td> - <td class='blt c028'>1,600,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c026'>Sewing cotton</td> - <td class='blt c028'>100,000</td> - <td class='blt c028'>400,000</td> - <td class='blt c028'>1,350,000</td> - <td class='blt c028'>2,010,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c026'>Spun cotton</td> - <td class='blt c028'>240,000</td> - <td class='blt c028'>230,000</td> - <td class='blt c028'>260,000</td> - <td class='blt c028'>260,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c026'>Matches</td> - <td class='blt c028'>470,000</td> - <td class='blt c028'>500,000</td> - <td class='blt c028'>560,000</td> - <td class='blt c028'>630,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c026'>Mats and straw goods</td> - <td class='blt c028'>480,000</td> - <td class='blt c028'>530,000</td> - <td class='blt c028'>640,000</td> - <td class='blt c028'>630,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c026'>Fans and screens</td> - <td class='blt c028'>80,000</td> - <td class='blt c028'>100,000</td> - <td class='blt c028'>120,000</td> - <td class='blt c027'>?</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='bbt c026'>Pottery</td> - <td class='bbt blt c028'>200,000</td> - <td class='bbt blt c028'>200,000</td> - <td class='bbt blt c028'>180,000</td> - <td class='bbt blt c028'>200,000</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p class='c008'>Altogether the chief manufactured articles exported in the -year 1895 were valued at £4,000,000; three years later they -rose in value to £6,300,000.</p> - -<p class='c008'>At the present moment goods which were absolutely unknown -in Japan in 1850 are exported from that country all -over the East from Korea to Singapore; and Japanese cotton -goods, the raw material for which has to be imported from -India, compete with Chinese materials of the same class, the raw -material for which is obtained from the same country. Needless -to say, Japanese silks and mats can be procured in every part -of the world, and their coal, though inferior to the Welsh, -being greasy, emitting great quantities of smoke and burning -away quickly, is very cheap, and is supplied to all the steamers -touching at the ports of the Far East from Korea to the Straits -of Malacca. In the meantime, those industries for which -Japan has always been noted have not diminished in importance. -It must, however, be confessed that this branch of -industry has decreased both in quality and beauty, the result, -doubtless, of hasty and purely commercial production. If, -however, very fine work is not produced so much as it was -formerly, cheap Japanese artistic goods, ceramic and otherwise, -flood the markets of the civilized world. A curious -fact connected with the actual condition of Japanese export -trade is the remarkable extension and increase in value of what -<span class='pageno' id='Page_138'>138</span>might be called the new industries, of which by far the most -important are those connected with cotton.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Meanwhile, the import trade has lately been considerably -altered. Fifteen years ago Japan imported sugar and petroleum -only. In 1897 raw cotton was introduced to the value of -£4,300,000. If we add to this £100,000 worth of wool, -£93,400 of pig-iron, £47,700 of steel, and one or two other -minor items, we have a return of £5,900,000, or 23 per cent. of -the entire imports; the food imports during the same year -were also 23 per cent. The increase in the value of these latter -in 1897, which stood at £5,900,000 as against £3,400,000 in -the previous year, is due to the failure of the rice crop, which -necessitated the importation of 3,800,000 cwt. of rice, valued -at £2,180,000. A certain quantity of rice, between £400,000 -and £800,000 worth, has to be imported annually from Korea -and Indo-China, in order to counterbalance the amount of -Japanese rice of the first quality exported to Europe and the -United States. Besides rice, the import of sugar has reached -the high figure of £1,980,000, and petroleum, of which -61,000,000 gallons were imported in 1897, £766,700.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Imported manufactured goods may be divided into two -distinct classes, the first including articles of domestic use or -consumption, and the second those which tend to extend the -various industries of the country, and which in a sense constitute -a certain proportion of capital. In the first category may -be placed spun goods, both cotton and woollen, and watches; -in the second, machinery, wrought iron and steel, rolling-stock -and other materials for the railways.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Woollen industries did not exist in Japan until recently, for -the simple reason that sheep were not introduced until after -the opening of the ports to Europeans. In 1897, woollen -goods were imported to the value of £133,700, and textile -fabrics to £1,020,000; while watches, which were never seen -in Japan until 1850, are now in general use, and in 1897, -305,894 of these necessary articles were imported and retailed -at an average of about 12s. each.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The second class of manufactured articles imported into the -Empire in 1897 includes £830,000 worth of wrought iron, -£1,360,000 of machinery and boilers, £510,000 of locomotives -and railway carriages and trucks, £330,000 of rails, and -£200,000 of other railway stock, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">i.e.</span></i>, 15 per cent. of the total -imports. This rapid development, which compares very favourably -<span class='pageno' id='Page_139'>139</span>with the two preceding years, 1896 and 1895, is mainly -due to increased activity in railway construction since the -Chinese War, and also to the rapid commercial expansion -throughout the Empire.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The following table shows the manner in which Japanese -foreign trade was shared among the various nations in 1896:</p> - -<table class='table1' summary=''> - <tr> - <th class='btt bbt c020'></th> - <th class='btt bbt blt c018'>Exportation from Japan.</th> - <th class='btt bbt blt c018'>Importation into Japan.</th> - <th class='btt bbt blt c018'>Total.</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>Great Britain</td> - <td class='blt c019'>£900,000</td> - <td class='blt c019'>£5,920,000</td> - <td class='blt c019'>£6,820,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>United States</td> - <td class='blt c019'>3,150,000</td> - <td class='blt c019'>1,640,000</td> - <td class='blt c019'>4,780,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>China</td> - <td class='blt c019'>1,380,000</td> - <td class='blt c019'>2,130,000</td> - <td class='blt c019'>3,510,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>Hong-Kong</td> - <td class='blt c019'>2,000,000</td> - <td class='blt c019'>910,000</td> - <td class='blt c019'>2,970,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>British India</td> - <td class='blt c019'>450,000</td> - <td class='blt c019'>2,250,000</td> - <td class='blt c019'>2,700,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>France</td> - <td class='blt c019'>1,900,000</td> - <td class='blt c019'>770,000</td> - <td class='blt c019'>2,670,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c020'>Germany</td> - <td class='blt c019'>300,000</td> - <td class='blt c019'>1,720,000</td> - <td class='blt c019'>2,020,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='bbt c020'>Korea</td> - <td class='bbt blt c019'>340,000</td> - <td class='bbt blt c019'>510,000</td> - <td class='bbt blt c019'>850,000</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p class='c008'>Japan also carries on a very extensive trade with other -countries besides those above mentioned, among them Switzerland, -Asiatic Russia, Italy, Australia, the Philippines, Cochin China, -Canada, etc., but in no case does it exceed £400,000 -annually. The relative high figures of the business transacted -between Japan and Hong-Kong is due to that port being a -centre whence goods are distributed to other countries. One -striking feature of the above table is the preponderance of the -trade between Japan and England, from which country she -derives all her cotton and linen goods, as well as nine-tenths of -her machinery and wrought iron (nails excepted), and more -than half of her woollens—in a word, the immense majority of -all the manufactured commodities imported into the country. -Germany sends machinery, cloth, almost all the iron nails, -alcohol, sugar and paper; Belgium and Russia export manufactured -articles into, but take almost nothing from, Japan. -The principal French import is <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">mousseline de laine</span>, valued at -£570,000, which is almost a French monopoly. About a -fifth of the goods imported from America consists of machinery -and wrought metals; the rest includes petroleum, raw cotton, -flour and leather. The United States, France, and lastly Italy, -are Japan’s principal customers for raw silk, as well as for her -light spun silks. Five-sixths of the tea grown in Japan goes to -America and the rest to England. China, Korea and India -<span class='pageno' id='Page_140'>140</span>take almost all the Japanese matches, while the coal will be -found distributed along the whole of the Asiatic Coast of the -Pacific. Copper goes to Hong-Kong, Germany and England, -and rice, camphor, matting, straw and art goods are distributed -all over Europe and the United States.</p> - -<p class='c008'>This brilliant picture of Japanese commercial prosperity has, -unfortunately, its shady side. Many complain that the articles -manufactured in Japan are not up to the mark in point of -excellence and finish. As is generally the case with Orientals, -they start well and make their first batch of goods admirably, -but the quality soon falls off, probably the result, not so -much of negligence, as of over-hasty production, due to competition. -There can be no question that these and other -complaints are not unfounded, and many intelligent Japanese -are the first to acknowledge and deplore them. As an instance -in point, matches are not nearly so well made as they used -to be. Many complaints have also been made as to the -increasing inferiority of a certain class of silk goods known as -<em>haboutaye</em> and of the silk pocket-handkerchiefs, of which an -enormous quantity are exported, with the result that the exportation -of these last-mentioned necessary articles fell from 1,855,000 -dozens in 1895, to 1,157,000 in 1897. On the other hand, there -is a distinct increase in the export of <em>haboutaye</em>. Nevertheless -many thoughtful people have watched this deterioration in the -excellence of the new Japanese industries with some alarm, -and not a few manufacturers who have had their attention -drawn to the matter have already mended their ways. The -same complaint might be made of goods manufactured in -certain parts of Europe, notably in Germany, where cheap and -showy articles are fabricated in superabundance, but Japan -would do well to maintain her reputation as high as possible -as a producer of all that is best in the market.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Still graver is the charge brought against Japanese merchants -of occasional lapses from a high standard of honour, and of -availing themselves of the slightest possible pretext to avoid -fulfilling the letter of their contracts, in which they contrast -unfavourably with the higher class of Chinese merchants, -whose reputation for integrity and for a strict adherence not -only to their written, but also to their verbal promises, is -well known, with some degree, possibly, of exaggeration. It -is as well to recall in this connection that the Japanese were -until quite recently a feudal and military people, who despised -<span class='pageno' id='Page_141'>141</span>trade in all its branches, and those who were engaged in its -pursuit were not considered any the better for being honest. -In China, on the other hand, it has ever been otherwise, the -merchants, after the literati, being looked upon as the most -honourable class in the Empire, whereas the military were -invariably despised, being recruited from the lowest ranks of -society. Ideas have certainly been considerably modified in -Japan in the last thirty years; still, the majority of the -merchants are of the same class as their predecessors when -they are not their immediate descendants; therefore, we should -not be surprised if they retain some of their traditions it were -better they were without. In a word, since the Restoration -of 1868 the Japanese have done their best to get rid of the -prejudices of feudal times, but although these are fast disappearing, -some of their after-effects still remain.</p> - -<p class='c008'>It has always been extremely difficult to induce Orientals to -understand the value of time, and in this particular the -Japanese are still on a par with their neighbours. Foreign -merchants have the greatest difficulty in persuading their -Japanese correspondents that a few days’; nay, a few hours’ -delay in the transaction of business and in the despatch of goods -often leads not only to much inconvenience, but to absolute loss.</p> - -<p class='c008'>One of the chief desires of the Japanese at the present time -is to see their export commerce pass from the hands of -foreigners, who hold it, into their own; but they may rest -assured that until they improve their business habits they will -not succeed in carrying out their object in this direction.</p> - -<p class='c008'>It has been noticed that during the three years 1896, 1897 -and 1898 the Japanese imports have been immensely in -excess of their exports. This is probably due to the necessity -of obtaining plant in great quantities for the immediate increase -of the many new industries that have sprung up all over the -country in so short a time. This financially has undoubtedly -resulted in a distinct loss to the nation. The Chinese War -indemnity brought a good deal of gold into the country, but -the greater part of it has been expended in augmenting the -navy and in the purchase of war materials. Fortunately, trade -throughout Japan in 1899 was distinctly flourishing, thanks -mainly to the abundance of the crops in the preceding year, -and also to a curb having been put on exaggerated industrial -activity, whereby, as already intimated, the imports were in -excess of the exports, and the danger of a crisis in this direction -<span class='pageno' id='Page_142'>142</span>was averted. This extraordinary commercial development in -so remarkably short a period reflects the greatest credit upon -the Japanese people, but we must not expect that it will continue -progressing without encountering occasional checks, and -there are not a few thoughtful people who foresee that the -Japanese factories will soon have to compete very seriously with -those which have been recently erected in the free ports of -China. In this respect it may be remarked that salaries have -risen at Shanghai, as well as at Osaka and Tokio. The acquisition -of the island of Formosa will probably before long -enable the Japanese to cultivate cotton and other tropical -produce on their own territory, which will, of course, be a -great gain to them.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_143'>143</span> - <h3 class='c001'>CHAPTER VII<br /> <span class='large'>THE FINANCES OF JAPAN</span></h3> -</div> -<p class='c014'>Flourishing condition of Japanese finance on the eve of the war with China—Present -Japanese financial problem the result of the important -military, naval, and public works undertaken by the Government at -the close of the war—Enormous expense of this programme, demanding -a loan of £24,000,000—Gradual method of paying off this debt in -nine instalments—Impossibility of floating the loan on the home -market, all Japanese capital being locked up in the various newly-created -industries—Debts incurred in connection with the programme -of expansion, whereby the ordinary Budget was doubled—Progressive -scale of taxation from the present date until 1905—Absolute necessity -of augmenting certain taxes—Projected imposition of increased taxation, -especially upon land and on beers, wines, and spirits—Taxation -as compared with the population of Japan and other countries—Prospects -of Japanese finance.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Before the war with China, Japanese finance was in a most -brilliant condition, and the fiscal year April 1st, 1893, to March -31st, 1894, the close of which preceded hostilities by only a few -months and which is the last of which accurate accounts have -been published, showed a return of £8,588,300 ordinary and -£315,913 extraordinary revenue, making a total of £8,904,213, -as against £8,458,187 expenditure, the surplus being £446,026, -which on a Budget of £10,400,000 was a very creditable but by -no means an exceptional result. As a matter of fact, there had -been only one deficit, that of 1891–92, resulting from the -exceptional expenses incurred by the nation through the -disastrous effects of the earthquake of 1891, one of the most -terrible on record even in Japan, where these dreadful visitations -are of very frequent occurrence. The whole financial tendency -of the preceding years is summed up in the statement that -at the beginning of the year 1896–97 £3,900,000, derived from -accumulated surpluses, was at the disposal of the Treasury, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_144'>144</span>although £2,300,000 had already been withdrawn from this -reserve fund to help in defraying the expenses of the war.</p> - -<p class='c008'>On the other hand, the National Debt at this period was -not higher than £28,350,000, of which £1,570,000 was paper -money in circulation. It had therefore diminished since -1890–91 by £2,300,000, of which £1,450,000 was due to the -withdrawal of the paper money. These notes had been issued -at a period when the new regime was not firmly established, -the insurrection at Satsuma still to be suppressed, and the -Government unable to obtain cash, even at a very high rate -of interest. In 1881 the premium upon silver, the standard -currency, had risen to 70 per cent., thanks to the energy of -Count Matsukata, the very able Minister of Finance. It fell -to 9 per cent. by 1884; in 1886 par was reached. The paper -money of the State and the national banks was gradually -withdrawn and replaced by notes of the Bank of Japan, payable -at sight. In brief, if we compare the figures of the Debt and -the Budget with those of the population, 41,500,000, we can -only envy the financial situation of Japan on the eve of the war.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Although the expenses of the Chino-Japanese War, which -were partly covered by the indemnity obtained from China and -partly by a public loan, undoubtedly checked the progressive -prosperity of the country, they had nothing whatever to do with -the present financial problem, which has been created by the -magnitude of the military, naval, industrial, and commercial -enterprises undertaken by the Japanese Government since the -close of the war. Between 1895 and 1896 the Government -decided to double the strength of the army, by raising the -number of divisions from six to twelve (exclusive of the Imperial -Guard), and it will now thus muster 150,000, as against 70,000 -to 75,000 on a peace footing, and 500,000, instead of from -270,000 to 280,000, in time of war. The fleet is to be increased -from 43 vessels of 78,000 tons, <em>plus</em> 26 torpedo-boats, without a -single cruiser, to 67 men-of-war, of which 7 are first-class battleships, -with a displacement of 258,000 tons, besides 11 torpedo-boat -destroyers and 115 torpedo-boats. The creation of -numerous arsenals and fortifications will eventually complete the -programme, but beyond these War Office expenses, very considerable -sums have been spent in the construction of railways, -extension of telegraph lines, creation of new ports, subventions -to the mercantile marine, and in the establishment of a second -University at Kioto. The plan of railway extension which -<span class='pageno' id='Page_145'>145</span>was decided upon in 1893 by the Diet must be completed -according to contract in 1910. The other measures for the -augmentation of the army and navy were included in the -programme of the Ito Cabinet, which the Chambers accepted -immediately after the signing of peace. This extra expenditure -is to be disbursed in ten instalments from 1896 to 1906, and -some further amendments and additions were made during the -Parliamentary Session of 1896–97. The expenses entailed by -these extensive schemes, together with the railways, are tabulated -below:—</p> - -<table class='table2' summary=''> - <tr> - <td class='c010'>Navy and arsenals</td> - <td class='c011'>£22,650,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c010'>Army</td> - <td class='c011'>8,220,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c010'>Fortifications</td> - <td class='c011'>940,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c010'>Other military expenses</td> - <td class='c011'>680,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c010'>Railway construction</td> - <td class='c011'>7,980,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c010'>Increase and improvement of lines</td> - <td class='c011'>2,650,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c010'>Telephones</td> - <td class='c011'>1,280,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c010'>Construction of ports</td> - <td class='c011'>790,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c010'>Defence against floods</td> - <td class='c011'>1,970,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c010'>Subventions to banks</td> - <td class='c011'>2,060,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c010'>Creation of a tobacco monopoly</td> - <td class='c011'>820,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c010'>Subventions to various industries, commerce, agriculture, and other public works</td> - <td class='c011'>1,460,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c010'> </td> - <td class='c011'><hr /></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c024'>Total</td> - <td class='c011'>£51,500,000</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p class='c008'>Of this amount £32,495,670 was for War Office expenses, -and £19,005,406 was intended for the very extensive commercial -enterprises.</p> - -<p class='c008'>In 1893 a loan was voted to be issued as and when required -to entirely cover the expense of the new railway lines. -The indemnity was £30,000,000, <em>plus</em> £4,100,000 as compensation -for the retrocession of the Liao-Tung Peninsula, -imposed upon Japan by the Russian, French, and German -Governments. This latter sum, as well as the first instalment, -£7,500,000, of the indemnity was duly paid into the Japanese -Treasury on November 8, 1895; the remainder was to be -paid by regular instalments on May 8 of each year until 1902. -China, however, availed herself of a clause allowing her to -pay off the debt at once, and thus escape interest charges, -which she did on May 8, 1898. Japanese statesmen had -anticipated this act of the Chinese Government, and did -not count upon more than £34,100,000. Of this sum -£8,000,000 had been debited to the war account, leaving a -balance of £26,100,000. In addition to these amounts, the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_146'>146</span>Treasury held the accumulated surpluses, which, on April 1, -1896, attained £3,900,000, to which £500,000 must be added -as the surplus in the Budget of 1896–97. The difference -between the total of these receipts and the anticipated expenses -was to be balanced by a loan known as ‘the loan for State -enterprises.’ The following table exhibits the assets for this -programme of expansion:</p> - -<table class='table2' summary=''> - <tr> - <td class='c010' colspan='2'>Chinese indemnity<a id='r17' /><a href='#f17' class='c006'><sup>[17]</sup></a></td> - <td class='c029'>£26,100,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c010' colspan='2'>Surpluses of previous Budgets</td> - <td class='c029'>4,400,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c010'>Railway loan,</td> - <td class='c009'>£7,980,000</td> - <td class='c029' rowspan='2'>21,480,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c010'>Loan for State enterprises,</td> - <td class='c009'>£13,500,000</td> - - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c010'> </td> - <td class='c009'> </td> - <td class='c029'><hr /></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c024'>Total</td> - <td class='c009'> </td> - <td class='c029'>£51,980,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c010'> </td> - <td class='c009'> </td> - <td class='c029'><hr class='double' /></td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p class='c008'>The expenses being £51,500,000, there would thus remain -a surplus of nearly £500,000, thanks to the favourable result -of the fiscal year 1896–97.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Apart from this financial scheme, however, there was still a -war charge which had not been foreseen. It had at first been -believed that the island of Formosa would be self-supporting, -an illusion which was soon dispelled, and the Government had -therefore to grant this new acquisition for a period of years a -subvention from the Imperial Treasury of about £600,000, -to obtain which various receipts officially described as extraordinary, -such as voluntary contributions and restitutions, sales -of State lands, and interest on divers funds had to be drawn -upon. These receipts generally averaged £200,000, and by -the year 1905–6, the time fixed for the conclusion of the expansion -programme, will have furnished between £1,500,000 and -£1,800,000; for the remainder it will be necessary to have -recourse to a loan, and supposing that during this period the -subvention of the Japanese Budget to Formosa, which must -necessarily diminish year by year, rises to about £4,000,000, -another loan of between £2,000,000 and £2,500,000 will -have to be raised. Japan would therefore have to borrow about -£24,000,000 from 1896–97 to meet the extraordinary expenses -she had undertaken. On the other hand, when these were met, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_147'>147</span>her ordinary Budget still remained greatly augmented by the -necessity of maintaining an army and navy double what they -were before the war.</p> - -<p class='c008'>This being the case, two important questions presented -themselves. In the first place, was it possible to raise without -difficulty a loan of £24,000,000, and from whence was it to be -obtained? In the second, was the country sufficiently rich, -once the scheme was executed, to maintain this increased -expenditure, and by what means would it be able to obtain -fresh resources to pay current expenses? The first question -contained the principal difficulty. Not only did Japan need -to borrow £24,000,000, but she had to borrow most of this -without loss of time. Naturally, the Administration decided -to carry out with the least possible delay the essential -parts of the programme already determined upon, especially -those connected with the national defence, and the Budgets -of 1896, 1897, and 1898 were therefore most heavily charged -with the extraordinary expenses. The extraordinary Budget -of the first year reached £10,300,000, that of the second -£14,200,000, that of the third £6,000,000. In no case, -however, could the surpluses of the previous Budgets and -the part already paid out of the indemnity (which was -£20,600,000, of which £8,000,000 had been handed over to -the War Office) have sufficed to provide such large amounts. -It was therefore necessary to borrow in 1896–97 £1,830,000, -in 1897–98 £6,880,000, while in 1898–99 a further issue of -£4,500,000 had to be made. Now the grave situation which -arose was this: the issues of 1896–97 were readily taken up -by the public, but in 1897–98 only a third of the sum needed -could be obtained, because the conditions of the market were -too unfavourable and disposable capital was lacking. Whereas -in the summer of 1897 £4,000,000 of a 5 per cent. Japanese -loan was floated on the London market at par, the Government -offered the Japanese people bonds bearing the same interest at -94, but they were not placed without much difficulty.</p> - -<p class='c008'>All the capital in Japan is locked up either in previously -contracted State loans or in the innumerable commercial -enterprises which have sprung up in the country during the past -few years. When we remember that nine-tenths of the -£40,000,000, at which the National Debt stood after the war, -is in Japanese hands, and that it is with their own money -that they have constructed railways and established new industries, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_148'>148</span>there is no ground for surprise at this lack of ready -capital. In view, however, of the evident impossibility -of placing a domestic loan for the sum required, two alternatives -remained: a foreign loan, or a reduction to more modest -proportion of the programme of expansion.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The result of an appeal to foreign capitalists would no doubt -have proved successful if the attractive interest of from 5 to -5¼ per cent. had been offered. Japan offers excellent security. -Her finances have hitherto been admirably managed, and her -liabilities do not appear to be in excess of the capabilities of -her people. Nevertheless, the project of a foreign loan seems -to have met with serious opposition from many eminent -people in Japan, which arose from a twofold cause: first, fear -of compromising the independence of the country by supplying -foreigners with a pretext for interfering in the internal affairs of -the Empire, in case there was any difficulty in fulfilling obligations; -and, secondly, the national pride, which regarded it as -humiliating for Japan to become indebted to Europe. This -latter motive was doubtless the most powerful, but it rested -upon an altogether exaggerated notion of national dignity. -What all the great Powers of the world, except, perhaps, -France and England, have done, Japan might do without -sacrificing her dignity. The Japanese Government, after long -hesitation, in which it perhaps missed the most favourable -opportunity, decided in June, 1899, to issue a 4 per cent. loan -on the London market at the rate of 90 francs. The high rate -of issue did not greatly tempt the public, but that part of the -loan not then subscribed will be gradually issued and advanced -by the banks which undertook the issue, and thus the Japanese -Treasury will find itself in possession of sufficient funds to -proceed with its programme until money is more plentiful at -home. In the meantime, so far as concerns the honourable -intentions of the Japanese to fulfil their obligations, we may -rely with safety upon their natural high sense of honour, and -rest assured that they will do everything in their power to meet -their obligations. Moreover, the resources of Japan, which I -will briefly analyze, appear sufficient to enable the country to -meet without much difficulty the interest on the loans as well -as the permanent expenditure resulting from its greater national -importance.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Let us, to begin with, review the principal items in the -revenue as tabulated in the Budget of 1897–98:</p> - -<table class='table2' summary=''> - <tr><td class='c013' colspan='2'><span class='pageno' id='Page_149'>149</span></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>Land tax</td> - <td class='c029'>£3,870,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>Income tax</td> - <td class='c029'>190,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>Tax on drinks</td> - <td class='c029'>2,990,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>Tax on tobacco</td> - <td class='c029'>310,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>Registration</td> - <td class='c029'>750,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>Tax on sales, contracts, etc.</td> - <td class='c029'>590,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>Customs</td> - <td class='c029'>660,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>Various duties</td> - <td class='c029'>490,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>Posts and telegraph</td> - <td class='c029'>1,210,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>Profits of the State railways</td> - <td class='c029'>540,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>Crown land products</td> - <td class='c029'>290,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>Other items</td> - <td class='c029'>250,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'>Receipts from Formosa</td> - <td class='c029'>810,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'> </td> - <td class='c029'><hr /></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c024'>Total</td> - <td class='c029'>£12,950,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c012'> </td> - <td class='c029'><hr class='double' /></td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p class='c008'>This Budget is higher by one-half than that of 1893–94, the -total of which we have already given, and whose ordinary -receipts did not quite reach £8,600,000. This increase results -from four causes: (1) better returns from the public services—railways -and posts; (2) a slight increase in the revenue from -taxes whose rate has not changed, and also in the Crown lands; -(3) the establishment of two new taxes on registrations and sales, -contracts, and other commercial deeds, the aggregate value of -which increased the revenue by about £1,200,000; (4) the -reorganization of the tax on drink, increased by £1,150,000, -and of that on tobacco, in consequence of this product having -been converted into a monopoly, the effects, however, of which -were not felt in 1897–98, for it only came into force in January, -1898. To these we must add the receipts from Formosa, which, -unfortunately, are not net receipts. The total revenue for the -fiscal year 1897–98 was £12,950,000, and exceeded ordinary -expenses by £600,000; but these figures will undoubtedly be -greatly augmented when the programme of expansion is completed. -It is calculated that by the year 1904–5 the ordinary -expenses will stand as high as £17,300,000, in order to meet -which it will be necessary to raise another £4,400,000 by -increased taxation.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Taxation in Japan has a natural tendency to increase. -During the years 1887–94 the annual rise was between 1¼ and -1½ per cent. at a time, when it was not affected by any unusual -excitement. This was before the war. Assuming that -it only advances at the rate of ¾ per cent., it is expected that -by the year 1904–5 the increase will add £500,000 to the -£9,800,000 of 1897–98. On the other hand, the Customs -<span class='pageno' id='Page_150'>150</span>tariff, which was kept exceedingly low by the treaties with -foreign Powers, has risen in consequence of the revision of -these treaties, and, it is hoped, will produce an increase of -£600,000. The tobacco monopoly will also, it is anticipated, -produce £800,000 per annum, an absolute increase of -£500,000 on the existing returns. There remains, therefore, -£2,800,000 to find, which will doubtlessly be obtained from -the increased receipts of the posts, telegraph, and telephones, -and by the extension of the State railways now in -existence, and the exploitation of those in process of construction.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The recent excessive activity in commercial circles has -suffered a check of late, a halt not very surprising after -such a forced march. In the meantime, there is some risk -that the returns of the posts and railways may not increase -as rapidly as the more sanguine anticipate, for the new railways -are not likely to prove as profitable as those already in -existence, which pass through richer regions. During the -interval 1892–96 the net railway returns to the State, without -including any remarkable increase in the lengths of their lines, -was doubled. By the year 1904 it is calculated that there will -be 1,250 miles of rail instead of the 600 in 1897, which it is -estimated will yield an increase of £550,000 upon the present -returns. As to the posts, telegraph, and telephones, whose rough -receipts were augmented by about 80 per cent. during the last -four years, there is every reason to believe that they will in -1904–5 be £850,000 above what they are at present. Thus we -have £1,400,000 added to the necessary £2,800,000. The remaining -£1,400,000 will have to be taken from various other -sources of taxation. The question now arises: Will the country -stand further taxation without protest? The answer seems to -me reassuring. The land tax before the Restoration and even -to the close of the seventeenth century, as can be verified by -reference to many important historical documents, was seven -times more burdensome than it is at present, and was paid in -kind—in rice, or other kindred products—and yielded to the -daimios and the Central Government 147,000,000 bushels of -rice per annum. At the price fetched by rice in 1897, when -the harvest returned a fair average, the land tax should now -represent about a sixth of this amount, and the total -Budget of £17,300,000 anticipated for the year 1894–95 only -claimed 93,100,000 bushels. If we add to these all the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_151'>151</span>provincial and communal Budgets, we find not more than -127,400,000 bushels of rice. It is therefore untrue that the -Japanese are not better off to-day than they were under the old -regime. Since the introduction of the present financial conditions -and the abolition of the feudal system, prices have increased -enormously. From 1887 to 1897, according to the -Monthly Returns published by the Bank of Japan, on the returns -of about forty principal products of the Empire, we find that -they have increased in value by no less than 73 per cent. -Salaries have augmented even to a greater extent, and the population -has risen 4,000,000, so that an addition of 45 per cent. -upon the taxes leaves the taxpayer less heavily burdened than -before. The most important of all these taxes may strike us -as distinctly heavy, but we must not forget that in former times -it was the only form of taxation. In those good old days nine-tenths -of the population lived in the country, which was divided -up among the daimios, the peasantry being their tenants; but at -the abolition of the feudal system the peasants, under the new -law, became proprietors, without having to pay a fraction either -to their former masters or to the Government.</p> - -<p class='c008'>In 1896 the agricultural produce of Japan was valued at -£62,600,000, exclusive of the produce of the fens, which, -however, is very important. The land taxes, therefore, at -£3,800,000 are only 5·6 per cent., and the local land tax 2·8 -per cent. of this total. All this is not excessive.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Finally, the land tax includes £352,500 derived from the tax -on urban building land, which pays £1 12s. per acre, only four -times as much as the rice-fields, and should easily return from -£200,000 to £300,000 more. As regards the total of the -land tax, it was decreased by one-sixth in 1877; an equivalent -increase would bring in a return of about £600,000 more, and -this could be effected without much inconvenience, owing to -the general increase in the value of property. The tax on <em>saké</em>, -the principal drink of the country, was raised in 1897 about -one-half. It would bear augmentation, as at present it pays -5d. per gallon on a drink which is worth 1s. 3d. a gallon. In -general, the Japanese financiers prefer to raise existing taxes -rather than establish new ones. If we study the question -from another point of view, and examine how best to increase -Japanese taxes, let us consider the Budget as it will be -five years hence, after the necessary taxes already mentioned -have been added to it. Of the £17,300,000 of the Revenue, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_152'>152</span>£3,400,000 will be derived from Crown lands, railways, and -posts, £850,000 from Formosa, and £13,000,000 from monopolies -and taxes paid by Japan proper. The population, -increasing as it does at the rate of 350,000 to 400,000 souls -a year, will have reached 45,500,000, contributing to the -State at the rate of £13,000,000, or about 5s. 9d. per head, -which does not seem to us excessive when compared with -what is paid by people of other countries. A Frenchman, for -instance, pays £3, an Italian £1 12s., a Russian 12s. 9d., an -Egyptian 16s. 9d., and a Hindu 3s. 9d. I have not selected -these nationalities haphazard, but because each of them has -some special characteristic in common with Japan, especially -Egypt, essentially an agricultural country. I do not think that -anybody can maintain that an Italian, as a rule, is five or six -times richer than a Japanese, or an Egyptian three times, or -that the 130,000,000 of Russians, 20,000,000 of whom are -Asiatics, possess incomes double the average to be found in -Japan, and there is no doubt an immense inverse difference -between a Hindu and a Japanese. Bearing in mind these -facts, one must certainly conclude that the amount which the -Jap will pay to his Treasury is considerably lighter than that -obtained from almost every people in the Old World. With -regard to the National Debt, five-sixths of which is held -by natives, at the present moment it does not exceed -£40,000,000, but it will reach its maximum in 1901, when it -will stand at £49,930,000. The annual repayment stands at -present at £720,000, but will increase to £1,000,000 in 1903, -and go on augmenting, so that by 1938, unless fresh obligations -are incurred beyond those already in view, Japan will be free -of debt.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The financial difficulties confronting Japan at the present -moment are therefore not so formidable as they appear. In -1899 the Chamber increased the land tax, which it had previously -very persistently refused to do. At the same time it -raised the tax on <em>saké</em> and on the posts. The Budget of ordinary -receipts was therefore advanced to £19,000,000. This -figure may appear excessive, but it shows a surplus of -£4,000,000 on the actual expenses, a fact which indicates the -intention of the Government to pay off as soon as possible the -extraordinary expenses of the Ito programme, which means -that these increased taxations are to be considered merely as -temporary. They may possibly impede commerce at first, a -<span class='pageno' id='Page_153'>153</span>thing which, unfortunately, cannot be helped, but, at any rate, -the future will be considerably benefited thereby. The finances -of Japan have, happily, always been managed in a highly satisfactory -and prudent manner, and if the Empire carries out the -present plan of expansion, and does not embark on any fresh -schemes involving further outlay, Japan seems to have found -a clear way out of the transient difficulties which at one time -weighed upon her finances.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_154'>154</span> - <h3 class='c001'>CHAPTER VIII<br /> <span class='large'>THE DOMESTIC POLITICS AND PARLIAMENT OF JAPAN</span></h3> -</div> -<p class='c014'>Present social organization—The nobles, or <em>kwazoku</em>; the <em>shizoku</em>, or -ancient <em>samurai</em>; and the <em>heimin</em>—Equal civil rights for all citizens—Preponderance -of the <em>samurai</em> in politics since the Restoration—Survival -of the clan spirit—Japan governed during the past thirty -years by the Choshiu and Satsuma clans—Creation in 1889 of a Constitution -modelled on that of Prussia—Parliamentary struggles against -Cabinets governed by Southern clans—Frequent crises and dissolutions—A -Ministerial crisis in Japan—Efforts of the Chamber to impose -Ministerial responsibility and to replace the Government of clans by -that of parties—Signs of improvement in the working of the representative -system—Its prospects in Japan.</p> - -<p class='c007'>We have now to study the least praiseworthy of the many -institutions borrowed from Europe by modern Japan, that -relating to the home politics of the country, which are very -unsettled. Since 1889, when the Mikado, in fulfilment of the -promise made to his people at the Restoration, first granted a -Constitution analogous to that of Prussia, the Chambers have -been dissolved not less than five times. A constant antagonism -has existed between the representatives of the people -and the various Cabinets which have succeeded each other; -and if we except the time of the Chinese War, when the -patriotism of the Japanese was so intense as to absorb even -party feeling, we shall find that no Cabinet has been able to -dispose of an important majority. In order to understand this -state of affairs, we must recall the manner in which the Restoration -took place, bearing in mind the actual social organization -of Japan, and also the fact that the clan instinct has survived -both class prejudice and feudal privileges, which were suppressed -without the least opposition or regret.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Twenty-five years have now elapsed since the abolition of -the old regime, and in the meantime the feudal system has been -<span class='pageno' id='Page_155'>155</span>replaced, primarily by a centralized and absolute monarchy, and -now by Parliamentary representation modelled on the European -plan. The eighty odd historical provinces have become forty-five -departments, each administered by a Prefect. The people -are, however, still divided into three distinct classes: the -aristocracy, or <em>kwazoku</em>, formed of a fusion of the ancient -daimios with the <em>kuges</em>, or Court nobles, and of the <em>shinkwazoku</em>, -or newly ennobled persons (in all 644 families, consisting -of about 4,162 persons); the <em>shizoku</em>, or ancient -<em>samurai</em> (numbering 432,458 families, or 2,049,144 persons); -and finally the <em>heimin</em>, or commoners; but apart from the -predominance of the nobility in the composition of the Chamber -of Peers<a id='r18' /><a href='#f18' class='c006'><sup>[18]</sup></a> no privileges have been granted either to them or to -the <em>shizoku</em>: their duties are exactly the same as those of -any other members. From the social point of view we shall, -however, very soon find that far less exclusiveness exists in this -country, where feudalism was in full force only so recently as -thirty years ago, than we should in many in Europe, where its -abolition dates back in some instances several centuries. A -Japanese gentleman recently said to me: ‘In Japan we never -dream of asking a person the first time we see him to what -class he belongs.’ I dare say some time-honoured privileges -still linger in their inner circle, and that a few old-fashioned -noblemen do consider themselves superior to the <em>heimin</em>, but -they take great care not to display any such feeling. One -meets members of the Japanese aristocracy in every public -resort and place of amusement, and they mingle without the -least hesitation with the rest of the public. I remember one -day at Tokio being present at a wrestling match, a very -favourite sport with the Japanese. Someone pointed out to -me Prince K⸺, the President of the House of Peers, seated -among the crowd on one of the steps of the ring. The -Marquis H⸺, the descendent of a great family of daimios, -was also present, as well as the Marquis Tokukawa, who is an -ardent admirer of the sport and belongs to the family of the -Shoguns, to have merely looked upon a member of which a -generation or so back would have cost a man of the people his -life. These gentlemen appeared to thoroughly enjoy the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_156'>156</span>entertainment, and evidently thought very little or nothing at -all of their former exclusiveness.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Although the highest positions in the Government are open -to all, they have hitherto always remained in the hands of the -<em>samurai</em>. Just as immediately after the Restoration, so to-day -the country is governed by members of this very numerous -and intelligent gentry. All the successive Ministers, the -majority of whom have been ennobled, even made <em>kwazoku</em>, -have sprung from its ranks. The same may be said of all -the high officials, and, with very few exceptions, of the majority -of the smaller employés of the Government, even down to -the very police agents and the vast majority of the military -and naval officers. This is not surprising when we remember -that the <em>samurai</em> constituted before the Restoration not only -the military, but also the student and literary class. Even -now the greater number of the students at the University are -recruited from among them, and as a proof that a sort of -special respect is still entertained for them, they form the -majority of the members of the Lower House, although they -only possess one-twentieth of the voting power of the country. -The mass of the Japanese people may be described as caring -very little about public affairs; and it is, after all, perhaps as -well that the political and administrative affairs of such a new -country should be in the hands of a distinct and cultured -class. This is, however, merely a transitory state of affairs, not a -privilege. It is already observed that the proportion of the -<em>heimin</em> in all public offices, even in the army, tends to increase -rapidly.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The only marked feature of the former regime which still -survives the many social changes that have recently taken place -in Japan is the clan spirit, which is as strong to-day as ever. -The bond which united the followers of a former feudal prince -among themselves still subsists, although the prince himself -may have fallen almost to the level of his clansmen. The -men who have up to the present governed modern Japan -have always belonged to southern clans, especially to those of -Choshiu and Satsuma; the two others, Hizen and Tosa, are -less united, and although certain important political personages -are of their number, they have had to fight their way -to the front rather by dint of hard work than through any -clan influence. The influential combination formed by the -first-named clans, and unitedly known as the Sat-Cho, holds in -<span class='pageno' id='Page_157'>157</span>its hands the reins of administration, rules the army, and makes -its influence felt even more strongly in the navy. Their politics, -however, are not quite identical. Those of the Satsuma, for -instance, are usually believed to be rather more conservative -and authoritative than otherwise, and it is from its ranks that -are recruited the majority of the military party. The men of -the Choshiu, on the other hand, are more progressive and more -subtle, but they are also accused of being too fond of money. -The chiefs of these clans appear to understand each other -sufficiently well to establish a sort of balance of power between -themselves, occasionally collaborating in a Cabinet, at other -times succeeding each other as distinct Ministries. In the -rank and file there is considerable rivalry, positions and -honours being more liberally distributed among the followers -of those in power. During the earlier part of my visit to Japan, -under the last Premier, Count Matsukata, the Satsuma clan -was in the ascendant, and to give some idea of its influence -all I need say is that the Minister of Finance, the President -of the Council, the Minister of Foreign Affairs, the Home -Minister, and the Minister of War and Marine—in short, the -five most important Ministers out of eight—were of their -number, and a sixth was a prominent member of the Choshiu, -their allied clan. Now the provinces of Yamaguchi and Kagoshima, -which are the home of these two clans, contain only -one out of the forty-two million inhabitants of the entire -Empire. It is therefore not surprising that people in other -parts of the country should complain of having so small a share -in the Government. Imagine France ruled exclusively for -thirty years by Provençaux! It would only be natural that such -a state of affairs should lead to great dissatisfaction throughout -the Republic.</p> - -<p class='c008'>So long as Japan remained an absolute monarchy, in which -the Legislature was concentrated within a narrow circle, the -Choshiu and Satsuma Ministries succeeded each other without -any noisy opposition; but when in 1890 Parliamentary -Government was established, an immediate collision occurred -between the Lower Chamber, which is composed of representatives -from all parts of the country,<a id='r19' /><a href='#f19' class='c006'><sup>[19]</sup></a> and the Cabinet, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_158'>158</span>dominated by the Sat-Cho combination. Although according -to the Constitution, analogous to that of Prussia, the Ministers -are not responsible to the Chambers, but to the Emperor alone, -and although the Budget of the current year, if the finance -bill is not voted in due time, becomes by law that of the following -year also, the irreconcilable opposition which manifested -itself from the beginning greatly embarrassed the first Matsukata -Ministry in 1891 and 1892, and the Ito Ministry which succeeded -it. This latter, whose plans for the extension of the -Navy were obstinately rejected by the Chamber, twice dissolved -it: in December, 1893, and again in May, 1894. After the war -patriotic feeling ran so high that people cared very little about -the Government and its measures, and projected laws were -adopted without the least opposition; but when affairs began -to settle down it was otherwise. In 1897 and 1898 there were -two dissolutions, and in the latter year the Ministry in power -was the ninth since December, 1885, and the seventh since the -establishment of the Parliamentary system. This gives an -average of about two years for each Cabinet, and even less -for the Chamber, of which not one has yet attained its legal -term.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The reason for this persistent conflict is due in the first place -to the popular assembly being hostile to the Government of -the clansmen, and in the second because it is displeased that -the Ministers are not responsible to it. Whilst professing the -greatest respect for the Emperor, the Chamber considers that -the Government should possess a Parliamentary majority in -<span class='pageno' id='Page_159'>159</span>order to retain power. It, moreover, complains of a certain -lack of respect, Ministers rarely troubling to appear before -it, and that it is seldom, if ever, addressed by any but high -functionaries, appointed Government Commissioners for -matters within their several departments. In a word, there -exists considerable friction in the popular assembly against -this state of affairs, which reduces it to the position of a mere -debating society.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Now, all successive Cabinets have resolutely refused to -consider the Lower Chamber in any other light, which gave -rise to some curious incidents during the Ministerial and -Parliamentary crisis of December, 1897, and January, 1898, -which I had the good fortune to witness. The Cabinet, persuaded -that the majority was hostile to it, determined to avoid -even the semblance of dependence upon the Chamber, and -therefore did not wait for the passing of a vote of censure, -but dissolved the Chamber and offered their own resignation -to the Emperor, to whom alone they considered themselves -responsible.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Consequently, on December 24th the Emperor, according -to custom, came in person to read the Speech from the -Throne to the two united Chambers, who forthwith voted -the usual answer. These two documents were very short, and -the second, containing merely protestations of respect and -loyalty, was unanimously adopted. On the morrow, scarcely -had the order of the day been read and certain financial -projects of the Government presented, than the doyen of the -Chamber, Mr. Suzuki, asked leave to speak, and proposed the -amendment, so as to enable the House to discuss a vote of -censure. This amendment, which did not come as a surprise, -being unanimously passed, the same gentleman returned immediately -to the tribune and read out the following resolution, -‘That the Chamber of Deputies declares it has no confidence -in the present Ministry,’ whereupon somebody presented a -folded paper to the President, who silenced the speaker by -announcing that he had just received an Imperial rescript, the -tenor of which he informed the Chamber was as follows: -‘In virtue of Article 3 of the Imperial Constitution, We hereby -ordain that the Chamber of Deputies be dissolved forthwith.’ -The House rose, having met for only seven minutes, -and simultaneously the Upper House was prorogued. Two -days later, on the 27th, the Emperor received the resignation -<span class='pageno' id='Page_160'>160</span>of Count Matsukata and his colleagues. On the evening of -the same day the Marquis Ito, who had already twice been -Premier, in 1886–88 and in 1892–96, and who is certainly the -best known living Japanese statesman, was summoned to the -palace. At first he hesitated about accepting the leadership -of the Government under such very difficult circumstances, -especially with respect to foreign affairs, Japan being at that -time at the acute stage of her Chinese question, while home -matters were embarrassed by several economical and financial -obstructions of a very serious character, but nevertheless, the -Marquis finally accepted. After ten days’ fruitless negotiations, -he was obliged to give up his difficult task; but he was -able, however, by the 12th of January to compose another -Cabinet containing some excellent names, but it was a clan -Ministry, including four Choshius and two Satsumas. In June -he was obliged to dissolve Parliament, and the Ito Cabinet -had to give way to another, formed under the Presidency -of Count Okuma, a statesman of very progressive views, which -may be described as the only genuine Parliamentary Cabinet -Japan has yet known. The new Cabinet was not composed -from a single party, but by a coalition of the two already -existing, and leagued against the clans. It lasted but a short -time, and towards the end of 1898 the Satsuma and Choshiu -parties returned to office under the Premiership of Marshal -Yamagata.</p> - -<p class='c008'>As in the case of the clans, the parties are formed of -groups of persons and interests. They have no defined programmes, -but are constantly changing their views, and are mere -cliques surrounding one or two influential politicians who -aspire to replace the clan in office merely for the sake of the -advantages to be obtained, and to be able to distribute posts -among their relatives and friends. In the Parliament which -was dissolved in 1897 by Count Matsukata the most important -of these groups was that of the ‘Progressives,’ including -some 90 to 95 members out of 300; then came the -‘Liberals,’ with about 80 adherents; then the ‘National -Unionists,’ 25 to 30; and, lastly, some twenty other subdivisions, -besides the ‘Independents.’ The Progressives are -more consistent, possibly because they have only been in existence -since 1896. The Liberals, although the oldest group, have -almost completely lost their influence and cohesion during the -last two or three years.</p> - -<p class='c008'><span class='pageno' id='Page_161'>161</span>If you question a Japanese about the programmes of these -different parties he will give very vague answers, and, for -the matter of that, they are hardly distinguishable one from -another. The demands presented by the Progressives to Count -Matsukata in the autumn of 1897 were formulated in the -vaguest terms, and confined to generalities, such as reforms in -the administration, a magnanimous system of government, etc. -The National Unionists are somewhat conservative in their -tendencies, but their programme is also extremely nebulous. -On one point, however, everybody seems agreed, and that is a -horror of any attempt to increase taxation, and not even the -most seductive of projects will induce the Chamber to budge -an inch in this direction—an economical consistency which is -a distinct virtue considering the youth and inexperience of the -Japanese House of Representatives.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The influential politicians do not form a part of the Chamber, -nearly all of them having been ennobled, and, what is more, -with one exception, they are not avowed chiefs of any -party. If Count Itagaki, an old Radical, is the official leader -of the Liberals, Count Okuma, by far the most original statesman -in the Empire, does not profess to be the leader of the -Progressives, although he is extremely intimate with them. -Neither does Marshal Yamagata openly declare his influence -over the National Unionists. This action on the part of those -who in any other country would be popularly known as leaders -of the various parties undoubtedly weakens the influence of -the several groups in the Japanese Parliament. As to the representatives -of the two clans in power in the House, needless -to say, the feeling of clanship carries all before it, even party -interests. Three Satsuma deputies who belong to the Progressives -immediately withdrew when this party in a preliminary -meeting declared opposition to the Matsukata Ministry.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The men of the Southern clans have now governed Japan -for over thirty years, and governed her well. The able and -energetic statesmen of the first days of the Restoration have -been succeeded by others of equal ability, and of the same -school. They are surrounded, however, by a bureaucracy -which existed in Japan even in the days of the last Shoguns, -and closely resembles that of Prussia, which, although arrogant, -is highly educated and progressive. They are supported -by a powerful and well-disciplined army, a navy whose -officers are for the most part members of the same clans as the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_162'>162</span>Ministers, and the heads of the Civil Service. These men -have led their country happily through a series of unexampled -changes, transforming her from a feudal to a modern State -administered on advanced principles. They have placed her -in an excellent financial position, they have covered her -with military glory, and have assured her a period of extraordinary -prosperity and economic development. These observations -force themselves upon the impartial spectator who -visits Japan with the object of studying the remarkable progress -she has made in so surprisingly short a time.</p> - -<p class='c008'>It is impossible not to feel some anxiety lest affairs should -be wrenched from the hands of such experienced statesmen as -those of the Satsuma and the Choshiu clans, only to be -scrambled for among the groups into which the Chamber is at -present divided. This, however, need not make us despair -of the success of Parliamentary Government in Japan. We -must not forget that the British Parliament was not shaped in -a day, and that in all countries in which this particular form of -government has been accepted many years have had to elapse -before it attained anything approaching perfection, and it is -but natural that Japan should go through the same experience. -To be just, however, considerable progress has lately been -made in the right direction. The parties which possess -any kind of adhesion have occasionally participated more or -less directly in the Government. Marquis Ito brought Count -Itagaki into the Cabinet of 1895, and at the end of his Ministry -was himself supported in the Chamber by the Liberals. Then, -again, in 1896 Count Matsukata came into power in company -with Count Okuma, favoured by the Progressives. Throughout -the whole of the Session of 1896–97, thanks to their support -and to that of the secondary groups, the Government possessed -a decided majority which did honour to the political -acumen of the Ministers and to the wisdom of the members. -Unfortunately, in the autumn of 1897 the Progressives grew -tired of a Cabinet which did not fulfil its promises, and withdrew, -carrying with them Count Okuma; but this attempt -showed on the one hand that the Government had recognised -the importance of an understanding with a party, and on the -other that such an understanding possessed some staying power. -Since the month of October, 1898, the Yamagata Ministry has -had to deal with a very reasonable Parliament, which has unhesitatingly -passed those laws which were required to extricate -<span class='pageno' id='Page_163'>163</span>the country from its financial difficulties, and also divers -measures necessitated by recently concluded treaties with European -Powers. All this seems to indicate that under certain grave -circumstances the Japanese Parliament is quite capable of -rising to the occasion, and possesses the great quality, as I have -said once before, of a spirit of economy often, unfortunately, -absent from the more experienced Parliaments of Europe. -If the Japanese Parliament ever returns to its old turbulent and -boisterous humours, and insists upon governing instead of controlling, -and if its irreconcilable Opposition incurs the risk of compromising -the interests of the country, it is not at all improbable -that the Constitution may be seriously embarrassed by a series -of crises, but at present there is not much chance of exceptional -measures creating any serious trouble. If the voters of Japan -are apt to display an over-exuberance at elections, this is due -in the main to the fact that they are new to their business, and -moreover they form but a very small proportion of the population. -The masses are absolutely indifferent to political -agitation. The newspapers, which are read in the towns, make -but slight reference to politics, and are mainly filled with -gossip, novels and anecdotes, while to the vast majority of the -people the Emperor is still a demi-god, and the last thing the -commercial classes would approve would be a series of riotous -scenes in the Chamber.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_164'>164</span> - <h3 class='c001'>CHAPTER IX<br /> <span class='large'>JAPAN’S FOREIGN POLICY AND HER MILITARY POWER</span></h3> -</div> -<p class='c014'>The military forces of Japan—The part they may play in the Far East—Japanese -army and navy—Excellent qualities and sound instruction of -the troops—Remarkable power of organization displayed during the -war with China—Importance of a Japanese alliance for the Powers -interested in China—The feeling of Japan towards foreign countries—Her -conservative policy in China since the war—Her policy hostile to -Russia and favourable to England—The Korean Question—Motives -which might lessen her feeling of hostility towards Russia—Japan the -champion of the integrity of the Celestial Empire.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The Japanese Parliament having voted the necessary funds for -carrying out the programme of military, naval and economic -expansion which was formulated by the Government after the -Chino-Japanese War, the Empire will have, as we have already -seen, without mentioning new railways and other public works, -an army of 150,000 men on a peace footing, instead of from -70,000 to 75,000, and will be able to send into the field 500,000 -men instead of from 270,000 to 280,000 men. Her fleet will -be increased to 67 men-of-war, of 258,000 tons, 11 torpedo-boat -destroyers, and 115 torpedo-boats, instead of the 33 vessels -of 63,000 tonnage and 26 torpedo-boats she had before the war -with China.</p> - -<p class='c008'>It is not expected that the completion of this programme -of defence will take place before 1905 as regards the navy, -and 1903 with respect to the army. As the matter stands, -however, more than half the work is finished. Of the -£21,300,000 voted to defray the expenses of the augmentation -of the navy, which includes arsenals, docks, etc., it was -stipulated that £13,300,000 was to be disbursed before -April 1st, 1899, and £3,400,000 more between that date -and April 1st, 1900. The lengthy opposition made by the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_165'>165</span>Parliament with regard to the raising of taxes and foreign loans -possibly may have retarded the works a little, especially those -which have been executed in Japan; but the foreign orders -have been fulfilled, and the Mikado’s navy is now in possession -of nearly all the new vessels contracted for. The completion of -at least three out of the five arsenals is also far advanced. The -same may be said of the army. Of the £7,900,000 demanded -for its increase, £4,200,000 was spent before April, 1896, and -£1,000,000 between that date and April, 1900. It may be well -to remind my readers that when everything is completed the -army will consist of twelve divisions instead of six, exclusive -of the Imperial Guard. Three of these new divisions were -completed when I was in Japan in 1898.</p> - -<p class='c008'>What constitutes the great importance of the Japanese factor -in the Far East, and consequently throughout the world—the -question of the Far East dominating all others—is that her -military and maritime forces are on the spot. The Japanese -navy would be respectable under any circumstances, for it is -equal to that of either Italy or Germany; but it should be -remembered that the Western nations cannot leave their coasts -and their colonies unprotected, and consequently can only -send a secondary portion of their maritime force, otherwise -scattered throughout the world, into Chinese waters. It follows -therefore that no other European Power, excepting perhaps -England, could bring into these waters in case of war a fleet -in any way comparable with that of the Mikado.<a id='r20' /><a href='#f20' class='c006'><sup>[20]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c008'>What has been said of the naval power may be repeated with -still greater emphasis of the military. It is needless to recall -the difficulties to be overcome in transporting, notwithstanding -the immense size of vessels now in use, even a single army -corps to the Far East, the long and minute preparations -necessary for such an enterprise, or the perils that are likely to -be encountered, unless the sending Power is absolute mistress -of the sea. Japan, thanks to her railways and Inland Sea, can -now in a few days concentrate her whole army where no hostile -vessel dare pursue it, in the island of Kiu-Siu, 125 miles from -the coast of Korea, barely 500 miles from the mouth of the -Yang-tsze-Kiang, a distance equalling that between Marseilles -and Algiers, and 625 miles from the Bay of Pe-chi-li, and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_166'>166</span>940 miles from the entrance to the Pei-ho, the river which -flows to Peking. It could, therefore, in a few days after the -declaration of war land in China and especially in Korea such -a force as no European Power, excepting Russia, once the -Trans-Siberian line is finished, could introduce in so short a -time.<a id='r21' /><a href='#f21' class='c006'><sup>[21]</sup></a> Since her fleet can easily protect her own territory, she -need keep only a part of her reserves at home.</p> - -<p class='c008'>We have already seen that in the struggle with China, Japan, -with her naval and military forces, easily overcame that rather -contemptible enemy. It was evident that in this campaign -the Japanese displayed remarkable organizing ability, and that -the whole working of the delicate machinery of transports, -ambulances, commissariat, etc., was admirably managed. This -is a great point in their favour, especially when we remember -that a similar compliment could not be paid to many a -European expedition sent out against enemies less redoubtable -than the Chinese. Even the English, after observing the -manœuvres of the Japanese squadron during the Chino-Japanese -War, did not hesitate to praise their excellence; and the -military attaches who followed the Korean and Manchurian -campaign expressed themselves equally impressed by the -Japanese army.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The courage of the Japanese cannot be questioned. They -have proved it in their long and bloody feudal wars, and, again, -only twenty years ago, during the insurrection in Satsuma. Their -patriotism is equally sincere, for they are the only Orientals -among whom this sentiment exists, and with them it easily -rises to fanaticism. The endurance of their troops is extraordinary. -The subjects of the Mikado are unquestionably the -best pedestrians in the world; and it needs no strain on the -imagination to realize what must be the excellence of the -infantry of a country whose peasantry use no cattle to draw -their waggons, and who pass their winter months in making -pilgrimages to distant sanctuaries in their own and in neighbouring -provinces.</p> - -<p class='c008'>In Japan two men think nothing of dragging a jinrikisha -sixty miles in twelve hours, taking only two for rest, and recommencing -their journey the next day quite fresh. A Japanese -battalion has been known to march twenty-five to thirty miles -in a day, knapsack on back, without leaving any stragglers -<span class='pageno' id='Page_167'>167</span>behind. The instruction of the soldiers—cavalry, perhaps, excepted—is -excellent, and they learn very quickly. I have -watched the manœuvres of some recruits who had only been -six weeks in the regiment, and, although they had never in -their lives been in European dress before, they wore their -uniforms much more easily than many of our young soldiers. -The Japanese are, moreover, excellent shots.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The raw material of the Japanese army is, therefore, exceedingly -good. It is provided with first-class guns and cannon, -and as the navy is composed of vessels built by the best -builders in Europe and America, according to the latest -models, it goes without saying that the artillery is worthy of -the vessels which convey it. The staff may possibly not attain -the same high standard as the rank and file, but this is difficult -to pronounce upon, the data not being sufficient to assist us in -forming a correct opinion. It seems, however, that it has been -accused of lacking decision, and also of being too much under -the influence of academic and technical theories, not paying -sufficient attention to the exigencies of modern warfare.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Be this as it may, it is very probable that in the case of Japan -going to war as the ally of a European Power, these defects -would be much modified if they listened to the advice of -their friends. In addition to the above, we must not forget to -add that Japan is the only country of the Far East which works -important coal-mines, and that two of the principal of these are -situated in the island of Kiu-Siu, quite close to that part of the -coast nearest Korea and China, and that she is, moreover, at -the present day mistress of the Pescadors, a strategical point -which Courbet valued very highly, situated in the middle -of the China Sea. It will thus be easy to estimate of what -value the co-operation of this nation would be to those Powers -who are interested in the Middle Kingdom.</p> - -<p class='c008'>It is, therefore, necessary to know something of the feeling -entertained by Japan towards the Sick Man of Peking, as well -as towards the various doctors assembled round his bed, -thinking less of the patient’s recovery than of the eventual -division of his legacy. So far as China is concerned, -Japan is undoubtedly favourably disposed towards her, and -since the war she has had no warmer, and, it may be added, -no sincerer friend than her late enemy. If Japan had -been allowed a free hand, she would undoubtedly have reorganized -China to her own profit, but possibly Europe, in -<span class='pageno' id='Page_168'>168</span>preventing this, displayed considerable acumen, for her so doing -might in the long-run have proved dangerous. Next to being -able to reform China herself, Japan would like her to undertake -her own reformation, and place herself in a position to maintain -her autonomy, so as not to fall a prey to the European -Powers.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The Ministers of the Mikado are very naturally somewhat -alarmed at the thought that their country may soon be the only -one in the whole world inhabited by a non-European race -that maintains its independence, and they cannot forbear asking -themselves how long this independence may be allowed to -last, all the more so since Japan is in immediate contact with, -numerically speaking, the most powerful State in the world, the -colossal Russian Empire, which borders upon China. Might -not Japan under these circumstances be constantly menaced -by so formidable a neighbour? Doubtless she would be able -to resist an invasion, but at a terrific sacrifice—for to conquer -Japan it would be necessary to exterminate many millions of -Japanese. In any case Japan’s foreign influence would be at -an end, especially in Korea, which she has several times conquered, -and upon which she still cherishes pretensions that -date over 2,000 years. Even from the purely economic side -she would suffer greatly; for her principal commercial outlet, -China, might be closed to her for good.</p> - -<p class='c008'>These are the principal reasons which oblige the Japanese -to remain the devoted friends of the Chinese Empire, and at -the same time the adversaries of Russia, who, they believe, -wishes to absorb China, and thereby dominate, if not the -whole, at least the north, of the Asiatic Continent, and which -compel them to throw in their lot with England. This latter -Power does not aim at the political annexation of China; she -only wishes to obtain additional facilities for her commerce and -concessions for public works, and has therefore no intention -whatever of surrounding the Celestial Empire by a formidable -ring of Custom-houses. Undoubtedly Japan has had good -reason to seek an alliance with England, and we need not be -surprised at her distrust of Russia, which, having deprived her of -the fruits of her continental conquests in 1895, three years later -annexed them herself. As to England, her interest in obtaining -the co-operation of Japan is so self-evident as only to need -a passing allusion. Through her friendship with Japan she -could obtain what she wants, not only in the Far East, but -<span class='pageno' id='Page_169'>169</span>elsewhere, a large and well-organized army that, owing to an -unquestionable supremacy on the sea, the result of the combination -of two formidable fleets, could be easily and safely -transported to the neighbouring continent.</p> - -<p class='c008'>May there not, however, be certain other reasons which -might eventually induce not so much Great Britain to break -off her Japanese alliance as Japan to sever her side of the -compact and ultimately extend her hand to Russia? There -is ground for the belief that such a proposition does exist, since -there are Russophiles at Tokio and Japanophiles at St. Petersburg. -Is it not, moreover, rather imprudent to oppose the -progress the Tsar’s Empire is making on the continent? -It is, after all, an irresistible force resulting from the very -nature of things, and therefore it were perchance wiser to be -rather with Russia than against her. Then, again, it should -be remembered that Russia displayed her goodwill towards -Japan by leaving her a free hand in Korea, not, however, until -after she had seized Port Arthur. True, the situation created -in Korea by the compact of April, 1898, was precarious; and -possibly, when once her position in the Far East is consolidated -by the completion of the Trans-Siberian line, the -Tsar’s Government may rescind the concession which it has -signed and occupy the peninsula. But even if we admit that -this contingency is a possible one—and it is by no means -absolutely certain that Russia does entertain any such project—Japan -may still hope for compensation elsewhere in -the centre or south of China round the province of Fu-kien, -where she has already made her influence felt, as also at -Borneo. Russia might also give certain tariff guarantees, and -might it not be to her interest, less urgently, perhaps, than in -the case of England, to secure the co-operation of Japan in -case of conflict? And, finally, is Great Britain a very safe -ally? May she not be simply using Japan for her own ends, -thrusting her forward only perhaps to abandon her when she -is committed? Will she lend assistance to a commercial -rival?</p> - -<p class='c008'>These are arguments which are not without their influence -at Tokio, where the difficulty of opposing a solid and durable -barrier against the encroachments of Russia on the continent -is fully appreciated, and where there certainly exists a feeling of -distrust, not only of the English, but of all other Europeans. -Political and military interference in continental affairs has -<span class='pageno' id='Page_170'>170</span>never resulted otherwise than in weakening an insular power, -and much as the subjects of the Mikado may desire Korea, it -should not be forgotten that, however great Japan’s interests -may be in that direction, she may easily renounce her pretensions -on <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">terra firma</span></i> if she were offered some material and -tangible compensation elsewhere. It has been said that Japan -had cast a longing eye on the Philippines, and certain signs -led many to think that at one time she had played with the -rebels in those islands much the same part enacted by the -United States in Cuba; but now America has seized upon -these islands, and has also annexed Hawaii, another spot -coveted by Japan. Unfortunately, Japan has come too late -into the world to possess colonies, and must therefore content -herself with the solitary Formosa, which, however, is a possession -by no means to be despised.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Still, even now, Japan does not lose all hope of eventually -obtaining a footing upon the continent; but, providing that -others do not handle China too roughly, she has no intention -of interfering with her neighbour, certainly not to menace her -integrity. She wishes only to consolidate her by augmenting -at the same time her own influence, and would not intervene -even if she thought the Celestial Empire were in danger. From -the point of view of international politics, Japan is certainly a -conservative element; but in the day of struggle, should it -ever occur, she is destined to weigh very heavily in the scale, -not only in the solution of the question of the Far East, but -also in the problem which rises behind it—that of supremacy -in the Pacific, which will one day be fought out, not between -the Whale and the Elephant, but between the Elephants of the -Old and the New Worlds—that is to say, between Russia and -the United States. But whatever may be the events which will -eventually transpire, Japan apparently does not wish to precipitate -a struggle, provided only that the maintenance of the <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">status -quo</span></i> is not threatened by others.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_171'>171</span> - <h3 class='c001'>CHAPTER X<br /> <span class='large'>THE FUTURE OF WESTERN CIVILIZATION IN JAPAN—RELATIONS BETWEEN JAPANESE AND FOREIGNERS</span></h3> -</div> -<p class='c014'>Questions which are raised by the recent evolution in Japan—Can the -Japanese assimilate the civilization of peoples of a different race?—Precedents -and analogies—Up to what point does Japan wish to -resemble Europe?—Character and degree of the changes which have -taken place in Japan from the social, political, and economical point -of view—Adaptation of Western institutions in Japan—Feeling of the -Japanese towards foreigners—The revision of treaties with foreign -Powers—The absolute necessity for Japan to enter into intimate -relationship with the rest of the world if she wishes to retain her -newly-acquired civilization.</p> - -<p class='c007'>To one who has studied Japan on the spot, a very serious -question presents itself for solution, one of vast importance, -not only to the inhabitants of that island Empire, but to the -entire human family, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">i.e.</span></i>, Will the evolution which this country -has undergone prove permanent and not likely to collapse at a -given moment, bringing with it the ruin of the State? In a -word, the question is, whether it be possible for a people so -suddenly to assimilate the old-established and elaborate -civilization of another race. Let us, to begin with, remember -that the Japanese have already afforded precedents proving that -they possess powers of assimilation in a rare degree. From the -third to the sixth century of our era they introduced Chinese -civilization into their dominions, and from the ethnographic -point of view, whether the Japanese belong to the Mongol or -to the Malay family, they are not so far removed from the -Chinese as the whites; nevertheless they are quite as distinct -from them as are the Aryans from the Semites, and as the -French or the Germans from the Arabs. The example of Russia -is perhaps less marked, because more intimate affinities unite -the Slavs to the Western races, and yet the Russians are the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_172'>172</span>least Slav of any of the Slavs, being in reality for the most part -Finns who have submitted to Slav influences. The Finns are -related to the Mongols, and Muscovy, moreover, was under -the Tatar yoke for three centuries, a dominion which has left -a very profound impression on the race. Peter the Great’s -enterprise was therefore not an easy one. The principal -objection, however, which can be brought against the example -of Russia is that her evolution was never completed, and did -not influence the lower strata of society sufficiently for it to -become completely Europeanized. Hungary offers a better -field of investigation in this direction, for the peoples who -originally invaded her were distinctly Oriental, but now this -country has become absolutely European, the result probably -of an intimate connection between its inhabitants and their -neighbours. But beyond these facts, there is one point which -we should not overlook. Our own civilization is not the -monopoly of one race, but was constructed by the concurrence -of many people. It results directly from Roman and Greek -civilization, and through these from Phœnician and Egyptian. -The Egyptians, needless to say, were a branch of the Hamites, -the most degraded white race of our time; the Phœnicians, on -the other hand, were Semites, and it was another Semitic -race, the Arab, that during the Middle Ages held the light -of civilization, and transmitted to us the inheritance of -antiquity, after having widely extended its scientific uses. The -whole history of our civilization, therefore, protests against its -having ever been at any time monopolized by the Aryan -branch of the white race.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Modern ethnography, based upon recent linguistic and -anthropological discoveries, has shaken to its foundations those -notions concerning the white races which were universally -accepted in bygone times. We no longer hold that it was from -the high plateau of Asia that swept those tribes who eventually -peopled Europe, but that they radiated from the centre of -Europe herself. Far from forming the majority of the inhabitants -of the Continent, the Aryans, if that term still preserves -its meaning, are but one of its elements. They have mingled -everywhere in variable quantities among the different hordes of -Finnish and other races who have overrun our continent. -The varied formation of the skulls which has been observed -among the different inhabitants of a single country corresponds -with the predominance of one or other of these original -<span class='pageno' id='Page_173'>173</span>elements, with the result that the unity of race which has -hitherto been imagined to exist among all Western peoples is -now proved to be chimerical.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Whatever truth these theories may contain, they are nevertheless -subject to frequent modification, but it seems impossible -with the present facts to sustain <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">à priori</span></i> that one race -cannot assimilate the civilization of another. No doubt the -Japanese differ more completely from the Europeans of the -West than do the Russians, or even the Arabs, or than they -themselves do from the Chinese; but once the unity of the -human race is admitted, this becomes a mere question of degree -of parentage. Must we, therefore, draw a line of degree -between peoples beyond which the transmission of the civilization -of the one cannot penetrate to the other, even as the -French law fixes a limit to the transmission of inheritance? -Nothing short of experience can solve the question. For the -matter of that, the phenomenon is constantly taking place before -our eyes, and if there be a people who might attempt it with -hope of success, it is surely the Japanese, who to exceptional -intelligence and remarkable powers of assimilation add a great -spirit of enterprise and an uncommon energy.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Japan cannot be compared for a moment with China; for, -much younger than her Celestial neighbour—since she received -her civilization at her hands at a period contemporary -with the fall of the Roman Empire, when the annals of China -reached as far back into the night of time as those of Egypt—she -has not had time to fossilize herself in sterile admiration of -the past, and she has never adopted that mandarinate which -China considers one of her chief glories, but which is in reality -slowly ruining her. Above all, like Europe in the Middle -Ages, she has submitted to the virile influences of the feudal -system, and, therefore, there is no reason <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">à priori</span></i> why she -should not succeed in her enterprise. Whether or no Japan -wishes to convert herself on every point into an absolutely -Europeanized nation, and a Western European nation at that, -is another question which demands close attention. Possibly -it is an exaggeration to say that the promoters of the remarkable -series of reforms which have lately been effected in Japan -had ever an eye to so complete a transformation. The first -reform which engrossed their attention was undoubtedly to -place their country, which had so suddenly broken through her -ancient tradition of isolation, on a military, naval, and an -<span class='pageno' id='Page_174'>174</span>economical basis, that would enable her to treat as an equal -with any of the other nations of the world. The Japanese are -the only Oriental people who have understood the conditions -necessary to attain this aim. Japan discerned that by accepting -a military and economic position equal to that of any -European country, she was also obliged to undergo immense -changes in every department of her national existence, and she -unflinchingly faced her new position, resolved to accomplish -every sort of transformation in order to place herself on a firm -footing.</p> - -<p class='c008'>It seems to me that Japan has solved the difficult question -as to which were the changes she ought to undergo. The fact -that she has accepted the entire programme of European -civilization, barring a few domestic usages, certain traditions of -family existence and religion, speaks for itself. The religious -question is one of the most interesting and curious phases of -Japanese experience. Until the present day history has always -demonstrated that the first act of a people which desired to -model itself upon another was to adopt its religion, and in Japan -itself 1,500 years ago Buddhism paved the way for the advent -of Chinese civilization. In the sixteenth century, at a time -when she was first brought into contact with Europeans, Christianity -played an important part, and soon made many -proselytes. To-day it is otherwise. The Mikado, it is true, -does not prevent his subjects from embracing Christianity, but -he does not encourage them to do so. Most probably this is -the result of the fact that religion is no longer the foremost -factor in Western civilization, and is somewhat veiled by important -scientific discoveries and material improvements, and, -whether rightly or wrongly, there can be no question that the -spirit of the century pretends to solve political and social -problems outside of the sphere of religion.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The Japanese have evidently arrived at the conclusion that -it was unnecessary to effect a transformation in an order of -ideas which the Europeans themselves apparently consider -accessory. If one day they find that they have made a mistake, -it probably will not take them long to change their minds; -but for the present they have preferred to rally round the -popular idea, neutrality of the State in matters of religion and -freedom of conscience to all, and this allows them to retain -Buddhism and Shintoism as the religion of the immense -majority of the people.</p> - -<p class='c008'><span class='pageno' id='Page_175'>175</span>From the civil point of view, on the other hand, they have -introduced many European reforms. Japanese society formerly -resembled in many ways that of ancient Rome, especially with -respect to the constitution of the family. The new civil code -which has been carried into effect is more in accordance with -modern ideas, and modifies the excessive habit of adoption, -diminishes the power of the head of the family over his married -children and his younger brothers, and raises somewhat the -position of women, who were already freer in Japan than in -any other Oriental country. But it also permits, in accordance -with Japanese traditions, very slight difference to exist between -legitimate and illegitimate children, and on this point, as on -that of divorce—whether for good or otherwise I do not -consider myself called upon to judge—it shapes itself very -much on the same lines as does modern legislation elsewhere. -The personal status, therefore, of a Japanese is very much the -same as that of a European, and the laws relating to property -have for a long time been identical with our own. As to the -penal code, it is one of the most moderate in the world, and -the death sentence is only passed in cases of crime against the -Emperor.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Politically speaking, the Japanese have gone further still, -and have given themselves a Constitution analogous, as -already stated, to that of Prussia. It may perhaps be queried -whether they were wise in accepting so entirely our representative -system; but undoubtedly within the last eight years -Parliamentary life in Japan has made rapid strides, and, indeed, -is neither better nor worse than it is in many a European -country. The parties do not come to stay long, and their -programmes are very confused. The relation between the -clans and the provinces plays a very conspicuous part in the -Parliamentary existence; but, for the matter of that, so they -do in Italy and elsewhere. Even if it has been a rather premature -experience, nevertheless Parliamentary Government in -Japan seems likely to stay. The numerous provincial and -communal assemblies carry out their business fairly well, -although, to be sure, there are whispers of a slight amount of -corruption—but where is it otherwise? One of the happiest -traits of Japanese evolution is that there appears little probability -of its ending, like the great Russian transformation -under Peter the Great, in the creation of two distinct classes, -separated by an insurmountable barrier. There is no serfdom -<span class='pageno' id='Page_176'>176</span>or anything to maintain the Japanese peasantry in the same -position of inferiority as the Russian mujik, and the mass of -the nation unhesitatingly follows the lead of its chiefs.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Refined by from twelve to fifteen centuries of civilization, -the subjects of the Mikado are much better educated than were -those of Peter the Great, and therefore can march with far -greater assurance on the road to progress. While the smallness -of the country and the density of its population, concentrated -for the most part on the coast-line, are likewise -aids to the rapid penetration of new ideas, still further assisted -by a well-organized system of primary instruction and a military -service, it is, however, rather from the material point of view -that the change has been most striking and rapid.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Without returning to the matter of the extraordinary rapidity -of the increase of industry, there is one subject connected with -it which I cannot forbear dwelling upon, and that is the excessive -ability with which the Japanese have succeeded in -organizing certain public services introduced from the West in -such a manner as to place them within the reach of even the -poorest. In many European colonies the high tariff of the -rail and postal services deters the natives from using them; but -in Japan it is otherwise. There you pay on the railway ¾d. a -mile first class, ½d. second, and ¼d. third, which latter is used by -the majority of the people, and the total returns for 2,290 miles -of Japanese rail, notwithstanding these low rates, reached in -1895 £1,878,600 (of which £1,179,600 were paid by travellers), -as against £766,300 for expenses, the profits being £1,112,300, -or about 10 per cent. upon the outlay capital, which was -£11,649,200. The post is also extremely cheap in Japan, -½d. being charged for letters and ¼d. for post-cards. In -1896–97 503,000,000 objects passed through the post-office, of -which 263,000,000 were post-cards, 122,000,000 letters, and -87,000,000 newspapers. The preponderating number of post-cards, -which surpasses that of letters, is strikingly in contradistinction -to what one observes in every other country, and is -a proof of the economical habits of the people and of their -appreciation of this cheap method of correspondence. The -enthusiasm with which the population profits by all the innovations -introduced from the West is a convincing proof of the -very slight resistance which the implanting of our civilization -receives. Yet another favourable sign is the exceptional -number of students in the new universities and public schools -<span class='pageno' id='Page_177'>177</span>of all descriptions. Practical science, law, and medicine attract -the majority of the students, and already many of them have -attained marked success in their several careers. As an example, -I may mention that it was a Japanese who discovered the -microbe of the bubonic plague. The Japanese are sometimes, -and possibly with some truth, accused of lacking the inventive -faculty; but those peoples who are from many points of view -at the head of civilization at the present day, the English -and the Americans, are not those among whom the power of -invention is exceptionally prominent. It is in France or in -Germany that the principles of nearly all modern discoveries -have been found, but it is in England and the United States -that their application has been perfected. No one, however, -can refuse the Japanese this latter gift, and they unquestionably -possess an almost excessive faculty of attention to minute -detail. Possibly they have not so far materially assisted in -advancing science, and surely it is somewhat premature to -pronounce judgment on this subject; but with good technical -teachers—and everything points that they will have them—they -can certainly soon acclimatize European civilization in -their country, precisely as they did in days of old that of China, -but only on the condition that they keep themselves well in -touch with Europe.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Their principal danger, however, seems to me to consist in -their attempting to isolate themselves too much, and to believe -that they have learnt everything that can be taught them, and -consequently have no further use for their masters. Perhaps, -too, in certain cases they have got rid only too quickly of the -services of foreign functionaries and councillors. Throughout the -whole of the eighteenth century Russia, so to speak, modelled -herself on the German plan, and Japan would also do well not -to forget too hastily the advice of Western teachers. Already -a certain amount of negligence is noticeable in the post-office -and on the railways, whose systems are occasionally dislocated by -many irregularities and also by a certain carelessness, usually -attributed to excess of work or to the breakdown of machinery, -but which is more probably due to the inexperience of the -public servants of the entire hierarchy. The fact is, Japan -does not at present value the most characteristic feature of -modern civilization—punctuality; but, to be just, when we -consider the indolent habits of Asiatics in general, we should -not be surprised at this, rather the contrary. It would, however, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_178'>178</span>be well for the Japanese, until they have got thoroughly -trained to an appreciation of the value of time, to retain -officials who will remind them of its importance.</p> - -<p class='c008'>It may also be added that in the commercial development -considerable inexperience and too great zeal in every branch, -industrial, financial, and commercial, has been displayed: in -the over-rapid increase, for instance, of banks and companies -of all kinds, in the mismanagement of new societies, and in -the abuse that has frequently been made of credit. All these -things are new to Japan, and they have occasionally not been -treated as they should have been. We have bestowed so -much praise on the economical development of the country -that we may surely be allowed to observe that much has been -done too quickly. But this has been the case in all new -countries, in the two Americas, as well as in Australia, and -one must not therefore be too severe on Japan in this respect, -but also not surprised if it occasionally results in the paralysis -of business and even in an occasional crisis. As often occurs, -a rise in salaries accompanied industrial expansion, and proved -very inconvenient to export industries, all the more so as these -are for the most part mainly nominal, and prices rose almost -immediately. During the last two years an inverse movement -has taken place, and we must do the Japanese the justice to -say that when they saw the danger they displayed considerable -sagacity, and both the Government and the public expressed a -wish to limit their desire for expansion. If there were serious -economic difficulties in Japan in 1897–98, they seem now to -have passed away; they were but the result of over-activity, and -the present outlook in the Mikado’s dominion, although not -as brilliant as it was immediately after the war, is once more -normal.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The transitory troubles of the Empire of the Rising Sun will -not, in our opinion, become very grave if the Japanese thoroughly -understand that it is to their interest rather to increase their -contact with foreigners than to limit it. Since 1889 there has -existed in Japan a reactionary movement against strangers, -which apparently reached its culminating point in 1896, and -now seems gradually diminishing. It is sincerely to be hoped -that this feeling of suspicion will absolutely disappear. One -of the numerous reasons which contributed to raise a certain -hostility against Europeans was their attitude with respect -to the renewal of the treaties. This important question, which -<span class='pageno' id='Page_179'>179</span>so closely concerned the relations between the Japanese and -foreigners, has now been settled, and if Japanese statesmen are -well inspired, the solution that has been arrived at should -greatly enhance the true interests of their country.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Almost immediately after the Restoration, the Government -of the Mikado expressed the desire to revise the treaties concluded -between it and the foreign Powers during the last -years of the old regime. What it most desired was to abrogate -the extra-territorial privileges granted to strangers, and to -render them responsible to the native tribunals. It also hoped -to re-possess itself of the right to modify the Custom-house -tariff, which was very low, not with a view to protection, but -in order to augment the revenues. In exchange for these concessions -Japan offered to open the country to Europeans, to -allow them to reside and to establish their industries anywhere -outside of the five ports in which they had hitherto been confined. -Joint negotiations were opened with the seventeen -Powers who had signed the treaties on several occasions, but -without favourable results, and the check they received in 1897 -greatly irritated public opinion in Japan. The Government -then decided to negotiate separately through the intermediary -of its representatives in Europe. The first success was with -England, by the treaty concluded in 1894; the other nations -followed suit, and the new treaties were enforced on July 17th, -1899.</p> - -<p class='c008'>For several years, however, a change had taken place in -public opinion in Japan, and many people began to think that -it might be as dangerous to completely open the country -to foreigners as to grant them privileges of proprietorship. -‘They are much richer than we are,’ said they, ‘and will buy -up all our lands and strip us of our resources, so that in time -we shall cease to be masters in our own house.’ On the other -hand, the Europeans began to make an outcry at the thought -that they would be obliged to submit to Japanese jurisdiction, -which, although founded on the European system, might be -misapplied by the Yellow people, who were still barbarians, -and who might use it to make the existence of foreigners in -Japan intolerable. Both views of the case were exaggerated, -and rendered the task of the various diplomatists an exceedingly -difficult one. Diplomacy, however, carried the day, not without -sacrificing the proposed absolute equality of rights between -Japanese and foreigners.</p> - -<p class='c008'><span class='pageno' id='Page_180'>180</span>The new treaties accepted the Japanese desideratum respecting -the suppression of consular tribunals and European -municipalities, but foreigners were, in their turn, to renounce -proprietary rights. The English treaty thus summarizes the -principal concessions granted: ‘All members of the principal -contracting parties may carry on any wholesale or retail -business, in any sort of product, manufactures and merchandise, -personally or by their representatives, individually or through an -association, either with other foreigners or with natives; and -they shall have the right to possess, let or occupy houses, -shops, manufactories and other premises as they deem necessary, -or to hire lands, to live therein, or to engage therein in -business, by conforming themselves to the laws, and the police -and Custom-house regulations of the country, as if they were -natives thereof.’ This gave rise to considerable controversy. -It confirmed the right of foreigners to possess, let or occupy -houses and divers places of business, but on the other hand, it -only allowed them to rent land, which according to Japanese -law can only be hired on short leases of between thirty and -fifty years, as the case may be, which is, of course, a great -hindrance to the installation of any important industry.</p> - -<p class='c008'>This apparent contradiction formed the subject of an agitated -controversy carried on by the English papers printed at the -various ports, which pointed out with rather thoughtless -acrimony that the new treaty was only intended as a blind to -deprive foreigners of their extra-territorial liberties. They -forgot that outside of property and of the leasehold system the -Japanese code contains another method of tenure, called -‘Surface Right,’ whereby the purchaser of a piece of land has -the right to everything that is on the surface thereof (excepting -the crops), that is, to plant or cut down trees and to build -thereon. One can purchase the surface of the land in accordance -with Japanese law for as long a period of time as one -likes, a thousand years even, either on payment by instalments -or complete purchase. For any enterprise which is not purely -agricultural this purchase is equivalent to absolute possession -of the land.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Foreigners can thus establish industries in Japan, and it is -therefore to the interests of the Japanese to encourage them so -to do. Private individuals, as well as the Government, ought -to do everything they can to attract foreign capital, but this -can only be done in the case of industrial enterprises by allowing -<span class='pageno' id='Page_181'>181</span>foreigners to take the direction of affairs. I have been -asked whether it is not possible to induce foreign capitalists to -lend their money on sharing terms to Japanese companies as -they do to the American railways, without taking any part in -the direction, but I am afraid this is a hope the Japanese -would do well not to entertain. Whether it be through prejudice -or otherwise, it is quite certain that Europeans will do -nothing of the sort, and the Japanese seem to be aware of the -fact, and several railway companies have modified their statutes -in order to admit a clause whereby foreigners can become -shareholders; but as the Japanese possess all the land over which -the lines run as well as the stations, I do not think that this -proposition can be legal. It is, therefore, to be regretted that -public opinion has not insisted upon a concession of the right -of proprietorship being bestowed upon foreigners.</p> - -<p class='c008'>It is, however, not improbable that before long the Legislature -may get over this difficulty by deciding that in companies -constituted according to Japanese laws, and registered in -Japan, the members, though they be foreigners, become thereby -Japanese citizens, and can also be absolute land-owners. However, -on all points the Japanese Government, supported by Parliament -and public opinion, has taken the necessary precautions -to apply the new treaties in the most liberal manner possible. -If there have been some unfavourable verdicts pronounced -in the Japanese tribunals in the short time they have been in -existence, these have generally been revised on appeal. The -greater experience gained by contact between the Japanese and -Europeans, and the wish to see foreign capital collaborating in -the development of the resources of the country, will doubtless -suggest, little by little, new measures calculated to smooth -down any feeling of irritation between the native and the -foreign population. If there still exists a feeling of hatred -of the foreigner among individual fanatics, a certain ill-will -in the lower and more ignorant class of the people, some abuse -of authority among inferior officials, the Government of the -Mikado is too sagacious to allow any flagrant cause of annoyance -to disturb European residents, which would soon -be resented by their respective Governments and might even -lead to the scattering of the fruits of thirty years’ progressive -effort.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Japan has already done much, but especially because she -has done so much in so short a time, and because the immense -<span class='pageno' id='Page_182'>182</span>majority of her inhabitants had no idea thirty years ago of -European affairs, and therefore have no means of comparison, -they are apt to exaggerate their progress, however marvellous it -may be, and consequently they are not in a position to notice -that certain European importations come to them slightly -deteriorated. Foreigners act the part of critics, and even if -their criticism is sometimes severe, it is nevertheless useful. -The functionaries and the young men who are sent on foreign -missions also fulfil the same critical office, and this is an -additional reason why the Government is so wise in maintaining -these missions. Unless, indeed, from time to time the new -civilization which has been imported in Japan is refreshed at -its primary source, it will soon run a risk of losing strength, -and, for the matter of that, any people, even European, that -isolated itself too much and became absorbed in self-admiration, -would inevitably deteriorate. It is not belittling the extraordinary -progress so rapidly accomplished by the Empire of the -Rising Sun to say that it can only be perfected if the people -of that wonderful country remain in contact with the inhabitants -of Europe and America.</p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_183'>183</span> - <h2 class='c005'>PART III.—CHINA</h2> -</div> - -<h3 class='c001'>CHAPTER I<br /> <span class='large'>THE CHINESE PROBLEM</span></h3> -<p class='c014'>Actual position of the Far Eastern Question—The Sick Man of Peking—The -wealth of his heritage—The immense resources of the soil and -subsoil of China, the latter of which is still virgin—The results which -may be expected from the opening up of China—Change in the -attitude of the Powers towards the Celestial Empire since the -Japanese victories revealed its weakness—The origins of the Far -Eastern problem.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The decisive victory which Japan obtained over China five -years ago revealed to the civilized world the existence in the -East of Asia of another Sick Man, an even greater invalid -and infinitely richer than the better known patient at Constantinople. -Four times the size, and twelve or fifteen times -more densely peopled than the Ottoman Empire, China -contains a much smaller proportion of deserts, her resources -are greater and far more varied, and her inhabitants are not -only more industrious, but more peaceful and apparently much -easier to govern. Therefore, at the end of the nineteenth -century—when the material wealth of a country is of far greater -importance than its historical memories, and men are more -eager to discover fresh openings for enterprise, new lands to -cultivate, or mines to exploit than relics to preserve or peoples -to liberate—Europe abandons the bedside of the Grand Turk -to occupy herself with her chances of inheriting far greater -riches from the Son of Heaven. The Sick Man on the shores -of the Bosphorus may be afflicted with some dreadful convulsion -or crisis in his illness, but the nations pretend not to -perceive his contortions, and joyfully welcome any evidence of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_184'>184</span>even a feeble return to health; in a word, they only seek to -prolong his existence. If the preservation of peace in Europe -has its share in this attitude, the wish not to be disturbed in -the work which she pursues in China has also its share in the -position which Russia and more than one other Power have -assumed with regard to the Chinese Empire.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The fact is, the nations have promised themselves a booty -in the Middle Kingdom as precious as it is easy to obtain. -China from this point of view is worth a great deal more than -Turkey, or even Africa, which Europe has so eagerly sought to -divide. Although less extensive than the Dark Continent, -China is much more thickly peopled, and the climate is less -unhealthy, access easier, the rivers more navigable, and the -soil far more fertile. The patient and laborious Chinese will -eventually facilitate the exploitation of the wealth of their vast -territory, which is more than can ever be expected from the -barbarous, ignorant and indolent peoples of Africa.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The resources of China are greater than those of Africa, -and many of them are still absolutely undeveloped. The -Chinese peasants, moreover, are among the best agriculturists -in the world. As evidence of this assertion, it should be remembered -that, by the perfection of their method of cultivation, -they extract from the soil of their plains sufficient to enable -their rural population to multiply in a manner unknown in the -Western world. Certain provinces in the Valley of the Yang-tsze-Kiang—Shan-tung, -Hu-pe, Kiang-su, and others—in spite -of their being purely agricultural, are as densely peopled as -Belgium, and we may further observe that, as is the case -throughout the Far East, wherever rice dominates, the mountain -regions are almost uninhabited. If the soil is admirably cultivated, -the subsoil, on the other hand, is absolutely neglected, -and only an insignificant quantity of coal is extracted from the -immense coal-beds which cover over 40,000 square miles on -the banks of the Yellow River, in the plains of Hu-nan, and -under the terraces of Shan-si, which, together with those equally -important in the basin of Shan-tung, were so highly extolled -by the celebrated traveller Richthofen. The coal-beds in -Central China appear to be even more extensive, and the carboniferous -basin of Sze-chuan, where there is also petroleum, -covers an area equal to half France. The coal-beds of -Hu-nan are also very considerable, and minerals are equally -abundant. The copper-mines of Yunnan are so rich as to have -<span class='pageno' id='Page_185'>185</span>proved one of the chief inducements that attracted the French -to Tongking. Mines of precious ore are known to exist -in many other places, but, notwithstanding their very ancient -civilization, the Chinese have scarcely touched the wealth -beneath their feet. In this respect they have proved themselves -inferior to the classical nations of antiquity, and have -left their riches to be garnered by foreigners.</p> - -<p class='c008'>We can form some idea of the development of which China -is susceptible by considering the example of two other Asiatic -nations placed in much the same conditions—British India and -Japan. India, with all her dependencies, is about a sixth -larger than China proper, but contains only about three-quarters -of the number of her inhabitants; yet although her -subsoil is much less rich and her population far more indolent -than the Chinese, she carries on double the trade with Europe -that the Chinese Empire does. Japan, nine times smaller and -nine times less peopled than China, but reformed by an -enlightened Government and by the introduction of European -methods, has seen her commerce rise in thirty years from -£5,000,000 to £44,000,000, more than three-quarters higher -than that of her enormous but stationary neighbour.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Unfortunately, an imbecile Government, as corrupt as it is -absurdly exclusive, impedes the progress of China with far -greater obstinacy than do the prejudices of her people. So -long as the illusion lasted as to the power of this unwieldy -Empire, no one ventured to tear from it by force what it was -imagined could be obtained by persuasion, and the nations -resigned themselves to permit the immense resources of the -interior to remain untouched, contenting themselves merely -with the opening of a few ports to commerce. But in 1894 -the brilliant victories of the Japanese revealed to an astonished -world the weakness of the colossus, its corruption, and utter -incapacity to regenerate itself; hence the reason why the -Chino-Japanese War may be rightly considered one of the -greatest events in contemporary history. From it dates the -change in the attitude of the foreign Powers towards the -Celestial Empire. They now command where formerly they -begged, and have mustered up courage to force the Son of -Heaven to put a price on the treasures of his Empire, or else -to allow them to do so in his stead. If they have not already -divided up his territory, they mortgage portions of his provinces, -and obtain mining, railway, and all sorts of other concessions. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_186'>186</span>In the eyes of the Powers China is no longer a country to be -counted with as a probable ally, but merely one which they -may one day reduce to vassalage.</p> - -<p class='c008'>In 1895, after the conclusion of the war, Russia inaugurated -the new policy with respect to China. She was at that time -the only European nation that seemed to have any idea -of the weakness of China, and was already preparing, by -the construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway, to play an -important part in the Far East. Germany, France, and -England in 1897 obtained the ‘leases’ of various strategical -points on the coast and the recognition of what they were -pleased to call ‘spheres of influence.’ Russia now returned to -the game, and Japan also took a part in the struggle. From -the middle of 1898 a lull has occurred, which recent events, -however, have disturbed and proved that the Far Eastern -problem is far from settled. It would certainly have surprised -men who were living at the beginning of this dying century if -they had been told that it would close before the Grand Turk -was driven out of Europe, and yet the destinies of Eastern -Asia are even now far from being determined. The problems -which rise round the future of the Celestial Empire are neither -less grave nor less complicated now than they ever were. -Although China is infinitely less heterogeneous than Turkey, -she runs the same dangers from internal disturbance; for she -is governed by a foreign dynasty and honeycombed by secret -societies. The Central Government is feeble and without -cohesion. On the other hand, the rivalry which exists between -the European Powers, to whom should be added the United -States and Japan, is not less active in the East than it is in -the West of Asia. The only, but still enormous, result which -has been more or less definitely obtained consequent upon the -events of the last five years—the end of the isolation from -Europe in which China has hitherto existed, and her being -brought for the first time since the beginning of her history -into contact with a civilization which has developed quite independently -of her own—creates a situation of the intensest -interest. If the lack of military qualities among the Chinese -and the insufficiency in numbers of the Japanese renders the -Yellow Peril, comparatively speaking, little to be feared from -the war side of the question, many people, and among them -the most enterprising representatives of European civilization, -the Americans and Australians, are greatly exercised over the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_187'>187</span>matter from the economic point of view. It would, however, -be presumptuous to attempt to prophesy what would be the -consequences of the dissolution of the Chinese Empire -through internal disorder, or of its partition amongst the -Powers in consequence of an international treaty, or after -a war which would be sure to become universal, or even of the -reawakening of this oldest State in the world by the introduction -of Western ideas and methods, or finally of a struggle between -the White and the Yellow races; but it is comparatively easy, -now that the question poses itself for the first time, to determine -its multiple elements, to study the relative position of -its diverse factors, the near prospect of their action, and the -situation of the patient round whose sick-bed eagerly press -the many doctors and heirs of so wealthy an invalid as China.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_188'>188</span> - <h3 class='c001'>CHAPTER II<br /> <span class='large'>THE CAPITAL OF CHINA</span></h3> -</div> -<p class='c014'>The coasts of Pe-chi-li and the mouth of the Pei-ho—Ta-ku and Tien-tsin—From -Tien-tsin to Peking by rail—Peking: the Forbidden, Imperial, -Tatar and Chinese cities; the walls, streets, houses, shops and monuments—Behaviour -of the natives towards foreigners—Decadence of -the capital and of the whole Empire.</p> - -<p class='c007'>If one enters China from Eastern Siberia by the Gulf of -Pe-chi-li after a long voyage round the Korean Peninsula, -the first impression of the Celestial Empire is distinctly unattractive. -The contrast between the shallow waters where -the vessel casts anchor, some miles distant from the mouth -of the Pei-ho, and the noble port of Vladivostok, or the -enchanting Bay of Nagasaki, with its verdant shores and -blue waters, enlivened by the picturesque sails of the fishing-junks, -is, to say the least, extremely depressing.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Nearly all the ports of the Celestial Empire are thus formed, -and can only be entered during a few hours of the day. Even -the mouth of the great Blue River is encumbered with shoals, -and its famous rival, the Yellow River, in its lower basin, -is divided up into such a multitude of channels that meander -through the marshy lands as to interrupt all direct navigation -from the sea. The Gulf of Pe-chi-li, which may be described -as the port of Peking, although situated closer to the Equator -than the Bay of Naples, or the mouth of the Tagus, seems, -with its choked-up estuaries, its storm-beaten shores, its fogs -and icy coat in winter, thoroughly typical of China and her -traditional inhospitality, and her eagerness rather to repulse -than to invite the stranger within her gates. From the -anchorage outside the bar it is difficult to discern the lowlying -coast; and the first objects to attract attention are mud -forts, mud houses in mud villages, and mud heaps marking the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_189'>189</span>graves in the cemeteries. This uninviting place is Ta-ku, -beyond which, a little higher up, at Tang-ku, the Pei-ho -ceases to be navigable for vessels of any tonnage. On landing, -a surprise awaits you—the railway. Commenced by Li Hung-chang, -for the purpose of transporting the coal from his -mines at Kaiping, a few miles to the north-east, branches -have been added, and since the summer of 1897 it takes -the traveller to Peking viâ Tien-tsin. An hour and a half -after leaving Tang-ku, I alighted at the former town amid a -mob of noisy coolies, who pounced upon me and my luggage. -We crossed the Pei-ho in a sampang instead of the ordinary -ferry-boat which conveys the Celestials, packed together like -sardines in a box, and stuck, apparently immovably, in the -most extraordinary postures. From the landing-place, we were -trotted in a jinrikisha drawn by a Chinaman through the Rue -de France, up Victoria Road to the Astor House, an American -hotel kept by a German; opposite it is a garden, over which -a white flag with a crimson circle in its centre, the emblem -of the Rising Sun, announces that the garden and the house -belong to the Japanese Consul. Thus was I first initiated to -the cosmopolitanism of a foreign concession in the Far East.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Tien-tsin is the biggest open port in North China and the -third in rank in point of activity and commerce in the whole -Celestial Empire. It is, moreover, an immense Chinese city -of nearly a million inhabitants, but its European concession is -very inferior to that of Shanghai, and as a native city it is -of little interest in comparison with Peking, Canton and many -other towns. It is from here that travellers used, in former -times, to begin the disagreeable journey to the capital, either -on horseback or by junk up the Pei-ho. The river route -was usually performed partly by sail and partly by oar, but -occasionally the boat had to be towed by men. The junks -took two or three days to ascend the sinuous course of the -river. Sometimes, however, when the wind was to the north, -and the shoals numerous, the journey occupied from four to -five days before Peking was reached. Now the daily express, -which speeds along at the rate of twenty miles an hour, takes -three hours and fifty-three minutes to cover the ground which -separates Tien-tsin from the station at Peking.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The country through which it passes is very flat, and it is -only just before arriving at its terminus that the blue outline -of some rather high hills come into sight towards the north-east. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_190'>190</span>In the month of September, when the rains are over -and are replaced by a drought that lasts until the end of -winter, the environs of Tien-tsin, including the cemetery, are -entirely under water, and as we looked from the train window, -we could see a coffin floating about, and another like gruesome -object stuck on the embankment of the line, which led us to -reflect that, though the Chinese make such a fuss over their -ancestors, they apparently care very little for their graves. The -inundation at first stretched as far as the eye could see. -Presently the land began to peep out. If you expect to find -the soil from which the waters have just retired uncultivated, -it will only be an evident proof that you know very little -about the indefatigable industry of the Chinese agriculturist, -and the great care and skill which he brings to his task. All -that emerges has already been carefully sown, even down to -the very brink of the water, and at a few steps from the -limits of the inundation, the future harvest which has sprang -up under the hot September sun from the moist but rich -soil begins to make its appearance. The mud villages now -succeed each other rapidly, and presently the traveller reaches -an admirably cultivated country where not an inch of soil is -wasted, and where the wheat and sorghum fields are alternated -by kitchen gardens and orchards.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The temporary station at Peking, built of planks and -galvanized iron, stands in the midst of this landscape. Very -little is to be seen of the high walls of the city, which are -almost entirely hidden by trees, and by a slight rising in the -land. Nothing indicates that the gates of the capital of the -oldest Empire in the world are so near. In order to traverse -the mile which separates the station from the entrance to -Peking, it is necessary to exchange the most highly perfected -of human conveyance for the most barbaric. The Chinese -are unwilling that the stranger should dispense, in order to -enter their most holy capital, with a thorough jolting in their -national carriage, unto which the Siberian tarantass may be -compared as the most luxurious of vehicles. Two enormous -wheels, covered with iron and garnished with a triple row -of nails, support this shapeless waggon, which is protected by -a blue awning, and is dragged along by two mules harnessed -one in front of the other. Whilst the driver sits in front -under the awning, the hapless traveller has to accommodate -himself on the floor, with his legs stretched out in front of him. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_191'>191</span>Now begins the torture, for one is literally jolted about against -the wooden sides of the cart like a pill in a box. Presently the -wheel goes over a huge stone, only to fall into a deep hole, or -stick in a rut. Meanwhile, the diabolical waggon behaves in a -most abominable manner, to the unutterable agony of its -wretched inmate, who lives in terror of being either precipitated -into the mud, or of having his brains knocked out by the -collapse of the whole structure. Of this latter catastrophe -there is little or no likelihood, for about the only good quality -this appalling conveyance can boast of is solidity: nothing -could break it. About twenty minutes after leaving the station -a high battlemented wall, surrounded by a mud-filled moat, is -reached. Next, you pass over a bridge, beyond which a gate -admits into a sort of half-moon surrounded by walls, beyond -which is yet another gate admitting to the city proper, where, -after another hour’s jolting, the unhappy traveller alights at a -hotel in Legation Street kept by a Frenchman.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Although not the most ancient city in the Celestial Empire, -Peking is an epitome of the rest of China, together with its -ancient civilization and its present stagnation and decadence. -It belongs to a very different type from the cities of Europe, or -even of the Moslem world, and the sight of its immense wall -and successive enclosures, which divide it into four distinct -parts, reminds one of Nineveh or Babylon. In the centre is -the ‘Forbidden’ or ‘Purple City,’ about a league in length -from north to south, and a quarter of a league in width, containing -the palaces of the Emperor and Empress Dowager, -and the gardens and the residences of a swarm of parasites -numbering, it is said, between six or eight thousand persons, -inclusive of guards, concubines, eunuchs, functionaries, gardeners -and other attendants upon the Imperial harem. The -only Europeans who are allowed to cross the sacred threshold -of the Purple City are the members of the Diplomatic Corps, -to whom the Emperor gives audience on New Year’s Day, -as well as since quite recently on the occasions of their arrival -or taking leave. Around the Purple City extends the Imperial -City, its walls painted pink, which in its turn is surrounded -by the Tatar City, a rectangle of 4 miles in length, by 3 -miles in width, whose sides face the cardinal points. Its -colossal walls are 50 feet high, and at their summit are -50 feet wide. Their external fronts consist of two strong -brick walls, rising from a substructure of stone. The interior -<span class='pageno' id='Page_192'>192</span>is filled up with earth, and the summit, covered with flagstones, -forms a walk bordered by embattled stone parapets. Bastions -project outwards, and huge pavilions built of brick, pierced -with many balistraria, and coated with highly varnished -coloured tiles, ornament its four corners and gates. It rises -only 99 feet above the ground, beyond which height it is -never allowed to build, lest the flight of the good spirits might -be inconvenienced thereby. This magnificent rampart, which -to the north-east and to the west rises abruptly from the midst -of the country, Peking having no suburbs, presents a most imposing -aspect; and it is not less impressive when beheld from -any one of the half-moons, which are very vast, and are built -before the various gates, but which, owing to the height of the -embattled walls which surround them on all sides, each of -which is surmounted by a massive brick pavilion, look like -wells.</p> - -<p class='c008'>To the south of the Tatar City is a group of less imposing -walls surrounding the lengthy rectangle which includes the -Chinese City, the commercial part of Peking. The broad -street that intersects it from north to south, and cuts it into -two equal parts, especially close to the Tsieng-Men Gate, by -which you pass into the Tatar City, is the most animated -artery of the city. In the central walk, paved with magnificent -flagstones, not one of which is now in its right place, and -which apparently only serve as stumbling-blocks to pedestrians, -and are covered with mud a foot deep in summer, and by a -pestilential dust in winter, circulate in the utmost confusion -the ever-present waggons, already described, palanquins, sedan-chairs, -whose colours vary with the dignity of the owner, chairs -drawn by mules, men riding on small Manchurian ponies, -indefatigable asses, which are the best means of locomotion in -the place, enormous one wheeled barrows, coolies struggling -under the burden of huge baskets filled with fruit, vegetables, -and other comestibles, fixed to the end of a very long pole -slung across their shoulders—all this busy world bustles along, -filling the air with shouts and cries of every kind, from the -croaking of the porters to the stentorian shouts of the waggoners. -Occasionally a long string of huge two-humped camels, a cord -running from the nostrils of one animal to the tail of the other, -and led by a Mongolian urchin, adds to the incredible confusion. -All this crowd, together with beasts and vehicles, has -to content itself with what, under ordinary circumstances, would -<span class='pageno' id='Page_193'>193</span>be a very broad roadway, if at least a third of it were not encumbered -by a sort of permanent open-air fair, carried on in -rows of booths, some of which are used as restaurants, others -as shops of every description. These booths turn their backs -to the middle of the street, and thus hide the line of shops -beyond, of which, from the centre of the road, you can only -perceive the enormous and innumerable signboards hanging -from a veritable forest of gaily-painted poles.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Beyond the Tsieng-Men Gate is situated the Beggars’ Bridge, -always thronged by groups of wretches clamouring for alms -and ostentatiously displaying the most appalling mutilations, -with all kinds of loathsome diseases added to their sordid -misery to excite compassion. The narrow side-walks, which -are bordered on the one hand by booths, and on the other by -big shops, are filled by a motley gathering of small shopkeepers, -each plying his business in the open-air barbers, -hairdressers, and fortune-tellers, among whom the crowd has -no little difficulty in threading its way. Here you see men in -light-blue blouses, with long pigtails; Chinese ladies with their -hair dragged back magpie-tail fashion, who balance themselves -painfully as they go along on their tiny deformed feet; Tatar -women, whose hair is puffed out on each side of their faces, and -who, like their Chinese sisters, stick a big flower behind their -ears. Not being crippled by bound feet, like their less fortunate -Chinese sisters, these women strut along with as firm a step as -their high-heeled clogs will permit. Their faces are bedaubed -with rice-flour, and their cheeks painted an alarmingly bright -red. Children with their heads shaved in the most comical -manner, dotted about with little tufts, that have a very funny -appearance, being cut according to the taste or caprice of -their parents, also run about. Among the well-clad children of -a better class are others, stark-naked, looking for all the world -like small animated bronzes, so dark and warm-coloured is -their polished skin. In order to avoid being mobbed, one -has occasionally to seek refuge in a shop, which usually opens -on to the street, and is without windows. In the back the -shopkeepers are peacefully seated behind their counters smoking -long pipes, whilst exhibiting their goods and listening to the -bargainings of their customers. These shops are always very -clean, and the goods are arranged with great order and even -considerable taste. A bowl with goldfish, or a cage full of -birds, adds not a little to the charm and peacefulness of the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_194'>194</span>scene, which is peculiarly refreshing after the noise and dirt of -the streets.</p> - -<p class='c008'>All the great arteries of Peking are equally filthy and closely -resemble each other, excepting that not one of them can equal, -either in the size of the shops or wealth of their contents, -the famous High Street that leads to the Tsieng-Men Gate. -In summer, after the rains, a coating of mud some two feet -and a half deep covers both road and footpath, which when -the weather dries again is converted into thick clouds of -dust. The sideways, always lower than the central road, are -usually filled by pools of green water, whence arises the most -horrible stench of decayed vegetables and rotting carcases of -animals, in addition to the accumulated offal of the neighbouring -houses. The wonder of it all is that the entire population -of Peking has not long since been swept away by some -appalling epidemic.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Leaving aside the few broad streets, one frequently comes -across immense open spaces, whose centres are generally -occupied by a huge dunghill. The narrow little streets that -branch out in all directions can be divided into two classes—those -which border on the three or four principal commercial -thoroughfares, which, like them, are lined with shops, but are -scarcely broad enough to allow of the passage of a single cart, -although they are thronged from morning to night by a seething, -noisy crowd; and the silent and deadly dull private streets, -where the dwelling-houses are to be found. On either side -runs a gray wall, whose monotony is broken at intervals by -a series of shabby little doors. If any one of these happens -to be open, one can only perceive from the street a small -courtyard a few feet square, and another dead wall, beyond -which is the inner courtyard, shut off from all observation, -and on which open all the windows of these singular dwellings, -not one of which is more than one story high, and always -protected by a gray double-tiled roof, usually ornamented at -the four corners by some grotesque stone beast or other, but -never turned up at the ends as are invariably those of the -temples and the monuments. There is no movement whatever -in these streets. A few children play before the doors, a dog -or so strays about in the road, and now and again a coolie or -an itinerant merchant, with two baskets suspended from a pole -across his shoulders, breaks the silence by a shrill cry; sometimes -a donkey or a cart passes along but fails to enliven the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_195'>195</span>deadly quiet of the street, which is so still and monotonous -that one might almost imagine one’s self in a village instead of -in one of the most populous cities in the world.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The scene changes entirely when Peking is seen from the -heights of the walls which form the only agreeable promenade -in the capital, to whose summits ascends neither the mud nor -the stench of this dirtiest of cities. The eye wanders pleasantly -over a forest of fine trees, for every house has one or two in -its courtyard, and barely a glimpse of the offensive streets is -to be had: only the gray roofs of the little houses; and thus -Peking looks for all the world like an immense park, from -whose midst rise the yellow roofs of the Imperial Palace, and -to the northern extremity of the city, a wooded height called -the Coal Mountain, surmounted by a pagoda.</p> - -<p class='c008'>As to monuments, there are very few in Peking worth the -seeing, and into these foreigners are never allowed to enter. -Twenty-five or thirty years ago visitors were admitted into a -great number of the temples: that of Heaven, which is now -being restored, and where the Emperor goes annually to make -a sacrifice, and the Temples of the Sun, the Moon, and of -Agriculture, and they were even allowed to peep into the -Imperial Gardens; but since the entry of the Anglo-French -troops into Peking, in 1860, the Chinese have been very -reticent with respect to their monuments, doubtless a consequence -of the salutary lesson they then received, which they -are philosophical enough to endeavour to forget, as all wise -folk should do things that wound their pride. To-day the -people affect to believe the official story invented on that -occasion to save appearances, wherein it was stated that the -Emperor Hien-feng, instead of fleeing before the allies, -merely went on a hunting excursion in his park at Johol in -Mongolia. Their usual insolence towards foreigners had completely -returned, to be modified, however, so soon as they heard -of the successes of the Japanese, and they were seized with -absolute terror at the prospect of beholding the Mikado’s -army marching through their gates.</p> - -<p class='c008'>When I was in Peking in the autumn of 1897 Europeans -were very rarely insulted in the streets. Before the War it was -otherwise, and I myself, like many another, did not escape the -impertinence of the Chinese at Canton. All the same, they took -good care to close their monuments to the inspection of the -‘foreign devils,’ and the only temple now open for our inspection -<span class='pageno' id='Page_196'>196</span>is that of Confucius, an immense but rather commonplace -hall with a steep roof supported on pillars painted a vivid -red. Foreigners are also permitted to visit the place where -the literati undergo their examinations. It consists of some -thousands of little cells lining several long, open corridors, -wherein the unfortunate candidates for law and medicine are -shut for several days while they answer the questions set them. -Then there is the old Observatory, wherein are two series of -highly useful instruments. The first dates from the time of -the Mongol Dynasty in the thirteenth century, and lies scattered -half buried among the weeds at the bottom of the courtyard; -the second series is less antiquated, having been made under -the direction of the Jesuit Verbiest, who was astronomer to the -Emperor of China in the early part of the seventeenth century. -They are shown on the walls. After seeing these thoroughly -up-to-date astronomical instruments, one has visited all there -is to be seen in the Imperial city of Peking.</p> - -<p class='c008'>It must be confessed, however, that walking in the streets, or -at the foot or on top of the enormous walls, is far more interesting -and instructive than visiting temples and palaces. At -every step the observer is struck with the activity and energy of -the Chinese people in contradistinction to the systematic stagnation -of its governing classes, and he soon comes to the conclusion -that China is in a state of decadence strongly resembling -in many details that of the Roman Empire at the time of the -invasions of the Barbarians. This erstwhile magnificent capital -is now only the shadow of its former self. The number of its -inhabitants, 700,000 to 800,000, is gradually decreasing, and -many houses are already in ruins. Some of the best streets, -which must at one time have been splendidly paved, are now -almost impassable, the result of neglect; drains, which at one -time were covered in, now run open through the streets, and -are choked up by nameless deposits which are never removed, -and even immense blocks of the celebrated walls are occasionally -allowed to crumble to ruin. Now and again an effort to -repair them is started, but as half the money intended for the -work usually remains in the hands of the officials and contractors -it is never well done, great care being taken not to -do the repairs thoroughly, for fear of preventing fresh disaster -and losing a chance to do it all over again. On the other hand, -on the rare occasions when the Emperor betakes himself and -his court to some summer residence or other, or to make a -<span class='pageno' id='Page_197'>197</span>sacrifice at one of the temples, things are furbished up a bit, -to make him believe that his capital is well looked after. The -ruts and the mud-heaps in the streets through which the procession -passes are hidden under a thick coating of sand, and -everything likely to offend the eye of the Son of Heaven is -covered over; even the miserable booths which encumber the -streets are removed, and the half-moons in the rampart have -their walls painted white, but only so high as the Imperial -eyes may be lifted as His Celestial Majesty passes by, lolling -back indolently in his magnificent palanquin.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_198'>198</span> - <h3 class='c001'>CHAPTER III<br /> <span class='large'>THE COUNTRY IN THE NEIGHBOURHOOD OF PEKING—NUMEROUS SIGNS OF THE DECLINE OF THE EMPIRE</span></h3> -</div> -<p class='c014'>From Peking to the Ming Tombs and the Great Wall of China—The -temples in the hills—Striking neglect of monuments and public works—Remains -of ancient and well-paved highroads, now replaced by -wretched ones, which are only temporarily repaired when the Emperor -or the Empress Dowager passes—The manner in which useful works -are neglected in China, and her treasure wasted.</p> - -<p class='c007'>A tour in the environs of Peking, to the Great Wall and to -some of the temples built on the hills to the west of the town, -confirms the bad impressions received in the city. This excursion -occupies between three and four days, and can be performed -with relative comfort, and in ordinary times without the least -danger. A ‘boy,’ that is to say, a domestic servant—a -combination of guide, interpreter, valet and cook, and who is -often, by the way, a very expert disciple of Vatel—a donkey and -donkey-boy, a waggon, drawn by two mules, and a waggoner, -are the staff necessary for this journey, which is usually performed -partly on foot and partly on donkey-back. This suite -may be considered somewhat numerous, but no other human -being but his own master would get a Chinese donkey to budge -a step forward, and the same may be said of the mules. As -to the ‘boy,’ he is the indispensable party into whose hands -you must trust yourself absolutely, even to the extent of -handing over your purse, so that he may settle your accounts -at the various inns and give the expected backsheesh to the -servants or to the guides and bonzes in the temples. Needless -to say, he perfectly understands how to take care of himself -in the matter of reserving for his own benefit the ‘squeezee,’ as -they say in pigeon-English. All Europeans who travel in the -Far East are obliged to have a retinue, which adds to their importance, -and in which every man has his particular function -<span class='pageno' id='Page_199'>199</span>to fulfil, and will not undertake the least share of his fellow-servants’ -work.</p> - -<p class='c008'>On leaving Peking by the Northern Gate, one crosses a sandy -and barren space, occupied in the thirteenth century by a part -of the town, which has now disappeared. Then come some -outlying towns, mainly inhabited by merchants, succeeded by -the admirably cultivated plain which extends from the north of -Peking to the foot of the hills. It is more barren to the south, -and trees only grow close to the villages, which are invariably -surrounded by groups of weeping-willows. In this region the -soil and the climate are too dry to allow of the cultivation -of rice, but a crop of winter wheat is obtained, and I have seen -it sown, and even appearing above the ground, in the month -of October. It does not freeze in the very dry earth, although -the thermometer falls twenty degrees, and the snow is never -very deep. This crop of wheat is harvested during May. -Presently you see fields of sorghum, millet, the staple food of -the people in these parts, and also of buckwheat. On all sides -the peasantry are hard at work, usually alongside strong -waggons, better built than those of the Siberian mujiks, and -drawn either by two mules or two horses, or sometimes by -three little donkeys. In the villages you can sometimes see -the grain thrashed or the long leaves of the sorghum being -bound in sheaves, which when dried are made into mats and -screens. The women help in the latter work, which invariably -takes place close to their doors, for they are never seen in -the fields. The roads are generally very bad, but have not -always been so. Many of the bridges are still in a superb condition, -although the fine flagstones with which they are paved -are in a shocking condition. Others, however, are in absolute -ruin, and the rivers which they once spanned have consequently -to be forded. Everything points to the fact that we -are passing over a once magnificent highroad, and effectively -it leads to the Tombs of the Mings, which explains why it -was built in such a sumptuous manner by that Dynasty, as -well as the state of abandonment into which it has fallen -since it has come into the hands of the Manchus, who dethroned -the Mings in 1644.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Very few places that I have ever visited have produced upon -me a greater impression of grandeur than the amphitheatre -formed by the lofty hills on whose last slopes stand the Tombs -of the thirteen Emperors of the Ming Dynasty. Each of these -<span class='pageno' id='Page_200'>200</span>monuments is formed of an aggregation of buildings shaded by -magnificent trees, that present a striking contrast to the usual -gray barrenness of Chinese hills. The broad road which leads -to them, once paved but now in ruins, passes under a superb -triumphal arch into the silent valley, which seems deserted, -although in reality it is highly cultivated; the little villages -clustering at the foot of the heights, too, are, as a rule, difficult -to make out. After passing under numerous elegant gateways, -supported by winged columns, we at length arrive at a gigantic -alley of colossal monoliths, representing figures of animals and -monsters alternately sitting and crouching, and statues of -famous legislators and warriors. Roads radiate towards each -of the Tombs, of which I only visited that of the first Ming -Emperor who reigned in Peking.</p> - -<p class='c008'>After having passed through a high wall by a porch with -three badly-kept gates, we crossed a spacious courtyard planted -with trees, and presently entered the great hall. Before the -whole length of the façade extends several flights of marble -steps with exquisitely sculptured balustrades. The hall itself is -not less than 200 feet long by about 80 feet wide and 40 feet in -height. It is nearly empty, and at first you can only perceive -the forty gigantic wooden columns, each formed of the trunk of -a tree, that support the roof, and which two men cannot -embrace. These columns are said to have come from the confines -of Indo-China. In the midst of them, half hidden away, -is a small altar, ornamented with a few commonplace china -vases, which are crumbling to pieces and full of dust. Beyond -the altar, enclosed in a sort of tabernacle, is the tablet inscribed -with the deceased Emperor’s name in three Chinese characters. -His body lies beyond, at the end of a gallery a mile long, -which penetrates straight into the heart of the hill, but is walled -up a short distance from the entrance, which one reaches -through two courtyards separated by a portico. From the lofty -tower that rises over this entrance, the walls of which, by the -way, are embellished with names which numerous Chinese and -a few Europeans have been vulgar enough to scratch on the -walls with the points of their knives, the view includes the whole -semicircle of hills, as well as all the Tombs, which, by reason -of the very simplicity of their design, create an impression -of extreme grandeur. Their erection must have cost as great -an amount of labour as that which was bestowed by the -Egyptians upon the sepulchres of their Pharaohs.</p> - -<p class='c008'><span class='pageno' id='Page_201'>201</span>The Great Wall of China is another colossal undertaking, in -order to reach which you take the high road to Mongolia that -passes through the Pa-ta-ling Gate at the extremity of the pass -of Nan-kow. This highroad, which for centuries has been -daily traversed by long caravans of camels, engaged in the -traffic between Mongolia, Siberia, and China, was formerly -paved with blocks of granite, of which no trace is now to be seen, -either on that part of the road in the little town of Nan-kow, or -in the difficult mountain pass, and the traveller may therefore -conclude that they have either been used in the construction -of houses or washed away by some torrent. Nan-kow is a -walled town, like almost all those in the neighbourhood of -Peking, including the curious old suburb of Chao-yung-kwan, -over one of the doors of which there is an inscription in six -languages, one of which has not yet been deciphered. Everywhere -on the mountain sides towers and picturesque ruins of -fortifications manifest how great has ever been the fear of the -Chinese of the Tatars and Mongols, for protection against -whom the Great Wall was built. It is divided into two parts, -the inner and the outer wall, the first of which extends for -nearly 1,560 miles, from Shan-hai-kwan on the Gulf of Pe-chi-li -into the Province of Kan-su on the upper Yellow River. -Built two hundred years before our era, needless to say, it -has been often repaired and rebuilt. Near the sea it is constructed -of stone, but brick has been used on the inland portions. -In thickness it varies from 16 feet to 20 feet, and is about the -same in height, but to the west it is nothing like so lofty.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The inner wall, which dates from the sixth century, was -almost entirely reconstructed by the Mings in the sixteenth -century, and is 500 miles long. This is the wall to be seen -from Pa-ta-ling, passing over the hill, and then proceeding -right and left to climb in zigzag fashion to the very summit of -the mountains. It is constructed after the model of the walls of -Peking, on a substructure of stone, with two rows of brick battlements. -The top is paved, and forms a roadway 11 feet in -width. Its height varies, according to the irregularity of the -land, between 12 feet and 20 feet, and at about every 300 feet -there are towers twice the height of the wall, also surrounded -by bastions and battlements. Although less imposing than the -Wall of Peking, the Great Wall of China does not deserve -the flippant remarks that have been made about it. Against an -enemy unprovided with artillery, and horsemen like the Mongols -<span class='pageno' id='Page_202'>202</span>and Tatars, it must have presented a very serious obstruction, -and if occasionally they have been able to scale it, it has -generally resisted every attempt at invasion. Although it has not -been used under the present Dynasty, which is of Tatar origin, -it has remained, thanks to the care bestowed upon it in -former times, one of the best preserved monuments in China.</p> - -<p class='c008'>It is otherwise with the greater number of the temples -scattered over the hills, which stand amidst groups of magnificent -trees, whose green foliage contrasts so pleasantly with -the gray, barren hills which the Chinese, like all other peoples -of the Far East, never cultivate. Visitors are pleasantly received -in the temples near Peking, some of which are used -as summer residences by European diplomatists tired of being -shut up in the city, whose pestilential miasmas occasionally -reach even their houses, although they are surrounded by -parks. Some of them are only wooden structures, with dwellings -for the bonzes surrounding courtyards on to which open -the various sanctuaries. The use of wood in the Far East for -building purposes does not prevent a certain display of magnificence -and art, and the Japanese temples at Nikko and many -other places are marvels of richness and beauty, although they -are entirely built of wood. Unfortunately, unless they are very -carefully looked after, they are naturally apt to deteriorate much -quicker than stone buildings. Needless to say, the Chinese -temples are in a very dilapidated condition. I cannot say that -I was impressed by the amazing collection of Buddhas, some -life-size, others colossal, some gilded and others painted, no -two of which are said to be exactly alike; or by the crowd of -horrible monsters with ferocious faces and abominable gestures -who guard the entrances to these temples. They one and all -filled me rather with disgust than with the slightest impression -of awe. This degenerate Buddhism is very different from that -which exists in Ceylon, and among certain Japanese sects. -The only traces of the original character of the religion, or at -any rate of the land from which it sprang, are to be found in -the lovely stone pagoda of the Pi-Yuen-Sse, whose style is -pure Hindu, and contains some exquisite bas-reliefs representing -scenes in the lives of Sakyamuni and his saints, or, -again, in the even more beautiful sculpture to be admired in -the Temple of the Yellow Tower.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The Summer Palace, which, by the way, was not a genuine -Chinese building, but erected under the direction of the Jesuits -<span class='pageno' id='Page_203'>203</span>in the eighteenth century in the style of Versailles, has not -been rebuilt since its destruction by the Allies in 1860, and all -access to its ruins has been prohibited. Not far distant is the -summer residence of the Empress Dowager, surrounded by -magnificent gardens. The road which leads to it is well kept. -For the matter of that, as the Empress was about to make a pilgrimage -to a neighbouring shrine at the time I passed that way, -all the roads were being tinkered up for her advent. Hundreds -of coolies were working under the direction of mandarins of the -second or inferior rank, with the white or gold button, who -were dashing on horseback hither and thither, giving orders -and generally superintending so that all irregularities were -rapidly disappearing under cartloads of sand. These costly -repairs were, however, only ephemeral.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The Chinese Government never hesitates about wasting -money on trivialities. On one occasion, a river happening to -upset certain arrangements in one of the Imperial gardens, -it was, at enormous cost, drained from its bed, and allowed -to inundate and ruin hundreds of farms belonging to the -unfortunate peasants. On another occasion, with a view to -worthily celebrating the sixtieth birthday of the Dowager -Empress, the money intended for the reorganization of the -army in Pe-chi-li was squandered on processions, illuminations, -and fireworks. Whenever money is needed for anything but -the gratification of the greed and vanity of the Court officials, it is -never forthcoming; and every traveller who has been to China -will corroborate what I have said concerning not only the -neighbourhood of Peking, but also of Canton and Shanghai. -The highroads have practically ceased to exist, and the bridges -are rapidly crumbling to ruin. The Imperial canal, one of the -most magnificent works of past generations, which goes from -Hang-Chow to Tien-tsin, a distance of over 940 miles, and -unites the Blue, the Yellow, and the Pei-ho Rivers, and also -the capitals of the middle provinces, whence are obtained the -best provisions, is now at many points choked up with sand and -stones, and in others it is only a few inches deep, and can only -be used for local traffic. China of to-day is but a shadow of -what she has been, for her sole object in existence is to deceive, -and her administration is rotten to the core. This decadence -dates centuries back, but it culminated five years ago, when an -Empire of 400,000,000 inhabitants was obliged to humble itself -to a nation ten times its inferior in population and resources.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_204'>204</span> - <h3 class='c001'>CHAPTER IV<br /> <span class='large'>THE LITERARY AND MANDARIN CLASS—PRINCIPAL CAUSES OF THE DECADENCE OF THE EMPIRE</span></h3> -</div> -<p class='c014'>The literati or governing class—How it is recruited from the mass of the -people through examinations—Bachelors, Masters of Arts and Doctors—Enormous -number of candidates—The functionaries exclusively -selected from the literati—Most of the posts sold—The syndicate for -the exploitation of public offices—The gravest defect of the system, -the examinations, the subjects selected being merely exercises in -rhetoric and memory about an immense quantity of nonsensical -matter supplied by the Chinese classics and ancient annals—Abortive -attempts to introduce small doses of Western science into these examinations—Superstitions -of the literati—This stupid system of examination -the principal cause of Chinese isolation—Complete disappearance -of the military spirit resulting from the same fatal cause—Hostility -and contempt entertained by the literati against all European -progress—Difficulty of suppressing or reforming the mandarinate.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The curse of China and the main reason why her remarkable -people, who once deserved to be compared with the ancient -Romans, have sunk to the degraded condition in which we -find them at present, is the mandarinate, which she has the -misfortune to consider one of her chief glories. It is this -corrupt and antiquated system that is destroying the Celestial -Empire. It has often been observed that nations generally -have the Government they deserve, and it is undoubtedly -true that the administration of China is, in a measure, the -logical result of her geographical situation and singular history, -to which might be added the peculiar character of her people. -On the other hand, there is no question that the worst traits of -the national character are accentuated in the mandarin class -which governs the country, and saps its activity and energy.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Theoretically, the Chinese Government is based on paternal -principles; as a matter of fact, it is entirely in the hands of -the class known as ‘literati,’ from whose ranks all the State -<span class='pageno' id='Page_205'>205</span>officials, or mandarins, are recruited; and if we wish to understand -the primary causes of the misgovernment of the Celestial -Empire, we must become thoroughly acquainted with the origin -and manners of the mandarins, who are not hereditary, but -recruited from the mass of the people in the most democratic -manner in the world by means of public competitive examinations. -These examinations confer three honorary degrees, -which might be likened to those bestowed by our Universities: -Bachelors, Masters of Arts, and Doctors. The degree of -Bachelor is competed for in each district (there are sixty districts -per province), and that of Master of Arts in the eighteen provincial -capitals; that of Doctor, on the other hand, is only to be -obtained in Peking. One may imagine the esteem in which -these degrees are held by the people when I mention that in -1897, when I was at Shanghai, no less than 14,000 candidates -came up for examination at Nanking, with only 150 honours to -be distributed amongst them. It is considered a great honour -for a family to include a literate amongst its members, and his -obtaining his degree is celebrated throughout the entire province -which enjoys the privilege of being his birthplace. Should he -be fortunate enough to obtain his laureate at Peking, he is welcomed -on his return to his native town as a veritable conquering -hero. It is quite true that, in order to pass his examination, he has -to go through an amount of physical suffering and patient -endurance which would deter any but a Chinaman from the -attempt. Each candidate is shut up for three whole days -in a box-like cell four feet square, in which he cannot -even lie down, with no other companions than his brush, -paper and stick of Chinese ink; and barely an examination -passes without some student or other being found dead in his -cell. According to popular rumour, it is said that the all-pervading -corruption penetrates even into these cells, and that -not a few candidates succeed less through their merits than -through the golden gate; and it has even been observed that -the sons and near relatives of existing high functionaries are -pretty sure to pass; but as a rule, however, it seems that merit -generally obtains its reward. It is, however, after the examinations -that begin the real difficulties of those who are not rich -and are without influential friends. One might naturally expect -that after the trouble, fatigue, and expense of the examination -were over, some post or other would surely be forthcoming -to recompense the efforts of the candidate; but the contrary -<span class='pageno' id='Page_206'>206</span>is the rule, and many a man has had to wait a lifetime before -obtaining the reward for which he has striven so hard. Nevertheless, -those students who seem to possess exceptional ability -generally push themselves forward in the following manner: a -syndicate has been formed which advances the funds necessary -to assist the aspirant in mounting the first rung on the ladder of -fame, and to help him further, until he is in a position to return -the money borrowed, either in cash or kind, with a very handsome -interest. The idea of exploiting public offices as a -sort of commercial concern is, to say the least, ingenious, and, -what is more, it seems to be occasionally exceedingly remunerative. -On the other hand, the expense and the intrigue that -such a pernicious system must necessarily involve can better -be imagined than described. As an instance in point, I was -assured that the position of Tao-tai or Governor of Shanghai, -worth, for not more than three years, a salary of 6,000 taels, -or £900, a year, was recently bought for over £30,000.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Even worse than the purchase of public offices, and the -favouritism shown at examinations, are the subjects chosen for -competition, which are exclusively selected from Chinese -classical and scholastic literature. The works of Confucius, -those of his disciples, of Mencius and of other philosophers who -enlightened the world two thousand years ago, and a mass of -quaint lore derived from the ancient Chinese chronicles, form -the subject of these extraordinary examinations, and the students -have to learn some hundred volumes as nearly as possible by -heart, memory being the one thing most highly prized by the -Board of Examiners. The student is expected to quote -certain extracts word by word as they appear in the books, -and his examination papers must, moreover, be embellished by -a great quantity of quotations—the more the better. An -elegant style is obtained only through acquaintance with as -many of the 60,000 Chinese characters as possible, from which -the student is expected to make an appropriate selection, and, -as each sign means a word, and not a few of these are almost -unknown, and only to be found in some hidden corner of an -ancient volume, the waste of time is appalling. The preparatory -instruction, therefore, simply consists in cramming the wretched -candidate with a knowledge of as great a number of signs or -characters, and quotations from the Celestial classics, as -possible. One of the most curious features of the Chinese is -that, although everybody knows how to read and write a little, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_207'>207</span>no one can do so perfectly, for the simple reason that no -Chinaman has ever been known to completely master the -voluminous alphabet of his country. The most ignorant has -acquired some ten or a dozen characters relating to his trade, -and sufficient for his purpose. When a man has mastered -6,000 or 8,000 he is considered learned, and, when we come -to think of it, there must be very few ideas that cannot be -expressed by so many thousands of words. Many of the -higher literati manage to acquire even 20,000 words, and -the state of the mind of that man may safely be left to the -reader’s imagination, especially if we reflect that he must -have passed his entire youth studying by rote thousands of -signs only distinguishable from one another by the minutest -strokes, and in acquiring a prodigious amount of obsolete -knowledge from classical books and annals whose authors -lived in remote antiquity. Of late years a slight modification -has been introduced in the shape of certain concessions to -what is officially called the ‘new Western culture.’ To the -usual questions selected from the works of Confucius and other -philosophers have now been added the identification of names -mentioned in modern geography, and since the Chino-Japanese -War the examiners at Nanking ask their candidates some very -grave and informing queries in astronomy, as: ‘What is the -apparent diameter of the sun as seen from the earth? and what -would be that of the earth as seen from the sun or from some -other planet?’ The following sage question is typical of -the intellectual condition of both examiner and examined: -‘Why is the character in writing which represents the moon -closed at the bottom, and the one which represents the sun -left open?’</p> - -<p class='c008'>In the capital of a province near Shanghai the learned -examiners wished to encourage the study of mathematics, and, -accordingly, prizes were offered for competition and a solemn -circular sent out to encourage young men to take part in the -examination. Some young fellows, who had been educated in -the missionary schools, solved most of the problems offered -fairly well, and in accordance with the rules of modern elementary -education. Others, on the other hand, who were better -acquainted with the Four Books and the Five Great Classics -than with Western geometry, made the remarkable discovery -that the problems were explained in an old work written many -centuries ago, with the result that they simply copied word by -<span class='pageno' id='Page_208'>208</span>word the fantastical solutions therein formulated, and, of -course, carried off the prizes. In the following year one of the -professors of a foreign missionary college asked leave for a -competent European teacher to be included in the examining -committee in order to assist in the preparation of the papers -and to pronounce a verdict upon the answers sent in. Needless -to say, the demand was refused and the questions were -sent out without the least attempt to insure their being loyally -answered. Among the questions asked at a competitive -scientific examination in Chekiang in 1898 were the following: -‘How are foreign candles made, and in what consists -their superiority over those manufactured in China?’ ‘Name -the principal ports touched at by the steamers running between -Japan and the Mediterranean.’ ‘To which of the new sciences -and methods which people are endeavouring to introduce -should the greatest importance be attached?’ ‘Write an essay -on international law.’ Comment is needless.</p> - -<p class='c008'>These foolish innovations, of course, do not change the fundamental -scholastic and rhetorical character of Chinese examinations, -and the usual themes for the compositions remain -identical. Here are two examples quoted by Mr. Henry -Norman: ‘Confucius hath said, “In what majesty did Chun -and Yu reign over the Empire, as though the Empire was -as nothing unto them!” Confucius hath said, “Yao was -verily a great sovereign. How glorious he was! Heaven -alone is grand, and Yao only worthy to enter it. How exalted -was his virtue! The people could find no words wherewith to -qualify it.”‘<a id='r22' /><a href='#f22' class='c006'><sup>[22]</sup></a> This was the theme that had to be developed -by many a flower of rhetoric. It is only through the study of -these books, written twenty centuries ago, and encumbered by -parables and affected maxims, and of ancient annals crammed -with fantastic legends believed in as absolute facts, that are -selected the members of the class who are expected to govern -China!</p> - -<p class='c008'>The result of this method of education was exemplified as -late as 1897, two years after a war which had brought the -Celestial Empire within an inch of ruin, when a censor, one of -the highest officials in the Empire, addressed a document to -the Emperor, wherein he protested against the concessions -made to the inventions of the Western barbarians, which he -<span class='pageno' id='Page_209'>209</span>did not hesitate to qualify as calculated to disturb the peace -of the dead. Instead of constructing railways, he gravely -insisted, it were wiser to offer a handsome reward to the man -who should recover the secret of making flying chariots to be -drawn by phœnixes which certainly existed in the good old times. -A little time previously a member of the Tsung-li-Yamen had -lifted his voice to protest against the various railway embankments -and the nails that studded the lines, which, he believed, -were likely to inconvenience and wound the sacred dragons -who protect the cities of the Empire, and who dwell beneath -the soil. The strange superstitions of the <em>feng-shui</em> geomancy -dealing with the circulation through the air of good and evil -spirits, and with the prescribed height to which buildings may -be erected, and the exact positions of doors and other like -grave matters, which, it seems, unless they be properly attended -to, are apt to upset and offend the flying spirits in their progress -through space, exercise a greater empire over the minds -of Chinese officials in the very highest places than matters -which we should consider of the greatest importance.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The fact that the mandarinate is recruited from the democracy -renders it even more pernicious than if it constituted a -hereditary aristocracy, for, as it stands, nobody has any interest -in overthrowing it. The most intelligent people try to enter -it, and it attracts all the most gifted men in the Empire, but -only to corrupt them. The literary class enjoys an enormous -prestige, and the poorest man lives in the hope of seeing his -son one of its learned members. It, therefore, does not excite -any of that hatred usually provoked by caste privilege, and -thus does not stand the least danger of being upset. On -the other hand, the condition to which it has reduced the -Celestial Empire is a condemnation of the system of examination -for Government office, and many a Western State might -do well to study this question and to take its lesson to heart. -That its effects have been more accentuated in China than -elsewhere is undeniable, being the result of diverse historic -and ethnographical circumstances peculiar to that nation. The -Chinese reached a high state of civilization long before our -era, and being more numerous and intelligent than their neighbours, -so soon as they were cemented into one compact -nationality they proceeded to subjugate Indo-China and -Korea; and so it came to pass that China had no dangerous -foes to disturb her, Japan being isolated in her island Empire, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_210'>210</span>and she was separated from India by a formidable mountain -barrier and from the West by immense deserts. From that -time the Chinese had nothing to trouble them, and had but -to live in quiet admiration of the labours of their ancestors, -who were the authors of the perfect peace which they enjoyed, -and thus little by little they accustomed themselves to look -upon them as superior beings and as types of perfection. -More advanced than any of their tributary subjects, and having -nothing to fear from competition, they became lost in self-admiration, -or, rather, in the admiration of those who had -made their country what it was, and ended by believing that -no further progress was either necessary or possible, and thus -are now absolutely non-progressive.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The isolation and the want of emulation in which China has -existed for so many centuries have destroyed whatever energy -and initiative she might otherwise have possessed. It should be -remarked, however, that the Roman Empire was in very much -the same condition, and for the same reason, at the time of the -invasion of the Barbarians, and that outside the moral revolution -effected by Christianity—which, by the way, only obtained its -fullest developments by the overthrow of the Empire—no further -progress was being made. The sterile admiration of bygone -greatness, therefore, is the foundation-stone of the doctrines of -Confucius. The Chinese people, who are essentially practical -and positive, and less given, perhaps, than any other in the -world to study general questions and lofty ideals, soon deteriorated -under so retrogressive a system, and eventually lost -all sight of the origin of many of their most important institutions. -Religion and morals were reduced to mere rites and -ceremonies that only conceal the emptiness of Chinese civilization, -and so the nation came to the conclusion that the one -thing in this world worth the doing was to save appearances, -and conceal corruption beneath a flimsy mask.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The isolation of China and her superiority over her neighbours -produced another very grave consequence—the ruin of -that martial spirit which has obliterated all idea of duty and -sacrifice. The military mandarins are despised by their civil -colleagues, and their tests consist almost exclusively of physical -exercises such as archery and the lifting of heavy weights. -‘One does not use good iron to make nails, nor a good man to -make a soldier,’ says the Chinese proverb, and thus it is that -the Chinese army is recruited from a horde of blackguards -<span class='pageno' id='Page_211'>211</span>and plunderers, whose only good qualities are their contempt for -life and physical endurance, which might under proper management -turn this raw material into an excellent army.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The Celestial Empire is quite as incapable of resisting -the advance of modern civilization as it is of assimilating it. -From the literati who govern the land nothing is to be expected, -for they will neither learn nor forget anything. Their prejudices -are so strong as to prevent their accepting any great -movement of reform, even if it were in their interests, and -in the stagnant position in which China is at present, aided -by the lack of intercommunication between the provinces, -the mandarins do exactly as they please. The <cite>Peking Gazette</cite>, -the official paper, described quite recently in the most glowing -terms the suppression of a revolt, showing at the same time -the expenses incurred and the rewards offered to those who -had aided in its suppression. The real truth of the story -was that no revolution whatever had taken place in the district -mentioned, and the only unusual event which had occurred was -the pursuit of a runaway thief by three soldiers. Such an -instance could not possibly occur in a well-regulated State, and -naturally the men who profited by the lie will not be very -desirous of a change in so profitable a system. ‘Those who -despair most of China are those who know her best,’ once -said a missionary to me; and his words have been confirmed -by nearly every traveller in the Far East with whom I have -spoken on the subject. No reform can be expected in the -country from within, and a proof in point will be found in -the history of the Palace Revolution of September 9th, 1898. -The question, therefore, which presents itself is whether -external pressure can be brought to bear on China with a view -to reforming her Government without causing the dislocation -of the Empire.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_212'>212</span> - <h3 class='c001'>CHAPTER V<br /> <span class='large'>THE CHINESE PEOPLE AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS</span></h3> -</div> -<p class='c014'>Great antiquity of China’s national existence—Stagnation of her organization -as well as of her social, religious and administrative institutions—Unity -of Chinese civilization notwithstanding varied surroundings, -differences of language and of racial origin, it being much more inflexible -than that of the Western world—Some of the principal -characteristics of the Chinese—Love of false appearances—Gulf that -divides the theoretical from the practical in all matters of Chinese -administration—Corruption of the Chinese Government and its determination -to impede progress—Lightness of the taxes—The mass of -the people apparently happy under distressing circumstances—The -good-humour and liveliness of the Celestials—Pity said to be absolutely -excluded from the Chinese character—Why the Chinese make bad -soldiers—Organization of the family and position of women—Vices of -the Chinese: love of gambling, opium, filthy habits and superstitions—Their -better qualities—The people themselves not in a state -of decadence—Primary effects of contact with Western civilization.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The Chinese are at one and the same time the most numerous -and the longest existing nation in the world. The annals of -the Celestial Empire date as far back as those of Egypt, and -twenty centuries ago, when States which now rule the earth -were in process of formation, China, having undergone several -evolutions, was already constituted as she is to-day. The -Chinese have never been subjected to any of those marked and -repeated changes which, during the last two thousand years, -have so profoundly modified the social organization and the -manners and customs of other countries; and even the introduction -of a new religion did not produce in the East anything -comparable to the revolution which, at about the same time, -occurred in the West through the spread of Christianity. -Buddhism did not modify the Chinese people, but the -Chinese people modified Buddhism after their own image and -likeness, without, however, permitting the doctrines of Sakyamuni -<span class='pageno' id='Page_213'>213</span>to exercise the least influence over their character, or -change an iota of their ideas concerning life and morality, -which were determined by Confucius and other sage Celestials, -being in reality derived less from the meditations of philosophers -or the inspiration of prophets than from the intuitive instinct -of the race. The institutions of China have not altered the -mental habits or method of life upon which they profess to be -modelled, any more than has the theoretical principle of family -existence altered the Imperial Government; for the Chinese -even now often qualify their high officials by the endearing -epithets ‘father’ and ‘mother.’ Political revolutions have not -made a deeper impression upon the fossilized organization of -the Chinese Government, than has religion on the character -and manners of the people. The various dynasties that have -succeeded each other have changed nothing, although some -of them have been of foreign origin: the Mongolian in the -thirteenth century and the Manchurian in our own time; but -they effected no variations in the system of Government, and -only placed certain functionaries to watch over the mandarins, -precisely as the Tatar marshals are instructed to spy upon the -officials of nowadays.</p> - -<p class='c008'>China has always been governed after Chinese methods, and -although she has occasionally been conquered by foreigners, she -has invariably absorbed them into her own civilization, and -obliged them to observe her traditions. The Chinese care -very little about the future, the greatness or the independence -of their country; but they cling with extraordinary tenacity to -their old manners and customs, and thereby offer a striking -contrast to their neighbours the Japanese, who, notwithstanding -their intense patriotism, will make any sacrifice, even that of -religious principle and most cherished tradition, if they think -that they may thereby benefit their Empire. The Japanese -have almost the same conception of patriotism as Europeans, -but not so the Chinese, with whom this virtue is merely a racial -affair, which in the hour of danger invariably proves of little -or no avail, especially against adversaries of a kind never -previously encountered.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Does there exist, beyond this intense love of old customs -and of an immutable civilization, any bond of union among -the three or four hundred millions of human beings who -constitute the population of China?<a id='r23' /><a href='#f23' class='c006'><sup>[23]</sup></a> At first sight no people -<span class='pageno' id='Page_214'>214</span>could possibly appear more thoroughly homogeneous than the -Chinese; but it is not necessary to stay long among them -to perceive that even from the physical point of view there are -certain racial differences which make it more difficult at first -to note the dissimilarity which separates their race from our -own. Even more striking are the diverse dialects spoken in -the Empire, several of which are not mere patois, but distinct -languages, rendering it impossible for a native of Canton or -Foochow to make himself understood at Peking; and in -many provinces these idiomatic peculiarities are very interesting. -In Fo-kien no less than three patois are spoken—the -Amoy, Swatow, and the Foochow, which are utterly different -from each other. Between the cities of Peking and Tien-tsin, -scarcely thirty leagues apart, there is already a marked difference -in the matter of dialect. It is also a noteworthy fact -that very little sympathy exists among the Chinese from different -provinces, who keep aloof from each other even when circumstances -oblige them to live in the same town. Very marked, -too, are the divergent characteristics and temperaments observable -between the inhabitants of the North and those of -the South, the former being much the most energetic and enterprising, -but at the same time more hostile to foreigners. The -Central Government is almost unknown by the multitudes outside -of Peking, and it would be a comparatively easy task to -raise an army in one part of China to fight against the inhabitants -of another.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The question may now be asked whether China, which covers -an area equal to that of Europe, and is even more thickly -peopled, is less homogeneous than our own Continent. Does -there exist between the various Chinese provinces the same -differences that mark each of the nations that in the aggregate -form Europe? From the geographical and climatic point of -view it is evident that the difference is not very great, although -China possesses very high mountains only on her Western -<span class='pageno' id='Page_215'>215</span>frontier, and her plains are much more extensive and continuous. -But from the ethnical point of view it would be an -exaggeration to state that there is much analogy between China -and Europe, since the former is certainly much the more homogeneous. -The different countries of our Continent are inhabited -by peoples who are only remotely related to each other, and -who are merely united by the ties of a common civilization, -whereas amongst the subjects of the Son of Heaven the ties -are much stronger and the physical resemblance is more -marked. I am, of course, speaking of the inhabitants of China -proper only—of the eighteen provinces, to which might be -added a nineteenth, Ching-king, or Southern Manchuria, now -in process of colonization by the Chinese. The various -tributary peoples belonging to the Celestial Empire, such as -the Mongolians, the Thibetans and the Turki in Eastern -Turkestan, are absolutely distinct from each other and from -the predominant race; but although the dependencies which -they cover constitute two-thirds of the surface of the entire -Empire, they only form a twentieth of the entire population, -and do not share in its Government.</p> - -<p class='c008'>It should be observed that the absence of any sympathy -between the inhabitants of the different Chinese provinces might -have been found quite recently exemplified in Europe, not -merely between nation and nation, but between province and -province in the same country, and that linguistic variations are -still noticeable even in the most homogeneous countries. -History is full of instances of intestine troubles which have -existed in nearly every European nation, and it is but thirty -years since the Germans were at war with each other.</p> - -<p class='c008'>I have often heard related the misadventures of two -Celestials, natives of different provinces, who, whilst travelling -in Europe, met one day only to discover that their sole -means of making themselves understood was by speaking -English. But does not this story recall the recent Slav -Congress in Austria, whose debates had to be held in German -in order that they might be followed by all the delegates? -The existence of patois and dialects results from the inhabitants -of certain districts having neither the time nor the money to -go beyond their village further than the nearest market-town. -Then, again, education in China does not tend, as in Europe, -to produce unity of language, since its writing is quite independent -of pronunciation, and the innumerable letters of its -<span class='pageno' id='Page_216'>216</span>alphabet represent, not sounds, but ideas. The lack of any -spirit of patriotism may be largely attributed to this state of -absolute isolation, to which may be added a general and very -profound ignorance. But patriotism as we understand it is, -after all, a matter of modern sentiment, therefore not to be -looked for in so antiquated a nation as the Chinese.</p> - -<p class='c008'>It matters little whether there be a common origin or not, -since our notions of race are very difficult to define, and modern -anthropological and ethnographical discoveries tend more and -more towards the acceptance of the theory of the existence -of distinct races. Whereas the patois of the ten northernmost -provinces are merely dialects of the Manchurian languages, -those of the south, especially of Fo-kien and Canton, are totally -different, and apparently confirm the theory that the Chinese -invaders who came from the north-east found the land already -inhabited by a people whom they assimilated, precisely as they -are doing in our time in Manchuria, and as did the Romans -in ancient Gaul.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The entire population of China, excepting a few obscure -mountain tribes, the remainder, possibly, of the autochthones -of the South, whatever their origin, have for centuries moulded -themselves on a civilization that penetrates far deeper into the -details of every-day life than any known in Europe. The -result is a greater uniformity among the people who have -adopted it than will be found among men who follow a less -rigid code that permits of greater latitude and affords a freer -scope for the exercise of individuality. Many peculiarities in -the Chinese character appear at first contradictory, even to -those who have lived long in the country, and who assert that -no European can ever thoroughly understand a Chinaman -because his mind is so differently constituted.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The most striking characteristic of the Chinese, says Mr. -Arthur H. Smith, an American missionary who has lived -twenty-two years in China, in his admirable book ‘Chinese -Characteristics,’ is their remarkable manner of ‘facing’ a -thing. To save appearances, or to ‘face’ a difficulty cunningly -rather than boldly, is the endeavour of the inhabitants of the -Kingdom of the Son of Heaven, and is the key, moreover, to a -great many other matters that might otherwise appear incomprehensible. -Every Chinaman considers himself an actor, -whose public words, acts, and deeds have nothing in common -with reality. The most praiseworthy and even the most innocent -<span class='pageno' id='Page_217'>217</span>of actions, unless it be performed in a certain way, -will only cover its author with shame and ridicule. If a fault -is committed, the guilty party is expected to deny it with the -utmost effrontery in spite of convincing evidence, and on no -account must he confess himself guilty, even if he is obliged to -repair the injury done. From the highest to the lowest, the -Chinese entertain a profound respect for shamming. A boy -caught stealing will slip the coveted object up his sleeves, -stoop down and pretend to pick it up, and with the smile of -an angel present it to his master, saying, ‘Here is what you -have lost.’ A little over a hundred years ago the mandarins -who were escorting Macartney, the English Ambassador, into -the presence of the Son of Heaven, profited by his ignorance of -their language to place over his carriage an inscription to the -effect that it contained ‘the Ambassador bringing tribute from -the Kingdom of England,’ and thus kept up the fiction of the -universal sovereignty of their lord and master.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Undoubtedly the observance of a certain amount of etiquette -is both useful and praiseworthy, and so considered by all -civilized nations; but Chinese etiquette is the most punctilious -and complicated that was ever imagined, and never on any -account to be neglected for a single instant. This excessive -attention to outward forms, which, if they be but observed, -may conceal any kind of iniquity, explains the fact that in -China there is a deeper gulf between theory and practice than -in any other country in the world. That it has always been so -may be questioned, but at present the morals of Confucius -have long since been lost in a code of etiquette which defines -virtue as consisting in the observance to the letter of the three -hundred rules of ceremony and the three thousand regulations -of conduct, without paying the least attention to the spirit -in which they were originally formulated.</p> - -<p class='c008'>It is in the system of Government in China that the contrast -between precept and practice becomes most evident. -As Mr. Henry Norman remarks with hardly exaggerated -severity, ‘Every Chinese official, with the possible exception -of one in a thousand, is a liar, a thief and a tyrant!’ -Examples confirming this assertion are very numerous, and -even the celebrated Li Hung-chang cannot be included in the -list of those officials who are noted for their honesty, since he -had to disgorge a great part of the immense fortune he had -accumulated—twenty millions, it is reputed—to save his head -<span class='pageno' id='Page_218'>218</span>during the Chino-Japanese War, when he had to purchase -the goodwill of many Court dignitaries, eunuchs and others, -notwithstanding which, money matters still occupy a great deal -of his attention. I had the honour while I was at Peking to -dine at the French Legation in the company of this exalted -personage, on the occasion of the visit of the Admiral commanding -the French Fleet in the Far East and several officers -of his staff. Li conversed through the intermediary of an -interpreter named Ma, to whom he spoke in the Fo-kien, his -native dialect; it appears he speaks Manchu very badly. He -put to each of the guests several polite questions usual among -Orientals, inquired after their rank, their age, and invariably -wound up his courteous inquiries by asking: ‘Well, and what -is your salary?’ With us the income of an official is a matter -of very little importance, but with the famous mandarin it was -the essential.</p> - -<p class='c008'>For centuries the administration of China has been as corrupt -as it is to-day, but for all this it has never driven the people -to rebellion. It is true that occasionally there are local agitations, -whose chiefs go so far as to pounce upon offending -representatives of authority and convey them to the capital of -the district, or province, to demand their degradation, which -is more often than not accorded—a fact which inspired an -English paper at Shanghai to descant on the ‘democratic -manner in which the Chinese participate in their government.’ -Oppression tempered by revolt is the rule which prevails in the -Celestial Empire, but there is no fear of a general revolution -against so degenerate a system. This administrative machine, -however, which appears to us to be so detestable, only impedes -progress, but does not affect the population, which is accustomed -to routine habits hundreds of years old, and has not -the remotest idea that a reform is either necessary or practicable. -When an enterprising man wishes to introduce even -the most insignificant of modern trades, he invariably attracts -the attention of the mandarins, to whom he is obliged to apply -for permission to carry on his novelty, and will only obtain it -after much bribery and a promise to pay such a huge percentage -on his profits as to render the returns of his venture -too insignificant to be worth his continuing it. But for the -uncomplaining and unprogressive, who have nothing to do -with administrative affairs, life in China flows easily and quietly -enough. The taxes are very light, especially for the peasantry, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_219'>219</span>who live by what they harvest in their fields, or for the workpeople, -whose wants are very small They fall, however, heavily -upon commercial transactions and the transport of merchandise, -are a great impediment to commerce, and though they -never affect them directly, for their poverty is far too great to -permit of their buying anything, they contribute indirectly to -keep the inferior classes in a state of abject poverty. According -to the investigations of Herr von Brandt, former German -Minister to Peking, and a man who has studied China profoundly, -the land tax in China reaches £5,250,000, being -about 3s. per acre in the North, with a maximum of 13s. in -the South. This is not much when we consider the intense -activity of Chinese agriculture, which extracts from the soil -almost everywhere two harvests annually. The total of the -Budget, according to the same authority, reaches 100,000,000 -taels, or £15,000,000. Other authorities estimated it as high -as £24,000,000, but even this is not excessive. The following -is Von Brandt’s account of the different sources of revenue of -the Chinese Empire:</p> - -<table class='table2' summary=''> - <tr> - <td class='c010'>Inland Revenue</td> - <td class='c011'>£5,250,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c010'>Treaty port Customs (obtained by the International Customs Service)</td> - <td class='c011'>3,450,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c010'>Right for transit in the interior (<em>likin</em>)</td> - <td class='c011'>1,800,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c010'>Native Customs and tax on native opium</td> - <td class='c011'>1,500,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c010'>Salt tax</td> - <td class='c011'>1,500,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c010'>Sale of titles and honorary distinctions</td> - <td class='c011'>750,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c010'>Tribute of rice</td> - <td class='c011'>450,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c010'>Licenses, etc.</td> - <td class='c011'>300,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c010'> </td> - <td class='c011'><hr /></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c024'>Total</td> - <td class='c011'>£15,000,000</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c010'> </td> - <td class='c011'><hr class='double' /></td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p class='c030'>The public revenues, gathered by the provincial treasuries, are -sent on to Peking after deduction of the amount necessary for -the requirements of the district. It is stated that only a third -of these receipts is disposable for the needs of the Central -Government.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The mass of the Chinese people endure, therefore, without -much discontent, a Government which in ordinary time weighs -very lightly upon them, that meddles very little in the affairs -of their villages or communes, always very strongly constituted -in the Far East, and, above all, never disturbs their -ancient customs. Exceedingly poor, and only able to live by -dint of hard work, and having a very severe struggle for life, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_220'>220</span>the people have no time to waste on philosophical reflections, -and, moreover, possess no standard of comparison to assist it -to judge of the hardness of its fate. In addition to this, we -must not forget that the Chinese are endowed by nature with -an excessive spirit of conservatism and a patience and perseverance -quite beyond praise, to which must be added a -jovial good-humour that enables them to endure an existence -which to the people of any other country would appear intolerable. -Peasants and workpeople alike have no hope of -ever seeing their humble condition improved, and their prospective -existence is one of absolute monotony, entirely passed -in sowing and reaping, in carrying heavy burdens, in the -turning of looms, or in labouring the earth, without having, -excepting on a few feast-days, a moment’s rest, save what is -absolutely necessary for meals and sleep. None the less, they -always seem very happy, complain very little, and thoroughly -enjoy their few pleasures, and apparently absolutely ignore their -troubles.</p> - -<p class='c008'>This happy spirit of resignation explains why the Chinese, -notwithstanding their poverty, are one of the most contented -people in the world, and, consequently, one of the happiest; -but, unfortunately, they are exposed from time to time to -dreadful calamities: an inundation, an epidemic, or a bad -harvest, which brings about inevitable misery and famine -to the entire population, who are left without any resources -because their work has not been sufficiently remunerative to -enable them to put anything by for a rainy day. Not a year -passes without a dreadful calamity occurring somewhere or -other in the immense Celestial Empire, causing the deaths of -hundreds of thousands of people, so that, notwithstanding the -astonishing number of children born, the population apparently -does not increase. Here, then, we have a striking application -of the doctrines of Malthus; for in this society, into which no -ray of progress is admitted, men multiply quicker than their -means of subsistence, but natural calamities re-establish the -balance by annually overwhelming a prodigious number of -men, women and children.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The exaggerated sense of conservatism and the improvidence -of the administration are in part responsible for the occurrence -of these grave calamities, which are generally accompanied by -a recrudescence of that chronic piracy and brigandage which -is peculiar to China, being the sole means of gaining a livelihood -<span class='pageno' id='Page_221'>221</span>left to many ruined wretches. Sometimes, however, the -agents of the Government, after having done nothing either -to prevent a catastrophe or to mitigate its consequences, increase -it in times of famine by their avidity in seizing the rice, -and thus provoke a rebellion, as happened in 1898 at various -parts of the Yang-tsze-Kiang. But beyond these cases, in -which the authorities are manifestly guilty, the Chinese people -submit with the utmost resignation to calamities which they -foresee and consider as merely natural, and which, when they -happen, barely ruffle their habitual placidity. Death to such a -people cannot have the same terrors it has for us.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Europeans are of all the civilized peoples of the earth those -who complain most of life, but yet who hold most dearly to it. -The people of the Far East, the Chinese as well as the Japanese, -on the other hand, consider it least. Indifference to death -seems to be with them almost a physical characteristic, the -result of the singular insensibility of their nervous system. -With respect to this last, we have plenty of evidence. The -doctors in the European hospitals where natives are treated -relate with amazement how their patients undergo the most -painful operations without a murmur and without the necessity -of having to resort to anæsthetics. In every-day life, too, the -same curious apathy is to be observed in the extraordinary -facility with which they can fall asleep whenever they choose, -even in the midst of the most awful din and noise, and they -can, moreover, remain for hours in one position without -making the slightest motion. The reverse of the medal is -that, although they are so indifferent to their own sufferings, -they are without the slightest feeling for those of others, and -can watch the writhing agony of a human being without expressing -the least horror or sympathy. The dreadful custom -of binding the feet of women in such a manner as to push the -heel forward and double up the toes under the sole of the -foot, inducing a sore that is never healed, is but one out of -many examples of Chinese cruelty. The various and horrible -tortures inflicted by the judicial tribunals are another illustration -of the same dreadful instinct. The idea of bargaining -with a person in danger of death, or with a man who has -fallen into the water before attempting to rescue him from -drowning, are things which would never suggest themselves to -a European, but they come naturally to the Chinese.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The little value in which human life is held in the Far East -<span class='pageno' id='Page_222'>222</span>is exemplified by the frequency of suicide, merely to vindicate -a point of honour which in many parts of Europe would be -settled at the point of the sword. The <em>hara-kiri</em> is not restricted -to Japan, or to the upper classes of Chinese society. -A Chinaman, even of the lowest order, will commit suicide -out of vengeance, spite, or even through what he considers a -matter of honour. Sacrifice of life is common even among -women, if we may believe the following narrative extracted from -a Chinese newspaper:</p> - -<p class='c008'>‘One day a sow belonging to a certain Madame Feng, having -done some slight injury to the door of a certain Madame Wang, -that lady forthwith demanded compensation with interest, which -was refused, whereupon Madame Wang announced her intention -of committing suicide. This dreadful threat proved altogether -too much for Madame Feng, who there and then determined -to beat her enemy with her own weapon by flinging herself -into the nearest canal.’<a id='r24' /><a href='#f24' class='c006'><sup>[24]</sup></a> Suicides are by no means rare among -the upper classes of the literati, and quite recently a censor, -a high functionary who possesses the privilege of addressing -petitions to the Sovereign, awaited the passing of the Imperial -cortege and then killed himself as a political demonstration, in -order to add weight to a memorial he had presented concerning -some promise of the Government which had not been -fulfilled. The innumerable public executions form a pendant -to the equally numerous cases of suicide.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The reader may be somewhat surprised that a people fearing -death so little should make such bad soldiers; but, after all, -however lightly a man may hold his life, no one sacrifices it -unless it be for some ideal or other. If the Celestials care so -little about existence, they care still less for the grandeur of -their country, patriotic feeling being absolutely absent from -their nature. During the French campaign in Formosa it was -no uncommon thing to see Chinese prisoners refuse to do tasks -which they considered beneath them, and which they could -only be induced to perform after having seen the heads of a -few of their comrades fall under the sword. These very people -who prefer death rather than derogate from their dignity are the -same who have often been seen throwing down their arms on -the battlefield. It is but fair to add that it is the military -mandarins or officers who generally give the signal for a stampede. -Possibly, if commanded by other officers, the Chinese, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_223'>223</span>with their wonderful power of enduring privation and callousness -for death, would eventually form an admirable army -which, even if it were unable to defend China against foreign -Powers, would certainly prove a valuable ally to one or other -of them.<a id='r25' /><a href='#f25' class='c006'><sup>[25]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c008'>The practice of infanticide, especially of female infants, is -another example of the different ways in which the Chinese -and Europeans regard life and family ties. With us the love -of parents for children is often greater than that of children -for their parents; but in China it is quite the reverse. According -to Confucius, filial piety was the noblest of virtues, -indeed, the fountain-head of them all, and it is the one which -his compatriots still practise most assiduously. Among the -lower orders, however, this virtue is confined to the support -of parents; but this is a duty never neglected. Among the -twenty-four famous examples of filial piety is mentioned the -case of a man who, at the very moment that he was about to -bury his little three-year-old girl alive because he could not -afford to keep her as well as his old mother, had his infant -saved by the unexpected discovery of a treasure purposely -placed in the intended grave by a good genie, who was eager to -reward so beautiful an instance of filial piety. A still greater sin -against this virtue is that of not possessing male posterity; for -then the family becomes extinct, and the ancestors are deprived -of those sacrifices to which they have a right, and which it is the -first duty of every well-thinking man to offer them at regular -intervals. Marriages are contracted very early, and there is -no stronger evidence needed against a wife to obtain her divorce -than that she has not had a son. The doctrine of filial piety -as it is understood by the Chinese, and the worship of ancestors, -which is its highest expression, have their good as well as their -bad side. It forms the principal mainstay of that useless -system of admiration of an irrevocable past in which everything -is supposed to have been better than it can possibly be to-day, -and which of necessity turns the people of the Celestial Empire -from all desire for progress, because to do so would be an -outrage to an ancestry whose wisdom can never be surpassed.</p> - -<p class='c008'>If this belief produces unfortunate social consequences, it -<span class='pageno' id='Page_224'>224</span>at the same time serves to consolidate family ties; but ever -so it is pernicious, especially with respect to the condition -of women. The lot of Chinese women is certainly not a -happy one. Lodging rather than living with her husband, -under his parents’ roof, the young wife is never allowed to see -her own family, excepting at certain fixed periods prearranged -by custom. In their earlier years married women in China -are exposed to the caprices and rebuffs of a shrewish mother-in-law, -who is the tyrant of the family, and whose humble -servants the daughters-in-law are expected to be. For all -this, they enjoy a certain amount of liberty, for they are neither -cloistered nor veiled; but they very rarely leave their house, -a state of semi-seclusion which does not prevent their morals -being often very indifferent. ‘In a district near mine,’ an -American missionary at Fo-kien assured me, ‘there are very -few husbands who are not deceived by their wives; and in the -one which is under my direction the state of morality, or rather -of immorality, is pretty nearly the same.’ Theoretically speaking, -adultery in a Chinese woman is considered a very grave crime. -As for the husband, he is not expected to practise fidelity. The -average Chinaman delights in obscenity, and revels in improper -stories and jests; and when he has a little money to spare, -spends it very freely in the loosest company. Those places of -entertainment where Venus reigns supreme are not, as in -Japan, situated in the best and most brilliantly lighted quarter -of the town, for such of my readers who have visited Canton -may possibly remember to have had pointed out to them the -‘flower-boats’—floating constructions two stories high, whose -internal decorations are of the most magnificent.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The national vice of the Chinese, however, is gambling, and -it is one very few of them can resist. In his interesting -monograph on Peking, Mgr. Favier tells us how the beggars in -rags will stake their last scrap of clothing. Certain fanatics -will stake their wives and children, and men have been known -to wager away their finger-joints. A young Christian, who was -an inveterate gambler, on one occasion staked and lost his wife, -who was only twenty years of age, for the large sum of 15s. -The missionary paid the debt and returned the young woman -to her mother. A few months afterwards she rejoined her -husband, and, adds the author, with the authority of his thirty-eight -years of missionary life in China, ‘in all probability he -has staked and lost her again.’</p> - -<p class='c008'><span class='pageno' id='Page_225'>225</span>Intemperance, on the other hand, is extremely rare; but -those who would be drunkards in Europe, Mgr. Favier assured -me when I was in Peking, are opium-smokers in China, where -he estimates that about one-fifth of the population of the towns -give themselves over to this horrible practice. In the country -districts the number is very much less, and another missionary, -who lives at Fo-kien in Southern China, estimates it at not -more than five per cent. The habit of opium-smoking is very -widely spread among the upper classes and the literati; but its -effects are not so pronounced among the rich as among the -poor, who, by reason of bad diet, are less prepared to resist -its effects, especially as they generally indulge in this vice in -their leisure hours in the most dreadful dens, and, moreover, -smoke a very inferior quality of opium. A young man who -begins to indulge in this pernicious habit in his twentieth year -usually shuffles off this mortal coil before he is twenty-two. -The vices of the Chinese do not particularly shock foreigners -who live among them, for they are not obliged to see them; -but it is otherwise with their universal and repellently filthy -habits and intense love of all kinds of horrible noises, which -they indulge in on every possible occasion, be it a sad or -merry one, a marriage or a funeral, at festivals as well as at -fires. What exasperates a European, however, more than anything -else are the vulgar superstitions which replace among the -Celestials the spirit of religion, which is quite absent, and which -constitute another hindrance to progress. Their strange ideas -with respect to <em>feng-shui</em>, or geomancy, often upset the least -attempt at introducing any improvement even in European concessions -or in such cities as Hong-Kong and Singapore. Then, -again, the disposition of the Chinese mind does not admit of -general or abstract ideas, and repudiates all sense of the ideal, -and, in a word, is sterilized by such absolute materialism as to -shock even the most cynical of Europeans. Take them for all -in all, therefore, the Celestials may be described as a not particularly -seductive or sympathetic people, all the less so as their -ugly appearance is not compensated for by the charm of -manner which renders the Japanese so agreeable and which -enables them to gild even their vices.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The Chinese, however, have certain great qualities which -are not precisely amiable, in spite of their extreme politeness, -a matter rather of ceremony than of sincerity. These qualities -are of a serious nature: patience, perseverance, hard work, the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_226'>226</span>greatest aptitude for commercial pursuits, industry, economy, -singular resistive power, and respect for parents and old age, -to which may be added a remarkably contented frame of mind. -Therefore, even if the Chinese Government presents every -indication of decadence, it would be unjust to say the same of -its energetic and hard-working subjects. Unquestionably the -Government is not the only thing that needs reforming in -China. There is the secular habit of always looking to the -past for a type of perfection, which produces a certain atrophy -of the Chinese intelligence, depriving it of all elasticity, originality -and power of invention, and making it only capable of -servile imitation, lacking even discernment—a fact which is -admirably illustrated in the well-known story of the tailor to -whom a European sent an old pair of breeches in order that -he might copy them. This he did so conscientiously that he -cut a hole in the exact place where there had been one in the -well-worn pair which had been entrusted to him. In the same -order of ideas is an instance supplied me by the Jesuit Fathers -at Sicawei, near Shanghai, who showed me some drawings -executed by young Chinese students, intended for the plates -to be introduced in a publication on the fauna of the Far East. -They included some drawings of the skeletons of animals, which, -however, were disfigured, notwithstanding the entreaties of the -Fathers, with certain accidental blots and marks that appeared -upon the models. It is not impossible to induce the Chinese -to learn new habits, but it is almost impossible to induce them -to correct those which have been bequeathed to them by their -ancestors. It is possible to teach them how to work modern -machinery, but no power, human or divine, could teach a -Chinese carpenter to work otherwise than he has been trained -to do. At the orphanage at Sicawei, under the direction of -the Jesuits, I was shown over the carpentry department, and -was surprised to find each bench occupied by only one workman. -The Father who showed me over the school informed -me that it was absolutely impossible to induce two workmen -to occupy the same bench. The younger orphans saw the -older children and the adults who had remained in the service -of the mission working thus, and insisted upon doing likewise.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The awakening of any sense of originality or invention in -the mind of this people, by whom these qualities have been lost -for the simple reason that they have been systematically trained -to look backwards rather than forwards, will be a work of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_227'>227</span>centuries, and only brought about by prolonged contact with -the peoples and ideas of the West, and this contact is only -now beginning. Before it produces its full effects upon the -race it will doubtless do so upon the land of China itself, if -permission can only be obtained to exploit the great natural -wealth which lies undisturbed beneath the soil of this enormous -Empire, and is thus lost to humanity. If the work -of developing the economic resources of China be undertaken -in a spirit of selfish interest, it will nevertheless very considerably -ameliorate the lot of the Chinese people, if only by extending -their field of activity, which is now limited to agriculture -and small industries. It will allow them, for example, -to exploit the subsoil, which is as much neglected in the -Celestial Empire as the soil itself has been perfected by -exceedingly skilful farming. If, as we believe, the great industries -resulting from modern scientific discoveries have really -contributed to better the condition of the people of Europe, -surely their introduction into China should be most beneficial -to the inhabitants of that vast Empire.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_228'>228</span> - <h3 class='c001'>CHAPTER VI<br /> <span class='large'>FOREIGNERS IN CHINA—THE ATTITUDE OF THE CHINESE TOWARDS WESTERN CIVILIZATION</span></h3> -</div> -<p class='c014'>Concessions successively made by China to foreigners after the Wars of -1842, 1858–60, and 1895–98—Increasing tension between the Chinese -and Europeans in consequence of the latter desiring to extend their -action—Refusal of Europeans to conform to Chinese usages—Frequent -breaches made by them against the rules and traditional customs of -the Chinese—Contempt in which Western civilization is held by the -Chinese notwithstanding their acknowledgment of its power and -material advancement—This hostile spirit more marked among the -literati, who direct public opinion, than among the people.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The position of foreigners in the Middle Kingdom has -been defined by various formal conventions, the first of which -was the Treaty of Nanking, signed between England and China -after the war of 1842, known in history as the Opium War. -This was followed in 1844 by other treaties upon the same -subject with France and the United States, and still later with -other nations; in 1858 the treaties of Tien-tsin, which were -concluded with France and England after a short war, but -which were not ratified until 1860, after a much more serious -campaign and the entry of the allied troops into Peking, greatly -ameliorated the condition of foreigners in the Celestial Empire. -Lastly, in 1895, the treaty of Shimonosaki, imposed upon China -by victorious Japan, gave fresh facilities to foreign commerce. -It is a characteristic fact, however, that no serious concession -has been obtained from China until after a disastrous war, the -Government of Peking never ceding to persuasion, only to -force.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Since the sixteenth century Europeans have been able, as -the Arabs and Malays had before them, to carry on commerce -<span class='pageno' id='Page_229'>229</span>with Canton without being molested, simply because they did -not show any intention of extending their commerce further. -But in the second quarter of the present century they became -more numerous and exacting, and tension began to -manifest itself. The pride of the Westerners, who were more -than ever convinced of the superiority of their civilization, -and whose progress at home was making giant strides, burned -to impose their ideas upon the whole world, and thereby -wounded the equally great pride of the Chinese, stubbornly -attached to those very ancient customs so haughtily -despised by the barbarians, as they were pleased to call us. -The port of Canton, consecrated by tradition as the exchangemart -between foreigners and natives, no longer sufficed for -European ambition, and a clamour was raised to get rid of the -twelve merchants, or <em>hongs</em>, to whom the Chinese Government -had conceded the monopoly of trading with the outer world. -The foreigners, moreover, demanded the right to deal with -whomsoever they pleased, and refused to submit any longer to -the arbitrary taxation and treatment to which they had hitherto -been subjected by the local authorities. These demands and -others of a similar character, which appear to us perfectly -reasonable, were considered exorbitant by the Chinese. To -our incessant protests they answered exactly as they had done -twenty—nay, fifty—years before, that we wished to compel -them to do in their own country exactly as we chose, whereas, -considering that we were their guests, the contrary should be -the case, and that we ought to submit to their ways, however -objectionable they might seem to us, and even contrary to the -interests and development of our commerce. This is precisely -what Europe to-day, as then, refuses to admit, unless the -Chinese very considerably mend their ways, being of opinion -that so vast a country has no right to refuse to allow its -wealth being exploited for the benefit of humanity, and that -if it cannot, either through want of goodwill or of the -necessary means, turn it to account itself, it should allow -others who possess implements perfected for the purpose to -use them. In short, Europe demands the right not only to -trade, but also to exploit, and she intends to have it, whatever -may be the consequences.</p> - -<p class='c008'>This radical difference in looking at the same thing is the -origin of every difficulty that exists between the Powers and -the Celestial Empire. The peoples of the West, once they -<span class='pageno' id='Page_230'>230</span>have made up their minds that a thing is likely to further their -interests, insist upon its being carried into effect whether the -Chinese like it or not, and care very little whether they offend -the prejudices or even the sanctity of Chinese tradition. It -is not merely in matters of commercial transactions that -foreigners behave thus, but also with regard to religion. We -profess the most profound admiration and respect for those -men who at the risk of their lives bring the Gospel to those -who know it not, and who sacrifice everything in the hope of -saving souls, and we are thoroughly convinced of the vast -superiority of the teaching of Jesus Christ over that of Confucius. -Christianity, however, upsets not only the traditions, -but also the foundations of Chinese society. No Government -of Europe would tolerate a religion which advocated polygamy, -and that of the United States rigorously opposes the spread of -Mormonism. We must not therefore be surprised if the -Chinese do not behold with a friendly eye a religion which -opposes their great doctrine of the cultus of ancestors, and if -they consider it nothing short of sacrilege and well calculated -to overthrow morality and law, and infinitely worse from their -point of view than polygamy is from ours. The employment -of female missionaries by certain Protestant sects is -another scandal, and the sight of young women living under -the same roof as men who are not their husbands gives rise -in their minds to a train of thought the reverse of edifying. -It matters little that the worship of ancestors is but mere -outward form, and that the lives of the missionaries are without -any reproach: ancient traditions and customs are violated, and -to these the average Chinaman holds far more tenaciously than -he does to the truths they conceal.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The utter disregard paid by Europeans to even the most -cherished customs of the Chinese, and the vast difference -which exists between the two civilizations, together with the -sense of superiority which both peoples with perfect good faith -entertain for themselves, is doubtless at the bottom of that -bitter feeling of contempt that causes every Chinaman to -despise as well as to hate the intruders. They look upon -them as so many barbarians, although Article 51 of the Treaty -of Tien-tsin officially ordained the proscription of the particular -character describing foreigners by this objectionable word. -Our most complicated and wonderful scientific instruments are -not considered by the Chinese as criterions of our superiority, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_231'>231</span>and they recognise us to be skilful workmen and clever -jugglers, but otherwise only vulgar and ill-educated fellows, -and our lack of acquaintance with their ancient lore and -literature brings a smile of pity and contempt to their bland -countenances. They attach little or no importance to our -inventions. ‘I quite understand,’ said Prince Kong to a -foreign Ambassador who had just explained to him the theory -and practice of railway travelling, ‘that in Europe you should -employ iron rails to transport you from one end of your -country to another. Here we obtain the same effect with our -waggons. We may not travel so expeditiously; but, then, we -are never in such a hurry.’ This quaint observation was spoken -twenty-five years ago, but it might easily be made to-day: the -condition of mind which inspired it is identical and unchanged.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The Chinese may bow to our power, but it does not inspire -them with the least awe. They entertain for us about the same -agreeable sentiment that the traveller does for the footpad who -suddenly puts a pistol to his head and demands his money or -his life. And as this same ill-used traveller, in order to avoid -a repetition of the assault, if he has to pass that way, procures -the same arms as his aggressor, so the Chinese now and again -appropriate some of our weapons of defence without knowing -how to use them; but, nevertheless, they remain thoroughly -convinced as to the superiority of their civilization. There -can be no doubt that if they were left to themselves, and -European influence and pressure suddenly ceased, the Chinese -would quickly pull up the telegraph-poles and the few miles of -rail which with infinite patience and trouble have been laid, -close their ports, and efface every trace of the detested innovations -of the ‘barbarians.’</p> - -<p class='c008'>This would naturally be the act of the Government. As to -the people, it will continue to use the facilities introduced by -Western civilization. The boats which ply along the coasts -and up the Yang-tsze-Kiang are crowded with native passengers, -who apparently enjoy the trip, and who pay the better share of -the profits made by the various steam navigation companies, and -the trains between Tien-tsin and Peking are always crowded. -The Chinese also know perfectly well how to appreciate -European administration, and three hundred thousand Chinese -live upon the French, English, and American concessions at -Shanghai, two hundred thousand at Hong-Kong, which was -<span class='pageno' id='Page_232'>232</span>only inhabited by a few fishermen before the English occupation, -and all the large towns belonging to the European -colonies in the vicinity of China—Vladivostok, Manila, Saigon, -Singapore, Batavia—are practically Chinese towns. They -like to have their property and their commercial interests protected, -and strongly object to being exploited and harassed as -they are under their own Government. At the time of the -occupation of Manchuria by the Mikado’s troops, an English -missionary who had long resided in the country assured me -that the Chinese were very glad to escape from the ‘squeezee’ -system, and from the many vexations to which they had been -subjected by the mandarins, and were amazed to see the -Japanese pay for everything they required.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The Chinese are not, therefore, unappreciative of our civilization, -and since we afflict them with our presence, they think it -wise to profit by the material advantages which we have introduced -among them; but, with few exceptions, doubtless they -would prefer the loss of these advantages to our company, -and they never cease to despise us. From the moment that -they can read they go to their old books as to a fountain-head, -whence they drink intoxicating draughts of pride and vanity, -and of profound contempt for all that is not of the wisdom of -Confucius.</p> - -<p class='c008'>After all, it is not by means of the ignorant classes, but -through the initiative of a few thinkers, that progressive ideas -gradually filter into a country and reform it. Unluckily, in -the Chinese Empire, owing to a defective system of education, -the very class which ought to benefit their fellows—the -literati—is precisely that which is the most obstinately retrogressive.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The gross superstitions, too, which are entertained by the -people in the interior of China against foreigners form another -barrier to an advance movement. That the lower classes -should believe that the missionaries pull out the eyes of little -children and use their bowels as the ingredients of infernal -and magical concoctions, or that our doctors spread the pest -whenever we want a war, is not much to be wondered at, for -the same things have been repeated in Astrakhan and in some -of the Russian provinces whenever there has been a rumour of -an epidemic. But what is really very grave is that the literati, -who are so all-powerful in China, foster these superstitions, -and even spread them broadcast among the people in order -<span class='pageno' id='Page_233'>233</span>the better to keep up the feeling of hatred which they ought to -attenuate. At the bottom of all the risings against the missionaries -are the mandarins and the literati. The great influence -which these men exercise over the people, and their abhorrence -of Western civilization, is the real cause why no progress has -hitherto been made in the Chinese Empire.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_234'>234</span> - <h3 class='c001'>CHAPTER VII<br /> <span class='large'>THE POSITION AND WORK OF FOREIGNERS IN CHINA</span></h3> -</div> -<p class='c014'>The privileges of foreigners in China—The open ports and the concessions—Great -extension of privileges granted to foreigners by the treaty -of Shimonosaki (1895)—Opening of fresh ports—Facilities conceded -to commerce, and the right of establishing factories in the Treaty -Ports—The speedy effects of these concessions—Silk industries—Chinese -workmen: rise in their salaries—Prospects of Chinese -industry—Fresh concessions granted in 1898—Opening of the waterways—Railways -and mines—Great expectations resulting from these -additional treaties—The <em>likins</em>, or native Custom-houses—Their -oppressive exactions—Slow development of foreign commerce in -China—Necessity for Europeans to penetrate into the interior and -take their affairs into their own hands—Chinese resistance to this proposal.</p> - -<p class='c007'>Foreigners who live in China, with the exception of the -missionaries, are at present penned up in the twenty-six open -ports, to which may be added six other towns or markets, -situated on the frontiers of Indo-China, assimilated to the free -ports, but doing a very limited trade. In each of these so-called -open ports<a id='r26' /><a href='#f26' class='c006'><sup>[26]</sup></a> spaces have been let on long leases, or -<span class='pageno' id='Page_235'>235</span>even sold to foreign Powers—England, France, the United -States and of late years even Germany, who has acquired a -concession at Tien-tsin, where, by the way, Japan also has one. -Although these concessions are on Chinese territory, they are -considered as so many small republics, independent of the -native authorities, and administered by Europeans, who reside -there under the protection of their Consuls, who hold both -judicial and executive powers. In these ports, protected by -European law, is concentrated the whole foreign commerce of -China.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The appearance of these treaty ports varies according to -their importance, from the few houses surrounded by walled-in -gardens, built on the sands of Pakhui to the flourishing cosmopolitan -port of Shanghai, whose aspect is admirably calculated -to flatter the vanity of Europeans. Once the bar of Wusung -is passed, after some hours’ journey down the Blue River, whose -shores are covered with monotonous rice and cotton fields, the -traveller might easily imagine that he was in Lancashire, so -great is the number of factory chimneys that come into sight. -The landing-place, or Bund, the principal thoroughfare of the -town, which follows the quay, is lined on the one side with -trees, and on the other by magnificent houses, built in the -European fashion, the offices of the principal banks, steamship -companies, etc. The other streets, inhabited by Europeans, -although not very straight or broad, run either parallel to -the Bund or else meet it at some point or other. Further -inland is the Chinese quarter (within the concession), with -its open shops, monstrous and gaudy signboards, and its -fragile paper lanterns, fairly well kept, however—thanks to -European supervision—and forming a marked contrast in this -respect to the other native quarter beyond the concession, -which is absolutely filthy. Once outside the town, we cross the -cricket-field, the racecourse, the lawn-tennis court, and reach -Bubbling Well Road and other wide avenues, fringed with the -beautiful villas, surrounded by gardens, belonging to the wealthy -European residents.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Before the Chino-Japanese War foreigners only had the right -<span class='pageno' id='Page_236'>236</span>to carry on their commercial undertakings in the open ports, -and had to have a passport in order to travel in the interior. -Isolated as much as possible from the native population, they -could traffic with the Chinese only on the condition that they -never attempted to alter any of the native methods of production, -or introduced any European innovations, or endeavoured -to exploit a single one of the innumerable natural -resources of the country.</p> - -<p class='c008'>On the other hand, nothing was to be expected from private -initiative or from the Government, which latter would unquestionably -have vetoed any improvement, and only reluctantly -permitted, on account of its political value, the creation of -the telegraph-line connecting Peking with the extremities of -the Empire. In 1877 the Europeans had actually to pull up -the rails laid down on the short line between Shanghai and -Wusung, and though the Chinese since 1889 have pretended -to consider the construction of a line from Hankow to Peking, -it has only been with the object of misleading the Europeans. -No progress is possible in China under these unfavourable -conditions, and the antiquated methods of the natives continue -to hamper all commercial and financial prosperity.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The treaty of Shimonosaki, signed in 1895 at the close of -the war between China and Japan, effected some very important -changes in this respect, and in virtue of the most-favoured-nation -clause, inserted in the treaties with the Powers, -opened out a better prospect for foreigners of every nationality, -who were thus able to benefit by the advantages conceded -to the Japanese. Article 6 of this important document -stipulated the opening of several new ports, and permits steam -navigation along the coasts and up the rivers and canals -leading thereunto. It goes on to declare that foreigners -may visit the interior to purchase or sell merchandise, and that -Japanese subjects may establish depots for the same wherever -they like without paying any extra tax, and erect factories of -all sorts in the Chinese open towns and ports, and import -into China all kinds of machinery on payment of a fixed -tariff. Goods manufactured by Japanese subjects on Chinese -territory should be placed on the same footing with respect -to inland and transit duties and other taxes, charges, and -facilities for warehousing, etc., in the interior, as goods imported -into China by other foreigners, and enjoy the same -privileges.</p> - -<p class='c008'><span class='pageno' id='Page_237'>237</span>This clause is of very great importance, since it permits -the combination of highly-perfected European machinery and -cheap Chinese labour in the production of articles the raw -materials for which, especially silks and cotton, can be obtained -in the immediate neighbourhood of the free ports. The clause -above cited may appear at first somewhat extraordinary, and -in any other country but China it would be superfluous to -stipulate that goods manufactured in the country itself should -not be treated with less consideration than similar articles imported. -But the Japanese negotiators understood their men, -and are perfectly aware that if they had not inserted these -special clauses, the advantages obtained would have been annulled -by the Chinese authorities by a system of arbitrary -taxation and other vexatious measures.</p> - -<p class='c008'>No very long time elapsed before the advantages of Article 6 -of the Shimonosaki Treaty were made strikingly evident. In -three years’ time an entire district of Shanghai was occupied -by not less than nine large cotton factories, working 290,000 -spindles, which in 1898 were increased to 390,000, and close -to them presently rose some thirty silk factories, which, in due -time, will be considerably increased both in numbers and importance. -In the other ports this industrial impulse has not -yet been much felt, except at Tien-tsin, where a woollen factory -has lately been established. In that great centre of industry, -Shanghai, a certain falling-off has been observed in this extreme -briskness, due to over-production, and also to a very -legitimate desire to watch the results of industries already -existing before launching into further speculations. Then, -again, there was a fear that wages might presently rise to an -exaggerated extent.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The labour market of China is undoubtedly enormous, but -the supply does not respond as readily to the demand as in -Europe, because the distances are great and the means of -communication correspondingly few and difficult. However, -the labourers living on the banks of the Yang-tsze, who are -called ‘Water-fowls,’ constantly flock into Shanghai in search of -work. They belong to that class of poor creatures who crowd -the great Chinese cities, and whose only home is their sampang, -in which an entire family accommodates itself in a space that -would barely suffice for a single European. One can see their -floating huts moored alongside the <i><span lang="es" xml:lang="es">arroyos</span></i> that furrow the -suburbs of Shanghai. Once they begin to earn a little, they -<span class='pageno' id='Page_238'>238</span>build a hut on shore, using up the material of their old boathouse, -until they can erect something better by way of a dwelling. -Salaries are distinctly rising in Shanghai, and when I -was there in 1898 the factories were wrangling over their workmen -and women—who are in the majority—in consequence -of certain enterprising but unscrupulous managers of rival -firms intriguing, by offers of higher wages, to induce the -most skilled to leave their employers and come to them. The -quality of the labour at Shanghai appears to be satisfactory, at -least, so say the different managers, and in the manufactories -which I visited I noticed that everything was scrupulously -clean and orderly, quite as much so as in any average -European or American factory of the same class. The workgirls -do not live, as in Russia and Japan, and, indeed, as they -did formerly in England and in other manufacturing countries, -in a building near the place of business set apart for the -purpose, and at the expense of the firm, but at home with their -own families. Many of them are married women, and a great -number, instead of leaving their little girls over ten years of -age at home, request that they may be employed, so as to -remain under their supervision. They are usually engaged on -very light work, such as shifting the cocoons in the boiling -water for the weavers. In the silk factories I visited they were -allowed half an hour every day for what was known as ‘school,’ -during which some senior workwoman—the mother or the -elder sister—taught them the rudiments of their work. This -system is excellent, and the managers declare themselves highly -pleased with it, as it is likely to train good workers.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The working hours at Shanghai in the silk factories are -usually from six in the morning to six in the evening, including -an hour and a half for meals. In the silk manufactories the -little girls earn 1¼d. per day at first, which is increased to 2½d. -after a short time. A clever workwoman gets about 9d. In -1891–92 the wages in the same factory, which was then on a -very small scale and under a Chinese name, were about 30 per -cent. less. In the larger factories the children got 2½d. a day -and the women from 6d. to 7d. During the first few months -that elapsed after the signing of the Treaty of Shimonosaki -salaries were on an average about 5d. As exchange has not -varied much since then, the rise is very considerable. ‘The -women and children now working in the better factories here,’ -says the British Consul at Shanghai in his Report, 1897, ‘can -<span class='pageno' id='Page_239'>239</span>now earn from 10s. to 30s. a month, which is quite a fortune -for people who in the native factories rarely make more than -4s. a month, although they work hard all day!’ The same -Report observes that in certain branches of industry the -Chinese workwomen earn more than would the same class in -Italy. The under-manager who took me round one of the -Shanghai factories, a Peruvian by birth, and, I fancy, a coloured -man by origin, judging from his curly hair and high cheekbones, -told me that in his boyhood in Peru he had earned 2½d. -a day at the same business, which is what is paid to child-workers -in Shanghai.</p> - -<p class='c008'>It is, therefore, a distinct mistake to imagine that China is -destined to remain the land of low salaries. Some considerable -time may elapse before wages reach the high figure -obtained in Europe, but there is every prospect that in the -course of time a very considerable rise will take place, especially -as industry improves, and the demand for skilled labour increases. -The Celestials are pretty sure to look after their own -interests in the matter by forming trades unions. Strikes are -not unknown either in China or Japan.</p> - -<p class='c008'>These facts tend, I think, to dissipate, if not entirely, at any -rate in part, the illusion about the famous ‘Yellow Peril’ which -has so greatly disturbed certain worthy people. That ‘peril’ -seems to me to be still remote, for, even if the people of the -Far East did succeed in producing nearly all the articles which -they now import from Europe, it would necessarily follow that -the trade in them, being infinitely greater than it now is, -would increase their profits likewise very considerably. It is -equally certain that the first effect of the introduction into -China of European industries must lead, as it already has done, -to the bettering of the condition of the Chinese labouring -class, both by augmentation of wages and consequent improvement -in manner of living. If, therefore, European export -trade may apparently suffer from the manufacturing of goods -hitherto imported by the Chinese, such as cottons, for instance, -matters will balance themselves eventually for the simple -reason that, the richer the Chinese get, the more they will buy. -Japan has already shown how the introduction of machinery -has created a new branch of import of great value.</p> - -<p class='c008'>In order to realize these brilliant prospects, several very -drastic alterations in the present position of affairs are -needed. The permission, granted at the instance of Great -<span class='pageno' id='Page_240'>240</span>Britain in 1898, allowing European navigation on the inland -waters of China, and the concessions for the creation of -railways and exploitation of mines, may subsequently lead to -very remarkable results, but up to the present they have not -been entirely successful. Industrial activity is still limited to -the free ports and their immediate vicinity. The reasons for -this state of affairs are worth examining, especially as they illustrate -the determined opposition of the Chinese authorities to -all measures of reform, and also indicate many points against -which Europeans should complain.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The Chinese Custom-house duties were determined according -to the treaties as much as possible 5 per cent. <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">ad valorem</span></i>. -They may therefore be safely described as comparatively light, -and are collected with great regularity for the Imperial Government -on the European system by a staff admirably organized -by Sir Robert Hart.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The undesirability of exposing foreign merchants to the -arbitrary and corrupt methods of Chinese Custom-house -officials led to the formation of an international staff of officers, -which works perfectly and gives universal satisfaction. On the -other hand, the great native firms are most scrupulously honest -in all their transactions, having discovered from experience -that ‘honesty is the best policy,’ and European merchants can -only praise their way of transacting business. It is, therefore, -neither on entering nor leaving China that difficulties occur, -whether for importation or exportation. The trouble arises -in the transport between the open ports and the places of consignment -or expedition; the principal grievance arises through -the system of <em>likin</em>, or of inland Customs, whereby an arbitrary -and variable scale of taxation is exacted on goods passing -through towns or over the frontiers of the various provinces, or -even at certain determined places on the highroads and rivers. -This pernicious system is a great drawback to the expansion of -European trade, and gives rise to endless bother and expense.</p> - -<p class='c008'>‘Let us suppose,’ said a gentleman, thoroughly acquainted -with commerce in the Far East, at a meeting of the London -Chamber of Commerce in 1898, ‘that a train going from -London to Newcastle had to be stopped three or four times on -the way, so that goods might be overhauled and examined by -officials whose main object is to extort as much as they can in -their own interests, and who value goods arbitrarily at sight. -Imagine, for instance, a consignment of skins getting damaged -<span class='pageno' id='Page_241'>241</span>by the rain through careless packing, and on being weighed -found heavier than declared in the invoice: the result is, that -the luckless owner is charged, not according to the increased -weight, but <em>fined</em> according to his personal property, say £50 -or; £100 on £1,000! Or, finally, what would become of -British trade if we had to put up with <em>likin</em> officials, one of whom -examines goods once in every three days, and another announces -his intention of only doing so when ten trains have arrived?’</p> - -<p class='c008'>There is a remedy for the <em>likin</em> system, and that is a ‘transit -pass’; but more often than not, as with most things in China, -this is merely a theoretical improvement. On payment of a -sum equal to half the original entry duty, all imported goods -should be considered free of inland duty. But this regulation -does not work, and no one avails himself of it, since the -Chinese very ingenuously manage to evade it by charging ‘a -duty on arrival at destination,’ which comes to the same thing.</p> - -<p class='c008'>It is not therefore surprising that, with all these drawbacks, -in addition to a very rudimentary monetary system, Chinese -commerce only attains £50,000,000, of which £27,200,000 -represents imports, which is very small when one considers the -enormous size of the country and its great wealth. The half -of this commerce is divided up between four articles: -£8,000,000 cotton and £4,800,000 opium (imported), and -£8,000,000 silk, and £5,000,000 tea (exported). The last -figures are inferior to what they formerly were, Indian tea -having greatly affected Chinese tea as far as England is concerned. -Its preparation still follows the old system, and its -lasting quality is distinctly inferior to Ceylon and other teas -grown in India. This is another example of the vast importance -of introducing into China better and more scientific methods.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The export trade of China must inevitably remain very -limited so long as foreigners are prevented from penetrating -into the country and directing the exploitation of its resources. -Whilst it was a mere matter of opening a few ports, the -Chinese Government made no very serious opposition; but -only the realization of its incapacity to resist pressure induced -it to permit the introduction into the Celestial Empire of -foreign capital, machinery, and industrial methods. Well may -we ask, Can the Sick Man of Peking endure such violent treatment? -Will he not succumb to the very powerful remedies -that are being administered to him, and thereby fulfil the secret -wishes of those who are anxious for his legacy?</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_242'>242</span> - <h3 class='c001'>CHAPTER VIII<br /> <span class='large'>CHINA AND THE POWERS</span></h3> -</div> -<p class='c014'>The Question of the Far East unexpectedly brought to an issue by the -defeat of China—Foreign misconception of Chinese power, and the -amazement of European diplomacy at its collapse—The new state -of affairs created by Japanese victories—The aims of the various -Powers in the Far East and their policy—England seeks an ally against -Russia—Her sudden change of policy in 1895—She abandons China -for Japan—Russia covets the whole of Northern China—Japan’s wish -to conquer the Celestial Empire—The treaty of Shimonosaki—Opposition -of Russia to Japanese policy—Russia becomes the interested -protectress of China—The convention between the three Powers, -France, Germany, and Russia—Attempt to bring about a reconciliation -between China and Japan—Substitution of a powerful Russian -influence for that of England.</p> - -<p class='c007'>The Chinese Question presents many difficulties, not only -because the details are extremely complicated and the rival -pretensions which it has created difficult to reconcile, but -because of the unexpected manner in which it was thrust on -the attention of Europe, at a time when diplomacy had no -ready remedy.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The present position in the Far East is not the result of a -gradual chain of events, but of the absolute surprise created by -the unexpected results of the Chino-Japanese War. No doubt -the collapse of China in 1894 was only the last act in a long -drama of decadence, but it revealed to astonished Europe -the utter incapacity of China either to reform or to defend -herself, a fact for which we were quite unprepared. Japan -alone knew the truth, and profited by her knowledge of her -colossal neighbour’s almost incredible weakness. Russia had -suspected it, but was not sufficiently convinced to venture on -carrying her conviction into effect. Thanks to the astuteness -of the Chinese and their remarkable aptitude in all arts of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_243'>243</span>deception, and the effect mentally created by the prodigious -multitude of her population—between three and four hundred -million souls—China had systematically fooled both Governments -and public alike, who shared the same illusion as to her -power. Certain events had, it must be confessed, conspired -to maintain this illusion, notably the bold resistance which -the French army had met in Tongking, under, no doubt, -peculiar circumstances, but, nevertheless, such as induced -people to forget, at least for the time, the facile victories of -the Allies in 1860. Certain far-seeing writers—Mr. Henry -Norman and Mr. Curzon, the latter one of the most brilliant -young statesmen of the United Kingdom—had indeed realized -that under a smooth surface there existed in China amazing -weakness and corruption. But they preached in the desert. -The war had only just broken out, when one of the best-informed -organs of the English press, the <cite>Spectator</cite>, stated: ‘We -think the weight of opinion is with those who believe, as we -do, that, if necessary, China could organize a most formidable -army.’ This was the illusion universally entertained in Europe, -and, strange to relate, shared by the majority of foreigners living -in the Far East.</p> - -<p class='c008'>By dissipating these illusions and exhibiting to the world the -truth concerning China’s decrepitude, the Japanese victories -produced almost the effect of an earthquake. European diplomacy -had foreseen that the war was likely to give rise to trouble, -and Lord Rosebery even proposed to the Powers at the beginning -of the conflict to come to an understanding with a view of -stopping hostilities; but if the Queen’s Prime Minister feared -that complications in Korea might lead to Russian intervention, -the other Powers were not less unfavourably disposed to -see a naval demonstration in Chinese waters in which England -should take the lead. It was therefore resolved that European -diplomacy should remain inactive and watch proceedings, -everyone believing that Japan would soon be expelled from -Korea, and that both the Japanese and Chinese fleets, weakened -in one or two naval battles, would collapse altogether from -sheer lack of combatants. When, however, the Chinese forces -were annihilated in the autumn of 1894, Europe was taken -aback with amazement, so great was her surprise, not to say -consternation. By the spring of 1895 the Powers had recovered -from the shock they had received, but their policy had consequently -to be changed with respect to a Power which they had -<span class='pageno' id='Page_244'>244</span>believed to be formidable, but whose weakness was now revealed.</p> - -<p class='c008'>England, with perhaps excessive frankness, turned her back -on her old ally China. At the beginning of the conference -she had been the champion of the Celestial Empire, and -the newspapers related at the time a curious incident which -happened before Wei-hai-wei, which the Japanese squadron -was about to attack. The British fleet upset their plan by -saluting Admiral Ito, contrary to all precedents, before sunrise, -whereby the sleeping Chinese were warned of their danger. -On more than one occasion the English did not hesitate to -threaten the Japanese, especially after the latter had fired on -a British merchant ship conveying some Chinese troops.<a id='r27' /><a href='#f27' class='c006'><sup>[27]</sup></a> -There was no mistaking the peremptory tone of England -when she gave the Japanese to understand that she had no -desire to see the war extend to Shanghai and the region of the -Yang-tsze.</p> - -<p class='c008'>But the battle of the Yalu and the taking of Port Arthur in -one morning by the troops of the Mikado opened the eyes of -the Cabinet of St. James’s. What Britain desired in the Far -East was, on the one hand, a political prop, and even a military -one, if necessary, against the Empire of the Tsar—‘a bolt to -fasten the door against the ambitions of Russian expansion,’ -to use the significant expression of Herr von Brandt, and, on -the other, a wide opening for her commerce and capital. Once -convinced that Japan, firmly established in Korea and on the -northern coast of the Gulf of Pe-chi-li, would become a far more -efficacious ‘bolt’ than China, England began to favour the -Japanese, and at the same time to advise the Chinese Government -to abandon Peking, and establish itself nearer the centre -of the Empire. If the Middle Kingdom was no longer a useful -ally, it might still become a splendid prey, a field of extraordinary -economic activity, so that the transfer of the capital to -some point on the banks of the Yang-tsze accessible by sea—to -Nanking, for instance, would have placed China at the mercy -of the supreme mistress of the seas. The English, moreover, -fully intended to force China to open her ports, and their -commercial superiority and the influence which they have -<span class='pageno' id='Page_245'>245</span>already established over the peoples in the Far East would -soon have enabled them to profit largely by this revolution.</p> - -<p class='c008'>If, however, the consequences of the Chinese defeat were -realized in London, they were no less so in St. Petersburg, and -subsequent events proved that Russian diplomacy was equal to -the occasion. The Government of the Tsar had beheld the -war with quite as much displeasure as England, and would -have preferred the Far Eastern Question remaining in abeyance -until the termination of the Trans-Siberian Railway. The object -pursued by Russia in the Far East is, it should be remembered, -absolutely opposed to that of England, and concentrates itself -on the one issue—the securing of open sea. The vast Empire -of the Tsars possesses no port in Europe, where the ‘keys of -the house’ are in the hands, so to speak, of other Powers, and -England barred her way to the south fifteen or twenty years ago -in Afghanistan and Beluchistan. In the Far East somewhere -in the middle of the century Russia contrived to descend from -the Polar Sea of Okhotsk and to advance at the expense of -China as far as Vladivostok; but this port remains closed for two -months on account of the ice, and Russia has always considered -her provinces of the Amur and of the Littoral merely in the light -of temporary stations, whence she intended on some future and -favourable occasion to push her way further south. Between -1880 and 1886 it was reported that she was about to obtain -a concession somewhere in the Bay of Korea, or even in the -isle of Quelpart, which is in the strait separating that country -from Japan. A little later she seemed to covet Port Arthur -or Talien-wan, which are free of ice, and are situated at the -extremity of the peninsula of Liao-tung, which would provide -her access to an open sea at the back of Korea and other -advantages. At the narrow entrance to the Gulf of Pe-chi-li -and only 50 miles from the opposite coast of Shan-tung, are -ports which offer great advantages as naval stations, whence a -rapid transport fleet could easily convey troops in twenty-four -hours to Ta-ku, and thence in four days’ march to the Chinese -capital. Once established at Port Arthur, and having plenty -of elbow-room in Pe-chi-li, Russia could exercise over the -Chinese Government, in its present capital, even a more irresistible -pressure than could England have done had she been -able to induce the Imperial Court to transport itself to the banks -of the Yang-tsze.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Unquestionably the dreams of Russian aggrandizement have -<span class='pageno' id='Page_246'>246</span>become much more ambitious since she has discovered how very -weak the Sick Man of Peking is. She no longer seeks an open -port on the Pacific, but apparently pursues her object, unostentatiously -however, towards the complete domination of -the Middle Kingdom, especially over her vast dependencies -in Turkestan, Mongolia, and Manchuria—in a word, over the -whole of North China. And as the Muscovite temperament is -ever a dreamy one, who knows but that on the shores of the Neva -the heir of Peter the Great does not already picture himself -on the throne of the Sun of Heaven, commanding the latter’s -multitude of subjects, who are accustomed to submit to a -foreign yoke, and might obey the Tsar as unresistingly as they -did Ghengis Khan, even as to-day they pay homage to a degenerate -Manchu, and as indeed they would have done to the -Mikado, had not Europe put a stop to further advances on the -part of the Japanese? The Mikado, too, who had been driven -into the war by the repeated insolence of the Chinese and also -by the justifiable desire to protect his commercial interests in -Korea, may also, when intoxicated by his surprising successes, -have entertained the thought that it might be possible for him -one day to annex China. If this war had taken place fifty, or -even twenty-five, years ago, when Europe paid less attention to -foreign affairs, it is probable that the Manchu Dynasty would -have been replaced by that of Japan. Possibly then the -‘Yellow Peril’—the military ‘Yellow Peril’—which to-day is -but a mere chimera, might have become a very evident reality. -The Japanese, after having thoroughly reorganized and disciplined -the Chinese army, might at a given moment have let -loose its innumerable hordes upon the Western world; but -if in 1895 they had allowed themselves for a moment to dream -of placing their Emperor upon the throne of Peking, the -Japanese were not allowed to indulge in this pleasant vision -for long, and were soon made to feel how intently and jealously -their movements were watched by European diplomacy.</p> - -<p class='c008'>By the treaty of Shimonosaki, signed April 2, 1895, the -Celestial Empire granted to her conquerors all their demands, -recognising at the same time the independence of Korea, and -allowing Japan, whose troops still occupied that country, a free -hand. If this treaty had been ratified as it was originally -drawn up, Russia would have had to renounce for a long time -to come all hope of possessing an outlet to the open sea, and -would certainly have had to see her influence substituted by -<span class='pageno' id='Page_247'>247</span>a rival at Peking, who would have reorganized China possibly -in a hostile spirit. She could not allow this, but she dared -take no initiative by herself, fearing lest she might suddenly -find herself confronted by England and Japan. She, -therefore, before the signature of the treaty of peace, placed -herself in communication with France and Germany, and -endeavoured to make those Powers understand that the installation -of Japan on the coast was as detrimental to their interests -as it was to her own. She successfully converted them to her -way of thinking, and on April 22 the three Powers addressed -a Note to the Mikado, couched in the most courteous terms, -begging of his Majesty to renounce his pretensions over the -peninsula of Liao-tung, the establishment of his authority in -that country being likely to create a permanent danger to the -peace, not only of the Far East, but of the whole world. At -first the Mikado, so it seems, was determined to resist at any -cost, and to refuse to yield. His Government cast an eye -towards England, to see if her support could be counted -upon; but at that time the Cabinet of St. James’s had not -made up its mind whether it would openly espouse the cause -of Japan or not. Possibly it was influenced by the absolutely -anti-Japanese feelings entertained by the vast majority of English -subjects living in the Far East, and it is also by no means improbable -that she did not wish to assist a Power that might -eventually become a dangerous rival to her own commercial -supremacy. Perceiving at last that England would neither join -the three great Powers nor back the Mikado in his pretensions, -the Government of Tokio very wisely consented, at the time -bearing great ill-feeling towards England, who now found herself -isolated in the Far East. Nevertheless, resentment against -Russia was so powerful, and the feeling of alarm entertained by -the two insular Powers at the spectacle of the progress made -by Russia so great, that in a short time a reconciliation was -effected between them.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The intervention of what is known in the Far East as the -New Triple Alliance resulted in consequences quite as grave -and durable as the war itself. Its immediate effects dominated -the politics of the Far East until the end of 1897, and even -now continue to do so. The essential features of the new situation -were the substitution in China of Russian influence, now -become all-powerful, for that of England, the antagonism which -has risen between Russia and Japan, and the friendly feeling -<span class='pageno' id='Page_248'>248</span>which now exists between this last Power and England. The -mandarins and the Court of Peking, whilst never ceding an -iota of their pride or their firm belief in the superiority of their -civilization, were, nevertheless, obliged to admit the irremediable -weakness of the military power of the Celestial Empire. If -the majority did not care much for China as their country, they -one and all considered her to be their prey, and consequently -required a protector against the Japanese, and they proceeded -from Legation to Legation in quest of one; as their situation -was desperate, they were obliged to take what they could get, -and, Russia being agreeable, they accepted her friendly offer, -even though their new ally might eventually become a domineering -master. This gave them time, and they counted upon their -cunning, when a favourable opportunity presented itself, to set -the Powers by the ears. Probably at heart they entertain less -dislike for the Muscovite Empire than for any other European -country, and, indeed, China has less friction with the Russians -than with any other nationality. Russia can enter the Celestial -Empire over her land frontier through countries very thinly -populated by inhabitants not of Chinese race, who are not -hostile to strangers; whereas the other Europeans coming by -sea are brought into immediate contact with the turbulent -crowds of the seaport towns, where the least act of imprudence -may give rise to grave incidents. Moreover, the subjects of -the Tsar exhibit a greater degree of forbearance than the -peoples of the West. They do not experience that innate -contempt for men of colour, they are more tractable to the -habits of the countries in which they establish themselves, and -are not so forward in protesting against petty annoyances. The -Orthodox Church, too, scrupulously abstains from all propaganda -in China, and the Russian Legation is therefore spared -those delicate questions concerning the rights and the wrongs -of missionaries which so greatly irritate the Chinese. All this -facilitates the substitution of Russian influence for that of the -English.</p> - -<p class='c008'>We must, however, seek for the causes which induced France -and Germany to enter, under the Russian auspices, into an unexpected -alliance outside the question of the Far East. The -harmony that exists between these two Powers is due to their -desire to gain the good graces of the Tsar. Rivals in endeavouring -to please him, they both answered all proposals -which came from St. Petersburg favourably. Germany had no -<span class='pageno' id='Page_249'>249</span>political interests in the East of Asia, and France only those -of secondary importance connected with Indo-China, and therefore -these nations never hesitated to regulate their line of -conduct in the Far East in accordance with their political -aspirations in Europe, and, the better to please Russia, forthwith -modified their previously somewhat hostile attitude. During -the war both Powers had been more or less favourable to -Japan.</p> - -<p class='c008'>This change of conduct involved a considerable sacrifice, -especially in the case of France, and signified the rupture of -her old friendship for Japan, whose army had been formed by -a French military mission, and whose battleships and arsenals -had been in great part constructed and organized by Frenchmen, -services which the Japanese recognised shortly after the -victory of the Yalu by sending to the eminent naval engineer, -M. Bertin, the grand cordon of the Order of the Rising Sun. -France had not obtained great advantages from this friendship, -but if she did not do so, it was more or less because she did not -wish it, for it is certain that the alliance of the Mikado was -offered to her in 1884 on the condition that she conveyed to the -coasts of Pe-chi-li a Japanese army corps, intended to march -on to Peking. France had also the right to expect after the war -some commercial advantages, notably some important commercial -orders to her great industrial firms, for the renovating -of the fleet, much damaged by the war. By placing herself on -the side of China, whose friendship might have been useful, -the more so as she was a neighbour, although she was constantly -wrangling with her, France gave up an alliance with -the one country in the Far East which represents progress and -has a future, and, what is more, she literally pushed her into -the arms of England, who may one day make use of her -against the French.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The sacrifices made by Germany were less important, for she -could not expect in the Far East any considerable advantages. -To begin with, she had seized the opportunity to play a political -part on a stage where she had never appeared before, but -being much more commercial than France, she had more to -gain from the concessions which China would be obliged to -make, and she could thus include this vast market in the -sphere of her industrial activity and commercial enterprise. -By mixing in the affairs of the Far East the youthful German -Empire only obeyed the instinct of foreign expansion which -<span class='pageno' id='Page_250'>250</span>obliges her to watch over her political and commercial interests -in all parts of the world.</p> - -<p class='c008'>On the other hand, the action of the three Continental -Powers presented considerable danger, aggravated as it was by -the warlike intentions of the commanders of the Russian fleet. -A rumour certainly existed in 1896 in the Far East, and, moreover, -has since been confirmed to me by most credible witnesses, -that between April 25, the day on which the Note of the three -Powers was presented, and May 5th, the date on which the -representatives of Japan announced their acquiescence, Admiral -Tyrtof, who commanded the Russian fleet and who has since -become Minister of Marine, invited Admiral de la Bonninière -de Beaumont to proceed with him to meet the Japanese fleet -at the risk of provoking a collision, in which the latter would -inevitably have been crushed. The presence of mind of the -French Admiral, who evaded the invitation by protesting that -he had received no instructions from his Government, and -therefore delayed matters as long as possible, prevented an -aggression which might have resulted in dreadful consequences, -and led to a massacre in Japan itself of Russian and French -residents, and, moreover, might have brought about extremely -grave international complications. Who knows, too, but that -public opinion in England might have been offended by such -an act, and that on the morrow of an easy victory over the -Japanese the Allies might have found themselves face to face -with the British fleet?</p> - -<p class='c008'>It is certain that by taking sides with Russia in a question of -only secondary interest to herself France incurred the grave -risk of a war not only with Japan, but with England, a war -in which her stake was far greater than that of Russia or of -Germany, and the consequences of which she would have been -obliged to bear alone. Fortunately, the prudence of Admiral -de Beaumont smoothed over the angry feeling of the Russian -commanders, which, however, manifested itself once more on -May 8, 1895, the date on which the ratifications of the treaty -of peace between China and Japan were to have been exchanged. -On that day the Russian fleet was stationed in the -roads off the Chinese port of Chefoo, at the entrance to the -Gulf of Pe-chi-li, opposite Port Arthur, where the exchange of -ratifications was to have occurred, ready for fight in case Japan -refused her acceptance, in which case it was agreed between -the admirals to oppose the Japanese near Ta-ku, at the mouth -<span class='pageno' id='Page_251'>251</span>of the Pei-ho, close to Wei-hai-Wei, where their fleet was -anchored. Alongside of the Russian fleet were two German -cruisers, representing the German navy in the Far East; but -Admiral de Beaumont steamed away, leaving only at Wei-hai-Wei -the <em>Forfait</em>, thereby showing very clearly that he had no -intention of taking part in a superfluous demonstration, which -would only have resulted in increasing the irritation of Japan -against the three Powers.</p> - -<p class='c008'>These warlike demonstrations presented a singular contrast -to the extremely courteous tone of the Notes presented to Japan -by the Russian, French, and German ministers. They had the -effect of convincing Japan that she had in the future to count -with the lasting hostility of the Tsar, and that the secret desire -of the Government of St. Petersburg was not only to prevent -her establishing herself on the Asiatic Continent, but also -eventually to completely annihilate her. By a curious right-about-face, -Japan now turned towards China, who received her -overtures favourably. The fact was that at Peking the pretensions -of Russia had created great alarm, and Li Hung-chang -opened his heart to the Japanese Consul at Tien-tsin, and -begged the Cabinet of Tokio to give a conciliatory answer with -respect to the question of Liao-tung, and solve it in a friendly -manner, and thereby avoid increasing the responsibilities which -weighed upon his shoulders. The Chinese Government, he -added, was entirely at the mercy of the Russians, and could only -be saved by Japan.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Was this intended on the part of the old diplomatist as a disguised -offer of service? It is impossible to say. One thing -only is certain—the Tsung-li-Yamen proposed that the Japanese -minister, M. Hayashi, should negotiate directly, and offer as a -compensation for Liao-tung not an indemnity, but an alliance -with China and a concession for the railway to be built between -Tien-tsin and Peking. The Government of the Mikado was -inclined to accept this solution, but the three Continental -Powers—that is to say, Russia—did not view the matter favourably. -They wished, for better security—that Japan should not -be bound to China only, but that the retrocession of Liao-tung -should not be subjected to clauses calculated to prolong -matters, and, above all, a cessation of the continuance of the -Japanese occupation of Korea. They therefore insisted that -the matter should be settled at once by the payment of a supplementary -indemnity of 30,000,000 taels, or £4,500,000, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_252'>252</span>payable on November 18th, 1895, the Japanese evacuation to -take place within three months.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Japan was obliged to accept these propositions by an -exchange of Notes signed on the 19th October, and she, moreover, -agreed to withdraw her troops from Korea immediately. -The attempt at a reconciliation and an alliance with the -Celestial Empire had failed; but since then the language of -the Japanese press and of many of her statesmen proves that -at Tokio this idea has not been entirely abandoned, and if -they have not been able to confiscate China to the advantage -of the Mikado, the Japanese wish to see her placed in a position -to resist the pressure of other Powers and to exist by her own -resources. On the payment of the indemnity, Japan endeavoured -to obtain from China a formal promise that she would never -cede to any other Power the territories which she had been -obliged to restore. But Russian influence was already too -firmly established, and the promise was refused. The new -political line of conduct which the European Powers and -those which had at first come to her assistance were about to -follow with respect to China was now openly developed. If -the Setting Sun had more worshippers now than the Rising -Sun, it is assuredly not the result of any sentiment of -chivalrous disinterestedness—quite the contrary.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_253'>253</span> - <h3 class='c001'>CHAPTER IX<br /> <span class='large'>RUSSIA, FRANCE, AND ENGLAND IN THE FAR EAST IN 1895–97</span></h3> -</div> -<p class='c014'>The immediate results of the war—Issue of an important Chinese loan—Russia -becomes guarantee for China, and in return obtains the right -to construct the Manchurian Railway—Ability of Russian diplomacy -in Korea—Faults and abuses of the Japanese in that country—Revolution -in the Korean palace at Seoul—The King of Korea under the -protection of Russia—Preponderance of Muscovite influences in the -Far East at the beginning of 1897—Important advantages obtained by -the Tsar’s allies—Apparent disinterestedness of Germany—Treaty -with France signed on June 20th, 1895—Energy of the French -Minister—French protectorate over the Catholics of the East—Efforts -made by England in 1896 to regain her influence at Peking—Anglo-Chinese -Convention, February 4th, 1897—Opening of the West River -to European navigation—A few fresh concessions granted to France in -1897.</p> - -<p class='c007'>In the events which have transpired in the Far East since the -War, and which have led to the present situation, two distinct -phases mark the violent aggression of Kiao-chau. The first -extends from the spring of 1895 to the autumn of 1897, and is -that in which the Powers, after having come to China’s -assistance, obtained from her concessions in return for their -good offices, whilst pretending moderation in their demands.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Altogether, the most important consequence of the War was -the establishment of a heavy foreign debt. Hitherto China -had only contracted in Europe insignificant loans of a few -millions of francs. During hostilities her foreign indebtedness -rose to £7,000,000, a mere trifle, and, moreover, the lenders -were in possession of excellent security; but the War -Indemnity and other urgent expenses necessary for the rehabilitation -of the country mounted up to £48,000,000, so -that now the interest on this debt, taking the rate at 5 per -cent., would absorb £2,400,000, and, by adding the arrears -<span class='pageno' id='Page_254'>254</span>of already existing loans, this figure would attain about -£2,800,000, equivalent to nearly the whole of the Customs -revenue. The Customs duties are paid in silver, but it would -be absolutely necessary to stipulate, if a considerable loan is to -be floated on the European market, that the interest should be -paid in gold. The question, therefore, very naturally arises -whether, in view of so small a margin, the fluctuations in the -value of silver, which have already caused the <em>hai-kwan</em> taël to -fall from 6s. 7d., its value a quarter of a century ago, to 2s. 10d., -the average rate since 1897, will not sooner or later result in -the Customs receipts proving insufficient to cover the payment -of the arrears. Nobody in his senses would dream of lending -money to China on the mere security of her general resources, -and she would, consequently, be obliged to assign to her -creditors new securities, and place in their hands the administration -of new branches of revenue. On the other hand, -stripped of about £2,800,000 from the total revenue, which -the most optimistic estimate gives at £24,000,000, she would -have to look for new channels to add to her income, either -by increasing the taxes, or by permitting foreigners to exploit -the resources of the country, conceding to them railway and -mining concessions on the basis of leases or joint profits. -The first proposal ran the risk of unpopularity; the second -was more tempting, but it meant the introduction into the -country of that very Western civilization which the Chinese -Government had opposed with all its might for the last fifty -years.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The monetary difficulties of the Celestial Empire brought -about a renewed interference by Europeans in her affairs, if -only in the collecting of the taxes, and, also, a sort of financial -embargo, the dangers of which are sufficiently manifest in -countries like Egypt. The Government of Peking was well -aware of this, and, therefore, spared no effort in obtaining a -reduction on the £34,500,000 War Indemnity, and even attempted -to arrive at an understanding with Japan respecting the -retrocession of Liao-tung without supplementary disbursement.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The great importance of this money question was nowhere -better understood than at St. Petersburg, and one cannot help -admiring the boldness and ability of the policy pursued by -Russia. That countries like France and England, literally -overflowing with money, should have ventured to secure a -preponderating position in China by means of financial -<span class='pageno' id='Page_255'>255</span>manœuvrings is not at all to be wondered at; but that Russia, -already heavily indebted with a public foreign debt amounting -to over £240,000,000, should have been shrewd enough -to subject China to a sort of vassalage, through the pecuniary -services she rendered her, was indeed a masterly achievement.</p> - -<p class='c008'>M. de Witte, the Tsar’s Minister of Finance, who devised -this remarkable scheme and conducted it to a triumphant -issue over the head of the Minister for Foreign Affairs, -exhibited throughout the rarest political ability and foresight -combined with business acumen. Russia was unable to lend -China money, but she was willing to become her guarantor, -and thus enable the Celestial Empire, backed by the -principal banks of Paris, where Russian funds were at their -height, to float a loan of £16,000,000 at 4 per cent. issued -at ninety-four—that is to say, at the same issue price at which, -before this security was granted, the French and German -financial houses had offered to raise a loan at 5 per cent. -The annual interest to be paid by China, thanks to Russian -intervention, was thus reduced by a fifth, whereby the Celestials, -although they obtained a bargain, at the same time committed -a grave political error.</p> - -<p class='c008'>In accepting a foreign Power as guarantor, the Chinese -Government rendered itself responsible to that Power only, -and placed her financial and, above all, her political independence -in far greater peril than she could have done had -she negotiated directly with individual capitalists of various -nationalities, whose pressure, in case of non-payment, would -have been considerably weakened by the inevitable differences -which would subsist between their Governments. This danger -seems to have been thoroughly understood at Peking, where -the necessary documents were not signed until the expiration -of the last day’s delay granted by Russia, and then only under -extreme pressure, because the Chinese Government had -evidently failed to find assistance elsewhere.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The Government of St. Petersburg, well pleased with this -success, proceeded to strengthen its policy in China by further -financial operations, and with the assistance of the Bank of -Russia next created the Russo-Chinese Bank, Parisian financiers -supplying the greater part of the capital, but leaving the direction -of affairs almost exclusively in Russian hands. The -Comptoir d’Escompte transferred its agencies in China to -Russia, and the new bank established at the same time branches -<span class='pageno' id='Page_256'>256</span>at Peking, Tien-tsin, Shanghai, and Hankow. Since then this -bank has continued to be the principal agent of Russian influence -in China, and undoubtedly it was at first almost entirely -through its mediation that Russia negotiated the concession of -the East Chinese Railway, which enabled her to continue her -Trans-Siberian Railway southward through Manchuria, thus -shortening the original line by several hundred miles, and -enabling it to pass within 350 miles of the Gulf of Pe-chi-li. -Russia, moreover, obtained the authorization to protect the -works by her own troops, whereby she made herself mistress of -Manchuria, whence she was able to dominate Peking until -events allowed her to occupy Liao-tung.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Whilst she was amply paid for her services by China, Russia -made herself no less active in Korea. The Japanese, who had -occupied that country, perpetrated error on error. They had -attempted to impose upon the Koreans with great abruptness -the most varied and radical reforms. Many of these were -possibly useful enough, but they ought to have been introduced -with discretion; others were unnecessary, and greatly irritated -the people by wounding their most cherished customs and -traditions. The Koreans, although not particularly clean in -their habits, are invariably clad in white, are, moreover, addicted -to smoking very long pipes, and to rolling their hair up into a -huge chignon, which they surmount by an enormously broad-brimmed -hat, whose crown is so small that they are obliged to -fasten it to their heads by a long string. The Mikado issued a -sumptuary law against long pipes, chignons, and wide-brimmed -hats, and, moreover, ordered that the traditional white robe -should henceforth be replaced by the dark-blue one usually -worn by the Japanese. It is said that this unfortunate incident -was the result of a conviction that Koreans, being obliged to -hold their pipe with one hand, and to balance their enormous -hats with the other, could never become hard workers. Be -this as it may, the Japanese sentinels at the gates of Seoul -made life unendurable to the unfortunate Koreans. Armed -with a big pair of scissors, they pounced upon the unfortunate -peasants as they entered the town on their way to market, and -cut not only the strings of their monumental hats, but severed -their beloved chignons, and shortened by at least three-quarters -of their length the stems of their pipes—arbitrary measures -well calculated to break their hearts with mortification and -vexation of spirit. It is not to be wondered at that such -<span class='pageno' id='Page_257'>257</span>impolitic conduct, added to occasional acts of violence, soon -roused the indignation and hatred of the natives, otherwise a -very inoffensive and peaceable people. On October 7, 1895, -the Korean Queen was murdered in her palace by assassins -in the pay of the Japanese, and with the complicity of the -Legation. King Li-Hsi, a very poor creature at the best, -whose reign has been one tissue of Court intrigue and palace -revolution, after the assassination of the Queen, fell into a consternation -of abject terror, completely abdicating his regal -authority, and became so degraded that he even consented to -sign an edict insulting the memory of the late Queen, and -accusing her of shameful crimes. Innocent persons were now -executed at Seoul as guilty of the murder, whereas the actual -assassins were acquitted by a self-constituted Japanese tribunal.</p> - -<p class='c008'>In the meantime Russia very ably exploited the general -discontent, and in an underhand manner offered her services -to the timid King, who was not only terribly afraid of the -Japanese, but also of his father, the Tai-wen-kun, a ferocious -old gentleman, whose ambition had disturbed Korea for over -twenty years, and who had been raised to power by the natives. -His Majesty seemed disposed to accept the Russian proposal, -but dared not leave his palace, in which he was kept a close -prisoner. A riot ensued, whether spontaneous or provoked -has never been divulged, which, on the night of February 11, -1896, offered him a chance of escape. The Tai-wen-kun was -killed, and Li-Hsi obtained shelter at the Russian Legation, -then guarded by a detachment of sailors fresh landed at -Chemulpo, the port of Seoul, without any attempt on the part -of the Japanese to prevent them. Li-Hsi, once safe in the house -of the Russian Minister, where all the members of the Korean -Government had found shelter, acted like a King in a comic -opera, and became the plaything of Russia, precisely as he had -recently been of Japan. He forthwith revoked all the reforming -edicts he had previously signed, and annulled the decree -degrading the memory of the unfortunate Queen, the trial -of whose assassins took place in a High Court presided over -by judges selected from various European nationalities, with -the result that the responsibility for her murder was thrown on -the Japanese.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The reactionary movement now became violent, and many -useful reforms had perforce to disappear. A committee, composed -of the highest native functionaries, the British Controller -<span class='pageno' id='Page_258'>258</span>of Customs, and a few Americans, was appointed to study -measures of reform, but they only met two or three times, and -nothing came of it, so that in a few months all the old abuses -reappeared. Nevertheless, by her sagacious conduct, Russia -had the ability to win over the foreign representatives in Korea -to her side, and Japan, in order to preserve the remnant of her -influence in a country whose commerce was mainly in her -hands, and where not less than 10,000 of her subjects resided, -was now obliged to arrive at an understanding with Russia. -The Convention of Seoul, signed May 14th, 1896, by the -representatives of the two Powers, completed by that of July -29th, concluded at Moscow at the time of the coronation of -Nicholas II., and drawn up by Prince Lobanof and Marshal -Yamagata, accorded Japan merely the right to keep 1,000 -troops in Korea for the protection of the Japanese telegraph -wires between Fusan and Seoul and of her subjects settled in -the capital and in the open ports of Fusan and Gensan. Russia -also obtained the same rights, and, moreover, a concession -to construct a telegraphic line from Seoul to the Siberian -frontier.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The two Powers further agreed to lend the Korean Government -their support for the reorganization of its finances and a -sufficient police force to maintain order, and to permit, as soon -as possible, of the withdrawal of their garrisons. In appearance -it was a sort of Russo-Japanese <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">condominium</span></i> that was -established in Korea; but Russian influence, now all-powerful -with the King, met with no further obstacle after the restoration -of that Sovereign to his palace in February, 1897. A -decree, ordering that all railways to be constructed in Korea -should have the same gauge as that of the Trans-Siberian -Railway, and that the debt of £300,000 contracted by Korea -with Japan should be repaid, and, moreover, that none but -Russian instructors should be engaged in reorganizing the -Korean army, was also issued, which Japan considered a -distinct breach of the Treaty of Moscow.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Russian influence was therefore, at the beginning of the -year 1897, absolutely preponderant in Korea as well as in -China. In both countries the Tsar’s Government had played, -with extraordinary ability, the part of protector of the conquered -against the abuses of the conqueror, and also that of a -redresser of wrongs, whereby it won universal approbation -throughout the Far East. The Japanese victories now appeared -<span class='pageno' id='Page_259'>259</span>only to have been obtained for the benefit of Russia, who -substituted herself everywhere for Japan, in Manchuria as well -as in Korea, and thus profited very considerably by the War -without having to pay any of its expenses. If at its close -Russia had the discretion to perceive the advantages which -she might derive from intervention, and if she acted with -energy and decision, she also knew how to curb the impetuosity -of her admirals, who were eager to commit those -very faults into which Japan had fallen, which undoubtedly -would have brought about very serious European complications. -She therefore at first abstained from annexing the -peninsula of Liao-tung and the important stations of Port -Arthur and Talien-wan, which she had compelled the Japanese -to evacuate, and officially she made no annexations in Korea; -but, possessing the right to construct a railway through Central -Manchuria and to protect its works by her own troops, and -being at one and the same time mistress of the situation -at Seoul, Russia was able at the right moment to annex -either Korea or Liao-tung, and bring the Trans-Siberian to the -open sea through one or the other of these two peninsulas. -She hesitated as to which she should select; the first was -nearer Peking, the second brought her more directly to the -Pacific, whence she could menace simultaneously the mouth -of the Yang-tsze and the South-east of Japan. At St Petersburg, -however, it seemed that the Government was waiting for -the completion of the Trans-Siberian Railway, which was proceeding -in hot haste, and which it was expected would reach -the Amur in the first months of 1900, ere the psychological -moment should arrive to strike a decisive blow.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Side by side with immense advantages acquired by Russia, -those obtained by her allies seemed insignificant. Germany -had not shown herself exacting; all she asked was a few acres -of land at Tien-tsin and other naval ports where she might -establish independent concessions intended to satisfy her sense -of dignity. The absence of special concessions had not -hitherto prevented Germany from achieving an extraordinary -commercial success in China, but the future will prove that the -German Empire entertains great designs in the Far East, the -realization of which are merely postponed.</p> - -<p class='c008'>As to France, she got in return for her services the two -Conventions signed at Peking by her Minister, M. Gérard, on -June 20th, 1895. The first of these documents accords divers -<span class='pageno' id='Page_260'>260</span>facilities to the extension of her commerce on the frontier -between China and Indo-China; the second ratifies, to her -advantage, the frontier limits. A new market—Semao, in the -Yunnan—was now added to the towns of Mong-Tze and Lung-Chau, opened to Franco-Annamite commerce in 1887. The -customs on goods entering or leaving these markets and -passing through Tongking, already reduced to three-quarters -of the maritime Custom-house tariff of 1887, were again lowered -to about two-fifths of the general tariff, so far as concerned -products exported from any other Chinese port, or intended to -be re-imported into any one of these said ports. In Article 5 -of this Convention the following passage occurs: ‘It is understood -that China, in the exploitation of mines situated in the -provinces of Yunnan, Kuang-si, and Kuang-Tung, may apply, -in the first place, to French merchants and engineers, the exploitation -remaining subject to the rules laid down by the -Imperial Government in all that concerns national industry. -It is agreed that the railways already existing, or to be constructed -in Annam, may, after a mutual understanding, be -extended on Chinese territory.’ Finally, it was further stipulated -that the French and Chinese telegraph lines should be -combined. The Convention respecting the frontier definitely -extended the French possessions to the eastern shore of the -upper Mekong, thereby giving France the territory situated on -the border of the Shan State of Xieng-hong. England in 1894 -had admitted the right of suzerainty of China over this little -principality, as well as over one or two others, thereby creating -a sort of neutral zone between her Indian Empire and French -Indo-China.</p> - -<p class='c008'>A great deal was made over this Convention in France, and -the energetic manner in which the French Minister at Peking -had been able to obtain these concessions under the very nose -of his English colleague, Sir Nicholas O’Connor. The negotiations -closed, M. Gérard proceeded to the Tsung-li-Yamen -on the day arranged for the exchange of signatures, to find, -however, only one of the two Chinese plenipotentiaries present. -This personage offered profuse apologies for the non-appearance -of his colleague. ‘Nothing should have prevented his -being here,’ replied the French diplomatist. ‘I pray you find -him at once and tell him so.’ A few moments afterwards the -second Celestial appeared alone, looking very sheepish. ‘And -your colleague, is he coming back?’ asked M. Gérard. ‘No; -<span class='pageno' id='Page_261'>261</span>I am afraid he is detained, and that he cannot return. Shall I -go and fetch him?’ ‘I beg your pardon,’ M. Gérard shrewdly -replied; ‘I will keep you here, and will go myself in quest of -your friend.’ At the end of an hour or so the two Celestials -were finally brought together, and on being asked to explain -their dilatory conduct, stated that the British Minister was -in the next room, threatening, if they ventured to sign, forthwith -to haul down his flag. M. Gérard was soon able to -convince the Celestial plenipotentiaries that they had nothing -to fear, but that they must immediately affix their signatures to -the document. Sir Nicholas O’Connor, he assured them, once -he was convinced of the futility of his intimidation, would soon -turn his attention to other affairs. This anecdote, whilst it -reflects great credit on the energy of the French Minister, and -displays his knowledge of the Chinese character to advantage, -emphasizes the declining influence of England in China in -1895 and 1896, as well as the annoyance experienced by this -Power at the ratification of the French frontier and its extension -towards Mekong. By confirming it, China violated, it is true, -the engagements she had made when England recognised her -position at Xieng-hong, but this did not concern France, for -the State in question was as much the vassal of Annam or of -Siam as it is of Burmah or of China.</p> - -<p class='c008'>What was the real value of the commercial concessions -granted to France by China, and concerning which her press -had made such capital? The reduction of the duties on all -products passing by Tongking would have been of great value -if the neighbouring Chinese province had been a rich one, but -it is, unfortunately, quite the reverse. It is now time to glance -over the region that can be provisioned and exploited through -Tongking. It includes the greater part of Yunnan and -Kwang-si, the southern half of Kwei-chau, and a small part of -Kwang-tung, that long and narrow band of territory which this -province projects over the Tongking frontier between the sea -and Kuang-si. The Yunnan, the Kwang-si, and the Kwei-chau -are the three poorest provinces of China, and cover a fifth of -her territory, whilst possessing barely the fifteenth of her population, -or, in other words, about 24,000,000 out of 380,000,000. -They have been unfortunately devastated by the great insurrection -of the Taipings and the Mohammedan revolts, especially -Yunnan; the country is really only a conglomeration of -mountains and plateaux, some of them 6,500 feet in height, and, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_262'>262</span>moreover, the communications are very scanty, and it would -cost an enormous sum to improve them. The report of the -Lyons Mission, which explored this part of China in 1895–97, -frequently mentions the great difficulties of transport and the -steepness of the ascents, such, for instance, as the famous -Imperial road of Ten Thousand Steps, which you ascend from -the bank of the Red River to the Yunnan plateau, between -Manhao and Mong-tze, and which in a distance of only 30 -miles rises from 485 to more than 6,500 feet. It also mentions -the paucity of population, as contrasted with its superabundance, -in the basin of the Yang-tsze-Kiang and the coast provinces. -In the Far East the mountains are almost invariably barren, -even when there is very little cultivable soil in the plain -below. It is said that the Yunnan is extremely rich in mineral -ore, but, as once remarked an acute observer, who has recently -visited nearly the whole of China, when explorers find nothing -worth noticing on the surface of a country, they generally arrive -at the conclusion that there must be something worth looking -for underneath. Undoubtedly both copper and tin have been -exploited for years past in Yunnan, but thus far the actual -wealth of these mines is unknown, and it would be mere matter -of conjecture to affirm whether they are worth working or not, -or whether it would pay to construct a railway 300 miles in -length to transport the ore, as these Chinese provinces on -the frontier neighbouring Tongking produce neither silk, tea, -nor any other valuable Chinese export product, and do not -offer a particularly brilliant prospect at present. As to Article 5, -relating to mines, if taken in the literal sense, it is simply a -truism, but if one wishes to discover in it a disguised engagement, -and read ‘ought’ instead of ‘may,’ it is a violation of the -clause granted to the most favoured nation inserted in all -Chinese treaties with European Powers. France had soon to -recognise its futility on January 15th, 1896, at the time of the -signing of the Anglo-French treaty relating to the affairs of -Siam, by which, it is true, she profited little by the difficult -circumstances in which Great Britain then found herself, and -the two Governments of Paris and London agreed that all the -rights and privileges acquired, or to be acquired, either in the -Yunnan or more to the north at Sze-chuan, were to be equally -shared.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The profit which France might have obtained from the convention -of June 20th, 1895, was thus reduced to little or -<span class='pageno' id='Page_263'>263</span>nothing. During the following year the negotiations which -were being persistently pursued at Peking brought about other -results. The right to reconstruct the arsenal at Foochow -established by the French in 1866, and which they destroyed -in 1884 under Admiral Courbet, was again restored to them. -Several naval engineers are working there at present, and French -foundries are supplying material. Such has been the share -derived by France in the concessions made by China, to obtain -which the nations made such flattering advances to Li Hung-chang -when that astute old gentleman made his recent famous -tour through Europe and America. It certainly compensated -after a fashion for the loss of the custom of Japan, who at one -time gave frequent orders to French factories, but who now -deals exclusively with England and America for the ships and -cannon necessary for her greatly augmented fleet.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Meanwhile, the French Minister at Peking has exerted -himself in a creditable manner for the benefit of the Catholic -missionaries. He has obtained the abrogation of those regulations -which prohibited missionaries from purchasing estates -in the interior of China, and exacted a promise that the next -edition of the <em>Ta-tsing-lu-lieh</em>, a collection of laws issued by the -Tsing Dynasty, should appear without the list of punishments -against missionaries contained in the edition of 1892. Finally, -he obtained authorization for the Lazarists to rebuild on the -same spot the cathedral at Tien-tsin, burnt at the time of the -massacre of the missionaries and nuns during the insurrection -of June, 1870.</p> - -<p class='c008'>It is assuredly as the protectress of Catholicism that France -has of late years most worthily played her part in the Far East. -Possibly she has not known how to convert to her material -advantage the influence which ought to be derived in China -from her religious position, and doubtless French policy in the -Celestial Empire has been lacking in enterprise. She certainly -did not derive from the intervention in favour of China a -profit proportionate to the risks incurred, and has obtained -from China not only less than her ally, Russia, but even -than England, and by uselessly opposing the demands of -this latter Power she has run the risk of irritating without any -benefit that ill-feeling which divides these two great Western -nations.</p> - -<p class='c008'>After a period of inaction during the year which followed the -War, the British Government, if it has not positively reconquered -<span class='pageno' id='Page_264'>264</span>its former influence, has at least gained a renewed hearing at -Peking. Although China trembled before Russia, the presence -in her waters of the British fleet did not fail to inspire her with -a feeling of profound respect; but, once the first moment of -alarm was over, she again bethought herself as much as possible -to begin afresh her old game of pendulum between the various -Powers. The slow work of British diplomacy throughout the -year 1896 fructified in the signing of the Anglo-Chinese Convention -of February 4th, 1897, by which China conceded to -Great Britain certain important modifications on the Burmese -frontier; granted her back a part of the Shan States; recognised -her right to establish a Consul somewhere in Western -Yunnan, Manwyne, or Chunning-fu; engaged to open the -roads leading to these places as well as to others; and finally -allowed the railways to be constructed in Yunnan to be united -with those of Burmah. Lastly—and this is the most important -point of all—a separate article prescribed that the Si-Kiang, or -West River, which flows through Canton, should be open to -European navigation as far as Woochow, on the Kwang-si and -Kwang-tung frontier, 125 miles from Canton. The two river -ports Samshui and Wuchow became treaty ports, and European -concessions were established there.</p> - -<p class='c008'>This was for England some return for the mortification she -had experienced twenty months earlier at the time of the -Gérard Convention. If, therefore, in Yunnan, in spite of the -equality of rights existing between Great Britain and France, -the advantage was with the latter, by reason of the natural -conditions rendering access less difficult from Tongking than -from Burmah, the opening of the West River was a check -for French policy, which had vigorously opposed it. By -this waterway European vessels—that is to say, almost exclusively -British steamers coming from Hong-Kong—would, in -the first place, be able to trade with the rich valley of the -lower Si-kiang, which crosses Kwang-tung, and reascends to -the frontier of Kwang-tung, where they would meet the junks -which bring to this point at a small cost the varied products -of this province, and, moreover, distribute merchandise from -Hong-Kong to the extreme navigable points of the West -River and its affluents. These points are situated at a great -distance in the interior, almost on the frontiers of Yunnan and -Tongking, and at Lung-chau, thirty miles from Lang-son, one -can see at high tide junks from Canton. Therefore all the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_265'>265</span>commerce of Kwang-si which France had so coveted was to be -drained by this new channel.</p> - -<p class='c008'>French diplomacy endeavoured to repair the unfavourable -impression produced by this Anglo-Chinese treaty, which -effaced the greater part of the advantages conceded to her on -the frontier of Tongking, and in June, 1897, it was stated in -Paris that China had ceded to France the right to construct a -railway from Lao-kai, on the Red River, between Tongking -and Yunnan-hsien, the capital of Yunnan, and to prolong it -to Nanning-fu and even northward beyond the line projected -to Lang-son and Lung-chau. This last concession should -reserve for France all the traffic of the western Kwang-si, provided -that it is really worth while constructing a railway to -obtain it; for unquestionably navigable rivers have a distinct -advantage over railways in so mountainous and poor a country. -As soon as the former are opened they can be navigated, -whereas it will require time to construct the railways, which, -moreover, are very costly. In February, 1898, I was able to -see for myself that the Si-kiang was already traversed by -steamers, whereas the railway from Lang-son to Lung-chau, the -concession for which was given in 1896, was not even commenced, -on account of the many difficulties that had arisen -with the local authorities. The opening in 1899 of Nanning -to foreign commerce is well calculated to deprive France even -of this little traffic, which will revert to Canton.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_266'>266</span> - <h3 class='c001'>CHAPTER X<br /> <span class='large'>CHINA AND THE POWERS, 1897–99—‘SPHERES OF INFLUENCE,’ AND THE ‘OPEN DOOR’</span></h3> -</div> -<p class='c014'>Political calm in the Far East during the summer of 1897—Provisionary -regulation of the questions that divided the Powers, and the maintenance -of old Chinese methods—Landing of the Germans at Kiao-Chau -in Shan-tung in 1897—England’s anger at this act, and her efforts to -avert the probable action of Russia in Pe-chi-li—Anglo-Chinese Convention -of February, 1898—Opening of all the waterways to European -navigation—The policy of the ‘open door’—China recognises in -March, 1898, the occupation of Kiao-chau and concession of the railway -granted to Germany in Shan-tung—Session to Russia on lease of -Port Arthur, and the immediate occupation of this port—Franco-Chinese -Convention, April, 1898—Divers conventions granted in the -Southern Provinces and session of the Bay of Kwang-chau-wan—Irritation -of Great Britain, who obtains new and important advantages -in June, 1898—Session of Wei-hai-wei at the entrance of the province -of Pe-chi-li, and of Kowloon, opposite Hong-Kong—Fresh Anglo-Russian -difficulties in November, 1898—Railway and other concessions -granted to foreigners throughout the Celestial Empire.</p> - -<p class='c007'>After the diplomatic wrangling which followed the war, a lull -occurred in the summer of 1897 in the Far East. Each of -the European Powers interested in China—Russia, France, -and England—had obtained her share of the spoil. That of -Germany was generally deemed modest, but it was believed -she had no political interest in the Celestial Empire, and was -quite content to develop her commerce. Meanwhile Russia -and Japan had patched up their quarrel in Korea. Doubtless -their arrangements were not of a definite character, and their -mutual ambitions rather dormant than satisfied; but the advantages -already obtained, and the preparations which both -nations would have to make in order to be ready when they -wished to return to the game, seemed to promise a respite for -some years to come. Russia was constructing her railway, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_267'>267</span>which, notwithstanding all the diligence brought to bear upon -its completion, was not expected to reach the river Amur until -the end of 1899, and the Pacific until 1903 or 1904. Japan, -whilst preparing for the arduous task of reorganizing Formosa, -was arming to the teeth, so as to be ready in case of trouble -with Russia, which she feared inevitable. She doubled her -army, and ordered a first-class fleet to be built in Europe and -America, which was to insure her maritime supremacy on the -coasts of China, but which could not be ready until 1904 or 1905. -France, having definitely pacified Tongking, was occupied -in studying the route of the various railway lines which had been -conceded to her. England was hastening the construction of -her railways in Burmah, and sending her steamers into the -West River, while her capital, amalgamated with that of -Germany and America, had the larger share in the industrial -movement which had been created in Shanghai, and seemed -likely to extend to other ports, especially after the treaty of -Shimonosaki.</p> - -<p class='c008'>China herself, profiting by this lull, returned to her old -sleepy habits: she had learnt nothing, and forgotten nothing. -When her chief statesman, Li Hung-chang, was sent to -Europe and America in 1896, it was not only because he was -better equipped than anyone else, by his long intercourse with -foreigners, to treat with them, but principally because he was in -disgrace. This mission had been offered to Prince Kung, and -even to Prince Ching, the Emperor’s uncles. ‘What have we -done,’ these illustrious personages probably exclaimed, ‘that -we should be subjected to this humiliation, and sent on a -mission to the barbarians?’ The tour of Li Hung-chang was, -therefore, intended as a severe punishment, supplemented -by the loss of his peacock’s feather and his yellow jacket. If -the observations which are attributed to him with respect to -progress are true, his influence must incontestably have -diminished, possibly owing to the vicissitudes to which he has -been subjected since his return to China. Be this as it may, -one thing is clear: he has not hitherto been able to overcome -either the Court prejudices or those of the overwhelming -majority of the literati.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The only progress made has been permission for the construction, -under the direction of English and American -engineers, of a line from Tien-tsin to Peking, to slightly -prolong beyond the Great Wall the one which starts from -<span class='pageno' id='Page_268'>268</span>Tien-tsin and the mouth of the Pei-ho, and ascends northwards -along the coast of Pe-chi-li, and to authorize the reconstruction -of the little line from Shanghai to its deep-water port, Woosung. -These works organized in those parts of the Empire most -frequented by Europeans, in the great open port of Shanghai, -where half the foreign population of China lives, and in the -capital, the residence of the diplomatic corps, were calculated -to create an illusory effect. The English may also have wished -to unite Peking to the sea, which they dominated in the Far -East as elsewhere, to spite Russia for having installed herself in -Manchuria. A longer railway from Peking to Hankow, -traversing over 650 miles of the heart of China, had been projected -since 1889, and a Chinese railway director named Sheng -had been commanded to collaborate in the matter of its construction -with Li Hung-chang and his rival, the celebrated -Chang-Chih-Tung, Viceroy of Hankow. Much more progressive -in all probability than Li Hung-chang, Sheng seemed -really desirous of building this line; but he insisted that the -material should be manufactured in China, and to this effect he -had erected at Hanyang, near Hankow, and his capital Wu-chang, -three towns which in reality form one vast city, an immense -foundry, which was not likely, at any rate for many years to -come, to supply the necessary material. After the War the -united efforts of the Ministers of France and Belgium had -obtained permission for a Franco-Belgian financial syndicate to -construct the line for the Chinese Government, and then to -exploit it. Obstacles, however, were thrown in the way, and -although the Chinese had commenced the works on the Peking -side, they were stopped in the autumn of 1897, owing to difficulties -which had arisen concerning the interpretation of several -clauses in the contract. It was the old story of Chinese shifty -dilatoriness, and nothing came of any one of the reforms proposed, -civil or military.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Momentarily satisfied by their newly-acquired privileges, the -foreigners ceased, for the time being, clamouring for fresh -favours. Everything was calm at Peking, and no one seemed -to see any grave event likely to occur in the Far East, at any -rate, before the termination of the Trans-Siberian Railway, -which would give Russia the chance of making an advance step, -when all of a sudden, in the month of November, 1897, Europe -learnt with surprise that Germany had landed sailors in the -Bay of Kiao-chau, in the Shan-tung Peninsula. The motive -<span class='pageno' id='Page_269'>269</span>for this unexpected movement, we were assured, was to put -pressure on the Government at Peking to conclude certain -long-standing negotiations connected with the assassination -of two German missionaries, and which, as usual in China, -dragged unconcernedly along. At first the importance of this -matter did not seem to create the impression that might have -been expected. Many even believed that it was but an ingenious -artifice on the part of the German Emperor to display the uses -of a navy, and to force the Reichstag to vote the necessary -credit for the increase of the fleet. But when William II. sent -into the Far East his brother Prince Henry, in command of a -squadron, requesting him at the time of his departure to make -the weight of his ‘mailed fist’ felt, if need arose, there was now -no possible doubt that the occupation of Kiao-chau was definitive, -and that Germany was paying herself, tardily, it is true, -but with less ceremony than her allies, for the services she had -rendered to China in 1895. She had taken, no doubt, a long -time about it, for she was hesitating as to which place she -should choose for the naval station she was anxious to establish -in the Far East.</p> - -<p class='c008'>If the landing at Kiao-chau had been thoroughly matured, -it, nevertheless, appeared that the Berlin Cabinet had not taken -the precaution to insure the consent of the other Powers. It -was asked if Russia herself, who had her eye on this bay, in -which her Far Eastern squadron had passed the winter of -1896–97, had not been caught napping. When the occupation -of the bay became known in England, public opinion became -violently excited. Although Germany seemed to have gradually -detached herself from the Franco-Russian group, and to have -approached Great Britain, and although English and German -banks combined had agreed in 1897 to float a second Chinese -loan of £16,000,000 on the European market, and notwithstanding -that the finances of the two countries had often co-operated -in China, the cordiality which exists between the subjects of -Queen Victoria and those of her grandson were even now -strained in the Far East. As soon as the occupation of Kiao-chau -became known, there was a positive explosion of invective -throughout the English press, soon followed by an avalanche of -jokes when William II. toasted his brother, on the eve of his -departure for the Chinese Seas, in an amusingly melodramatic -speech. The misadventures of Prince Henry, who was delayed -by divers accidents, and constantly obliged to coal at English -<span class='pageno' id='Page_270'>270</span>naval stations, added not a little to the general and very ironical -merriment.</p> - -<p class='c008'>It was not so much the action of Germany that gave rise -to genuine anxiety in England as the fear that the Government -of the Tsar might take advantage of it to make another advance -in North China. If it mattered little to the English that -Russia should occupy a harbour free of ice throughout the year, -they were greatly exercised at the prospect of her approaching -the capital of the Celestial Empire close enough to obtain -direct influence in Chinese affairs. England insisted that a -port of this sort should be open to the commerce of all nations, -precisely like her own Hong-Kong or the Treaty Ports. -Thus, while Mr. Balfour, in the early days of 1898, almost -invited the Russians to secure for themselves an issue to the -open sea, a few days later another of Her Majesty’s Ministers—Sir -Michael Hicks-Beach—declared, amid the applause of -the entire press, ‘that the British Government was absolutely -determined, at any cost, even at the risk of war, that the “open -door” in China should not be closed.’ In order to oppose the -quiet advance of Russia, Great Britain anticipated her by -appropriating her hitherto successful financial policy, and offered -to lend the “Son of Heaven” £16,000,000, which he particularly -wanted. This last of the three great Chinese loans was -the least guaranteed. The Customs receipts no longer sufficed -to assure the interest, and it therefore gave the lender a greater -excuse for meddling in the internal administration, and to -exercise the stronger pressure on the politics of Peking. The -conditions for this loan included the addition to the list of -open ports of Talien-wan, in the peninsula of Liao-tung, which -Russia had long coveted. By throwing it open to the commerce -of all the Powers, its appropriation by any one of them -would be rendered very difficult, if not impossible.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The game was certainly very well played, but in order to -carry it to an issue, it was necessary to have a sufficient force -on the spot to impose upon China the acceptation of its conditions. -Now, the season was not propitious; in winter, when -the Pei-ho is frozen over, Russia must remain more powerful -at Peking than England. Scared by the threats of M. Pavloff, -the Russian <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Chargé d’Affaires</span>, the Tsung-li-Yamen dared not -accept the demands of Sir Claude Macdonald, the English -Minister, notwithstanding the energetic manner in which they -were presented.</p> - -<p class='c008'><span class='pageno' id='Page_271'>271</span>The direct loan was consequently not concluded, Talien-wan -was not opened, and Great Britain had to content herself with -an agreement signed at the end of February, 1898, in virtue of -which she obtained, however, some very important concessions. -European steamers were, after June, 1898, to be allowed to -navigate in all the waters of the Empire. No part of the basin -of the Yang-tsze-Kiang was ever to be ceded or rented to any -foreign Power; a port was to be opened in the province of -Yunnan, and the position of Inspector-General of Customs -was to be reserved exclusively to a British subject, so long as -British commerce should hold the first rank in the foreign -commerce of China. The value of these concessions is apparent -when we consider that the basin of the Yang-tsze is the richest -and most thickly-peopled part of the Middle Kingdom. As a -commentary upon this agreement, the House of Commons in -March included in the Address to the Throne: ‘That it was of -vital importance for the commerce and influence of Great -Britain that the independence of China should be respected.’ -In the course of the discussion Mr. Curzon, Under-Secretary -for Foreign Affairs, declared in the first place that England -was opposed to any attack upon the independence or integrity -of China, and that in the second she would resist any attempt -to close any Chinese port to her commerce, so long as it -was open, or to be opened, to the commerce of any other -nation, and that, moreover, she was determined to maintain -in their integrity all the privileges which she had obtained -by the treaty of Tien-tsin in 1858. This was the enunciation -of the famous policy known as the ‘open door.’</p> - -<p class='c008'>Meanwhile, Germany, in the same month of March, made -China ratify the occupation of Kiao-chau, which had been leased -to her for ninety-nine years, and which she hastened, it is true, to -declare a free port. An extensive radius of railways was at the -same time conceded to her in Shan-tung, which she had constituted -a ‘sphere of interest,’ and the right of pre-emption on -all the railway and mining concessions which the Chinese -Government might grant in that province.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Russia, on her side, alarmed at the Anglo-Chinese negotiations, -came to the conclusion that if she delayed her occupation -of the peninsula of Liao-tung any longer, she would risk, if not -being forestalled by a rival, at least witnessing the creation of -international interests calculated to render the execution of -her projects more difficult. She hesitated no longer, and on -<span class='pageno' id='Page_272'>272</span>March 27th, 1898, obliged China to sign the Convention ceding -to her the lease of Port Arthur and Talien-wan, and the authorization -to construct a branch line, uniting these ports to the East -Chinese Railway. Thus she obtained her object The Trans-Siberian -had now a terminus on the open sea, and could threaten -Peking from the entrance of the Gulf of Pe-chi-li. It looked -for a moment as though the long deferred struggle between the -Whale and the Elephant were really about to take place. Two -English cruisers were stationed at Port Arthur when this point -was ceded to Russia. They put to sea, but on March 29th -the formidable British Far East fleet, which had been immensely -increased during the winter, was mobilized, one part -steaming towards the north, while the other remained at the -mouth of the Yang-tsze, ready to occupy, so it was said, the -Chusan Islands, which command the entrance to the river. -Russia was exceedingly prudent, and, in order not to add the -powerful support of Japan to that of England, on March 18th -she renounced all active intervention in Korea, and left that -country open, if not precisely to the political action, at least -to the economic interest of the Land of the Rising Sun. A -conflict was averted, but the inevitable opposition of Russian -and English interests, added to an accumulation in China Seas -of warships of every nationality, hastily sent there after the -affair of Kiao-chau, kept up a well-founded feeling of anxiety and -irritation in the minds of the British public, further increased -by a Franco-Chinese agreement signed in April. France -remained, according to her habitual policy, confined in the -poor regions of the south, but obtained from China the promise -not to alienate on any account the territory comprised in the -three frontier provinces of Tongking, and never to cede to any -other Power than France the island of Hainan. To these -clauses were added the renewal of the concession of the Yunnan -Railway, and finally the cession on a long lease of the Bay of -Kwang-chau-Wang, situated on the eastern coast of the Lei-chau -Peninsula opposite Hainan, and, moreover, the Chinese -engaged to appoint a French Director-General of Posts. This, -of course, was an answer to the promise obtained by Great -Britain respecting the Director-General of Customs, and it -might have been of great importance to the French by placing -in their hands the telegraph lines of the Celestial Empire which -joined, independently of the British cable, the lines in Indo-China -which stretched to the Russian lines in Siberia and thence -<span class='pageno' id='Page_273'>273</span>on to Paris. Notwithstanding the great political interest at stake, -this advantage was unhappily allowed to lapse, no Director-General -of Posts has been nominated, this post still remaining -united to that of the Customs, under the direction of Sir -Robert Hart. With respect to the other concessions obtained -by France, it does not appear that England or any other Power -need be much concerned about them. Hainan may have -some importance to France, who could never permit any other -Power to establish itself at the entrance to the Gulf of Tongking. -As to the harbour of Kwang-chau, which is not of the first -rank, the mouth being narrow, it does not extend the French -sphere of action, but leaves her mewed up where she was in -the far south. It has only brought her annoyances, and is -certainly not a strategical point of primary importance, whence -she might menace the position of her rivals in the China -Seas.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Far more important were the cessions of territory soon afterwards -made to Great Britain in compensation for the occupation -of the ports of Liao-tung by the Russians. Their value did not -consist in their extent, which was not considerable, being merely -Wei-hai-wei and a little town in Shan-tung, and 400 square -miles of territory in the peninsula of Kowloon, and immediately -opposite Hong-Kong. Both were leased for ninety-nine years. -The strategical value is, however, of the highest importance. -In the peninsula of Kowloon, where the English had up to this -time only a small piece of land, they now came into possession -of all the heights and bays necessary to shelter the port -of Hong-Kong from attack and to insure its extension. Wei-hai-wei, -on the other hand, gave them precisely what they had -long coveted—a naval station in the North of China, so that -when their squadron was in these latitudes it would no longer -be obliged to make a voyage of from four to five days in order -to take in provisions or seek shelter at Hong-Kong. Wei-hai-wei, -the fortifications of which were immediately undertaken, -in a measure weakens Port Arthur, the two being exactly -opposite each other, with a stretch of sea of only sixty miles -between them, and the former is not much more distant from -the mouth of the Pei-ho. Needless to say, being in possession -of so excellent a station, England with her superior fleet will -necessarily during many years to come be in a position to -prevent the Russian squadron interfering with her projects, -and also, notwithstanding the shortness of the journey, to -<span class='pageno' id='Page_274'>274</span>impede any assistance by sea being afforded to Russian -troops who might be operating in the north of China. The -English, moreover, can from this position, by a dexterous -movement, cut the line of railway between Tien-tsin and the -Great Wall.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Notwithstanding these advantages, the insatiable British -public was not satisfied, and complained that the Government -had allowed Germany to occupy a privileged position in Shan-tung, -and had, moreover, promised not to interfere with her -rights in that province, nor to construct a railway starting from -Wei-hai-wei, and, moreover, to consider this place as a sort of -Far Eastern Gibraltar without any commercial pretensions, -thereby consenting to the creation of a German sphere of -interest in opposition to the policy of the ‘open door.’ When -Parliament was prorogued in August, the Chinese Question -had been discussed no fewer than eight times, and the Salisbury -Ministry had been frequently and very bitterly attacked -by its own supporters. The intemperate oratory of certain -Ministers, and notably of Mr. Chamberlain, who unhesitatingly -accused Russia of bad faith, and even went so far as to say -one must remember when dealing with Russia the old proverb, -‘He who sups with the devil must have a long spoon,’ had not -a little contributed to excite public opinion in Great Britain. -In order to soothe matters a little, the Cabinet declared to -Parliament that its Minister at Peking had been authorized to -inform the Chinese Government that Great Britain would lend -its support in order to resist an attempt on the part of any -Power to commit an act of aggression against China under the -pretext that she had granted to a British subject the concession -of a railway or other public work.</p> - -<p class='c008'>This was a return to the policy of the ‘open door’ to which -England attaches so much importance. She refused to admit -that commercial privileges should be given to any one Power, -or any preference for public works to be executed; in a word, -she would hear of no ‘spheres of interest.’ Such stipulations -are, indeed, diametrically opposed to the wording of the treaties, -but in these times hardly, except by force or the threat to use -it, can one expect even the most solemn engagements to be -observed. England herself was obliged to concur in the -German ‘sphere of interest’ in Shan-tung. In the months of -August and September, 1898, it was once more feared that -there might be trouble between England and Russia over -<span class='pageno' id='Page_275'>275</span>the matter of the railway from Shan-hai-Kwan to Niu-chwang, -a prolongation beyond the Great Wall of the line between -Peking, Tien-tsin, and Shan-hai-Kwan. The principal bank in -the Far East, the Hong-Kong and Shanghai Banking Corporation, -was to build it for the Chinese Government and exploit -it, reserving as security a first mortgage on the line. Russia -intervened, and objected that any railway concession should -be given to any other Power than herself north of the Great -Wall. After considerable discussion, the Powers arrived at -an agreement, and the English company kept the concession, -but only retained a lien on the already constructed Peking-Shan-hai-Kwan -line to the south of the Wall.</p> - -<p class='c008'>In the midst of all the intrigues and unpleasantness which -we have just narrated, Europe has, nevertheless, accomplished -at Peking a noteworthy and unprecedented work. She has -not only obtained very advantageous concessions for her -commerce, such, for instance, as the opening to navigation of -all the watercourses on which Treaty Ports are situated, but -also the allotment to the European Customs Administration -of the collecting of <em>likin</em> in the valley of the Yang-tsze, as a -security for the third great loan of £16,000,000. She has -also obtained the right to introduce into China the best -machinery for the exploitation of her natural resources. The -English are about to work the coal and iron mines of Shan-si -and Ho-nan, the Germans those of Shan-tung, and the English -and French together the mines of Yunnan. Six thousand -miles of railway are to be constructed, not only at the extremities -of the Empire in the Steppes of Manchuria and on the plateaux -bordering Indo-China, but also in the thickly-peopled central -and eastern provinces, from Peking to Han-kau and Canton, -from Tien-tsin to the lower Yang-tsze, in Shan-tung and around -Shanghai, connecting towns of several hundred thousand, and -even over a million inhabitants, through countries at least twice -as densely peopled as France.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_276'>276</span> - <h3 class='c001'>CHAPTER XI<br /> <span class='large'>THE FUTURE OF CHINA—MAINTENANCE OR PARTITION OF THE CELESTIAL EMPIRE?</span></h3> -</div> -<p class='c014'>Necessity of proceeding slowly with the Reform movement in China, if the -overthrow of the Empire is to be averted—Weakness of the Government -at Peking—The Emperor and the Reformer, Kang-Yu-Wei—The -Empress Dowager and Li Hung-chang—Palace revolution in September, -1898—Enormous obstacles in the way of the Celestial Empire -reforming itself—Reasons why it cannot follow the example of Japan -in 1868—The possibility of partition—The interests of Great Britain, -the United States, and Japan, partizans of the ‘open door’ policy, -and of Germany, Russia, and France—The dangers incurred by -partition—Difficulties of effecting it pacifically, and also for Europeans -to govern the hundreds of millions of Chinese—The anarchy that might -result—Services which might be rendered to progress by the Chinese -Government in preventing too rapid a transition—Possibility of converting -the Chinese to material progress.</p> - -<p class='c007'>‘Every time that the bones of China are rattled—and they -have never been more vigorously than at present’—said a -technical English paper, ‘an increase of commerce follows.’ -Nothing can be truer; but, at the same time, it might be prudent -not to shake the old skeleton too violently, too often, or too -long, if we do not wish to see it tumble to pieces. China is a -sort of amorphous State whose different parts are joined -together by the very weakest ties, concerning which we know -little or nothing, and whose main force consists in tradition -and in the existence of a governing class of literati, recruited -throughout the Empire, even among the very people. On the -other hand, germs of serious disaffection do exist; the actual -Dynasty is a foreign one, which, at the beginning of the century, -the terrible Taiping Rebellion—only suppressed with the -assistance of Europeans—nearly ruined, and the descendants of -the old national Ming Dynasty are still living. The accession -<span class='pageno' id='Page_277'>277</span>to the throne of the present Emperor was irregular, it seems, -according to Chinese procedure, and the country is honeycombed -by secret societies, whose object is the overthrow of -the existing state of affairs. The mass of the people are totally -indifferent to politics, and very rarely exhibit hostility to -foreigners, if the latter behave with circumspection, unless, -indeed, they are urged on by fanatics or malcontents, when, -unfortunately, they are easily roused. In the principal towns -of every prefecture and sub-prefecture there exists a heterogeneous -mass of soured and fanatical literati, who pursue the -humblest trades in order to keep themselves from starvation, -who are intimately mixed up with the people, by whom they -are treated with great respect, and who will obey their commands -to overthrow the Europeans and their innovations.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The Government of Peking is too thoroughly convinced of -its external weakness to openly resist any demand imposed -upon it by the Powers, but if it be too hardly pressed, and -forced to introduce or allow the premature introduction of -all sorts of innovations, and in too many places at once, it may -run the risk of exciting against it the literati, who regard, and -not without reason, any extension of European influence as a -menace to their privileges. Such action might easily lead to -active opposition to all reform, especially in the central and -southern provinces, more backward than those of the north, -and, if leaders of the movement can be discovered, lead to the -complete disorganization of the Celestial Empire. Trouble -has already occurred in Sze-chuan, as well as further in the -lower valley of the Yang-tsze. A rather serious insurrection -broke out in 1898 in the Kwang-si and Kwang-tung, but -without any result. We know that local troubles in so badly -governed a country as China of a necessity must become -chronic, but in many cases the news concerning them reaches -Europe considerably embellished and exaggerated.</p> - -<p class='c008'>It is certain that the elements of disorder are just now greatly -excited. Even at Peking rival factions are disputing for power; -the events which occurred there in September, 1898, are little, -and possibly never will be completely, known, and it would be -impossible to relate with any approach to truth the tragedies -and comedies that are constantly being enacted within the -walls of the Forbidden City.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The Emperor Kuang-Su, a young man of twenty-five, with a -sickly body, and, it is said, a weak mind, had been completely -<span class='pageno' id='Page_278'>278</span>won over to the Reform movement by a literate of the new -school, named Kang-Yu-Wei, who hailed from Canton. His -Celestial Majesty, with all the zeal of a neophyte, was induced -during the summer to issue a distinctly revolutionary edict. It -was said that he went so far as to presume to wear a European -costume, and that he even intended going personally -to Japan to observe there for himself the transformation which -had been effected in the last thirty years. The Reform party -undoubtedly had entertained Japanese as well as English -sympathies, and its chief, Kang-Yu-Wei, passed his last night -at Peking in the Japanese Legation. Marquis Ito, it is said, -discouraged the precipitation with which it was intended to -carry out in a few weeks reforms that had taken more than a -quarter of a century to accomplish in Japan.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Such an attempt had no chance of success, for it not only -opposed many prejudices and interests, but was opposed by all -the Manchu functionaries, by Li Hung-chang, who had been -recently disgraced, and by the Empress Dowager. His Celestial -Majesty pretended to arrest this last-named personage, who is -his aunt, and not his mother; but the astute Princess defeated -his object. The great majority of the mandarins being hostile -to the movement, she soon possessed herself of the necessary -tools for her purpose. The Emperor was in his turn imprisoned -in his palace, and forced to apologize and sign an edict -placing the reins of Government entirely in the hands of -the Dowager. The immediate consequence of this act was -that all the mandarins of the old school, among them Li -Hung-chang, returned forthwith to power; Kang-Yu-Wei took flight -on board an English vessel, and most of his partizans were -either beheaded or sent into exile, and very soon all trace of -their work was effaced.</p> - -<p class='c008'>From this imprudent attempt at reform we may derive a few -useful lessons. In the first place it showed the instability of -the Peking Government, and also the existence, but at the same -time the impotence, of the Reform party among the literati; -and in the second it accentuated that dangerous factor in the -politics of the Far East, the inflexible antagonism existing -between England and Russia. The Empress Tze-Hsi is undoubtedly -a very clever woman; she first governed the Empire -in the capacity of Regent, but since 1887 she has, with the -assistance of Li Hung-chang, who is said to have been a -former lover, done so in the name of her nephew, absolutely -<span class='pageno' id='Page_279'>279</span>refusing to abdicate. Her rule has been undoubtedly pernicious -to China, for it has invariably been reactionary. As -an instance in point, an important Viceroy has been recently -reprimanded for attempting to reorganize on the European -system the troops in the provinces which he administered. -The Tsung-li-Yamen has likewise in a very short time contrived -to strengthen the party opposed to innovation, and all sorts of -restrictions have been placed in the way of the exploitation of -the mines. For all this, be it bad or good, the Government of -Tze-Hsi and of Li Hung-chang is nevertheless a Government; -but both the Empress and her Minister are aged, and one may -naturally ask what will occur when they are no longer of this -world.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The Reform party, which seems to have the sympathy of a -few high functionaries, does not apparently include many of -the mandarin class; the unsuccessful literati, who struggle for -existence in the towns of the interior, and who are in immediate -contact with the people, apparently remain outside -of all notion of progress, being absolutely convinced of the -immense superiority of the Chinese over the barbarians. It -is therefore very difficult to imagine how a handful of innovators -can ever be able to impose their ideas against so much -prejudice. A revolution, such as occurred in Japan in 1868, -which rushed that Empire into the ways of reform, stands no -chance of being effected in China, and even if it were, it would -only receive just such another rebuff as happened in 1898, or -else lead to anarchy and the dismemberment of the Empire.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The situation in China to-day is essentially different from -that of Japan thirty years ago. In the first place the Chinese -civilization which gave way in Japan to European was not of -domestic growth, but essentially an imported article of extreme -antiquity, which never succeeded in stultifying the Japanese -people as it has done the Chinese; what is more, ancestors -and classics were never held by the Japanese in the same -veneration as is bestowed upon them by the Chinese. Far -above the traditions of Confucius and of the Wise Men of old -stood the Mikado of divine descent and the spirit of national -independence. The first object of the Japanese Revolution in -1868 was to restore the Emperor to the plenitude of his power, -a result attained by the union of the principal clans, as we have -already explained. Although it resulted in the suppression of -feudalism and the introduction of European civilization, it was -<span class='pageno' id='Page_280'>280</span>originally not presented in this form, and if the entire nation -eventually accepted these innovations, it was because they had -been consecrated by the divine Emperor, and, moreover, were -approved of by a powerful army which had always been friendly -to progress and prompt to resist reaction.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Those advantages that so greatly favoured the Japanese -reformers are non-existent in China. There is no military -party in Peking friendly to Reform or eager to assist the reformers -in seizing supreme power at the right moment and -helping them to retain it. The initiative, therefore, cannot -come from either the capital or the provinces. Instead of the -Japanese daimios, or hereditary chieftains, surrounded by innumerable -and faithful vassals, we have in China viceroys who -are invariably strangers in the provinces they administer, and are -spied upon by Tatar marshals having at their disposal by way -of an army a horde of ill-disciplined ragamuffins, whom, even if -an attempt were made to transform them into genuine soldiers, -a task which would require many years to effect, the Court -at Peking, being against the scheme, would soon disband. -No martial spirit or feeling of patriotism exists in China to -induce the governing classes to give up their privileges, even -though it were for the benefit of the country. The tenacious -attachment of the Chinese to their very ancient but stationary -civilization is their greatest impediment to progress, especially -as love of country is a mere empty sound to the vast majority -of Chinamen.</p> - -<p class='c008'>Another and very important difference between China to-day -and Japan in 1868 is that thirty years ago Europe permitted -the Island Empire to accomplish its own revolution -without interference, whereas to-day the Powers would -assuredly prevent any attempt at a too sudden evolution in -the Government of the Celestial Empire, which would only -plunge the country into a deplorable condition of turmoil. -Even now the Dowager Empress’s party is known as the -Russian, and that of Kang-Yu-Wei as the Anglo-Japanese. -Possibly this may be an exaggerated view of the case, and that -neither party is in the service of any particular Power; but -the incorruptibility of Li Hung-chang must be taken with a -grain of salt. It is, however, certain that the Legations watch -with a jealous eye the intrigues of the various factions, and -that the disgrace of Li Hung-chang is looked upon as a victory -for England, and each return to power of the Viceroy of Pe-chi-li -<span class='pageno' id='Page_281'>281</span>as a Russian success. No worse sign could possibly exist -for a State than the perpetual interference of foreign Powers in -its affairs.</p> - -<p class='c008'>‘Are we about to witness the dismemberment of China?’ is a -question people are constantly asking themselves. No one in -particular wishes for it, since the division of such an inheritance -would be disputed by at least five or six claimants, who will -only settle their differences at the sword’s point. For the past -twenty-five years Europe has trembled at the bare thought of -war, and we must not be surprised if she dreads the mere -mention of the disruption of China, which would be even more -dreadful, since it means universal war, in which the United -States, Great Britain, and Japan, as well as the Continental -Powers, would each take a share. Even if the matter were -settled amicably, what country would care to govern eighty or -a hundred millions of Chinamen? Some people say that it -could easily be settled by not attempting to govern them at all, -in other words, to let things go their way; but no European -Power would, or could, do otherwise than rule them methodically, -according to our modern ideas of government. To-day, -if a band of brigands exists in any obscure corner of -China, nobody troubles about it, but once that corner belongs -to a European Power, the irresistible desire of attempting to -establish order would assuredly lead to an insurrection. The -introduction of European methods is certain to upset many of -the old customs and traditions to which the Chinese hold with -almost pathetic tenacity. It requires an amazing tact to govern -the Chinese, a fact made daily manifest in Hong-Kong, and -illustrated by the recent serious outbreak in the French concession -at Shanghai, where a disturbance took place over the -removal of a time-honoured sanctuary to make way for a public -road. The difficulties encountered by Europeans in every -country imbued with Chinese ideas—those of the English in -Burmah, the French in Tongking, and the Japanese at -Formosa—prove, if proof were needed, how great is the resisting -power and the risks any European nation would have to -encounter which attempted to govern even a fragment of the vast -Chinese Empire.</p> - -<p class='c008'>On the other hand, each Power, whilst dreading the consequences -of a partition, is equally unwilling to behold a rival -carry off the lion’s share. It is, therefore, with an eye to an -eventual partition that each nation endeavours to obtain a -<span class='pageno' id='Page_282'>282</span>privileged position in certain regions, and to possess itself of -spheres of interest by forcing China to make the singular -promise never to cede any portion of territory in certain defined -provinces to any nation but to the one which obtains the -promise. But this sort of promise is fraught with difficulties, -and a source of eventual hostilities between nations having -pretensions upon the same region, just as it is between the -partizans of ‘spheres of interest’ and those of the ‘open door.’</p> - -<p class='c008'>In order to understand the policy of the various Powers in -China, in which they see a very important field for exploitation, -we must first consider their commercial interests in the -Celestial Empire. The British Empire incontestably occupies -first place in the foreign commerce of China, which in 1897 -stood at 366,000,000 hai-kwan taels, or £54,900,000 (1 tael = -3s.). Of this 236,934,000 taels, or £35,540,100, two-thirds of -the whole, belongs, according to the Imperial Chinese Customs -Report, to Great Britain. Here, however, we must not be -misled, for if we subdivide this sum, we shall see that about -£5,500,000 alone belong to England, £5,000,000 to her -colonies other than Hong-Kong, through which the remainder, -that is to say, about £23,000,000 worth of goods, passes, Hong-Kong -being merely a point of transit. Goods imported from -Germany, America and Russia into China, passing through -this island port, or being exported thence to the four corners -of the globe, are put down to England. Then, again, a very -important trade is carried on between the North and the South -of China through Hong-Kong, and thus it comes to pass that -Great Britain gets the credit for commerce which does not -really belong to her. If Hong-Kong possessed proper Custom-house -statistics, it would be easy to account for the origin and -destination of the merchandise which passes through this port; -but such statistics do not exist. Under these circumstances, -we must turn either to those of the various countries of Europe -and America, or to the detailed statistics of the Chinese -Customs, which frequently rectify the total amounts, whereby -we learn that £692,700 worth of Russian petroleum is imported, -whereas the total imports from Russia by sea are only estimated -at £485,100. The difference must, therefore, be accounted -for as having passed through Hong-Kong. A comparison -between the Chinese Customs statistics and those of Germany, -the United States, French Indo-China, and other countries, -obliges us, however, to admit that three-fifths at least of the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_283'>283</span>trade of Hong-Kong really belongs to the British Empire, which -leaves to the latter about £27,000,000, that is, 40 to 50 per -cent. of the total foreign commerce of the Celestial Empire. -In the matter of imports, the English reign supreme, holding -at least three-fourths in their hands, and dominating the market -by the two principal articles, opium and cotton. Moreover, -their flag floats over 65 per cent. of the total tonnage registered -in the Chinese ports; of 636 foreign houses of business -established in the open ports, 374 are English; of 11,600 -foreigners, 5,000 are British subjects; and English is the -language most spoken throughout the ports of the Far -East. When we take all these facts into consideration, we -are obliged to acknowledge that, having so many interests -to defend in this part of the globe, England has a right to let -her voice be heard clearly in commercial affairs. We must not -be surprised, therefore, if she insists upon the ‘open door’ policy -in China. The question now arises, Does she seek territory in -the Celestial Empire? She has apparently sacrificed the -‘spheres of interest’ theory by exacting from China an engagement -not to cede anything in the basin of the Yang-tsze, and -the English Jingoes are already dreaming that Great Britain -will be mistress not only from the Cape to Cairo, but from -Cairo to Shanghai. ‘Are not the Arabian Coast and the -Persian Gulf,’ I recently read in an English paper, ‘already -ours, and morally subject to our protectorate? Once we -possess the valley of the Yang-tsze, who is to prevent our -constructing a rival line to the Trans-Siberian from the mouth -of the Nile to that of the Blue River?’<a id='r28' /><a href='#f28' class='c006'><sup>[28]</sup></a> Although just at -present it were best not to count too much on the wisdom and -coolness of the British, nevertheless, their statesmen seem to -appreciate the dangers of so beautiful a dream. They, at least, -understand that the peril of the British Empire lies in its enormous -extent. The majority of the British would, no doubt, be satisfied -if they were allowed to place their capital and their commerce -on a footing of equality with that of other countries -in the Celestial Empire, if the territorial encroachments of -the Powers did not justify the fear of the creation of a protectionist -tariff. We may, therefore, hope that Great Britain, -having obtained all that she desires in the way of strategic -<span class='pageno' id='Page_284'>284</span>points for the benefit of her naval forces, and also a great -number of commercial concessions, will remain contented with -her lot, and not dream of attacking the independence of China, -but rather be inclined to help her to regain power.<a id='r29' /><a href='#f29' class='c006'><sup>[29]</sup></a></p> - -<p class='c008'>After England the United States do the greatest business -with China. They only figure for £4,500,000 in the Chinese -Customs statistics, but their own official publications give -£7,840,000. Petroleum and cotton goods are the principal -articles of their commerce, which is sure to be enormously -increased in the future as the Middle Kingdom requires more -and more machinery, which is manufactured to-day much more -cheaply in America than anywhere else. The United States -are represented in China by thirty-two houses of business and -1,564 citizens; their mercantile marine is, however, very insignificant, -but having of late assumed a position among the -world’s Powers, and being already installed in the Philippines, -they are sure to increase their mercantile fleet very rapidly, and -as they aspire to become one day mistress of the Pacific, -they watch with a very jealous eye all that happens in the Far -East. However protectionist they may be at home, they are -resolute partizans of the ‘open door’ in this market, of which -they justly hope to eventually acquire a large part through their -enterprise. Already a coolness has occurred in their friendship -with Russia, and in January, 1900, they obtained a guarantee -that none of the Powers should establish differential tariffs in -leased ‘spheres of interest.’</p> - -<p class='c008'>Japan takes the third rank with a rapidly increasing commerce, -which in 1897 reached £5,850,000. Her spun cotton -rivals that of England and India. Seven hundred Japanese are -registered as residing in the different ports. The Celestial -Empire has no warmer friends at the present moment than the -Japanese. The Japanese papers are full of articles which -compare the position of the two countries to that of Prussia and -Austria after Sadowa, and preach reconciliation, and a close -alliance was already spoken of with enthusiasm at the close of -the War. Many Japanese statesmen are studying this question, -among them the Marquis Ito, four times Prime Minister, and -Prince Konoye, President of the Chamber of Peers, who -travelled in China, and stayed in Peking in 1898 and 1899. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_285'>285</span>According to certain signs, their overtures have not been altogether -fruitless. The Government of the Empress Dowager -does not seem to entertain any particular rancour against the -Japanese for the sympathies which they expressed for the Reformer -Kang-Yu-Wei, and undoubtedly seeks some support in -order to withdraw itself from the over-exclusive domination of -Russia. If this last Power is feared in Peking, it would seem -that Japan is at the present time the most considered, whose -counsels are best heard, and who best serves as the intermediary -for progress into China. It is from Japan that China -obtains instructors for her army, and that the Viceroy Chang-Chih-tung -not only borrowed money, but also engineers for his -foundry at Hanyang. The cementing of a formal alliance -will no doubt be prevented through fear of Russia, and very -probably China does not desire it very sincerely. Possibly at -Peking they continue to despise the Japanese as much as they do -Europeans, although they may have a preference for the former. -One thing is certain, and that is, that the relations between the -Governments at Peking and Tokio are better than they were -before the War. Of the Western Powers, England is most -preferred by the Mikado’s subjects, although even with her -they are a little suspicious. A feeling of intense resentment is still -expressed by the vast majority of the Japanese against Russia. -A small minority, however, desire that an understanding should -be arrived at with her. This party, however, also wishes for -the ‘open door,’ China being the only outlet for their young -and already important cotton industry.</p> - -<p class='c008'>These three nations—England, the United States, and Japan—complete -the group of the whole-hearted partizans of the -‘open door.’ The British press has often expressed a desire -to see an alliance effected between them, and if this were only -created between England and Japan it would be very formidable -in the Far East. The Japanese fleet is excellent, and -whatever may be our opinion of the ability of the Mikado’s -sailors, it is certain that, once united to the English fleet under -the command of an English admiral, it could soon sweep the -China Seas, and it would then be easy to embark an army of a -hundred, even of two hundred thousand men, whom it would -be difficult, even according to Russian officers, for the Tsar’s -army in the Far East to resist. Perhaps Russia has pushed -the Empire of the Rising Sun too much and too soon into the -arms of England.</p> - -<p class='c008'><span class='pageno' id='Page_286'>286</span>Germany, who, according to her own statistics, carries on -a trade with China valued at £3,400,000, of which £2,320,000 -are imports into China, and who counts 104 commercial -houses instead of the 78 in 1892, and registers 870 residents -in the Treaty Ports, divides her preferences between the -policy of the ‘spheres of influence’ and the ‘open door.’ If -she has reserved a right of preference in the public works to -be undertaken in Shan-tung, she soothes the irritation of the -English by making Kiao-chau a free port; but, notwithstanding -the antipathy which exists at heart between the two nations -and the progress of German commerce, often at the cost of -British trade, and thanks to the more obliging manners and -greater activity of the German merchants, a distinct amelioration -has taken place since the end of 1898 in the relations -between the two Governments, and Germany seems for the -present to have turned her back upon the Franco-Russian group -in the Far East in order to support British policy. One -province alone in China is not enough for her commercial -enterprise, and she fears to see protection closing the other -ports.</p> - -<p class='c008'>We now come to Russia. Her total commerce with the -Celestial Empire does not amount to more than about -£3,000,000, half of which passes overland by way of Siberia. -Petroleum as an import and tea as an export are the two great -articles of Russian trade with the Celestial Empire. There are -very few Russians living in China, and those who do so are -mainly established in the port of Hankow. Russia’s objects in -the East are almost entirely political, and it is very probable that -her protective tariff will follow her territorial aggrandizement. -Being already mistress of Manchuria, she officially fixed the -southern limits of her sphere of influence, at the time of the -affair of the Niu-chwang Railway, at the Great Wall. To the -north is a vast stretch of land almost entirely desert. In all -probability this limit is merely temporary, and possibly none -really exists in Russian aspirations; but before declaring her -policy she awaits the completion of the Trans-Siberian Railway. -The Empire of the Tsar, notwithstanding the 60,000 to 80,000 -men already massed between the Amur, Korea, and Pe-chi-li, -does not yet feel sufficiently safe to take a step forward for fear -of bringing herself into conflict with England and Japan. The -day the Trans-Siberian Railway is finished a step southwards -may no doubt be made. The antagonism between Russia and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_287'>287</span>Great Britain, both of whom aspire to be the leading Asiatic -Power, will then no doubt become bitterer than ever.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The policy of France has been more often than not ostentatious, -timid at heart and often vexatious in form. She has -made a great fuss over a few commercial advantages obtained -in the sterile provinces which border on Tongking, and she has -opposed England without doing her any injury with respect to -the opening of the West River. In certain affairs relating to -European concessions at Shanghai and Hankow, France has -unfortunately succeeded not only in vexing England, but in -alarming the Germans, Americans, and Japanese by the excessive -regulations which she has introduced in those territories -which have fallen into her hands. It does not seem, however, -that the French have contrived to obtain sufficient compensation -for the enmities which they have provoked in defending, -not without peril, interests which after all were not their own.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The part which France has wished to play in China has not -been a strictly commercial one. French highly-finished and -expensive fabrics are of no good in the Chinese market. If -she only had the common-sense and enterprise to send to -Tongking first-class weavers, and establish there a manufactory -under French direction, with cheap native labour, she should -soon be able, if she copied the cotton industries of India, to -compete with Japan in the Chinese market. It is therefore -the exportation of capital which ought to be her object in -the Far East, in China as well as in Indo-China. Notwithstanding -their activity, it is not countries like Japan and Russia, -which are without capital, that can attempt to exploit the riches -of China, but countries that are already advanced in civilization -like Germany, the United States, and above all, France -and England, who, by the introduction of the vast resources -of their capital, are in a position to work the mines, railways, -and other resources of the Middle Kingdom. If, instead of -trying to obtain exclusive privileges in a poor region, which are -of no use and only irritate other nations, France had supported -them in their ‘open door’ policy, she would have gained -a good deal, without losing anything from the purely commercial -point of view, and thus Frenchmen might have placed -themselves on a common footing with men of all nations, in -the same manner that the English and the Germans contrived -to come to an agreement in business transactions, notwithstanding -the divergence which tends to separate them more -<span class='pageno' id='Page_288'>288</span>and more, and she would then have been able to place her -capital to great advantage, and thereby have added immensely -to her prosperity, not only abroad but at home, as was the -case under the Second Empire, when she covered Europe with -railways.</p> - -<p class='c008'>France might, moreover, from the purely political point of -view, have played a conciliatory part, and have thus managed -to prevent the dominant influences at Peking from becoming -too exclusive, which might ultimately result in a terrible conflict, -and she should have worked to maintain the independence -of China. Now that the Chinese are permitting Europeans -to take their riches in hand by constructing their railways -and exploiting their mines, it seems to us that France ought to -allow her to retain a sort of communal existence, in which -the civilized nations might carry on their economic activity -precisely as they do in Turkey, with the difference that the -Empire of the Son of Heaven is much vaster, richer, and -populated by a far more industrious people than that of Sultan -Abd-ul-Hamid.</p> - -<p class='c008'>This is, of course, a solution of an apparently temporary -character, but which might have a chance here, as elsewhere, -of lasting longer than a score of other solutions which are -deemed definitive, always provided that the Powers do not -exert too much pressure on the feeble Government at Peking, -and especially if Russia, once the Trans-Siberian Railway is -finished, does not insist upon her demands in so violent a manner -as to provoke simultaneous action on the part of the Powers, and -thereby bring about a partition. The destinies of the Celestial -Empire are, however, in a great measure in the hands of the -Tsar, who has, fortunately, already given many proofs of -sagacity.</p> - -<p class='c008'>The maintenance of the Chinese Government seems for the -moment preferable, even in the interests of the opening up of -the country and in the introduction of our civilization in its -immense territory, to the partition of China between the various -European nations. We do not say this because we believe that -the Chinese Government is converted to progress, for we hold -that, with very few exceptions, those who direct the fortunes of -the Chinese Empire are quite as fossilized in their prejudices, -as firmly believe in their decrepit wisdom, as eager to prove -their hatred of Western civilization, and, moreover, as corrupt, -as ever they were. At the same time, they are convinced -<span class='pageno' id='Page_289'>289</span>of the impossibility of China resisting the encroachments of -European civilization, and as resigned as ever to yield to external -pressure. Undoubtedly the era of subterfuges on the one -side and of menaces on the other is by no means closed, -and in spite of reforms which have been, and are still to be, -obtained in the future by Europeans, a considerable part of the -pecuniary advantages to be obtained from the transformation -of China will remain in the hands and up the sleeves of the -mandarins. But if progress is somewhat retarded by this -resistance, which, after all, will only be temporary, it will be -better so than that it should be introduced too suddenly and -cause unnecessary trouble. Meanwhile, the Government of -Peking plays an extremely useful part. Some people have not -hesitated to say that if it ceased to exist progress would be -much more rapid, forgetting that anarchy would ensue, the -end of which would be as difficult to foresee as it would be -to find a means of terminating it, or of discovering a manner in -which any European Government could govern 200,000,000 -Chinamen. The losses which the re-establishment of a stable -regime would entail, and the vast expense of subduing rebellion, -would certainly exceed those resulting from the procrastination -under the actual form of Government.</p> - -<p class='c008'>At the end of a certain period it is highly probable that -the march of events may be accelerated, and when the mass -of the Chinese people have been placed in contact with the -results of Western progress, it is very probable that its -great common-sense will do the rest. It is an appeal to their -essentially commercial and money-making instincts that we -must make if we wish to convert the Chinese, the most realistic -and the least idealistic of nations. Railways will be the best -missionaries of civilization in China.</p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_290'>290</span> - <h2 class='c005'>INDEX</h2> -</div> - -<ul class='index c002'> - <li class='c031'><div class='center'>A</div></li> - <li class='c031'>Advances, small, made to immigrants into Siberia, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Agricultural zone, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>; - <ul> - <li>extent, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>;</li> - <li>population, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Agriculture, Siberian peasants’ ignorance of, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>; - <ul> - <li>products of Japan, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a>, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>;</li> - <li>novel methods of manuring, <a href='#Page_130'>130</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Ahmar Dabam Mountains, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Ainos, the, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Albazine, heroic defence of, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Alexander III. decrees the creation of the Trans-Siberian Railway, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Alexandrofsk, prison of, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Altai Mountains, the, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>; - <ul> - <li>valleys of the, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Amur province annexed by Russia, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>; - <ul> - <li>population, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>;</li> - <li>free from all special Custom duties, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>, <em>note</em>;</li> - <li>number of immigrants annually, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>;</li> - <li>Russian immigrants have to face a large Asiatic contingent, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>;</li> - <li>Buddhists in the province, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>;</li> - <li>only likely to attract Russians, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Amur River, Khabarof, establishes himself on the, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>; - <ul> - <li>immigrants settle in the region, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>;</li> - <li>damp climate, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>;</li> - <li>Government assists colonization in the Amur basin, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Armstrong, Whitworth, and Co. construct the ferry-boats for Lake Baikal, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Army, Japanese, strengthened, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a>; - <ul> - <li>excellence of the troops, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a>, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Art, Japanese, withstands Chinese influences, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a>; - <ul> - <li>under the Tokugawas, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a>;</li> - <li>art industries, <a href='#Page_119'>119</a>;</li> - <li>hasty production and deterioration, <a href='#Page_137'>137</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Artillery employed at the naval battle of Shigutake, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Aryans, the, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Asiatic Ocean, tribes in the region of the, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Astrakhan annexed by Russia, <a href='#Page_1'>1</a></li> - <li class='c002'><div class='center'>B</div></li> - <li class='c031'>Baikal, Lake, beauty of, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>; - <ul> - <li>used in the transport of tea, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>;</li> - <li>ferry-boats to convey trains across, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>;</li> - <li>its size, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Barabinsk Steppe, the, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Barley in Siberia, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Barnaoul, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>; - <ul> - <li>attractive to immigrants, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Beer, excellent, at Irkutsk; - <ul> - <li>Japanese beer, <a href='#Page_120'>120</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Behring Straits, native races in the district of the, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Berizof on the Obi, climate, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Berlin, distance to Vladivostok and Port Arthur, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Biisk attractive to immigrants, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Birch, predominance of the, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Black Current, the, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Blagovyeshchensk, its prosperity, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>; - <ul> - <li>fruit and vegetables brought to, by Chinese, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Blue River, mouth of the, <a href='#Page_188'>188</a>; - <ul> - <li>its banks, <a href='#Page_235'>235</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Brandt’s, Herr von, estimate of Chinese revenue, <a href='#Page_219'>219</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Bridges, Siberian, carried away by inundations, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>; - <ul> - <li>bridges of the Trans-Siberian Railway, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Britain, Great, trade with Siberia, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a>; - <ul> - <li>important commerce with Japan, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a>;</li> - <li>Japan’s friendship for her, <a href='#Page_168'>168</a>;</li> - <li>new commercial treaty with Japan, <a href='#Page_179'>179</a>, <a href='#Page_180'>180</a>;</li> - <li>concessions made to, by China, <a href='#Page_240'>240</a>;</li> - <li>she turns her back on China for Japan, <a href='#Page_244'>244</a>;</li> - <li>the treaty with France concerning Yunnan, <a href='#Page_262'>262</a>;</li> - <li>she regains her position in China, <a href='#Page_263'>263</a>;</li> - <li>public wrath at the German seizure of Kiao-chau, <a href='#Page_269'>269</a>;</li> - <li>the ‘open door’ policy, <a href='#Page_270'>270</a>, <a href='#Page_271'>271</a>, <a href='#Page_274'>274</a>;</li> - <li>offer of a loan to China, <a href='#Page_270'>270</a>;</li> - <li>important convention with China regarding the Yang-tsze-Kiang basin, etc., <a href='#Page_271'>271</a>;</li> - <li>danger of war with Russia, <a href='#Page_272'>272</a>;</li> - <li>Wei-hai-wei and Kowloon ceded to Great Britain, <a href='#Page_273'>273</a>;</li> - <li>the English public still dissatisfied, <a href='#Page_274'>274</a>;</li> - <li>the Niu-chwang Railway affair, <a href='#Page_275'>275</a>;</li> - <li>Great Britain’s commerce with China, <a href='#Page_272'>272</a>, <a href='#Page_273'>273</a>;</li> - <li>better relations with Germany, <a href='#Page_286'>286</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>British bombard Kagoshima, <a href='#Page_106'>106</a></li> - <li class='c031'>British Columbia, temperate climate, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Brushes, Japanese, <a href='#Page_120'>120</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Bubonic plague, microbe of the, discovered by a Japanese, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Buddhism practised by the Buriats, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>; - <ul> - <li>in Trans-Baikalia and the Amur, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>;</li> - <li>introduced into Japan, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>;</li> - <li>purer in Japan than in China, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a>;</li> - <li><span class='pageno' id='Page_291'>291</span>degenerated in China, <a href='#Page_202'>202</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Buriats, the, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>; - <ul> - <li>in Trans-Baikalia, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>;</li> - <li>in the Amur district, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Butter scarce in Siberia, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>; - <ul> - <li>exported to Russia, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c002'><div class='center'>C</div></li> - <li class='c031'>Camels employed in the tea trade, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Canada compared with Siberia, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>; - <ul> - <li>rivers and agricultural area, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>;</li> - <li>position superior to that of Siberia, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>;</li> - <li>difference between Canada and Siberia, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Canton, the foreign mart of China, <a href='#Page_229'>229</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Catholics not tolerated in Russia, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a>; - <ul> - <li>their churches in all large Siberian towns, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Cattle, very numerous in Siberia, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>; - <ul> - <li>exported thence to Europe, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>;</li> - <li>scarcity in Japan, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Cedar-trees, Siberian, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>; - <ul> - <li>their seeds eaten by the Siberians, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Cereals in Siberia, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>; - <ul> - <li>a lengthy summer necessary for their cultivation, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>;</li> - <li>in the valleys of the Upper Yenissei and Obi, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>;</li> - <li>the harvest, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>;</li> - <li>unfavourable climate in Siberia, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>;</li> - <li>exported, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Chancellor first enters Russia viâ the White Sea, <a href='#Page_61'>61</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Chartered Company, a, established under the Strogonofs, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Cheliabinsk in the Great Plain, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>; - <ul> - <li>scenery, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>;</li> - <li>refuges for immigrants at, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>China allows Russia to build the Manchurian Railway, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>; - <ul> - <li>her interest in it, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a>;</li> - <li>commercial class have always been honoured in China, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a>;</li> - <li>Japan her best friend, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a>;</li> - <li>China compared with Turkey, <a href='#Page_183'>183</a>;</li> - <li>density of the population, <a href='#Page_184'>184</a>;</li> - <li>enormous coal and copper beds untouched, <a href='#Page_184'>184</a>;</li> - <li>China more backward than India or Japan, <a href='#Page_185'>185</a>;</li> - <li>the significance of the Japanese War, <a href='#Page_185'>185</a>;</li> - <li>end of China’s isolation, <a href='#Page_186'>186</a>;</li> - <li>possible results of her dissolution, <a href='#Page_187'>187</a>, <a href='#Page_281'>281</a>;</li> - <li>first impressions, <a href='#Page_188'>188</a>;</li> - <li>cultivation of the soil, <a href='#Page_190'>190</a>;</li> - <li>Peking, <a href='#Page_190'>190</a>;</li> - <li>Hien-feng’s hunting excursion, <a href='#Page_195'>195</a>;</li> - <li>ruin of the once fine highroads, <a href='#Page_199'>199</a>, <a href='#Page_201'>201</a>;</li> - <li>hills never cultivated, <a href='#Page_202'>202</a>;</li> - <li>squandering of money, <a href='#Page_203'>203</a>;</li> - <li>general decay, <a href='#Page_203'>203</a>;</li> - <li>the mandarinate the curse of China, <a href='#Page_204'>204</a>;</li> - <li>the literati, <a href='#Page_204'>204</a>–206;</li> - <li>corruption, <a href='#Page_206'>206</a>, <a href='#Page_217'>217</a>;</li> - <li>how the governing class is selected, <a href='#Page_208'>208</a>;</li> - <li>the causes of her isolation, <a href='#Page_209'>209</a>, <a href='#Page_210'>210</a>;</li> - <li>the non-existence of any martial spirit among the people, <a href='#Page_210'>210</a>;</li> - <li>irregularities in the Government, <a href='#Page_211'>211</a>;</li> - <li>long existence of the State, <a href='#Page_212'>212</a>;</li> - <li>patriotism unknown, <a href='#Page_213'>213</a>;</li> - <li>population, <a href='#Page_214'>214</a>, <em>note</em>;</li> - <li>taxes light, <a href='#Page_218'>218</a>, <a href='#Page_219'>219</a>;</li> - <li>total revenue, <a href='#Page_219'>219</a>;</li> - <li>natural disasters, <a href='#Page_220'>220</a>;</li> - <li>population does not increase, <a href='#Page_220'>220</a>;</li> - <li>rapacity of officials, <a href='#Page_220'>220</a>, <a href='#Page_221'>221</a>;</li> - <li>the result of the opening up of the country, <a href='#Page_227'>227</a>;</li> - <li>the Treaty of Shimonosaki, <a href='#Page_228'>228</a>, <a href='#Page_236'>236</a>;</li> - <li>opposition to foreigners, <a href='#Page_229'>229</a>;</li> - <li>nothing to be expected from the Government, <a href='#Page_236'>236</a>;</li> - <li>industries, <a href='#Page_237'>237</a>, <a href='#Page_238'>238</a>;</li> - <li>increase of wages, <a href='#Page_238'>238</a>, <a href='#Page_239'>239</a>;</li> - <li>industries still limited to the Treaty Ports, <a href='#Page_240'>240</a>;</li> - <li>China’s commerce, <a href='#Page_241'>241</a>, <a href='#Page_282'>282</a>–286;</li> - <li>her collapse after the War, <a href='#Page_242'>242</a>, <a href='#Page_243'>243</a>;</li> - <li>England turns her back on China, <a href='#Page_244'>244</a>;</li> - <li>North China coveted by Russia, <a href='#Page_246'>246</a>;</li> - <li>the intervention of Russia, France, and Germany, <a href='#Page_247'>247</a>;</li> - <li>Russia better liked than any other Western Power, <a href='#Page_248'>248</a>;</li> - <li>China becomes alarmed at Russia, <a href='#Page_251'>251</a>;</li> - <li>Russian interference in the War settlement, <a href='#Page_252'>252</a>;</li> - <li>a foreign debt contracted, <a href='#Page_253'>253</a>;</li> - <li>it leads to further foreign interference, <a href='#Page_254'>254</a>;</li> - <li>Russia becomes guarantor for China, <a href='#Page_255'>255</a>;</li> - <li>Russian influence predominant, <a href='#Page_258'>258</a>;</li> - <li>concessions to Germany, <a href='#Page_259'>259</a>;</li> - <li>to France, <a href='#Page_259'>259</a>–261;</li> - <li>England regains her position in China, <a href='#Page_263'>263</a>, <a href='#Page_264'>264</a>;</li> - <li>railway concessions, <a href='#Page_267'>267</a>, <a href='#Page_268'>268</a>;</li> - <li>Germany seizes Kiao-chau, <a href='#Page_268'>268</a>;</li> - <li>wrath in England at this act, <a href='#Page_269'>269</a>;</li> - <li>important concessions to England, <a href='#Page_271'>271</a>;</li> - <li>England declares the ‘open door’ policy, <a href='#Page_271'>271</a>, <a href='#Page_274'>274</a>;</li> - <li>China leases the Liao-tung Peninsula to Russia, <a href='#Page_271'>271</a>, <a href='#Page_272'>272</a>;</li> - <li>concessions to France, <a href='#Page_272'>272</a>;</li> - <li>Wei-hai-wei and Kowloon ceded to England, <a href='#Page_273'>273</a>;</li> - <li>the Niu-chwang Railway affair, <a href='#Page_275'>275</a>;</li> - <li>progress made in China, <a href='#Page_275'>275</a>;</li> - <li>germs of disaffection, <a href='#Page_276'>276</a>, <a href='#Page_277'>277</a>;</li> - <li>the Palace Revolution of September, 1898, <a href='#Page_277'>277</a>, <a href='#Page_278'>278</a>;</li> - <li>the government of the Empress Dowager, <a href='#Page_278'>278</a>, <a href='#Page_279'>279</a>;</li> - <li>difference between China to-day and Japan in 1868, <a href='#Page_279'>279</a>, <a href='#Page_280'>280</a>;</li> - <li>friendly feeling for Japan, <a href='#Page_285'>285</a>;</li> - <li>the partisans of the ‘open door,’ 285;</li> - <li>the present government preferable to a partition, <a href='#Page_288'>288</a>;</li> - <li>railways the best missionaries, <a href='#Page_289'>289</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Chinese at Vladivostok, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a>; - <ul> - <li>supply Blagovyeshchensk with fruit and vegetables, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>;</li> - <li>also Khabarofsk, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>;</li> - <li>Chinese emigration to Eastern Siberia, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>;</li> - <li>their distinctness as a race, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>;</li> - <li>Chinese civilization introduced into Japan, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>;</li> - <li>integrity of Chinese merchants, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a>;</li> - <li>patience of Chinese, <a href='#Page_184'>184</a>;</li> - <li>their insolence to foreigners, <a href='#Page_195'>195</a>;</li> - <li>their energy, <a href='#Page_196'>196</a>;</li> - <li>their habit of saving appearances, <a href='#Page_196'>196</a>, <a href='#Page_197'>197</a>, <a href='#Page_203'>203</a>, <a href='#Page_216'>216</a>;</li> - <li>the peasantry, <a href='#Page_199'>199</a>;</li> - <li>the Chinese alphabet, <a href='#Page_206'>206</a>, <a href='#Page_207'>207</a>;</li> - <li>the <em>feng-shui</em> geomancy, <a href='#Page_209'>209</a>, <a href='#Page_225'>225</a>;</li> - <li>patriotism non-existent, <a href='#Page_213'>213</a>;</li> - <li>physical and linguistic differences among the Chinese, <a href='#Page_214'>214</a>, <a href='#Page_215'>215</a>;</li> - <li>their civilization, <a href='#Page_216'>216</a>;</li> - <li>love of cunning, <a href='#Page_217'>217</a>;</li> - <li>Chinese etiquette, <a href='#Page_217'>217</a>;</li> - <li>life very easy for the people, <a href='#Page_218'>218</a>;</li> - <li>the people and the Government, <a href='#Page_218'>218</a>, <a href='#Page_219'>219</a>;</li> - <li>their contented disposition, <a href='#Page_220'>220</a>;</li> - <li>resignation, <a href='#Page_221'>221</a>;</li> - <li>their indifference to death and cruelty, <a href='#Page_221'>221</a>;</li> - <li>suicides out of spite, <a href='#Page_222'>222</a>;</li> - <li>why they are bad soldiers, <a href='#Page_222'>222</a>, <a href='#Page_223'>223</a>;</li> - <li>they might be better, <a href='#Page_223'>223</a>, <em>note</em>;</li> - <li>filial piety and infanticide, <a href='#Page_223'>223</a>;</li> - <li>ancestor worship the cause of non-progressiveness, <a href='#Page_223'>223</a>, <a href='#Page_224'>224</a>;</li> - <li>unhappy lot of married women, <a href='#Page_224'>224</a>;</li> - <li>their immorality, <a href='#Page_224'>224</a>;</li> - <li><span class='pageno' id='Page_292'>292</span>gambling, the national vice, <a href='#Page_224'>224</a>;</li> - <li>opium-smoking, <a href='#Page_225'>225</a>;</li> - <li>filthy habits and superstition, <a href='#Page_225'>225</a>;</li> - <li>good qualities of the Chinese, <a href='#Page_226'>226</a>;</li> - <li>their habit of looking to the past for a type of perfection, <a href='#Page_226'>226</a>;</li> - <li>their lack of discernment, <a href='#Page_226'>226</a>;</li> - <li>scandalized by Christianity, <a href='#Page_230'>230</a>;</li> - <li>Chinese and Western civilization, <a href='#Page_230'>230</a>, <a href='#Page_231'>231</a>;</li> - <li>appreciation of our administration, <a href='#Page_231'>231</a>, <a href='#Page_232'>232</a>;</li> - <li>their superstitions about missionaries, <a href='#Page_232'>232</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Chino-Japanese War, significance of the, <a href='#Page_185'>185</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Christianity introduced into Japan, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>; - <ul> - <li>its great progress, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>;</li> - <li>extirpated, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>;</li> - <li>not accepted by modern Japan, <a href='#Page_174'>174</a>;</li> - <li>Christianity in China, <a href='#Page_230'>230</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Chuckchis, the, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Churches very numerous in Siberian towns, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Clans, the south-eastern, a danger to the Shogunate, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a>; - <ul> - <li>they join the Mikado against the Shogun, <a href='#Page_104'>104</a>;</li> - <li>survival of the clannish spirit in modern Japan, <a href='#Page_156'>156</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Coal, abundant in Siberia, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>; - <ul> - <li>coal in Japan, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a>;</li> - <li>enormous beds in China, <a href='#Page_184'>184</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Commerce, Japanese, enormous increase of, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a>–140; - <ul> - <li>its high standard not maintained, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a>;</li> - <li>the Treaty of Shimonosaki and Chinese commerce, <a href='#Page_236'>236</a>;</li> - <li>transport of goods in China, <a href='#Page_240'>240</a>;</li> - <li>the <em>likin</em> system, <a href='#Page_240'>240</a>, <a href='#Page_241'>241</a>;</li> - <li>total amount of Chinese commerce, <a href='#Page_241'>241</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Confucius’ works studied by the literati, <a href='#Page_206'>206</a>; - <ul> - <li>his views on filial piety, <a href='#Page_223'>223</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Copper-mines, Siberian, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>; - <ul> - <li>copper exported from Japan, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Cossacks encounter little opposition, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a>; - <ul> - <li>they traverse Siberia from end to end, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>;</li> - <li>they disappear as hardy pioneers, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>;</li> - <li>the Cossacks of the Vitim region, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Cotton industry introduced into Japan, <a href='#Page_119'>119</a>; - <ul> - <li>its wonderful progress, <a href='#Page_122'>122</a>;</li> - <li>cotton factories in Shanghai, <a href='#Page_237'>237</a>;</li> - <li>total amount of cotton imported into China, <a href='#Page_241'>241</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Custom-house duties in Siberia, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>; - <ul> - <li>in China, <a href='#Page_240'>240</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c002'><div class='center'>D</div></li> - <li class='c031'>Daimios forbidden to enter Kioto, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>; - <ul> - <li>the five grades, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>, <a href='#Page_98'>98</a>;</li> - <li>their initiation enfeebled, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a>;</li> - <li>horror of the barbarians, <a href='#Page_104'>104</a>;</li> - <li>they recognise the uselessness of opposing the foreigners, <a href='#Page_106'>106</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Dan-no-ura, the naval battle of, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Dogs, Siberian, like wolves, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Dutch the only Europeans allowed to traffic with Japan, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a></li> - <li class='c002'><div class='center'>E</div></li> - <li class='c031'>Education, its backward state in Siberia, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>; - <ul> - <li>making considerable progress, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>;</li> - <li>education in Japan, <a href='#Page_134'>134</a>, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a>, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a>;</li> - <li>in China, <a href='#Page_206'>206</a>–208</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Electric light in Siberian towns, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>; - <ul> - <li>in Tokio, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Emigration from Russia, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>; - <ul> - <li>its management, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a></li> - <li>(<em>see</em> also Immigration)</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Empress Dowager and the Palace Revolution, <a href='#Page_278'>278</a>; - <ul> - <li>a clever woman, <a href='#Page_278'>278</a>, <a href='#Page_279'>279</a>;</li> - <li>her party known as the Russian, <a href='#Page_280'>280</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>England (<em>see</em> Britain, Great)</li> - <li class='c031'>English attempts to enter Siberia viâ the Arctic Ocean, <a href='#Page_61'>61</a>–62; - <ul> - <li>an English company creates an annual service to Siberia by this route, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Ermak Timoféef seizes Sibir, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Eunuchs, the, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Examinations, public, in China, <a href='#Page_205'>205</a>; - <ul> - <li>the subjects chosen, <a href='#Page_206'>206</a>, <a href='#Page_208'>208</a>;</li> - <li>the ‘new Western culture,’ 207, <a href='#Page_208'>208</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Exiles, two classes of, sent to Siberia, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>; - <ul> - <li>allowed to settle in towns, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>;</li> - <li>occupations, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>;</li> - <li>families allowed to accompany them, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a>;</li> - <li>their number in 1894, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a>;</li> - <li>the artillery captain at Kluchi, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c002'><div class='center'>F</div></li> - <li class='c031'><em>Feng-shui</em> geomancy, Chinese, <a href='#Page_209'>209</a>, <a href='#Page_225'>225</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Ferry-boats to convey trains across Lake Baikal, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Fetish-tree, a, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Finance, Japanese, brilliant condition before the war, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a>, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a>; - <ul> - <li>the programme of expansion, <a href='#Page_145'>145</a>;</li> - <li>subvention to Formosa, <a href='#Page_146'>146</a>;</li> - <li>large loan required, <a href='#Page_146'>146</a>;</li> - <li>scarcity of cash, <a href='#Page_147'>147</a>;</li> - <li>a foreign loan, <a href='#Page_148'>148</a>;</li> - <li>the revenue of 1897–1898, <a href='#Page_149'>149</a>;</li> - <li>increase of taxation, <a href='#Page_149'>149</a>;</li> - <li>new sources of revenue, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a>;</li> - <li>taxes not really heavy, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a>–152;</li> - <li>other possible sources, <a href='#Page_151'>151</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Fir-trees, Siberian, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Fishing industry, importance of Japanese, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Flowers, Siberian, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>; - <ul> - <li>Japanese love of flowers, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Foreigners, Japanese suspicion of, <a href='#Page_178'>178</a> 179; - <ul> - <li>the commercial treaties, <a href='#Page_178'>178</a>–180;</li> - <li>the land tenure difficulty, <a href='#Page_180'>180</a>, <a href='#Page_181'>181</a>;</li> - <li>foreigners in China, <a href='#Page_228'>228</a>;</li> - <li>demand a free hand to trade, <a href='#Page_229'>229</a>;</li> - <li>opinion of Chinese about them, <a href='#Page_230'>230</a>–233;</li> - <li>before the war, <a href='#Page_235'>235</a>, <a href='#Page_236'>236</a>;</li> - <li>Treaty of Shimonosaki, <a href='#Page_236'>236</a>;</li> - <li>the literati and foreigners, <a href='#Page_277'>277</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Forest Zone, the Great, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>; - <ul> - <li>its trees, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>;</li> - <li>marshlands and severe climate, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>;</li> - <li>may become of great value, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>;</li> - <li>population, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Formosa, Japanese subvention to, <a href='#Page_146'>146</a></li> - <li class='c031'>France, why attracted to Tongking, <a href='#Page_185'>185</a>; - <ul> - <li>she co-operates with Russia and against Japan, <a href='#Page_247'>247</a>;</li> - <li>her sacrifice in turning from Japan, <a href='#Page_249'>249</a>;</li> - <li>Russia endeavours to draw her into warlike demonstrations against Japan, <a href='#Page_250'>250</a>;</li> - <li>‘advantages’ gained by her intervention, <a href='#Page_259'>259</a>, <a href='#Page_260'>260</a>, <a href='#Page_262'>262</a>;</li> - <li>her treaty with England concerning Tongking, <a href='#Page_262'>262</a>;</li> - <li>France the protectress of Catholicism in China, <a href='#Page_263'>263</a>;</li> - <li>she suffers a check in China, <a href='#Page_264'>264</a>;</li> - <li>more concessions obtained, <a href='#Page_272'>272</a>, <a href='#Page_273'>273</a>;</li> - <li><span class='pageno' id='Page_293'>293</span>the part she ought to play, <a href='#Page_288'>288</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>French settlers in Siberia, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a>; - <ul> - <li>the Government generally indulgent towards them, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Fujiwara family, the, retains the Prime Ministership, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Fukuzawa, Mr., editor of the <cite>Jiji Shimpo</cite>, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Furniture, absence of, in Japanese houses, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Furs, exported from Siberia, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a></li> - <li class='c002'><div class='center'>G</div></li> - <li class='c031'>Gambling, the national Chinese vice, <a href='#Page_224'>224</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Germany, commerce with Japan, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a>; - <ul> - <li>she co-operates with Russia and France against Japan, <a href='#Page_247'>247</a>;</li> - <li>reason for so doing, <a href='#Page_249'>249</a>, <a href='#Page_250'>250</a>;</li> - <li>small advantages obtained in return, <a href='#Page_259'>259</a>;</li> - <li>she seizes Kiao-chau, <a href='#Page_268'>268</a>;</li> - <li>constitutes Shan-tung a sphere of interest, <a href='#Page_271'>271</a>;</li> - <li>her commerce with China, <a href='#Page_286'>286</a>;</li> - <li>better relations with England, <a href='#Page_286'>286</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Glass in Japan, <a href='#Page_120'>120</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Gold-mines, Siberian, in the Forest Zone, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>; - <ul> - <li>employ relatively few people, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>;</li> - <li>their exploitation and yield, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>;</li> - <li>Government the only buyer of Siberian gold, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>;</li> - <li>bad system of taxation and other drawbacks, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>;</li> - <li>primitive implements used, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>;</li> - <li>the most important veins generally difficult to get at, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>;</li> - <li>mining centre removed to the banks of the Amur and Lena, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>;</li> - <li>exploitation only granted to Russian subjects, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Great Wall of China, the, <a href='#Page_201'>201</a>–203</li> - <li class='c002'><div class='center'>H</div></li> - <li class='c031'>Hankow, on the Yang-tsze, the great tea mart of China, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>; - <ul> - <li>projection of a railway from Peking to Hankow, <a href='#Page_268'>268</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'><em>Hara-kiri</em>, the ferocious custom of, in Japan, <a href='#Page_98'>98</a>; - <ul> - <li>in China, <a href='#Page_222'>222</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Hart, Sir Robert, <a href='#Page_240'>240</a></li> - <li class='c031'><em>Heimino</em>, or commoners of Japan, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a>; - <ul> - <li><em>heimino</em> in the public offices, <a href='#Page_156'>156</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Henry, Prince, and the ‘mailed fist,’ 269</li> - <li class='c031'>Hideyoshi reduces the daimios to obedience, <a href='#Page_91'>91</a>; - <ul> - <li>orders all missionaries to leave Japan, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Hien-feng’s hunting excursion, <a href='#Page_195'>195</a></li> - <li class='c031'>High-roads of China, dilapidated condition of the, <a href='#Page_199'>199</a>, <a href='#Page_203'>203</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Hitotsubashi, tries to retrieve the Shogunate, <a href='#Page_106'>106</a>; - <ul> - <li>his overthrow, <a href='#Page_107'>107</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Hong-Kong seventeen days from London viâ Siberia, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>; - <ul> - <li>commerce with Japan, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a>;</li> - <li>Chinese in Hong-Kong, <a href='#Page_231'>231</a>, <a href='#Page_232'>232</a>;</li> - <li>lease of the surrounding heights to England, <a href='#Page_273'>273</a>;</li> - <li>her total commerce, <a href='#Page_282'>282</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Horses sometimes difficult to procure on the Siberian postal-road, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>; - <ul> - <li>their great number in Siberia, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>;</li> - <li>horses in Japan, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Hu-nan, coal-beds in, <a href='#Page_184'>184</a></li> - <li class='c002'><div class='center'>I</div></li> - <li class='c031'>Iemitsu enfeebles the initiative of the daimios, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Ieyas, Tokugawa, rises to power, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a>; - <ul> - <li>he reduces the Court to poverty, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>;</li> - <li>creates divergencies among the daimios, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a>;</li> - <li>and revives the Chinese classics, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Immigrants into Siberia almost exclusively peasants, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>; - <ul> - <li>Tobolsk a great meeting-place for them, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>;</li> - <li>the routes taken, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>;</li> - <li>length of the journey, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>;</li> - <li>refuges erected for their accommodation, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>;</li> - <li>those coming from same districts grouped together, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>;</li> - <li>regulations for their settlement 46, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>;</li> - <li>small advances made to them, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>;</li> - <li>where they settle, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>;</li> - <li>many return again to Russia, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Imperial canal, Chinese, ruinous condition of the, <a href='#Page_203'>203</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Indemnity, Chinese War, <a href='#Page_145'>145</a>; - <ul> - <li>paid in gold, <a href='#Page_146'>146</a>, <em>note</em>;</li> - <li>the Liao-tung indemnity, <a href='#Page_251'>251</a>–252</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>India more advanced than China, <a href='#Page_185'>185</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Industries, Japanese, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a>; - <ul> - <li>fancy goods, <a href='#Page_119'>119</a>;</li> - <li>glass, brushes, and foundries, <a href='#Page_120'>120</a>;</li> - <li>jute carpet and match industries, <a href='#Page_121'>121</a>;</li> - <li>enormous progress of cotton, <a href='#Page_122'>122</a>;</li> - <li>Japanese own all their own industries, <a href='#Page_122'>122</a>, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a>;</li> - <li>scarcity of workmen, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a>;</li> - <li>abuses in the employment of women, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a>;</li> - <li>hours of labour, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a>;</li> - <li>holidays, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a>;</li> - <li>increase of wages, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a>;</li> - <li>diminution of capital, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a>;</li> - <li>fisheries, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a>;</li> - <li>Chinese industries, <a href='#Page_237'>237</a>;</li> - <li>women employés, <a href='#Page_238'>238</a>;</li> - <li>their wages, <a href='#Page_238'>238</a>, <a href='#Page_239'>239</a>;</li> - <li>industries limited to the free ports, <a href='#Page_240'>240</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Infanticide in China, <a href='#Page_221'>221</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Inland Sea, the, of Japan, <a href='#Page_112'>112</a>; - <ul> - <li>its light-houses, <a href='#Page_112'>112</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Inundations in Siberia, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a></li> - <li class='c031'><em>Iourdis</em>, or Kirghiz huts, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Irbit, the great fair at, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Irkutsk, difference between the Customs on tea at Odessa and Irkutsk, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a>; - <ul> - <li>total Customs in 1896, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>;</li> - <li>population, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>;</li> - <li>the theatre, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>;</li> - <li>Irkutsk once capital of Siberia, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>;</li> - <li>its excellent beer, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>;</li> - <li>Government of, population in 1897, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>;</li> - <li>number of immigrants annually, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Iron mines, Siberian, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a></li> - <li class='c031'><em>Isbas</em>, the, or Siberian peasants’ cottages, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>; - <ul> - <li>interior ornamentation, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Islamism professed by the Kirghiz, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Ito, Marquis, <a href='#Page_160'>160</a>,162; - <ul> - <li>the Ito programme, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a>, <a href='#Page_145'>145</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Ivan the Terrible, <a href='#Page_1'>1</a>; - <ul> - <li>grants the Strogonofs trading privileges, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c002'><div class='center'>J</div></li> - <li class='c031'>Japan, the Black Current, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>; - <ul> - <li>her transformation, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>;</li> - <li>European scepticism as to military success, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>;</li> - <li>early history, <a href='#Page_83'>83</a>;</li> - <li>its settlement, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>;</li> - <li>introduction of Chinese civilization, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>;</li> - <li><span class='pageno' id='Page_294'>294</span>also of Buddhism, the silkworm, etc., <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>;</li> - <li>resemblance of the adoption of Chinese civilization in the seventh with that of European in the nineteenth century, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a>;</li> - <li>the system of heredity, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a>, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a>;</li> - <li>real authority very rarely vested in the man supposed to exercise it, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a>;</li> - <li>feudalism established, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a>;</li> - <li>dissensions in the Government, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a>;</li> - <li>the Government overthrown by Yoritomo, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>;</li> - <li>increasing power of the daimios, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>;</li> - <li>the Shogunate, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>;</li> - <li>non-interference of the Mikado in the Government, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>;</li> - <li>civil wars, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>;</li> - <li>pitiable condition of Japan at the beginning of the sixteenth century, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>, <a href='#Page_91'>91</a>;</li> - <li>suppression of the independence of the nobles, <a href='#Page_91'>91</a>;</li> - <li>Ieyas rises to power, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a>;</li> - <li>arrival of the Portuguese in Japan, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a>;</li> - <li>St. Francis Xavier introduces Christianity, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>;</li> - <li>great progress made by it, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>;</li> - <li>material progress, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>;</li> - <li>Hideyoshi orders all missionaries to leave Japan, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>;</li> - <li>Christianity extirpated in Japan and exclusion of foreign influence, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>;</li> - <li>Dutch and Chinese only allowed to trade with Japan, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>;</li> - <li>the three ancient classes of the people, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>–99;</li> - <li>the daimios divided by Ieyas among themselves, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a>;</li> - <li>Japan under the Tokugawas, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a>;</li> - <li>again under Chinese influences, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a>;</li> - <li>the causes of the Revolution of 1868 deep-rooted, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>;</li> - <li>decline of the Shogunate, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>;</li> - <li>penetration of Western ideas into Japan, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>;</li> - <li>the United States demands the opening of the ports, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a>;</li> - <li>ports opened, <a href='#Page_104'>104</a>;</li> - <li>overthrow of the Shogunate, <a href='#Page_104'>104</a>–107;</li> - <li>necessity of adopting Western civilization in all branches perceived, <a href='#Page_107'>107</a>;</li> - <li>sweeping reforms, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a>;</li> - <li>removal of the Court to Tokio, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a>;</li> - <li>the Satsuma insurrection, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a>;</li> - <li>modern Japan, <a href='#Page_109'>109</a>;</li> - <li>religious toleration, <a href='#Page_111'>111</a>;</li> - <li>Japan the Great Britain of the Far East, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a>;</li> - <li>her industries, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a>–124;</li> - <li>essentially an agricultural country, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a>;</li> - <li>agricultural products, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a>, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a>, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>, <a href='#Page_130'>130</a>;</li> - <li>scenery, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a>;</li> - <li>density of the rural population, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a>;</li> - <li>small area of cultivable land, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a>, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a>;</li> - <li>scarcity of domestic animals, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a>;</li> - <li>education, <a href='#Page_134'>134</a>;</li> - <li>increase of the population, <a href='#Page_134'>134</a>;</li> - <li>foreign commerce, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a>–140;</li> - <li>trade despised in ancient Japan, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a>;</li> - <li>brilliant condition of her finances before the war, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a>, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a>;</li> - <li>extensive programme of expansion, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a>, <a href='#Page_145'>145</a>;</li> - <li>large loan required to meet same, <a href='#Page_146'>146</a>;</li> - <li>a foreign loan, <a href='#Page_148'>148</a>;</li> - <li>taxation, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a>–152;</li> - <li>instability of Parliaments, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a>;</li> - <li>the clan spirit in modern Japan, <a href='#Page_156'>156</a>;</li> - <li>the Parliamentary system, <a href='#Page_156'>156</a>–163;</li> - <li>importance of Japan’s military forces, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a>;</li> - <li>her coal, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a>;</li> - <li>Japan China’s best friend, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a>;</li> - <li>her friendship for England and distrust of Russia, <a href='#Page_168'>168</a>;</li> - <li>colonizing ambitions, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a>;</li> - <li>her thorough transformation, <a href='#Page_174'>174</a>;</li> - <li>refusal to accept Christianity, <a href='#Page_174'>174</a>;</li> - <li>the civil status, <a href='#Page_175'>175</a>;</li> - <li>railway and post 176;</li> - <li>carelessness and unpunctuality, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a>;</li> - <li>inexperience, <a href='#Page_178'>178</a>;</li> - <li>hostility to foreigners, <a href='#Page_178'>178</a>;</li> - <li>renewal of the commercial treaties, <a href='#Page_178'>178</a>–180;</li> - <li>land tenure, <a href='#Page_180'>180</a>;</li> - <li>her foreign missions, <a href='#Page_182'>182</a>;</li> - <li>Japan more advanced than China, <a href='#Page_185'>185</a>;</li> - <li>the Treaty of Shimonosaki, <a href='#Page_228'>228</a>;</li> - <li>England suddenly favours Japan, <a href='#Page_244'>244</a>;</li> - <li>Japan leaves Liao-tung in consequence of the demand by Russia, France, and Germany, <a href='#Page_247'>247</a>;</li> - <li>her fears of Russia, <a href='#Page_247'>247</a>, <a href='#Page_251'>251</a>;</li> - <li>Russia’s warlike intentions against Japan, <a href='#Page_250'>250</a>;</li> - <li>China desires an alliance, <a href='#Page_251'>251</a>;</li> - <li>compensation for leaving Liao-tung, <a href='#Page_251'>251</a>, <a href='#Page_252'>252</a>;</li> - <li>Japan’s high-handed policy in Korea, <a href='#Page_256'>256</a>, <a href='#Page_257'>257</a>;</li> - <li>agreement with Russia regarding Korea, <a href='#Page_258'>258</a>;</li> - <li>Japan prepares for a conflict with Russia, <a href='#Page_267'>267</a>;</li> - <li>her commerce with China, <a href='#Page_284'>284</a>;</li> - <li>good relations with China, <a href='#Page_285'>285</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Japanese in Vladivostok, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a>; - <ul> - <li>origin of the Japanese, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>;</li> - <li>quite distinct from the Chinese, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>, <a href='#Page_171'>171</a>;</li> - <li>the early Japanese, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>;</li> - <li>the Shinto religion, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>;</li> - <li>their power of assimilation, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>;</li> - <li>costumes, <a href='#Page_111'>111</a>, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a>, <a href='#Page_132'>132</a>;</li> - <li>proud of their victory over the Chinese, <a href='#Page_112'>112</a>;</li> - <li>their houses, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a>, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a>;</li> - <li>the children, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a>, <a href='#Page_116'>116</a>;</li> - <li>European costume, <a href='#Page_116'>116</a>;</li> - <li>their industries in their own hands, <a href='#Page_122'>122</a>, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a>;</li> - <li>their food, <a href='#Page_130'>130</a>;</li> - <li>dwellings of the peasantry, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a>;</li> - <li>disuse of furniture, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a>;</li> - <li>freedom of the women, <a href='#Page_132'>132</a>;</li> - <li>artistic instinct of the Japanese, <a href='#Page_132'>132</a>;</li> - <li>cost of living, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a>;</li> - <li>charges brought against merchants, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a>;</li> - <li>Japanese do not yet understand the value of time, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a>;</li> - <li>the three classes of society not exclusive, <a href='#Page_155'>155</a>;</li> - <li>indifference to politics, <a href='#Page_163'>163</a>;</li> - <li>their hardiness, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a>;</li> - <li>lack of inventiveness, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a>;</li> - <li>attention to detail, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a>;</li> - <li>unpunctuality, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a>;</li> - <li>indifference to death, <a href='#Page_221'>221</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Jews in Siberia, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Jimmu-Tenno, first Emperor of Japan, <a href='#Page_83'>83</a>, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Jinrikisha, the, in Japan, <a href='#Page_116'>116</a>; - <ul> - <li>the fares, <a href='#Page_117'>117</a>;</li> - <li>in China, <a href='#Page_189'>189</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Junks, Japanese, rapidly disappearing, <a href='#Page_112'>112</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Jute carpet-making at Osaka, <a href='#Page_121'>121</a></li> - <li class='c002'><div class='center'>K</div></li> - <li class='c031'><em>Kaborski tchaï</em>, the, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Kagoshima bombarded by the British, <a href='#Page_106'>106</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Kainsk, the Jerusalem of Siberia, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Kaiping, coal-mines at, <a href='#Page_189'>189</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Kalmucks, the, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Kami, or superior beings, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Kamtchatka reached by the Cossacks Alexief and Dezhnief, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Kang-Yu-Wei, the Reformer, <a href='#Page_278'>278</a>; - <ul> - <li>his party known as the Anglo-Japanese, <a href='#Page_280'>280</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Kansk, the refuges for immigrants at, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Kara Sea, navigation only possible during six weeks, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a></li> - <li class='c031'><span class='pageno' id='Page_295'>295</span>Kazan, the Tatar kingdom, annexed by Russia, <a href='#Page_1'>1</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Khabarof, the Ataman, establishes himself on the Amur, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Khabarofsk, the military element at, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a>; - <ul> - <li>its few women, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Kiakhta, tea passing through, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>; - <ul> - <li>the three parts of the town, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Kiao-chau seized by the Germans, <a href='#Page_268'>268</a>; - <ul> - <li>made a free port, <a href='#Page_286'>286</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Kioto, feudal princes never allowed to enter, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>; - <ul> - <li>Court removed from Kioto to Tokio, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a>;</li> - <li>population, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a>;</li> - <li>industries, <a href='#Page_121'>121</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Kirghiz Steppes crossed by the Russians in 1847, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Kirghiz tribe, the, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>; - <ul> - <li>number and religion, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>;</li> - <li>they export their cattle to Europe, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Kiu-Siu settled by Mongolian pirates, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Kobylkas, the, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Korea, Japan has a free hand in, <a href='#Page_246'>246</a>; - <ul> - <li>Russian activity, <a href='#Page_256'>256</a>;</li> - <li>high-handed conduct of the Japanese, <a href='#Page_256'>256</a>;</li> - <li>murder of the Queen, <a href='#Page_257'>257</a>;</li> - <li>Russia’s offer of service, <a href='#Page_257'>257</a>;</li> - <li>the agreement between Russia and Japan, <a href='#Page_258'>258</a>;</li> - <li>Russia renounces active intervention in Korea, <a href='#Page_272'>272</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Koreans settled in and about Vladivostok, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a>–53; - <ul> - <li>Koreans introduce the art of writing into Japan, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Kowloon, the peninsula of, ceded to England, <a href='#Page_273'>273</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Krasnoyarsk, the theatre at, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>; - <ul> - <li>the English-Siberian Company establishes an agency at, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Kuang-Su, Emperor of China, <a href='#Page_277'>277</a>; - <ul> - <li>his reforming tendencies, <a href='#Page_278'>278</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Kuznetsk attractive to Siberian immigrants, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a></li> - <li class='c002'><div class='center'>L</div></li> - <li class='c031'>Lamuts, the, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Land-owners, rich, greatly needed in Siberia, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Land tenure in Japan, <a href='#Page_180'>180</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Larches, great height of the, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Leather, Russian, imported into Siberia, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Lena, River, discovered in 1637, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Letters, time occupied to reach the Far East shortened by one-half by the Trans-Siberian Railway, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Liao-ho, River, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Liao-tung, peninsula of, the Japanese ordered to quit, <a href='#Page_247'>247</a>; - <ul> - <li>Japan receives compensation for same, <a href='#Page_251'>251</a>, <a href='#Page_252'>252</a>;</li> - <li>Russia obtains the peninsula, <a href='#Page_271'>271</a>, <a href='#Page_272'>272</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Li-Hsi, King of Korea, his vacillating conduct, <a href='#Page_257'>257</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Li Hung-Chang commences the Peking Railway, <a href='#Page_189'>189</a>; - <ul> - <li>his immense fortune, <a href='#Page_217'>217</a>;</li> - <li>Li and the war settlement, <a href='#Page_251'>251</a>;</li> - <li>his tour to Europe a sort of punishment, <a href='#Page_267'>267</a>;</li> - <li>he returns to power, <a href='#Page_278'>278</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'><em>Likin</em>, or Chinese inland Customs, total amount, <a href='#Page_219'>219</a>; - <ul> - <li>a pernicious system, <a href='#Page_240'>240</a>, <a href='#Page_241'>241</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Literati, the, <a href='#Page_204'>204</a>; - <ul> - <li>the three honorary degrees, <a href='#Page_205'>205</a>;</li> - <li>the public examinations, <a href='#Page_205'>205</a>;</li> - <li>syndicate for helping them on, <a href='#Page_206'>206</a>;</li> - <li>the subjects they are examined in, <a href='#Page_206'>206</a>;</li> - <li>no progress to be expected from them, <a href='#Page_211'>211</a>;</li> - <li>their hatred of foreigners, <a href='#Page_232'>232</a>, <a href='#Page_233'>233</a>, <a href='#Page_277'>277</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Littoral province annexed by Russia, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>; - <ul> - <li>population, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>;</li> - <li>immigrants arriving by sea, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>;</li> - <li>preponderance of the male over the female sex, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>;</li> - <li>Russians only slightly in the majority, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>London, distance to Vladivostok and Port Arthur, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a></li> - <li class='c002'><div class='center'>M</div></li> - <li class='c031'>Manchu Dynasty, the, dethrones the Mings, <a href='#Page_199'>199</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Manchuria, Chinese activity in, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>; - <ul> - <li>Russians exploring Manchuria, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>;</li> - <li>Chinese Manchuria, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Manchurian Railway, China allows Russia to build the, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>; - <ul> - <li>cannot be completed in contracted time, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>;</li> - <li>absolutely in Russia’s hands, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a>;</li> - <li>its length, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a>, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a>;</li> - <li>difficulties to be overcome in construction, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a>;</li> - <li>great political importance, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>;</li> - <li>Port Arthur the terminus, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>;</li> - <li>its cost, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Manchus, the, oppose the Russians in Siberia, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>; - <ul> - <li>they prosper in the Amur and Littoral provinces, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>;</li> - <li>number, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Mandarinate, the, never acclimatized in Japan, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a>; - <ul> - <li>the curse of China, <a href='#Page_204'>204</a>;</li> - <li>not hereditary, <a href='#Page_205'>205</a>;</li> - <li>therefore the more pernicious, <a href='#Page_209'>209</a>;</li> - <li>cowardice of the military mandarins, <a href='#Page_223'>223</a>;</li> - <li>hatred of foreigners, <a href='#Page_232'>232</a>, <a href='#Page_233'>233</a>;</li> - <li>looks upon China as a prey, <a href='#Page_248'>248</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Marshlands on the banks of the Obi and the Irtysh, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Match industry, Japanese, <a href='#Page_121'>121</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Merchants, Siberian, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>; - <ul> - <li>charges brought against Japanese merchants, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a>;</li> - <li>merchants in ancient Japan, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a>;</li> - <li>honesty of Chinese merchants, <a href='#Page_240'>240</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Mikado, almost a god, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>; - <ul> - <li>Imperial self-effacement, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a>, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>;</li> - <li>the Court reduced to absolute poverty, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>;</li> - <li>the Imperial family universally respected, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a>;</li> - <li>agreement with the south-western clans against the Shogun, <a href='#Page_104'>104</a>;</li> - <li>the Mikado refuses to acknowledge the Shogun, <a href='#Page_105'>105</a>;</li> - <li>he ratifies the treaties of 1865, <a href='#Page_106'>106</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Milk, excellent, in Siberia, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Millet in China, <a href='#Page_199'>199</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Mings, Tombs of the, <a href='#Page_199'>199</a>, <a href='#Page_200'>200</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Minusinsk, the centre of settlement in Siberia, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a></li> - <li class='c031'><em>Mir</em> system introduced in Siberia, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Missionaries, female, <a href='#Page_230'>230</a>; - <ul> - <li>Chinese superstitions regarding missionaries, <a href='#Page_232'>232</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Moji, rapidly rivalling Nagasaki, <a href='#Page_112'>112</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Mongolia, Russian, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Mongolian pirates settle in Kiu-Siu, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a></li> - <li class='c031'><span class='pageno' id='Page_296'>296</span>Mongols, the Kalmuck, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Mosque, the northernmost in the world at Tomsk, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Mosquitoes, troublesome, in Siberia, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Mouravief-Amurski, Count, favours the Trans-Siberian Railway, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Mujiks, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a> - <ul> - <li>(<em>see</em> also Siberians)</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c002'><div class='center'>N</div></li> - <li class='c031'>Nagasaki, Christians in, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>; - <ul> - <li>Nagasaki the only port left open to European commerce, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>;</li> - <li>penetration of Western ideas into Japan through Nagasaki, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>;</li> - <li>its scenery, <a href='#Page_110'>110</a>;</li> - <li>the chief coaling port on the Pacific, <a href='#Page_111'>111</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Nan-kow, <a href='#Page_201'>201</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Natives of the Tundra Zone, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>; - <ul> - <li>declining tribes, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Navy, Japanese, strengthened, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a>; - <ul> - <li>its importance, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Nertchinsk, treaty of, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>; - <ul> - <li>corn ripens there, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>;</li> - <li>the silver mines now of little value, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>;</li> - <li>now merely a huge village, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Newspapers, Japanese, <a href='#Page_163'>163</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Nicholas II. stops transportation into Siberia, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Nikko, magnificent temples at, <a href='#Page_202'>202</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Niu-chwang, railway being laid to; - <ul> - <li>the Niu-chwang Railway affair, <a href='#Page_275'>275</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Nobunaga Ota seizes the government, <a href='#Page_91'>91</a></li> - <li class='c002'><div class='center'>O</div></li> - <li class='c031'>Oats, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Obi, climate in its upper valley, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>; - <ul> - <li>gold-mines exhausted in its basin, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>;</li> - <li>the Upper Obi attracts most Siberian immigrants, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>;</li> - <li>stores landed at the mouth of the Obi, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a>;</li> - <li>canal between the Obi and the Yenissei, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Odessa, enormous Customs on tea at, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Okhotsk, the, discovered, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>; - <ul> - <li>native tribes in the region of the, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Olekma, a tributary of the Lena, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Omsk, situation of, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>; - <ul> - <li>the Trans-Siberian Railway, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Opium-smoking in China, <a href='#Page_225'>225</a>, <a href='#Page_241'>241</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Opium War, the, <a href='#Page_228'>228</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Orthodox Church, Kirghiz converted to the, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>; - <ul> - <li>it abstains from propaganda in China, <a href='#Page_248'>248</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Osaka, the Manchester of Japan, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a>; - <ul> - <li>its industries, <a href='#Page_119'>119</a>–121;</li> - <li>construction of a new harbour, <a href='#Page_120'>120</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Ostiaka, the, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>; - <ul> - <li>their origin, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'><em>Ostrogs</em>, or Siberian block-houses, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a></li> - <li class='c002'><div class='center'>P</div></li> - <li class='c031'>Paris, distance to Vladivostok and Port Arthur, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>; - <ul> - <li>also to Tokio, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Parliaments, Japanese, instability of, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a>; - <ul> - <li>composition of the two Chambers, <a href='#Page_157'>157</a>, <a href='#Page_158'>158</a>, <em>note</em>;</li> - <li>opposition to the clan Cabinets, <a href='#Page_157'>157</a>–159;</li> - <li>a dissolution, <a href='#Page_159'>159</a>;</li> - <li>the various parties, <a href='#Page_160'>160</a>, <a href='#Page_161'>161</a>;</li> - <li>signs of improvement, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a>, <a href='#Page_163'>163</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Pe-chi-li, Gulf of, Russia dominates the, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>; - <ul> - <li>its flatness, <a href='#Page_188'>188</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Peking, the railway at, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>; - <ul> - <li>the city and walls, <a href='#Page_191'>191</a>, <a href='#Page_192'>192</a>;</li> - <li>street scenes, <a href='#Page_192'>192</a>, <a href='#Page_193'>193</a>;</li> - <li>shops, <a href='#Page_193'>193</a>;</li> - <li>the main thoroughfares and side streets, <a href='#Page_194'>194</a>;</li> - <li>houses, <a href='#Page_194'>194</a>;</li> - <li>scene from the walls, <a href='#Page_195'>195</a>;</li> - <li>insolence of the people to foreigners, <a href='#Page_195'>195</a>;</li> - <li>monuments, <a href='#Page_195'>195</a>, <a href='#Page_196'>196</a>;</li> - <li>its decay, <a href='#Page_196'>196</a>;</li> - <li>the environs, <a href='#Page_199'>199</a>;</li> - <li>entry of the Allies into Peking, <a href='#Page_228'>228</a>;</li> - <li>projection of a railway to Hankow, <a href='#Page_268'>268</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'><em>Père Marquette</em>, size of the, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Peter the Great’s wish to extend Russia westwards, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Petersburg, St., distance to Vladivostok and Port Arthur, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Petroleum, use of, by the Japanese, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Pigs non-existent in Japan, <a href='#Page_120'>120</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Pine-trees, Siberian, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Pinto, Fernan Mendez, the Portuguese navigator, arrives in Japan, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a></li> - <li class='c031'>‘Pity of the Slav,’ the, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Podorojne, the official passport for Siberia, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Population, Siberian, in 1851, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>; - <ul> - <li>in 1897, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>;</li> - <li>superiority of the Russians in Western Siberia, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>;</li> - <li>in the Amur and Littoral, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>;</li> - <li>Asiatics in the Amur, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>;</li> - <li>annual increase of the population, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a>;</li> - <li>rural population of Japan, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a>, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a>;</li> - <li>its annual increase, <a href='#Page_134'>134</a>;</li> - <li>population of China, <a href='#Page_213'>213</a>, <a href='#Page_214'>214</a>, <em>note</em></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Port Arthur better placed than Vladivostok, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>; - <ul> - <li>to be the principal terminus of the Trans-Siberian Railway, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>;</li> - <li>its distance from the European capitals, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>;</li> - <li>Russia obtains the lease of Port Arthur, <a href='#Page_271'>271</a>;</li> - <li>it is weakened by Wei-hai-wei, <a href='#Page_273'>273</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Ports, Chinese, <a href='#Page_188'>188</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Portuguese, first appearance in Japan, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a>; - <ul> - <li>great influx of the, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Postal-road of Siberia, the, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>; - <ul> - <li>its animation, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>;</li> - <li>horses sometimes difficult to obtain, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>;</li> - <li>eight large towns situated on it, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>;</li> - <li>cost of travelling, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>;</li> - <li>fairly well kept, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>;</li> - <li>its monotony past Lake Baikal, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Postal service, Japanese, cheapness of the, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Post-stations, Siberian, each provided with forty horses, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>; - <ul> - <li>the postmaster at Kluchi, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>;</li> - <li>their appearance, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a>;</li> - <li>uncleanliness, <a href='#Page_61'>61</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Potatoes in Japan, <a href='#Page_130'>130</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Powers’ change of tone towards China after the war, <a href='#Page_185'>185</a>; - <ul> - <li>their surprise at China’s downfall, <a href='#Page_243'>243</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Protestants not tolerated in Russia, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a>; - <ul> - <li>their churches in all large Siberian towns, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c002'><div class='center'>R</div></li> - <li class='c031'>Railway loan, Japanese, <a href='#Page_145'>145</a>; - <ul> - <li>extension of lines, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a>;</li> - <li>cheapness of fares, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a>;</li> - <li><span class='pageno' id='Page_297'>297</span>railway concessions granted by China, <a href='#Page_267'>267</a>, <a href='#Page_268'>268</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Raskolniks, the, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Reindeer, the, in Northern Siberia, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Religion, Japan refuses to accept our, <a href='#Page_174'>174</a>; - <ul> - <li>the Chinese and our religion, <a href='#Page_230'>230</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Restaurants on the Trans-Siberian Railway, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Rice, cultivation of, in Japan, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a>; - <ul> - <li>annual production, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>;</li> - <li>its preponderance, <a href='#Page_130'>130</a>;</li> - <li>commerce in, <a href='#Page_138'>138</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Rivers of Siberia covered for months by ice, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>; - <ul> - <li>villages on the banks of the most important, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>;</li> - <li>Chinese rivers, <a href='#Page_188'>188</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Russia, expansion eastwards, <a href='#Page_1'>1</a>; - <ul> - <li>abandons the lower Amur, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>;</li> - <li>her colonization, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>;</li> - <li>the Empire as a gold-producing centre, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>;</li> - <li>overland commerce with China, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>;</li> - <li>population, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>;</li> - <li>emigration, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>;</li> - <li>her subjects only allowed to work the Siberian gold-mines, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>;</li> - <li>concessions to the English-Siberian Company, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a>;</li> - <li>allowed by China to build the Manchurian Railway, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>;</li> - <li>which is absolutely in the hands of Russia, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a>;</li> - <li>Japan’s distrust of, <a href='#Page_168'>168</a>;</li> - <li>her new policy in China, <a href='#Page_186'>186</a>;</li> - <li>Russia displeased by the war, <a href='#Page_245'>245</a>;</li> - <li>desires an outlet to the sea, <a href='#Page_245'>245</a>;</li> - <li>she covets North China, <a href='#Page_246'>246</a>;</li> - <li>Russia, France, and Germany order Japan to quit Liao-tung, <a href='#Page_247'>247</a>;</li> - <li>Japan’s fear of Russia, <a href='#Page_247'>247</a>;</li> - <li>better liked than any other European Power by China, <a href='#Page_248'>248</a>;</li> - <li>her warlike intentions against Japan, <a href='#Page_250'>250</a>;</li> - <li>China becomes alarmed of Russia, <a href='#Page_251'>251</a>;</li> - <li>her influence in the war settlement, <a href='#Page_251'>251</a>, <a href='#Page_252'>252</a>;</li> - <li>Russia stands guarantee for China, <a href='#Page_255'>255</a>;</li> - <li>her activity in Korea, <a href='#Page_256'>256</a>;</li> - <li>offer of service to Korea, <a href='#Page_257'>257</a>;</li> - <li>agreement with Japan in Korea, <a href='#Page_258'>258</a>;</li> - <li>Russia’s preponderating influence, <a href='#Page_258'>258</a>, <a href='#Page_259'>259</a>;</li> - <li>she obtains the lease of Port Arthur, <a href='#Page_271'>271</a>, <a href='#Page_272'>272</a>;</li> - <li>danger of war with England, <a href='#Page_272'>272</a>;</li> - <li>the Niu-chwang Railway affair, <a href='#Page_275'>275</a>;</li> - <li>Russia’s interests in China political, <a href='#Page_286'>286</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Russians, their religious toleration, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>; - <ul> - <li>manner of taking tea, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a>, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>;</li> - <li>prejudice against tea conveyed by sea, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>;</li> - <li>Russians naturally sociable, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>;</li> - <li>their nomadic habits, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Russo-Chinese Bank established, <a href='#Page_255'>255</a>, <a href='#Page_256'>256</a></li> - <li class='c002'><div class='center'>S</div></li> - <li class='c031'>Saigon, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Saigon, Marshal, quells the Satsuma insurrection, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a></li> - <li class='c031'><em>Saké</em>, the Japanese drink, <a href='#Page_130'>130</a>, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Sakhalin, Island of, population, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>; - <ul> - <li>inveterate criminals sent to, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Samoyeds, the, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>; - <ul> - <li>their number, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'><em>Samourai</em>, the, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>; - <ul> - <li>become hereditary, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>;</li> - <li>their position in ancient Japan, <a href='#Page_98'>98</a>;</li> - <li>opposed to the Shogunate, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>;</li> - <li>correspondence between certain <em>samourai</em> and Europeans, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>;</li> - <li>wearing of the two swords prohibited, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a>;</li> - <li>public offices in their hands, <a href='#Page_156'>156</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Satsumata-Choshiu combination, the, <a href='#Page_156'>156</a>, <a href='#Page_157'>157</a>; - <ul> - <li>its rule, <a href='#Page_161'>161</a>, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Sayan Mountains, the, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Scenery of Central Siberia, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Selenga River, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Serfdom never existed in Siberia, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Shanghai two days from Port Arthur, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>; - <ul> - <li>the town, <a href='#Page_235'>235</a>;</li> - <li>industrial activity at, <a href='#Page_237'>237</a>;</li> - <li>railway to Woosung, <a href='#Page_268'>268</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Shan-tung, coal-beds in, <a href='#Page_184'>184</a>; - <ul> - <li>Germany constitutes Shan-tung a sphere of interest, <a href='#Page_271'>271</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Sheep unknown in Japan, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Shimonosaki, Strait of, <a href='#Page_112'>112</a>; - <ul> - <li>treaty of, <a href='#Page_228'>228</a>;</li> - <li>Article 6, <a href='#Page_236'>236</a>, <a href='#Page_246'>246</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Shintoism, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>; - <ul> - <li>its rites, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Shogunate, the, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>; - <ul> - <li>the <em>kammong</em> daimios allied to the Shogunate, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a>;</li> - <li>the southern clans dangerous to it, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a>;</li> - <li>its decline, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>;</li> - <li>frightened at America’s demand for the opening of the ports, <a href='#Page_104'>104</a>;</li> - <li>its enemies, <a href='#Page_104'>104</a>;</li> - <li>powerlessness, <a href='#Page_105'>105</a>;</li> - <li>its abasement, <a href='#Page_105'>105</a>;</li> - <li>last bid for power, <a href='#Page_106'>106</a>;</li> - <li>and total overthrow, <a href='#Page_107'>107</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Siberia, its conquest by Russia, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a>; - <ul> - <li>treated as a penal settlement, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>;</li> - <li>opened to colonization, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>;</li> - <li>population, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a>;</li> - <li>Siberia compared with Canada, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a>;</li> - <li>its rivers, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>;</li> - <li>climate, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>;</li> - <li>the three zones, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>–7;</li> - <li>its scenery, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>;</li> - <li>conditions of existence better in Siberia than in Russia, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>;</li> - <li>the Russian population in the West, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>;</li> - <li>religious toleration, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>–16;</li> - <li>Siberia a prolongation of Russia, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a>, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>;</li> - <li>absence of great landlords, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>;</li> - <li>land rented to farmers, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>;</li> - <li>primitive methods of cultivation, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>;</li> - <li>domestic animals, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>;</li> - <li>the more populous regions, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>;</li> - <li>land tenure, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>;</li> - <li>lack of means of communication, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>;</li> - <li>mineral wealth, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>–29;</li> - <li>limited industries, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>;</li> - <li>the tea traffic, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a>;</li> - <li>other commerce, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>;</li> - <li>towns, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a>;</li> - <li>immigration, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>–48;</li> - <li>transportation of convicts, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>–55;</li> - <li>what is needed, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a>;</li> - <li>loneliness of the country, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>;</li> - <li>inundations, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>;</li> - <li>a cross-country journey, <a href='#Page_61'>61</a>;</li> - <li>Siberia entered by the Arctic Ocean, <a href='#Page_61'>61</a>–63;</li> - <li>trade between England and Siberia, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a>;</li> - <li>the Ural Railway, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>;</li> - <li>trans-continent river and rail system fails, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>;</li> - <li>the Trans-Siberian Railway, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>–75;</li> - <li>the transformation it will effect, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Siberians, conditions of peasant life, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>; - <ul> - <li>better off in Siberia than in Russia, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>;</li> - <li>their ignorance of hygiene, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>;</li> - <li>apathy of the peasants, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>;</li> - <li>their favourite texts from Scripture, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>;</li> - <li>the ‘pity of the Slav,’ 21;</li> - <li>the traffic on the postal-road, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>;</li> - <li>ignorance of the peasants of agricultural science, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>;</li> - <li>rich, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>;</li> - <li>do not like the new railway, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>;</li> - <li>nor immigration, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>;</li> - <li>their resignation, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Sibir, Tobolsk erected on its site, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Silk imported into Siberia, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>; - <ul> - <li>Chinese silk exported, <a href='#Page_241'>241</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'><span class='pageno' id='Page_298'>298</span>Silver mines, Siberian, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Stanovoi Mountains, the, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Stretensk on the Amur, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Strogonofs obtain trading concessions, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Suiko, Empress, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Sungari River, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a>, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Summer Palace, the, <a href='#Page_202'>202</a>, <a href='#Page_203'>203</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Sze-chuan, coal-beds of, <a href='#Page_184'>184</a></li> - <li class='c002'><div class='center'>T</div></li> - <li class='c031'>Tarantass, the, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Tatar, kingdoms annexed, <a href='#Page_1'>1</a>; - <ul> - <li>Tatar driven southwards, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a>;</li> - <li>the Kirghiz, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>–22;</li> - <li>Tatar women in China, <a href='#Page_193'>193</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Taxes, Japanese, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a>, <a href='#Page_151'>151</a>; - <ul> - <li>Chinese, <a href='#Page_218'>218</a>, <a href='#Page_219'>219</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Tea, traffic in Siberia, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a>; - <ul> - <li>routes taken, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a>;</li> - <li>tea passing through Kiakhta, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>;</li> - <li>duty, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a>, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>, <em>note</em>;</li> - <li>Hankow the great tea mart in China, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>;</li> - <li>Nijni-Novgorod, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a>;</li> - <li>difficulties of transport, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a>;</li> - <li>its value, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a>;</li> - <li>total amount exported from China, <a href='#Page_241'>241</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Telega, the, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Telephone, the, in Siberia, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>; - <ul> - <li>in Tokio, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Temples, Chinese, <a href='#Page_202'>202</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Theatres, Siberian, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Tien-tsin, the railway at, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>, <a href='#Page_189'>189</a>; - <ul> - <li>the town, <a href='#Page_189'>189</a>;</li> - <li>inundations, <a href='#Page_190'>190</a>;</li> - <li>the Treaty of Tien-tsin, <a href='#Page_228'>228</a>;</li> - <li>industry at, <a href='#Page_237'>237</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Tiumen, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Tobacco introduced by the Portuguese into Japan, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>; - <ul> - <li>its cultivation, <a href='#Page_130'>130</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Tobolsk, its erection, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a>; - <ul> - <li>the ancient capital of Siberia, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>;</li> - <li>a meeting-place for immigrants, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Tobolsk, the Government of, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>; - <ul> - <li>population, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>;</li> - <li>education in, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>;</li> - <li>excellent soil, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>;</li> - <li>number of immigrants, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Tokio, distance to Vladivostok, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>; - <ul> - <li>removal of the Court to, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a>;</li> - <li>railway to Yokohama opened, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a>;</li> - <li>population, <a href='#Page_113'>113</a>;</li> - <li>its up-to-datedness, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a>;</li> - <li>fires, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a>, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a>;</li> - <li>means of getting about, <a href='#Page_116'>116</a>;</li> - <li>badly lighted, <a href='#Page_117'>117</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Tokugawa, the, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Tomsk, the mosque at, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>; - <ul> - <li>the neighbouring country, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>;</li> - <li>population, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>;</li> - <li>its new university, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>;</li> - <li>theatre, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Tomsk, Government of, population, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>; - <ul> - <li>excellent soil, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>;</li> - <li>number of immigrants annually, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Tongking, its copper-mines attract the French to, <a href='#Page_185'>185</a>; - <ul> - <li>Customs lowered, <a href='#Page_260'>260</a>;</li> - <li>poor country in the neighbourhood, <a href='#Page_262'>262</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Towns, absence of large, in Siberia, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>; - <ul> - <li>those along the highroad, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a>;</li> - <li>their appearance, etc., <a href='#Page_39'>39</a>–41</li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Trans-Baikalia, climate, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>; - <ul> - <li>scenery, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>;</li> - <li>population, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>;</li> - <li>Buddhists, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Trans-Siberian Railway, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>; - <ul> - <li>destined to revolutionize Siberia, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a>;</li> - <li>why originally designed, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a>, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>;</li> - <li>the Ural Railway, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>;</li> - <li>Alexander III. decrees its execution, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>;</li> - <li>how it will cross Lake Baikal, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>;</li> - <li>length, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a>;</li> - <li>the Manchurian section, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>;</li> - <li>its construction easy, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>;</li> - <li>bridges, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>;</li> - <li>workmen, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a>;</li> - <li>its cost, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a>;</li> - <li>distance viâ the Trans-Siberian Railway to the Far East, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>;</li> - <li>the <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">train-de-luxe</span></i>, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>;</li> - <li>journey to the Far East much shortened by it, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>;</li> - <li>fares, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>;</li> - <li>restaurants, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>;</li> - <li>too expensive for heavy merchandise, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>;</li> - <li>facilities for forwarding letters to the East, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>;</li> - <li>Russia awaiting its completion, <a href='#Page_259'>259</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Treaties, Japanese commercial, <a href='#Page_178'>178</a>–180; - <ul> - <li>treaties respecting foreigners in China, <a href='#Page_228'>228</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Treaty Ports, list of Chinese, <a href='#Page_234'>234</a>, <em>note</em>; - <ul> - <li>Shanghai, <a href='#Page_235'>235</a>, <a href='#Page_237'>237</a>–239;</li> - <li>industries limited to them, <a href='#Page_240'>240</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Trees of Siberia, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Troitskosavsk, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Troops, Russian, in the East, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Tundra Zone, the, of Siberia, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>; - <ul> - <li>area and population, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Turki population of Siberia, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a></li> - <li class='c002'><div class='center'>U</div></li> - <li class='c031'>United States demand the opening of Japanese ports, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a>; - <ul> - <li>their commerce with China, <a href='#Page_284'>284</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>University at Tomsk, the, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Ural Railway opened in 1880, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a></li> - <li class='c002'><div class='center'>V</div></li> - <li class='c031'>Vegetables not cultivated in Siberia, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Verkhoyansk, its severe climate, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Villages of Siberia, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>; - <ul> - <li>resemblance to those of Russia, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>;</li> - <li>Japanese villages, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Vitim, military government of, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Vladivostok, the sea covered with ice in winter, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>; - <ul> - <li>the military element at, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>;</li> - <li>Vladivostok not so good as Port Arthur, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>;</li> - <li>the town and harbour, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>;</li> - <li>population, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a>;</li> - <li>the journey to, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a>;</li> - <li>main terminus of the Trans-Siberian Railway removed to Port Arthur, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>;</li> - <li>Vladivostok a point of vantage, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>;</li> - <li>distance from Vladivostok to the European capitals, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>;</li> - <li>to Tokio, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>;</li> - <li>Chinese in, <a href='#Page_232'>232</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Voltaire’s idea of a Siberian highroad, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a></li> - <li class='c002'><div class='center'>W</div></li> - <li class='c031'>Wages in China, increase of, <a href='#Page_238'>238</a>, <a href='#Page_239'>239</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Wei-hai-wei ceded to England, <a href='#Page_273'>273</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Western civilization not a monopoly of one race, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Wheat in Siberia, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>; - <ul> - <li>in China, <a href='#Page_199'>199</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Wiggins, Captain, enters the mouth of the Yenissei, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Witte, M. de, chief promoter of the Manchurian Railway, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a>; - <ul> - <li>his successful Chinese financial policy, <a href='#Page_255'>255</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Women, Japanese, freedom of, <a href='#Page_132'>132</a>; - <ul> - <li>Chinese, <a href='#Page_193'>193</a>;</li> - <li>they never work in the field, <a href='#Page_199'>199</a>;</li> - <li>binding of their feet, <a href='#Page_221'>221</a>;</li> - <li><span class='pageno' id='Page_299'>299</span>their unhappy lot when married, <a href='#Page_224'>224</a>;</li> - <li>immorality, <a href='#Page_224'>224</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Women and children employed in Japanese match factories, <a href='#Page_121'>121</a>; - <ul> - <li>their unhealthy lodgings, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a>;</li> - <li>conditions of labour, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a>, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a>;</li> - <li>women and children in Shanghai, <a href='#Page_237'>237</a>, <a href='#Page_238'>238</a>;</li> - <li>their wages, <a href='#Page_237'>237</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Wood, very dear in China, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>; - <ul> - <li>used for architectural purposes, <a href='#Page_202'>202</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c002'><div class='center'>X</div></li> - <li class='c031'>Xavier, St. Francis, visits Japan, <a href='#Page_91'>91</a>; - <ul> - <li>introduces Christianity there, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c002'><div class='center'>Y</div></li> - <li class='c031'>Yablonovoi Mountains, the, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a></li> - <li class='c031'>Yang-tsze-Kiang, dense population of the valley of the, <a href='#Page_184'>184</a>; - <ul> - <li>no part of its basin ever to be ceded, <a href='#Page_271'>271</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Yakutsk, climate, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>; - <ul> - <li>population, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>;</li> - <li>the eunuchs, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>‘Yellow Peril,’ the, <a href='#Page_186'>186</a>, <a href='#Page_239'>239</a>; - <ul> - <li>if Japan and China united, <a href='#Page_246'>246</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Yellow River, coal-beds on the banks of the, <a href='#Page_184'>184</a>; - <ul> - <li>its mouth, <a href='#Page_188'>188</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Yenissei, Government of the population, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>; - <ul> - <li>immigrants, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Yenissei River, its mouth reached in 1636, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>; - <ul> - <li>gold-mines near it, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>;</li> - <li>its beauty, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>;</li> - <li>Captain Wiggins enters it in 1874, <a href='#Page_61'>61</a>, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a>;</li> - <li>canal between the Yenissei and the Obi, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Yokohama, railway opened to, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a>; - <ul> - <li>the third port in the Far East, <a href='#Page_113'>113</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Yoritomo overthrows the Taira, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>; - <ul> - <li>his ingratitude, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>;</li> - <li>first Shogun, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Yoshitsune wins the Battle of Dan-no-ura, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>; - <ul> - <li>his adventures and death, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c031'>Yunnan, copper-mines of, <a href='#Page_184'>184</a>; - <ul> - <li>a poor province, <a href='#Page_261'>261</a></li> - </ul> - </li> - <li class='c002'><div class='center'>Z</div></li> - <li class='c031'>Zaïmka system in Siberia, the, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a></li> -</ul> - -<hr class='c032' /> -<div class='footnote' id='f1'> -<p class='c008'><a href='#r1'>1</a>. <span class='pageno' id='Page_300'>300</span>Mr. Richard Davey is responsible for the translation of this work, but I -have added a footnote here and there (signed by my initials), and I have -revised the spelling of the proper names to bring them into accordance -with English usage. To forestall the charge of inconsistency, I may say -that I have acted on the principle generally adopted in the spelling of European -proper names, that is, I have retained improper spellings consecrated -by long custom—for instance, Chefoo, Suchow, Hankow, Kowloon, just as we -write Florence, Munich, Naples, Moscow. But names not yet regularly -Europeanized I have spelled according to a consistent and more reasonable -system of transliteration-as Kiao-chau, Pe-chi-li, Kwei-chau. The French -spelling of Chinese proper names looks very strange to an English eye, and -would convey a wholly false impression to an English ear.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f2'> -<p class='c008'><a href='#r2'>2</a>. The <cite>Times</cite>, September 13th, 1900.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f3'> -<p class='c008'><a href='#r3'>3</a>. For example, the writer signing himself ‘Diplomaticus’ in the <cite>Fortnightly -Review</cite> for September, 1900, airily dismisses as ‘illusions’ the belief -that ‘China was gradually crumbling to ruin, that she was incapable of organized -resistance to the foreigner, that her millions were unconscious of a -national spirit and incapable of progress.’ Each one of these ‘illusions’ is an -elementary fact about China, except so far as foreign help and guidance may -alter it.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f4'> -<p class='c008'><a href='#r4'>4</a>. The <cite>Times</cite> special correspondent, September 11th, 1900.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f5'> -<p class='c008'><a href='#r5'>5</a>. Written especially for the American edition by the author.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f6'> -<p class='c008'><a href='#r6'>6</a>. The position of the Manchu Dynasty in China is somewhat analogous -to that of the Shogunate in Japan, which was also caught some forty years -ago between the national sentiment and the foreigner. But in Japan, -when the Shogunate fell, there remained the divine Emperor, whose -prestige covered all the reforms which enlightened statesmen carried out. -In China, after the Manchu Dynasty, nothing remains but chaos.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f7'> -<p class='c008'><a href='#r7'>7</a>. ‘Yermak,’ the millstone, was the nickname given to Vassil, son of -Timothy, a tracker of the Volga, because he ground the corn for his party. -He was not a Cossack by birth, but joined the Don Cossack pirates.—H. N.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f8'> -<p class='c008'><a href='#r8'>8</a>. The import of Ceylon tea into Russia is already large, and is increasing -rapidly.—H. N.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f9'> -<p class='c008'><a href='#r9'>9</a>. All that part of Siberia situated east of Baikalia forms a sort of neutral -ground free of the Custom-house. Only spirits, tobacco, sugar, mineral -oils, lucifer matches, and in general all articles of the same character which -are subject to excise duty in Siberia proper, pay Custom-house duties when -they are sent for sale to the Siberian ports on the Pacific. All other goods -have only to pay ‘customs’ if they are forwarded to parts of the Empire -west of Baikalia, and these are paid at Irkutsk, through which everything -is obliged to pass. Tea going from Kiakhta pays duty at Irkutsk.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f10'> -<p class='c008'><a href='#r10'>10</a>. By means of an ice-breaking steamer vessels are now able to leave or -enter Vladivostok harbour at any time.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f11'> -<p class='c008'><a href='#r11'>11</a>. The Tsar appointed a Commission to inquire into the whole question -of transportation to Siberia, with a view to its cessation. The Commission -is now understood to have reported in this sense.—H. N.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f12'> -<p class='c008'><a href='#r12'>12</a>. The author is misinformed here. The <em>Baikal</em>, the great ice-breaking, -train-carrying steamer, and the <em>Angara</em>, a smaller passenger-boat, -have both been designed, constructed, and set up on Lake Baikal by -Sir W. G. Armstrong, Whitworth and Co., Ltd., of Newcastle-on-Tyne.—H. N.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f13'> -<p class='c008'><a href='#r13'>13</a>. The official estimate of the total cost of the railway is over £80,000,000, -of which over £50,000,000 were spent by the end of 1899.—H. N.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f14'> -<p class='c008'><a href='#r14'>14</a>. This train has been running for a year as far as Irkutsk.—H. N.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f15'> -<p class='c008'><a href='#r15'>15</a>. A <em>koku</em> equals 4·95 bushels.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f16'> -<p class='c008'><a href='#r16'>16</a>. In 1899 (to December 25) 423,646,605 yen or £42,364,660.—H. N.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f17'> -<p class='c008'><a href='#r17'>17</a>. The Japanese took care to stipulate that the indemnity should be paid -in gold at the exchange of the tael in 1895, which allowed them to know -exactly on what amount of money they could count, which was of extreme -importance to them, Japan having adopted the gold standard, and the -greater part of the indemnity being destined to be spent in purchases in -Europe and the United States.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f18'> -<p class='c008'><a href='#r18'>18</a>. Many of the daimios, whose personal property was very small, are now -extremely poor. The largest fortunes in Japan are those of the merchants -and bankers, who under the old regime used to hide their wealth to avoid -taxation.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f19'> -<p class='c008'><a href='#r19'>19</a>. The Japanese Parliament is composed of two Chambers—the House -of Lords, or Peers, to which belong (1) the Princes of the Blood (13); -(2) all the Princes and Marquises (40); (3) such representatives as are -elected for seven years by the Counts, Viscounts, and Barons (123); -(4) members who are nominated for life by the Emperor (100); (5) members -elected, one for each department, and selected from among the fifteen more -important personages of the department over thirty years of age (45). The -Chamber of Deputies is composed of 300 members, one for every 128,000 -inhabitants, and is elected by all Japanese subjects over twenty-five years -of age who have resided in an electoral district for a term of twelve months, -and who pay 30s. direct taxes. To be elected, the candidate must be over -thirty years of age and fulfil the same conditions as above. The heads of -noble families can neither be electors nor elected to the Lower Chamber. -In 1895 there were 467,887 voters (11 per 1,000 inhabitants), and in all -517,130 persons (12 per 1,000), paying more than 30s. direct taxes. -Among the first class there were 21,070, and among the second class 25,405 -<em>shizoku</em>, or ancient <em>samurai</em>, from which fact we may take it for granted -that there are fewer rich men among the ancient <em>samurai</em> than among the -rest of the population. As to the nobles, so-called <em>kwazoku</em>, at least a third -of the heads of noble families pay less than 30s. The proportion of <em>shizoku</em> -among those having the right of vote is less than 5 per cent.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f20'> -<p class='c008'><a href='#r20'>20</a>. In normal times, before the exceptional augmentation of the effective -resulting from the events of 1898, England had in the Far East only -twenty-six vessels, and even now her fleet is still inferior to that of Japan.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f21'> -<p class='c008'><a href='#r21'>21</a>. At the present time the Russian troops in Manchuria and the Lower -Amur do not exceed 60,000 men.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f22'> -<p class='c008'><a href='#r22'>22</a>. ‘Politics and Peoples of the Far East.’ London: Fisher Unwin. -1895.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f23'> -<p class='c008'><a href='#r23'>23</a>. The population of China has been very variously estimated. There -exist official statistics, but the question is, what faith can be placed in -them? The ‘Statesman’s Year Book,’ which is generally well informed, -returns 383,000,000 for China Proper, and 402,000,000 for the entire -Empire. Some travellers, however, are of opinion that these figures should -be greatly modified, and hold that the correct medium is between -200,000,000 and 250,000,000, because the mountainous regions are very -thinly populated, and travellers erroneously form an opinion from the condition -of the valleys through which they pass, which are generally densely -populated.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f24'> -<p class='c008'><a href='#r24'>24</a>. Quoted by Mr. Henry Norman, ‘Peoples and Politics of the Far East.’</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f25'> -<p class='c008'><a href='#r25'>25</a>. The admirable and even gallant conduct of the Chinese Regiment from -Wei-hai-wei under its British officers in the recent severe fighting about -Tien-tsin affords a striking confirmation of M. Leroy-Beaulieu’s words.—H.N.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f26'> -<p class='c008'><a href='#r26'>26</a>. The following is the list of the Treaty Ports: To the north of the -Blue River, Niu-chwang, Tien-tsin, Chefoo, and near the mouth of the river -Shanghai and its annex, Wusung. On the Yang-tsze-Kiang: Chin-Kiang, -Nanking, Wuhu, Kiu-kiang, Sha-shi, Hankow, It-chang, Chung-king—in -all eight river stations, of which Nanking is not really ‘open,’ although -mentioned in the French treaty of Tien-tsin. Not far from Shanghai is -Suchow, on the inland canals. On the coast south of the Blue River are -Hangchow, Ning-po, Wenchow, Foochow, Amoy, Swatow. At the mouth -of the West River is Canton, and higher up the river Samshui, Wuchow, -and since the spring of 1899 Nanning-fu. On the Gulf of Tongking: Pakhui, -and in the island of Hainan, Hoi-how. The open towns on the frontier of -Indo-China are: Lung-chau, Mongtse, Ho Kau, Szemao, Tchoun-ning-fu, -and a sixth, Tong-hing, is not as yet occupied. The open ports were in -1842, according to the Treaty of Nanking, only five in number, but were -increased by the treaty of Tien-tsin to nineteen; others were opened by -the treaty of Shimonosaki in 1895, and by the convention with England -signed in 1897. A more recent treaty with this Power (1898) promises, but -without fixed date, however, the opening of three new ports: Kin-chau in -Manchuria, Fu-ning in Fo-kien, and Yo-chau in Hu-nan (opened in -December, 1899).</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f27'> -<p class='c008'><a href='#r27'>27</a>. The story of the improper salute was a newspaper fiction. No -foundation for it has ever been adduced. The ‘threats’ after the sinking -of the <em>Kow-Shing</em> were wholly unofficial, and the matter was referred to -arbitration by the two Governments.—H. N.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f28'> -<p class='c008'><a href='#r28'>28</a>. It is to be regretted that the author does not give the name of the -newspaper in which he read this ludicrous utterance; we should doubtless -then see that it is far from representative of British opinion.—H. N.</p> -</div> -<div class='footnote' id='f29'> -<p class='c008'><a href='#r29'>29</a>. M. Leroy-Beaulieu cannot seriously believe that the independence of -China is threatened by Great Britain. British policy is, as it always has -been, to maintain her independence by every means.—H. 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