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| author | nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org> | 2025-01-27 19:15:47 -0800 |
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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..693f22a --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #61034 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/61034) diff --git a/old/61034-0.txt b/old/61034-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index ac690ba..0000000 --- a/old/61034-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,3081 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook, Douris and the Painters of Greek Vases, by -Edmond Pottier, Translated by Bettina Kahnweiler - - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - - - - -Title: Douris and the Painters of Greek Vases - - -Author: Edmond Pottier - - - -Release Date: December 27, 2019 [eBook #61034] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - - -***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DOURIS AND THE PAINTERS OF GREEK -VASES*** - - -E-text prepared by Turgut Dincer, Charlie Howard, and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net) from page images -generously made available by Internet Archive (https://archive.org) - - - -Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this - file which includes the original illustrations. - See 61034-h.htm or 61034-h.zip: - (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/61034/61034-h/61034-h.htm) - or - (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/61034/61034-h.zip) - - - Images of the original pages are available through - Internet Archive. See - https://archive.org/details/dourispaintersof00pott - - - - - -DOURIS AND THE PAINTERS OF GREEK VASES - - -[Illustration: Fig. 1. KANTHAROS AND KYLIX (Cup). - -By Douris. Brussels and Louvre Museums.] - - -DOURIS AND THE PAINTERS OF GREEK VASES - -by - -EDMOND POTTIER - -Membre de L’Institut - -Translated by Bettina Kahnweiler - -With a Preface by -Jane Ellen Harrison -Hon.D.Litt.Durham, Hon.Ll.D.Aberdeen - - - - - - -London -John Murray, Albemarle Street, W. -1909 - - - - - DEDICATED - IN LOVE AND GRATITUDE TO - AUGUST LEWIS - - - - -PREFACE - - -The translator of M. Pottier’s monograph on _Douris_ has kindly -asked me to write, by way of preface, a few words on the relation of -Greek vase-painting to Greek literature and to Greek mythology. I do -this with the more pleasure because this relation has, I think, been -somewhat seriously misunderstood, and M. Pottier’s delightful monograph -which, thanks to Miss Kahnweiler, is now given to us in English form, -should do much to clear away misconception and to set the matter before -us in a light at once juster and more vivid. - - * * * * * - -First let us consider for a moment the relation between Greek art and -Greek literature. - -In classical matters we are all of us, scholars and students alike, -bred up in a tradition that is literary. Our earliest contact with -the Greek mind is through Greek poets, historians, philosophers. This -is well, for these remain--all said--the supreme revelation. But this -priority of _literary_ contact begets, almost inevitably, a certain -confusion of thought. Bred as we are in a literary tradition, we come -later to be confronted with other utterances of the Greek mind, for -example graphic art--vase-painting. This we naturally seek to relate to -our earlier and purely literary conceptions. What has come to us second -we instinctively make subordinate, ancillary. Greek art, and especially -what we call a “minor art,” such as vase-painting, is the “hand-maid” -of Greek poetry, or, to drop metaphor, the function of Greek art, is, -we think, to illustrate Greek literature. Public and publisher alike -demand nowadays that books on Greek literature, on Greek mythology, -even editions of Greek plays, should be “illustrated” from Greek art. - -By illustration is meant translation, the transference with the -minimum of alteration of an idea expressed in one art into the medium -of another. Were it possible in a work of art to separate the idea -expressed from the form in which it is expressed, such transference -might be an eligible and even elegant pastime. But every one knows that -such separation of idea and form is in art impossible. Translation of -poetry from one language to another is precarious, a thing only to be -attempted by a poet; translation from one art to another is a task -so inherently barren that the Greek, till his decadence, left it, -instinctively, unattempted. - -Against the poison of this “illustration” theory M. Pottier’s monograph -is the best antidote, and all students of the Greek mind will be -grateful to Miss Kahnweiler for making his monograph more easily -accessible. M. Pottier focuses our attention on the personal artist, a -man not intent on “illustrating” another man’s work, but on producing -works of art of his own. Douris uses sometimes the same material as -Homer or Arktinos, but he shapes it to his own decorative ends; he -draws his inspiration naturally and necessarily rather from graphic -than from literary tradition. - - * * * * * - -Beneath the “illustration” fallacy there lurks, as regards mythology, -another and a subtler misconception. - -Until quite recent years mythology has been again to scholars and -students alike, a thing of “mythological allusions,” a matter to be -“looked up” with a view to the elucidation of obscure passages in -_Pindar_ or dramatic choruses. Even nowadays mythology remains, to many -a well-furnished scholar, a sort of by-product, an elegant outgrowth of -the Greek mind, a thing merely “poetical,” by which he means having -no touch with reality. Or, at best, if the scholar be himself a poet, -he loves mythology without analysing it, he feels it as a dream that -haunts, a thing that attends and allures him through the waste places -of scholarship, more real and more abiding than any realism, a thing to -him so intimate that he does not ask the _why_ of it. - -Thanks to the impact of another study, anthropology, we are awake -now and look at mythology with other eyes. We know that mythology -is not a last, lovely, literary flower, but a thing primitive, -deep-seated, long antedating anything that can be called literature, -not a separate “subject” at all, but rather a mode of thinking common -at an early stage to all subjects. Mythology is not the outcome of an -idle, vagrant fancy, but a necessary step in the evolution of human -thought; a strenuous step taken by man towards knowledge, towards the -fashioning and ordering of the world of mental conceptions. Mythology -is the mother-earth out of which for the Greeks grow those stately, -fruit-bearing trees, literature, art, history, philosophy. A Greek -vase-painter does not “illustrate” mythology, he utters it in line and -colour as the poet utters it in words and rhythm. - -Take a simple instance from the work of Douris, the kylix in the -Louvre, in the centre of which is painted _Eos carrying the body of -Memnon_. - -The mythologist, that is man in his early days of thinking, cannot -conceive or name the abstract, empty “dawn.” The glow of morning is -to him the print of unearthly yet human fingers. He images “dawn” as -“Dawn,” in terms of humanity, that is of the one and only thing he -inwardly felt and knew--himself. The dawn is for him a beautiful woman, -and to complete her humanity, she is a mother. Literature, which is at -first but story-telling, took up the tale, and knew that Eos the Dawn -who rose in the East had a child of the East for her son, and mourned -for him in his death, and carried him away for his burial. - -The vase-painter is a mythologist too, and he takes a mythological -story for his motive, but his art has other ends than that of the poet. -He may have heard the story recited at a Panathenaic festival, just as -he may have seen it painted on some Stoa or Lesche. But he does not -illustrate it, does not translate from an alien art into his own. He -takes the myth and lets his own art say what it and only it can say. -He has seen in the human body the vision of a heavenly pattern; he -gives us the grace of a bending body, the poise of a flying foot, the -swiftness of straight lines, the majesty and poignancy of limbs stark -in death. That is all, and, surely, enough. - - JANE ELLEN HARRISON. - - - - -CONTENTS - - - CHAP. PAGE - I. HOW DESIGNS ON VASES REPRESENT THE HISTORY OF GREEK PAINTING 1 - - II. THE SOCIAL CONDITION OF A VASE PAINTER AT ATHENS 9 - - III. THE WORKSHOP AND TOOLS OF DOURIS 23 - - IV. HOW DOURIS WORKED 30 - - V. THE WORK OF DOURIS 43 - - CONCLUSION 80 - - BIBLIOGRAPHY 87 - - INDEX 89 - - - - -LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS - - - Fig. Page - 1. Kantharos and Kylix (drinking cups) by Douris. Brussels - and Louvre Museums. Taken from Photographs _Frontispiece_ - - 2. Workshop of a Vase Painter (red figured hydria in Caputi - Collection at Ruvo), from Blümner. _Technologie und - Terminolog. der Gewerbe und Künste_, ii., p. 85, Fig. 15 4 - - 3. The painter Smikros and his companions (red figured krater - in the Brussels Museum), from _Monuments et Mémoires de - la Fondation Piot_ (article by C. Gaspari, ix., 1902, - Pl. 2) 8 - - 4. A Potter’s Workshop; modelling and baking of vases - (black-figured hydria, Munich Museum), from Birch, - “History of Ancient Pottery,” 1858, p. 249 12 - - 5. A display of Vases and a purchaser (red figured kylix - painted by Phintias, Baltimore Museum). Hartwig’s - _Meisterschalen_, Pl. 17 16 - - 6. Youths exercising in the Palæstra (red figured kylix by - Douris, Louvre Museum), from an original Photograph 20 - - 7. Aphrodite upon her Swan (Polychrome on white background, - British Museum), from A. Murray and A. Smith, - “White Attic Vases,” Pl. 15 24 - - 8. Eos carrying Memnon, her dead son (red figured kylix by - Douris, Louvre Museum), from an original Photograph 28 - - 9. Contest of Menelaos and Paris (exterior of preceding - one), from an original Photograph 32 - - 10. Contest of Ajax and Hector (exterior of preceding one), - from an original Photograph 36 - - 11. The Adventures of Theseus (red figured kylix by Douris, - British Museum), from E. d’Eichthal et Th. Reinach - _Poèmes choisis de Bacchylide_, p. 48 40 - - 12. Theseus and Kerkyon; Theseus and the Marathonian bull - (reverse of red figured cup by the potter Euphronios, - in the Louvre Museum) taken from Furtwängler & - Reichhold _Griechische Vasenmalerei_, Pl. 5 44 - - 13. Nereids appealing to Nereus and Doris (red figured - cup by Douris, Louvre Museum), taken from _Wiener - Vorlegeblätten_, vii., Pl. 2 48 - - 14. Sileni playing and dancing (red figured vase by Douris, - British Museum) Furtwängler & Reichhold _Griechische - Vasenmalerei_, Pl. 48 52 - - 15. Hera and Iris attacked by Sileni (red figured cup by - Brygos, British Museum), Furtwängler & Reichhold - _Griechische Vasenmalerei_, Pl. 17 54 - - 16. Contest of Ajax and Ulysses; the voting of the Greek - Chiefs (red figured cup by Douris, Vienna Museum), - Furtwängler & Reichhold _Griechische Vasenmalerei_, - Pl. 54 56 - - 17. Ulysses restoring the Arms of Achilles to Neoptolemos - (interior of preceding one), Furtwängler & Reichhold - _Griechische Vasenmalerei_, Pl. 54 60 - - 18. Achilles killing Troïlos (red figured cup by Euphronios, - Perugia Museum) taken from Rayet et Collignon, - _Céramique Grecque_, Fig. 70 64 - - 19. Soldiers arming (red figured cup by Douris, Vienna - Museum), Furtwängler & Reichhold, Pl. 53 68 - - 20. Greek Hoplite and Persian Standard-bearer (red figured - cup by Douris, Louvre Museum), _Wiener Vorlegeblätten_, - vii., Pl. 3. Great surface indicates restoration 70 - - 21. Seated Youth holding a Hare (red figured kylix by Douris, - Louvre Museum), from an original Photograph 72 - - 22. Interior of a School (red figured kylix by Douris, Berlin - Museum), from _Monumenti dell’ Inst. Arch._, ix., Pl. 54 76 - - 23. A Schoolmaster. Berlin Museum, from Hartwig, - _Meisterschalen_, Pl. 46 80 - - 24. Zeus carrying off a Woman (attributed to Douris, Louvre - Museum), from an original Photograph 84 - - 25. A Painter at Work (fragment, Boston Museum), _Jahrbuch - des Arch. Instituts_, xiv., 1899, Pl. 4, Hartwig 86 - - - - -DOURIS AND THE PAINTERS OF GREEK VASES - - - - -CHAPTER I - -HOW DESIGNS ON VASES REPRESENT THE HISTORY OF GREEK PAINTING - - -This book has not been written for the professional archæologist. While -speaking of Douris, we propose to give the reading public an idea of -the chief characteristics of Greek painting. - -It may be asked why the title of this little book is not Polygnotos or -Parrhasios. As we are treating of ancient painting, why not choose as a -study one of these famous men, whose works give to the art of his time -its distinctive character? - -The answer is simple. Not a single painting is preserved by the masters -who, with the sculptors Phidias, Polykleitos, Praxiteles, and Lysippos, -made the ages of Pericles and Alexander illustrious. Not a fragment of -their paintings nor a piece of their frescoes has escaped destruction. -Unfortunate chance has thus kept the most glorious period of Greek -painting hidden from our view. Recent discoveries in Mycenæ, Tiryns, -Crete, and Melos have revealed astonishing works of the pre-Hellenic -age, and they have restored to us frescoes contemporary with Minos -and Agamemnon. And for more than a century the excavations at Pompeii -and Herculaneum have made known all the details of the decoration of -Roman houses at the time of Augustus and Titus. But between these two -periods--separated by fifteen or twenty centuries--all is obscurity,--a -dark gap which a few marble panels in the museum of Athens are quite -insufficient to cover. These pale remnants of funereal monuments from -the Kerameikos, frescoes painted on marble, reproduced the life and -likeness of the departed. - -Literature still remains. Pausanias, Pliny, Lucian, and others have -enumerated and described the celebrated works of ancient painting, and -indicated the chief characteristics of the great masters. In certain -passages even the technique is mentioned and analysed. With the help of -this literature we can, in a general way, trace the history of Greek -painting, and it is chiefly from these records that such classic books -have been written as Brunn’s _Geschichte der Künstler_ and Woltmann’s -_Geschichte der Malerei_. For gaining a thorough knowledge of the data -of the subject, the great value of these books is unquestionable. - -But there is no doubt that a history compiled from texts becomes -excessively dry, even though illustrations are borrowed from Pompeii -and Herculaneum. What impression would any one who had never seen a -painting by Raphael or Michelangelo receive by merely reading about -them? - -Furthermore, many ancient authors, far from being accurate or full -in their information, are hopelessly brief; often the subject of a -painting and the name of its author are mentioned in but three words. -Let us suppose that two thousand years hence our descendants should -find a guide-book and read, “_The Sacred Grove of the Muses_, by -Puvis de Chavannes.” What conclusions could they draw in regard to -the composition of the painting or the talent of its author? Such -is our position in regard to many works of antiquity. Even if, as -is sometimes the case, the descriptions are full, as in a passage -where Pausanias enumerates all the persons in the two frescoes of -Polygnotos at Delphi, _The Visit to Hades_ and _The Capture of Troy_, -the same darkness still exists as to the placing of the figures, their -expression, their attitude, and the technique of the colouring. - -Thanks to the study devoted to painted vases, we are now able to -get a better idea of and throw a little more light on the style and -composition of Greek painting. M. Paul Girard’s book, _La Peinture -Antique_ is an instance. Nearly all the illustrations in the chapters -devoted to classic Greece are taken from the decoration of vases. To -return to a comparison made above. One who knew nothing of Raphael’s -work, but who had seen some _faïence_ of Urbino reproducing certain -works of the time, would in every way be more capable than those who -had not of understanding the master’s composition and his style. He -would undoubtedly still lose many things. He never would realise the -harmony of his colours or the loftiness and purity of his designs. This -is, alas! what we must say, in comparing the painting of a Greek vase -with the lost paintings of Polygnotos or Zeuxis. The reflection of a -lost art is all that remains to us! - -[Illustration: Fig. 2. THE WORKSHOP OF A VASE PAINTER. - -Caputi Collection, Ruvo.] - -We should add, however, that the distinction between Greek -manufacturers and their models must have been less marked than in -later ages. Of this we cannot give material proof, but from certain -details we arrive at this conclusion. On the one hand, the Attic -craftsman was endowed, as rarely any one has been, with the art of -design and the sense of style. On the other hand, the ancient fresco, -particularly of the fifth century, was only drawing in flat colours, -without shading or modelling. Hence, there did not exist the gulf which -in modern times separates a reproduction due to mechanical means from a -painting executed with all the fine shades and skilful distinctions of -_chiaro oscuro_. In Greece, a painter of frescoes or a painter of vases -was above all things a good draughtsman. Here is a common measure which -reduces the distance between them. - -In the absence of original paintings we must descend a step and have -recourse to the vase industry, and thus discover dimly the nature of -pictorial art in the best times of classic Greece. - -But here another question arises. In treating of Greek ceramics, is the -name of Douris the most important one among the many artists presenting -themselves to our mind? He formed one of the Pleïades, who, between -the expulsion of the tyrant Hippias (510 B.C.) and the Persian wars -(490–479 B.C.), brought the manufacture of Athenian pottery to its -culminating point. His rivals Euphronios and Brygos have, however, been -considered more skilled or more inspired in their work. Why then choose -Douris as the most representative type of Greek painting? - -This is the reason. We know at present about one hundred names of -manufacturers and painters of vases. Those who during the best period -have left the greatest number of works are Euphronios, Douris, Hieron, -and Brygos. Leaving aside simple fragments, and only counting pieces -helpful for serious study, we possess of the first-named ten signed -works, of the third twenty, of the fourth eight. Of Douris twenty-eight -are known. - -The greater number alone would justify our choice. But another and -more important consideration may be added to the former. Manufacturers -of vases have different trademarks for their ware. They trace their -name with a paint-brush on the body of the vase, or else incise it -in fine letters on the foot or handle. The mode in which their name -occurs varies: “So-and-so made,” or else “So-and-so painted.” There -can be no uncertainty as to the latter phrase; it refers to the artist -who executed the paintings decorating the vase. But this term is far -less frequent than the former, which has caused many discussions. -“So-and-so made”? Is it a more elliptical way of implying the designer, -or is it the potter who speaks in contrast to the painter and designer? -Or, again, did the same man make the vase and then paint it? Is it the -master, the overseer who directs the entire manufacture, and who, after -the different processes of modelling, of decoration, and of baking have -been executed under his direction and according to his plans, affixes -to the ware of his house a sort of commercial trade-mark? All these -opinions have been supported at different times. We cannot say that the -subject has been fully elucidated. In consequence we run a great risk -of mistake in saying that a painting is a certain potter’s workmanship, -when the vase does not explicitly state who painted it. - -The inevitable conclusion remains; to argue with certainty about -painters of vases we can only trust one expression: “So-and-so -painted.” In the most prominent group of potters of the fifth century, -it is Douris who best fulfils all these conditions, and relieves -us of all uncertainties on this subject. He is a craftsman, and -can make a pot or have one made under his direction. The museum at -Brussels possesses a kantharos which “Douris made” (Fig. 1). But he -is above all a draughtsman and executes all his paintings himself, -for the twenty-eight examples mentioned, including the kantharos at -Brussels, bear the words, “Douris painted.” Even Euphronios, to whom -Klein devoted an entire book, making this artist famous--and who to -many represents the vase painter _par excellence_--only signed as -draughtsman three or four vases, and as craftsman seven. - -As potter and painter, Douris fulfils the necessary qualifications of -a master-craftsman; above all as draughtsman and painter, he satisfies -most fully our desire of finding in the decoration of painted vases a -reflection of the great contemporary art. This is why the choice of his -name seemed to us imperative. - -[Illustration: Fig. 3. THE PAINTER SMIKROS AND HIS COMPANIONS. - -Krater in the Brussels Museum.] - - - - -CHAPTER II - -THE SOCIAL CONDITION OF A VASE PAINTER AT ATHENS - - -A biography of Douris must not be expected. No classical writer has -honoured one of these potters even so far as to mention his name. -Ancient literature has only left some brief allusions to the craft, -some inscriptions recalling their dedications in sanctuaries. The -vases themselves and the inscriptions traced thereon form the clearest -testimony we possess. Here again we must be guided by discretion and -not drift into romance. A learned German assumes that Euthymides, a -celebrated potter of the fifth century and a contemporary of Douris, -must have died young, while his rival Euphronios, after a long career, -died at an advanced age. He quite forgets that the number of signed -vases to be attributed to any individual artist is liable to be -diminished or increased by a chance discovery, and that we are still -far from being able to survey at a glance the complete production of -a manufacturer. Euthymides may have produced far more than Euphronios; -we have, however, only recovered seven of his vases. An enquiry into -the lives of vase painters must be confined to a consideration of the -general conditions of their position. All inference as to special facts -is necessarily conjectural and fictitious. - -Modern historians have made known to us this important fact: trade in -Athens, as in other Greek cities, was chiefly in the hands of those -called “Metics,” that is to say, strangers living in the city and given -certain political rights regulated by special laws. Athens possessed -laws most favourable to the metics, and from the time of Solon, -according to Plutarch, strangers crowded into this generous city, which -offered such obvious advantages to settlers. - -During the time of the Peloponnesian war (431 B.C.) the number of -metics had increased to 96,000, as compared with 120,000 citizens--an -enormous proportion. It is therefore to be supposed that many -manufacturers at the beginning of the fifth century were aliens or -descended from foreign families. This hypothesis is confirmed by the -potters’ names, many of which are foreign: Skythes (the Scythian), -Lydos (the Lydian), Amasis (name of an Egyptian Pharaoh of the -sixth century), Kolchos (inhabitant of Colchis), Thrax (of Thrace), -Sikanos and Sikelos (the Sicilian), Brygos (name of a Macedonian or -Illyrian people), etc. Beside these, however, we meet with many purely -Greek or Attic names--Klitias, Ergotimos, Nikosthenes, Epiktetos, -Pamphaios, Euphronios, Hieron, Megakles, and others. In certain cases, -the craftsman’s patronymic follows, as Kleomenes, son of Nikias; -Euthymedes, son of Polios. This indicates a freeman and citizen of -Athens. Once we even find the deme mentioned: Nikias, son of Hermokles, -of the deme Anaphlystos. We here catch a glimpse of a society where the -actual citizen associates freely with many naturalised aliens. It is -probable that slaves or freedmen were also employed, as one may guess -from the following nicknames: Paidikos (beautiful child), Smikros (the -little one), Mys (the rat). Douris’ name does not appear to be Attic. -It is always written Doris on vases, but we know that in those times -the diphthong _ou_ was simply expressed by _o_. The name Doris does not -exist in the catalogue of men’s names which has come down to us, while -the name Douris is well-known. It may have been of Ionian origin. - -To resume, the Kerameikos of Athens formed a district by itself, a -little world where all sorts of people belonging to different races -and societies jostled one another. The master was the manager of -the factory and a craftsman, capable of making a vase as well as -painting it, designing the forms, the ornaments, and the subjects. -His assistants, who were sometimes allowed the honour of signing, -were employed under his direction in the shaping and decorating of -pottery; even women took part in this work, as we see on a beautiful -vase-painting (Fig. 2) to be described later. Lastly, there were the -workmen engaged in working the clay, preparing the glaze and the -colours, taking care of the ovens, moving materials, etc. Comparing the -arrangements in a modern ceramic factory, one will find about the same -conditions and these three grades of workers. - -[Illustration: Fig. 4. A POTTER’S WORKSHOP. MODELLING AND BAKING OF -VASES. - -Hydria. Munich Museum.] - -We must naturally picture things in Greece on a modest scale: the -enterprise conducted at less expense than nowadays, the capital -smaller, and the staff reduced to those strictly required. Above -all, it is necessary to remember that the division of labour was -far less marked in ancient times than with us. The same man was -capable of different tasks, he was employed according to his ability -and intelligence. There was nothing of the mechanical spirit, which -nowadays has passed into the man from the machine, and, for the sake -of greater speed and precision, isolates a workman in a corner of -the factory without teaching him anything else. Undoubtedly a social -hierarchy existed and weighed heavily upon the individual; to be -citizen, metic, or slave implied profoundly different conditions of -life, which raised more formidable barriers between classes than with -us. But in the exercise of art or industry the life of the ancients -presents itself under a singularly democratic aspect. Their workmen -shared their mental work far more than ours do, and were familiar with -all the details of the craft. This it is which gives to the industrial -art of the Greeks a marked distinction. No matter how modest the -work, one feels a living intelligence therein. The history of vases -is most suggestive in this respect. We never find the stiffness of -mechanical labour, the monotony of copy repeated to satiety. All -are not masterpieces--far from it. But not one is quite devoid of -individuality, and the best proof that can be given is that two painted -Greek vases exactly identical do not exist. - -Whether Douris was metic or citizen, we may think of him as a -craftsman, who by his knowledge and skill had acquired an important -position in the town, and directed one of these flourishing -establishments in the potters’ quarter, near the Dipylon Gate, and just -at the entrance to the Necropolis. His ware helped to carry the fame of -Attic taste into distant lands. - -We know that the majority of Greek vases have been gathered from -Etruscan tombs, where they formed the personal property of the dead -after having been used by families at banquets and at religious -ceremonies. Similar finds have been made in many other sites of the -ancient world: in the islands of Sicily, Rhodes, Melos; on the coast -of Africa, in Cyrenaica; in the Thracian Chersonese, even as far as -the Crimea. But nowhere have the finds been richer than in Etruria; -this was the favourite market for Attic ware during the sixth and the -greater part of the fifth century. - -After the disastrous war in Sicily, when communication with the -Tyrrhenian Sea was severed, they turned to southern Italy, the -Islands, Africa, and the Scythian colonies. The trade in vases was -not limited to the home market, to the customers of Athens and the -neighbourhood. The most important and most thriving part of the -industry was the export into foreign countries. What we to-day term -_l’article de Paris_ scattered over all the world somewhat recalls the -favour enjoyed by Attic productions in that age. Great profits must -have been realised. - -This trade was again combined with other important exports. It would be -an error to consider the painted vase as a curio simply made for the -pleasure of the eyes of the collector or artist, like the porcelain -of China and of Japan to-day. The Greeks had no _bric-à-brac_. We may -even say that there were no art amateurs or collectors. Utility was the -only foundation of art: it formed its health and strength. We do not -believe a statue was ever made, even in the fifth century, simply for -the pleasure of creating a beautiful piece of work. Each art object had -a practical purpose, and only existed by virtue of a want: offerings -to the gods, consecrations after victories, household utensils, votive -offerings at the altar and the tomb. It follows that industrial art was -still more intimately connected with practical needs. The amphora, -which appears as a speciality of Athens in the ceramic industry, -contained the famous oil gathered in the plain--to-day still famous -for its olive groves--or wine from Parnes. We know positively that -the Panathenaic amphoræ given as prizes at the feasts in honour of -Athene contained the savoury oil produced by the sacred plants of the -goddess. Victors carried these to their homes as trophies. There is -no reason to believe that other vases were treated differently. Why -should the painted amphoræ, such as are found from the sixth century -onwards in great numbers in Etruscan tombs, be sent forth empty from -the workshops of Corinth, Chalkis, or Athens? They certainly once -contained a product prized by the inhabitants of Caere and Volsinii -more than the beauty of the painting on their exterior. In consequence -of this beautiful decoration, which was a sort of trade-mark of Greek -produce, rich families in Italy ordered entire “table services” from -Athens for special use at banquets and religious festivals. They -not only comprised receptacles for oil and wine--amphoræ, krateres, -lekythoi, decanters for wine as the oinochoai, holders of water as the -hydria--but also vases for drinking, such as the kylix, the kantharos, -and the skyphos, and even plates and platters. From the fifth -century onwards Athens had succeeded in destroying all competition. She -had become the unique centre of this trade. The character of the art -then obtained decisive importance. - -[Illustration: Fig. 5. A DISPLAY OF VASES AND A PURCHASER. - -Kylix by Phintias. Baltimore Museum.] - -The manufacture of the kylix--which was essentially the instrument of -joy and gaiety, passing at banquets from hand to hand and admired by -every one as it passed--received an impetus until then unknown. - -Hence it was in consequence of being in close connection with the -export trade and with the two other great industries of wine and oil -that the ceramic art of Athens developed so extraordinarily. The -manufacturers must frequently have made large fortunes. Historians -tell us that the great fortunes in Athens were in the hands of the -metics. It is not astonishing to hear of rich offerings being made -on the Acropolis by manufacturers, some of whom were potters. On the -pedestal of an offering we read the name of the potter Euphronios. A -votive stele, in a style of delicate archaism, represents in bas-relief -a manufacturer of vases seated, holding two drinking cups in one hand. -Unfortunately a great part of the inscription is effaced, but one can -still distinguish the end of a name “IOS” which might be Euphronios. -The style of the sculpture and the accepted date of the ceramist would -agree. - -The most beautiful archaic statue found on the Acropolis is signed -by one of the greatest sculptors of the fourth century, Antenor, and -bears a dedication made by a certain Nearchos, who might be a maker of -black-figured vases--one of which is preserved. This identification is -unfortunately not certain, but is admitted by several archæologists, -and implies nothing improbable. If one could definitely prove that -the potter Nearchos had ordered, of a famous sculptor, an important -work for an offering to the goddess Athene as a tithe of his gains, we -should possess most important evidence as to the social and pecuniary -condition of craftsmen. - -Another curious record of the mode of life led by certain potters is -given on a vase in the Museum at Brussels. A painter has painted his -own portrait in the features of a young man at a banquet leaning on a -couch, feasting in the gay company of friends and hetairai (Fig. 3). -He is a contemporary of Douris named Smikros. One day, his purse being -well filled in consequence of good orders, he and some companions of -the studio indulged in the pleasures the city yielded. - -If, by such information we may consider the pecuniary position of -potters as fairly good, shall we conclude that their education was -equal to that of the best Athenian society? Here it may be well to -enter a protest against the commonly accepted opinion. Vase painters -are usually credited with qualities of originality amounting to -positive genius. The merit of the composition and of the choice of -subject, the skill in placing the figures, the invention of attitude -and movement, are all attributed to them. Hartwig, an author who has -closely studied the Greek drinking cups of the fifth century, goes so -far in his admiration as to reject as fanciful any connection between -the works of this industry and the great works of contemporary art. -He grants that vase painters copy one another, and that they borrow -mutually subjects for designs and even persons. But he maintains that -their province remains indisputedly theirs, and one need not look for -copies from celebrated works in their art. - -This opinion appears, like many others, to contain a truth and an -error. It is quite true, that to look for a commonplace reproduction -of great art upon painted vases would be useless. Many subjects are -strictly designed for the express purpose of the vase, for the form of -its surface, and are drawn from scenes of everyday life which were -constantly under the draughtsman’s eyes, scenes of the palæstra, of -banquets, military armaments, processions of cavalry, etc. Who could -imagine a Greek draughtsman not copying Nature? - -But, on the other hand, how can one think of an artisan as skilled as -an Athenian ceramist, who could remain indifferent to the lessons of -the great masters? Would not his eyes and brain be filled with the -works of art which made all public buildings and sanctuaries museums -in the open air? And in that case, what strange rule would forbid -him to borrow many of the subjects and persons from these superior -models? These would be abstracts, free compositions, adaptations, but -nevertheless a borrowing. - -[Illustration: Fig. 6. YOUTHS EXERCISING IN THE PALÆSTRA. - -Kylix by Douris. Louvre Museum.] - -Furthermore, what we have just said of vase manufacturers places -them in a popular class whose members did not shine by education. -Merchants of free status, metics, freedmen or slaves could not form -a society comparable to the one in which lived a Polygnotos or a -Phidias. Isocrates says scornfully: “Who would dare compare Phidias -to a maker of terracottas, or Zeuxis and Parrhasios to a painter of -votive offerings?” He would undoubtedly have said the same of vase -painters. We affirm, in fact, that many of these workers were quite -illiterate; some were content simply to trace sham letters or letters -in juxtaposition, without any meaning, in the place of the usual -inscription. Many made gross mistakes, or mixed the dialect of their -own country with that of Athens. Some did not even know how to spell -the name of the potter for whom they were working, but wrote it in -three or four different ways. These little facts help to illustrate the -inferior condition of this society. To look here for great artists, -philosophers or thinkers, rivals of Pindar and Æschylus, of Phidias -and Polygnotos, would be contrary to all likelihood. If Euphronios, -Douris or Brygos had genius, it was entirely in their province as -skilled draughtsmen, guided and influenced by beautiful models, besides -being business men and prudent merchants. The idea of raising such men -to the height of creators and inventors would certainly have greatly -astonished the Athenians. - -To sum up, Nature and living truth--the works of great masters and -the teachings of the past--these form the double source from which -all artists, at all times, have drawn. It would seem difficult to -exclude from one or the other the painters of Greek vases. On the -contrary, in studying them we feel, although their social position is -humble, and their private education mediocre, that they are peculiarly -great, inasmuch as their artistic sense is always alert, always -emulous of competitors or works of art about them, and, finally, -great in that dominant quality which the Greek carries within him--a -keen sensitiveness to all that is beautiful in life. As artisans, -craftsmen, merchants and metics, they move in a lower sphere in their -city; but nothing shows more clearly the power of the environment than -seeing in Athens, which had become the spiritual centre of Greece, -the working man’s world raising itself without effort from its dead -level to the intellectual life of the higher classes: a phenomenon -all the more remarkable as it occurred in an ancient society, that is -to say, in an era when the social barriers were inflexibly rigid. May -modern democracies be inspired by this example and understand that the -education of the masses comes from the highly-gifted, and the masses -will never be high-minded when those whom fortune has placed above them -are worthless. - - - - -CHAPTER III - -THE WORKSHOP AND TOOLS OF DOURIS - - -We must regard Douris from two points of view: the craftsman and the -artist. - -Let us first see what his workshop was like. Again, all the documents -we possess are the vases themselves, or terracotta tablets which served -as votive offerings. We see upon them workmen in the act of turning or -painting pots, lighted ovens, pottery exposed for sale, etc. Upon a -black-figured hydria at Munich (Fig. 4) we see such an establishment -divided into two parts: to the left is the workshop where the turning, -shaping and polishing of vases takes place; to the right, under the -supervision of an aged man, who apparently is the master, are other -workmen carrying finished pots to dry and bake them. In the extreme -corner is the high oven decorated with a Silenus mask. Here, a vase -from Ruvo (Fig. 2) takes us to a painter’s studio. Three painters, each -grasping a brush, are decorating the body and neck of two krateres and -one kantharos, while other vases on the ground are awaiting their turn. -To the right, on a platform, a woman is painting the handle of a larger -krater; above her some small pots are leaning against the wall. The -composition is ingeniously completed by the appearance of two Victories -and Athene armed with helmet and lance, who solemnly crown the workmen -bending over their work--a poetic symbol to glorify the fame of -Athenian industry. - -The act of painting is illustrated upon some vase fragments, where we -see the artist working with a very finely-pointed brush (Fig. 25). -Lastly, some Corinthian platters show us workmen turning vases and -watching the baking, and the kiln filled with piles of pottery. One -even represents a merchant ship with a cargo of pottery, oinochoai -or small perfume bottles, destined for some land across the sea. We -will mention one other kylix by the painter Phintias, upon which are -displayed a potter’s wares. A number of vases are placed on the ground, -and a youth with a purse in his hand is stooping in the act of choosing -his purchase (Fig. 5). - -[Illustration: Fig. 7. APHRODITE UPON HER SWAN. - -White background. British Museum.] - -All these scenes are small genre pictures like _The Barbers_ or _The -Lace Makers_ of Holland and Flanders in the seventeenth century. -They teach us the chief characteristics of the ceramic art. - -An establishment of this kind implies several buildings. The vase -turners or makers would be in a separate room from the painters. -One or more ovens would be required in a court, with a shed for the -storage of raw materials, and for kneading and refining the clay. -Lastly, we must assume that there were some rooms for warehousing and a -sale-room adjoining the factory, in addition to rooms for the masters -and night-watchmen. No matter how modest the staff, it would amount to -fifteen or twenty persons, counting not only those in charge of the -factory, but labourers and stokers. Upon the hydria at Munich (Fig. 4), -in a painting necessarily restricted, we can count eight persons. Upon -the vase from Ruvo (Fig. 2) the studio contains four workers--three men -and one woman--all painting. To obtain a correct idea of the staff one -must at least treble this number. - -Hence a potter like Douris must have superintended a factory -representing a commercial enterprise of some importance. We must -not think of an artist, who, in his solitary studio, at his leisure -and according to his inspiration, sketches subjects or forms for -vases, and leaves the execution to others. We must not forget it is -an industry. This practical purpose must profoundly influence one’s -opinions as to the nature of the potter’s studies, his manner of -composing, and the profit he expects from his enterprise. - -We will not discuss points of technique which demand too detailed an -enquiry, and would raise questions not yet solved. Let us think of the -materials as gathered in the hands of the craftsman: clay carefully -chosen and refined, colours for glazing and retouching, lustres -intended to brighten the natural colour of the clay, and the black for -the design, wheels and moulds, rules and compass, sharp points for -sketching, brushes of all kinds, etc. - -The most commonly used and most valuable ingredient is the black glaze, -the composition of which is still unknown; its basis is oxide of iron. -It is used for drawings on red clay, to trace features, persons, -accessories and decorations, and to cover the background. It is to -the Greek what Indian ink is to the draughtsman of Japan. In baking, -it takes on a warm, velvety tone, sometimes a little olive, sometimes -it becomes in the flames a little yellow or red. It is brightened -by a brilliant lustre which frequently produces the effect of a -mirror, but it never has the cold or waxy tone which disfigures modern -imitations of antique vases. It is thick and rich, and forms, after -drying, a slight prominence perceptible to the finger. Lastly, it is -indestructible, even by acids, and does not change with time, unless -the surface of the clay beneath it has been touched by damp, in which -case it flakes off. - -The invention of this black was one of the most beautiful discoveries -in ancient industry. If we could only discover its formula it would -still be of the greatest importance. It was in use from the time of -the Mycenæan age, that is to say, more than a thousand years before -our era; eventually potters brought it to perfection, increasing its -delicacy, thickness and brilliancy. About the time of Douris it had -reached its perfection and retained its excellence until the end of -the fifth century. After the capture of Athens and the ruin of the -potters’ workshops, the recipe was lost or the manufacture of it became -neglected, for vases of the fourth century, found in Bœotia and in -Southern Italy, show a great deterioration in this respect. - -Next to the black, his brush is of the greatest importance to the -Athenian artist. Its nature has been much discussed. In some of the -illustrations cited, we see it in the hands of workmen while drawing -(Figs. 2 and 25). It consists of a thin handle, doubtless of wood, -to which is joined a long and thin point. Some suppose it to be -the barbule of a bird’s feather; the feathers of the woodcock are -particularly suitable for very delicate lines. In the opinion of others -it is merely a hog’s bristle. The brushes vary in thickness according -to the number and stoutness of the bristles employed. - -The Greeks must have been able to paint with one single bristle, a -method requiring great patience and special skill in loading the -brush with paint and guiding it on the clay; but in this manner -particularly delicate lines of even strength from end to end can be -obtained. Experiments have been made with ordinary paint, proving this -conclusively. Of course the painter must have had thicker brushes at -his disposal with which to trace heavier outlines. The background had -to be put in with heavy and broad brushes. But the fine brush is the -tool above all others with which the Greek draughtsman accomplished -wonderful feats, placing lines of extraordinary delicacy side by -side, or throwing out a line at a single stroke, the impeccable -straightness of which delights and surprises the eye. We have reason -to believe that it was not a tool for craftsmen only. Painters of -frescoes and large paintings had the same difficulties to contend with, -if we are to give credence to an anecdote by Pliny: for Apelles and -Protogenes competed who should draw the most perfect and finest line. - -[Illustration: Fig. 8. EOS CARRYING MEMNON, HER DEAD SON. - -Kylix by Douris. Louvre Museum.] - - - - -CHAPTER IV - -HOW DOURIS WORKED - - -Let us now watch the craftsman at work. We have said that Douris was -a potter, but that usually he left to others the care of making vases -according to well-known models, and reserved to himself the task of -decoration. In what then does his character of painter consist? - -First he must decide on the subject. The Greeks tried, as much as -possible, to adapt the design to the purpose of the vase. An amphora or -a krater would not usually have the same design as a kylix. There were -no rules on the subject, and the utmost liberty was given the artist. -Nevertheless, we notice that grave subjects and personages in attitudes -of repose are given the preference on large vases, which had stable -bases and were rarely moved, as harmonizing best with their broad -surface and vertical lines. Animated or everyday subjects are better -adapted to the horizontal sides of a kylix, which circulated freely in -the hands of guests. - -For the same reason, we may say that the painting of large vases -remained essentially conservative, more attached to ancient methods and -subjects, while the painting of the kylix constantly called forth new -ideas: hence its great importance in the fifth century. - -Certain archæologists claim to have discovered two distinct branches -in the industry--but that is an error. The same distinguished artists -produced the large krater and the kylix, as for example Euphronios. -But it would be more correct to distinguish two schools side by side, -and those artists who by preference decorated the kylix were more -“progressive.” Douris is of this number, if not in style, at least in -the choice of his subjects. He tries to create new designs; he draws -from daily life, banquet scenes, dancing scenes, scenes from the -palæstra (Fig. 6), amorous scenes--well adapted for a drinking cup. On -the other hand, if he approaches heroic or mythical compositions, he -makes use of the opportunity to draw beautiful bodies in motion, rape -or battle episodes: The Nereids flying from Peleus (Fig. 13); Theseus -killing the Minotaur and Attic robbers (Fig. 11); or the battles of -heroes in Homer, as those of Menelaos and Paris or Ajax and Hector -(Figs. 9 and 10). At other times, we find allusions to recent glorious -events which had taken place in Greece, a Greek soldier striking down a -Persian (Fig. 20), Hoplites and Asiatic archers at close quarters. He -belonged to that group of artists who are always looking for action, -for the new and the modern. - -After what originals did the painter compose? We are quite ignorant -here, and cannot specify without falling into fiction and hypothesis. -Were there sketch books, representing the individual observations -of the artist, taken from Nature or from great contemporary works? -Or did πίνακες, tablets of wood or panels of terracotta, serve for -preliminary sketches? Did a painter, as it were, design a “model” which -he transferred to clay or gave to his workmen as a theme to work upon? -All these questions remain unanswered. One is forced to surmise that -the master signed only works on which he himself had worked, those -which he designed and circulated as his latest productions, the _editio -princeps_, so to speak, inscribed with his signature. But when a -subject once composed was repeated in the workshop, copied with slight -variations by workmen, the pottery, no matter what its commercial -value, was no longer entitled to this personal certificate. - -[Illustration: Fig. 9. CONTEST OF MENELAOS AND PARIS. - -Exterior of preceding Cup.] - -Subjects thus composed with free repetition must be very numerous, for -there is, as it were, a strong family likeness among many of them: -battle scenes, banquets, gatherings of youths, games in the palæstra. -Another important fact, must be stated, no obstacle was placed against -plagiarism in ancient times; on the contrary, it was the spirit and -essence of industrial art. We have proof of this in the terracottas -as well as in the vases. Every one copies or imitates his neighbour. -There is no copyright or patent for artistic property, an idea which -has become the subject of legislation only in modern times. Considering -the communistic way in which these Greek craftsmen lived, at a time -when production was so intense, and the personal reputation of a potter -might prove so great a factor in his fortune, we can readily understand -how any man may have been led to protect himself against plagiarism -by means of a signature which authenticated a production. A krater by -Euphronios, a kylix by Douris or Brygos, might be particularly sought -after by certain customers in Greece and Etruria. Why should they not -be assured that they had in their hands an original work of a great -master, and not a copy made by workmen or competitors? Have we not -clocks signed by Boulle, and chests of drawers by Riesener, which are -thus distinguished from similar objects, sometimes very beautiful, but -which, without a trade-mark, do not represent original work? - -Such then is the sense in which we should understand the signature of -a vase by Douris. He sought, devised and composed the design. And even -more, his own hands carried out the painting. - -Let us now reflect upon the material side of the painter’s trade. - -The artist begins with a simple sketch made by means of a hard -point, it may simply be the sharpened end of a bit of wood, which -scratches the unbaked clay, leaving decided traces after the final -painting, baking and glazing. There is hardly a beautiful vase of -this period, signed or not, which does not show these traces. This -sketch sufficiently proves the absolute independence of the worker -in regard to his model, and contradicts the opinion of those who -maintain that the transfer was made with compasses. On the contrary, -one feels how free the work is, and that the arrangement was invented -entirely to suit the object decorated. And what enables us to follow -the method of sketching still more closely, is the fact that the -stroke of the brush, coming after, has not always exactly followed -its lines. There have been alterations at the last moment, a lowered -arm has been raised, a foot advanced, etc. It is impossible to doubt -the spontaneous character, in some respects the improvisation of the -design. It is, besides, rare to outline completely every person in -a sketch. Frequently the outlines of one or two, with their chief -characteristics, are drawn, and these determine the rest. - -When the sketch is finished, the painter begins to put in his colour. -He first takes a broad brush and rapidly indicates in black the -outlines of the figures which compose his picture: this broad stroke -of the brush charged with more colour and forming a projection round -the figures can be easily distinguished. Next come the fine brushes, -composed of only one bristle, giving in accurate and precise strokes -the chief lines of the bodies and the folds of the garments; others, -a little heavier, are used to indicate the hair, the beard, ornaments -on the garments, etc. The black may be used in a variety of tones. By -diluting it a more fluid matter was obtained, rather grey, which was -frequently used for the under sides of objects, for rendering muscular -details, the wavy folds in drapery, locks of hair, etc. Usually -this diluted black would turn yellow in the baking. An unobtrusive -polychrome is the result which the painters used with ingenuity; they -were thus able to produce blonde hair or slightly golden folds of -garments. - -We have already stated that, in order to carry out these very fine -lines, the artist probably held his brush firmly, not only with the -tips of his fingers, but with closed hand as the Japanese painters -still do (Figs. 2 and 25). He must move slowly and firmly in tracing -these fine lines. Constantly obliged to take fresh colour, he sometimes -had to break a line two or three times; but these joinings are only -visible with a magnifying glass. It is said that it was impossible to -make any correction of the stroke, and that the faultless execution of -the lines proves the wonderful skill of the Greeks. We believe this to -be an error. A wet sponge probably sufficed to remove any drawings or -parts of them from the clay, and when it was dry the artist could begin -work again. It was a question of patience and skill. It is because -correction was so easy, that the results attained are usually -perfect. - -[Illustration: Fig. 10. CONTEST OF AJAX AND HECTOR. - -Exterior of preceding Cup.] - -The painting finished, the pot was handed over to a workman to fill in -the background between the figures with black as well as the foot and -the edges of the handles. - -After the black had dried, the pot was returned to the artist’s hands -to be retouched with colour. In the sixth century, in the black-figured -style, many colours were used, as violet-red and white. At the time of -Douris, the red figured vases displayed very few complementary colours. -Great simplicity characterized the taste of the times. A few red lines -sufficed to indicate fillets tied in the hair, belts holding swords, -the reins of horses, etc. Red was likewise used to trace inscriptions -or the signature of the artist (Fig. 8). Others preferred to inscribe -it in black on the foot of handle (Fig. 15). Others again incised it -with a style in the thick colour. White only returns again to favour -after the Persian wars. About the time of Douris, in the workshop of -one of his rivals--Brygos--who may have been a little younger, attempts -were made to heighten the effect of the red figures by a little gilding -cautiously placed on the outlines of the armour, helmets and vases for -libations. It is a return to the rich polychromy, which later continues -to develop, and ends in those pretty little gilt vases devoted to -scenes of child life, beloved by Attic customers towards the end of -the fifth century. As far as we know, Douris does not seem to have -taken part in the manufacture of the beautiful drinking cups with a -white background and fresco tones of brown, red and violet, with which -the workshops of Euphronios and his successors were busy (Fig. 7). He -adheres to the classical method of figures left in the red clay, and -only retouched by a few wine-coloured lines. It may be said that he is -not a colourist. To his eyes, as to those of Ingres, drawing is the -very foundation of the art. - -When the drawings were finished, his chief task was done; but his -position as manufacturer did not permit him to remain indifferent to -the rest. He had to carry his painted pottery to the drying place, and, -after the required time, to have it baked. This is a very delicate part -of the manufacture of vases, on which its success greatly depends. -Ancient ovens were probably very imperfect. There are many examples of -oxidization by contact with the flame, which improperly reddens the -side of a vase or turns half a figure orange. The supports on which -vases were placed, while drying, sometimes left round marks. In one -known instance, in consequence of two freshly painted vases touching -one another, the hoofs of a horse have become impressed upon the face -of a youth. - -Defects in the material were more liable then than now to expose the -ceramist to breakage and various accidents, which at all times have -been the despair of the manufacturer, and which an Homeric singer -already ascribed to special demons, “Syntrips, Smaragos, Asbetos, -Sabaktes, Omodamos, gods fatal to the furnace.” We have already -described a kiln adorned with a head of Silenus, a prophylactic fetish, -destined to cast out evil influences (Fig. 4). - -At last the pottery is taken out of the oven. The master can -contemplate his work, test the delicacy of its sides, examine the -fusion of the colours, study the change of tone in the baking. Other -workmen come to immerse the vases in a prepared bath, which will -glaze the entire visible surface, brighten the red of the clay, the -background and all the black lines, but will leave the retouching -dull. We are quite ignorant of the ingredients of the bath which so -thoroughly accomplished all this and gave the pottery its splendour. -We only know that a red precipitate was formed, traces of which are -frequently visible under the foot and upon the clay which had remained -uncovered. Among vases of the decline, this red overruns the entire -drawing and gives an unpleasant appearance to the whole; in this case, -as with the black, either the recipe of the glaze had been lost, or -else the work was badly executed. Possibly a dry rubbing with leather -or some other substance added finish to the glaze. - -We must not even yet regard the potter’s work as finished. He had to -superintend the sale, attract customers, confer with shipowners in -regard to the export. Nor was advertising unknown to the ancients. -It adopted many devices. Some potters contrived to paint on the vase -subjects or inscriptions alluding to the products therein. There are -scenes of wine and oil sales, with sentences, praising the merchandise -or the honesty of the merchant. There are incentives to the pleasure of -drinking, friendly greetings and wishes of good health to him who will -use the kylix or kantharos. Even the details of the potter’s trade have -served as matter for representation, to recall to the customer the fame -of Attic workshops. The prettiest allegory is the one we mentioned -above, where we saw Athene accompanied by two little Victories entering -a workshop of painters and placing crowns on the heads of the workmen -(Fig. 2). - -[Illustration: Fig. 11. THE ADVENTURES OF THESEUS. - -By Douris. British Museum.] - -But the means most frequently adopted to attract buyers was to inscribe -on the body of a vase the name of some young man of distinguished -family in Athens, known either for his beauty or his fortune, and in -this way to gain the good-will of a rich customer, who would bring the -patronage of all his family and friends. We have a large number of such -inscriptions wherein the manufacturer invokes “the handsome Leagros,” -“the handsome Glaukon,” or “the handsome Megakles,” etc., and we -recognize in these names well-known members of the Athenian aristocracy -(Figs. 5, 7, 8). - -It will be remembered that the Italian potters of the sixteenth century -put into circulation _coppe amatorie_, bearing portraits of beautiful -women, surrounded by inscriptions celebrating _Lucrezia diva_ or “the -fair Camilla.” This is a similar idea. - -Lastly, we have one example of a personal advertisement in rather an -aggressive form, coming from Euthymides, a contemporary and rival -of Euphronios. Upon an amphora in the Museum at Munich, the boastful -craftsman has written this defiant apostrophe: “Euphronios has never -done so well!” - -These minute details enable us to penetrate into the material life of -the workshop. We catch a glimpse of the greedy struggles for gain, -the ambitions and rivalries involved in all commercial enterprise. It -is the seamy side of this beautiful art, which to-day appears to us -so pure and free from all material considerations. As in all human -efforts, there were undoubtedly in reality many competing interests, -many cruel cares, much deceit and hatred. But time has done its work; -has thrown a veil over the mean and petty things in life, and only -allowed those to survive which are truly sane and useful. Let us -rejoice in not knowing whether Douris was a successful business man, -whether he honestly made a fortune, or whether he died miserably in -debt. That which remains of his work is the spiritual, the true and -fruitful part of his life. His drawings teach us what he was, not as an -individual, but as an artist, as a member of the great Athenian family, -and this it is which interests us above all. - - - - -CHAPTER V - -THE WORK OF DOURIS - - -We will only consider here the works signed by Douris, and leave -aside a considerable number of anonymous vases attributed to him. We -only wish to argue from indisputable records. The number consists of -twenty-six drinking cups, one kantharos, and one vase for cooling wine, -forming in all about eighty paintings, which can be divided into three -distinct groups: - - 1. Mythical and heroic subjects, adventures of gods and heroes. - - 2. Martial subjects, scenes of arming and battle. - - 3. Subjects of everyday life, banquets, conversations and - exercises in the palæstra. - -It would, no doubt, be interesting to study these subjects -chronologically, and to follow step by step the career of the artist; -but we could not place much confidence in a detailed enumeration of -dates. We will select the first group as most clear and precise. This -will not prevent our examining the numerous and diverse styles through -which the talent of Douris passed. On the whole, we may say there were -two chief periods in his style: the one, while he adhered to ancient -traditions, and his drawings remained stiff and archaic; the other, -when his brush became flexible to a remarkable degree, and when he -began to create. It is the story of many artists, both ancient and -modern. - - -1. _Mythical and Heroic Subjects._ - -The kylix of Eos and Memnon (Figs. 8, 9, 10), well known to visitors of -the Louvre, is not only the oldest but the one which best illustrates -the first period of Douris, and deserves the closest attention from -lovers of art. It is a masterpiece of Greek ceramic art, at a time -when the painting of red figures, while still retaining the stiff, -archaic forms, finds means to move the feelings by purity of line and -a deep sense of life. The vase, by the potter Kalliades, in itself -reveals an old shape (Fig. 1 right) with the foot short and squat, the -sides heavy, a deep bowl and short handles, following the models of -Nikosthenes and Pamphaios of the sixth century. Later Douris made a -kylix of far more graceful outline, with a shallower bowl, a higher -stem made slender in the middle, and lighter handles, such as one -sees in the workshops of Euphronios, Hieron and Brygos (Fig. 1 left). -On this kylix there are a great number of inscriptions: nearly every -person is designated by name. Besides the signatures of the potter and -painter we can read the name of the handsome Hermogenes (Fig. 8), and -with it a fragment of a phrase, the meaning of which remains doubtful. -Seventeen or eighteen words in all are scattered in fine red letters -over the inner surface and the reverse of the cup. This profusion of -writing is in itself archaic; men were communicative in early times, -and delighted in labelling their figures like our old illuminators of -the Middle Ages. More recent works of Douris have lost this useless -mode of expression. Painting is its own interpreter, and has no further -need of this awkward assistance. - -[Illustration: Fig. 12. - - THESEUS AND KERKYON, - AND - THE STRUGGLE WITH THE MARATHONIAN BULL. - -Kylix by Euphronios. Louvre Museum.] - -The composition is synthetic. It contains three events in the Trojan -war. On the reverse are the combats of Menelaos and Paris, Ajax and -Hector; on the inner side the Ethiopian King Memnon lies dead in the -arms of his mother, the goddess Eos (the Dawn). Some archæologists -who have studied these paintings have tried to find here a strong and -learned unity, a kind of drama in three acts, even at the expense of -the inscriptions. Brunn even maintained that the latter were faulty, as -he conceived therein an Achilleid, celebrating three different feats of -the great hero. Others have refused to see any reference to the Epics, -and have noted the differences which distinguished the text of Homer -from these paintings. For instance, Douris has placed behind Menelaos -the goddess Aphrodite, protectress of Troy, which seems inconsistent; -behind Paris we see Artemis carrying her bow; behind Ajax is the -goddess Athene. These divinities do not figure in the Homeric account. -As regards the death of Memnon, it appears to belong to an epic by -another cyclic poet, Arktinos of Miletos. It is the imagination of the -poet that collected at random, as it were, these scattered subjects, -and united them according to his fancy. - -The opinion we hold amid these conflicting views will be more easily -understood by reference to the chapters on the social and mental -conditions of the Athenian potters. To suppose them to have conceived -themes of deep meaning, elaborated like an ode of Pindar or a chorus of -Sophocles with strophe, antistrophe and epode, seems most unlikely; and -if, in order to gain good results, the inscriptions must be changed, -we do not hesitate to reject such a procedure as contrary to all -scientific method. Who can believe that these profound thinkers were -so stupid as not to write correct inscriptions? On the other hand, we -know enough of the art of the period, of the advance made in design, -to expect a certain unity in the whole. It is the spirit of the entire -school to unite the different parts of the vase by subjects closely -connected, or at least related. In the present case we believe the -Trojan war to be the great theme uniting the three paintings. This was -the most cherished subject, even with the people. We must remember -that a painter of vases had nothing in common with a modern designer -who has a text to illustrate before his eyes. It is hardly likely that -manuscripts of Homer or Arktinos were found on the work-benches of the -Kerameikos. For these craftsmen, memory or the remembrance of some -recitation at the Panathenaic festivals had to take the place of the -book. - -In consequence, the chief episode must have made a decided impression -on the mind, without involving accuracy in minor details. In re-reading -the _Iliad_, Book III. (Menelaos and Paris), and Book VII. (Ajax and -Hector), we gain the impression that the artist, whoever he was (for -the craftsman may have copied a known work), has here reproduced the -essential elements of the drama. In adding persons, as Athene behind -Paris, or Aphrodite behind Menelaos, the artist simply adhered to the -conditions of the composition of a painting, which at this period -scrupulously obeyed the rules of symmetry. Aphrodite is placed there -to restrain the arm of Menelaos, as the gesture of her right hand -indicates. Artemis, as a companion figure on the other side, represents -the protecting gods of Troy (Fig. 9); two goddesses were not too much -to watch over the handsome Paris. - -The other reverse (Fig. 10) similarly conforms to, and diverges from, -the Homeric text. As in the poem, Hector struck by a rock thrown by -his adversary sinks to his knees and Apollo advances to support him. -(The irregularly shaped object above indicates the stone.) In Homer, -Athene does not appear, but here, placed as she is behind Ajax, whom -she appears to be pushing forward with a gesture, she represents the -protecting goddess of the Greeks. The symmetry of the two sides is -essential. The decorative tradition requires it, and the painter sets -his professional duty before his respect for a poetic text, in which no -one saw anything more than a general theme for beautiful subjects -and attitudes. We are quite convinced that the great painters took -exactly the same liberties with the cyclic poems they interpreted. The -description of the masterpiece of Polygnotos, _The Taking of Troy_, -bears witness to this. The artist seems to have complied with the -general information given in the epic, but not to have illustrated any -given text. - -[Illustration: Fig. 13. NEREIDS APPEALING TO NEREUS AND DORIS. - -By Douris. Louvre Museum.] - -In spite of the archaic stiffness, the execution of the subjects -delights us by the purity of line and the great care in detail. The -painting is simply a drawing, hardly retouched with a few red lines. -It is like a dry point engraving, in which all the lines are somewhat -prominent. The symmetrical and parallel folds of the garments, details -of the armour, the imbrications, the chasing of the helmets and -cuirasses, the locks and curls of hair, are marvels of patient and -conscientious work. The ornaments, as carefully finished as the rest, -have the same stiff and rather metallic precision. Lastly, the black -glaze, thick and velvety, gives an extraordinary brilliancy to the -entire vase. - -In considering the painting of the interior (Fig. 8), we move upwards -another step. In its small compass, we consider it one of the finest -paintings handed down to us from ancient times. It consoles us somewhat -for the loss of so many masterpieces, and we cannot suppose that a -potter, working alone in his workshop, invented this first _Mater -dolorosa_, which is as touching as a Mantegna or a Roger Van der -Weyden. Nowhere is a copy from a great painting more forcibly evident. -Every one must be impressed by the striking resemblance of this Pagan -and Greek creation to the emblem that has moved Christian souls for -so many centuries. Eos, standing with outstretched and beating wings, -bends toward the dead face of her son Memnon, her strained arms -supporting his rigid body. The goddess, who represents the radiant -morning and the promises of Nature awakening with the dawn, is here -simply a despairing mother imprinting on her mind with one long look -the beloved features she will see no more; the contrast is profoundly -sad, and a creation worthy of a great poet. The body of the powerful -prince of the Ethiopians, the ally of Priam, is entirely nude as it was -taken up on the battlefield where his adversary Achilles had robbed him -of his armour. The stiff legs are stretched out, the left foot still -contracted with pain, the arms swing limply, the head drops, while the -dishevelled hair, the delicate beard, and the closed eyes arouse an -irresistible memory of the dead Christ. We have a true _Pietà_ before -our eyes. - -What miracle in art, what unexpected chance unites Pagan and Christian -art to express the same thought, in the same form? Is it not a proof -that across the centuries great artists share the same thoughts, and -to express the emotions of life create a universal language? Is it not -this again which attracts us in Homer, in those never to be forgotten -scenes, expressing so well the deep feelings of all men at all times; -the farewell of Hector and Andromache, the return of Ulysses to Ithaca? -Art soars above time and space, more than all else it embodies the -solidarity of succeeding generations without any knowledge of one -another. - -A kylix in the British Museum, with _The Adventures of Theseus_ (Fig. -11), of more recent form and style, teaches us still better that behind -the vase painter may be concealed other and greater personalities, -who are the true creators of the work of art. A famous kylix from -the workshop of Euphronios shows us similar scenes glorifying the -Athenian hero, forming with the _Eos and Memnon_, by Douris, and _The -Taking of Troy_, by Brygos, a glorious trio of ceramic masterpieces, -of which the Louvre is justly proud. In comparing the works of Douris -with those coming from the workshops of Euphronios, the idea suggests -itself that they either copied one another or borrowed from one common -original. Both suppositions are possible. As already mentioned, no -law or custom prohibited artistic plagiarism. If Douris knew of the -beautiful work executed by his colleague, nothing prevented him from -adopting it for his own use. But, on the other hand, the broad style -of Euphronios’ production and the peculiar character of the adventure -of Theseus recovering the ring of Minos from the bottom of the sea, -a subject treated by Mikon, one of the great painters of the fifth -century, finally the great number of works of art which at this -period celebrated the national hero’s glory, lead us to believe that -a potter had no need to look over his neighbour’s shoulder to gain -suggestions for a theme of Theseus. He was surrounded by models in -painting, sculpture, painted bas-reliefs, models, carved and engraved. -The supposition of a common model or several models, from which a -craftsman, in a way, chose the desired subject, seems most probable. - -[Illustration: Fig. 14. SILENI PLAYING AND DANCING. - -Vase by Douris. British Museum.] - -It is only in this sense and with such reservation that these two cups -can be compared. In looking at the superb vase in the Louvre, no one -will hesitate to give the preference to the workshop of Euphronios. In -the interior is _The Visit of Amphitrite_; in this painting the author -has retained all the seriousness of great religious art with a touch of -archaism in the drawing and position of the characters, showing thereby -that he has copied an ancient fresco; while, on the contrary, on the -reverses, the combats of Theseus with the robbers Skiron, Prokrustes -and Kerkyon, and the struggle with the Marathonian bull, are treated as -in metopes, with bold, vigorous lines, giving rather a feeling of the -influence of sculpture (Fig. 12). - -The composition of Douris (Fig. 11) is more firmly knit, because it -concentrates all the attention on the adventures of the hero against -monsters and robbers. In the interior is the fight with the Minotaur, -an ancient and classic theme from the sixth century; on the reverses, -the defeat of Kerkyon, of Skiron and Sinis, and the hunt of the boar of -Krommyon; two women give some variety and animation to the whole, the -nymph Phaia who lived at Krommyon, and the goddess Athene who protects -her favourite hero at his labours. Here again is a closely-knit -trilogy; but, we must confess, the execution is far inferior to that -of the cup of Euphronios. It is accurate and a little commonplace. -There is, however, noticeable a desire to express landscape, a care for -external ornament, visible in the palm tree and the small trees placed -about, and by a cloak thrown upon a tree trunk. It is a rare mark among -Greek painters, and worthy of note. - -We will look more rapidly at the paintings of the kantharos at -Brussels, the importance of which, as being a vase moulded by Douris -himself, we have already mentioned (Fig. 1). The figures represent -“Herakles’ contest with the Amazons,” an old type, nearly a century -old, but with the added beauty of a clear and accurate style, and an -admirably certain execution. Nor are the subjects new which are treated -upon another kylix in the Louvre, _The Rape of Thetis by Peleus_. -But Douris deserves the credit of having skilfully revived an old -subject known on Corinthian and Attic vases of the sixth century. It -is possible to follow in the Louvre the same painting done in turn by -a Corinthian, then by an Attic painter of black figures, and lastly -by Douris. It is of great interest to follow the development of the -composition and of the grouping of the figures, of their attitudes, -and of the drawing itself. We perceive here the same differences as in -comparing a Madonna of Cimabue with one of Lippi. Symmetry of figures, -stiff and angular outlines and severe features have given place to life -and tender touches of the brush. At the same time, the close connection -of these successive works appears most striking--the link with the past -has never been severed; the fundamental conception has always remained -the same; improvement has come from within, and extends to every little -detail. - -[Illustration: Fig. 15. HERA AND IRIS ATTACKED BY SILENI. - -By Brygos. British Museum.] - -Douris has extended his composition and united the two reverse sides of -the kylix. On one, the hero seizes the goddess, who struggles in his -grasp and has summoned to her aid the magic art of transformations. -These are given with all the _naïveté_ of primitive art: to tell us -that Thetis changes into a lion, and later into a serpent, the artist -has drawn on one side a young lion seated on the shoulder of the -goddess, and tearing with his teeth the arm of her ravisher; on the -other a serpent lifts its twisted coils and darts its threatening jaws -at him. The companions of Thetis, the Nereids, frightened by so bold -an attack, take flight, and this gives the painter an opportunity of -showing us young girls running in many graceful attitudes--the arms -are tossed in gestures that are still angular; the bare feet and legs -escape from the drapery, showing the rather lean suppleness of these -young maidens. It is, at the same time, a skilful method of uniting the -whole; in fact, on the other reverse we see other nymphs running, who -come to tell the god Nereus and his wife Doris of the attempt. Both are -seated on ornamented thrones with the Olympian majesty of a Jupiter and -a Juno (Fig. 13). All the beauty of the famous group in the Panathenaic -Frieze is already visible in their movements and their attitude. - -[Illustration: CONTEST OF AJAX AND ULYSSES. - -Fig. 16. THE VOTING OF THE GREEK CHIEFS. - -By Douris. Vienna Museum.] - -Unfortunately the interior is defaced and restored, but the artist -has shown no less ingenuity in its design. He has taken a theme -frequently used by painters of red figures, and thus rendered rather -commonplace--the libation; but instead of showing us the well-known -scene of a soldier departing on a campaign and receiving the full -cup from a woman, he has enlarged the subject, and shows us the god -Poseidon seated, receiving a libation cup from the hands of a goddess, -probably his wife, Amphitrite. Again a synthetic trilogy prevails in -this composition: in the upper part of the vase the god of the sea -and his consort are throned; in the lower part is enacted a little -drama which takes place on the seashore, and has sea-gods as actors. -Everywhere we find the intelligent skill of the Greek, and the easy art -with which he beautifies all he touches. Was all this the personal work -of Douris? or does the model he copies and follows deserve much of the -credit? It will always remain an open question. As we possess a kylix -by the potter Hieron (it has even been ascribed to Douris), another by -the painter Peithinos, and many anonymous vases which repeat in similar -form the details of _The Rape of Thetis_, we again incline towards the -second hypothesis. How many sanctuaries in Greece, dedicated to the -gods of the sea, must have contained paintings or reliefs of this kind! - -It is the variety of models, in a word, which best explains the variety -of styles among painters of vases. As we remarked above, no vase -painter is of greater interest in this respect than Douris. If any one -wishes to estimate at a single glance his often puzzling versatility, -he need only look at the mythological painting on a large receptacle -for wine in the British Museum (Fig. 14). The choice of the subject, -_The Bacchic Thiasos_, repeated to satiety upon black-figured amphoræ -of the sixth century, leads us to expect only a commonplace painting, -but the artist instead brings us face to face with one of the most -spirited sketches Greek art has left to us. - -Douris shows himself daring, amusing, free almost to indecency, and -one asks how the same brush which painted many little paintings, -rather stiff in their symmetry, could become animated to the point of -inventing these funambulistic movements of wild beasts let loose. These -are Sileni playing and dancing. Arranged in a row, like mountebanks -upon their stage, they abandon themselves to frantic sports under the -leadership of a herald costumed as Hermes, on his head the petasos, -and in his hand the caduceus. One lowers his head to drink from a -cup placed on the floor; a second, in a half-lying position, has the -contents of a goat skin and a wine jug poured together into his mouth -by two of his companions; others toy in a ludicrous fashion with -kantharoi, or dance on one foot, and try by bending forward to reach -a full cup. Even expurgated, this painting sufficiently shows the -unbridled gaiety and fun which the Greek designer allowed himself. -In that again he resembles the Japanese draughtsman, in love with -buffooneries and acrobatic postures. Those who only like to think of -Greek art as serious and moralizing, can take their own view. Greek art -knew all and dared all--works such as were placed upon school walls to -elevate thought, and such as were hidden under a cloak. The same brush -drew the touching image of _Eos and Memnon_, and this scene of a pagan, -_Kermesse_. - -In Athens this surprised no one. We have, however, classified our -artists, and confined them to their specialities. We do not admit that -a “serious” artist could cause laughter, and we have our professional -caricaturists. Leonardo da Vinci, it is true, did not disdain to draw -the grotesque. Neither ancient painting nor sculpture feared the ugly -or the comic; but they gave to each a meaning. They did not cause -laughter for the sake of laughing. They did not cause fear for the sake -of frightening. These important elements in real life have a symbolic -and allegoric meaning. The head of Medusa appears as a survival of -vanished monsters, which terrified man when he sought to establish his -dominion on earth. The Learnæan hydra is, on the most ancient vases, a -gigantic octopus gripping Herakles and Iolaos, as the octopus clasps -Gilliatt in _Les travailleurs de la mer_. The grimacing mask of the -satyr is the inheritance of a very early conception transformed by -art. It would not be difficult to prove, documents in hand, that the -large anthropoid apes met by the Phœnicians in their explorations in -Africa, and drawn by them on their metal cups of the seventh century, -furnished the Ionian artists, when combined with the Bes of the -Egyptians, with the prototype of the hairy and shaggy Silenus, with the -flat-nosed face, that one sees on certain sarcophagi of Klazomenai. -This is what we admire in the Sileni of Douris. The skilful, dry point -of the artist knew how to preserve, when he sketched them on clay, all -their simian agility, their droll, gorilla-like features, the relaxed, -sinewy and flexible limbs, wherein we recognize the vigorous beast in -semblance of a man. We only know of one other artist who has rendered -this bounding animal gait of the Sileni with equal success--the painter -of a kylix from the workshop of the potter Brygos, which is undoubtedly -inspired by a satyric drama; here the goddess Hera and her companion -Iris are in great distress through falling into the midst of such a -wild band. Fortunately Hermes with fair words, and Herakles with his -club, arrive in time to restrain these rash and disrespectful fellows -(Fig. 15). - -[Illustration: Fig. 17. ULYSSES RESTORING THE ARMS OF ACHILLES TO -NEOPTOLEMOS. - -Interior of preceding Cup.] - -Let us finish this review of the mythological subjects with a kylix -from the Museum in Vienna on which we see _The Contest over the Arms of -Achilles_ (Figs. 16 and 17). It will give us an opportunity of studying -dramatic themes in the hands of Douris, drawn from epic poetry, and -adopted by the writers of tragedy. We know how, later, Sophocles in -his _Ajax with the Scourge_, showed the fatal result of the unexpected -quarrel arising between Ulysses and Ajax for the possession of the -divine weapons, which Thetis had given to her son Achilles. This event -was a favourite theme, and had been treated in ceramic painting from -the sixth century onwards. In what work and what kind of production did -Douris seek his inspiration? We shall always remain ignorant of this. -We only wish to show by this example in how great a measure the Greek -theatre influenced composition and even the style of painted vases. - -Several black-figured vases, some of which are in the Louvre, represent -this _Contest_; the two heroes have come to blows and are falling upon -each other fiercely, while Agamemnon and other Greeks exert themselves -to separate them. This fundamental theme was not lost on Douris, for -he made use of it on one of the reverses of his kylix (Fig. 16). But, -following his fancy or other models of which we know nothing, he adds -two other episodes: (1) on the other reverse, _The Voting of the Greek -Chiefs_, who all bring their votes in the shape of pebbles, and place -them on an altar in the presence of the goddess Athene, thus awarding -the victory to Ulysses (Fig. 16); (2) in the interior, _Ulysses and -Neoptolemos_, a painting forming, as it were, the heroic catastrophe of -the drama, where the victor renounces the glorious weapons and restores -them generously to the son of Achilles, so that he in turn may wear -them and accomplish the ruin of the Trojans (Fig. 17). Here, again, -Douris’ favourite manner of composition results in a trilogy. We have -the three acts in a tragedy, dominated by the memory of Achilles and -the epic of the Trojan war. - -The fact will at once be recalled that to the Greek theatre, as -conceived by Æschylus and his immediate predecessors, a similar -arrangement was not unknown. We find many such examples of about the -time of the Persian wars, not only by Douris, but by his rivals as well. - -To look here for an exact copy of some contemporaneous work would -undoubtedly be absurd. We can hardly insist too strongly on this -point. The absence of the costumes and accessories of the theatre, -which were so individual and expressive in their conventions, is an -indication that the painter did not try to depict on clay the living -spectacle he had just witnessed. In a later age, the Greek vases of -southern Italy freely transferred scenes from tragedies, but in this -ancient period we have no such examples. The composition is derived -from the theatre just as in the kylix of _Eos and Memnon_, mentioned -above, it depends on Homer. It is a general impression that the mind -of the artist has absorbed, and it helps him to arrange his subjects -better. - -Professor Carl Robert has very well remarked that the vases of the -sixth century have the “epic” manner; they tell stories and relate to -us in detail like the ancient singers. Those of the group of Douris -have a “dramatic” manner; they habitually appeal to us by synthetic -groupings, which we accurately term in the language of the theatre -_tableaux_, and which sum up an entire scene. We would further remark -that in Douris and his contemporaries, the figures assume attitudes -which one might call “scenic.” - -On one side of the painting of the _Voting_ (Fig. 16), Ulysses, with -uplifted hands, expresses at once astonishment and delight to see how -the heap of little stones which represent the votes in his favour is -growing; while, on the other side, in the right corner of the scene, -Ajax, alone and deserted and feeling defeat inevitable, covers his head -with his cloak to hide his disgrace, a dramatic figure, suggesting the -often cited work of Timanthes--Agamemnon hiding his face so as not to -witness the sacrifice of his daughter Iphigeneia. We still could cite -vases from the Louvre--beautiful examples--showing Achilles returning -sad and in despair to his tent. What caused this beautiful and tragic -inspiration? Who created these attitudes of mute eloquence if not the -Greek drama? Do we not know that one of the great effects in the drama -of Æschylus was precisely his placing on the stage an immovable Niobe, -and a stern Achilles, who answered the messages of Agamemnon simply -with unrelenting silence? - -[Illustration: Fig. 18. ACHILLES KILLING TROÏLOS. - -By Euphronios. Louvre Museum.] - -The poetry in the best compositions of Douris is entirely derived from -memories of the epic and memories of the drama. It matters little -whether he invented them or whether they were suggested to him; it is -the very essence of Greek painting disclosed before our eyes, with its -spirit of freedom and ready adaptation. Everything is helpful and -suggestive to an artist. Whether derived from epic recitations, from -lyric strophes, or from the theatre, these floating images all become -fixed by his brush and take definite shapes, which in turn will haunt -the imagination of other artists and guide their hands. What a rich -fertility of art, which multiplied its creations on all hands, and -united all classes of the Athenian people into a kind of brotherhood of -labour! - - -2. _Martial Subjects._ - -Battle-scenes had for three centuries been the classic subject of -industrial design. As with all primitive peoples, war had been at -first the chief occupation of the Greeks, and in consequence one of -the chief sources of art. The Dipylon vases covered with warriors, -chariots, boats, dead and wounded, or with pompous funeral scenes are -contemporary with the _Iliad_. From the seventh to the fifth century -the warrior subject was repeated to satiety upon all ceramics with -black figures. How will Douris profit by this? - -Seven drinking cups bearing twenty paintings are devoted to this style. -Most of them are subject to the rules of symmetric composition, which -we observed on the Memnon kylix, in the contests of Menelaos and Paris, -and of Ajax and Hector. Truth and tradition unite in giving to this -subject the appearance of a simple duel, the secondary personages, as -it were, forming a frame. Sometimes a wounded man placed between the -two champions indicates the cause of the encounter, and at the same -time forms the centre of the group. This primitive scheme, much used -by the Corinthians, is found again in many of Douris’ paintings. It -is evident that he did not give himself great trouble to invent, and -that he only reproduces a well-known theme. One may say as much of the -battle, considered as a hand-to-hand fight; five hoplites are engaged -in a struggle in a regular and prescribed manner, where the combatants, -ordinarily paired two and two, display their strength in the attitudes -of well disciplined duellists. It is only a variant of the preceding -subject. These works teach us nothing new with regard to the art of -Douris, and are only of value in so far as the minute mastery of his -brush is concerned. We must look elsewhere for his ingenious mind--in -the scenes of arming and the battles of Greeks and Persians. - -Arming is only an episode of military life. Instead of showing us -the battle, the painter allows us to be present at the preparations. -A strong effect has been produced on a kylix made in the workshop of -Euphronios: Achilles, in ambush, surprises Troïlos, the youngest son -of Priam, who comes to draw water at a fountain; he pursues him across -the plain as he flees in his chariot. The alarm is given, and one sees -the Trojans hastily arming and running to the royal child’s assistance. -But they come too late. In another painting we see the crime already -accomplished; without pity for the tender years or the cries of his -victim, the hero cuts off the boy’s head by the altar of Apollo, where -he has taken refuge (Fig. 18). - -The conceptions of Douris are not so dramatic. The design of the kylix -in Vienna, which is a masterpiece of its kind, allows us in a manner -to penetrate into a Greek camp, at the hour when all are preparing for -the manœuvres or the battle (Fig. 19). It is mediocre, even a little -commonplace, as regards observation, but it is clever by the realism -of the small practical details. In the interior is the classic scene -of a libation, a soldier before his departure praying to the gods; -a woman brings him wine which she pours into a sacrificial cup. On -the reverse, an encampment; the alarm has sounded, every one seeks -his arms in haste, one his sword, another his lance or helmet. The -monotony of the subject had to be varied. The painter has succeeded in -this by introducing some old and bearded men who help and encourage -the youths, and a woman who brings a shield and a sword. Nothing -can be more animated than the faces and gestures of these young men -arming themselves. One tries his sword and draws it partly out of the -scabbard, another binds the fillet about his hair, so as to adjust his -helmet more firmly; his companion, with a finical gesture, turns up his -sleeve and the lower part of his tunic. Elsewhere (Fig. 19), a hoplite -already helmeted places greaves on his legs, another dons his corselet, -a third hangs his sword at his side and puts the shoulder belt over his -shoulder, a fourth makes a little gesture of comic despair showing that -he has forgotten to place a crest on his helmet, while the last raises -and ties his long hair. These are sketches drawn from life, and are -almost like the sketch-book of an artist who has accompanied soldiers -at their manœvres. What we term “military painting,” in its familiar -and picturesque form, dates from the Greeks. - -[Illustration: Fig. 19. SOLDIERS ARMING. - -By Douris. Vienna Museum.] - -The style of this kylix is ancient, and it dates from the earliest -period in the career of Douris. Although found at the same time and in -the same place as the other kylix at Vienna (Fig. 16), representing -_The Contest of Ajax and Ulysses_, although signed by the same painter -and moulded by the same potter Python, it represents an entirely -different manner. Here is a style still archaic, the heads large, the -bodies rather thickset, the draperies with regular and symmetrical -lines, an extreme minuteness in all details. There, the proportions -are reversed, the bodies lengthened, with small heads, the garments -with wavy folds, the entire execution freer and with less care for -detail. No one would think of attributing the two vases to the same -master if they did not bear the name of Douris. This comparison permits -us to appreciate the nature of the changes that took place in a Greek -potter’s career. He is not a craftsman who is satisfied to remain in -the routine of a uniform method. He is an artist who wishes to learn, -who reflects and develops. Herr Hartwig has well demonstrated that -there was a “first” as well as a “second” style in Douris, as in our -days in Corot or Fantin-Latour. - -To introduce glorious memories of the Persian invasion, only recently -repulsed by the Greeks, was another mode of rejuvenating the -warrior subjects. These direct allusions to the Persian wars, are, -to our great surprise, only rarely found on the monuments. It is a -characteristic trait of the idealism in which the art of the fifth -century delights. Anything in the form of anecdote or accident, all -that forms the woof of material facts, is only of slight interest -to it. It fears also to provoke the gods by extolling the grandeur -of Athens, and hence allegory and symbol are used in preference. -The Treasury of the Athenians, raised at Delphi from a tithe of the -spoils of Marathon, glorified the deeds of Herakles and Theseus. The -pediments of the Temple at Ægina, probably made after Salamis, show -the Trojans conquered by Homeric heroes. To celebrate Greece’s second -victory over Asia, images of the Trojan horse were placed on the -Acropolis and on the slopes of Delphi. Industrial painting conforms -to the same principles. Warrior subjects were frequently represented -by battle-scenes between Greeks and Asiatics, but appear only to -contain allusions to the Epic, or else to the battle of Herakles with -the Amazons (Fig. 1), which recalls the great deeds of the Greeks’ -ancestors against barbarians. - -[Illustration: Fig. 20. GREEK HOPLITE AND PERSIAN STANDARD BEARER. - -By Douris. Louvre Museum.] - -We may say that Douris gave proof of originality by frankly dealing -with modern subjects. A kylix at the Louvre, unfortunately damaged and -restored, shows in the interior an hoplite striking with his sword a -fallen barbarian soldier, who holds a standard with two square-shaped -flags (Fig. 20). This typical accessory leaves no doubt as to the -meaning of the painting. A banner would never be placed in the hands of -a Trojan. It is very probable that the victors of Marathon picked up -Persian standards on the battlefield with the spoils, and that we have -here the reproduction of such a trophy. We look upon this sketch of -Douris as a precious record of the army led by Datis and Artaphernes in -490. For the vase is not of a style to be dated after 480, that is to -say, after the second invasion conducted by Xerxes in person. - -Other vases attributed to the painter Onesimos represent battles of -Greeks against Asiatics on horseback, very realistic in form. Here -one may again see copies from life. Lastly, Greeks and Persians are -fighting on the sculptured frieze which adorns one side of the small -temple of Nike Apteros on the Acropolis. These, however, are rare -allusions to the greatest military achievements of the century. It -is not difficult to imagine what they would have produced in modern -art. We must, however, beware of crediting Douris with an exaggerated -initiative, and we must not forget that among the lost works of Greek -art, a painting by Mandrocles is mentioned, dating from Darius’ -expedition into Scythia, _The Crossing of the Bosphorus_, and at Athens -a _Battle of Marathon_, attributed to Panainos, in which Miltiades and -the chief Greek generals were seen repulsing the Asiatic phalanxes. -Douris and Onesimos did not lack models to guide them into this -channel. The value of their works is above all in the good fortune -which has preserved them to us, and gives us, if not the letter, at -least the spirit of the painting dedicated to contemporary history. - - -3. _Everyday Scenes._ - -Here, again, it is convenient to divide the work of Douris into two -parts. At times, like all the manufacturers, he made use of old -subjects with hardly any change; then, again, he sought new ideas and -popularized unused themes. The latter, of course, will chiefly -occupy our attention. - -A general statement should first be made: the work of Douris, as we -actually know it, shows a distinct preference for living subjects. -Of his eighty paintings we can count seventeen dedicated to mythical -subjects, twenty-two to military life, and forty-one to everyday -scenes. The proportion in favour of contemporary life is more than -three-fourths. Comparing these with works signed in the workshops of -Euphronios (fifteen mythical subjects, two warrior subjects, and eight -everyday scenes), from the workshop of Brygos (seventeen mythical, -one warrior, and six everyday scenes), we observe that the proportion -is reversed by the two most distinguished rivals of Douris. We may, -therefore, note this characteristic in his work which he has in -common with another great designer, Hieron (twenty-three mythical and -thirty-one familiar scenes). These two artists thus prepared the way -for the genre picture, which was to dominate the second half of the -fifth century, and to make women and children the favourite subjects of -painters. - -[Illustration: Fig. 21. SEATED YOUTH HOLDING A HARE. - -By Douris. Louvre Museum.] - -The most frequent themes are scenes from the palæstra (Fig. 6). Youths -are wrestling, running, jumping, dumb-bells in hand, or throwing the -discus; the teachers of gymnastics watch the sports, rod in hand, ready -to punish the lazy or check any brutality. Sometimes a small column, or -a basin intended for ablutions, a pick-axe, or a javelin thrown down, -indicates where the scene takes place. Only this much would a Greek -draughtsman permit himself as scenery. Man alone, action or living -forms, are the subjects of his study; nor does he seek, as we do, to -endow with sentiment the objects in his environment. Landscape, which -moves us, leaves him quite indifferent. But what knowledge of the -human form, what love of line and contour! His short, skilful brush -moves freely on the clay, throwing out delicate outlines, simplifying -the muscles and giving only the most essential, breaking or spreading -out the long folds of the drapery, emphasizing the flexible spine, -drawing sinewy hands and grave profiles with strong chins and heavy -lips. He attacks the difficulties over which archaic art had not yet -triumphed--foreshortening and three-quarter poses. - -Kimon of Kleonai, a great painter of the sixth century, had proved how -effective the latter could be. In the structure of the eye he attacks -another difficult problem, trying to modify the everlasting and awkward -convention of earlier times--a face in profile with an eye full face. -He tries many forms--round, triangular, open on one side. One feels the -solution, which henceforth shall be that of all draughtsmen, growing -under his fingers. All this is suggested by the study of his beautiful -paintings, in which Douris has not invented much, for the school which -preceded him, that of Epiktetos, of Paidikos, of Chakrylion, offered -similar studies, but he unfolds a constant desire for perfection of -form. - -In his work one may note the clever and economical device of drawing -many persons by means of very few models. In his scenes of the -palæstra, consisting of ten or twelve persons, he uses, in fact, only -two models--a bearded man and a youth, who are seen under different -aspects. Many of his contemporaries made use of the same device. It -may be inferred that in these scenes the painter used living models -more frequently than elsewhere; it is a companion or an apprentice who -has posed and has been turned about on every side. In consequence, the -composition is not so bold, but more commonplace than in the mythic -paintings inspired by superior models. - -Nowhere is this inability to group the figures in familiar scenes more -apparent than in a kylix at the Louvre, in spite of an abundance of -humorous detail and pretty silhouettes. What can be more graceful than -the figure of _The Youth and the Hare_ (Fig. 21)? Seated on a stool -and leaning on a stick, he looks with tenderness at the nimble little -creature, which the Athenians liked to tame, and which prowled about -their houses as cats do with us. At the same time it was a love token, -and one frequently sees on ceramic paintings grave persons advance -holding by the ears this frisky gift, which they offer to young boys. -Plato’s _Banquet_ informs us on this well-known custom of the Greeks. -On the inner circle, framing like a medallion _The Youth and the Hare_, -runs a band, repeating a design ten times in almost the same form--a -bearded man rests on his stick, addressing friendly words to a boy -seated before him. One holds a lyre; another a hare; others are wrapt, -as if chilly, in their cloaks. Similar themes decorate the two reverse -sides. In all one can count thirty-three persons, but there are in -reality only two actors. It is as if a metope with two figures were -constantly repeated, with some variety, upon all the free space of the -vase. Each detail of the group is executed with zest and spirit, but -composition does not exist. - -[Illustration: Fig. 22. INTERIOR OF A SCHOOL. - -By Douris. Berlin Museum.] - -The kylix in the Berlin Museum, _The Interior of a School_ (Fig. -22), shows the same fault, although it may be considered as Douris’ -masterpiece in everyday scenes. But the subject is of such interest -to us, and throws so much light on the life of Greek scholars, that -we think no longer of imperfections nor of the systematic stiffness -of the groups. Here, again, Douris is seen as an original and fertile -initiator. He here abandons the palæstra and the gymnastic exercises, -repeated a hundred times, and takes us into the school-room where the -music-master and the grammarian give their lessons; on one reverse, -lessons on the lyre and recitations are given, on the other, lessons -in writing and flute-playing. In the interior, a simple figure of a -nude youth tying his sandal, shows the boy, whose task is finished, -preparing to run and play. It is a charming and sober painting, we -should call it to-day, “an instantaneous impression,” giving a glimpse -of life which particularly attracts us. How were the youths of Athens -educated? Upon that theme bulky volumes have been written. - -As M. Paul Girard has shown in his _Education Athénienne_, this kylix -of Douris teaches us better than the texts. We see here the importance -the Greeks attached to musical instruction. The word “music” expressed -the entire education; literary studies, instrumental music and singing. -Music walked hand in hand with literature and gymnastic exercises. -Plato even went so far as to say that the art of touching the soul -with song inspired the desire for virtue. He rejected, however, as -voluptuous and enervating, certain Ionian and Lydian modes. We must -remember that music was intended chiefly, as represented on the vase in -Berlin, to accompany the song, and that the words were more significant -than the melody. Prayers, invocations, war-songs, moral maxims, all -contributed to make music a powerful instrument of education, and the -apparently paradoxical words of old Damon may in this way be explained, -when he said that the rules of music could not be changed without -shaking the state itself. - -The kylix of Douris corresponds closely with these ideas. Literature -is represented, on the one hand, by a master of declamation holding -a written scroll, upon which we read the beginning of an epic poem -that a pupil is about to recite (Fig. 22); on the other side, a young -master is tracing a page of writing, while a pupil stands ready to copy -it. Meanwhile the tutors of the boys sit on stools, waiting for the -lessons to be finished to conduct them home. No other ancient artist -has permitted us to enter so intimately into Athenian life. What we -term “genre painting” has appeared. It is the last and perhaps the -most fertile inspiration that Douris derived from great contemporary -art. It permits us, at the same time, to admire the flexibility of a -great talent, starting with religious and heroic subjects in the severe -style of _Eos and Memnon_, and attaining to the graceful and brilliant -compositions of _The Youth and the Hare_, and _The Interior of a -School_. - -There is an amusing sketch from the workshop of Euphronios, which may -be placed by the side of these paintings, showing a writing-teacher -bending forward in his chair, with forefinger raised and threatening, -as if he were scolding the little fellows confided to his care (Fig. -23). - - - - -CONCLUSION - - -If we have succeeded in reproducing the rather complex physiognomy -of Douris, we hope we have clearly indicated its two-fold character. -His talent and his originality do not raise him above the conditions -imposed upon his craft. It would be an error to ascribe genius to him. -He owes his importance, on the one hand, to the disappearance of great -paintings, and, on the other hand, to the innate qualities of the -Greek race, which even invested popular works with freedom and beauty. -Julius Lange, the Danish archæologist, has said that to judge Greek -painting from the vases is like judging the light of the sun by the -reflection we receive from the moon. But if, in this regard, industrial -art is inferior to the lost masterpieces, let us not forget that it -is nearer to the people, whose thoughts it so forcibly expresses. So -the anonymous sculptors of images in our cathedral reveal to us the -mediæval French soul far better than the great artists can. - -[Illustration: Fig. 23. A SCHOOLMASTER. - -Berlin Museum.] - -With these thousand sketches upon fragile clay we can retrace an -evolution which lasted four or five centuries, and created the -art of drawing, as it is practised by all modern nations. Indeed, -after long endeavours, the Greeks were the first who shattered the -tyrannic conventions to which artists had conformed, in Egypt, -Chaldea and Assyria. They refused to disjoint the human form on the -pretext of showing it from a true anatomical point of view. For the -artificial reality of the body drawn in sections, they substituted -a living silhouette seized in rapid movement, rendered with all its -irregularities of form and its lack of symmetry. This proved the -victory of art over science. One became accustomed to figures half -turned to the spectator, to perspective, to parts half hidden or -suppressed, one learnt to consider Nature not as she is, but as one -sees her. The orientation of art was completely changed. - -The invention of foreshortening and of modelling by means of shadows -belongs to the Greeks. Both had considerable influence on the Roman -world, and later on modern times. We may compare these discoveries to -those in physics or in chemistry which entirely revolutionized the -domain of science. It is an error to suppose that the scientist alone -is capable of discoveries which humanity at large is called upon to -enjoy. In art the same action and reaction take place, and a solidarity -uniting the past and present is not less powerful. Between an Egyptian -fresco and an oil painting by Van Eyck there is scarcely anything in -common as regards conception and process. Between a drawing by Douris -and the _Stratonice_ of Ingres a resemblance is very perceptible, -almost a kind of brotherhood. - -The drawings of Douris teach us to understand yet another thing. -Greek painting at this period had a cause at heart which the entire -fifth century upheld with passionate conviction--the belief that -the aim of the plastic arts is the representation of man. After the -Cretans and Mycenæans had derived such admirable inspirations from -the vegetable kingdom, from the marine fauna and flora, after the -picturesque studies of birds and deer which the Ionians had transmitted -to the Corinthian and Attic potters, we see Greek painting gradually -eliminating all this from design, in order to devote itself exclusively -to the representation of the human form. Nothing can turn it aside from -this course. Whether it is a question of gods and goddesses, heroes, or -even citizens, it is always the human form in all its aspects, in all -its attitudes, dignified or familiar, which the draughtsman observes. -Nowhere has such complete absorption of the artistic imagination been -seen. Later, after Alexander, the Greeks themselves somewhat modified -their attitude, and learnt once more to contemplate non-human nature; -but the limits within which Greek thought had voluntarily confined -itself remained severe during the century of Pericles. According to an -expression of Victor Bérard, it was a garden of humanity in which man -was the most beautiful plant. To this bias we owe some of the purest -masterpieces of which humanity can boast. Those of sculpture are famous -in all lands; those of painting were no less worthy of admiration, -but we only can judge them by the designs on vases. _Theseus and the -Marathonian Bull_ on the kylix by Euphronios (Fig. 12), the _Memnon_ -by Douris (Fig. 8), or the _Zeus carrying off a Woman_ upon an -anonymous kylix in the Louvre (Fig. 24) which is attributed to him, the -_Aphrodite on the Swan_ in the British Museum (Fig. 7) by a somewhat -later artist, bear comparison with the most beautiful drawings of the -Renaissance. Never has the beauty of the human form in motion been -rendered with more sincere joy. Here, again, the Greeks prepared the -path for the moderns, teaching the dignity of man by proving him to -be more important and necessary in art than all else. It is no longer -Nature ruling and crushing with its immensity mankind ignorant of -itself. It is human thought, on the contrary, projecting itself on the -external world, and taking possession of it. - -[Illustration: Fig. 24. ZEUS CARRYING OFF A WOMAN. - -Louvre Museum.] - -This is why we admire ancient art, and why a drawing by Douris tells us -so many things. Doubtless Douris has his message. He never suspected -it; he did not make it his aim; he was the unconscious instrument of a -great people and of a great revolution. This it is which makes works -of the past of such great value. Only time can show what they contained -of beauty and of fertility, even unknown to their authors. The creative -force animating them is beyond the individual; it springs from the -depths of the race which produces them. The sculptor who fashioned the -Venus of Melos could not foresee the fame his statue would achieve, -which he probably executed after many other similar ones. Leonardo da -Vinci would be greatly surprised at what we see in his _Gioconda_. -Anatole France says: “Each generation imagines anew the antique -masterpieces, and in this manner communicates to them a progressive -immortality.” It is not that we are duped by a delusion, but time has -done its work; moving on, it has discovered unexpected worth in certain -objects. - -Renan made the profound remark, “Admiration is historic.” Indeed, not -only is distance necessary, but the wearing effect of centuries, to -distinguish the good from the bad, the eternal from the perishable, to -recognize the actual importance of a thought or an invention. Those -who love to meditate will not go in vain to the Louvre to look at -the kylix of _Eos and Memnon_. They will see a reflection of that -which formed the grandeur and beauty of Greek painting during the most -flourishing period of its history, and they will recognize in one of -its noblest expressions an art for ever lost. - -[Illustration: Fig. 25. A Painter at Work, Boston Museum.] - - - - -BIBLIOGRAPHY - - - ROULEZ, in _Nuove Memorie dell’ Instituto_, ii., 1865, p. 393. - - HELBIG, in _Annali dell’ Instituto arch._, xlv., 1873, p. 53. - - FROEHNER, _Les Musées de France_, 1873, p. 37. - - RAYET-COLLIGNON, _Hist. de la Céramique Grecque_, 1888, p. 178. - - LUCKENBACH, in _Jahrbuch für class. Philologie_, suppl. Band xi., - 1880, p. 518f. - - CARL ROBERT, _Bild und Lied_, 1881, pp. 28, 87, 98, 214. - - ---- _Scenen der Ilias und Aithiopis_, 1891. (XV. Hallisches - Winckelmanns Programm.) - - MEIER, in _Archæol. Zeitung_, 1883, p. 1. - - W. KLEIN, _Euphronios_, 1886. - - ---- _Die griech. Vasen mit Meistersignaturen_, 1887. - - ---- _Die griech. Vasen mit Lieblingsinschriften_, 1898. - - TSOUNTAS, in _Ephéméris archoléogique d’Athènes_, iii., 1886, p. 40. - - LOEWY, in _Jahrbuch des deutsch. arch. Instituts_, iii., 1888, p. - 139. - - JANE E. HARRISON, in _Journal of Hellenic Studies_, x., 1889, p. - 231. - - ---- _Greek Vase Paintings_, 1894, p. 21. - - REISCH, in _Mittheilungen des arch. Inst. Römische Abth._, v., - 1890, p. 331. - - ---- in _Festschrift für Gomperz_, 1902, p. 459. - - F. DÜMMLER, in _Bonner Studien_, 1890, p. 77. - - P. HARTWIG, _Die griech. Meisterschalen_, 1893, pp. 200f., 583f. - - FURTWÄNGLER AND REICHHOLD, _Die griech. Vasenmalerei_, 1904, pp. - 76, 114, 246, 267. - - MICHAELIS, in _Archæologische Zeitung_, 1873, p. 1. - - MURRAY, _Designs from Greek Vases_, 1894, p. 12f. - - TARBELL, in _American Journal of Archæology_, 1900, iv., p. 183. - - BIRCH, _Hist. Ancient Pottery_, ed. Walters, 1905, i., p. 434. - - - - -INDEX - - - Achilles, 50, 62, 64, 67 - - Acropolis, 17, 13, 72 - - Ægina, temple at, 70 - - Æschylus, 21, 62, 64 - - Africa, 14, 15 - - Agamemnon, 2, 61, 64 - - Ajax, 32, 46, 48, 61, 64 - - Alexander, 2, 83 - - Amasis, 11 - - Amphitrite, 56 - - Amphora, 16, 30 - - Anaphlystos, deme of 11 - - Antenor, 18 - - Apelles, 29 - - Aphrodite, 48 - - ---- on her swan, 84 - - Apollo, 48 - - Arktinos of Miletos, 46, 47 - - Artemis, 48 - - Athene, 18, 46, 48, 53, 62 - - Athenian pottery, 6 - - Athenians, Treasury of, 70 - - Athens, 2, 10, 16, 27 - - Attic craftsmen, 5 - - ---- taste, 14 - - Augustus, 2 - - - Bérard, Victor, 83 - - Berlin Museum kylix, 77 - - Bes of the Egyptians, 60 - - Black figured vases, 18 - - ---- glaze, 12, 26, 27, 35f, 49 - - Bœotia, 27 - - Boulle, 34 - - British Museum, 51, 57, 83 - - Brunn, 3, 46 - - Brushpainters 27, 28, 29, 35 - - Brussels Museum, 8, 18 - - Brygos, 6, 11, 21, 33, 52, 60, 73 - - - Caere, 16 - - Chalkis, 16 - - Chakrylion, 75 - - _Chiaro oscuro_, 5 - - China, 15 - - Christ, 51 - - Cimabue, Madonna of, 55 - - Clay, 12, 26 - - _Coppe amatorie_, 41 - - Corinth, 16 - - Corot, 69 - - Craftsman, 12 - - Crete, 2 - - Crimea, 14 - - Cyrenaica, 14 - - - Datis and Artaphernes, 71 - - Delphi, 70 - - Demons of destruction, 39 - - Dipylon Gate, 14 - - ---- vases, 65 - - Doris, 11 - - Douris, 1, 5, 6, 7, 18, 21, 25, 31, 33, 44, 57, 60, 62, 65, 72, 73, 80 - - - _Editio princeps_, 32 - - Egypt, 81 - - Eos, the Dawn, 45 - - ---- and Memnon, 44, 50, 51, 59, 63, 66, 86 - - “Epic” manner, 63 - - Epiktetos, 11, 75 - - Ergotimos, 11 - - Etruria, 14, 33 - - Etruscan tombs, 14, 16 - - Euphronios, 6, 8, 10, 11, 17, 21, 31, 67, 73, 79 - - Euthymedes, 9, 10, 41 - - - Fantin-Latour, 69 - - Flanders, 25 - - France, Anatole, 85 - - - Genre pictures, 24 - - Girard, Paul, 4, 79 - - Greece, 4 - - Greek camps, 67 - - ---- ceramics, 5 - - ---- paintings, 2, 4, 6, 64 - - ---- pictures, 24 - - ---- theatre, 62, 64 - - - Hartwig, 19, 69 - - Hector, 32, 51 - - Hellenic age, 2 - - Hera, 60 - - Herakles, 59, 60, 70 - - Herculaneum, 2, 3 - - Hermes, 58, 60 - - Hierarchy, social, 13 - - Hieron, 6, 11, 57, 73 - - Hippias, 5 - - History of vases, 13 - - Homer, 32, 47f. - - Hoplites, 32 - - Hydria, 16 - - - Iliad, 47, 65 - - Ingres, 82 - - Ionian artists, 60 - - ---- origin, 12 - - Iolaos, 59 - - Iphigeneia, 64 - - Iris, 60 - - Islands, the, 15 - - Isocrates, 20 - - Italy, 16 - - ---- southern, 14, 27 - - - Japan, 15 - - Japanese draughtsman, 58 - - ---- painters, 36 - - Juno, 56 - - Jupiter, 56 - - - Kalliades, 44 - - Kantharos, 16 - - ---- at Brussels, 54 - - Kerameikos, 2, 12, 47 - - Kimon of Kleonai, 74 - - Klazomenai, 60 - - Klein, 8 - - Kleomenes, son of Nikias, 11 - - Klitias, 11 - - Kolchos, 11 - - Krater, 16, 30 - - Kylix, 16, 30, 31 - - - Lange, Julius, 80 - - Learnæan hydra, 59 - - Lekythos, 16 - - Lippi, Madonna by, 55 - - Lucian, 2 - - Louvre Museum, 52, 53, 61, 64, 71, 76, 86 - - ----, kylix at the, 54 - - Lydian modes, 78 - - Lydos, 11 - - Lysippos, 1 - - - Mandrocles, 72 - - Mantegna, 50 - - Marathon, 70, 71 - - Martial subjects, 43 - - _Mater dolorosa_, 50 - - Medusa, 59 - - Megakles, 11 - - Melos, 2, 14 - - Memnon, King, 45 - - Menelaos, 32, 45 - - Metics, 10, 14 - - Michelangelo, 2 - - Miltiades, 72 - - Minos, 2, 51 - - Minotaur, 53 - - Mikon, 52 - - Munich Museum, 42 - - ----, hydria at, 23, 25 - - Music, 78 - - Mycenæ, 2 - - Mycenæan age, 27 - - Mythological subjects, 43 - - - Nature, 20, 21, 32, 50, 81 - - Nearchos, 18 - - Necropolis, 14 - - Neoptolemos, 62 - - Nereids and Peleus, 31 - - Nike Apteros, 71 - - Nikias, son of Hermokles, 11 - - Nikosthenes, 11, 44 - - - Oinochoai, 16, 24 - - Onesimos, 71, 72 - - Oxide of iron, 26 - - - Paidikos, 11, 75 - - Pamphaios, 11, 44 - - Panainos, 72 - - Panathenaic amphoræ, 16 - - ---- festival, 47 - - Paris, 32, 45, 48 - - Parnes, 16 - - Parrhasios, 1, 20 - - Pausanias, 2, 3 - - Peithinos, 57 - - Peloponnesian war, 10 - - Pericles, 1, 83 - - Persian, 32 - - ---- wars, 5, 52, 70 - - Phidias, 1, 20, 21 - - Phintias, 24 - - Phœnicians, 60 - - Pietà, 50 - - Pindar, 46 - - πίνακες, 32 - - Plato, 76 - - Pleïades, 5 - - Pliny, 2, 29 - - Plutarch, 10 - - Polygnotos, 1, 4, 20, 21, 49 - - Polykleitos, 1 - - Pompeii, 2, 3 - - Poseidon, 56 - - Praxiteles, 1 - - Protogenes, 29 - - Puvis de Chavannes, 3 - - - Raphael, 3, 4 - - Renan, 85 - - Rhodes, 14 - - Riesner, 34 - - Robert, Carl, 63 - - Roman houses, 2 - - Ruvo, 23 - - - Salamis, battle of, 70 - - Scythian colonies, 15 - - Sicily, 14 - - Silenus mask, 23 - - Sikanos, 11 - - Sikelos, 11 - - Skyphos, 17 - - Skythes, 11 - - Smikros, 11, 18 - - Solon, 10 - - Sophocles, 46, 61 - - Subjects of daily life, 43 - - - Terracotta tablets, 23 - - Theseus, adventures of, 51 - - ---- and the Minotaur, 31 - - _Thetis, Rape of_, 54 - - Thracian Chersonese, 14 - - Thrax, 11 - - Tiryns, 2 - - Titus, 2 - - Trade mark, 16 - - Trojan horse, 70 - - ---- war, 45, 47, 62 - - Troïlos, 67 - - Tyrrhenian Sea, 14 - - - Ulysses, 50, 62 - - Urbino, 4 - - - Van der Weyden, Roger, 50 - - Van Eyck, 82 - - Venus of Melos, 85 - - Vienna Museum, kylix, 61, 67 - - Vinci, Leonardo da, 59, 85 - - Volsinii, 16 - - - Woltmann, 3 - - - Xerxes, 71 - - - Zeuxis, 4, 20 - - - PRINTED AT THE EDINBURGH PRESS, - 9 AND 11 YOUNG STREET. - - - - - * * * * * * - - - - -Transcriber’s note: - -Punctuation, hyphenation of individual compound words, and spelling -were made consistent when a predominant preference was found in the -original book; otherwise they were not changed. 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padding-left: 1em; text-indent: -1.5em;} - - blockquote {margin: 1.5em 3% 1.5em 3%;} - - .hang {margin: .5em 3% 2em 3%;} - - .transnote { - page-break-inside: avoid; - margin-left: 2%; - margin-right: 2%; - margin-top: 1em; - margin-bottom: 1em; - padding: .5em; - } - - .index {margin-left: 0;} - - .covernote {visibility: visible; display: block; text-align: center;} -} - - - h1.pg { line-height: 1; - margin-top: 0em; } - hr.full { width: 100%; - margin-top: 3em; - margin-bottom: 0em; - margin-left: auto; - margin-right: auto; - height: 4px; - border-width: 4px 0 0 0; /* remove all borders except the top one */ - border-style: solid; - border-color: #000000; - clear: both; } - </style> -</head> -<body> -<h1 class="pg">The Project Gutenberg eBook, Douris and the Painters of Greek Vases, by -Edmond Pottier, Translated by Bettina Kahnweiler</h1> -<p>This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States -and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no -restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it -under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this -eBook or online at <a -href="http://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you are not -located in the United States, you'll have to check the laws of the -country where you are located before using this ebook.</p> -<p>Title: Douris and the Painters of Greek Vases</p> -<p>Author: Edmond Pottier</p> -<p>Release Date: December 27, 2019 [eBook #61034]</p> -<p>Language: English</p> -<p>Character set encoding: UTF-8</p> -<p>***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DOURIS AND THE PAINTERS OF GREEK VASES***</p> -<p> </p> -<h4>E-text prepared by<br /> - Turgut Dincer, Charlie Howard,<br /> - and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team<br /> - (<a href="http://www.pgdp.net">http://www.pgdp.net</a>)<br /> - from page images generously made available by<br /> - Internet Archive<br /> - (<a href="https://archive.org">https://archive.org</a>)</h4> -<p> </p> -<table border="0" style="background-color: #ccccff;margin: 0 auto;" cellpadding="10"> - <tr> - <td valign="top"> - Note: - </td> - <td> - Images of the original pages are available through - Internet Archive. See - <a href="https://archive.org/details/dourispaintersof00pott"> - https://archive.org/details/dourispaintersof00pott</a> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p> </p> -<hr class="full" /> -<p> </p> -<p> </p> - -<h1 class="wspace"> -DOURIS AND THE PAINTERS OF<br /> -GREEK VASES</h1> - -<hr /> -<div class="newpage"> -<div id="i_1" class="p4 figcenter" style="max-width: 31em;"> - <img src="images/i_001.jpg" width="492" height="630" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p>Fig. 1. KANTHAROS AND KYLIX (Cup).</p> - -<p>By Douris. Brussels and Louvre Museums.</p></div></div> -</div> - -<hr /> - -<div class="newpage p4 center vspace wspace"> -<p class="xlarge"> -DOURIS<br /> -AND THE PAINTERS<br /> -OF GREEK VASES</p> - -<p class="p1 larger">BY EDMOND POTTIER<br /> -<span class="xsmall">MEMBRE DE L’INSTITUT</span></p> - -<p class="p2">TRANSLATED BY<br /> -<span class="larger">BETTINA KAHNWEILER</span></p> - -<p class="p1">WITH A PREFACE BY<br /> -<span class="larger">JANE ELLEN HARRISON</span><br /> -<span class="xsmall">HON.D.LITT.DURHAM, HON.LL.D.ABERDEEN</span></p> - -<p class="p4">LONDON<br /> -JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET, W.<br /> -<span class="smaller">1909</span> -</p> -</div> - -<hr /> - -<p class="newpage p4 center vspace wspace"> -DEDICATED<br /> -<span class="smaller">IN LOVE AND GRATITUDE TO</span><br /> -<span class="larger">AUGUST LEWIS</span> -</p> - -<hr /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 id="PREFACE">PREFACE</h2> -</div> - -<p class="in0"><span class="firstword">The</span> translator of M. Pottier’s monograph on -<i>Douris</i> has kindly asked me to write, by way -of preface, a few words on the relation of Greek -vase-painting to Greek literature and to Greek -mythology. I do this with the more pleasure -because this relation has, I think, been somewhat -seriously misunderstood, and M. Pottier’s -delightful monograph which, thanks to Miss -Kahnweiler, is now given to us in English -form, should do much to clear away misconception -and to set the matter before us in a -light at once juster and more vivid.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<p>First let us consider for a moment the relation -between Greek art and Greek literature.</p> - -<p>In classical matters we are all of us, scholars -and students alike, bred up in a tradition that -is literary. Our earliest contact with the -Greek mind is through Greek poets, historians, -philosophers. This is well, for these remain—all -said—the supreme revelation. But this priority -of <em>literary</em> contact begets, almost inevitably, a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_vi">vi</span> -certain confusion of thought. Bred as we are -in a literary tradition, we come later to be -confronted with other utterances of the Greek -mind, for example graphic art—vase-painting. -This we naturally seek to relate to our earlier -and purely literary conceptions. What has -come to us second we instinctively make subordinate, -ancillary. Greek art, and especially -what we call a “minor art,” such as vase-painting, -is the “hand-maid” of Greek -poetry, or, to drop metaphor, the function of -Greek art, is, we think, to illustrate Greek -literature. Public and publisher alike demand -nowadays that books on Greek literature, on -Greek mythology, even editions of Greek plays, -should be “illustrated” from Greek art.</p> - -<p>By illustration is meant translation, the -transference with the minimum of alteration of -an idea expressed in one art into the medium -of another. Were it possible in a work of art -to separate the idea expressed from the form -in which it is expressed, such transference might -be an eligible and even elegant pastime. But -every one knows that such separation of idea and -form is in art impossible. Translation of poetry -from one language to another is precarious, a -thing only to be attempted by a poet; translation -from one art to another is a task so<span class="pagenum" id="Page_vii">vii</span> -inherently barren that the Greek, till his decadence, -left it, instinctively, unattempted.</p> - -<p>Against the poison of this “illustration” -theory M. Pottier’s monograph is the best -antidote, and all students of the Greek mind -will be grateful to Miss Kahnweiler for making -his monograph more easily accessible. M. -Pottier focuses our attention on the personal -artist, a man not intent on “illustrating” -another man’s work, but on producing works -of art of his own. Douris uses sometimes the -same material as Homer or Arktinos, but he -shapes it to his own decorative ends; he draws -his inspiration naturally and necessarily rather -from graphic than from literary tradition.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<p>Beneath the “illustration” fallacy there lurks, -as regards mythology, another and a subtler -misconception.</p> - -<p>Until quite recent years mythology has been -again to scholars and students alike, a thing of -“mythological allusions,” a matter to be “looked -up” with a view to the elucidation of obscure -passages in <i>Pindar</i> or dramatic choruses. -Even nowadays mythology remains, to many -a well-furnished scholar, a sort of by-product, -an elegant outgrowth of the Greek mind, a -thing merely “poetical,” by which he means<span class="pagenum" id="Page_viii">viii</span> -having no touch with reality. Or, at best, if the -scholar be himself a poet, he loves mythology -without analysing it, he feels it as a dream -that haunts, a thing that attends and allures -him through the waste places of scholarship, -more real and more abiding than any realism, -a thing to him so intimate that he does not -ask the <em>why</em> of it.</p> - -<p>Thanks to the impact of another study, -anthropology, we are awake now and look at -mythology with other eyes. We know that -mythology is not a last, lovely, literary flower, -but a thing primitive, deep-seated, long antedating -anything that can be called literature, -not a separate “subject” at all, but rather a -mode of thinking common at an early stage to -all subjects. Mythology is not the outcome of -an idle, vagrant fancy, but a necessary step in -the evolution of human thought; a strenuous -step taken by man towards knowledge, towards -the fashioning and ordering of the world of -mental conceptions. Mythology is the mother-earth -out of which for the Greeks grow -those stately, fruit-bearing trees, literature, art, -history, philosophy. A Greek vase-painter does -not “illustrate” mythology, he utters it in line -and colour as the poet utters it in words and -rhythm.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_ix">ix</span> -Take a simple instance from the work of -Douris, the kylix in the Louvre, in the centre -of which is painted <i>Eos carrying the body of -Memnon</i>.</p> - -<p>The mythologist, that is man in his early -days of thinking, cannot conceive or name the -abstract, empty “dawn.” The glow of morning -is to him the print of unearthly yet human -fingers. He images “dawn” as “Dawn,” in -terms of humanity, that is of the one and -only thing he inwardly felt and knew—himself. -The dawn is for him a beautiful woman, and -to complete her humanity, she is a mother. -Literature, which is at first but story-telling, -took up the tale, and knew that Eos the Dawn -who rose in the East had a child of the East -for her son, and mourned for him in his death, -and carried him away for his burial.</p> - -<p>The vase-painter is a mythologist too, and -he takes a mythological story for his motive, -but his art has other ends than that of the -poet. He may have heard the story recited -at a Panathenaic festival, just as he may have -seen it painted on some Stoa or Lesche. But -he does not illustrate it, does not translate from -an alien art into his own. He takes the myth -and lets his own art say what it and only it -can say. He has seen in the human body<span class="pagenum" id="Page_x">x</span> -the vision of a heavenly pattern; he gives us -the grace of a bending body, the poise of a -flying foot, the swiftness of straight lines, the -majesty and poignancy of limbs stark in death. -That is all, and, surely, enough.</p> - -<p class="sigright"> -JANE ELLEN HARRISON. -</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xi">xi</span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 id="CONTENTS">CONTENTS</h2> -</div> - -<table id="toc" summary="Contents"> - <tr class="b0 smaller"> - <td class="tdl" colspan="2">CHAP.</td> - <td class="tdr">PAGE</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr top">I.</td> - <td class="tdl">HOW DESIGNS ON VASES REPRESENT THE HISTORY OF GREEK PAINTING</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_I">1</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr top">II.</td> - <td class="tdl">THE SOCIAL CONDITION OF A VASE PAINTER AT ATHENS</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_II">9</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr top">III.</td> - <td class="tdl">THE WORKSHOP AND TOOLS OF DOURIS</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_III">23</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr top">IV.</td> - <td class="tdl">HOW DOURIS WORKED</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">30</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr top">V.</td> - <td class="tdl">THE WORK OF DOURIS</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_V">43</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td> </td> - <td class="tdl">CONCLUSION</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CONCLUSION">80</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td> </td> - <td class="tdl">BIBLIOGRAPHY</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#BIBLIOGRAPHY">87</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td> </td> - <td class="tdl">INDEX</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#INDEX">89</a></td></tr> -</table> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xiii">xiii</span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 id="LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS">LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</h2> -</div> - -<table id="loi" summary="List of Illustrations"> - <tr class="b0 smaller"> - <td class="tdr">Fig.</td> - <td> </td> - <td class="tdr w5">Page</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr top">1.</td> - <td class="tdl">Kantharos and Kylix (drinking cups) by Douris. Brussels and Louvre Museums. Taken from Photographs</td> - <td class="tdr w5"><a href="#i_1"><i>Frontis­piece</i></a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr top">2.</td> - <td class="tdl">Workshop of a Vase Painter (red figured hydria in Caputi Collection at Ruvo), from Blümner. <i xml:lang="de" lang="de">Technologie und Terminolog. der Gewerbe und Künste</i>, ii., p. 85, Fig. 15</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_2">4</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr top">3.</td> - <td class="tdl">The painter Smikros and his companions (red figured krater in the Brussels Museum), from <i xml:lang="fr" lang="fr">Monuments et Mémoires de la Fondation Piot</i> (article by C. Gaspari, ix., 1902, Pl. 2)</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_3">8</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr top">4.</td> - <td class="tdl">A Potter’s Workshop; modelling and baking of vases (black-figured hydria, Munich Museum), from Birch, “History of Ancient Pottery,” 1858, p. 249</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_4">12</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr top">5.</td> - <td class="tdl">A display of Vases and a purchaser (red figured kylix painted by Phintias, Baltimore Museum). Hartwig’s <i xml:lang="de" lang="de">Meisterschalen</i>, Pl. 17</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_5">16</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr top">6.</td> - <td class="tdl">Youths exercising in the Palæstra (red figured kylix by Douris, Louvre Museum), from an original Photograph</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_6">20</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr top">7.</td> - <td class="tdl">Aphrodite upon her Swan (Polychrome on white background, British Museum), from A. Murray and A. Smith, “White Attic Vases,” Pl. 15</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_7">24</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr top">8.</td> - <td class="tdl">Eos carrying Memnon, her dead son (red figured kylix by Douris, Louvre Museum), from an original Photograph</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_8">28</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr top">9.</td> - <td class="tdl">Contest of Menelaos and Paris (exterior of preceding one), from an original Photograph</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_9">32</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr top">10.</td> - <td class="tdl">Contest of Ajax and Hector (exterior of preceding one), from an original Photograph</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_10">36</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xiv">xiv</span></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr top">11.</td> - <td class="tdl">The Adventures of Theseus (red figured kylix by Douris, British Museum), from E. d’Eichthal et Th. Reinach <i xml:lang="fr" lang="fr">Poèmes choisis de Bacchylide</i>, p. 48</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_11">40</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr top">12.</td> - <td class="tdl">Theseus and Kerkyon; Theseus and the Marathonian bull (reverse of red figured cup by the potter Euphronios, in the Louvre Museum) taken from Furtwängler & Reichhold <i xml:lang="de" lang="de">Griechische Vasenmalerei</i>, Pl. 5</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_12">44</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr top">13.</td> - <td class="tdl">Nereids appealing to Nereus and Doris (red figured cup by Douris, Louvre Museum), taken from <i xml:lang="de" lang="de">Wiener Vorlegeblätten</i>, vii., Pl. 2</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_13">48</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr top">14.</td> - <td class="tdl">Sileni playing and dancing (red figured vase by Douris, British Museum) Furtwängler & Reichhold <i xml:lang="de" lang="de">Griechische Vasenmalerei</i>, Pl. 48</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_14">52</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr top">15.</td> - <td class="tdl">Hera and Iris attacked by Sileni (red figured cup by Brygos, British Museum), Furtwängler & Reichhold <i xml:lang="de" lang="de">Griechische Vasenmalerei</i>, Pl. 17</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_15">54</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr top">16.</td> - <td class="tdl">Contest of Ajax and Ulysses; the voting of the Greek Chiefs (red figured cup by Douris, Vienna Museum), Furtwängler & Reichhold <i xml:lang="de" lang="de">Griechische Vasenmalerei</i>, Pl. 54</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_16">56</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr top">17.</td> - <td class="tdl">Ulysses restoring the Arms of Achilles to Neoptolemos (interior of preceding one), Furtwängler & Reichhold <i xml:lang="de" lang="de">Griechische Vasenmalerei</i>, Pl. 54</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_17">60</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr top">18.</td> - <td class="tdl">Achilles killing Troïlos (red figured cup by Euphronios, Perugia Museum) taken from Rayet et Collignon, <i xml:lang="fr" lang="fr">Céramique Grecque</i>, Fig. 70</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_18">64</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr top">19.</td> - <td class="tdl">Soldiers arming (red figured cup by Douris, Vienna Museum), Furtwängler & Reichhold, Pl. 53</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_19">68</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr top">20.</td> - <td class="tdl">Greek Hoplite and Persian Standard-bearer (red figured cup by Douris, Louvre Museum), <i xml:lang="de" lang="de">Wiener Vorlegeblätten</i>, vii., Pl. 3. Great surface indicates restoration</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_20">70</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr top">21.</td> - <td class="tdl">Seated Youth holding a Hare (red figured kylix by Douris, Louvre Museum), from an original Photograph</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_21">72</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xv">xv</span></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr top">22.</td> - <td class="tdl">Interior of a School (red figured kylix by Douris, Berlin Museum), from <i xml:lang="it" lang="it">Monumenti dell’ Inst. Arch.</i>, ix., Pl. 54</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_22">76</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr top">23.</td> - <td class="tdl">A Schoolmaster. Berlin Museum, from Hartwig, <i xml:lang="de" lang="de">Meisterschalen</i>, Pl. 46</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_23">80</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr top">24.</td> - <td class="tdl">Zeus carrying off a Woman (attributed to Douris, Louvre Museum), from an original Photograph</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_24">84</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr top">25.</td> - <td class="tdl">A Painter at Work (fragment, Boston Museum), <i xml:lang="de" lang="de">Jahrbuch des Arch. Instituts</i>, xiv., 1899, Pl. 4, Hartwig</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_25">86</a></td></tr> -</table> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1">1</span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="p1 b2" id="DOURIS_AND_THE_PAINTERS"><span class="larger">DOURIS AND THE PAINTERS<br /> -OF GREEK VASES</span></h2> -</div> - -<hr class="narrow" /> -<h2 id="CHAPTER_I" class="nobreak p2 vspace">CHAPTER I<br /> - -<span class="subhead">HOW DESIGNS ON VASES REPRESENT THE -HISTORY OF GREEK PAINTING</span></h2> - -<p class="in0"><span class="firstword">This</span> book has not been written for the -professional archæologist. While speaking of -Douris, we propose to give the reading public -an idea of the chief characteristics of Greek -painting.</p> - -<p>It may be asked why the title of this little -book is not Polygnotos or Parrhasios. As -we are treating of ancient painting, why not -choose as a study one of these famous men, -whose works give to the art of his time its -distinctive character?</p> - -<p>The answer is simple. Not a single painting -is preserved by the masters who, with the -sculptors Phidias, Polykleitos, Praxiteles, and -Lysippos, made the ages of Pericles and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_2">2</span> -Alexander illustrious. Not a fragment of their -paintings nor a piece of their frescoes has -escaped destruction. Unfortunate chance has -thus kept the most glorious period of Greek -painting hidden from our view. Recent discoveries -in Mycenæ, Tiryns, Crete, and Melos -have revealed astonishing works of the pre-Hellenic -age, and they have restored to us -frescoes contemporary with Minos and Agamemnon. -And for more than a century the -excavations at Pompeii and Herculaneum have -made known all the details of the decoration -of Roman houses at the time of Augustus -and Titus. But between these two periods—separated -by fifteen or twenty centuries—all -is obscurity,—a dark gap which a few marble -panels in the museum of Athens are quite -insufficient to cover. These pale remnants -of funereal monuments from the Kerameikos, -frescoes painted on marble, reproduced the life -and likeness of the departed.</p> - -<p>Literature still remains. Pausanias, Pliny, -Lucian, and others have enumerated and described -the celebrated works of ancient painting, -and indicated the chief characteristics of the -great masters. In certain passages even the -technique is mentioned and analysed. With -the help of this literature we can, in a general<span class="pagenum" id="Page_3">3</span> -way, trace the history of Greek painting, and it -is chiefly from these records that such classic -books have been written as Brunn’s <i xml:lang="de" lang="de">Geschichte -der Künstler</i> and Woltmann’s <i xml:lang="de" lang="de">Geschichte der -Malerei</i>. For gaining a thorough knowledge -of the data of the subject, the great value of -these books is unquestionable.</p> - -<p>But there is no doubt that a history compiled -from texts becomes excessively dry, even though -illustrations are borrowed from Pompeii and -Herculaneum. What impression would any one -who had never seen a painting by Raphael or -Michelangelo receive by merely reading about -them?</p> - -<p>Furthermore, many ancient authors, far from -being accurate or full in their information, are -hopelessly brief; often the subject of a painting -and the name of its author are mentioned in -but three words. Let us suppose that two -thousand years hence our descendants should find -a guide-book and read, “<i>The Sacred Grove of -the Muses</i>, by Puvis de Chavannes.” What -conclusions could they draw in regard to the -composition of the painting or the talent of its -author? Such is our position in regard to many -works of antiquity. Even if, as is sometimes -the case, the descriptions are full, as in a passage -where Pausanias enumerates all the persons in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_4">4</span> -the two frescoes of Polygnotos at Delphi, <i>The -Visit to Hades</i> and <i>The Capture of Troy</i>, the -same darkness still exists as to the placing of -the figures, their expression, their attitude, and -the technique of the colouring.</p> - -<p>Thanks to the study devoted to painted vases, -we are now able to get a better idea of and -throw a little more light on the style and composition -of Greek painting. M. Paul Girard’s -book, <i xml:lang="fr" lang="fr">La Peinture Antique</i> is an instance. -Nearly all the illustrations in the chapters devoted -to classic Greece are taken from the decoration -of vases. To return to a comparison made -above. One who knew nothing of Raphael’s -work, but who had seen some <i xml:lang="fr" lang="fr">faïence</i> of Urbino -reproducing certain works of the time, would in -every way be more capable than those who had -not of understanding the master’s composition -and his style. He would undoubtedly still -lose many things. He never would realise the -harmony of his colours or the loftiness and -purity of his designs. This is, alas! what we -must say, in comparing the painting of a Greek -vase with the lost paintings of Polygnotos or -Zeuxis. The reflection of a lost art is all that -remains to us!</p> - -<div id="i_2" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 43em;"> - <img src="images/i_004.jpg" width="687" height="349" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p>Fig. 2. THE WORKSHOP OF A VASE PAINTER.</p> - -<p>Caputi Collection, Ruvo.</p></div></div> - -<p>We should add, however, that the distinction -between Greek manufacturers and their models<span class="pagenum" id="Page_5">5</span> -must have been less marked than in later ages. -Of this we cannot give material proof, but from -certain details we arrive at this conclusion. On -the one hand, the Attic craftsman was endowed, -as rarely any one has been, with the art of -design and the sense of style. On the other -hand, the ancient fresco, particularly of the fifth -century, was only drawing in flat colours, without -shading or modelling. Hence, there did not -exist the gulf which in modern times separates -a reproduction due to mechanical means from a -painting executed with all the fine shades and -skilful distinctions of <i xml:lang="it" lang="it">chiaro oscuro</i>. In Greece, -a painter of frescoes or a painter of vases was -above all things a good draughtsman. Here is -a common measure which reduces the distance -between them.</p> - -<p>In the absence of original paintings we must -descend a step and have recourse to the vase -industry, and thus discover dimly the nature of -pictorial art in the best times of classic Greece.</p> - -<p>But here another question arises. In treating -of Greek ceramics, is the name of Douris the -most important one among the many artists -presenting themselves to our mind? He formed -one of the Pleïades, who, between the expulsion -of the tyrant Hippias (510 <span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span>) and the Persian -wars (490–479 <span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span>), brought the manufacture of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_6">6</span> -Athenian pottery to its culminating point. His -rivals Euphronios and Brygos have, however, -been considered more skilled or more inspired in -their work. Why then choose Douris as the -most representative type of Greek painting?</p> - -<p>This is the reason. We know at present -about one hundred names of manufacturers -and painters of vases. Those who during the -best period have left the greatest number of -works are Euphronios, Douris, Hieron, and -Brygos. Leaving aside simple fragments, and -only counting pieces helpful for serious study, -we possess of the first-named ten signed works, -of the third twenty, of the fourth eight. Of -Douris twenty-eight are known.</p> - -<p>The greater number alone would justify -our choice. But another and more important -consideration may be added to the former. -Manufacturers of vases have different trademarks -for their ware. They trace their name -with a paint-brush on the body of the vase, -or else incise it in fine letters on the foot or -handle. The mode in which their name occurs -varies: “So-and-so made,” or else “So-and-so -painted.” There can be no uncertainty as to -the latter phrase; it refers to the artist who -executed the paintings decorating the vase. -But this term is far less frequent than the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_7">7</span> -former, which has caused many discussions. -“So-and-so made”? Is it a more elliptical -way of implying the designer, or is it the -potter who speaks in contrast to the painter -and designer? Or, again, did the same man -make the vase and then paint it? Is it the -master, the overseer who directs the entire -manufacture, and who, after the different processes -of modelling, of decoration, and of -baking have been executed under his direction -and according to his plans, affixes to the ware -of his house a sort of commercial trade-mark? -All these opinions have been supported at -different times. We cannot say that the subject -has been fully elucidated. In consequence -we run a great risk of mistake in saying that -a painting is a certain potter’s workmanship, -when the vase does not explicitly state who -painted it.</p> - -<p>The inevitable conclusion remains; to argue -with certainty about painters of vases we can -only trust one expression: “So-and-so painted.” -In the most prominent group of potters of -the fifth century, it is Douris who best fulfils -all these conditions, and relieves us of all -uncertainties on this subject. He is a craftsman, -and can make a pot or have one made -under his direction. The museum at Brussels<span class="pagenum" id="Page_8">8</span> -possesses a kantharos which “Douris made” -(<a href="#i_1">Fig. 1</a>). But he is above all a draughtsman -and executes all his paintings himself, for the -twenty-eight examples mentioned, including -the kantharos at Brussels, bear the words, -“Douris painted.” Even Euphronios, to whom -Klein devoted an entire book, making this -artist famous—and who to many represents -the vase painter <i xml:lang="fr" lang="fr">par excellence</i>—only signed as -draughtsman three or four vases, and as craftsman -seven.</p> - -<p>As potter and painter, Douris fulfils the -necessary qualifications of a master-craftsman; -above all as draughtsman and painter, he -satisfies most fully our desire of finding in -the decoration of painted vases a reflection of -the great contemporary art. This is why the -choice of his name seemed to us imperative.</p> - -<div id="i_3" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 44em;"> - <img src="images/i_008.jpg" width="693" height="374" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p>Fig. 3. THE PAINTER SMIKROS AND HIS COMPANIONS.</p> - -<p>Krater in the Brussels Museum.</p></div></div> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_9">9</span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 id="CHAPTER_II" class="vspace">CHAPTER II<br /> - -<span class="subhead">THE SOCIAL CONDITION OF A VASE PAINTER -AT ATHENS</span></h2> -</div> - -<p class="in0"><span class="firstword">A biography</span> of Douris must not be expected. -No classical writer has honoured one of these -potters even so far as to mention his name. -Ancient literature has only left some brief -allusions to the craft, some inscriptions recalling -their dedications in sanctuaries. The vases -themselves and the inscriptions traced thereon -form the clearest testimony we possess. Here -again we must be guided by discretion and -not drift into romance. A learned German -assumes that Euthymides, a celebrated potter -of the fifth century and a contemporary of -Douris, must have died young, while his -rival Euphronios, after a long career, died at -an advanced age. He quite forgets that the -number of signed vases to be attributed to -any individual artist is liable to be diminished -or increased by a chance discovery, and that -we are still far from being able to survey at<span class="pagenum" id="Page_10">10</span> -a glance the complete production of a manufacturer. -Euthymides may have produced far -more than Euphronios; we have, however, -only recovered seven of his vases. An enquiry -into the lives of vase painters must be confined -to a consideration of the general conditions -of their position. All inference as to -special facts is necessarily conjectural and -fictitious.</p> - -<p>Modern historians have made known to us -this important fact: trade in Athens, as in -other Greek cities, was chiefly in the hands -of those called “Metics,” that is to say, -strangers living in the city and given certain -political rights regulated by special laws. -Athens possessed laws most favourable to the -metics, and from the time of Solon, according -to Plutarch, strangers crowded into this -generous city, which offered such obvious -advantages to settlers.</p> - -<p>During the time of the Peloponnesian war -(431 <span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span>) the number of metics had increased -to 96,000, as compared with 120,000 citizens—an -enormous proportion. It is therefore to -be supposed that many manufacturers at the -beginning of the fifth century were aliens or -descended from foreign families. This hypothesis -is confirmed by the potters’ names, many<span class="pagenum" id="Page_11">11</span> -of which are foreign: Skythes (the Scythian), -Lydos (the Lydian), Amasis (name of an -Egyptian Pharaoh of the sixth century), -Kolchos (inhabitant of Colchis), Thrax (of -Thrace), Sikanos and Sikelos (the Sicilian), -Brygos (name of a Macedonian or Illyrian -people), etc. Beside these, however, we meet -with many purely Greek or Attic names—Klitias, -Ergotimos, Nikosthenes, Epiktetos, -Pamphaios, Euphronios, Hieron, Megakles, and -others. In certain cases, the craftsman’s -patronymic follows, as Kleomenes, son of -Nikias; Euthymedes, son of Polios. This -indicates a freeman and citizen of Athens. -Once we even find the deme mentioned: -Nikias, son of Hermokles, of the deme -Anaphlystos. We here catch a glimpse of a -society where the actual citizen associates -freely with many naturalised aliens. It is -probable that slaves or freedmen were also -employed, as one may guess from the following -nicknames: Paidikos (beautiful child), Smikros -(the little one), Mys (the rat). Douris’ name -does not appear to be Attic. It is always -written Doris on vases, but we know that in -those times the diphthong <em>ou</em> was simply -expressed by <em>o</em>. The name Doris does not -exist in the catalogue of men’s names which<span class="pagenum" id="Page_12">12</span> -has come down to us, while the name Douris -is well-known. It may have been of Ionian -origin.</p> - -<p>To resume, the Kerameikos of Athens -formed a district by itself, a little world where -all sorts of people belonging to different races -and societies jostled one another. The master -was the manager of the factory and a craftsman, -capable of making a vase as well as -painting it, designing the forms, the ornaments, -and the subjects. His assistants, who were -sometimes allowed the honour of signing, were -employed under his direction in the shaping -and decorating of pottery; even women took -part in this work, as we see on a beautiful -vase-painting (<a href="#i_2">Fig. 2</a>) to be described later. -Lastly, there were the workmen engaged in -working the clay, preparing the glaze and the -colours, taking care of the ovens, moving -materials, etc. Comparing the arrangements in -a modern ceramic factory, one will find about -the same conditions and these three grades of -workers.</p> - -<div id="i_4" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 46em;"> - <img src="images/i_012.jpg" width="735" height="346" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p>Fig. 4. A POTTER’S WORKSHOP. MODELLING AND BAKING OF VASES.</p> - -<p>Hydria. Munich Museum.</p></div></div> - -<p>We must naturally picture things in Greece -on a modest scale: the enterprise conducted -at less expense than nowadays, the capital -smaller, and the staff reduced to those strictly -required. Above all, it is necessary to remember<span class="pagenum" id="Page_13">13</span> -that the division of labour was far less -marked in ancient times than with us. The -same man was capable of different tasks, he -was employed according to his ability and -intelligence. There was nothing of the -mechanical spirit, which nowadays has passed -into the man from the machine, and, for the -sake of greater speed and precision, isolates a -workman in a corner of the factory without -teaching him anything else. Undoubtedly a -social hierarchy existed and weighed heavily -upon the individual; to be citizen, metic, or -slave implied profoundly different conditions of -life, which raised more formidable barriers -between classes than with us. But in the -exercise of art or industry the life of the -ancients presents itself under a singularly -democratic aspect. Their workmen shared -their mental work far more than ours do, and -were familiar with all the details of the craft. -This it is which gives to the industrial art of -the Greeks a marked distinction. No matter -how modest the work, one feels a living -intelligence therein. The history of vases is -most suggestive in this respect. We never -find the stiffness of mechanical labour, the -monotony of copy repeated to satiety. All -are not masterpieces—far from it. But not<span class="pagenum" id="Page_14">14</span> -one is quite devoid of individuality, and the -best proof that can be given is that two -painted Greek vases exactly identical do not -exist.</p> - -<p>Whether Douris was metic or citizen, we may -think of him as a craftsman, who by his knowledge -and skill had acquired an important -position in the town, and directed one of these -flourishing establishments in the potters’ quarter, -near the Dipylon Gate, and just at the entrance -to the Necropolis. His ware helped to carry the -fame of Attic taste into distant lands.</p> - -<p>We know that the majority of Greek vases -have been gathered from Etruscan tombs, where -they formed the personal property of the dead -after having been used by families at banquets -and at religious ceremonies. Similar finds have -been made in many other sites of the ancient -world: in the islands of Sicily, Rhodes, Melos; -on the coast of Africa, in Cyrenaica; in the -Thracian Chersonese, even as far as the Crimea. -But nowhere have the finds been richer than -in Etruria; this was the favourite market for -Attic ware during the sixth and the greater -part of the fifth century.</p> - -<p>After the disastrous war in Sicily, when -communication with the Tyrrhenian Sea was -severed, they turned to southern Italy, the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_15">15</span> -Islands, Africa, and the Scythian colonies. The -trade in vases was not limited to the home -market, to the customers of Athens and the -neighbourhood. The most important and most -thriving part of the industry was the export -into foreign countries. What we to-day term -<i xml:lang="fr" lang="fr">l’article de Paris</i> scattered over all the world -somewhat recalls the favour enjoyed by Attic -productions in that age. Great profits must -have been realised.</p> - -<p>This trade was again combined with other -important exports. It would be an error to -consider the painted vase as a curio simply -made for the pleasure of the eyes of the -collector or artist, like the porcelain of China -and of Japan to-day. The Greeks had no <i xml:lang="fr" lang="fr">bric-à-brac</i>. -We may even say that there were no -art amateurs or collectors. Utility was the -only foundation of art: it formed its health -and strength. We do not believe a statue -was ever made, even in the fifth century, -simply for the pleasure of creating a beautiful -piece of work. Each art object had a -practical purpose, and only existed by virtue -of a want: offerings to the gods, consecrations -after victories, household utensils, votive offerings -at the altar and the tomb. It follows -that industrial art was still more intimately<span class="pagenum" id="Page_16">16</span> -connected with practical needs. The amphora, -which appears as a speciality of Athens in the -ceramic industry, contained the famous oil -gathered in the plain—to-day still famous for -its olive groves—or wine from Parnes. We -know positively that the Panathenaic amphoræ -given as prizes at the feasts in honour of Athene -contained the savoury oil produced by the -sacred plants of the goddess. Victors carried -these to their homes as trophies. There is no -reason to believe that other vases were treated -differently. Why should the painted amphoræ, -such as are found from the sixth century -onwards in great numbers in Etruscan tombs, be -sent forth empty from the workshops of Corinth, -Chalkis, or Athens? They certainly once contained -a product prized by the inhabitants of -Caere and Volsinii more than the beauty of -the painting on their exterior. In consequence -of this beautiful decoration, which was a sort -of trade-mark of Greek produce, rich families -in Italy ordered entire “table services” from -Athens for special use at banquets and religious -festivals. They not only comprised receptacles -for oil and wine—amphoræ, krateres, lekythoi, -decanters for wine as the oinochoai, holders of -water as the hydria—but also vases for drinking, -such as the kylix, the kantharos, and the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_17">17</span> -skyphos, and even plates and platters. From -the fifth century onwards Athens had succeeded -in destroying all competition. She had become -the unique centre of this trade. The character -of the art then obtained decisive importance.</p> - -<div id="i_5" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 31em;"> - <img src="images/i_016.jpg" width="482" height="484" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p>Fig. 5. A DISPLAY OF VASES AND A PURCHASER.</p> - -<p>Kylix by Phintias. Baltimore Museum.</p></div></div> - -<p>The manufacture of the kylix—which was -essentially the instrument of joy and gaiety, -passing at banquets from hand to hand and -admired by every one as it passed—received -an impetus until then unknown.</p> - -<p>Hence it was in consequence of being in close -connection with the export trade and with the -two other great industries of wine and oil that -the ceramic art of Athens developed so extraordinarily. -The manufacturers must frequently -have made large fortunes. Historians tell us -that the great fortunes in Athens were in the -hands of the metics. It is not astonishing to -hear of rich offerings being made on the -Acropolis by manufacturers, some of whom -were potters. On the pedestal of an offering -we read the name of the potter Euphronios. -A votive stele, in a style of delicate archaism, -represents in bas-relief a manufacturer of vases -seated, holding two drinking cups in one hand. -Unfortunately a great part of the inscription -is effaced, but one can still distinguish the end -of a name “IOS” which might be Euphronios.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_18">18</span> -The style of the sculpture and the accepted -date of the ceramist would agree.</p> - -<p>The most beautiful archaic statue found on -the Acropolis is signed by one of the greatest -sculptors of the fourth century, Antenor, and -bears a dedication made by a certain Nearchos, -who might be a maker of black-figured vases—one -of which is preserved. This identification -is unfortunately not certain, but is admitted -by several archæologists, and implies nothing -improbable. If one could definitely prove that -the potter Nearchos had ordered, of a famous -sculptor, an important work for an offering to -the goddess Athene as a tithe of his gains, we -should possess most important evidence as to -the social and pecuniary condition of craftsmen.</p> - -<p>Another curious record of the mode of life -led by certain potters is given on a vase in the -Museum at Brussels. A painter has painted -his own portrait in the features of a young -man at a banquet leaning on a couch, feasting -in the gay company of friends and hetairai -(<a href="#i_3">Fig. 3</a>). He is a contemporary of Douris named -Smikros. One day, his purse being well filled -in consequence of good orders, he and some -companions of the studio indulged in the -pleasures the city yielded.</p> - -<p>If, by such information we may consider the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_19">19</span> -pecuniary position of potters as fairly good, -shall we conclude that their education was -equal to that of the best Athenian society? -Here it may be well to enter a protest against -the commonly accepted opinion. Vase painters -are usually credited with qualities of originality -amounting to positive genius. The merit of -the composition and of the choice of subject, -the skill in placing the figures, the invention of -attitude and movement, are all attributed to -them. Hartwig, an author who has closely -studied the Greek drinking cups of the fifth -century, goes so far in his admiration as to -reject as fanciful any connection between the -works of this industry and the great works of -contemporary art. He grants that vase painters -copy one another, and that they borrow mutually -subjects for designs and even persons. But -he maintains that their province remains indisputedly -theirs, and one need not look for copies -from celebrated works in their art.</p> - -<p>This opinion appears, like many others, to -contain a truth and an error. It is quite true, -that to look for a commonplace reproduction -of great art upon painted vases would be -useless. Many subjects are strictly designed -for the express purpose of the vase, for the -form of its surface, and are drawn from scenes<span class="pagenum" id="Page_20">20</span> -of everyday life which were constantly under -the draughtsman’s eyes, scenes of the palæstra, -of banquets, military armaments, processions of -cavalry, etc. Who could imagine a Greek -draughtsman not copying Nature?</p> - -<p>But, on the other hand, how can one think -of an artisan as skilled as an Athenian ceramist, -who could remain indifferent to the lessons of -the great masters? Would not his eyes and -brain be filled with the works of art which -made all public buildings and sanctuaries -museums in the open air? And in that case, -what strange rule would forbid him to borrow -many of the subjects and persons from these -superior models? These would be abstracts, -free compositions, adaptations, but nevertheless -a borrowing.</p> - -<div id="i_6" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 44em;"> - <img src="images/i_020.jpg" width="694" height="345" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p>Fig. 6. YOUTHS EXERCISING IN THE PALÆSTRA.</p> - -<p>Kylix by Douris. Louvre Museum.</p></div></div> - -<p>Furthermore, what we have just said of -vase manufacturers places them in a popular -class whose members did not shine by education. -Merchants of free status, metics, freedmen -or slaves could not form a society -comparable to the one in which lived a -Polygnotos or a Phidias. Isocrates says -scornfully: “Who would dare compare Phidias -to a maker of terracottas, or Zeuxis and -Parrhasios to a painter of votive offerings?” -He would undoubtedly have said the same of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_21">21</span> -vase painters. We affirm, in fact, that many -of these workers were quite illiterate; some -were content simply to trace sham letters or -letters in juxtaposition, without any meaning, -in the place of the usual inscription. Many -made gross mistakes, or mixed the dialect of -their own country with that of Athens. Some -did not even know how to spell the name of -the potter for whom they were working, but -wrote it in three or four different ways. These -little facts help to illustrate the inferior condition -of this society. To look here for great -artists, philosophers or thinkers, rivals of Pindar -and Æschylus, of Phidias and Polygnotos, -would be contrary to all likelihood. If -Euphronios, Douris or Brygos had genius, it -was entirely in their province as skilled -draughtsmen, guided and influenced by beautiful -models, besides being business men and -prudent merchants. The idea of raising such -men to the height of creators and inventors -would certainly have greatly astonished the -Athenians.</p> - -<p>To sum up, Nature and living truth—the -works of great masters and the teachings of -the past—these form the double source from -which all artists, at all times, have drawn. -It would seem difficult to exclude from one<span class="pagenum" id="Page_22">22</span> -or the other the painters of Greek vases. On -the contrary, in studying them we feel, -although their social position is humble, and -their private education mediocre, that they are -peculiarly great, inasmuch as their artistic -sense is always alert, always emulous of competitors -or works of art about them, and, -finally, great in that dominant quality which -the Greek carries within him—a keen sensitiveness -to all that is beautiful in life. As artisans, -craftsmen, merchants and metics, they move -in a lower sphere in their city; but nothing -shows more clearly the power of the environment -than seeing in Athens, which had become -the spiritual centre of Greece, the working -man’s world raising itself without effort from -its dead level to the intellectual life of the -higher classes: a phenomenon all the more remarkable -as it occurred in an ancient society, -that is to say, in an era when the social barriers -were inflexibly rigid. May modern democracies -be inspired by this example and understand -that the education of the masses comes from -the highly-gifted, and the masses will never -be high-minded when those whom fortune has -placed above them are worthless.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_23">23</span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 id="CHAPTER_III" class="vspace">CHAPTER III<br /> - -<span class="subhead">THE WORKSHOP AND TOOLS OF DOURIS</span></h2> -</div> - -<p class="in0"><span class="firstword">We</span> must regard Douris from two points of -view: the craftsman and the artist.</p> - -<p>Let us first see what his workshop was like. -Again, all the documents we possess are the -vases themselves, or terracotta tablets which -served as votive offerings. We see upon them -workmen in the act of turning or painting -pots, lighted ovens, pottery exposed for sale, -etc. Upon a black-figured hydria at Munich -(<a href="#i_4">Fig. 4</a>) we see such an establishment divided -into two parts: to the left is the workshop -where the turning, shaping and polishing of -vases takes place; to the right, under the -supervision of an aged man, who apparently is -the master, are other workmen carrying finished -pots to dry and bake them. In the extreme -corner is the high oven decorated with a Silenus -mask. Here, a vase from Ruvo (<a href="#i_2">Fig. 2</a>) takes -us to a painter’s studio. Three painters, each -grasping a brush, are decorating the body and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_24">24</span> -neck of two krateres and one kantharos, while -other vases on the ground are awaiting their -turn. To the right, on a platform, a woman -is painting the handle of a larger krater; above -her some small pots are leaning against the -wall. The composition is ingeniously completed -by the appearance of two Victories and Athene -armed with helmet and lance, who solemnly -crown the workmen bending over their work—a -poetic symbol to glorify the fame of Athenian -industry.</p> - -<p>The act of painting is illustrated upon some -vase fragments, where we see the artist working -with a very finely-pointed brush (<a href="#i_25">Fig. 25</a>). -Lastly, some Corinthian platters show us workmen -turning vases and watching the baking, -and the kiln filled with piles of pottery. One -even represents a merchant ship with a cargo -of pottery, oinochoai or small perfume bottles, -destined for some land across the sea. We -will mention one other kylix by the painter -Phintias, upon which are displayed a potter’s -wares. A number of vases are placed on the -ground, and a youth with a purse in his hand -is stooping in the act of choosing his purchase -(<a href="#i_5">Fig. 5</a>).</p> - -<div id="i_7" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 40em;"> - <img src="images/i_024.jpg" width="638" height="506" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p>Fig. 7. APHRODITE UPON HER SWAN.</p> - -<p>White background. British Museum.</p></div></div> - -<p>All these scenes are small genre pictures like -<i>The Barbers</i> or <i>The Lace Makers</i> of Holland<span class="pagenum" id="Page_25">25</span> -and Flanders in the seventeenth century. They -teach us the chief characteristics of the ceramic -art.</p> - -<p>An establishment of this kind implies several -buildings. The vase turners or makers would -be in a separate room from the painters. One -or more ovens would be required in a court, -with a shed for the storage of raw materials, -and for kneading and refining the clay. Lastly, -we must assume that there were some rooms -for warehousing and a sale-room adjoining the -factory, in addition to rooms for the masters -and night-watchmen. No matter how modest -the staff, it would amount to fifteen or twenty -persons, counting not only those in charge -of the factory, but labourers and stokers. -Upon the hydria at Munich (<a href="#i_4">Fig. 4</a>), in a -painting necessarily restricted, we can count -eight persons. Upon the vase from Ruvo (<a href="#i_2">Fig. 2</a>) -the studio contains four workers—three men -and one woman—all painting. To obtain a -correct idea of the staff one must at least -treble this number.</p> - -<p>Hence a potter like Douris must have superintended -a factory representing a commercial -enterprise of some importance. We must not -think of an artist, who, in his solitary studio, -at his leisure and according to his inspiration,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_26">26</span> -sketches subjects or forms for vases, and leaves -the execution to others. We must not forget -it is an industry. This practical purpose must -profoundly influence one’s opinions as to the -nature of the potter’s studies, his manner of -composing, and the profit he expects from his -enterprise.</p> - -<p>We will not discuss points of technique -which demand too detailed an enquiry, and -would raise questions not yet solved. Let -us think of the materials as gathered in the -hands of the craftsman: clay carefully chosen -and refined, colours for glazing and retouching, -lustres intended to brighten the natural colour -of the clay, and the black for the design, -wheels and moulds, rules and compass, sharp -points for sketching, brushes of all kinds, etc.</p> - -<p>The most commonly used and most valuable -ingredient is the black glaze, the composition -of which is still unknown; its basis is oxide -of iron. It is used for drawings on red clay, -to trace features, persons, accessories and -decorations, and to cover the background. It -is to the Greek what Indian ink is to the -draughtsman of Japan. In baking, it takes -on a warm, velvety tone, sometimes a little -olive, sometimes it becomes in the flames a -little yellow or red. It is brightened by a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_27">27</span> -brilliant lustre which frequently produces the -effect of a mirror, but it never has the cold -or waxy tone which disfigures modern imitations -of antique vases. It is thick and rich, -and forms, after drying, a slight prominence -perceptible to the finger. Lastly, it is indestructible, -even by acids, and does not change -with time, unless the surface of the clay -beneath it has been touched by damp, in -which case it flakes off.</p> - -<p>The invention of this black was one of the -most beautiful discoveries in ancient industry. -If we could only discover its formula it would -still be of the greatest importance. It was in -use from the time of the Mycenæan age, that -is to say, more than a thousand years before our -era; eventually potters brought it to perfection, -increasing its delicacy, thickness and brilliancy. -About the time of Douris it had reached its -perfection and retained its excellence until -the end of the fifth century. After the -capture of Athens and the ruin of the potters’ -workshops, the recipe was lost or the manufacture -of it became neglected, for vases of -the fourth century, found in Bœotia and in -Southern Italy, show a great deterioration in -this respect.</p> - -<p>Next to the black, his brush is of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_28">28</span> -greatest importance to the Athenian artist. -Its nature has been much discussed. In some -of the illustrations cited, we see it in the -hands of workmen while drawing (Figs. <a href="#i_2">2</a> -and <a href="#i_25">25</a>). It consists of a thin handle, doubtless -of wood, to which is joined a long and -thin point. Some suppose it to be the barbule -of a bird’s feather; the feathers of the woodcock -are particularly suitable for very delicate -lines. In the opinion of others it is merely -a hog’s bristle. The brushes vary in thickness -according to the number and stoutness of the -bristles employed.</p> - -<p>The Greeks must have been able to paint -with one single bristle, a method requiring -great patience and special skill in loading the -brush with paint and guiding it on the clay; -but in this manner particularly delicate lines of -even strength from end to end can be obtained. -Experiments have been made with ordinary -paint, proving this conclusively. Of course the -painter must have had thicker brushes at his -disposal with which to trace heavier outlines. -The background had to be put in with heavy -and broad brushes. But the fine brush is the -tool above all others with which the Greek -draughtsman accomplished wonderful feats, -placing lines of extraordinary delicacy side by<span class="pagenum" id="Page_29">29</span> -side, or throwing out a line at a single stroke, -the impeccable straightness of which delights -and surprises the eye. We have reason to -believe that it was not a tool for craftsmen -only. Painters of frescoes and large paintings -had the same difficulties to contend with, if -we are to give credence to an anecdote by -Pliny: for Apelles and Protogenes competed -who should draw the most perfect and finest -line.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_30">30</span></p> - -<div id="i_8" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 32em;"> - <img src="images/i_028.jpg" width="499" height="459" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p>Fig. 8. EOS CARRYING MEMNON, HER DEAD SON.</p> - -<p>Kylix by Douris. Louvre Museum.</p></div></div> - -<hr /> -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 id="CHAPTER_IV" class="vspace">CHAPTER IV<br /> - -<span class="subhead">HOW DOURIS WORKED</span></h2> -</div> - -<p class="in0"><span class="firstword">Let</span> us now watch the craftsman at work. -We have said that Douris was a potter, but -that usually he left to others the care of -making vases according to well-known models, -and reserved to himself the task of decoration. -In what then does his character of painter -consist?</p> - -<p>First he must decide on the subject. The -Greeks tried, as much as possible, to adapt -the design to the purpose of the vase. An -amphora or a krater would not usually have -the same design as a kylix. There were no -rules on the subject, and the utmost liberty -was given the artist. Nevertheless, we notice -that grave subjects and personages in attitudes -of repose are given the preference on large -vases, which had stable bases and were rarely -moved, as harmonizing best with their broad -surface and vertical lines. Animated or everyday -subjects are better adapted to the horizontal<span class="pagenum" id="Page_31">31</span> -sides of a kylix, which circulated freely in the -hands of guests.</p> - -<p>For the same reason, we may say that the -painting of large vases remained essentially -conservative, more attached to ancient methods -and subjects, while the painting of the kylix -constantly called forth new ideas: hence its -great importance in the fifth century.</p> - -<p>Certain archæologists claim to have discovered -two distinct branches in the industry—but -that is an error. The same distinguished -artists produced the large krater and the kylix, -as for example Euphronios. But it would be -more correct to distinguish two schools side -by side, and those artists who by preference -decorated the kylix were more “progressive.” -Douris is of this number, if not in style, at -least in the choice of his subjects. He tries -to create new designs; he draws from daily -life, banquet scenes, dancing scenes, scenes -from the palæstra (<a href="#i_6">Fig. 6</a>), amorous scenes—well -adapted for a drinking cup. On the other -hand, if he approaches heroic or mythical compositions, -he makes use of the opportunity to -draw beautiful bodies in motion, rape or battle -episodes: The Nereids flying from Peleus -(<a href="#i_13">Fig. 13</a>); Theseus killing the Minotaur and -Attic robbers (<a href="#i_11">Fig. 11</a>); or the battles of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_32">32</span> -heroes in Homer, as those of Menelaos and -Paris or Ajax and Hector (Figs. <a href="#i_9">9</a> and <a href="#i_10">10</a>). -At other times, we find allusions to recent -glorious events which had taken place in -Greece, a Greek soldier striking down a -Persian (<a href="#i_20">Fig. 20</a>), Hoplites and Asiatic archers -at close quarters. He belonged to that group -of artists who are always looking for action, -for the new and the modern.</p> - -<p>After what originals did the painter compose? -We are quite ignorant here, and cannot specify -without falling into fiction and hypothesis. -Were there sketch books, representing the -individual observations of the artist, taken from -Nature or from great contemporary works? -Or did πίνακες, tablets of wood or panels of -terracotta, serve for preliminary sketches? -Did a painter, as it were, design a “model” -which he transferred to clay or gave to his -workmen as a theme to work upon? All these -questions remain unanswered. One is forced -to surmise that the master signed only works -on which he himself had worked, those which -he designed and circulated as his latest productions, -the <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">editio princeps</i>, so to speak, -inscribed with his signature. But when a -subject once composed was repeated in the -workshop, copied with slight variations by<span class="pagenum" id="Page_33">33</span> -workmen, the pottery, no matter what its -commercial value, was no longer entitled to -this personal certificate.</p> - -<div id="i_9" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 46em;"> - <img src="images/i_032.jpg" width="735" height="379" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p>Fig. 9. CONTEST OF MENELAOS AND PARIS.</p> - -<p>Exterior of preceding Cup.</p></div></div> - -<p>Subjects thus composed with free repetition -must be very numerous, for there is, as it were, -a strong family likeness among many of them: -battle scenes, banquets, gatherings of youths, -games in the palæstra. Another important -fact, must be stated, no obstacle was placed -against plagiarism in ancient times; on the -contrary, it was the spirit and essence of -industrial art. We have proof of this in the -terracottas as well as in the vases. Every one -copies or imitates his neighbour. There is no -copyright or patent for artistic property, an -idea which has become the subject of legislation -only in modern times. Considering the communistic -way in which these Greek craftsmen -lived, at a time when production was so intense, -and the personal reputation of a potter might -prove so great a factor in his fortune, we can -readily understand how any man may have -been led to protect himself against plagiarism -by means of a signature which authenticated a -production. A krater by Euphronios, a kylix -by Douris or Brygos, might be particularly -sought after by certain customers in Greece -and Etruria. Why should they not be assured<span class="pagenum" id="Page_34">34</span> -that they had in their hands an original work -of a great master, and not a copy made by -workmen or competitors? Have we not clocks -signed by Boulle, and chests of drawers by -Riesener, which are thus distinguished from -similar objects, sometimes very beautiful, but -which, without a trade-mark, do not represent -original work?</p> - -<p>Such then is the sense in which we should -understand the signature of a vase by Douris. -He sought, devised and composed the design. -And even more, his own hands carried out -the painting.</p> - -<p>Let us now reflect upon the material side -of the painter’s trade.</p> - -<p>The artist begins with a simple sketch made -by means of a hard point, it may simply be -the sharpened end of a bit of wood, which -scratches the unbaked clay, leaving decided -traces after the final painting, baking and -glazing. There is hardly a beautiful vase of -this period, signed or not, which does not show -these traces. This sketch sufficiently proves -the absolute independence of the worker in -regard to his model, and contradicts the opinion -of those who maintain that the transfer was -made with compasses. On the contrary, one -feels how free the work is, and that the arrangement<span class="pagenum" id="Page_35">35</span> -was invented entirely to suit the object -decorated. And what enables us to follow -the method of sketching still more closely, is -the fact that the stroke of the brush, coming -after, has not always exactly followed its lines. -There have been alterations at the last moment, -a lowered arm has been raised, a foot advanced, -etc. It is impossible to doubt the spontaneous -character, in some respects the improvisation of -the design. It is, besides, rare to outline completely -every person in a sketch. Frequently -the outlines of one or two, with their chief -characteristics, are drawn, and these determine -the rest.</p> - -<p>When the sketch is finished, the painter -begins to put in his colour. He first takes a -broad brush and rapidly indicates in black the -outlines of the figures which compose his -picture: this broad stroke of the brush charged -with more colour and forming a projection -round the figures can be easily distinguished. -Next come the fine brushes, composed of only -one bristle, giving in accurate and precise strokes -the chief lines of the bodies and the folds of the -garments; others, a little heavier, are used to -indicate the hair, the beard, ornaments on the -garments, etc. The black may be used in a -variety of tones. By diluting it a more fluid<span class="pagenum" id="Page_36">36</span> -matter was obtained, rather grey, which was -frequently used for the under sides of objects, -for rendering muscular details, the wavy folds -in drapery, locks of hair, etc. Usually this -diluted black would turn yellow in the baking. -An unobtrusive polychrome is the result which -the painters used with ingenuity; they were -thus able to produce blonde hair or slightly -golden folds of garments.</p> - -<p>We have already stated that, in order to -carry out these very fine lines, the artist -probably held his brush firmly, not only with -the tips of his fingers, but with closed hand as -the Japanese painters still do (Figs. <a href="#i_2">2</a> and <a href="#i_25">25</a>). -He must move slowly and firmly in tracing -these fine lines. Constantly obliged to take -fresh colour, he sometimes had to break a line -two or three times; but these joinings are only -visible with a magnifying glass. It is said -that it was impossible to make any correction -of the stroke, and that the faultless execution -of the lines proves the wonderful skill of the -Greeks. We believe this to be an error. -A wet sponge probably sufficed to remove -any drawings or parts of them from the -clay, and when it was dry the artist could -begin work again. It was a question of -patience and skill. It is because correction<span class="pagenum" id="Page_37">37</span> -was so easy, that the results attained are usually -perfect.</p> - -<div id="i_10" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 46em;"> - <img src="images/i_036.jpg" width="735" height="390" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p>Fig. 10. CONTEST OF AJAX AND HECTOR.</p> - -<p>Exterior of preceding Cup.</p></div></div> - -<p>The painting finished, the pot was handed -over to a workman to fill in the background -between the figures with black as well as the -foot and the edges of the handles.</p> - -<p>After the black had dried, the pot was -returned to the artist’s hands to be retouched -with colour. In the sixth century, in the -black-figured style, many colours were used, -as violet-red and white. At the time of -Douris, the red figured vases displayed very -few complementary colours. Great simplicity -characterized the taste of the times. A few -red lines sufficed to indicate fillets tied in the -hair, belts holding swords, the reins of horses, -etc. Red was likewise used to trace inscriptions -or the signature of the artist (<a href="#i_8">Fig. 8</a>). -Others preferred to inscribe it in black on the -foot of handle (<a href="#i_15">Fig. 15</a>). Others again incised -it with a style in the thick colour. White -only returns again to favour after the Persian -wars. About the time of Douris, in the workshop -of one of his rivals—Brygos—who may -have been a little younger, attempts were -made to heighten the effect of the red figures -by a little gilding cautiously placed on the -outlines of the armour, helmets and vases<span class="pagenum" id="Page_38">38</span> -for libations. It is a return to the rich -polychromy, which later continues to develop, -and ends in those pretty little gilt vases -devoted to scenes of child life, beloved by -Attic customers towards the end of the fifth -century. As far as we know, Douris does not -seem to have taken part in the manufacture -of the beautiful drinking cups with a white -background and fresco tones of brown, red and -violet, with which the workshops of Euphronios -and his successors were busy (<a href="#i_7">Fig. 7</a>). He -adheres to the classical method of figures left -in the red clay, and only retouched by a few -wine-coloured lines. It may be said that he -is not a colourist. To his eyes, as to those of -Ingres, drawing is the very foundation of the -art.</p> - -<p>When the drawings were finished, his chief -task was done; but his position as manufacturer -did not permit him to remain indifferent to -the rest. He had to carry his painted pottery -to the drying place, and, after the required -time, to have it baked. This is a very delicate -part of the manufacture of vases, on which its -success greatly depends. Ancient ovens were -probably very imperfect. There are many -examples of oxidization by contact with the -flame, which improperly reddens the side of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_39">39</span> -a vase or turns half a figure orange. The -supports on which vases were placed, while -drying, sometimes left round marks. In one -known instance, in consequence of two freshly -painted vases touching one another, the hoofs -of a horse have become impressed upon the -face of a youth.</p> - -<p>Defects in the material were more liable then -than now to expose the ceramist to breakage -and various accidents, which at all times have -been the despair of the manufacturer, and -which an Homeric singer already ascribed to -special demons, “Syntrips, Smaragos, Asbetos, -Sabaktes, Omodamos, gods fatal to the furnace.” -We have already described a kiln adorned -with a head of Silenus, a prophylactic fetish, -destined to cast out evil influences (<a href="#i_4">Fig. 4</a>).</p> - -<p>At last the pottery is taken out of the oven. -The master can contemplate his work, test the -delicacy of its sides, examine the fusion of -the colours, study the change of tone in the -baking. Other workmen come to immerse the -vases in a prepared bath, which will glaze -the entire visible surface, brighten the red of -the clay, the background and all the black -lines, but will leave the retouching dull. We -are quite ignorant of the ingredients of the -bath which so thoroughly accomplished all this<span class="pagenum" id="Page_40">40</span> -and gave the pottery its splendour. We only -know that a red precipitate was formed, traces -of which are frequently visible under the foot -and upon the clay which had remained -uncovered. Among vases of the decline, this -red overruns the entire drawing and gives an -unpleasant appearance to the whole; in this -case, as with the black, either the recipe of -the glaze had been lost, or else the work was -badly executed. Possibly a dry rubbing with -leather or some other substance added finish -to the glaze.</p> - -<p>We must not even yet regard the potter’s -work as finished. He had to superintend the -sale, attract customers, confer with shipowners -in regard to the export. Nor was advertising -unknown to the ancients. It adopted many -devices. Some potters contrived to paint on -the vase subjects or inscriptions alluding to the -products therein. There are scenes of wine -and oil sales, with sentences, praising the -merchandise or the honesty of the merchant. -There are incentives to the pleasure of drinking, -friendly greetings and wishes of good -health to him who will use the kylix or -kantharos. Even the details of the potter’s -trade have served as matter for representation, -to recall to the customer the fame of Attic<span class="pagenum" id="Page_41">41</span> -workshops. The prettiest allegory is the one -we mentioned above, where we saw Athene -accompanied by two little Victories entering a -workshop of painters and placing crowns on -the heads of the workmen (<a href="#i_2">Fig. 2</a>).</p> - -<div id="i_11" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 32em;"> - <img src="images/i_040.jpg" width="510" height="643" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p>Fig. 11. THE ADVENTURES OF THESEUS.</p> - -<p>By Douris. British Museum.</p></div></div> - -<p>But the means most frequently adopted to -attract buyers was to inscribe on the body of -a vase the name of some young man of distinguished -family in Athens, known either for -his beauty or his fortune, and in this way to -gain the good-will of a rich customer, who -would bring the patronage of all his family -and friends. We have a large number of such -inscriptions wherein the manufacturer invokes -“the handsome Leagros,” “the handsome -Glaukon,” or “the handsome Megakles,” etc., -and we recognize in these names well-known -members of the Athenian aristocracy (Figs. <a href="#i_5">5</a>, -<a href="#i_7">7</a>, <a href="#i_8">8</a>).</p> - -<p>It will be remembered that the Italian -potters of the sixteenth century put into -circulation <i xml:lang="it" lang="it">coppe amatorie</i>, bearing portraits of -beautiful women, surrounded by inscriptions -celebrating <i xml:lang="it" lang="it">Lucrezia diva</i> or “the fair Camilla.” -This is a similar idea.</p> - -<p>Lastly, we have one example of a personal -advertisement in rather an aggressive form, -coming from Euthymides, a contemporary and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_42">42</span> -rival of Euphronios. Upon an amphora in the -Museum at Munich, the boastful craftsman has -written this defiant apostrophe: “Euphronios -has never done so well!”</p> - -<p>These minute details enable us to penetrate -into the material life of the workshop. We -catch a glimpse of the greedy struggles for -gain, the ambitions and rivalries involved in -all commercial enterprise. It is the seamy side -of this beautiful art, which to-day appears to -us so pure and free from all material considerations. -As in all human efforts, there -were undoubtedly in reality many competing -interests, many cruel cares, much deceit and -hatred. But time has done its work; has -thrown a veil over the mean and petty things -in life, and only allowed those to survive which -are truly sane and useful. Let us rejoice in -not knowing whether Douris was a successful -business man, whether he honestly made a -fortune, or whether he died miserably in debt. -That which remains of his work is the spiritual, -the true and fruitful part of his life. His -drawings teach us what he was, not as an -individual, but as an artist, as a member of -the great Athenian family, and this it is which -interests us above all.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_43">43</span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 id="CHAPTER_V" class="vspace">CHAPTER V<br /> - -<span class="subhead">THE WORK OF DOURIS</span></h2> -</div> - -<p class="in0"><span class="firstword">We</span> will only consider here the works signed by -Douris, and leave aside a considerable number of -anonymous vases attributed to him. We only -wish to argue from indisputable records. The -number consists of twenty-six drinking cups, -one kantharos, and one vase for cooling wine, -forming in all about eighty paintings, which -can be divided into three distinct groups:</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>1. Mythical and heroic subjects, adventures -of gods and heroes.</p> - -<p>2. Martial subjects, scenes of arming and -battle.</p> - -<p>3. Subjects of everyday life, banquets, conversations -and exercises in the palæstra.</p></blockquote> - -<p>It would, no doubt, be interesting to study -these subjects chronologically, and to follow -step by step the career of the artist; but we -could not place much confidence in a detailed -enumeration of dates. We will select the first -group as most clear and precise. This will not<span class="pagenum" id="Page_44">44</span> -prevent our examining the numerous and diverse -styles through which the talent of Douris passed. -On the whole, we may say there were two chief -periods in his style: the one, while he adhered -to ancient traditions, and his drawings remained -stiff and archaic; the other, when his brush -became flexible to a remarkable degree, and -when he began to create. It is the story of -many artists, both ancient and modern.</p> - -<h3>1. <i>Mythical and Heroic Subjects.</i></h3> - -<p>The kylix of Eos and Memnon (Figs. <a href="#i_8">8</a>, <a href="#i_9">9</a>, -<a href="#i_10">10</a>), well known to visitors of the Louvre, is -not only the oldest but the one which best illustrates -the first period of Douris, and deserves -the closest attention from lovers of art. It is -a masterpiece of Greek ceramic art, at a time -when the painting of red figures, while still -retaining the stiff, archaic forms, finds means -to move the feelings by purity of line and a -deep sense of life. The vase, by the potter -Kalliades, in itself reveals an old shape (<a href="#i_1">Fig. 1</a> -right) with the foot short and squat, the sides -heavy, a deep bowl and short handles, following -the models of Nikosthenes and Pamphaios of -the sixth century. Later Douris made a kylix -of far more graceful outline, with a shallower<span class="pagenum" id="Page_45">45</span> -bowl, a higher stem made slender in the middle, -and lighter handles, such as one sees in the -workshops of Euphronios, Hieron and Brygos -(<a href="#i_1">Fig. 1</a> left). On this kylix there are a great -number of inscriptions: nearly every person is -designated by name. Besides the signatures of -the potter and painter we can read the name of -the handsome Hermogenes (<a href="#i_8">Fig. 8</a>), and with -it a fragment of a phrase, the meaning of which -remains doubtful. Seventeen or eighteen words -in all are scattered in fine red letters over the -inner surface and the reverse of the cup. This -profusion of writing is in itself archaic; men -were communicative in early times, and delighted -in labelling their figures like our old illuminators -of the Middle Ages. More recent works of -Douris have lost this useless mode of expression. -Painting is its own interpreter, and has -no further need of this awkward assistance.</p> - -<div id="i_12" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 42em;"> - <img src="images/i_044.jpg" width="669" height="441" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p>Fig. 12. THESEUS AND KERKYON,<br /> - AND<br /> - THE STRUGGLE WITH THE MARATHONIAN BULL.</p> - -<p>Kylix by Euphronios. Louvre Museum.</p></div></div> - -<p>The composition is synthetic. It contains -three events in the Trojan war. On the reverse -are the combats of Menelaos and Paris, Ajax -and Hector; on the inner side the Ethiopian -King Memnon lies dead in the arms of his -mother, the goddess Eos (the Dawn). Some -archæologists who have studied these paintings -have tried to find here a strong and learned -unity, a kind of drama in three acts, even at<span class="pagenum" id="Page_46">46</span> -the expense of the inscriptions. Brunn even -maintained that the latter were faulty, as he -conceived therein an Achilleid, celebrating three -different feats of the great hero. Others have -refused to see any reference to the Epics, and -have noted the differences which distinguished -the text of Homer from these paintings. For -instance, Douris has placed behind Menelaos -the goddess Aphrodite, protectress of Troy, -which seems inconsistent; behind Paris we see -Artemis carrying her bow; behind Ajax is the -goddess Athene. These divinities do not figure -in the Homeric account. As regards the death -of Memnon, it appears to belong to an epic -by another cyclic poet, Arktinos of Miletos. -It is the imagination of the poet that collected -at random, as it were, these scattered subjects, -and united them according to his fancy.</p> - -<p>The opinion we hold amid these conflicting -views will be more easily understood by reference -to the chapters on the social and mental -conditions of the Athenian potters. To suppose -them to have conceived themes of deep meaning, -elaborated like an ode of Pindar or a -chorus of Sophocles with strophe, antistrophe -and epode, seems most unlikely; and if, in -order to gain good results, the inscriptions -must be changed, we do not hesitate to reject<span class="pagenum" id="Page_47">47</span> -such a procedure as contrary to all scientific -method. Who can believe that these profound -thinkers were so stupid as not to write correct -inscriptions? On the other hand, we know -enough of the art of the period, of the advance -made in design, to expect a certain unity in -the whole. It is the spirit of the entire school -to unite the different parts of the vase by -subjects closely connected, or at least related. -In the present case we believe the Trojan war -to be the great theme uniting the three paintings. -This was the most cherished subject, even -with the people. We must remember that a -painter of vases had nothing in common with -a modern designer who has a text to illustrate -before his eyes. It is hardly likely that manuscripts -of Homer or Arktinos were found on -the work-benches of the Kerameikos. For these -craftsmen, memory or the remembrance of some -recitation at the Panathenaic festivals had to -take the place of the book.</p> - -<p>In consequence, the chief episode must have -made a decided impression on the mind, -without involving accuracy in minor details. -In re-reading the <i>Iliad</i>, Book III. (Menelaos -and Paris), and Book VII. (Ajax and Hector), -we gain the impression that the artist, whoever -he was (for the craftsman may have<span class="pagenum" id="Page_48">48</span> -copied a known work), has here reproduced -the essential elements of the drama. In adding -persons, as Athene behind Paris, or Aphrodite -behind Menelaos, the artist simply adhered -to the conditions of the composition of a -painting, which at this period scrupulously -obeyed the rules of symmetry. Aphrodite is -placed there to restrain the arm of Menelaos, -as the gesture of her right hand indicates. -Artemis, as a companion figure on the other -side, represents the protecting gods of Troy -(<a href="#i_9">Fig. 9</a>); two goddesses were not too much -to watch over the handsome Paris.</p> - -<p>The other reverse (<a href="#i_10">Fig. 10</a>) similarly conforms -to, and diverges from, the Homeric text. As -in the poem, Hector struck by a rock thrown -by his adversary sinks to his knees and Apollo -advances to support him. (The irregularly -shaped object above indicates the stone.) In -Homer, Athene does not appear, but here, -placed as she is behind Ajax, whom she -appears to be pushing forward with a gesture, -she represents the protecting goddess of the -Greeks. The symmetry of the two sides is -essential. The decorative tradition requires it, -and the painter sets his professional duty -before his respect for a poetic text, in which -no one saw anything more than a general<span class="pagenum" id="Page_49">49</span> -theme for beautiful subjects and attitudes. -We are quite convinced that the great painters -took exactly the same liberties with the cyclic -poems they interpreted. The description of -the masterpiece of Polygnotos, <i>The Taking -of Troy</i>, bears witness to this. The artist -seems to have complied with the general -information given in the epic, but not to have -illustrated any given text.</p> - -<div id="i_13" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 44em;"> - <img src="images/i_048.jpg" width="691" height="380" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p>Fig. 13. NEREIDS APPEALING TO NEREUS AND DORIS.</p> - -<p>By Douris. Louvre Museum.</p></div></div> - -<p>In spite of the archaic stiffness, the execution -of the subjects delights us by the purity of -line and the great care in detail. The painting -is simply a drawing, hardly retouched -with a few red lines. It is like a dry point -engraving, in which all the lines are somewhat -prominent. The symmetrical and parallel folds -of the garments, details of the armour, the -imbrications, the chasing of the helmets and -cuirasses, the locks and curls of hair, are -marvels of patient and conscientious work. -The ornaments, as carefully finished as the -rest, have the same stiff and rather metallic -precision. Lastly, the black glaze, thick and -velvety, gives an extraordinary brilliancy to -the entire vase.</p> - -<p>In considering the painting of the interior -(<a href="#i_8">Fig. 8</a>), we move upwards another step. In -its small compass, we consider it one of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_50">50</span> -finest paintings handed down to us from -ancient times. It consoles us somewhat for -the loss of so many masterpieces, and we -cannot suppose that a potter, working alone -in his workshop, invented this first <i xml:lang="it" lang="it">Mater -dolorosa</i>, which is as touching as a Mantegna -or a Roger Van der Weyden. Nowhere is -a copy from a great painting more forcibly -evident. Every one must be impressed by the -striking resemblance of this Pagan and Greek -creation to the emblem that has moved -Christian souls for so many centuries. Eos, -standing with outstretched and beating wings, -bends toward the dead face of her son -Memnon, her strained arms supporting his -rigid body. The goddess, who represents the -radiant morning and the promises of Nature -awakening with the dawn, is here simply a -despairing mother imprinting on her mind with -one long look the beloved features she will -see no more; the contrast is profoundly sad, -and a creation worthy of a great poet. The -body of the powerful prince of the Ethiopians, -the ally of Priam, is entirely nude as it was -taken up on the battlefield where his adversary -Achilles had robbed him of his armour. The -stiff legs are stretched out, the left foot still -contracted with pain, the arms swing limply,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_51">51</span> -the head drops, while the dishevelled hair, -the delicate beard, and the closed eyes arouse -an irresistible memory of the dead Christ. -We have a true <i>Pietà</i> before our eyes.</p> - -<p>What miracle in art, what unexpected chance -unites Pagan and Christian art to express the -same thought, in the same form? Is it not -a proof that across the centuries great artists -share the same thoughts, and to express the -emotions of life create a universal language? -Is it not this again which attracts us in -Homer, in those never to be forgotten scenes, -expressing so well the deep feelings of all -men at all times; the farewell of Hector and -Andromache, the return of Ulysses to Ithaca? -Art soars above time and space, more than -all else it embodies the solidarity of succeeding -generations without any knowledge of one -another.</p> - -<p>A kylix in the British Museum, with <i>The -Adventures of Theseus</i> (<a href="#i_11">Fig. 11</a>), of more recent -form and style, teaches us still better that -behind the vase painter may be concealed -other and greater personalities, who are the -true creators of the work of art. A famous -kylix from the workshop of Euphronios shows -us similar scenes glorifying the Athenian hero, -forming with the <i>Eos and Memnon</i>, by Douris,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_52">52</span> -and <i>The Taking of Troy</i>, by Brygos, a -glorious trio of ceramic masterpieces, of which -the Louvre is justly proud. In comparing the -works of Douris with those coming from the -workshops of Euphronios, the idea suggests -itself that they either copied one another or -borrowed from one common original. Both -suppositions are possible. As already mentioned, -no law or custom prohibited artistic -plagiarism. If Douris knew of the beautiful -work executed by his colleague, nothing prevented -him from adopting it for his own use. -But, on the other hand, the broad style of -Euphronios’ production and the peculiar -character of the adventure of Theseus recovering -the ring of Minos from the bottom of the -sea, a subject treated by Mikon, one of the -great painters of the fifth century, finally -the great number of works of art which at -this period celebrated the national hero’s glory, -lead us to believe that a potter had no need -to look over his neighbour’s shoulder to gain -suggestions for a theme of Theseus. He was -surrounded by models in painting, sculpture, -painted bas-reliefs, models, carved and engraved. -The supposition of a common model or -several models, from which a craftsman, in a way, -chose the desired subject, seems most probable.</p> - -<div id="i_14" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 41em;"> - <img src="images/i_052.jpg" width="652" height="491" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p>Fig. 14. SILENI PLAYING AND DANCING.</p> - -<p>Vase by Douris. British Museum.</p></div></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_53">53</span> -It is only in this sense and with such reservation -that these two cups can be compared. In -looking at the superb vase in the Louvre, no -one will hesitate to give the preference to the -workshop of Euphronios. In the interior is -<i>The Visit of Amphitrite</i>; in this painting the -author has retained all the seriousness of great -religious art with a touch of archaism in the -drawing and position of the characters, showing -thereby that he has copied an ancient fresco; -while, on the contrary, on the reverses, the -combats of Theseus with the robbers Skiron, -Prokrustes and Kerkyon, and the struggle -with the Marathonian bull, are treated as in -metopes, with bold, vigorous lines, giving rather -a feeling of the influence of sculpture (<a href="#i_12">Fig. 12</a>).</p> - -<p>The composition of Douris (<a href="#i_11">Fig. 11</a>) is more -firmly knit, because it concentrates all the -attention on the adventures of the hero against -monsters and robbers. In the interior is the -fight with the Minotaur, an ancient and classic -theme from the sixth century; on the reverses, -the defeat of Kerkyon, of Skiron and Sinis, and -the hunt of the boar of Krommyon; two women -give some variety and animation to the whole, -the nymph Phaia who lived at Krommyon, and -the goddess Athene who protects her favourite -hero at his labours. Here again is a closely-knit<span class="pagenum" id="Page_54">54</span> -trilogy; but, we must confess, the execution is -far inferior to that of the cup of Euphronios. -It is accurate and a little commonplace. There -is, however, noticeable a desire to express landscape, -a care for external ornament, visible in -the palm tree and the small trees placed about, -and by a cloak thrown upon a tree trunk. It -is a rare mark among Greek painters, and -worthy of note.</p> - -<p>We will look more rapidly at the paintings -of the kantharos at Brussels, the importance of -which, as being a vase moulded by Douris -himself, we have already mentioned (<a href="#i_1">Fig. 1</a>). -The figures represent “Herakles’ contest with -the Amazons,” an old type, nearly a century -old, but with the added beauty of a clear and -accurate style, and an admirably certain execution. -Nor are the subjects new which are -treated upon another kylix in the Louvre, -<i>The Rape of Thetis by Peleus</i>. But Douris -deserves the credit of having skilfully revived -an old subject known on Corinthian and Attic -vases of the sixth century. It is possible to -follow in the Louvre the same painting done -in turn by a Corinthian, then by an Attic -painter of black figures, and lastly by Douris. -It is of great interest to follow the development -of the composition and of the grouping of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_55">55</span> -figures, of their attitudes, and of the drawing -itself. We perceive here the same differences -as in comparing a Madonna of Cimabue with -one of Lippi. Symmetry of figures, stiff and -angular outlines and severe features have given -place to life and tender touches of the brush. -At the same time, the close connection of -these successive works appears most striking—the -link with the past has never been severed; -the fundamental conception has always remained -the same; improvement has come from within, -and extends to every little detail.</p> - -<div id="i_15" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 32em;"> - <img src="images/i_054.jpg" width="502" height="508" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p>Fig. 15. HERA AND IRIS ATTACKED BY SILENI.</p> - -<p>By Brygos. British Museum.</p></div></div> - -<p>Douris has extended his composition and -united the two reverse sides of the kylix. On -one, the hero seizes the goddess, who struggles -in his grasp and has summoned to her aid the -magic art of transformations. These are given -with all the <i xml:lang="fr" lang="fr">naïveté</i> of primitive art: to tell -us that Thetis changes into a lion, and later -into a serpent, the artist has drawn on one -side a young lion seated on the shoulder of -the goddess, and tearing with his teeth the -arm of her ravisher; on the other a serpent -lifts its twisted coils and darts its threatening -jaws at him. The companions of Thetis, the -Nereids, frightened by so bold an attack, take -flight, and this gives the painter an opportunity -of showing us young girls running in many<span class="pagenum" id="Page_56">56</span> -graceful attitudes—the arms are tossed in -gestures that are still angular; the bare feet -and legs escape from the drapery, showing the -rather lean suppleness of these young maidens. -It is, at the same time, a skilful method of -uniting the whole; in fact, on the other -reverse we see other nymphs running, who -come to tell the god Nereus and his wife -Doris of the attempt. Both are seated on -ornamented thrones with the Olympian majesty -of a Jupiter and a Juno (<a href="#i_13">Fig. 13</a>). All the -beauty of the famous group in the Panathenaic -Frieze is already visible in their movements -and their attitude.</p> - -<div id="i_16" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 31em;"> - <div class="caption"><p>CONTEST OF AJAX AND ULYSSES.</p></div> - <img src="images/i_056.jpg" width="489" height="507" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p>Fig. 16. THE VOTING OF THE GREEK CHIEFS.</p> - <p>By Douris. Vienna Museum.</p></div></div> - -<p>Unfortunately the interior is defaced and -restored, but the artist has shown no less -ingenuity in its design. He has taken a theme -frequently used by painters of red figures, -and thus rendered rather commonplace—the -libation; but instead of showing us the well-known -scene of a soldier departing on a campaign -and receiving the full cup from a woman, -he has enlarged the subject, and shows us the -god Poseidon seated, receiving a libation cup -from the hands of a goddess, probably his -wife, Amphitrite. Again a synthetic trilogy -prevails in this composition: in the upper part -of the vase the god of the sea and his consort<span class="pagenum" id="Page_57">57</span> -are throned; in the lower part is enacted a -little drama which takes place on the seashore, -and has sea-gods as actors. Everywhere we -find the intelligent skill of the Greek, and -the easy art with which he beautifies all he -touches. Was all this the personal work of -Douris? or does the model he copies and -follows deserve much of the credit? It will -always remain an open question. As we possess -a kylix by the potter Hieron (it has even been -ascribed to Douris), another by the painter -Peithinos, and many anonymous vases which -repeat in similar form the details of <i>The -Rape of Thetis</i>, we again incline towards the -second hypothesis. How many sanctuaries in -Greece, dedicated to the gods of the sea, must -have contained paintings or reliefs of this kind!</p> - -<p>It is the variety of models, in a word, -which best explains the variety of styles among -painters of vases. As we remarked above, no -vase painter is of greater interest in this -respect than Douris. If any one wishes to -estimate at a single glance his often puzzling -versatility, he need only look at the mythological -painting on a large receptacle for wine -in the British Museum (<a href="#i_14">Fig. 14</a>). The choice -of the subject, <i>The Bacchic Thiasos</i>, repeated -to satiety upon black-figured amphoræ of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_58">58</span> -sixth century, leads us to expect only a -commonplace painting, but the artist instead -brings us face to face with one of the most -spirited sketches Greek art has left to us.</p> - -<p>Douris shows himself daring, amusing, free -almost to indecency, and one asks how the -same brush which painted many little paintings, -rather stiff in their symmetry, could -become animated to the point of inventing -these funambulistic movements of wild beasts -let loose. These are Sileni playing and dancing. -Arranged in a row, like mountebanks upon -their stage, they abandon themselves to frantic -sports under the leadership of a herald costumed -as Hermes, on his head the petasos, and in his -hand the caduceus. One lowers his head to -drink from a cup placed on the floor; a second, -in a half-lying position, has the contents of a -goat skin and a wine jug poured together into -his mouth by two of his companions; others -toy in a ludicrous fashion with kantharoi, or -dance on one foot, and try by bending forward -to reach a full cup. Even expurgated, this -painting sufficiently shows the unbridled gaiety -and fun which the Greek designer allowed himself. -In that again he resembles the Japanese -draughtsman, in love with buffooneries and -acrobatic postures. Those who only like to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_59">59</span> -think of Greek art as serious and moralizing, -can take their own view. Greek art knew all -and dared all—works such as were placed upon -school walls to elevate thought, and such as -were hidden under a cloak. The same brush -drew the touching image of <i>Eos and Memnon</i>, -and this scene of a pagan, <i>Kermesse</i>.</p> - -<p>In Athens this surprised no one. We have, -however, classified our artists, and confined -them to their specialities. We do not admit -that a “serious” artist could cause laughter, -and we have our professional caricaturists. -Leonardo da Vinci, it is true, did not disdain -to draw the grotesque. Neither ancient painting -nor sculpture feared the ugly or the comic; -but they gave to each a meaning. They did -not cause laughter for the sake of laughing. -They did not cause fear for the sake of -frightening. These important elements in real -life have a symbolic and allegoric meaning. -The head of Medusa appears as a survival of -vanished monsters, which terrified man when -he sought to establish his dominion on earth. -The Learnæan hydra is, on the most ancient -vases, a gigantic octopus gripping Herakles -and Iolaos, as the octopus clasps Gilliatt in -<i xml:lang="fr" lang="fr">Les travailleurs de la mer</i>. The grimacing -mask of the satyr is the inheritance of a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_60">60</span> -very early conception transformed by art. It -would not be difficult to prove, documents in -hand, that the large anthropoid apes met by -the Phœnicians in their explorations in Africa, -and drawn by them on their metal cups of -the seventh century, furnished the Ionian -artists, when combined with the Bes of the -Egyptians, with the prototype of the hairy -and shaggy Silenus, with the flat-nosed face, -that one sees on certain sarcophagi of Klazomenai. -This is what we admire in the Sileni -of Douris. The skilful, dry point of the artist -knew how to preserve, when he sketched them -on clay, all their simian agility, their droll, -gorilla-like features, the relaxed, sinewy and -flexible limbs, wherein we recognize the vigorous -beast in semblance of a man. We only -know of one other artist who has rendered -this bounding animal gait of the Sileni with -equal success—the painter of a kylix from the -workshop of the potter Brygos, which is undoubtedly -inspired by a satyric drama; here -the goddess Hera and her companion Iris are -in great distress through falling into the midst -of such a wild band. Fortunately Hermes with -fair words, and Herakles with his club, arrive -in time to restrain these rash and disrespectful -fellows (<a href="#i_15">Fig. 15</a>).</p> - -<div id="i_17" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 31em;"> - <img src="images/i_060.jpg" width="489" height="491" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p>Fig. 17. ULYSSES RESTORING THE ARMS OF ACHILLES TO NEOPTOLEMOS.</p> - -<p>Interior of preceding Cup.</p></div></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_61">61</span> -Let us finish this review of the mythological -subjects with a kylix from the Museum in -Vienna on which we see <i>The Contest over the -Arms of Achilles</i> (Figs. <a href="#i_16">16</a> and <a href="#i_17">17</a>). It will -give us an opportunity of studying dramatic -themes in the hands of Douris, drawn from -epic poetry, and adopted by the writers of -tragedy. We know how, later, Sophocles in -his <i>Ajax with the Scourge</i>, showed the fatal -result of the unexpected quarrel arising between -Ulysses and Ajax for the possession of the -divine weapons, which Thetis had given to her -son Achilles. This event was a favourite theme, -and had been treated in ceramic painting from -the sixth century onwards. In what work and -what kind of production did Douris seek his -inspiration? We shall always remain ignorant -of this. We only wish to show by this -example in how great a measure the Greek -theatre influenced composition and even the -style of painted vases.</p> - -<p>Several black-figured vases, some of which -are in the Louvre, represent this <i>Contest</i>; -the two heroes have come to blows and are -falling upon each other fiercely, while Agamemnon -and other Greeks exert themselves to -separate them. This fundamental theme was -not lost on Douris, for he made use of it on<span class="pagenum" id="Page_62">62</span> -one of the reverses of his kylix (<a href="#i_16">Fig. 16</a>). -But, following his fancy or other models of -which we know nothing, he adds two other -episodes: (1) on the other reverse, <i>The Voting -of the Greek Chiefs</i>, who all bring their votes -in the shape of pebbles, and place them on an -altar in the presence of the goddess Athene, -thus awarding the victory to Ulysses (<a href="#i_16">Fig. 16</a>); -(2) in the interior, <i>Ulysses and Neoptolemos</i>, -a painting forming, as it were, the heroic -catastrophe of the drama, where the victor -renounces the glorious weapons and restores -them generously to the son of Achilles, so -that he in turn may wear them and accomplish -the ruin of the Trojans (<a href="#i_17">Fig. 17</a>). Here, again, -Douris’ favourite manner of composition results -in a trilogy. We have the three acts in a -tragedy, dominated by the memory of Achilles -and the epic of the Trojan war.</p> - -<p>The fact will at once be recalled that to the -Greek theatre, as conceived by Æschylus and -his immediate predecessors, a similar arrangement -was not unknown. We find many such -examples of about the time of the Persian wars, -not only by Douris, but by his rivals as well.</p> - -<p>To look here for an exact copy of some -contemporaneous work would undoubtedly be -absurd. We can hardly insist too strongly on<span class="pagenum" id="Page_63">63</span> -this point. The absence of the costumes and -accessories of the theatre, which were so -individual and expressive in their conventions, -is an indication that the painter did not try -to depict on clay the living spectacle he had -just witnessed. In a later age, the Greek vases -of southern Italy freely transferred scenes from -tragedies, but in this ancient period we have -no such examples. The composition is derived -from the theatre just as in the kylix of <i>Eos -and Memnon</i>, mentioned above, it depends on -Homer. It is a general impression that the -mind of the artist has absorbed, and it helps -him to arrange his subjects better.</p> - -<p>Professor Carl Robert has very well -remarked that the vases of the sixth century -have the “epic” manner; they tell stories -and relate to us in detail like the ancient -singers. Those of the group of Douris have a -“dramatic” manner; they habitually appeal to -us by synthetic groupings, which we accurately -term in the language of the theatre <i xml:lang="fr" lang="fr">tableaux</i>, -and which sum up an entire scene. We would -further remark that in Douris and his contemporaries, -the figures assume attitudes which -one might call “scenic.”</p> - -<p>On one side of the painting of the <i>Voting</i> -(<a href="#i_16">Fig. 16</a>), Ulysses, with uplifted hands, expresses<span class="pagenum" id="Page_64">64</span> -at once astonishment and delight to see how -the heap of little stones which represent the -votes in his favour is growing; while, on the -other side, in the right corner of the scene, -Ajax, alone and deserted and feeling defeat -inevitable, covers his head with his cloak to -hide his disgrace, a dramatic figure, suggesting -the often cited work of Timanthes—Agamemnon -hiding his face so as not to witness -the sacrifice of his daughter Iphigeneia. We -still could cite vases from the Louvre—beautiful -examples—showing Achilles returning sad and -in despair to his tent. What caused this -beautiful and tragic inspiration? Who created -these attitudes of mute eloquence if not the -Greek drama? Do we not know that one of -the great effects in the drama of Æschylus -was precisely his placing on the stage an -immovable Niobe, and a stern Achilles, who -answered the messages of Agamemnon simply -with unrelenting silence?</p> - -<div id="i_18" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 29em;"> - <img src="images/i_064.jpg" width="449" height="449" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p>Fig. 18. ACHILLES KILLING TROÏLOS.</p> - -<p>By Euphronios. Louvre Museum.</p></div></div> - -<p>The poetry in the best compositions of Douris -is entirely derived from memories of the epic -and memories of the drama. It matters little -whether he invented them or whether they -were suggested to him; it is the very essence -of Greek painting disclosed before our eyes, -with its spirit of freedom and ready adaptation.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_65">65</span> -Everything is helpful and suggestive to an -artist. Whether derived from epic recitations, -from lyric strophes, or from the theatre, these -floating images all become fixed by his brush -and take definite shapes, which in turn will -haunt the imagination of other artists and -guide their hands. What a rich fertility of art, -which multiplied its creations on all hands, and -united all classes of the Athenian people into -a kind of brotherhood of labour!</p> - -<h3>2. <i>Martial Subjects.</i></h3> - -<p>Battle-scenes had for three centuries been -the classic subject of industrial design. As -with all primitive peoples, war had been at -first the chief occupation of the Greeks, and -in consequence one of the chief sources of art. -The Dipylon vases covered with warriors, -chariots, boats, dead and wounded, or with -pompous funeral scenes are contemporary with -the <i>Iliad</i>. From the seventh to the fifth -century the warrior subject was repeated to -satiety upon all ceramics with black figures. -How will Douris profit by this?</p> - -<p>Seven drinking cups bearing twenty paintings -are devoted to this style. Most of them are -subject to the rules of symmetric composition,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_66">66</span> -which we observed on the Memnon kylix, in -the contests of Menelaos and Paris, and of -Ajax and Hector. Truth and tradition unite -in giving to this subject the appearance of a -simple duel, the secondary personages, as it -were, forming a frame. Sometimes a wounded -man placed between the two champions indicates -the cause of the encounter, and at the -same time forms the centre of the group. -This primitive scheme, much used by the -Corinthians, is found again in many of Douris’ -paintings. It is evident that he did not give -himself great trouble to invent, and that he -only reproduces a well-known theme. One -may say as much of the battle, considered as -a hand-to-hand fight; five hoplites are engaged -in a struggle in a regular and prescribed -manner, where the combatants, ordinarily paired -two and two, display their strength in the -attitudes of well disciplined duellists. It is -only a variant of the preceding subject. These -works teach us nothing new with regard to -the art of Douris, and are only of value in so -far as the minute mastery of his brush is concerned. -We must look elsewhere for his -ingenious mind—in the scenes of arming and -the battles of Greeks and Persians.</p> - -<p>Arming is only an episode of military life.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_67">67</span> -Instead of showing us the battle, the painter -allows us to be present at the preparations. -A strong effect has been produced on a kylix -made in the workshop of Euphronios: Achilles, -in ambush, surprises Troïlos, the youngest son -of Priam, who comes to draw water at a -fountain; he pursues him across the plain as -he flees in his chariot. The alarm is given, -and one sees the Trojans hastily arming and -running to the royal child’s assistance. But -they come too late. In another painting we -see the crime already accomplished; without -pity for the tender years or the cries of his -victim, the hero cuts off the boy’s head by -the altar of Apollo, where he has taken refuge -(<a href="#i_18">Fig. 18</a>).</p> - -<p>The conceptions of Douris are not so -dramatic. The design of the kylix in Vienna, -which is a masterpiece of its kind, allows us -in a manner to penetrate into a Greek camp, -at the hour when all are preparing for the -manœuvres or the battle (<a href="#i_19">Fig. 19</a>). It is -mediocre, even a little commonplace, as regards -observation, but it is clever by the realism of -the small practical details. In the interior is -the classic scene of a libation, a soldier before -his departure praying to the gods; a woman -brings him wine which she pours into a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_68">68</span> -sacrificial cup. On the reverse, an encampment; -the alarm has sounded, every one seeks -his arms in haste, one his sword, another his -lance or helmet. The monotony of the subject -had to be varied. The painter has succeeded -in this by introducing some old and bearded -men who help and encourage the youths, and -a woman who brings a shield and a sword. -Nothing can be more animated than the faces -and gestures of these young men arming themselves. -One tries his sword and draws it partly -out of the scabbard, another binds the fillet -about his hair, so as to adjust his helmet more -firmly; his companion, with a finical gesture, -turns up his sleeve and the lower part of his -tunic. Elsewhere (<a href="#i_19">Fig. 19</a>), a hoplite already -helmeted places greaves on his legs, another -dons his corselet, a third hangs his sword at -his side and puts the shoulder belt over his -shoulder, a fourth makes a little gesture of -comic despair showing that he has forgotten -to place a crest on his helmet, while the last -raises and ties his long hair. These are sketches -drawn from life, and are almost like the sketch-book -of an artist who has accompanied soldiers -at their manœvres. What we term “military -painting,” in its familiar and picturesque form, -dates from the Greeks.</p> - -<div id="i_19" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 44em;"> - <img src="images/i_068.jpg" width="694" height="379" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p>Fig. 19. SOLDIERS ARMING.</p> - -<p>By Douris. Vienna Museum.</p></div></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_69">69</span> -The style of this kylix is ancient, and it -dates from the earliest period in the career of -Douris. Although found at the same time -and in the same place as the other kylix at -Vienna (<a href="#i_16">Fig. 16</a>), representing <i>The Contest -of Ajax and Ulysses</i>, although signed by the -same painter and moulded by the same potter -Python, it represents an entirely different -manner. Here is a style still archaic, the -heads large, the bodies rather thickset, the -draperies with regular and symmetrical lines, -an extreme minuteness in all details. There, -the proportions are reversed, the bodies -lengthened, with small heads, the garments -with wavy folds, the entire execution freer -and with less care for detail. No one would -think of attributing the two vases to the -same master if they did not bear the name -of Douris. This comparison permits us to -appreciate the nature of the changes that took -place in a Greek potter’s career. He is not -a craftsman who is satisfied to remain in the -routine of a uniform method. He is an artist -who wishes to learn, who reflects and develops. -Herr Hartwig has well demonstrated that there -was a “first” as well as a “second” style in -Douris, as in our days in Corot or Fantin-Latour.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_70">70</span> -To introduce glorious memories of the Persian -invasion, only recently repulsed by the Greeks, -was another mode of rejuvenating the warrior -subjects. These direct allusions to the Persian -wars, are, to our great surprise, only rarely -found on the monuments. It is a characteristic -trait of the idealism in which the art of the -fifth century delights. Anything in the form -of anecdote or accident, all that forms the woof -of material facts, is only of slight interest to it. -It fears also to provoke the gods by extolling -the grandeur of Athens, and hence allegory and -symbol are used in preference. The Treasury -of the Athenians, raised at Delphi from a -tithe of the spoils of Marathon, glorified the -deeds of Herakles and Theseus. The pediments -of the Temple at Ægina, probably -made after Salamis, show the Trojans conquered -by Homeric heroes. To celebrate -Greece’s second victory over Asia, images of -the Trojan horse were placed on the Acropolis -and on the slopes of Delphi. Industrial -painting conforms to the same principles. -Warrior subjects were frequently represented -by battle-scenes between Greeks and Asiatics, -but appear only to contain allusions to -the Epic, or else to the battle of Herakles -with the Amazons (<a href="#i_1">Fig. 1</a>), which recalls the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_71">71</span> -great deeds of the Greeks’ ancestors against -barbarians.</p> - -<div id="i_20" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 31em;"> - <img src="images/i_070.jpg" width="490" height="511" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p>Fig. 20. GREEK HOPLITE AND PERSIAN STANDARD BEARER.</p> - -<p>By Douris. Louvre Museum.</p></div></div> - -<p>We may say that Douris gave proof of -originality by frankly dealing with modern -subjects. A kylix at the Louvre, unfortunately -damaged and restored, shows in the -interior an hoplite striking with his sword a -fallen barbarian soldier, who holds a standard -with two square-shaped flags (<a href="#i_20">Fig. 20</a>). This -typical accessory leaves no doubt as to the -meaning of the painting. A banner would -never be placed in the hands of a Trojan. It -is very probable that the victors of Marathon -picked up Persian standards on the battlefield -with the spoils, and that we have here -the reproduction of such a trophy. We look -upon this sketch of Douris as a precious record -of the army led by Datis and Artaphernes in -490. For the vase is not of a style to be dated -after 480, that is to say, after the second -invasion conducted by Xerxes in person.</p> - -<p>Other vases attributed to the painter -Onesimos represent battles of Greeks against -Asiatics on horseback, very realistic in form. -Here one may again see copies from life. -Lastly, Greeks and Persians are fighting on -the sculptured frieze which adorns one side -of the small temple of Nike Apteros on the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_72">72</span> -Acropolis. These, however, are rare allusions -to the greatest military achievements of the -century. It is not difficult to imagine what -they would have produced in modern art. -We must, however, beware of crediting Douris -with an exaggerated initiative, and we must -not forget that among the lost works of Greek -art, a painting by Mandrocles is mentioned, -dating from Darius’ expedition into Scythia, -<i>The Crossing of the Bosphorus</i>, and at Athens -a <i>Battle of Marathon</i>, attributed to Panainos, -in which Miltiades and the chief Greek generals -were seen repulsing the Asiatic phalanxes. -Douris and Onesimos did not lack models to -guide them into this channel. The value of -their works is above all in the good fortune -which has preserved them to us, and gives -us, if not the letter, at least the spirit -of the painting dedicated to contemporary -history.</p> - -<h3>3. <i>Everyday Scenes.</i></h3> - -<p>Here, again, it is convenient to divide the -work of Douris into two parts. At times, -like all the manufacturers, he made use of -old subjects with hardly any change; then, -again, he sought new ideas and popularized<span class="pagenum" id="Page_73">73</span> -unused themes. The latter, of course, will -chiefly occupy our attention.</p> - -<p>A general statement should first be made: -the work of Douris, as we actually know it, -shows a distinct preference for living subjects. -Of his eighty paintings we can count seventeen -dedicated to mythical subjects, twenty-two to -military life, and forty-one to everyday scenes. -The proportion in favour of contemporary life is -more than three-fourths. Comparing these with -works signed in the workshops of Euphronios -(fifteen mythical subjects, two warrior subjects, -and eight everyday scenes), from the workshop -of Brygos (seventeen mythical, one warrior, and -six everyday scenes), we observe that the proportion -is reversed by the two most distinguished -rivals of Douris. We may, therefore, note this -characteristic in his work which he has in -common with another great designer, Hieron -(twenty-three mythical and thirty-one familiar -scenes). These two artists thus prepared the -way for the genre picture, which was to -dominate the second half of the fifth century, -and to make women and children the favourite -subjects of painters.</p> - -<div id="i_21" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 30em;"> - <img src="images/i_072.jpg" width="473" height="463" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p>Fig. 21. SEATED YOUTH HOLDING A HARE.</p> - -<p>By Douris. Louvre Museum.</p></div></div> - -<p>The most frequent themes are scenes from -the palæstra (<a href="#i_6">Fig. 6</a>). Youths are wrestling, -running, jumping, dumb-bells in hand, or<span class="pagenum" id="Page_74">74</span> -throwing the discus; the teachers of gymnastics -watch the sports, rod in hand, ready -to punish the lazy or check any brutality. -Sometimes a small column, or a basin intended -for ablutions, a pick-axe, or a javelin thrown -down, indicates where the scene takes place. -Only this much would a Greek draughtsman -permit himself as scenery. Man alone, action -or living forms, are the subjects of his study; -nor does he seek, as we do, to endow with -sentiment the objects in his environment. -Landscape, which moves us, leaves him quite -indifferent. But what knowledge of the human -form, what love of line and contour! His -short, skilful brush moves freely on the clay, -throwing out delicate outlines, simplifying the -muscles and giving only the most essential, -breaking or spreading out the long folds of the -drapery, emphasizing the flexible spine, drawing -sinewy hands and grave profiles with strong -chins and heavy lips. He attacks the difficulties -over which archaic art had not yet triumphed—foreshortening -and three-quarter poses.</p> - -<p>Kimon of Kleonai, a great painter of the -sixth century, had proved how effective the -latter could be. In the structure of the eye -he attacks another difficult problem, trying -to modify the everlasting and awkward convention<span class="pagenum" id="Page_75">75</span> -of earlier times—a face in profile with -an eye full face. He tries many forms—round, -triangular, open on one side. One feels the -solution, which henceforth shall be that of all -draughtsmen, growing under his fingers. All -this is suggested by the study of his beautiful -paintings, in which Douris has not invented -much, for the school which preceded him, that -of Epiktetos, of Paidikos, of Chakrylion, offered -similar studies, but he unfolds a constant desire -for perfection of form.</p> - -<p>In his work one may note the clever and -economical device of drawing many persons by -means of very few models. In his scenes of -the palæstra, consisting of ten or twelve persons, -he uses, in fact, only two models—a bearded -man and a youth, who are seen under different -aspects. Many of his contemporaries made use -of the same device. It may be inferred that -in these scenes the painter used living models -more frequently than elsewhere; it is a companion -or an apprentice who has posed and -has been turned about on every side. In -consequence, the composition is not so bold, -but more commonplace than in the mythic -paintings inspired by superior models.</p> - -<p>Nowhere is this inability to group the figures -in familiar scenes more apparent than in a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_76">76</span> -kylix at the Louvre, in spite of an abundance -of humorous detail and pretty silhouettes. -What can be more graceful than the figure -of <i>The Youth and the Hare</i> (<a href="#i_21">Fig. 21</a>)? Seated -on a stool and leaning on a stick, he looks -with tenderness at the nimble little creature, -which the Athenians liked to tame, and which -prowled about their houses as cats do with us. -At the same time it was a love token, and -one frequently sees on ceramic paintings grave -persons advance holding by the ears this frisky -gift, which they offer to young boys. Plato’s -<i>Banquet</i> informs us on this well-known -custom of the Greeks. On the inner circle, -framing like a medallion <i>The Youth and the -Hare</i>, runs a band, repeating a design ten -times in almost the same form—a bearded -man rests on his stick, addressing friendly -words to a boy seated before him. One holds -a lyre; another a hare; others are wrapt, as -if chilly, in their cloaks. Similar themes -decorate the two reverse sides. In all one -can count thirty-three persons, but there are in -reality only two actors. It is as if a metope -with two figures were constantly repeated, with -some variety, upon all the free space of the vase. -Each detail of the group is executed with zest -and spirit, but composition does not exist.</p> - -<div id="i_22" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 43em;"> - <img src="images/i_076.jpg" width="687" height="385" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p>Fig. 22. INTERIOR OF A SCHOOL.</p> - -<p>By Douris. Berlin Museum.</p></div></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_77">77</span> -The kylix in the Berlin Museum, <i>The -Interior of a School</i> (<a href="#i_22">Fig. 22</a>), shows the same -fault, although it may be considered as Douris’ -masterpiece in everyday scenes. But the -subject is of such interest to us, and throws -so much light on the life of Greek scholars, -that we think no longer of imperfections nor of -the systematic stiffness of the groups. Here, -again, Douris is seen as an original and fertile -initiator. He here abandons the palæstra and -the gymnastic exercises, repeated a hundred -times, and takes us into the school-room where -the music-master and the grammarian give -their lessons; on one reverse, lessons on the -lyre and recitations are given, on the other, -lessons in writing and flute-playing. In the -interior, a simple figure of a nude youth tying -his sandal, shows the boy, whose task is finished, -preparing to run and play. It is a charming -and sober painting, we should call it to-day, -“an instantaneous impression,” giving a glimpse -of life which particularly attracts us. How -were the youths of Athens educated? Upon -that theme bulky volumes have been written.</p> - -<p>As M. Paul Girard has shown in his <i>Education -Athénienne</i>, this kylix of Douris teaches -us better than the texts. We see here the -importance the Greeks attached to musical<span class="pagenum" id="Page_78">78</span> -instruction. The word “music” expressed the -entire education; literary studies, instrumental -music and singing. Music walked hand in -hand with literature and gymnastic exercises. -Plato even went so far as to say that the art -of touching the soul with song inspired the -desire for virtue. He rejected, however, as -voluptuous and enervating, certain Ionian and -Lydian modes. We must remember that -music was intended chiefly, as represented on -the vase in Berlin, to accompany the song, -and that the words were more significant than -the melody. Prayers, invocations, war-songs, -moral maxims, all contributed to make music -a powerful instrument of education, and the -apparently paradoxical words of old Damon -may in this way be explained, when he said -that the rules of music could not be changed -without shaking the state itself.</p> - -<p>The kylix of Douris corresponds closely with -these ideas. Literature is represented, on the -one hand, by a master of declamation holding -a written scroll, upon which we read the -beginning of an epic poem that a pupil is -about to recite (<a href="#i_22">Fig. 22</a>); on the other side, -a young master is tracing a page of writing, -while a pupil stands ready to copy it. Meanwhile -the tutors of the boys sit on stools,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_79">79</span> -waiting for the lessons to be finished to conduct -them home. No other ancient artist has -permitted us to enter so intimately into -Athenian life. What we term “genre painting” -has appeared. It is the last and perhaps -the most fertile inspiration that Douris derived -from great contemporary art. It permits us, -at the same time, to admire the flexibility of -a great talent, starting with religious and -heroic subjects in the severe style of <i>Eos and -Memnon</i>, and attaining to the graceful and -brilliant compositions of <i>The Youth and the -Hare</i>, and <i>The Interior of a School</i>.</p> - -<p>There is an amusing sketch from the workshop -of Euphronios, which may be placed by -the side of these paintings, showing a writing-teacher -bending forward in his chair, with -forefinger raised and threatening, as if he -were scolding the little fellows confided to his -care (<a href="#i_23">Fig. 23</a>).</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_80">80</span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 id="CONCLUSION">CONCLUSION</h2> -</div> - -<p class="in0"><span class="firstword">If</span> we have succeeded in reproducing the rather -complex physiognomy of Douris, we hope we -have clearly indicated its two-fold character. -His talent and his originality do not raise him -above the conditions imposed upon his craft. -It would be an error to ascribe genius to him. -He owes his importance, on the one hand, to -the disappearance of great paintings, and, on -the other hand, to the innate qualities of the -Greek race, which even invested popular works -with freedom and beauty. Julius Lange, the -Danish archæologist, has said that to judge -Greek painting from the vases is like judging -the light of the sun by the reflection we -receive from the moon. But if, in this regard, -industrial art is inferior to the lost masterpieces, -let us not forget that it is nearer to -the people, whose thoughts it so forcibly -expresses. So the anonymous sculptors of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_81">81</span> -images in our cathedral reveal to us the -mediæval French soul far better than the -great artists can.</p> - -<div id="i_23" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 31em;"> - <img src="images/i_080.jpg" width="488" height="488" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p>Fig. 23. A SCHOOLMASTER.</p> - -<p>Berlin Museum.</p></div></div> - -<p>With these thousand sketches upon fragile -clay we can retrace an evolution which lasted -four or five centuries, and created the art of -drawing, as it is practised by all modern -nations. Indeed, after long endeavours, the -Greeks were the first who shattered the tyrannic -conventions to which artists had conformed, in -Egypt, Chaldea and Assyria. They refused -to disjoint the human form on the pretext of -showing it from a true anatomical point of -view. For the artificial reality of the body -drawn in sections, they substituted a living -silhouette seized in rapid movement, rendered -with all its irregularities of form and its lack -of symmetry. This proved the victory of art -over science. One became accustomed to -figures half turned to the spectator, to perspective, -to parts half hidden or suppressed, -one learnt to consider Nature not as she is, -but as one sees her. The orientation of art -was completely changed.</p> - -<p>The invention of foreshortening and of -modelling by means of shadows belongs to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_82">82</span> -the Greeks. Both had considerable influence -on the Roman world, and later on modern -times. We may compare these discoveries -to those in physics or in chemistry which -entirely revolutionized the domain of science. -It is an error to suppose that the scientist -alone is capable of discoveries which humanity -at large is called upon to enjoy. In art the -same action and reaction take place, and a -solidarity uniting the past and present is not -less powerful. Between an Egyptian fresco -and an oil painting by Van Eyck there is -scarcely anything in common as regards conception -and process. Between a drawing by -Douris and the <i>Stratonice</i> of Ingres a resemblance -is very perceptible, almost a kind -of brotherhood.</p> - -<p>The drawings of Douris teach us to understand -yet another thing. Greek painting at -this period had a cause at heart which the -entire fifth century upheld with passionate -conviction—the belief that the aim of the -plastic arts is the representation of man. -After the Cretans and Mycenæans had derived -such admirable inspirations from the vegetable -kingdom, from the marine fauna and flora,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_83">83</span> -after the picturesque studies of birds and deer -which the Ionians had transmitted to the -Corinthian and Attic potters, we see Greek -painting gradually eliminating all this from -design, in order to devote itself exclusively -to the representation of the human form. -Nothing can turn it aside from this course. -Whether it is a question of gods and goddesses, -heroes, or even citizens, it is always the human -form in all its aspects, in all its attitudes, -dignified or familiar, which the draughtsman -observes. Nowhere has such complete absorption -of the artistic imagination been seen. -Later, after Alexander, the Greeks themselves -somewhat modified their attitude, and learnt -once more to contemplate non-human nature; -but the limits within which Greek thought -had voluntarily confined itself remained severe -during the century of Pericles. According to -an expression of Victor Bérard, it was a -garden of humanity in which man was the -most beautiful plant. To this bias we owe -some of the purest masterpieces of which -humanity can boast. Those of sculpture are -famous in all lands; those of painting were -no less worthy of admiration, but we only<span class="pagenum" id="Page_84">84</span> -can judge them by the designs on vases. -<i>Theseus and the Marathonian Bull</i> on the -kylix by Euphronios (<a href="#i_12">Fig. 12</a>), the <i>Memnon</i> -by Douris (<a href="#i_8">Fig. 8</a>), or the <i>Zeus carrying off -a Woman</i> upon an anonymous kylix in the -Louvre (<a href="#i_24">Fig. 24</a>) which is attributed to him, -the <i>Aphrodite on the Swan</i> in the British -Museum (<a href="#i_7">Fig. 7</a>) by a somewhat later artist, -bear comparison with the most beautiful drawings -of the Renaissance. Never has the beauty -of the human form in motion been rendered -with more sincere joy. Here, again, the Greeks -prepared the path for the moderns, teaching -the dignity of man by proving him to be -more important and necessary in art than all -else. It is no longer Nature ruling and -crushing with its immensity mankind ignorant -of itself. It is human thought, on the contrary, -projecting itself on the external world, and -taking possession of it.</p> - -<div id="i_24" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 31em;"> - <img src="images/i_084.jpg" width="482" height="446" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p>Fig. 24. ZEUS CARRYING OFF A WOMAN.</p> - -<p>Louvre Museum.</p></div></div> - -<p>This is why we admire ancient art, and -why a drawing by Douris tells us so many -things. Doubtless Douris has his message. -He never suspected it; he did not make it -his aim; he was the unconscious instrument -of a great people and of a great revolution.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_85">85</span> -This it is which makes works of the past of -such great value. Only time can show what -they contained of beauty and of fertility, even -unknown to their authors. The creative force -animating them is beyond the individual; it -springs from the depths of the race which -produces them. The sculptor who fashioned -the Venus of Melos could not foresee the -fame his statue would achieve, which he probably -executed after many other similar ones. -Leonardo da Vinci would be greatly surprised -at what we see in his <i>Gioconda</i>. Anatole -France says: “Each generation imagines anew -the antique masterpieces, and in this manner -communicates to them a progressive immortality.” -It is not that we are duped by a -delusion, but time has done its work; moving -on, it has discovered unexpected worth in -certain objects.</p> - -<p>Renan made the profound remark, “Admiration -is historic.” Indeed, not only is distance -necessary, but the wearing effect of centuries, -to distinguish the good from the bad, the -eternal from the perishable, to recognize the -actual importance of a thought or an invention. -Those who love to meditate will not<span class="pagenum" id="Page_86">86</span> -go in vain to the Louvre to look at the kylix -of <i>Eos and Memnon</i>. They will see a reflection -of that which formed the grandeur -and beauty of Greek painting during the most -flourishing period of its history, and they will -recognize in one of its noblest expressions an -art for ever lost.</p> - -<div id="i_25" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 21em;"> - <img src="images/i_086.jpg" width="331" height="325" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p>Fig. 25. A Painter at Work, Boston Museum.</p></div></div> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_87">87</span></p> - -<div id="biblio" class="chapter"> -<h2 id="BIBLIOGRAPHY">BIBLIOGRAPHY</h2> - -<blockquote class="hang"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Roulez</span>, in <i xml:lang="fr" lang="fr">Nuove Memorie dell’ Instituto</i>, ii., 1865, p. 393.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Helbig</span>, in <i xml:lang="it" lang="it">Annali dell’ Instituto arch.</i>, xlv., 1873, p. 53.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Froehner</span>, <i xml:lang="fr" lang="fr">Les Musées de France</i>, 1873, p. 37.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Rayet-Collignon</span>, <i xml:lang="fr" lang="fr">Hist. de la Céramique Grecque</i>, 1888, p. -178.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Luckenbach</span>, in <i xml:lang="de" lang="de">Jahrbuch für class. Philologie</i>, suppl. Band -xi., 1880, p. 518f.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Carl Robert</span>, <i xml:lang="de" lang="de">Bild und Lied</i>, 1881, pp. 28, 87, 98, 214.</p> - -<p>—— <i xml:lang="de" lang="de">Scenen der Ilias und Aithiopis</i>, 1891. (XV. Hallisches -Winckelmanns Programm.)</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Meier</span>, in <i xml:lang="de" lang="de">Archæol. Zeitung</i>, 1883, p. 1.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">W. Klein</span>, <i>Euphronios</i>, 1886.</p> - -<p>—— <i xml:lang="de" lang="de">Die griech. Vasen mit Meistersignaturen</i>, 1887.</p> - -<p>—— <i xml:lang="de" lang="de">Die griech. Vasen mit Lieblingsinschriften</i>, 1898.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Tsountas</span>, in <i xml:lang="fr" lang="fr">Ephéméris archoléogique d’Athènes</i>, iii., 1886, -p. 40.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Loewy</span>, in <i xml:lang="de" lang="de">Jahrbuch des deutsch. arch. Instituts</i>, iii., 1888, -p. 139.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Jane E. Harrison</span>, in <i>Journal of Hellenic Studies</i>, x., 1889, -p. 231.</p> - -<p>—— <i>Greek Vase Paintings</i>, 1894, p. 21.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Reisch</span>, in <i xml:lang="de" lang="de">Mittheilungen des arch. Inst. Römische Abth.</i>, v., -1890, p. 331.</p> - -<p>—— in <i xml:lang="de" lang="de">Festschrift für Gomperz</i>, 1902, p. 459.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">F. Dümmler</span>, in <i xml:lang="de" lang="de">Bonner Studien</i>, 1890, p. 77.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">P. Hartwig</span>, <i xml:lang="de" lang="de">Die griech. Meisterschalen</i>, 1893, pp. 200f., -583f.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Furtwängler and Reichhold</span>, <i xml:lang="de" lang="de">Die griech. Vasenmalerei</i>, -1904, pp. 76, 114, 246, 267.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Michaelis</span>, in <i xml:lang="de" lang="de">Archæologische Zeitung</i>, 1873, p. 1.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Murray</span>, <i>Designs from Greek Vases</i>, 1894, p. 12f.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Tarbell</span>, in <i>American Journal of Archæology</i>, 1900, iv., -p. 183.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Birch</span>, <i>Hist. Ancient Pottery</i>, ed. Walters, 1905, i., p. 434.</p></blockquote> -</div> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_89">89</span></p> - -<div class="chapter"><div class="index"> -<h2 class="nobreak p1" id="INDEX">INDEX</h2> - -<ul class="index"> -<li class="ifrst">Achilles, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Acropolis, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ægina, temple at, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Æschylus, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Africa, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Agamemnon, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ajax, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Alexander, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Amasis, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Amphitrite, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Amphora, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Anaphlystos, deme of <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Antenor, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Apelles, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Aphrodite, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li> - -<li class="indx">—— on her swan, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Apollo, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Arktinos of Miletos, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Artemis, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Athene, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Athenian pottery, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Athenians, Treasury of, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Athens, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Attic craftsmen, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li> - -<li class="indx">—— taste, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Augustus, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Bérard, Victor, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Berlin Museum kylix, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bes of the Egyptians, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Black figured vases, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li> - -<li class="indx">—— glaze, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35f</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bœotia, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Boulle, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li> - -<li class="indx">British Museum, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Brunn, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Brushpainters <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Brussels Museum, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Brygos, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Caere, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Chalkis, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Chakrylion, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i xml:lang="it" lang="it">Chiaro oscuro</i>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li> - -<li class="indx">China, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Christ, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cimabue, Madonna of, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Clay, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i xml:lang="it" lang="it">Coppe amatorie</i>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Corinth, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Corot, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Craftsman, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Crete, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Crimea, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cyrenaica, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Datis and Artaphernes, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Delphi, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Demons of destruction, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Dipylon Gate, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li> - -<li class="indx">—— vases, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Doris, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Douris, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst"><i xml:lang="it" lang="it">Editio princeps</i>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Egypt, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Eos, the Dawn, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li> - -<li class="indx">—— and Memnon, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li> - -<li class="indx">“Epic” manner, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Epiktetos, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ergotimos, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Etruria, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Etruscan tombs, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Euphronios, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Euthymedes, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Fantin-Latour, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Flanders, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li> - -<li class="indx">France, Anatole, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Genre pictures, <a href="#Page_24">24</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_90">90</span></li> - -<li class="indx">Girard, Paul, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Greece, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Greek camps, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li> - -<li class="indx">—— ceramics, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li> - -<li class="indx">—— paintings, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li> - -<li class="indx">—— pictures, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> - -<li class="indx">—— theatre, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Hartwig, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hector, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hellenic age, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hera, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Herakles, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Herculaneum, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hermes, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hierarchy, social, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hieron, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hippias, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li> - -<li class="indx">History of vases, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Homer, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47f</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hoplites, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hydria, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Iliad, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ingres, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ionian artists, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li> - -<li class="indx">—— origin, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Iolaos, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Iphigeneia, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Iris, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Islands, the, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Isocrates, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Italy, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li> - -<li class="indx">—— southern, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Japan, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Japanese draughtsman, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li> - -<li class="indx">—— painters, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Juno, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Jupiter, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Kalliades, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Kantharos, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li> - -<li class="indx">—— at Brussels, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Kerameikos, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Kimon of Kleonai, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Klazomenai, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Klein, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Kleomenes, son of Nikias, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Klitias, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Kolchos, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Krater, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Kylix, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Lange, Julius, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Learnæan hydra, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lekythos, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lippi, Madonna by, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lucian, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Louvre Museum, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li> - -<li class="indx">——, kylix at the, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lydian modes, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lydos, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lysippos, <a href="#Page_1">1</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Mandrocles, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mantegna, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Marathon, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Martial subjects, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i xml:lang="it" lang="it">Mater dolorosa</i>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Medusa, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Megakles, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Melos, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Memnon, King, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Menelaos, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Metics, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Michelangelo, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Miltiades, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Minos, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Minotaur, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mikon, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Munich Museum, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li> - -<li class="indx">——, hydria at, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Music, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mycenæ, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mycenæan age, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mythological subjects, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Nature, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Nearchos, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Necropolis, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Neoptolemos, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Nereids and Peleus, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Nike Apteros, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Nikias, son of Hermokles, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Nikosthenes, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Oinochoai, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Onesimos, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Oxide of iron, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Paidikos, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pamphaios, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Panainos, <a href="#Page_72">72</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_91">91</span></li> - -<li class="indx">Panathenaic amphoræ, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li> - -<li class="indx">—— festival, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Paris, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Parnes, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Parrhasios, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pausanias, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Peithinos, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Peloponnesian war, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pericles, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Persian, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li> - -<li class="indx">—— wars, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Phidias, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Phintias, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Phœnicians, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pietà, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pindar, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li> - -<li class="indx">πίνακες, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Plato, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pleïades, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pliny, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Plutarch, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Polygnotos, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Polykleitos, <a href="#Page_1">1</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pompeii, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Poseidon, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Praxiteles, <a href="#Page_1">1</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Protogenes, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Puvis de Chavannes, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Raphael, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Renan, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Rhodes, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Riesner, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Robert, Carl, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Roman houses, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ruvo, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Salamis, battle of, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Scythian colonies, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sicily, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Silenus mask, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sikanos, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sikelos, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Skyphos, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Skythes, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Smikros, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Solon, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sophocles, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Subjects of daily life, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Terracotta tablets, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Theseus, adventures of, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li> - -<li class="indx">—— and the Minotaur, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Thetis, Rape of</i>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Thracian Chersonese, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Thrax, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tiryns, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Titus, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Trade mark, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Trojan horse, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li> - -<li class="indx">—— war, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Troïlos, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tyrrhenian Sea, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Ulysses, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Urbino, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Van der Weyden, Roger, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Van Eyck, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Venus of Melos, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Vienna Museum, kylix, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Vinci, Leonardo da, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Volsinii, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Woltmann, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Xerxes, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Zeuxis, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li> -</ul> -</div></div> - -<p class="p4 center vspace wspace smaller"> -PRINTED AT THE EDINBURGH PRESS,<br /> -9 AND 11 YOUNG STREET. -</p> - 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