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+metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be
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+
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+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #60961 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/60961)
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-The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Book of Shells, by Anonymous
-
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
-other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
-whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
-the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
-www.gutenberg.org.  If you are not located in the United States, you'll have
-to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook.
-
-Title: The Book of Shells
-       Containing the Classes Mollusca, Conchifera, Cirrhipeda,
-       Annulata, and Crustacea
-
-Author: Anonymous
-
-Release Date: December 18, 2019 [EBook #60961]
-
-Language: English
-
-Character set encoding: UTF-8
-
-*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE BOOK OF SHELLS ***
-
-
-
-
-Produced by Chris Curnow, Paul Marshall and the Online
-Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
-file was produced from images generously made available
-by The Internet Archive)
-
-
-
-
-
-
-Transcriber’s Notes:
-
-  Underscores “_” before and after a word or phrase indicate _italics_
-    in the original text.
-  Small capitals have been converted to SOLID capitals.
-  Illustrations have been moved so they do not break up paragraphs.
-  Old or antiquated spellings have been preserved.
-  Typographical errors have been silently corrected but other variations
-    in spelling and punctuation remain unaltered.
-
-
-
-
-[Illustration: THE FIVE CLASSES OF INVERTEBRAL ANIMALS
-
-DESCRIBED IN THIS VOLUME]
-
-
-
-
-                                  THE
-                            BOOK OF SHELLS;
-
-                              CONTAINING
-                   THE CLASSES MOLLUSCA, CONCHIFERA,
-                       CIRRHIPEDA, ANNULATA, AND
-                              CRUSTACEA.
-
-                   PUBLISHED UNDER THE DIRECTION OF
-          THE COMMITTEE OF GENERAL LITERATURE AND EDUCATION,
-                APPOINTED BY THE SOCIETY FOR PROMOTING
-                         CHRISTIAN KNOWLEDGE.
-
-                          THE SECOND EDITION.
-
-                                LONDON:
-                     JOHN W. PARKER, WEST STRAND.
-
-                            M.DCCC.XXXVII.
-
-
-
-
-TO THE READER.
-
-
-In describing that portion of the system of Natural History which
-embraces the VERTEBRAL ANIMALS,—namely, the Mammalia, the Birds, the
-Reptiles, and the Fishes,—the arrangement of the BARON CUVIER was
-adopted. In the present little volume, as well as in two others that
-are to follow, and which, together, will comprise the INVERTEBRAL
-ANIMALS, the method of M. LAMARCK will be adhered to. It is true, that,
-since the works of that naturalist were published, many deviations
-from certain parts of his system have taken place, some of which have
-received the sanction of the highest names; but still, _as a whole_,
-Lamarck’s System remains unrivalled, and the young naturalist can
-readily add to the information it contains, by reference to the works
-of more recent authors, in case he has sufficient inclination and
-industry to follow out the subject.
-
-
-
-
-           CONTENTS.
-
-
-                                     Page
-    Introductory Chapter                9
-
-    Class MOLLUSCA                     14
-
-    Order HETEROPODA                   15
-    The Glassy Carinaria               15
-
-    Order CEPHALOPODA                  16
-    The Cuttle Fish                    17
-        Argonaut                       20
-        Pearly Nautilus                22
-
-    Order TRACHELIPODA                 26
-    The Marble Cone                    27
-        Porphyry Olive Shell           28
-        Money Cowrie                   29
-        Diadem Whorl Shell             31
-        Common Columbella              31
-        Music Harp Shell               32
-        Wide-Mouthed Purpura           33
-        Spotted Scorpion Shell         37
-        Variegated Sea-Trumpet         39
-        Caniculated Pear-Shell         40
-        Babylonian Split-Mouth         40
-        Marble Turban-Shell            41
-        Imperial Top-Shell             41
-        Precious Scalaria              42
-        Iris Ear-Shell                 43
-        Dusty Neritina                 44
-        Viviparous Paludina            44
-        Lymnæa Stagnalis               45
-        Horn-shaped Planorbis          46
-        Red-mouthed Bulimus            46
-        Mummy Puppet Shell             47
-        Wood Snail                     47
-
-    Order GASTEROPODA                  51
-    The Red Slug                       51
-        Woodlike Bulla                 53
-        Nail-shaped Crepidula          54
-        Mediterranean Umbrella         54
-        Clouded Fissurella             54
-        Hungarian Bonnet Shell         55
-        Scaly Chiton                   56
-
-    Class CONCHIFERA                   57
-
-    Order UNIMUSCULOSA                 64
-    The Horse-Foot Bowl Shell          64
-        Oyster                         65
-        Great Comb Shell               68
-        Pearl Oyster                   69
-        Hammer Oyster                  77
-        Rough Pinna                    77
-        Common Mussel                  79
-        Giant Tridacna                 81
-
-    Order BIMUSCULOSA                  82
-    The Fresh-Water Mussel             83
-        Heart-shaped Isocardia         84
-        Wedge-shaped Donax             85
-        Sheath Solen                   85
-        Date-shaped Pholas             87
-        Ship-Worm                      89
-
-    Class CIRRHIPEDA                   91
-
-    Order CIRRHIPEDA PEDUNCULATA       92
-    The Smooth Barnacle                92
-
-    Order CIRRHIPEDA SEDENTARIA        94
-    The Acorn-Shell                    94
-
-    Class ANNULATA                     97
-
-    Order ANNULATA SEDENTARIA          98
-    The Magnificent Amphitrite         98
-
-    Order ANNULATA ANTENNATA          100
-    The Sand-Worm of the Fishermen    100
-        Blood-coloured Leodice        100
-        Spinous Sea-Mouse             102
-
-    Order ANNULATA APODA              102
-    The Common Earth-Worm             103
-        Medicinal Leech               106
-
-    Class CRUSTACEA                   115
-
-    Order CRUSTACEA HOMOBRANCHIÆ      115
-    The Crab Tribe                    117
-        Land Crab                     124
-        Hermit Crab                   127
-        Lobster                       130
-        River Cray-Fish               131
-        Phosphorescent Shrimp         132
-        Opossum Shrimp                134
-
-    Order CRUSTACEA HETEROBRANCHIÆ    137
-    The Spotted Squill                137
-        Common Cloportus              138
-        Molucca Crab                  142
-        Crab-like Limulus             144
-        Water Flea                    144
-        Small Water Flea              147
-        Hairy Cypris                  148
-
-
-
-
-THE BOOK OF SHELLS.
-
-
-
-
-INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER.
-
-
-In reviewing the first DIVISION of the animal kingdom, namely, the
-vertebral animals, we cannot fail to have been delighted with the
-wonderful and appropriate faculties bestowed upon each individual;
-but, beautiful and well adapted to the use of their possessors as
-these faculties may have appeared, our pleasure must be still greater
-in tracing the powers with which those creatures are endowed, which
-constitute what we have been accustomed to call the lower orders of
-animated nature.
-
-When contemplating the graceful form of the horse or the stag, or
-the beautiful plumage of the feathered tribes, or when we notice the
-terrific appearance of the crocodile, or the elaborate finish and
-metallic lustre of the scales of fishes, we are led to expect that
-equal care has been bestowed upon the rest of the organization of the
-different individuals, and that equal attention has been paid to the
-various instincts and powers that are necessary to their preservation;
-but when we observe a snail, or a worm, and compare their more simple
-appearance, and the perfect absence of what we have been accustomed to
-consider the organs of motion, namely, feet and hands, we are apt to
-look on them as having been created for some very subordinate purpose,
-and, therefore, less carefully formed than the vertebral animals. How
-much greater then must be our delight, when we find them possessed
-of every power necessary to their state of existence, as beautifully
-developed, and as carefully adapted to their necessities, as the
-highest instincts of other classes are to their possessors. Nor is
-their organization to be considered less perfect, because we are unable
-to trace it in all its ramifications; the minute branches of the nerves
-of the human body are, not only invisible to the naked eye, but even
-to the most acute observer when assisted by the magnifying power of
-the microscope, but we are certain that they do exist, from the pain
-we feel when they are injured. Until lately, the _Infusoria_, those
-microscopic animals that are found in infusions of vegetable substances
-in water, were supposed to be possessed of neither nerves nor stomach,
-and to be fed by absorption; but the ingenious experiments of a learned
-foreigner have proved, that, instead of being without a stomach,
-they are provided with as many as five or six: it is true, that the
-nerves have not yet been detected, but we have a right to infer their
-existence from their effects; so that these minute creatures, which we
-have been accustomed to consider as nearly destitute of organs, are, in
-fact, beautifully formed, and as perfect in their kind as any other of
-the Creator’s works.
-
-The second DIVISION of the objects of natural history, namely, the
-INVERTEBRAL animals, which we have now to describe, are placed by
-themselves, on account of their being without an internal skeleton,
-consisting of a series of vertebræ, or bones of the back. This
-distinction is explained in the introductory chapter to the Book of
-Animals. They have been separated, by Lamarck, into Eleven CLASSES,
-namely:—
-
-  1. MOLLUSCA, (_soft-bodied animals_,) in general covered
-        with a shell; as, for instance, a snail; or without a
-        shell, as a slug.
-
-  2. CONCHIFERA, (_shell-bearing animals_,) with a shell,
-        consisting of two valves, as an oyster or mussel.
-
-  3. CIRRHIPEDA, (_with feet like cirri, or hairs_.) The inhabitant
-        of the acorn-shell, found on the back of the larger kind of
-        shell-fish, &c., is an instance of this class.
-
-  4. ANNELIDA, (_with body formed of rings_;) of this class
-        the leech and the earth-worm are instances.
-
-  5. CRUSTACEA, (_covered with a hard case_,) crabs, lobsters, &c.
-
-  6. ARACHNIDÆ, _Spiders_.
-
-  7. INSECTA, _Insects_. A perfect insect has always six legs.
-
-  8. TUNICATA, (_enclosed in a case of a leathery consistence_.)
-
-  9. VERMES, _Worms_. With lengthened body without divisions;
-        for instance, worms found in the intestines.
-
-  10. RADIARIÆ, (_radiated animals_,) with the different parts
-        of which they are formed arranged like rays round one
-        common centre; as, for instance, the Star-fish.
-
-  11. POLYPI, (_many feet_.) The animal that forms the Coral
-        is a Polypus.
-
-  12. INFUSORIA, (_Infusory animals_.) These are found in
-        infusions of vegetable substances in water, and are,
-        in general, too small to be visible to the naked eye.
-
-In the present little book we shall treat of the first five of these
-Classes.
-
-The Molluscous animals are, on account of their organization, placed
-first among the invertebral animals, a few of the species resembling,
-in some respects, the more simply-formed fishes.
-
-The systematic arrangement of the Molluscous animals, considered
-not only as regards their shells, but having reference also to the
-anatomical distinctions of the creatures themselves, is a modern study.
-In ancient authors we merely find a few scattered facts, the beauty of
-the shells attracting their notice more than the value or nature of the
-animals.
-
-Although, at the first glance, the inhabitants of shells appear to
-be beings of a very uninteresting nature, a due consideration of the
-valuable properties of many, and the usefulness of all, will enable
-us to perceive, that, regarding them merely in an interested point of
-view, they are worthy of the strictest attention of the naturalist.
-In the first place, the whole of them afford food for the different
-species of fish, and other inhabitants of the deep. The Tyrian dye, the
-royal purple of the ancients, was produced by the inhabitant of a small
-univalve shell, of the genus Purpura. That beautiful ornament in dress,
-the oriental pearl, is the consequence of disease in a species of
-mussel, and the inner portion of the shell of the same animal, is the
-well-known substance, mother-of-pearl. A kind of silk is obtained from
-the beard of the pinna, which, in some places, is made into gloves. As
-an article of food we may mention the well-known oyster, the mussel,
-scallop, &c., and some of the larger kinds form no small portion of
-the subsistence of the natives of the South-Sea Islands, and the Negro
-population in the West Indies.
-
-The _Teredo navalis_, or ship-worm, has, by its destructive powers,
-ruined the noblest vessels, and rendered useless the timbers, on which
-many of the constructions in harbours mainly depend for security; on
-this account great attention has been bestowed on its natural history
-and habits. The barnacle, which attaches itself to the bottoms of
-ships, renders the planks so foul, as to interfere materially with
-the rate of sailing of the vessel itself. These are only a few of the
-useful and noxious qualities of these inhabitants of the deep.
-
-The shell with which a Molluscous animal is covered, is absolutely
-necessary to protect its delicate body from injury; this shell is, in
-general, composed of much the same substances as bone; but the bone of
-a bird, or quadruped, is formed by the agency of the blood, and the
-particles of which it is composed are deposited by that fluid, and
-again taken up and restored to the circulation, a circumstance which
-does not take place in the substance of a shell. The shell is formed
-by the deposition of layer upon layer, in the course of the growth of
-the animal, and the ridges we perceive on many shells, point out their
-periodical increase.
-
-[Illustration: _Fig 1. Fig 2._]
-
-It will be necessary, when describing the distinctions between shells
-of different genera, to use several terms, which will, unless properly
-defined, be, perhaps, unintelligible to young people. The annexed
-diagrams will explain the meaning of those of most frequent occurrence
-among the Mollusca. Fig. 1, represents a univalve shell; fig. 2,
-another shell, of the same division, cut through the middle, for the
-purpose of showing the columella, or pillar. Many shells, as, for
-instance, the periwinkle, (_Turbo vulgaris_,) have what is called
-an operculum, (_a lid_,) which closes the opening, and protects the
-inhabitant from injury. In the case of the periwinkle, this lid is of
-horny nature, but, in many species it is hard and solid, like the shell
-itself.
-
-
-
-
-CLASS MOLLUSCA.
-
-
-In noticing the animal of a univalve shell, the part which more readily
-attracts the attention is the mantle, which covers the head of the
-creature, something like a hood; it varies much in form and size in
-different genera. The eyes, which in the sepia are amazingly large and
-brilliant, are very minute in most of the other tribes, although they
-are frequently visible, and would appear, from their formation, to be
-of little use as organs of sight; indeed, it is supposed, that in the
-snail they are devoted to the sense of smelling.
-
-The organs of motion in the Mollusca, according to their different
-form and position, give names to most of the orders; these consist of
-muscular expansions of the body, by means of which the animal swims or
-drags itself along the ground. The gills, or breathing apparatus, are
-situated internally, and communicate with the air or water, by means of
-a small canal opening outwardly. The mouth is usually concealed from
-view when the creature is at rest; in some, this organ is furnished
-with a hard substance, which supplies the place of teeth, while, in
-others, it is in the form of a projecting tube. The greatest portion
-of these creatures are produced in the water, the tribes that inhabit
-that element, exceeding by far those that are to be found upon the land.
-
-The Molluscous animals have been separated into the five following
-Orders:—
-
-  1. HETEROPODA, (_with feet, or organs of motion,
-        not uniform in all species_.)
-
-  2. CEPHALOPODA, (_with feet, or organs of motion,
-        attached to the head_.)
-
-  3. TRACHELIPODA, (_with feet, or organs of motion,
-        attached to the neck, near the gills_.)
-
-  4. GASTEROPODA, (_with feet, or organs of motion,
-        attached to the stomach_.)
-
-  5. PTEROPODA, (_with feet, or organs of motion,
-        like wings_.)
-
-
-_ORDER HETEROPODA._
-
-The creatures belonging to this order, says Lamarck may be considered
-as the first vestiges of the appearance of a series of marine animals,
-intermediate in their formation between the fishes and the Cephalopods;
-they are all natives of hot climates, and possess a body of a jelly-like
-substance, and so transparent as to be seen with difficulty when
-floating in the water. They do not all possess shells, and are less
-known than they otherwise would be, on account of the great difficulty
-there is in preserving them.
-
-
-THE GLASSY CARINARIA, (_Carinaria vitrea_.)
-
-This singular animal is rarely taken, on account of its delicate and
-perishable substance; it is found in the Southern Ocean. It will be
-seen, on referring to the engraving, that the shell which it bears
-merely covers a portion of its body, that in which the most material
-organs of the animal are found, namely, the heart and the branchiæ, or
-organs of breathing. These are most curiously placed on the upper part
-of its body, projecting from it and protected by a delicately white
-and transparent shell, shaped like a little cap, and of a substance
-resembling glass. The creature is able to enlarge its body by filling
-it with water, and in swimming the back is undermost. The shell, which
-seldom exceeds an inch in length, has been sought after by collectors
-with great assiduity, and has, at times, fetched as much as ten guineas
-at a sale; a perfect specimen is very rarely met with. There is a wax
-model of one of these shells in the British Museum, nearly two inches
-wide.
-
-[Illustration: THE GLASSY CARINARIA, (_Carinaria vitrea_.)]
-
-
-_ORDER CEPHALOPODA._
-
-The Cephalopods have been so named by Cuvier, from being furnished
-with a kind of inarticulated arms which surround the head. We find
-among this class some of the most singular productions of the waters;
-they differ materially from each other, and have been separated into
-three groups; first, those without any external shell, as the Sepia;
-secondly, the inhabitants of a shell without any divisions, as the
-Argonaut; and, thirdly, those whose shell is divided into numerous
-chambers, as the Nautilus.
-
-
-THE CUTTLE FISH, (_Sepia officinalis_.)
-
-The Cuttle Fish, of which there are many different species, is a native
-of all the temperate and tropical seas. Its body is, in general, of
-an irregular oval shape, and of a jelly-like substance, and usually
-covered with a coarse skin, having the appearance of leather. Unlike
-all other inhabitants of the water which are without a backbone, the
-Sepia possesses two large and brilliant eyes, covered with a hard
-transparent substance.
-
-The Cuttle Fish, figured in the engraving, is furnished in front
-with eight arms or feelers, with which it grapples with its enemy,
-or conveys its prey to its mouth. These arms are most curiously
-constructed, and afford it ample means of defence; they possess in
-themselves a strong muscular power, and this is materially assisted
-by numerous cups or suckers, placed along the whole of their inner
-surface, with which they fasten themselves to any object they come in
-contact with. These feelers appear to be also endued with some peculiar
-power, of a galvanic nature; since the pain which they inflict does not
-cease for a long time after the removal of the animal, leaving a kind
-of stinging sensation, like that produced by nettles, which remains for
-many hours, and is followed by a troublesome irritation and itching.
-
-[Illustration: THE CUTTLE FISH.]
-
-[Illustration: BEAK OF A CEPHALOPOD.]
-
-The size to which this creature grows has been variously stated; and,
-although evidently exaggerated by some authors, there can be no doubt
-that it attains a very considerable magnitude. When attacked in its own
-element, it has been known, even in the seas of temperate latitudes,
-capable of overcoming a powerful mastiff. The jaws of all this tribe
-are, likewise, extremely strong, formed like the beak of a parrot, and
-very hard. In addition to these means of defence, it possesses within
-its body a bladder, containing an inky-coloured fluid, which it has the
-power of throwing out at will, and, by thus discolouring the water, it
-escapes the pursuit of its enemies. This inky liquid, when dried, forms
-a very valuable colour, used by artists, and called, after the animal,
-_Sepia_. The eggs of the female are of an oval form, and joined to each
-other in clusters. They are of the size of filberts, of a black colour,
-and commonly known by the name of _Sea Grapes_. They are found attached
-to sea-weed, rocks, and other marine substances.
-
-The Cuttle Fish generally remains with its body in some hole in a rock,
-while its arms are extended in every direction, to seize the wanderer
-that may chance to pass its place of ambush. Its appetite is voracious,
-and it seizes as its prey every living thing that it has the power to
-conquer.
-
-The species figured in the engraving is very common on the English
-coasts, and the bone which is enclosed in its body is frequently found
-on the sands; it is a well-known substance, and much employed in the
-manufacture of tooth-powder. This bone, which, with the exception of
-the jaws, is the only solid part in the Sepia, differs in shape in
-the different species, but is always somewhat oval in its form, though
-varying considerably in texture.
-
-
-THE ARGONAUT, (_Argonauta argo_.)
-
-    The tender Nautilus that steers its prow,
-    The sea-born sailor in its light canoe.
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-    He, when the lightning-winged tornadoes sweep
-    The surge, is safe; his home is in the deep.
-    He triumphs o’er the armadas of mankind,
-    That shake the world, but tremble in the wind.
-
-The curious inhabitant of this elegant shell has, from the earliest
-ages, excited the admiration of the student in natural history; and,
-at the same time, its real place in the system has eluded the research
-of the most acute observers. The animal agrees, in many points, with
-the sepia, or cuttle fish, which never possesses a shelly covering, so
-that, had it been found without that beautiful addition, naturalists
-would have referred it, without hesitation, to that particular division
-of the dwellers in the deep; it is, however, always met with along
-with the shell; and, although there appears to be no bond of union
-between the tenant and its dwelling, still the purposes to which it
-applies it, imply, at any rate, a long-continued occupancy, if they do
-not absolutely point out the Nautilus as the original architect of the
-shell.
-
-The name Argonaut has been applied to this sea-born navigator from its
-resemblance, when floating on the surface of the waves, to a vessel in
-full sail, Argo being the name of the ship, which was supposed to have
-been the first fitted out for commercial adventure.
-
-[Illustration: THE ARGONAUT, OR PAPER NAUTILUS.]
-
-In calm Summer days, these beautiful little creatures may be seen, in
-considerable numbers, steering their little barks on the surface of the
-waters of the Mediterranean. The words of the ancient Roman naturalist,
-Pliny, give a pleasing description of its habits. “Among the principal
-miracles of nature,” says he, “is the animal called Nautilos, or
-Pompilos: it ascends to the surface of the sea, in a supine posture,
-and, gradually raising itself up, forces out, by means of its tube,
-all the water from its shell, in order that it may swim more readily;
-then, throwing back the two foremost arms, it displays between them a
-membrane of wonderful tenuity, which acts as a sail, while, with the
-remaining arms, it rows itself along, the tail in the middle acting as
-a helm to direct its course, and thus it pursues its voyage; and, if
-alarmed by any appearance of danger, takes in the water and descends.”
-
-Although the Argonaut has never yet been discovered attached to its
-shell, some observations which have been recently made on the Pearly
-Nautilus, which very nearly resembles it, have almost proved that
-such a connexion does really exist. But whether the shell is formed
-by itself, or only used to assist the creature in its movements, the
-instinct displayed is not the less wonderful, or worthy of observation.
-The Mediterranean, and warmer parts of the Atlantic, abound in these
-interesting animals, and one species is also found in the Indian Ocean.
-
-
-THE PEARLY NAUTILUS, (_Nautilus pompilius_.)
-
-The inhabitant of this singular shell had long been sought after
-with eagerness by naturalists, and it is only within these few years
-that its true nature has been ascertained. We are indebted for this
-knowledge to the researches of the late Mr. George Bennet, who, while
-engaged in a voyage among the Polynesian Islands, captured a specimen
-containing a living animal, which was brought to England, and is now
-deposited in the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons in London.
-
-The shell of the Nautilus, as may be seen by the engraving, is divided
-into numerous cells. The use of these cells to the animal we are now
-describing, was formerly not well understood, but they were supposed to
-be employed, by their inhabitant, for the purpose of rising or sinking
-in the Water at will. The body of this _Cephalopod_, it will be seen,
-only occupies the outer cell of its habitation, its increased size
-having rendered it too large to remain in that preceding it. If, as
-the animal deserted its smaller tenements, one after the other, they
-had been filled, up with solid matter, the shell would have become too
-cumbersome for its owner; so that we have here another proof of the
-providing care of the Creator. We shall describe, in Mr. Bennet’s own
-words, the capture of this interesting object.
-
-[Illustration: THE PEARLY NAUTILUS,
-
-Showing the Animal, and a Section of its Shell.]
-
-“It was on the twenty-fourth of August, 1829, (calm and fine weather,
-thermometer at noon 79°,) in the evening, when the ship Sophia was
-lying at anchor, in Marakini Bay, on the south-west side of the island
-of Erromanga, one of the New Hebrides group, Southern Pacific Ocean,
-that something was seen floating on the surface of the water, at
-some distance from the ship; to many it appeared like a small dead
-tortoise-shell cat, which would have been such an unusual object in
-this part of the world, that the boat, which was alongside of the ship
-at the time, was sent for the purpose of ascertaining the nature of the
-floating object.”
-
-“On approaching near, it was observed to be the shell-fish, commonly
-known by the name of the Pearly Nautilus: it was captured and brought
-on board; but the shell was shattered from having been struck with
-the boat-hook, in taking it, as the animal was sinking when the boat
-approached, and, had it not been so damaged, it would have escaped. I
-extracted the fish in a perfect state, which was firmly attached to
-each side of the cavity of the shell.” The hood has been stated by Dr.
-Shaw, as being “of a pale, reddish-purple colour, with deeper sports
-and variegations,” the colour, however, as it appeared in this recent
-specimen, was of a dark reddish-brown.
-
-[Illustration: SHELL OF THE NAUTILUS; AND THE SEA-PEN, OR INTERNAL
-SHELL OF THE LOLIGO.]
-
-Although this is the only instance of the animal itself having been
-brought to this country, there is but little doubt of its having been
-frequently taken, but as the shell was the object of the captors, and
-not its inhabitant the latter has been thrown away as useless. An
-office in his Majesty’s Navy found a Nautilus in a hole in a reef of
-rocks, near an island on the Eastern coast of Africa; the mantle of the
-fish, like a thin membrane, covered the shell, which was drawn in as
-soon as it was touched, and the elegant shell was then displayed. “I
-and others,” says the same informant, “when it was first seen did not
-notice it, regarding the animal, as the membrane enveloped the shell,
-merely as a piece of blubber; but having touched it by accident, the
-membranous covering was drawn in, and we soon secured our beautiful
-prize.”
-
-Rumphius, a German naturalist, appears to have been acquainted with
-its habits; he says, “When he thus floats upon the water, he puts out
-his head, and all his barbs, and spreads them on the water, with the
-poop of the shell above water: but at the bottom he creeps in a reverse
-position, with his boat above him, and with his head and barbs upon the
-ground, making a tolerably quick progress. He keeps himself chiefly on
-the ground, creeping sometimes also into the nets of the fishermen: but
-after a storm, as the weather becomes calm, they are seen in troops
-floating on the water, being driven up by the agitation of the waves.
-This sailing, however, is not of long continuance, for having taken
-in all their tentacles, they upset their boat, and so return to the
-bottom.”
-
-
-_ORDER TRACHELIPODA._
-
-The Trachelipodes contain by far the largest portion of the univalve
-shells, and are mostly inhabitants of the waters. They form two
-numerous groups, the feeders on animal food, (_Zoophagi_,) and those
-that exist on vegetable substances, (_Phytophagi_.) The animal feeders
-are well distinguished from the other group, by having a mouth without
-jaws, being furnished with a tube which they can retract or advance at
-pleasure, for the purpose of sucking their nutriment from the bodies
-of other inhabitants of the deep. The animal feeders are also known
-from the other section by the possession of a projecting tube called a
-_siphon_, which conveys the water to the gills. The shell also points
-out to which section its possessor belonged, from the lower part of
-its opening being formed either into a sort of canal, or a groove for
-the reception of its siphon. They are all marine animals, and breathe
-water. The flesh-eating tribes compose five families.
-
-  FAMILY CONVOLUTA,    (_rolled up like a scroll_.)
-  FAMILY COLUMELLARIA, (_distinguished by a plaited columella_.)
-  FAMILY PURPURIFERA,  (_yielding a purple colour_.)
-  FAMILY ALATA,        (_winged_.)
-  FAMILY CANALIFERA    (_having a canal at the base of the opening_.)
-
-
-FAMILY _CONVOLUTA_.
-
-The convoluted shells contain but few genera; but these are very rich
-in species, and furnish us with some of the most beautiful specimens of
-this class.
-
-
-FEEDERS ON ANIMAL FOOD, (ZOOPHAGI.)
-
-
-THE MARBLE CONE, (_Conus marmoreus_.)
-
-Lamarck notices no less than 181 recent species of the Cone shell. The
-Marbled Cone figured below, is found in most of the Asiatic seas, and
-is not uncommon; it is of a dusky colour, and covered with angular
-white spots. The section of this shell points out in a remarkable
-manner the economy and providence of the Creator, so visible in all his
-works.
-
-[Illustration: _Voluta diadema. Conus marmoreus. Columbella
-mercatoria._]
-
-It will be seen on referring to the engraving, that the shell is
-much thicker in the outward part of its coat than in any other part;
-and this exceeding thickness is necessary for the protection of the
-soft body of its inhabitant. In the course of the growth of the
-animal the shell is enlarged, and that part that was external becomes
-internal, the last made portion of the shell forming the outer wall;
-if, therefore, the inner part of the shell retained its original
-thickness, its weight would become too great for its possessor. To
-guard against this inconvenience, and this useless waste of material,
-the creature possesses the power of absorbing so much of the substance
-of what now becomes the internal portion of its dwelling as is
-unnecessary for its present use, and of re-depositing the same on the
-outward wall of its mansion, where strength is most required[1].
-
-The Cones, says Lamarck, are the most beautiful of all the univalve
-shells; the genus comprises the most valuable and the most remarkable
-specimens of this family, whether we look at the regularity of their
-form or the splendour of their colours. The beauty of many, but,
-above all, the extreme rarity of others, have given them a species of
-celebrity, and have caused them to be much sought after by collectors.
-
-[Illustration: _Oliva porphyria._]
-
-The Cones are found in the seas of hot climates, in from ten to twelve
-fathom water. The animal of the Cones has the head furnished with two
-tentaculæ, or horns, with the eyes on the summits; they only inhabit
-salt waters.
-
-The genus Oliva is distinguished from the Cones by the groove or canal
-which separates the turns of their spire, and by the wrinkles on the
-columella. The Porphyry Olive is found in the South American Seas, on
-the Brazilian coast, and is the most beautiful and the largest species
-of the genus; it is of a flesh colour, with numerous lines of a reddish
-brown, forming angular figures of various forms, and covered with
-irregular-formed spots of a red or maroon colour. Its length is nearly
-four inches. There are nearly seventy species of this beautiful shell.
-
-
-THE MONEY COWRIE, (_Cypræa moneta_.)
-
-The Money Cowrie of Guinea is very common on the Indian and African
-coasts; and is used by many of the inhabitants of Africa as a
-circulating medium; it is also employed for the same purpose in
-Hindoostan, particularly at Calcutta, where great quantities are
-obtained from the inhabitants of the Maldive Islands in exchange for
-rice.
-
-[Illustration: _Cypræa moneta._]
-
-Many tons of Cowries are annually shipped from England to Guinea;
-these having been originally brought from the Maldive Islands to
-Bengal, and from thence sent into this country. The value of these
-shells as a circulating medium depends naturally enough on their
-greater or less abundance.
-
-In Bengal, in general, from 2000 to 2400 are equal in value to a
-shilling. But in Africa they are much dearer, about 250 being valued at
-a shilling.
-
-The Cowrie shell is found of three different forms, according to
-its age. First, in its extreme youth, when the shell is extremely
-imperfect, and is like a slender one, without any appearance of the
-usual characters of the genius. Secondly, when half-grown; it then
-begins to assume the form of the perfect shell, but is extremely
-slight, and colourless, and the point of its spire projects. Thirdly,
-when perfect; it has now received a second deposit of shelly matter, in
-which its specific colours appear, and its spire is completely hidden.
-The second deposit with which the shell is covered, is secreted by the
-two membranous wings of the creature’s mantle, which, in the adult
-state of the animal, have rapidly increased and become extremely large,
-so much so, as to be capable of covering the whole of the shell, while
-the deposition of the new matter is taking place.
-
-Lamarck says the observations of the habits of this creature tend to
-prove that, in addition to the power of completing its shell, as we
-have already noticed, it can, when its increased size has caused it to
-require a new habitation, desert its former shell and form a new one;
-from this it happens that the same individual can form successively
-many shells of different sizes, so that we find the same species both
-large and small.
-
-When not in search of food, these animals are found buried in the sand,
-at some distance from the sea-shore, in temperate as well as in hot
-climates.
-
-
-FAMILY _COLUMELLARIA_.
-
-This family is distinguished, from the next in having the columella
-plaited, and a notch at its base. It does not include any shells with a
-plaited columella, the opening at the base being entirely smooth, that
-is, without a notch.
-
-
-THE DIADEM WHORL SHELL, (_Voluta diadema_.)
-
-The Diadem Whorl Shell is a very beautiful specimen of its genus; it
-is marbled with white upon a yellow ground, but the markings become
-nearly obliterated by age: it is as much as seven inches in length, and
-is found in the Asiatic seas. The head of the animal of this shell has
-two pointed tentaculæ, with an eye at the outer base of each. Its mouth
-is a lengthened cylindrical and retractile tube, furnished with little
-hooked teeth; it has also a tube to conduct the water to the branchiæ,
-springing out obliquely behind the head.
-
-
-THE COMMON COLUMBELLA, (_Columbella mercatoria_.)
-
-The common Columbella is found in the Atlantic Ocean near the island
-of Gorée, and in the West India Islands; it is about three quarters of
-an inch in length. It is a sea-shell, and is found upon the coast; it
-possesses a very small oval operculum attached to its foot.
-
-
-FAMILY _PURPURIFERA_.
-
-The notch at the base of the shells of this family is a kind of groove
-bent backwards and upwards, but not properly forming a canal, all
-the genera have an operculum. The name Purpurifera has been given to
-these Trachelipodes, because some of the genera contain in a peculiar
-reservoir the colouring-matter with which the Romans, and other ancient
-nations, dyed their beautiful and well-known purple, which was so much
-in use before the discovery of cochineal.
-
-
-THE MUSIC HARP SHELL, (_Harpa musica_.)
-
-The Harp shells are found in the Indian seas, and in great abundance
-also in the Red Sea. A very curious fact appears in the history of the
-animal of the Harp which deserves notice. It was observed a long time
-back by a German naturalist named Bon, but had since then been either
-forgotten or disbelieved: a recent traveller has confirmed its truth,
-although he notices it as a new discovery; it is as follows:—
-
-[Illustration: _Harpa musica._]
-
-The foot of the animal has the power of dividing itself into two
-portions; and one, namely, the hinder portion, can be separated from
-its body by the animal, when it finds itself suddenly in danger, and
-wishes to retire into the deepest recess of its shell; on this account
-it is without an operculum, which would evidently be useless, as it
-would be lost at the same time as the foot.
-
-The Harps, says Lamarck, are very beautiful shells, and if they were
-less common, would, on account of their elegant forms and colours,
-become valuable in a collection. Some species, however, are still
-considered rare.
-
-The Harps take their name from the fancied resemblance between the
-regularity and direction of the ribs on the shell, and the strings of a
-harp. The species are not numerous, not exceeding eight in number.
-
-
-THE WIDE-MOUTHED PURPURA, (_Purpura patula_.)
-
-This species of Purpura is said to be that which was employed by the
-Romans in dyeing, but many others of the same family yield a purple
-colouring-matter. It is nearly three inches in length, and is found in
-the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean.
-
-The purple colour which this little Molluscous animal produces, was
-discovered by the inhabitants of the ancient city of Tyre, and was
-thence called the Tyrian purple. The circumstances which led to the
-discovery of it are very imperfectly known, but fiction has supplied
-the want of historical facts, and described its origin with sufficient
-minuteness of detail. According to one account, the merit of its
-discovery is due to a dog belonging to a certain Hercules. We are
-informed that when this dog was accompanying his master along the
-sea-shore, who was then following the nymph Tyros, the animal seized
-one of the Purpuræ lying on the sand, and breaking the shell with his
-teeth, his mouth soon became coloured with the purple juice. The nymph
-having observed the effect, immediately expressed a strong desire to
-have a dress dyed of the same beautiful colour; and her lover, no less
-anxious to gratify her wishes, at last succeeded in discovering a
-method of applying it to cloth.
-
-This colour was so highly valued by the ancients, that it was either
-consecrated to the worship of the Deity, or conceived to be fit only
-for the garments of royalty.
-
-Under the Mosaic dispensation, the stuffs for the service of the altar
-and the habits of the high-priest were enjoined to be of purple. The
-Babylonians devoted this colour to the dress of their idols, and most
-of the other nations of antiquity appear to have done the same thing.
-Pliny informs us that it was used by Romulus and the succeeding kings
-of Rome, as well as by the consuls and first magistrates under the
-republic. The Roman emperors at last appropriated it entirely to their
-own use, and denounced the punishment of death against those who should
-dare to wear it, although covered with another colour. This absurd and
-tyrannical restriction confined the dyeing of the Tyrian purple to a
-few individuals, and, in a short time, the knowledge of the process was
-entirely lost.
-
-In the twelfth century, neither the creature that furnished the dye,
-nor the methods which the ancients employed to communicate to cloths
-the rich and beautiful purple which it afforded, were at all known; and
-on the revival of learning, it was even suspected by many, that the
-accounts which had come down to us respecting this celebrated colour
-were entirely fabulous.
-
-According to Pliny, the Tyrians removed the finest colouring-matter
-out of the largest shells, in order to possess it in a more pure
-state, and to extract it more effectually, but obtained the colour from
-the smaller by grinding them in mills. He adds, that when the Purpuræ
-were caught, the receptacle which contained the dyeing-liquor was taken
-out and laid in salt for three days; and that after a sufficiency of
-the matter had been collected, it was boiled slowly in leaden vessels
-over a gentle fire, the workman scumming off from time to time the
-fleshy impurities. This process lasted ten days, after which the liquor
-was tried by dipping wool into it, and if the colour produced by it was
-defective, the boiling was renewed.
-
-Other colouring-matters were employed sometimes to economize, and at
-other times to vary the effect of the liquors of the Purpuræ. Among
-these Pliny enumerates _Fucus marinus_, or Archil, and the _Anchusa
-tinctoria_, or Alkanet, both of which are still used as dyes. By these
-and other means, the purple colour was made to assume a variety of
-shades, some inclining more to the blue, and others to the crimson.
-
-In modern times several attempts have been made to obtain this dye; but
-the discovery of cochineal has rendered it a matter of little import.
-
-In the year 1683, Mr. William Cole, of Bristol, being at Minehead,
-was told of a person living at a seaport in Ireland, who had made
-considerable gain by marking with a delicate and durable crimson
-colour, fine linen that was sent to him for that purpose, and that this
-colour was made from some liquid substance taken from a shell-fish. Mr.
-Cole, being a lover of natural history, and having his curiosity thus
-excited, went in search of these shell-fish, and, after trying various
-kinds without success, he, at length, found considerable quantities
-of a species of buccinum on the sea-coasts of Somersetshire, and the
-opposite coasts of South Wales. After many ineffectual endeavours,
-he discovered the colouring-matter, placed in a white vein, lying
-transversely in a little furrow, or cleft, next to the head of the
-fish, “which,” says he, “must be digged out with the stiff point of a
-horse-hair pencil, made short and tapering, by reason of the viscous
-clamminess of the white liquor in the vein, that so by its stiffness it
-may drive in the matter into the fine linen or white silk intended to
-be marked.” Letters or marks, made in this way, with the white liquor
-in question, “will presently appear of a pleasant green colour, and, if
-placed in the sun, will change into the following colours,—that is, if
-in Winter, about noon, if in the Summer, an hour or two after sunrise,
-or so much before setting, (for in the heat of the day, in Summer,
-the colours will come so fast that the succession of each will scarce
-be distinguishable,) next to the first light green will appear a deep
-green, and in a few minutes this will change into a full sea-green,
-after which, in a few minutes more, it will alter into a watchet blue,
-and from that, in a little time more, it will be of a purplish red,
-after which, lying an hour or two, (supposing the sun still shining,)
-it will be of a very deep purple red, beyond which the sun can do no
-more.”
-
-“But the last and most beautiful colour, after washing in scalding
-water and soap, will (the matter being again exposed to the sun or the
-wind to dry,) be a much different colour from all those mentioned,
-that is, a fair bright crimson, or near to the prince’s colour,
-which afterwards, notwithstanding there is no styptic to bind the
-colour, will continue the same, if well ordered, as I have found in
-handkerchiefs that have been washed more than forty times, only it will
-be somewhat alloyed from what it was after the first washing.”
-
-Some years after this, Réaumur discovered great numbers of a species
-of buccinum, on the coast of Poitou, and the stones, round which they
-had collected, were covered with small oval masses, some of which were
-white, and others of a yellowish colour; and, having squeezed some of
-them on the sleeves of his shirt, in about half an hour he found it
-stained of a fine purple colour, which he was unable to discharge by
-washing. In repeating his experiment on his return home, he found it
-was necessary that the cloth should be exposed to the direct rays of
-the sun.
-
-The difficulty of procuring and preserving a sufficient number of these
-shell-fish, must always render the use of this dye very limited; but
-Dr. Bancroft is of opinion, that it might still be rendered beneficial
-in staining or printing fine muslins, for which purpose but little
-colouring-matter is required. No substance, he remarks, will afford a
-substantive purple of equal beauty and durability, and capable of being
-applied to linen or cotton with so much simplicity and expedition.
-
-
-FAMILY _ALATA_.
-
-This family is distinguished, by having a canal of variable length at
-the base of its opening, and by the fact of the right margin of the
-shell changing its form during the growth of the animal.
-
-
-THE SPOTTED SCORPION SHELL, (_Pterocera scorpio_.)
-
-This curious shell is found in the East Indian seas, and attains
-a considerable size, as much as six inches. In an early age the
-projecting claws of this shell are very small, so that its appearance
-is materially different from that which it assumes at a more advanced
-period of its growth. It is known as the Spotted Scorpion Shell, and
-is distinguished from other species of the same genus, by the knotted
-and granulated appearance of its surface; the opening of the shell
-is long and narrow, and of a dull violet red, sometimes brownish, on
-which numerous transverse wrinkles are seen, either of a pure white, or
-slightly tinged with yellow.
-
-[Illustration: _Pterocera scorpio._]
-
-
-FAMILY _CANALIFERA_.
-
-The shells belonging to this family agree with those of the last in
-having a canal at their base; but the lip to the right of the opening
-does not change its form through age.
-
-
-THE VARIEGATED SEA-TRUMPET, (_Triton variegatum_.)
-
-The _Triton variegatum_, or Variegated Sea-Trumpet, a large and
-beautiful shell, sometimes as much as two feet in length, is found
-chiefly in the torrid zones, near the Asiatic coast. The attendants on
-the sea-gods of pagan Rome are frequently represented with this shell
-applied to their mouth by way of a trumpet.
-
-    Already Triton, at his call, appears
-    Above the waves; a Tyrian robe he wears,
-    And in his hand a crooked trumpet bears.
-    The sovereign bids him peaceful sounds inspire,
-    And give the waves the signal to retire.
-    His writhen shell he takes, whose narrow vent
-    Grows by degrees into a large extent,
-    Then gives it breath; the blast, with doubling sound,
-    Runs the wide circuit of the world around.
-    The sun first heard it, in his early east,
-    And met the rattling echoes in the west;
-    The waters, listening to the trumpet’s roar,
-    Obey the summons, and forsake the shore.
-                                        DRYDEN.
-
-[Illustration: _Dolium perdix. Triton variegatum. Pyrula
-caniculata._]
-
-
-THE CANICULATED PEAR-SHELL, (_Pyrula caniculata_.)
-
-This shell is found in the Icy Sea, and on the coast of Canada, and
-attains the length of seven inches. The animal of the Pyrula is at
-present unknown. There is a kind of keel or ridge along the edge of the
-whorls, which is obliterated in very old specimens. There are as many
-as eight-and-twenty species of this shell.
-
-[Illustration: _Turbo marmoratus. Pleurotoma babylonia. Trochus
-imperialis._]
-
-
-THE BABYLONIAN SPLIT-MOUTH,
-
-(_Pleurotoma babylonia_.)
-
-The Babylonian Split-Mouth is found in the East Indies and the Molucca
-Islands, and is about three inches and a quarter in length. It is said
-that the animal of this shell, when in motion, has its foot separated
-as it were from its body by a long thick footstalk, which arises from
-the centre of the mantle, which is at this time turned back over the
-shell. This separation of the foot has the effect of causing the
-creature to tumble over frequently, from the great weight it has to
-support.
-
-
-VEGETABLE FEEDERS, (PHYTOPHAGI.)
-
-Those genera of the Trachelipods which live on vegetable substances
-have no projecting siphon, but possess a mouth furnished with jaws;
-they are in general land-shells, and consequently, the air which
-they breathe is conveyed directly to their branchiæ. Some of their
-tribes however, live in fresh water, either in running streams or in
-stagnant pools: among these, some breathe water and others air. These
-last are obliged frequently to come to the surface for the purpose of
-breathing,—others again inhabit salt water, and are unable to exist
-out of that element.
-
-
-THE MARBLE TURBAN-SHELL, (_Turbo marmoratus_.)
-
-There are as many as thirty or forty species of the Turban-shell.
-The Marble Turban, _Turbo marmoratus_, is the largest, being as much
-as four inches across; it is found in the Indian Ocean. The colour
-of this shell is of a brownish green, of greater or less intensity.
-It is ornamented by eight or ten narrow transverse belts, consisting
-of a series of white or brownish spots. This is one of those shells
-whose substance, after the outer coat is removed, is of the nature of
-mother-of-pearl.
-
-The _Turbo littoreus_ (the Shore Turban), is the well-known periwinkle,
-with which our rocky coasts abound.
-
-
-THE IMPERIAL TOP-SHELL, (_Trochus imperialis_.)
-
-These shells have received their name from their resemblance in form
-to a boy’s top. They are all marine shells, and the apex of their
-spire is always very sharp-pointed. In some places they are called
-_flat-mouthed snails_. The greater number of these shells, (and the
-species are very numerous,) are of a beautiful pearly substance, and
-many of them are also elegantly marked with longitudinal ribs; there
-are as many as seventy species,—the larger and more elegant are only
-found in the seas of hot climates.
-
-[Illustration: _Haliotis iris. Scalaria pretiosa. Neritina pulligera._]
-
-
-THE PRECIOUS SCALARIA, (_Scalaria pretiosa_.)
-
-This shell is noted for its rarity, and for the singular arrangement of
-its whorls, which do not touch each other, and appear as if they were
-only connected by the ribs with which the shell is adorned. Like the
-turbans, the inhabitants of the Scalariæ are found on the sea-coast,
-on rocks and large stones, between high and low water mark. The native
-place of the Scalaria pretiosa seems to be uncertain; Lamarck, and
-several others, believe it comes from the East Indies, while others
-consider it an inhabitant of the Mediterranean. So great was the rage
-some years back, to possess a perfect specimen of this shell, that
-as much as twenty or thirty pounds, and even more, has been given
-for a well-preserved specimen. Travellers relate that the Scalariæ
-are much sought after and highly prized by the women on the coast
-of Amboyna, and at Batavia, where they are used as earrings, and in
-forming necklaces. They are, although rarely, as much as four inches
-in length. It is said, that there was a specimen in the cabinet of the
-empress Catherine of Russia, still larger; but the most usual size is
-from one to two inches in length. A fine specimen of this shell ought
-to be semi-transparent like porcelain, of a light brown, tinged with
-rose-colour, and the ribs of a beautiful opaque white.
-
-
-THE IRIS EAR-SHELL, (_Haliotis Iris_.)
-
-The _Haliotides_, or sea-ears, are very splendid shells; the species
-are numerous, and some of them are extremely common. The place in the
-system which this shell ought to occupy, appears to have caused many
-doubts in the minds of modern naturalists, and consequently, we find it
-continually shifted from one part to another in the different works of
-Lamarck and Cuvier. When moving from place to place in search of food,
-the animal and its shell present a very pleasing sight, the slender
-tentacula which appear through the different holes which ornament
-the margin of the shell, gracefully waving in all directions; these
-tentacula are supposed to be breathing-tubes. In the young shell, the
-number of perforations is not so great as in an adult, one being formed
-at each progressive stage of the creature’s growth. Sometimes the holes
-which were first formed become, by age, filled up. The proportions of
-the shell, also, vary materially, so as to render the separation of
-species very difficult and uncertain.
-
-
-THE DUSTY NERITINA, (_Neritina pulligera_.)
-
-This shell is found in the rivers of India, and is about an inch and
-a quarter in length. All the species of this genus are supposed to
-inhabit fresh water only. There is a curious fact attached to the
-history of the Neritina, and of a neighbouring genus, Nerita,—namely,
-that when found in a fossil state, their colours are always in good
-preservation. The species, which are tolerably numerous, are in general
-natives of hot climates.
-
-
-THE VIVIPAROUS PALUDINA, (_Paludina vivipara_.)
-
-The animal of the genus Paludina is an inhabitant of fresh waters: it
-takes its specific name from the fact of the young being hatched within
-the parent shell, and deposited in the waters perfectly formed. In
-nearly the whole of this class the eggs are laid either in water or in
-the earth, and afterwards hatched after a longer or shorter period.
-
-[Illustration: _Planorbis corneus. Paludina vivipara. Lymnæa
-stagnalis._]
-
-These shells are found generally in running streams of fresh water;
-sometimes, however, they are met with in brackish water, at the
-mouths of rivers. The operculum of the Paludina is of a strong horny
-substance. The young, immediately they are hatched, attach themselves
-to the outside of the shell of the mother, where they remain until they
-are sufficiently strong to trust themselves in the water.
-
-
-LYMNÆA STAGNALIS.
-
-The _Lymnæa stagnalis_ is found in stagnant waters, particularly narrow
-ditches, in great abundance. As it breathes air, it is necessary for
-its existence that it should frequently resort to the surface of the
-water; and consequently, we find these shells floating about in great
-numbers, with the body partly out of the shell. The least appearance
-of danger causes a Lymnæa to withdraw the whole of its body into
-its shelly covering; and as this increases its specific gravity, it
-instantly sinks to the bottom, where it remains in safety. In order
-to reach the surface again, it is obliged to crawl to the side of the
-ditch, and when it has reached the level of the water, it again trusts
-its little bark to the mercy of the winds and stream, for it has very
-little power to direct its own course.
-
-During the Winter, these creatures remain at the bottom, buried in the
-mud, and in a state of torpor. Although apparently useless to mankind,
-they form part of the subsistence of many water-birds, and of fishes,
-which are extremely fond of them. The species of this shell are not
-easily decided, since they bear so great a resemblance to each other.
-
-
-THE HORN-SHAPED PLANORBIS,
-
-(_Planorbis corneus_.)
-
-The _Planorbis_, although differing in form from the Lymnæa, possesses
-the same habits, and is found in the same localities. The jelly-like
-substance which is frequently found, in the Spring of the year,
-attached to water-cresses and other aquatic plants, and which is
-considered by many to be of a poisonous nature, and looked on as the
-spawn of toads, is merely the covering of the ova of this and other
-inhabitants of fresh-water shells; and, although very disagreeable,
-certainly not poisonous.
-
-
-THE RED-MOUTHED BULIMUS, (_Bulimus hæmastomus_.)
-
-The _Bulimus hæmastomus_ is a most beautiful shell; it is a native of
-Guiana, and is frequently as much as four inches in length. The most
-singular part of its natural history is the large size of the egg of
-the animal in comparison with its magnitude; it is said to equal that
-of a moderate-sized pigeon.
-
-[Illustration: _Bulimus hæmastomus. Pupa mummia._]
-
-
-THE MUMMY PUPPET SHELL, (_Pupa mummia_.)
-
-The _Pupa mummia_ is found in the Antilles; it takes its name from the
-singularity of its form, which very much resembles that of a mummy.
-
-The Pupa is essentially a land-shell, living among grass, on stones,
-and sometimes in places much exposed to the heat of the sun. The
-greater number of the species, which are very numerous, are natives of
-tropical countries; there are, however, several found in Germany, and
-other parts of the Continent, but they are extremely small.
-
-
-THE WOOD SNAIL, (_Helix nemoralis_.)
-
-The Snail (_Helix_) is an animal well-known in every part of the globe,
-and its species are still extremely numerous, although many shells
-which belonged to this tribe, under the Linnæan arrangement, have been
-placed in other divisions. The head of the Snail is furnished with
-two pair of tentacula, or feelers; these, unlike similar appendices
-in other Mollusca, are retractile; that is, they can be withdrawn
-into the body at the will of the animal. The use of these tentacula
-is uncertain. At the top of each of the longest pair we find a black
-spot; these spots have been supposed to be the eyes of the animal,
-and a celebrated anatomist says, that he has discovered in them all
-the component parts of perfect eyes. However this may be, the animal
-appears to use them rather as organs of touch than of sight. Some
-writers suspect that the sense of smell resides in one or both pairs of
-these appendages.
-
-The uses to which Snails are applied are not many; some of the larger
-kinds, however, are, in some countries, employed as food. The Romans,
-according to Pliny, consumed large quantities, and considered them in
-the light of delicacies, and considerable pains were taken in fattening
-them for the table. Those from Sicily and the Balearic Islands were in
-great request, and attained a very large size. Some authors say they
-are still used as food in several parts of the Continent.
-
-[Illustration: _Helix nemoralis._]
-
-In Paris, London, and many large towns, great numbers of Snails are
-frequently brought to market; but these are not employed as food, but
-used medicinally by persons suffering under consumption, and other
-diseases of the chest.
-
-It was already known that polypi, and some species of worms, could have
-portions of their body cut off, and that the parts removed would be
-afterwards reproduced; and as these animals had no well distinguished
-extremities, such as heads or limbs, the fact, although singular, was
-not disputed; but, when it was asserted by Spallanzani, that Snails,
-which have a very well defined series of parts, could, after the head
-was removed, reproduce that portion of the body, the scientific world
-became naturally incredulous, and numerous experiments were made,
-and thousands of Snails slaughtered, to ascertain the fact. No one,
-however, for a length of time, could succeed;—it was then suspected
-that Spallanzani had only removed a portion of the head. At length,
-it would appear, from the experiments of M. G. Tarenne (an account of
-which appeared in 1808), that these creatures could actually reproduce
-a complete head. He gives as a reason of the want of success of others,
-the little precaution taken to provide the mutilated Snails with proper
-nourishment. The new head, according to him, is perfect in about two
-years after the old head has been removed.
-
-M. Tarenne says, that after having cut off the heads of two hundred
-Snails, he threw them all into a moist spot at the end of his garden,
-that they might obtain the nourishment most fitted for them (how they
-could eat without their heads he does not say); at the end of the
-Summer he examined all the mutilated Snails he could find, and he
-discovered that they all had a new head, about the size of a grain
-of coffee; they had four small tentacula, a mouth, and lips; at the
-end of the following Summer, the heads were perfectly reproduced, and
-like the original head, with the exception of the skin, which was more
-delicate. “After this experiment,” says a French author, “we cannot
-doubt that the entire head of a Snail can be regenerated after it has
-been removed; however, I cannot disguise the fact, that I have a kind
-of repugnance at admitting the matter to be entirely beyond dispute.”
-
-If the advantages bestowed on man by Snails are not numerous, the
-disadvantages, or rather inconveniences, produced by them are very
-considerable; they are particularly destructive in orchards and
-kitchen-gardens. On this account, many methods have been recommended
-for the purpose of destroying them. Although many of these are
-tolerably successful, there is no plan more likely to keep the breed
-of Snails under, particularly in enclosed gardens, than that of early
-rising and gathering them, if we may so express ourselves, while the
-dew is yet on the grass: if the shells are then broken, they become
-excellent food for poultry. Ducks may sometimes be allowed to wander
-in the garden, as they do but little damage to the vegetation, and are
-great destroyers both of Snails and slugs.
-
-A singular account of the instinct of Snails is, perhaps, worth
-recording.
-
-The garden of a small house, by the side of one of the roads leading
-into London, was much infested by a colony of Snails; the proprietor of
-this house, desirous of getting rid of the pest, and yet unwilling to
-kill the Snails, collected them, and threw them unharmed into the road;
-but still, he every morning discovered as many Snails among his pinks
-and tulips as he had removed the previous day; this somewhat puzzled
-him, until once, on leaving his house early, he perceived the Snails
-which he had but an hour before thrown into the dusty road, moving, not
-in a body, but each from the spot on which it was thrown, in a direct
-line from that spot to the low wall which encompassed the garden, as
-if they comprehended the mathematical fact that, “a straight line is
-the nearest way from one given point to another.” How were these Snails
-aware that by moving in that direction, they should arrive at a green
-spot? From the road nothing could be visible to them but dust,—from
-the path, nothing but the wall in front,—but still, although the
-whole of their path was covered with dust, they proceeded steadily on,
-until they had surmounted the wall, and reached their old quarters. By
-what other faculty were they guided but that instinct which supplies
-the place of the higher powers of the mind, and which is imparted with
-so liberal a hand to the meanest creature in nature?
-
-
-_ORDER GASTEROPODA._
-
-The Gasteropods are so called from two Greek words, meaning belly and
-foot, because the foot, or organ of motion of the animals of which
-this order consists, is attached to the whole of the under part of the
-creature, or rather, the belly or under part is itself the foot, and is
-for that purpose broad and flat. The Gasteropods are also distinguished
-from the last order by having a straight body, in no case spiral,
-and never possessing a shell capable of enclosing the whole body; in
-some cases, the body is completely naked, and without the protecting
-covering of any shell whatever.
-
-
-THE RED SLUG, (_Limax rufus_.)
-
-The Common Slug is a good example of an individual of this order,
-entirely wanting a shell. The Slugs, like the snails, are found in all
-countries; they are equally destructive to vegetation, but as yet have
-never been used by man for any useful purpose, if we except the fact
-of their sometimes becoming the food of ducks and poultry. The _Limax
-rufus_, Red, or more properly brown, Slug, for the colour is of a
-reddish-brown, varying in intensity to such an extent as to render it
-impossible to find two specimens of the same colour, is more commonly
-found in fields than in gardens.
-
-[Illustration: _Limax rufus._]
-
-There are many species of the Slug; but they are not well defined, on
-account of the variable nature of their colour; the black and the brown
-kinds are, however, pretty well known: the black, in particular, is
-very destructive in kitchen-gardens, and commits great havoc in fields
-of cabbages and turnips.
-
-In one or two species, the buckler, or smooth space near the head,
-contains a very small oval shell.
-
-There is a very singular species of Slug found in Teneriffe, under
-stones in moist places, it is not more than an inch and a quarter in
-length; it is called _Limax noctiluca_, the night-shining Slug. The
-buckler, in this species, is very narrow, and covered with pores, which
-exude a kind of viscous substance, which has the property of shining
-with a phosphorescent light, like that of the glow-worm.
-
-We may have some idea of the rapid increase of Slugs, by a fact
-mentioned by Dr. Leech, that two individuals of a small species have
-laid as many as seven hundred and sixty-six eggs; and these eggs were
-dried in an oven without destroying their vital powers, since, on being
-placed in a damp situation, they were afterwards hatched.
-
-The following plan of taking and destroying Slugs was resorted to by
-a gentleman near Ipswich. Having heard that turnips were employed to
-entice Slugs from wheat, he caused a sufficient quantity to dress eight
-acres to be got together, and then, the tops being divided and the
-apples sliced, he directed the pieces to be laid separately, dressing
-two rows with them, and omitting two, alternately, till the whole field
-of eight acres was gone over. On the following morning, he employed two
-women to examine the tops and slices, and free them from the Slugs,
-which they threw into a measure: and when cleared, they were laid
-on those rows that had been omitted the day before. It was observed
-invariably, that in the rows dressed with the turnips, no Slugs were
-to be found upon the wheat, or crawling upon the land, though they
-abounded upon the turnips; while, on the undressed rows, they were to
-be seen in great numbers, both 011 the wheat and on the ground. The
-quantity of Slugs thus collected was nearly a bushel.
-
-
-THE WOODLIKE BULLA, (_Bulla lignaria_.)
-
-The animal of the _Bulla_ is singular, from possessing-within its
-stomach three pieces of a substance resembling bone; these give that
-organ the power of crushing or grinding the food, forming a kind
-of gizzard. The bony portion of this stomach is represented in the
-foreground in the engraving. The Bulla lignaria is about two inches
-and a half in length, and is found in the European seas; Lamarck
-mentions as many as eleven species.
-
-[Illustration: _Bulla lignaria._]
-
-
-THE NAIL-SHAPED CREPIDULA,
-
-(_Crepidula unguiformis_.)
-
-The genus _Crepidula_ takes its name from its hearing some resemblance
-to a little shoe; none of the species are found in Europe. Of these
-there are about six, but they are all confined to the seas of warm
-climates.
-
-
-THE MEDITERRANEAN UMBRELLA,
-
-(_Umbrella Mediterranea_.)
-
-The _Umbrella Mediterranea_, as its name implies, is found in the
-Mediterranean, and in the Gulf of Tarento. The shell of the Umbrella is
-singular, from the lower part of its circumference being surrounded by
-a border of a substance much softer than the shell itself.
-
-
-THE CLOUDED FISSURELLA, (_Fissurella nimbosa_.)
-
-The _Fissurella nimbosa_ is found in various and distant parts of the
-world,—in the north of Europe, the western coast of Africa, &c. It is
-rather a handsome shell, which seldom exceeds an inch and a half in
-length.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  _Umbrella      Crepidula    Fissurella
-   Mediterranea. unguiformis. nimbosa._
-
-]
-
-The Fissurella very much resembles our limpet, but differs from it by
-having a small, rather oval-formed hole in the summit of the shell,
-affording a passage to a small canal through which the water is
-discharged, after having passed over the branchiæ.
-
-
-THE HUNGARIAN BONNET SHELL,
-
-(_Pileopsis Ungarica_.)
-
-The _Pileopsis Ungarica_ is extremely elegant both in its form and
-markings; it is of a delicate white, slightly tinged, internally, with
-rose-colour. The animal attaches itself to rocks, between high and low
-water mark, and very rarely, if ever, changes its situation, unless
-removed by accident, when it is driven about by the waves, until the
-creature, being thrown on a rock in a favourable situation, attaches
-itself firmly to the surface.
-
-[Illustration: _Pileopsis Ungarica._]
-
-
-THE SCALY CHITON, (_Chiton squamosus_.)
-
-The _Chitons_ differ so much from all other shell-bearing animals in
-the arrangement of their shelly covering, that they have been placed
-by different naturalists in various parts of their system. Lamarck,
-in referring to these animals, has placed them near the end of the
-Mollusca.
-
-[Illustration: _Chiton squamosus._]
-
-“Although,” says Lamarck, “when we examine this creature, and observe
-the several pieces of which its shell is composed, attached to the
-marginal membrane of the mantle which surrounds them, it appears not
-a univalve, but a multivalve shell; yet these shelly pieces ought not
-to be regarded in any other light than as a lengthened shell of one
-piece, which Nature had originally broken transversely into several
-distinct moveable pieces, to give greater freedom to the animal in its
-movements.”
-
-The Chitons, like the neighbouring genera, frequent the rocks between
-high and low water mark, but are much more active in their movements.
-Poli, a learned Neapolitan, in describing the anatomy of a Chiton,
-says, that the interior of the mouth or throat of this animal is
-covered with a multitude of teeth,—some simple, and others with three
-points, and that these teeth are disposed in numerous longitudinal rows.
-
-
-
-
-CLASS CONCHIFERA.
-
-
-The Conchifera differ from the Molluscous animals that bear shells,
-in a very great degree; for, although the substance of the body is
-soft, unlike the Mollusca it is inarticulate, always enclosed in a
-shell of two valves, without head or eyes,—a mouth, if it may be so
-called, concealed from view, and without any hard parts, and the whole
-body enveloped in a large mantle, or hood, formed of two thin lobes,
-generally perfectly free, but at times united in front; these are the
-principal distinguishing characters of this class.
-
-In earlier systems, when shells were classed without much reference
-to the animals that inhabited them, the only distinction made was the
-number of pieces of which the shell was formed, and they were arranged
-under the heads of _univalves_, of one piece, _bivalves_, with two
-pieces, and _multivalves_, with more than two pieces. This arrangement
-was inconvenient, as, in some cases, it separated animals that
-otherwise agreed with each other. With respect to the bivalve shells,
-however, this objection does not hold good, as they all contain animals
-belonging to the class Conchifera.
-
-The individuals of this class appear to be deprived of all the senses
-except that of feeling. Their powers of motion have been so well
-described by Dr. Roget, in his _Bridgewater Treatise_, that we cannot
-do better than extract a portion from that interesting work.
-
-[Illustration: Valves of the _Unio Batava_, with the Connecting
-Ligament.]
-
-The two valves of the shell of the Conchifera are united at the back by
-a hinge-joint, often very artificially constructed, having teeth that
-lock into each other; and the mechanism of this articulation varies
-much in different species. The hinge is secured by a substance of great
-strength.
-
-During the life of the animal, the usual and natural state of its shell
-is, that of being kept open for a little distance, so as to allow of
-the ingress and egress of the water necessary for its nourishment
-and respiration; but, as a security against danger, it was necessary
-to furnish the animal with the means of rapidly closing the shell,
-and retaining the valves in a closed state. These actions, being
-only occasional, yet requiring considerable force, are effected by a
-muscular power, for which purpose sometimes one, sometimes two, or even
-a greater number of strong muscles are placed between the valves, their
-fibres passing directly across from the inner surface of the one to
-that of the other, and firmly attached to both. They are named, from
-their office of bringing the valves towards each other, the _adductor
-muscles_.
-
-[Illustration: Section of an Oyster, showing the situation of the
-Hinge, L., the Adductor Muscle, A, and the transverse direction of its
-Fibres, with respect to the Valves.]
-
-The simple actions of opening and closing the valves, are capable of
-being converted into a means of retreating from danger, or of removing
-to a more commodious situation, in the case of those bivalves which are
-not actually attached to rocks, or other fixed bodies.
-
-Diquemarc long ago observed, that even the Oyster has some power of
-locomotion, by suddenly closing its shell, and thereby expelling the
-contained water with a degree of force, which, by the reaction of the
-fluid in the opposite direction, gives a sensible impulse to the heavy
-mass. He notices the singular fact, that Oysters which are attached to
-rocks occasionally left dry by the retreat of the tide, always retain
-within their shells a quantity of water sufficient for respiration, and
-that they keep the valves closed till the return of the tide; whereas,
-those Oysters which are taken from greater depths, where the water
-never leaves them, and are afterwards removed to situations where they
-are exposed to these vicissitudes, of which they have had no previous
-experience, improvidently open their shells after the sea has left
-them; and, by allowing the water to escape, soon perish.
-
-[Illustration: _The Cardium, or Cockle._]
-
-Many bivalve Mollusca are provided with an instrument shaped like a
-leg and foot, which they employ extensively for progressive motion. In
-the _Cardium_, or cockle, this organ is composed of a mass of muscular
-fibres, interwoven together in a very complex manner, and which may
-be compared to the muscular structure of the human tongue; the effect
-in both is the same, namely, the conferring a power of motion in
-all possible ways; thus it may be readily protruded, retracted, or
-inflected at every point.
-
-The _Solen_, or razor-shell fish, has a foot of a cylindrical shape,
-tapering at the end, and much more resembling in its form a tongue
-than a foot. In some bivalves, the dilatation of the foot is effected
-by a curious hydraulic mechanism; the interior of the organ is formed
-of a spongy texture, capable of receiving a considerable quantity of
-water, which the animal has the power of injecting into it, and of thus
-increasing its dimensions.
-
-The foot of the _Mytilus edulis_, or common mussel, can be advanced
-to the distance of two inches from the shell, and applied to any
-fixed body within that range. By attaching the point to such body,
-and retracting the foot, this animal drags its shell towards it, and
-by repeating the operation successively on other points of the fixed
-object, continues slowly to advance.
-
-This instrument is of great use to such shell-fish as conceal
-themselves in the mud or sand, which its structure is then peculiarly
-adapted for scooping out. The cockle continually employs its foot for
-this purpose: first, elongating it, directing its point downwards, and
-insinuating it deep into the sand, and next, turning up the end, and
-forming it into a hook, by which, from the resistance of the sand, it
-is fixed in its position, and then the muscles, which usually retract
-it, are thrown into action, and the whole shell is alternately raised
-and depressed, moving on the foot as on a fulcrum. The effect of
-these exertions is to drag the shell downwards. When the animal is
-moderately active, these movements are repeated two or three times in a
-minute. The apparent progress is at first but small, the shell, which
-was raised on its edge at the middle of the stroke, falling back on
-its side at the end of it; but when the shell is buried so far as to
-be supported on its edge, it advances more rapidly, sinking visibly
-at every stroke, till nothing but the extremity of the tube can be
-perceived above the sand.
-
-By a process exactly the inverse of this, that is, by doubling up the
-foot, and pushing with it downwards against the sand below, the shell
-may be again made to rise by the same kind of efforts which before
-protruded the foot. By this process of burrowing, the animal is enabled
-quickly to retreat when danger presses, and when this is past, it can,
-with equal facility, emerge from its hiding-place.
-
-The _Cardium_ can also advance at the bottom of the sea, along the
-surface of the soft earth, pressing backwards with its foot, as a
-boatman impels his boat onwards by pushing with his pole against
-the ground in a contrary direction. It is, likewise, by a similar
-expedient, that the Solen forces its way through the sand, expanding
-the end of its foot into the form of a club.
-
-The _Tellina_ is remarkable for the quickness and agility with which it
-can spring to considerable distances, by first folding the foot into a
-small compass, and then suddenly extending it, while the shell is, at
-the same time, closed with a loud snap.
-
-The _Pinna_, or marine mussel, when inhabiting the shores of
-tempestuous seas, is furnished, in addition, with a singular apparatus
-for withstanding the fury of the surge, and securing itself from
-dangerous collisions, which might easily destroy the brittle texture of
-its shell. The object of this apparatus is, to prepare a great number
-of threads, which are fastened at various points to the adjacent rocks,
-and then tightly drawn by the animal, just as a ship is moored in a
-convenient station, to avoid the buffeting of the storm. The foot of
-this bivalve is cylindrical, and has, connected with its base, a round
-tendon, of nearly the same length as itself, the office of which is to
-retain all the threads in firm adhesion with it, and concentrate their
-power on one point. The threads themselves are composed of a glutinous
-matter, prepared by a particular organ. They are not spun by being
-drawn out of the body, like the threads of the silkworm, or of the
-spider, but they are cast in a mould, where they harden, and acquire a
-certain consistence before they are employed. This mould is curiously
-constructed; there is a deep groove which passes along the foot, from
-the root of the tendon to its other extremity, and the sides of this
-groove are formed so as to fold and close over it, thereby converting
-it into a canal. The glutinous secretion, which is poured into this
-canal, dries into a solid thread; and, when it has acquired sufficient
-tenacity, the foot is protruded, and the thread it contains is applied
-to the object to which it is to be fixed, its extremity being carefully
-attached to the solid surface of that object. The canal of the foot is
-then opened along its whole length, and the thread, which adheres by
-its other extremity to the large tendon at the base of the foot, is
-disengaged from the canal. Lastly, the foot is retracted, and the same
-operation is repeated.
-
-Thread after thread is thus formed, and applied in different directions
-around the shell. Sometimes the attempt fails, in consequence of
-some imperfection in the thread; but the animal, as if aware of the
-importance of ascertaining the strength of each thread, on which its
-safety depends, tries every one of them as soon as it has been fixed,
-by swinging itself round, so as to put it fully on the stretch; an
-action which probably also assists in elongating the thread. When once
-the threads have been fixed, the animal does not appear to have the
-power of catting or breaking them off. The liquid matter, out of which
-they are formed, is so exceedingly glutinous as to attach itself firmly
-to the smoothest bodies. It is but slowly produced, for it appears that
-no Pinna is capable of forming more than four, or at most five threads,
-in the course of a day and night. The threads which are formed in
-haste, when the animal is disturbed in its operations, are more slender
-than those which are constructed at its leisure. In Sicily, and other
-parts of the Mediterranean, these threads have been manufactured into
-gloves, and other articles, which resemble silk.
-
-The number of muscles by which the shells are moved have caused this
-Class to be divided into two orders: the Bimusculosa, in which there
-are two pair of muscles to perform this office; and the Unimusculosa,
-with only one pair.
-
-
-_ORDER UNIMUSCULOSA._
-
-The Conchiferous animals which possess but one pair of muscles, are
-much more limited in number than those which possess two or more; but
-they contain in their ranks several well-known and useful species, as,
-for instance, the oyster, the mussel, and the animal which produces the
-oriental pearl.
-
-
-THE HORSE-FOOT BOWL SHELL,
-
-(_Anomia ephippium_.)
-
-The shells of the Anomiæ are exceedingly irregular in their form;
-like the oysters, they remain during the whole of their existence
-attached to one spot, either on a rock, or on the shell of some larger
-inhabitant of the deep. These shells are more frequently found in the
-same places as the oyster, and very commonly attached to the shell of
-the latter; as an article of food, the Anomia is of little or no value.
-Its organization and manner of living are much the same as those of
-the oyster. The most singular part of its construction consists in
-the use made of one of the muscles with which it is furnished, which,
-instead of being attached to the shell, is fixed to a solid piece of
-shelly substance, in the form of a cone with the top cut off; this
-_operculum_, or lid, closes a singular opening in one of the valves of
-the shell itself. The animal adheres to the rock, or other substance,
-by means of this lid, and is detached with great difficulty.
-
-[Illustration: _Anomia ephippium._ [_Anomia_, a little bowl;
-_ephippium_, a horse’s foot.]]
-
-
-THE OYSTER, (_Ostrea edulis_.)
-
-Oysters, like all other creatures that have been destined to become
-food for man, are found in great abundance in most parts of the globe;
-they are inhabitants of salt waters only, and are always found in rocky
-ground, in no great depth from the surface.
-
-Oysters generally cast their spat, or spawn, in the month of May;
-when first shed it has the appearance of a drop of candle-grease,
-which the dredgers commonly call _cultch_. The growth of an Oyster is
-tolerably rapid; three days after the spawn is deposited, the shell of
-the young Oyster may be seen, nearly a quarter of an inch in width; in
-three months it is larger than a shilling, in six months bigger than a
-half-crown, and in a year it exceeds a crown piece in size.
-
-[Illustration: _Ostrea edulis._]
-
-Oysters have been employed as food almost from time immemorial. The
-Greeks, but more especially the Romans, held them in high repute,
-attaching, at the same time, great importance to the places in which
-they were found. Those from the Dardanelles, from Venice, and from
-England, were considered the best, and the prices paid for them by the
-luxurious inhabitants of Rome were enormous. They were transported
-in large vessels, and deposited in the Lucrine Lake, where they were
-fattened for the table. The Romans, it seems, gave a preference to
-those which had the border of their mantle of a dark-brown colour,
-nearly black.
-
-The English Oyster-fishery is principally carried on at the following
-places:—Wivenhoe, near Colchester, in Essex, (the beds here are
-generally supplied from Portsmouth;) at Feversham and Milton, in
-Kent, the Swales of the Medway, and at Tenby, on the coast of Wales.
-In Scotland, they are chiefly taken at the island of Inchkeith, and
-at Preston-pans, both in the Firth of Forth. The fishing for Oysters
-is permitted by law, from the 1st of September to the last of April
-inclusive. During the remaining months they are considered unwholesome;
-it is a common saying that Oysters are in season during all the months
-that have the letter _r_ in them.
-
-In France, the chief fishing-station for Oysters is in the Bay of
-Cançal, between the town of that name and Mount St. Michael, or St.
-Malo. The fishery is effected by means of an iron net or dredge; this
-is drawn over the Oyster-bed by hand-labour, or by having the rope
-which is fixed to it attached to the stem of the fishing-boat, which is
-then allowed to run before the wind; frequently, in the course of a few
-minutes, as many as two or three hundred are taken. The Oysters taken
-are sent from the ports of Granville and Cançal, to different places,
-where artificial banks or preserves are established. These banks
-are not only of use in the preservation of the Oysters, but assist
-materially in their improvement. In fact, the Oyster, when first taken
-out of the sea, has frequently a strong muddy taste, and appears in
-what we should call bad condition.
-
-Some of these preserves are a species of tank dug in the sand, or
-sometimes even in stone, near the sea-shore, and communicating by a
-narrow tunnel with the sea-water; the bottom and sides of these tanks
-are usually strewed with large stones. In France great care is bestowed
-on the management of these preserves; the Oysters are placed by hand
-on the stones, with the largest shell downwards, and at times the
-water is let off, and they are freed from all mud and dirt that may
-have collected, by having large quantities of water poured over them.
-A fashion existed formerly in France of preferring those Oysters which
-had a tinge of green, and great pains were taken to cause this change
-of colour to take place, by placing the animals where they could obtain
-a peculiar kind of green food.
-
-
-THE GREAT COMB SHELL, (_Pecten maximus_.)
-
-This shell, although it has the name of the Great Pecten, is not the
-largest of the numerous tribe to which it belongs; it is found in all
-the European seas. The regular nature of the fluting with which it is
-covered, and the elegance of its markings, have brought it much into
-use among ladies, who employ it in making pin-cushions and other
-articles of fancy-work; there are about sixty recent, and thirty fossil
-species.
-
-[Illustration: _Pecten maximus. Malleus albus._]
-
-The power of locomotion appears to be very considerable in some species
-of the Pectens; it is said the animal can raise itself up in the water,
-and even reach the surface, by moving the two valves of its shell; but
-this is a fact not quite established, as but little is known of its
-habits. It is sometimes used as an article of food; but to render it
-tolerably palatable it requires cooking.
-
-In some countries, the shells of the larger species are used by the
-poorer classes instead of plates. In Paris, the _restaurateurs_ employ
-them for the same purpose when serving up a certain preparation of
-mushrooms; in England, they are employed in cooking scalloped oysters,
-and the shell is consequently known as the Scallop Shell.
-
-
-THE PEARL OYSTER, (_Meleagrina margaritifera_.)
-
-The animal of this shell, although popularly called an oyster, is very
-different in structure, bearing greater resemblance, in some parts of
-its formation, to the mussel, particularly in possessing a _byssus_, or
-beard; it is the shell in which the famous oriental pearls are found.
-There are but two known species of the Meleagrina, which are chiefly
-found in the Persian Gulf, and at Ceylon, or in some of the seas of
-Australasia.
-
-The cause of the formation of pearl in the shells of this and other
-inhabitants of the water, has been the occasion of considerable
-dispute, but it is now pretty well ascertained.
-
-The inner portion of the shell of the Meleagrina is lined with a
-pearly substance, which is called mother-of-pearl; this is formed by
-an animal deposit, and is in thin layers. If, by any accident, the
-inner surface of the shell is injured, so as to cause a fracture of the
-mother-of-pearl, the deposit, in that place, becomes for the future
-irregular, and a bump is gradually formed. Accidental circumstances
-cause this bump to assume various shapes; sometimes it is oval,
-sometimes globular, and at others pear-shaped. This kind of pearl is
-always originally found attached to the shell by means of a small neck,
-or footstalk, and the spot at which this neck was placed can always be
-traced on the pearl itself.
-
-[Illustration: _Meleagrina margaritifera._]
-
-But pearls are at times found loose in the shell;—in this case, the
-pearly matter is deposited on some extraneous substance, such, for
-instance, as a grain of sand, and by dissolving the pearl in an acid,
-this nucleus can be traced.
-
-Some of these round pearls are supposed to be formed on a centre,
-consisting of the remains of a diseased _ovum_, or egg, of the animal.
-
-Every schoolboy knows the story of Cleopatra having dissolved a
-valuable pearl in vinegar, and afterwards drunk it off, to show her
-ridiculous disregard of expense. But the account may reasonably be
-doubted; for had the acid been strong enough to dissolve the pearl, it
-would have been impossible to drink it, and if it was weak enough to
-drink, it would not have dissolved the pearl, at least not until the
-lapse of a very considerable time.
-
-At the island of Ceylon the fishery for pearls is a matter of great
-moment. The following is an account of the mode in which it is
-conducted.
-
-The country round Aripo, on the north-western coast of the island of
-Ceylon, is flat, sandy, and barren, presenting nothing to the eye
-but low brushwood, chiefly of thorns and prickly pears (which are
-the plants that nourish the cochineal insect[2]), and here and there
-some straggling villages with a few cocoa-nut trees. But Condatchy,
-three miles distant, where, in general, nothing is to be seen but a
-few miserable huts, and a sandy desert, becomes, during the period of
-the pearl-fishery, a populous town, several streets of which extend
-upwards of a mile in length (though, as the houses are only intended
-as a shelter from the sun and rain, they are very rudely constructed),
-and the scene, altogether, resembles a crowded fair on the grandest
-scale. The people most active in erecting huts and speculating in the
-various branches of merchandise, are Mohammedans, Cingalese (natives
-of Ceylon), and Hindoos from the opposite coast of the continent of
-India. Apparently, however, from their natural timidity, none of the
-Cingalese are divers, and scarcely any of them engage in the other
-active parts of the fishery; they merely resort hither for the purpose
-of supplying the markets.
-
-About the end of October, in the year preceding a pearl-fishery,
-when a short interval of fine weather prevails, an examination of
-the banks takes place. A certain number of boats, under an English
-superintendent, repair in a body to each bank, and having, by frequent
-diving, ascertained its situation, they take from one to two thousand
-oysters as a specimen. The shells are opened, and if the pearls
-collected from a thousand oysters be worth three pounds sterling, a
-good fishery may be expected. The “banks,” or beds of oysters, are
-scattered over a space in the Gulf of Manaar, extending thirty miles
-from north to south, and twenty-four from east to west. There are
-fourteen beds (not all, however, productive), of which the largest is
-ten miles long, and two broad. The depth of water is from three to
-fifteen fathoms.
-
-The pearl oysters in these banks are all of one species, and of the
-same form: in shape not very unlike our common English oyster, but
-considerably larger, being from eight to ten inches in circumference.
-The body of the animal is white, fleshy, and glutinous: the inside
-of the shell (the real “mother-of-pearl,”) is even brighter and more
-beautiful than the pearl itself: the outside smooth and dark-coloured.
-The pearls are most commonly contained in the thickest and most fleshy
-part of the oyster. A single oyster will frequently contain several
-pearls, and one is on record, as having produced one hundred and fifty.
-
-Sometimes the English government of Ceylon fishes the banks entirely
-at its own risk; sometimes, the boats are let to many speculators:
-but, most frequently, the light of fishing is sold to one individual,
-who sub-lets boats to others. The fishery for the season of the year
-1804 was let by government to an individual for no less a sum than
-120,000_l._
-
-At the beginning of March, the fishery commenced, and upwards of two
-hundred and fifty boats were employed in the fishery alone. These,
-with their crews, and divers, and completely equipped with everything
-necessary to conduct the business of the fishing, come from different
-parts of the coast of Coromandel. After going through various ablutions
-and incantations, and other superstitious ceremonies, the occupants of
-these boats embark at midnight, guided by pilots, and as soon as they
-reach the banks, they cast anchor, and wait the dawn of day.
-
-At about seven in the morning, when the rays of the sun begin to
-emit some degree of warmth, the diving commences. A kind of open
-scaffolding, formed of oars and other pieces of wood, is projected from
-each side of the boat, and from it the diving-tackle is suspended,
-with three stones on one side, and two on the other. The diving-stone
-hangs from an oar by a light rope and slip-knot, and descends about
-five feet into the water. It is a stone of fifty-six pounds’ weight, of
-a sugar-loaf shape. The rope passes through a hole in the top of the
-stone, above which a strong loop is formed, resembling a stirrup-iron,
-to receive the foot of the diver. The diver wears no clothes, except a
-slip of calico round his loins,—swimming in the water, he takes hold
-of the rope, and puts one foot into the loop or stirrup, on the top of
-the stone.
-
-He remains in this upright position for a little while, supporting
-himself by the motion of one arm. Then a basket, formed of a wooden
-hoop and net-work, suspended by a rope, is thrown into the water to
-him, and in it he places his other foot. Both the ropes of the stone
-and the basket he holds for a little while in one hand. When he feels
-himself properly prepared and ready to go down, he grasps his nostrils
-with one hand, to prevent the water from rushing in; with the other
-gives a sudden pull to the running-knot suspending the stone, and
-instantly descends: the remainder of the rope fixed to the basket is
-thrown into the water after him, at the same moment: the rope attached
-to the stone is in such a position as to follow him of itself. As soon
-as he touches the bottom, he disentangles his foot from the stone,
-which is immediately drawn up, and suspended again to the projecting
-oar in the same manner as before, to be in readiness for the next
-diver. The diver, arrived at the bottom of the sea, throws himself as
-much as possible upon his face, and collects everything he can get
-hold of into the basket. When he is ready to ascend, he gives a jerk
-to the rope, and the persons in the boat, who hold the other end of
-it, haul it up as speedily as possible. The diver, at the same time,
-free of every incumbrance, warps up by the rope, and always gets above
-water a considerable time before the basket. He generally comes up at a
-distance from the boat, and swims about, or takes hold of an oar or a
-rope, until his turn comes to descend again; but he seldom comes into
-the boat, until the labour of the day is over. When a young diver is
-training to the business, he descends in the arms of a man completely
-experienced in the art, who takes great care of him, and shows him the
-manner of proceeding, and the pupil at first brings up in his hand a
-single oyster, a stone, or a little sand, merely to show that he has
-reached the bottom. The length of time during which the divers remain
-under water, is rarely much more than a minute and a half; yet, in
-this short period, in a ground richly clothed with oysters, an expert
-man will often put as many as one hundred and fifty into his basket.
-There are two divers attached to each stone, so that they go down
-alternately. The men, after diving, generally find a small quantity
-of blood issue from their nose and ears, which they consider as a
-favourable symptom, and perform the operation with greater comfort
-after the bleeding has commenced. They seem to enjoy the labour as a
-pleasant pastime, and never murmur or complain, unless when the banks
-contain a scarcity of oysters, though their labours are continued for
-six hours.
-
-When the day is sufficiently advanced, the head pilot makes a signal,
-and the fleet set sail for the shore. All descriptions of people hasten
-to the water’s edge to welcome their return, and the crowd, stir, and
-noise, are then immense. Every boat comes to its own station, and the
-oysters are carried into certain paved enclosures on the sea-shore,
-where they are allowed to remain in heaps (of course, well guarded) for
-ten days, that time being necessary to render them putrid. When the
-oysters are sufficiently decayed, they are thrown into a large vessel,
-filled with salt water, and left there for twelve hours to soften their
-putrid substance. The oysters are then taken up, one by one, the shells
-broken from one another, and washed in the water. Those shells, which
-have pearls adhering to them, are thrown on one side, and afterwards
-handed to clippers, whose business it is to disengage the pearls from
-the shells, with pincers.
-
-When all the shells are thrown out, the slimy substance of the oysters
-remains, mixed with sand and broken fragments of shells, at the bottom
-of the vessel. The dirty water is lifted out in buckets, and poured
-into a sack, made like a jelly-bag, so that no pearls can be lost.
-Fresh water being then added from time to time, and the whole substance
-in the vessel continually agitated, the sand and pearls together, are
-by degrees allowed to sink to the bottom.
-
-As soon as the sand is dry it is sifted; the large pearls, being
-conspicuous, are easily gathered; but the separating the small
-and diminutive (“seed pearls,” as they are called,) is a work of
-considerable labour. When once separated from the sand, washed with
-salt water, dried, and rendered perfectly clean, they are sorted into
-classes, according to their sizes, by being passed through sieves.
-After this, a hole is drilled through each pearl; they are then
-arranged on strings, and are fit for the market.
-
-Pearls have been considered as valuable ornaments from the earliest
-times: they are mentioned in the book of Job (xxviii. 18,) and are
-often alluded to by the classical writers. There have been various
-attempts made to imitate them successfully, one of the most singular
-of which,—known to have been practised early in the Christian era,
-on the banks of the Red Sea,—is still carried on in China. A hole is
-bored in the shell of the pearl oyster, a piece of iron-wire inserted,
-and the oyster restored to its place: the animal, wounded by the point
-of the wire, deposits a coat of pearly matter round it: this gradually
-hardens, successive layers are added, till a pearl of the requisite
-size is formed, and the shell is once more brought to land.
-
-A plan, somewhat similar to this, was employed by Linnæus, who pierced
-the shells of the fresh-water mussel, causing thereby a pearl to be
-formed at the punctured spot; and the Swedish government actually
-established artificial pearleries,—but these were abandoned after
-a few years; for, although pearls were formed, they were seldom of
-sufficient size to be of much value.
-
-False pearls are made of hollow glass globules, the inside of which is
-covered with a liquid, called pearl-essence, and then filled with white
-wax. This liquid is composed of the silver-coloured particles which
-adhere to the scales of the bleak, (_ablette_,) and was first applied
-to this purpose, early in the last century, by a Frenchman of the name
-of Jacquin[3].
-
-
-THE HAMMER OYSTER, (_Malleus albus_.)
-
-The singular figure of this shell renders it very remarkable;
-externally its appearance is very rude and irregular, but, on the other
-hand, the inner surface is equally beautiful, being covered with the
-most brilliant mother-of-pearl. The different species of the Malleus
-are all marine, and found in the seas of hot climates, and the rarity
-of some causes them to be very valuable, and much sought after. Like
-the neighbouring genera, the animal is furnished with a byssus, or
-beard, by which it adheres to the rocks.
-
-
-THE ROUGH PINNA, (_Pinna rudis_.)
-
-The Pinna is a marine shell; most of the species are large, and the
-shells very thin in proportion to their size. That represented in the
-engraving is found in the American seas, and is sometimes as much
-as a foot and a half in length; it is by no means rare. There is a
-species found in the Mediterranean, in about five or six fathoms water,
-which is much sought after by the inhabitants of Sicily and Calabria,
-not only as an article of food, but also for the sake of its beard,
-or byssus, of which, in many places, a kind of cloth is made, very
-remarkable for its softness and warmth. The fishermen, to obtain the
-Pinna, make use of a kind of iron rake, called a _crampe_, with teeth a
-foot in length; when the shells are drawn up, the beards are found to
-be torn in some part of their substance. If a sufficient length remains
-attached to the animal, to render the fibres available for the purpose
-of spinning, they are cut off close to the shell: they are then dried
-and spun, and afterwards woven into gloves, stockings, caps, and even
-garments of much larger size.
-
-[Illustration: _Pinna rudis._]
-
-The threads of which the byssus is formed are extremely fine, and of
-equal thickness throughout their whole length, very strong, and of a
-dark morone colour, which is exceedingly permanent.
-
-This curious kind of cloth was long since known to the ancients; but
-at present its manufacture is very limited, from the great scarcity of
-the Pinna, and the number of beards necessary to make even so small an
-article as a pair of gloves. But it is supposed, that if the shells
-were placed in more favourable circumstances, in preserves, &c., they
-would increase much more rapidly.
-
-These shells are found in the seas of all hot climates, but the British
-shores possess but one species, the _Pinna lævis_ of Donovan; this is
-of a horny colour, clouded with brown, and attains a considerable size.
-
-
-THE COMMON MUSSEL, (_Mytilus edulis_.)
-
-The Mussels are a well-known and very useful genus of the shell-bearing
-animals: they are generally found attached to rocks between high and
-low water marks.
-
-[Illustration: _Mytilus edulis._]
-
-They are sought after in most parts of the world as an article of food;
-and, although not equal to the oyster, make a very palatable dish.
-
-The Mussel, although usually wholesome, is at times the cause of
-severe, though temporary illness. Different reasons have been assigned
-for this poisonous property, and many signs have been noted, by
-which it is said the unwholesome state of this shell-fish can be
-detected,—a yellowness of colour, an extremely meagre appearance,
-partial corruption, a diseased state of the animal, a small crab or
-insect found between the valves of its shell. Other observers have
-ridiculously attributed the effects to the change in the phases of
-the moon; but, if we are to believe a French physician, who made many
-experiments, all these guesses are wrong; according to this author,
-the ill effects are caused only after the Mussels have been feeding
-on the spawn of the star-fish; this spawn appears to the eye merely
-a shapeless lump of jelly, but after a few days it is a living mass
-of infant star-fish. The time of the year during which this spawn is
-cast, is from the end of April, or beginning of May, to the end of
-July, or beginning of August; from this, he says, arises the common
-observation, that Mussels are only poisonous during those months in
-which the letter _r_ is not found. This spawn, according to our author,
-is so venomous and caustic, that it causes great pain, swelling, and
-inflammation, even to the hand, if handled at this season; rubbing the
-part with vinegar is recommended as a cure. Small star-fish were rolled
-up in other food, and given to dogs and cats, when the animals suffered
-severely, and in the end generally died. In spite, however, of all
-these experiments, it is still doubtful whether the true cause has been
-discovered. Thus much appears to be certain, that whenever indigestion
-occurs after eating Mussels, some ill effects are experienced, but
-this has seldom, or very rarely, taken place when they have been eaten
-with vinegar, and they are much more wholesome cooked than otherwise.
-
-When an individual is _musselled_, the effects are very alarming;
-the body, head, and face swell to a frightful extent; and, in a few
-hours, the skin is covered with a bright scarlet eruption; the cure is
-attempted by means of an emetic, and afterwards some aromatic drink,
-and vinegar and water; this brings on a profuse perspiration, which
-soon relieves the patient.
-
-The Mussel is taken by our fishermen for bait, for which purpose it is
-well adapted.
-
-In some parts of the Mediterranean great attention is paid to the
-multiplication of this animal. At the port of Tarento, in the kingdom
-of Naples, they drive into the sand a number of long poles, to which
-the spawn of the Muscle becomes attached. In the following August,
-when they have attained the size of almonds, they are taken to the
-mouth of the brooks and small streams which fall into the gulf; here
-they are left until October, when they are taken back to the sea, and
-in the following Spring they are considered fit to eat. This change
-from the salt to the fresh water and back again, is said to improve
-their flavour and colour. Near Rochelle they are preserved in tanks,
-preserves in which the salt water remains at rest.
-
-
-THE GIANT TRIDACNA, (_Tridacna gigas_.)
-
-The _Tridacna gigas_ is the largest of the bivalve shells; it is very
-thick and close in texture, and is said to have been found as much as
-five hundred pounds in weight. In Catholic countries the shells have
-been sometimes used as the receptacles for the holy water in the
-churches, and formerly they were considered sufficiently valuable to
-form a present to a king; those in St. Sulpice, at Paris, were given
-to Francis the First by the Republic of Venice. They have been found
-in India, as it is related, of so extreme a size, that more than one
-hundred persons have made a meal on the flesh of a single Tridacna
-gigas, but this, no doubt, is an exaggeration. These shells adhere
-to the rocks by their short and strong byssus with so much tenacity,
-as to require the assistance of a mallet and chisels, in the task of
-separating them from the rock.
-
-[Illustration: _Tridacna gigas._]
-
-
-_ORDER BIMUSCULOSA,
-
-(Shells with Two Pairs of Muscles.)_
-
-This Order contains by far the greatest portion of the bivalve shells,
-all interesting to the naturalist, from the variety and beauty of their
-structure, but few possessing a claim to notice on account of their
-use as food for mankind, not but that many are equally wholesome with
-those belonging to the last order, but as they possess two or more
-pairs of muscles, they are much more capable of moving from place to
-place, and, consequently, are seldom found in any great quantities in
-one spot, and being found, as they generally are, in a considerable
-depth of water, they are not so easily obtained.
-
-
-THE FRESH-WATER MUSSEL, (_Anodonta cygnæa_.)
-
-Although this shell, and several other species which nearly resemble
-it, are known by the trivial name of _Mussel_, the only resemblance
-between them consists in their outward appearance, the animals which
-inhabit the shells being very distinct, both in organization and in
-habits. The Mussels, as we have already said, have very little power
-of moving from place to place, while, on the other hand, the Anodonta
-is at times far from being a sluggish animal, and, for the purpose of
-shifting its position, it avails itself of a very strong and broad
-muscular foot. The shell of the Anodonta is sometimes found to contain
-pearls, a circumstance which frequently occurs in all shells which are
-lined with mother-of-pearl.
-
-Some of the Scotch rivers have produced numerous specimens of pearl,
-very large and beautiful, and which used to bear an extremely high
-price.
-
-A paper in the Philosophical Transactions for 1693, mentions the
-collection of pearls from this shell, in the river Omagh, County
-Tyrone, in Ireland. “The poor people,” he says, “in the Summer months,
-go into the water, and some with their toes, some with wooden tongs,
-and some by putting a sharpened stick into the opening of the shell,
-take them up; and, although, by a common estimate, not above one shell
-in a hundred may have a pearl, and of these pearls not above one in
-a hundred be tolerably clear, yet a vast number of fair merchantable
-pearls, and too good for the apothecary, are offered for sale by those
-people every Summer assizes. Some gentlemen of the country make good
-advantage thereof, and myself, whilst there, saw one pearl bought for
-50_l._ that weighed thirty-six carats, and was valued at 40_l._ A
-miller took out a pearl, which he sold for 4_l._ 10_s._ to a man that
-sold it for 10_l._, who sold it to the late Lady Glenanly for 30_l._,
-with whom I saw it in a necklace; she refused 80_l._ for it from the
-late Dutchess of Ormond.”
-
-[Illustration: _Isocardia cor. Anodonta Cygnæa._]
-
-
-THE HEART-SHAPED ISOCARDIA,
-
-(_Isocardia cor_.)
-
-This shell, which is very common in the Mediterranean, where it goes by
-the name of the _foolscap-shell_, and the _bullock’s heart shell_, is
-rare in the British seas, but it is sometimes found on the Irish coast;
-it is the largest British bivalve shell.
-
-
-THE WEDGE-SHAPED DONAX, (_Donax cuneata_.)
-
-There are nearly thirty species of Donax, all extremely beautiful; that
-represented in the engraving is of a whitish colour with red streaks:
-it is often met with in collections of Indian shells. One of these
-species is found on the English coasts, of a delicate white colour, and
-streaked with pink.
-
-[Illustration: _Donax cuneata._]
-
-In following the system of Lamarck, we are gradually led through
-various genera to two species figured on the next page, namely, the
-Tellina, or _earth-shell_, and the Pandora, and, ultimately, to the
-Solen, or _razor-shell_.
-
-
-THE SHEATH SOLEN, (_Solen vagina_.)
-
-The Solens are singular from the power they possess of burying
-themselves in the sands on the coast, sometimes even to the depth of a
-couple of feet. The foot of the Solen, by means of which it is able to
-penetrate the sand, is equal to one-half of the length of the shell.
-Their movements are confined to rising to the surface of the sand in
-which they have formed their hole, and in again sinking to the bottom.
-This movement is, no doubt, produced by the action of the foot, which
-forms itself into a sharp point in its descent, and when it remounts is
-enlarged as much as possible, to form a resting-point, for the purpose
-of raising the shell to the surface. It is not supposed that the animal
-ever entirely leaves its hole of its own accord, although it may
-possess the power; but it is certain, according to the observations of
-Réaumur, that if forcibly removed it can re-enter it. The hole it forms
-for its retreat is always perpendicular.
-
-[Illustration: _Tellina. Solen vagina. Pandora rostrata._]
-
-One of these creatures, being taken out of its retreat, was laid on
-the sand; it first extended its foot in the form of a wedge, or rather
-cone, and, applying it to the surface of the sand, slightly raised the
-farthest end of its shell; at the next effort the projecting part of
-the foot was buried in the sand, and the shell became more elevated;
-after two or three more attempts the hole had attained a perpendicular
-direction, and the shell was partly buried in it; the shell then began
-to descend, and that with considerable quickness.
-
-The Solens are used sometimes, but rarely, for food; but in places
-where they abound, they are sought after as bait for fishes: the method
-of taking them is very singular. Having discovered the place of retreat
-of the creature, by observing the hole in the sand which leads to its
-chamber, the fisherman throws into its entrance a small quantity of
-salt. Although an inhabitant of salt water, the pure salt produces so
-irritating an effect on the extremity of its body, that it quickly
-mounts to the surface; the fisherman, waiting for its appearance,
-snatches hastily at it, and if he succeeds in seizing it firmly, makes
-good his capture; but if not sufficiently active, and the animal
-escapes, the application of fresh salt produces no further effect;
-either it is not sensible to the additional infusion of salt, or, which
-is most likely, the instinct of self-preservation causes it to put up
-with the inconvenience rather than be taken. In this case, no other
-means are left of securing it, than using an iron instrument to dig it
-out with. The number of species is upwards of twenty.
-
-
-THE DATE-SHAPED PHOLAS, (_Pholas dactyloides_.)
-
-These creatures have much more powerful means of boring than the
-solens, for not only do they imbed themselves in hard clay, but even in
-stone and lava. In what manner this is effected has been the subject of
-much dispute; it is almost certain that the process is not mechanical,
-for their soft body, and the fragile nature of their shells, seem an
-insuperable bar to such a proceeding. Some authors have asserted that
-the hole is formed by means of an acid secreted by the animal, which
-acts chemically on the stone; but there are two reasons against this
-solution of the difficulty; first, no acid liquid has been discovered
-in the living animal, and, secondly, although acid would act upon
-stone, it would have no effect whatever on lava.
-
-Another curious part of the history of these shell-fish is their
-phosphorescence, which is so bright, that it has been asserted, if
-eaten in the dark without their being cooked, it appears as if the
-person devouring them was swallowing phosphorus.
-
-[Illustration: _Pholas dactyloides._]
-
-Although not used as food in this country, they are not uncommonly
-eaten on the shores of the Mediterranean, where some large species are
-found.
-
-The species represented in the engraving is found on the British
-coasts, imbedded in clay; its shell is of a delicate white, beautifully
-carved. The projecting piece at the lower part of the shell in the
-engraving is the long foot of the animal; on the right hand, the hole
-from which a shell has been removed is shown.
-
-
-THE SHIP-WORM, (_Teredo navalis_.)
-
-Before the anatomy of this destructive creature had been carefully
-examined, there was as much difficulty in guessing at the means it
-employed in penetrating the solid timbers in which it is found, as
-there is with regard to the operations of the Pholas; but subsequent
-observation shows that the hard parts, of which the mouth is formed,
-are fully equal to the task.
-
-[Illustration: _Teredo navalis._]
-
-Perhaps we may say, with propriety, that this is the only species of
-the shell-bearing tribes that is decidedly injurious to mankind. The
-animal of the Teredo is a long worm-shaped creature, dwelling in a
-tube of a shelly substance, which it forms for itself in its progress
-through the wood; the small pointed shell-like pieces, to the right
-in the engraving, form the jaws of the animal. With the assistance of
-these it cuts its way into the timber, and, at the same time, lines the
-excavation it is making with a shelly substance, which is gradually
-formed into a tube, the animal occupying that part which is most
-deeply sunken in the timber; in directing its course it generally
-excavates in the direction of the grain of the wood, but in some
-instances it crosses this grain.
-
-In Holland a great part of the country is below the level of high
-water, and, to prevent the irruption of the sea, immense dykes have
-been formed along the coast; these are framed, on the sea-side, of
-large masses of sand, while to the landward they are strengthened by
-means of strong piles driven into the ground and wattled together.
-These piles were once discovered pierced in all directions by this
-destructive worm, to such an extent as to endanger their safety, and
-had it not been for a timely discovery of the mischief, immense tracts
-of country would have been laid under water, and irretrievably lost.
-
-
-
-
-CLASS CIRRHIPEDA.
-
-
-The Cirrhipeds are well known under the names of _Barnacles_ and
-_Acorn-shells_, being found attached to rocks, ships’ bottoms, and
-pieces of timber which have been under the water for a length of time.
-They also at times fix themselves on the shells of the larger Mollusca,
-and on the backs of whales, tortoises, &c. These creatures, from their
-singular formation, have often proved a stumbling-block in the way of
-the systematic naturalist, who, from their anomalous characters, was
-unable to refer them to any part of his system; and although their
-true nature, which has more recently been discovered by a British
-naturalist, was partially suspected by Lamarck, (without, however, any
-definite idea on the subject,) we have still placed them immediately
-after the Conchifera, although, as we shall presently show, they ought
-more properly to be ranged with the Crustacea, that is, the crab and
-lobster tribes, and in future systems this no doubt will be the case.
-
-After noticing their resemblance in many respects to the Crustacea,
-Lamarck thus expresses himself. “In fact, when I established the
-CLASS of Crustacea, I formed the _first order_ of this class, (the
-_Cirrhipeds_,) under the name of _sightless Crustacea_, but a few years
-afterwards I separated them and placed them at the end of the Mollusca,
-but this was no better. If, for example, we consider those characters
-which furnish their most important organs, we shall find that the
-Cirrhipeds, without any doubt, most nearly resemble the Crustacea,
-for they have the same system of nerves, they have jaws analogous to
-those of the Crustacea, and their tentacula resemble the antennæ of the
-shrimps.” To prove that they really were Crustacea, was a task that
-devolved upon a British naturalist, I. V. Thomson, Esq., a surgeon in
-his Majesty’s forces. The manner in which this discovery took place, we
-shall notice further on.
-
-The Cirrhipeds have obtained their name from the hairy feelers, or
-tentacula, with which they are provided; the name Cirrhipeda being
-derived from two Latin words,—_cirrhus_, hair, and _pes_, the foot;
-these appendages, being figuratively called feet, although they have,
-in reality, but little relation to that organ of motion.
-
-They have been separated into two orders; namely, _Cirrhipeda
-pedunculata_, which are attached to any object by a tube of a leathery
-nature, as, for instance, the Barnacle,—and _Cirrhipeda sedentaria_,
-which are fixed directly to the rock, like the Acorn-shell.
-
-
-_ORDER CIRRHIPEDA PEDUNCULATA._
-
-(_Cirrhipeda with a Footstalk._)
-
-
-THE SMOOTH BARNACLE, (_Anatifa lævis_.)
-
-The curious popular error, that the Barnacle contained the young of
-a species of goose, which was thence called the Barnacle Goose, has
-lasted for many ages, and still prevails among the uneducated, on the
-shores of many of the European seas. One reason of the continuance of
-this error in several Roman Catholic countries, is the permission
-granted by the priest to its members, to eat this goose on fish-days,
-because it is considered, on account of its supposed watery origin, to
-partake more of the character of a fish than a fowl. To show the extent
-to which an erroneous belief may be carried, we may quote the following
-notice sent by Sir Robert Moray to the Royal Society, and _printed_ by
-them in their _Transactions_. He says, “The pedicle seems to draw and
-convey the matter which serves for the growth and vegetation of the
-shell and the little bird within it.” “In every shell that I opened, I
-found a perfect _sea-fowl_; the little bill like that of a _goose_, the
-eyes marked; the head, neck, breast, wings, tail, and feet formed; the
-feathers everywhere perfectly shaped, and blackish-coloured; and the
-_feet_ like those of other water-fowl, to my best remembrance!” “Nor
-did I ever see any of the little birds alive, nor met with anybody that
-did; only some credible persons have assured me that they have seen
-some as big as their fist!!”
-
-[Illustration: _Anatifa lævis._]
-
-
-_ORDER CIRRHIPEDA SEDENTARIA_,
-
-(_Sedentary Cirrhipeds_.)
-
-
-THE ACORN-SHELL, (_Balanus_.)
-
-Mr. Thomson describes his discovery of the real nature of the
-Cirrhipeds in these words. “On April 28, 1823, which the author had
-devoted to the investigation of some marine productions, he was
-returning home without any addition to his stock of knowledge, when,
-casually throwing out a small muslin towing-net, on crossing the ferry
-at Passage, such a capture of marine animals was made, as furnished a
-treat which few can ever expect to meet, and could hardly be excelled
-for the variety, rarity, and interesting nature of the animals taken.”
-After mentioning the names of several very rare species, he continues
-“and others perfectly nondescript, and incapable of being associated in
-any of our classifications of the Crustacea; of this description is the
-little animal about to be described.
-
-[Illustration: _Balanus_, (The Acorn-Shell Barnacle.)]
-
-“There is a small translucent animal one-tenth of an inch long, of a
-somewhat elliptic form, moderately compressed, and of a brownish hue.
-When in a state of perfect repose, it resembles a very minute mussel,
-and lies upon one of its sides at the bottom of the vessel of sea-water
-in which it is placed. At this time all the members of the animal are
-withdrawn within the shell, which appears to be composed of two valves,
-united by a hinge along the upper part of the back, and capable of
-opening from one end to the other along the front, to give occasional
-exit to the legs. The limbs are of two descriptions; namely, in front a
-large and very strong pair, provided with a cup-like sucker and hooks,
-&c., and at the hinder part of the body, six pair of swimming-members,
-so articulated as to act in concert, and to give a very forcible stroke
-to the water, so as to cause the animal, when swimming, to advance by a
-succession of bounds, after the manner of the water flea.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Fig. 1.  Larva of Barnacle, natural size.
-       2.    "    "    "      magnified, seen from above.
-       3.    "    "    "      highly magnified, seen from side;
-                                _a_, swimming-members;
-                                _b_, front limb, with sucker.
-       4. Eye, much magnified.
-       5. Perfect Young Barnacle, natural size.
-       6.    "      "      "      full grown.
-
-]
-
-“The greatest peculiarity, however, in the structure of this animal,
-is the eyes; which, although constantly shielded by the valves of the
-shell, are placed on footstalks, as in the crab and lobster, in front,
-at the sides of the body.
-
-“Some of these curious creatures were collected in the Spring of 1826;
-and, in order to see what changes they might undergo, were kept in a
-glass vessel, covered by such a depth of sea-water, that they could be
-examined at any time by means of a common magnifying glass; they were
-taken on May the 1st, and on the night of the 8th, the author had the
-satisfaction to find that two of them had thrown off their _exuviæ_[4],
-and, wonderful to say, were firmly adhering to the bottom of the
-vessel, and changed into young Barnacles! such as are usually seen
-intermixed with grown specimens, on rocks and stones, at this season of
-the year. The eyes were still perceptible, although the principal part
-of the black colouring-matter appeared to have been thrown off with
-the _exuviæ_. On the 10th, another individual was seen _in the act of
-throwing off its shell_, and attaching itself, like the others, to the
-bottom of the glass.”
-
-
-
-
-CLASS ANNULATA.
-
-
-We cannot better describe the Annulose animals than in the words of
-Lamarck; he calls them,
-
-“Animals with soft bodies, lengthened, worm-shaped, naked, or
-inhabiting tubes, with the body divided into segments, or at least
-transverse wrinkles, often without head, without eyes, and without
-antennæ, unfurnished with articulated limbs, but the greater number
-having, instead, small protuberances, bearing spines, and capable of
-being retracted at pleasure, disposed in rows along the sides, though
-not continued quite to the extremity of the body, and assuming various
-forms. They have also red blood circulating by veins and arteries; this
-separates them from the Worms, properly so called, which have white
-blood. This colour of the blood is a singular fact, since the animals
-are much less complex in their organization than the Mollusca, which
-have colourless blood. The Class of Annulose animals has been separated
-into three Orders, namely, _Annulata sedentaria_, which are fixed to
-other substances; _Annulata antennata_, possessing antennæ, or feelers;
-and _Annulata apoda_, without projecting members answering as feet,
-serving solely to attach the animal to rocks, stones, &c.”
-
-[Illustration: _Shells of various sedentary Annulose Animals._]
-
-
-_ORDER ANNULATA SEDENTARIA_,
-
-(_Sedentary Annulose Animals_.)
-
-The creatures which form this order are generally found attached
-to rocks, shells, &c. and are usually of small size. The engraving
-represents a variety of species of these animals. Of the genus Serpula
-there are many species, but as it is in general merely the shell
-that is found in collections, they are but ill defined; some of the
-species are found in almost all climates. The animal of the Serpula has
-great power of contracting its body, but it never leaves its shell or
-tube; this tube is gradually lengthened by the inhabitant, who always
-occupies the most recently-formed portion of it; its _operculum_, the
-lid with which it closes the opening of its tube, is very prettily
-formed; it is something like the mouth-piece of a trumpet, but of
-course not perforated, and it closes the opening with great accuracy.
-
-
-THE MAGNIFICENT AMPHITRITE,
-
-(_Amphitrite magnifica_.)
-
-This beautiful species is perhaps the largest of the whole tribe as
-yet discovered. It is found in various parts of the coast of Jamaica,
-adhering to, or rather embedded in, the rocks. Its irritability is
-exceedingly great, and on being approached it instantly retreats into
-its elastic tube; this tube is of a leathery consistence, unlike that
-of the Serpula. Specimens of this elegant species can only be obtained
-by breaking off such parts of the stone as contain them. These, being
-put into tubs of sea-water, may be kept for months in perfect health.
-That part of the body which is so beautifully spread out like an
-umbrella, consists of the _branchiæ_ or organs of breathing; these are
-of a yellowish colour, beautifully marked with pink. The Amphitrite,
-although perhaps it never entirely leaves its tube, is not attached to
-it, and frequently draws out nearly the whole of its body.
-
-[Illustration: _Amphitrite magnifica._]
-
-
-_ORDER ANNULATA ANTENNATA_,
-
-(_Annulose Animals possessing Antennæ_.)
-
-
-THE SAND-WORM OF THE FISHERMEN,
-
-(_Arenicola piscatorium_.)
-
-This Worm forms its nest in the sand on the sea-shore, and is much
-sought after by fishermen as bait for fishes. It is found in all the
-European seas. There appears to be but one species, but that is met
-with in great abundance.
-
-[Illustration: _Arenicola piscatorium._]
-
-
-BLOOD-COLOURED LEODICE, (_Leodice sanguinea_.)
-
-The antennated Annulata differ materially from those which are
-enclosed in a case; they possess, in addition to their antennæ, organs
-of motion, like the false legs of a caterpillar, and two or four
-well-formed eyes; they are all marine animals, and altogether they bear
-a strong resemblance to the _scolopendra_, or centipede.
-
-[Illustration: _Leodice sanguinea._]
-
-The species represented above was taken on the southern coast of
-Devonshire; it is the largest English species, extending sometimes to
-the length of fourteen or fifteen inches.
-
-When the animal was in a glass of sea-water, the circulation of the
-blood through the bristle-like appendages on each side of the body
-was a curious object, and appeared to be effected at the will of the
-animal, but when it became sickly, the circulation was slower, and as
-soon as it expired all the colour from those parts vanished.
-
-The mouth is large, and placed beneath, concealing most formidable
-jaws, or complicated fangs, which were put forward occasionally as the
-animal became sickly, or in the agonies of death. The figure beneath
-the worm shows the shape of this singular apparatus.
-
-
-THE SPINOUS SEA-MOUSE, OR SEA-CATERPILLAR,
-
-(_Halithæa aculeata_.)
-
-The Sea-Mouse is found in the European seas, and when in its native
-element is singularly beautiful, the hair with which it is partially
-covered being equal in splendour to the colours on the tail of a
-peacock.
-
-[Illustration: _Halithæa aculeata._]
-
-
-_ORDER ANNULATA APODA_,
-
-
-(_Footless Annulose Animals_.)
-
-The greater portion of the Annulose animals, namely those already
-described, are furnished with small projecting points on the sides
-of their body, which assist them in their motions, and which may,
-consequently, be considered as supplying the place of feet; but those
-we have yet to notice have no similar appendages, and, therefore, they
-are called footless. They are all very lively in their movements, and
-live either in moist earth, or the mud at the bottom of ponds. We
-find among the footless Annulata two well-known genera, namely, the
-Earth-worm and the Leech.
-
-
-THE COMMON EARTH-WORM,
-
-(_Lumbricus terrestris_.)
-
-The body of the Earth-worm is composed of a great number of narrow
-rings, and along each side are four rows of very small, short,
-silk-like bristles, of a substance partly horny and partly shell-like.
-These bristles are placed on the edges of the rings, and it is by the
-alternate contraction and expansion of these rings that the worm is
-enabled to move along, the little bristles acting like hooks, and so
-forming various fixed points of resistance or _fulcra_, upon which the
-animal can rest at each movement forwards. The organization of the
-Earth-worm is very simple, the intestinal canal for the food being a
-simple straight tube, except in one part of its length, where a kind
-of gizzard is found, which answers the purpose of a stomach. It is
-supposed to feed upon the vegetable substances it finds in the earth.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The hole, or burrow, formed in the earth by the worm, always has two
-openings, one by which it enters, and by which it throws out the dirt
-which is removed during the progress of its excavation, and the other
-by which it sometimes leaves its burrow, so that the hole made by the
-animal would be much in this form, descending at A, and reaching the
-surface by B. It has been said, that the Earth-worm, if divided by the
-spade or otherwise, will unite again and live; the foundation for this
-appears to be the more probable fact, that, when divided, that portion
-of the animal in which the head is placed may, perhaps, survive the
-mutilation, and ultimately again become a perfect creature.
-
-Although worms, after wet weather, sadly disfigure our gravel walks,
-they are, at the same time, useful gardeners, loosening the earth round
-the roots of plants, and thus rendering it more capable of receiving
-the small fibres of the roots. During the Winter they penetrate very
-deeply into the ground, and remain, according to Latreille, rolled up
-in a kind of nest, protected from injury by the discharge of _mucus_,
-which is furnished by the pores of their body.
-
-The Earth-worm appears to have been a considerable favourite with
-the author of the _Journal of a Naturalist_; among other remarks,
-he observes, “There is another creature, and that a very important
-one in the operations of nature, that is surrounded by dangers,
-harassed, pursued incessantly, and becomes the prey of all; the common
-Earth-worm. This animal, destined to be the natural manurer of the
-soil, and the ready indicator of an approved staple, consumes on the
-surface of the ground, where they soon would be injurious, the softer
-parts of decayed vegetable matter, and conveys into the soil the
-more woody fibres, where they moulder and become reduced to a simple
-nutriment, fitting for living vegetation. The parts consumed by them
-are soon returned to the surface, whence dissolved by frosts, and
-scattered by rains, they circulate again in the plants of the soil,
-
-                 Death still producing life.
-
-“Thus eminently serviceable as the Worm is, it yet becomes the prey
-of various orders of the animal creation, and perhaps is a solitary
-example of an individual race being subjected to universal destruction.
-The very emmet seizes it when disabled, and bears it away as its
-prize. It constitutes throughout the year the food of many birds;
-fishes devour it greedily; the hedgehog eats it; the mole pursues it
-unceasingly in the pastures, along the moist bottoms of ditches, and
-burrows after it through the banks of hedges, to which it retires in
-dry seasons. Secured as the Worm appears to be by its residence in the
-earth, from the capture of creatures inhabiting a different element,
-yet many aquatic animals seem well acquainted with it, and prey on it
-as a natural food, whenever it falls in their way: frogs eat it, and
-even the great water-beetle I have known to seize it, when the bait of
-the angler, and it has been drawn up by the hook. Yet notwithstanding
-this prodigious destruction of the animal, its increase is fully
-commensurate to its consumption, as if ordained the appointed food of
-all.
-
-“Worms, generally speaking, are tender creatures, and water remaining
-over their haunts for a few days, drowns them. They easily become
-frozen, when a mortification commences at some part, which gradually
-consumes the whole substance, and we find them on the surface a mass
-of jelly. Their retiring deeper into the soil is no bad indication of
-approaching cold weather; but no sooner is the frost out of the ground,
-than they approach the surface.
-
-“Earth-worms do considerable mischief to the floriculturist by drawing
-the young plants, immediately after they are transplanted, into
-the earth. In the drainage of lands they are of essential service,
-penetrating the clay that lies beneath the vegetable mould in every
-direction, and thus forming numerous small canals to carry off the
-water into the deep trenches dug by the agriculturist.” The author we
-have already quoted, after concluding this account of the Worm, says,
-“I would advocate the cause of all creatures, had I the privilege of
-knowing the excellency of them; not willingly assigning vague and
-fanciful claims to excite wonder, or manifesting a base pride by any
-vaunt of superior observation; but when we see, blind as we are, that
-all things are formed in justice, mercy, truth, I would tell my tale
-as a man, glory as a Christian, and bless the gracious Power that
-permitted me to obtain this knowledge.”
-
-
-THE MEDICINAL LEECH, (_Hirudo medicinalis_.)
-
-The medicinal utility of the Leech seems, even in very remote times, to
-have been acknowledged by mankind, and accordingly we find it noticed
-in the writings of many ancient physicians. It was not simply applied
-to the cases in which it is at present employed, but was recommended
-to be used in many singular ways: a paste made of the ashes of a burnt
-leech was said to have the property of removing the hair from any
-part of the body. It was also employed to suck the blood from a wound
-occasioned by a mad dog, or any other rabid animal.
-
-At present the employment of this useful creature is confined to the
-operation of drawing blood from inflamed parts of the surface of the
-body, for which use it is eminently adapted.
-
-There are as many as twelve or fifteen species of these creatures,
-but only two have been employed in medicine, namely, the _Hirudo
-medicinalis_, which may be known by having six yellowish lines, or
-striæ, on its back, while the under part is of a grayish hue spotted
-with black, but, as we shall presently see, these markings are not
-uniformly found; and the _Hirudo troctina_, of a brownish colour,
-the upper part of the body marked with black spots, each of which is
-surrounded with a golden-coloured ring, the sides of a dingy yellow,
-and the under part of a yellowish green with black spots.
-
-The first of these species, the medicinal leech, is common throughout
-the whole of Europe, but is much more abundant in the Southern parts;
-it is generally about three inches in length. Formerly it was very
-abundant in Great Britain, but the improvements in agriculture,
-and the consequent drainage of the land, together with the great
-use made of it in medicine, have of late years rendered it of less
-frequent occurrence. On this account great quantities of leeches are
-imported; these chiefly come from Bourdeaux and Lisbon. On a moderate
-calculation, it appears that, in England, on an average, out of every
-hundred leeches employed, ninety-nine may be considered of foreign
-production; these differ from the English leech in being somewhat
-larger, and having the under part of a uniform colour, without spots.
-Some idea may be formed of the number of leeches used in medicine by
-the statement, that in the hospitals of Paris alone, 300,000 were
-employed in one year. The prevailing colour of the medicinal leech
-appears to vary according to the nature of the soil on which it is
-found. In Winter the leech retires to waters of considerable depth, and
-seeks shelter in the mud at the bottom; but in the Summer it appears
-to delight in shallow pools, basking, as it were, in the warmth of the
-sun: but if the water it frequents is in danger of being dried up by
-the Summer-heat, the leech buries itself in the mud at a considerable
-depth. Just before a thunder-storm, leeches appear much agitated,
-and rise frequently to the surface of the water; this, therefore, is
-considered by the _leech-gatherers_ as a favourable time for collecting
-them.
-
-The property by which a leech anticipates thunder, has induced some
-persons to employ it as a species of barometer; for this purpose a
-leech is enclosed in a glass vessel half-filled with water, and the
-following is supposed to be the result. When the weather is about to be
-serene and pleasant, the leech will remain at the bottom of the vessel
-without the least movement; secondly, if it is about to rain, the
-animal will rise to the surface, and there remain until the approach of
-fine weather; thirdly, before boisterous weather, it will appear in a
-state of great agitation; fourthly, on the approach of thunder, it will
-remain out of water for several days, appearing agitated and restless,
-and so on.
-
-This natural barometer _appears_ to answer tolerably well, if there is
-sufficient belief in its virtues on the part of the possessor, and if
-one leech only is employed; but when several of these creatures are
-enclosed in the same vessel, they do not appear to obey the same laws,
-and, consequently, their movements do not correspond with sufficient
-accuracy to render their indications of the weather of much use.
-
-The medicinal leech appears during its whole life to exist on the blood
-or other juices of the creatures on whose body it fixes itself; this is
-not the case with the horse-leech, which lives entirely on the _larvæ_
-of aquatic insects, worms, &c., so that the common idea of the danger
-of the bite of the horse-leech is without foundation.
-
-The horse-leech is exceedingly voracious, not only swallowing worms,
-tadpoles, &c., but even preying upon its own species. Sixty-five
-horse-leeches were placed in a glass vessel, and in five days the
-number was reduced to fifty-two, and not a vestige of those that were
-missing was to be discovered.
-
-The usual slowness of action of the digestive powers in all animals of
-cold blood, was curiously illustrated in the case of a horse-leech,
-which, after swallowing two small leeches of a different species,
-disgorged one of the two at the end of three days, in a living state,
-and apparently not much injured from its sojourn in so unusual a
-lodging; but it enjoyed its liberty only for a few hours, its more
-powerful companion swallowing it a second time at the end of that
-period.
-
-A number of this species of leech, inhabiting the water that supplied a
-trough in which a tench had been placed, fixed themselves to different
-parts of the body of the fish, and so effectually was the poor tench
-annoyed, that it was soon deprived of life. “The leeches then tore it
-(previously breaking the line of connexion between the various parts of
-the body, by inflicting a vast number of bites or wounds,) into such
-pieces as they could readily receive into the stomach, and so diligent
-were they, that in a few days nothing remained of the fish but the mere
-skeleton.”
-
-From these habits it would appear, that the name of Hirudo
-_sanguisuga_, (the blood-sucking leech,) has been improperly applied to
-the horse-leech; on this account a recent author has suggested the name
-of Hirudo _vorax_, (the voracious leech,) as being more suitable to its
-nature.
-
-Leeches are supposed to be very long-lived; two were preserved in
-confinement for eight years before they died, and the well-ascertained
-slowness of their growth seems to place their length of life beyond a
-doubt.
-
-On the head of the medicinal leech ten points are arranged in the form
-of a horse-shoe, thus—
-
-[Illustration]
-
-These are considered, by some authors, to be organs of sight, or
-eyes, while, on the other hand, it is stated by others, that they are
-merely tubercles. Lamarck was of this opinion, and, consequently, in
-describing their character, says they are without eyes.
-
-The teeth, or rather piercers, with which the leech is furnished, are
-three in number, of a hard gristly substance, and so placed, with
-regard to each other, as to meet in the centre at equal angles; these
-piercers are thrust into the skin when the animal attaches itself; not
-by one plunging effort, but by constantly scratching or sawing upon the
-surface (assisted at the same time by the sucking action of the lips);
-in this manner they gradually become buried in the skin, and there
-remain as long as the creature retains its hold; this movement of the
-piercers occasions the gnawing pain felt for the first two or three
-minutes after the leech has commenced operation.
-
-Leeches are at times so scarce and valuable, that great care has been
-taken in preserving them in a healthy state and fit for use. The
-principal art in managing them consists in placing them in vessels
-sufficiently large, keeping the water clear, and in removing those
-which are unhealthy as soon as they are discovered.
-
-Leeches, when applied to the skin, frequently show little inclination
-to bite, and many plans have been resorted to, to induce them to
-commence operations, such as bathing the part with milk, &c.; but
-these methods may be considered useless, and the best plan appears
-to be, to wash the part clean, and this is the more necessary when
-any embrocation has been previously applied; but the surest way is to
-puncture the place slightly, so as to cause the blood to appear. If the
-little surgeon, before it is fully gorged, appears lazy and unwilling
-to proceed, it can be usually roused by being sprinkled with a little
-cold water.
-
-After a leech has fallen off, it is usual to sprinkle salt on it to
-induce it to disgorge the blood it has swallowed; but as the salt
-frequently blisters its body, it has been recommended by Dr. Johnson of
-Edinburgh, from whose work on the Leech, we have obtained most of the
-preceding information, to apply a small portion of vinegar to the head
-of the leech instead of salt.
-
-The necessity for obliging the leech to dislodge the blood it has
-swallowed, arises from the fact that it would remain in the body of
-the animal for some months before it could be all digested; but the
-most singular thing is, that, during the whole of this time, the blood
-remains in nearly as fluid a state as when it was newly swallowed[5].
-The stomach of this creature is very curiously formed, being composed
-of a number of chambers, each chamber having a separate connexion with
-the intestinal canal, in such a manner that, at the will of the animal,
-the contents of each chamber can be emptied singly into that canal,
-through a distinct opening.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 1. Fig. 2.]
-
-It was long a matter of dispute as to whether leeches were produced
-from eggs or born alive, but it is now ascertained that the ova are
-developed in a singular case, having some resemblance to the cocoon
-of a silkworm. The following engraving represents this case, of its
-natural size: fig. 1, shows the perfect case or cocoon, and fig. 2, the
-same opened, with the young leeches contained within it; it is said
-that, at times, there are as many as thirteen or fourteen in one case.
-This cocoon is formed by the parent animal, and by it deposited in the
-mud or clay, which composes the bed of the pool it inhabits.
-
-The fact of the young leech being produced from these cocoons, although
-only latterly ascertained by naturalists, was long since well-known to
-the dealers in leeches on the French coast, who avail themselves of
-this knowledge of their habits, to multiply them for the purpose of
-sale.
-
-“It was by these means the leech-dealers of Bretagne, and particularly
-in Finisterre, replenished the ponds in which they preserved those
-leeches which were intended for the Paris market.
-
-“About the month of April or May, according to the nature of the
-season, they send out labourers, provided with spades and baskets, to
-the little muddy marshes, where they are known to exist in abundance.
-These workmen then set about removing those portions of mud that are
-known to contain cocoons, which are afterwards deposited in sheets of
-water previously prepared for their reception; here the young leeches
-quit the cocoons, and are allowed to remain for six months, when they
-are removed to larger ponds.” While they remain in these ponds, the
-cattle and other animals are driven to the water, for the purpose of
-allowing the young to feed upon them, as it is supposed that they grow
-much more rapidly after having partaken of blood.
-
-There is a small species of leech in the island of Ceylon, which is
-more dreaded, and, from its great numbers, produces more evil, than
-even the venomous reptiles which are found in the island, including the
-terrible hooded snake itself.
-
-The largest of these leeches are seldom more than half an inch in
-length, and the smallest are minute indeed. This leech is a very active
-animal; it moves with great rapidity, and is even said occasionally
-to spring. It is supposed to have an acute sense of smelling, for no
-sooner does a person stop where leeches abound, that they appear to
-crowd eagerly to the spot from all quarters. In rainy weather, it is
-shocking to see the legs of men on a long march thickly beset with
-these creatures, gorged with blood, and the blood itself trickling down
-in streams. It might be supposed there be little difficulty in keeping
-them off; but they crowd to the attack, and fasten on more quickly
-than they can be removed. Their bites are much more troublesome than
-would be imagined, being very apt to fester and become sores, and, in
-persons of a bad habit of body, to degenerate into extensive ulcers,
-and ultimately cause the loss of a limb, if not that of life itself.
-
-Many plans have, of course, been resorted to, to avoid this pest, such
-as anointing the legs with tobacco-water, grease, &c., but all to very
-little purpose, the only successful mode appearing to be, the enclosing
-the lower part of the legs in boots and pantaloons, fitting very
-closely to the limb, a very unpleasant dress in so sultry a climate.
-
-
-
-
-CLASS CRUSTACEA.
-
-
-The arrangement of the Crustacea in systems of natural history has
-undergone numerous changes; they were placed by Linnæus among the
-insects:—others considered them to have more analogy to the spiders.
-Lamarck was the first who made the Crustacea an independent CLASS
-forming two _orders_, which he has named after the arrangement of the
-branchiæ, or gills, by which they breathe, namely,—the _Crustacea
-homobranchiæ_, the distinguishing marks of which he describes in this
-manner: branchiæ hidden under the lateral margins of a kind of cuirass,
-covering the body of the animal, with the exception of the tail; the
-mandibles always furnished with feelers, the eyes placed on footstalks,
-the head not distinct from the trunk, and possessing ten feet to assist
-them in their movements. Secondly, the _Crustacea heterobranchiæ_, in
-which the branchiæ are external, in various situations, but never under
-the lateral margin of a cuirass; they are either under the belly or the
-tail, adhering to the feet, or confounded with them: the eyes are in
-general fixed, _sedentary, not on footstalks_.
-
-
-_ORDER CRUSTACEA HOMOBRANCHIÆ_,
-
-(_Shell-Fish with concealed gills._)
-
-The first of these orders, the _homobranchial_ Crustacea, includes most
-of the larger kinds of shell-fish, as, for instance, crabs, lobsters,
-and cray-fish; shrimps and prawns are also in this division.
-
-Their organization is much more perfect than that of the other order,
-and, according to Lamarck, it is among these animals that the last
-appearance of the organ of hearing is seen, in tracing the animal
-kingdom from the most perfect animals to those whose formation is
-apparently less complex.
-
-The body of these creatures appears to be composed of only two
-principal parts, the body and the tail; for the head is so intimately
-united and confounded with the trunk, as to appear to be merely a
-portion of it. The two eyes are fixed at the top of two moveable
-supports, and are placed in a hollow prepared for their reception, on
-each side of a projecting portion of the shell that covers the head.
-The antennæ, which are usually four in number, are placed about this
-spot; they are inserted beneath the stems that support the eyes. The
-two outermost of these antennæ are generally the longest.
-
-The branchiæ, or organs by which they breathe, assume a form somewhat
-pyramidical, arranged like a series of leaves, or the web of a feather;
-they are placed in the interior of the shell along each side, and are
-so arranged as to adhere to the roots of the feet, so that each of
-these feet has a hidden branchia attached to its base.
-
-The mouth is composed of a fleshy lip, projecting between the
-mandibles; of two hard triangular mandibles, more or less notched at
-their extremity, and each having a kind of feeler inserted on the upper
-part; they also possess a little tongue between these mandibles, at
-the root of which is the opening to the stomach: they have besides two
-pair of jaws, like leaves, the borders of which are fringed, and six
-other members, which Lamarck calls _foot-jaws_, from their bearing
-some resemblance to legs, or feet. From this it appears that the
-parts of the mouth in the Crustacea form a complicated apparatus, and
-accordingly we find the whole tribe exceedingly voracious, the Crabs
-in particular, feeding upon any animal substance, putrid or not, that
-may come within their reach. Some of the species are well known as
-articles of food, but they are not equally wholesome at all seasons of
-the year.
-
-
-_THE CRAB TRIBE._
-
-The genera of the Crustacea are so extremely numerous, and the
-knowledge we possess of their natural history is so scanty, being
-generally confined to their form and colour, that we shall limit
-ourselves to a description of some of the best known and most useful
-species.
-
-[Illustration: THE ZOEA OF THE COMMON CRAB.]
-
-The Crabs are a very numerous tribe, and contain many singular
-species, as far as regards their form, which assumes an endless
-variety of curious shapes, sometimes elegantly decorated with the most
-brilliant colours; this more particularly applies to those which are
-found in the seas of hot climates.
-
-The singular little animal represented in the preceding page, was
-placed by naturalists among the _Crustacea_, and considered a perfect
-animal of a distinct species; it was named Zoea. Mr. Thomson, the
-experienced naturalist we have already noticed, was the first to
-discover the real nature of this little creature. We cannot do better
-than to introduce the subject by the following observations of the
-author of this discovery, showing the reason so little is known
-respecting these inhabitants of the deep.
-
-“The sea (which is the habitation of the greater part of the
-_Crustacea_) to the casual observer offers nothing but an immense body
-of water, here and there presenting a solitary whale, or a vagrant
-troop of some of the smaller cetaceous animals; the appearance of a
-fish of almost any other kind in the track of a vessel over a vast
-expanse of the open ocean, is regarded, even by the mariner, as a
-kind of phenomenon, and creates an interest not to be appreciated by
-those who have not engaged in distant voyages. The fathomless parts
-of the ocean certainly do not offer the same profusion of inhabitants
-with the shores of islands and continents, or those parts where the
-bottom is within reach of the sounding-line, or where the surface is
-interspersed with fields of Sargosa[6]. On due examination, however, we
-shall not fail to find it everywhere peopled by a considerable variety
-of animals, either of small size, or possessed of such a degree of
-translucency as to render them invisible, or scarcely perceptible, even
-when on or near to its surface; that it should possess its share of
-the organized beings which we see spread over every other part of the
-surface of our globe, is a conclusion we might arrive at indirectly,
-from the consideration of oceanic fishes and birds being observed in
-those parts of the ocean most distant from the land, and the provident
-care of the Deity, which we invariably witness throughout the domain of
-nature, to furnish food for all, even the meanest of his creatures; the
-more minute and invisible inmates of the sea, then, must constitute the
-food of oceanic fishes and birds.
-
-“Few of these marine animals, except some of the larger and most
-conspicuous, have as yet been observed, so that the investigation of
-them holds out a promise of a rich harvest to the naturalist, and
-a vast field of exploration, replete with novelty and interest; to
-accomplish this, however, he must use the greatest diligence, seizing
-every opportunity, when the way of a ship does not exceed three or
-four miles per hour, to throw out astern a small towing-net of gauze,
-bunting, or other tolerably close material, occasionally drawing it
-up, and turning it inside out into a glass vessel of sea-water, to
-ascertain what captures have been made. When a ship goes at a greater
-rate, and in stormy weather, a net of this kind may be appended to the
-spout of one of the _sea-water_ pumps, and examined three or four times
-a day, or oftener, according to circumstances.”
-
-Although naturalists were decided in calling the Zoea a crustaceous
-animal, they were still far from agreeing as to the place in the
-system it ought to occupy, for the different species were so unlike
-each other: but it will be no longer a matter of surprise, when it
-is known, that this singular creature is not a perfect animal, but
-merely the larva, or imperfect state of the Common Crab. This fact is
-perfectly new, and interesting in a double point of view, not only
-proving their real nature, but also that the Crustacea are not, as
-described in most systems, animals undergoing no metamorphosis, and on
-that account to be separated from the insects, but that they do undergo
-a metamorphosis, and that of a most wonderful nature.
-
-It was in the Spring of 1822 that Mr. Thomson first met with Zoeæ,
-in the harbour of Cove, and that in considerable abundance; the year
-following, at the same season, one of considerable size occurred;
-this was considered a fit object for experiment, and was carefully
-supplied with fresh sea-water, from May 14th to June 15th, when it died
-in the act of changing its skin. That portion of its new form which
-it had been able to disengage was sufficient to show that it bore a
-great resemblance to the division of the Crustacea, in which the crabs
-and lobsters are placed. “This proof,” says the author, “might be
-considered incomplete, if I had not had the good fortune to succeed in
-hatching the _ova_ of the Common Crab, during the month of June, which
-presented exactly the appearance of the _Zoea taurus_.”
-
-The Common Crab, _Cancer major_, is so well-known, that any description
-of its appearance would be useless.
-
-One singular part of the history of these creatures is, the power that
-is possessed by them, of changing their shell once in every year; this
-power is providentially bestowed upon them, to enable them to increase
-in size, a thing that would otherwise be utterly impossible, from the
-peculiar nature of the hard coat in which they are enclosed.
-
-The Crab, in order to prepare for the extraordinary change it is about
-to undergo, when shifting its shell, chooses a close and well-secured
-retreat, in the cavities of rocks, or under great stones, where it
-creeps in and remains during the operation. The time of the year
-when this occurs is about the beginning of the Summer, at which time
-their food is in plenty, and their strength and vigour in the highest
-perfection. But soon all their activity ceases; they are seen forsaking
-the open parts of the deep, and seeking some retired situation among
-the rocks, or some outlet where they may remain in safety from the
-attacks of their enemies. For some days before their change, the animal
-discontinues its usual voraciousness; it is no longer seen laboriously
-harrowing up the sand at the bottom, or fighting with others of its
-kind, or hunting its prey; it lies torpid and motionless, as if in
-anxious expectation of the approaching change. Just before casting
-its shell, it throws itself upon its back, strikes its claws against
-each other, and every limb seems to tremble; its feelers are agitated,
-and the whole body is in violent motion; it then swells itself in an
-unusual manner, and at last the shell is seen beginning to divide at
-its junctures, particularly at those of the belly, where it was before
-seemingly united. It also seems turned inside out; and its stomach
-comes away with its shell. After this, by the same operation, it
-disengages itself of its claws, which burst at the joints; the animal,
-with a tremulous motion, casting them off, as a man would kick off a
-boot that was too big for him.
-
-Thus, in a short time, this wonderful creature finds itself at liberty;
-but in so weak and enfeebled a state that it continues for several
-hours motionless. Indeed, so violent and painful is the operation,
-that many of them die under it; and those which survive, are in such
-a weakly condition for some time, that they neither take food, nor
-venture from their retreats. Immediately after this change, they have
-not only the softness, but the timidity of a worm. Every animal of
-the deep is then a powerful enemy, which they can neither escape nor
-oppose; and this, in fact, is the time when the dog-fish, the cod,
-and the ray, devour them by thousands. But this state of weakness
-continues for a very short time; the animal, in less than two days, is
-seen to have the skin that covers its body almost as hard as before;
-its appetite appears to increase; and, strange to behold! the first
-object, it is said, that tempts its gluttony, is its own stomach, which
-it was lately disengaged from. This it devours with great eagerness.
-In about forty-eight hours, in proportion to the animal’s strength,
-the new shell is perfectly formed, and as hard as that which was but
-just thrown aside. Previous to the time of moulting or changing their
-skin, a flat chalky stone is found on each side of the stomach; this
-is believed to form a store of earthy matter for the renewal of the
-shell. These stones, popularly known as _crabs’ eyes_, were long
-highly esteemed for their medicinal properties, but in reality are not
-superior to so much chalk.
-
-When completely equipped in its new dress, the dimensions of the
-old shell being compared with those of the new, it will be found
-the creature has increased in size nearly one-third, and it appears
-wonderful how the old shell could have contained it.
-
-Many of the cold-blooded animals have the power of reproducing a limb,
-or a portion of one, if by any accident it has been lost. This faculty
-of reproduction is possessed by the Crab in great perfection; but it
-has also a surprising power in itself, voluntarily to break off its
-own legs and claws. It seems this takes place when any serious injury,
-by bruising, has happened to any of its members. After it has received
-the hurt it bleeds, and gives signs of pain, by moving the wounded limb
-from side to side, but afterwards holds it quite still, in a direct and
-natural position, without touching any part of its body or its other
-legs with it. Then, on a sudden, with a gentle crack, the wounded part
-of the leg drops off at the next joint to the one injured; this appears
-to be more easily done with respect to the smaller legs, than in the
-case of an injury occurring to those which bear the pincers.
-
-When the leg has dropped off, a mucus, or jelly, is discharged on
-the remaining part of the joint next the body, which, as a natural
-styptic, instantly stops the bleeding; this gradually hardens and grows
-callous, becoming a new leg in miniature, which at every change of the
-creature’s shell increases rapidly in size.
-
-Crabs are naturally very quarrelsome, and with their claws fight and
-kill each other; and if by chance any of their limbs should be so
-bruised, as to have taken away from the creature the power of breaking
-off its claws, the protecting jelly is not produced, and the animal
-bleeds to death. An experiment was made to give some idea of the
-tenacious disposition of this creature, by obliging a Crab, with one
-of its great claws, to lay hold of one of its smaller ones; the silly
-creature did not distinguish that itself was the aggressor, but exerted
-its strength, and soon cracked the shell of its own small leg, which
-bled freely; but feeling itself wounded it succeeded in breaking off
-its limb in the usual manner,—still, however, holding fast for a
-length of time the part of the wounded leg which had come away.
-
-The curious shuffling walk of the Crab is well known, but it does not,
-as it is said, walk exactly backwards.
-
-
-THE LAND CRAB, (_Gecarcinus ruricola_.)
-
-Although nearly all the Crab tribe are inhabitants of the water, there
-is a species found in the West Indies, a native of the Bahama Islands,
-whose habits are unlike those of the rest of its class, and highly
-curious in themselves.
-
-[Illustration: THE LAND CRAB, (_Gecarcinus ruricola_.)]
-
-Land Crabs do not, like most other crustaceous animals, live near
-salt water, but take up their abode for the greatest part of the year
-in holes in the ground, hollow trunks of trees, and other places of
-the same description, and inhabit the mountainous districts of the
-islands, many miles from the sea-shore; but, although they make these
-places their usual haunt, it is necessary for them, once a year,
-to repair to the sea, for the purpose of depositing their spawn.
-They prepare for their annual migration about the month of April or
-May, and, having mustered in immense numbers, the procession sets
-forward, with all the regularity of an army, under the guidance of an
-experienced commander.
-
-Their destination being the sea, they instinctively move in a direct
-line to the nearest coast; no obstacle which they can possibly
-surmount will induce them to turn from their course; for if even a
-house stands in their way, they endeavour to scale its walls, in which
-they sometimes succeed; and should a window remain open, they are not
-unlikely to direct their march over the bed of some heedless sleeper.
-If, however, a large river crosses their track, they continue to follow
-its course without attempting to cross it.
-
-It is said, that they are commonly divided into three battalions, of
-which the first consists of the strongest and boldest males, who, like
-pioneers, march forward to clear the route. They are often obliged
-to halt for want of rain, and go into the most convenient encampment
-till the weather changes. The main body consists of females, who never
-leave the mountains till the rain has set in for some time; they then
-descend in regular order, formed into columns of the breadth of fifty
-paces, and three miles in length, and so close that they almost cover
-the ground. Three or four days after this, the rear-guard follows, a
-straggling undisciplined tribe, consisting of males and females, but
-neither so robust nor vigorous as the former parties. The night is
-their chief time of proceeding. When terrified, they march back in a
-confused manner, holding up their nippers and clattering them loudly,
-to intimidate their enemies. Their general food consists of vegetables;
-but if any of their companions should become maimed, and unable to
-proceed, they are greedily devoured by the rest.
-
-After a march of two, and sometimes three months, in this manner,
-they arrive at their destined spot on the sea-coast; they immediately
-enter the water, and after the waves have washed over them several
-times, retire to holes in the rocks, and other hiding-places, where
-they remain until the period of spawning. They then once more seek
-the water, and, shaking off their eggs, leave them to the chance of
-being hatched, or devoured by tribes of hungry fish, who have already
-repaired to the spot in countless shoals, in expectation of their
-annual treat. The eggs that escape are hatched under the sand; and,
-soon after, millions at a time of the little Crabs are seen quitting
-the shore, and slowly travelling up to the mountains. The old ones,
-however, are not so active to return: they have become so feeble and
-lean, that they can hardly crawl about. Most of them, therefore, are
-obliged to continue in the flat parts of the country till they recover;
-making holes in the earth, into which they creep, and cover themselves
-up with leaves and dirt; here they throw off their old shells, and
-continue almost without motion for about six days, during which time
-they become so fat, as to be considered delicious food. In about six
-weeks, the new shell has become tolerably hard, and the creatures may
-be seen slowly returning to their mountain-haunts. In some of the
-sugar-islands, it is said they form no inconsiderable portion of the
-food of the negroes, who are extremely dexterous in their mode of
-seizing them, so as to avoid their nippers.
-
-
-THE HERMIT, OR SOLDIER CRAB,
-
-(_Pagurus bernhardus_.)
-
-This singular species of Crab has obtained its name from its habit of
-remaining, as it were, secluded, in any empty shell, or hole of a rock,
-it may fancy.
-
-[Illustration: THE HERMIT CRAB, (_Pagurus bernhardus_.)]
-
-The hinder part of its body, particularly the tail, being constantly
-secure from injury, has its covering reduced to almost a membranous
-state, while the tail, which assists the other species in swimming, is
-almost obliterated; but in those which have chosen a shell for their
-hermitage, some hook-like appendages are observed, which enable them to
-maintain a secure hold of their borrowed dwelling. When the body has
-grown too large for the shell occupied by the animal, it is obliged to
-seek another of a larger size. The numerous combats they enter into
-when seeking a new dwelling, have caused this animal to receive the
-additional name of the Soldier Crab.
-
-“The Soldier when about to seek a new habitation, is still seen,”
-says an amusing writer, “in its own shell, which it appears to have
-considerably outgrown; for a part of the naked body is seen at the
-mouth of it, which the habitation is too small to hide. A shell,
-therefore, is to be found, large enough to cover the whole body;
-and yet not so large as to be unmanageable and unwieldy. To answer
-both these ends is no easy matter, nor the attainment of a slight
-inquiry. The little Soldier is seen busily parading the shore, along
-that line of pebbles and shells that is formed by the extremest wave;
-still, however, dragging its old incommodious habitation at its tail,
-unwilling to part with one shell, even though a troublesome appendage,
-till it can find another more convenient. It is seen stopping at one
-shell, turning it and passing it by, going on to another, contemplating
-that for a while, and then slipping its tail from its old habitation,
-to try on a new. This, also, is found to be inconvenient; and it
-quickly returns to its old shell again. In this manner, it frequently
-changes, till at last it finds one light, roomy, and commodious: to
-this it adheres, though the shell be sometimes so large as to hide the
-body of the animal, claws and all.”
-
-Yet it is not till after many trials, and many combats also, that the
-Soldier is thus completely equipped; for there is often a contest
-between two of them for some well-looking favourite shell, for which
-they are rivals. They both endeavour to take possession; they strike
-with their claws; they bite each other, till the weakest is obliged to
-yield, by giving up the object of dispute. It is then that the victor
-takes possession, and parades in his new conquest three or four times
-back and forward, upon the strand, before his envious antagonist.
-
-When this animal is taken, it sends forth a feeble cry, endeavouring
-to seize the enemy with its nippers; which if it fasten upon, it will
-sooner die than quit the grasp. The wound is very painful, and not
-easily cured.
-
-On the English coasts the Hermit Crab is generally found in the shell
-of the whelk, or when of a small size in that of the periwinkle; they
-not unfrequently, however, remain in some cranny of a rock, or under
-the protecting cover formed by a group of pebbles, in the interstices
-of which they hide themselves.
-
-The ancients were well acquainted with the Soldier Crab, as is evident
-from the following translation of the lines of one of their poets:
-
-    The Soldier Crabs unarmed by nature, left
-    Helpless, and weak, grow strong by harmless theft.
-    Fearful they crawl, and look with panting wish
-    For the cast crust of some new-covered fish;
-    Or such as empty lie, and deck the shore,
-    Whose first and rightful owners are no more.
-    They make glad seizure of the vacant room,
-    And count the borrowed shell their native home;
-    Screw their soft limbs to fit the winding case,
-    And boldly herd with the crustaceous race.
-    But when they larger grow they fill the place,
-    And find themselves hard-pinched in scanty space,
-    Compelled, they quit the roof they loved before,
-    And busy search around the pebbly shore,
-    Till a commodious roomy seat be found,
-    Such as the larger shell-fish living owned.
-    Oft cruel wars contending soldiers wage,
-    And long for the disputed shell engage;
-    The strongest here the doubtful prize possess,
-    Power gives the right, and all the claim confess.
-
-
-THE LOBSTER, (_Astacus europæa_.)
-
-The well-known and delicious shell-fish, the Lobster, is found in great
-abundance in all the northern parts of Europe. The north of Scotland
-is famous for the Lobster, but it is still more plentiful on the coast
-of Norway. The crab is more frequently found in shallow water, but the
-Lobster prefers those spots where the water is of considerable depth.
-The methods of taking Lobsters are various,—the most usual is by means
-of what are called Lobster-pots; these are a sort of trap, formed of
-twigs, and baited with garbage; they are made like a wire mouse-trap,
-so that when the Lobsters get in there is no possibility of returning.
-These pots are fastened to a cord, and sunk in the sea, their place
-being marked by a buoy. Another method of taking them is by means of a
-kind of bag-net, baited with animal substances. This fishery is only
-carried on in the night. They are brought in vast quantities to the
-London market from the Orkneys and from the Norway coast.
-
-Lobsters are much alarmed at the noise of thunder, or any other
-sudden shock; the consequence of which is, that in their fright, they
-frequently cast their claws. This also often happens when the poor
-creatures are thrown into the boiling-pot. As these animals frequent
-clear water, their habits have been more noticed than those of the
-crab. Their mode of feeding is sufficiently curious. In general, the
-pincers of one of the large claws are furnished with knobs, while
-the other large claw is more like a saw on its edge; holding, then,
-its food in the knobbed claw, it dexterously pulls it to pieces with
-the other. Their movements in the water are exceedingly graceful and
-lively, and they are capable of darting forward to a considerable
-distance with the rapidity of the flight of a bird. Their colour, when
-in their native element, is not black as might be imagined, but a
-beautiful deep blue.
-
-A whimsical idea of the horror Lobsters are said to have of pigs, seems
-to have prevailed in some parts of the Continent. It is said that in
-Brandenburgh, where the fishery is very abundant, the wagoners who
-transport them by land are obliged to keep watch during the night, to
-prevent swine from passing the wagon, for if one only was to go by,
-they say, not a single Lobster would be alive in the morning!
-
-
-THE RIVER CRAY-FISH, (_Potamobius fluviatilis_.)
-
-The fresh-water Cray-fish very much resembles the lobster in
-appearance, but is considerably broader in its proportions. It is
-commonly found in the tributary streams of large rivers, inhabiting the
-banks, in which it burrows, and feeding on any animal substance that
-may happen to come in its way.
-
-The Cray-fish is taken in various ways, sometimes by the hand, which
-is thrust into the holes in which they burrow. Another method is thus
-described:—
-
-Procure a dozen little rods, about five feet in length, and the
-thickness of the thumb,—split them at the smallest end, and by way
-of bait, place a frog, or a piece of putrid flesh in the cleft; take
-then the rods by their thickest end, and hold the bait at the entrance
-of the little holes where you suspect your prey to be; if they are
-there, they will generally come out to seize the bait. As soon as you
-perceive them, hold a small landing-net underneath, and raise the bait
-suddenly, and the Cray-fish will either be brought up along with the
-bait, or will fall back into the net.
-
-Another method noticed, consists in first burying a dead cat, or a
-hare, in a dunghill, for eight days, and then placing it in the midst
-of a bush of tangled thorns and brambles, which is thrown into the
-water, in the place frequented by the Cray-fish. After it has remained
-there a few hours it may be drawn up, when the shell-fish will be found
-partaking of their delicate fare, and the tangled bush will effectually
-prevent their escape.
-
-
-THE PHOSPHORESCENT SHRIMP.
-
-The luminous appearance of the ocean at night is a fact well-known
-to all who have been a voyage by sea; and it has been ascertained,
-that the causes of this beautiful phenomenon are the phosphorescent
-properties which are possessed by many of the smaller inhabitants
-of the deep. Among these, the little animal, figured above, is very
-frequently met with.
-
-[Illustration: NOCTILUCA BANKSII magnified.
-
-The line above shows the natural length.]
-
-The light of this creature, which is very brilliant, appears to issue
-from every part of the body; but in another crustaceous animal, found
-by Captain Tuckey, in the Gulf of Guinea, the luminous property resided
-in the brain, which, when the animal was at rest, resembled a most
-brilliant amethyst, about the size of a large pinhead; from this there
-started, when it moved, flashes of a brilliant silvery light.
-
-The author we have lately quoted, says,—
-
-“Meditating upon this subject, I think it not improbable, that the
-Deity, who has done nothing in vain, and whose omniscience extends to
-every epoch, foreseeing that man would invent the means of tempting the
-trackless ocean, and explore the most distant regions of our planet,
-has given it as one means of rendering his nights less gloomy, and
-of diminishing the number of his dangers; especially, if we consider
-that this luminosity is seen only in the night-season,—is vivid in
-proportion to the darkness, disappearing even before the feeble light
-of the moon,—and also that it increases with the agitation of the sea,
-so that, during the prevalence of storms, it greatly diminishes the
-dense gloom which at such times is often impenetrable to the moon, and
-the stars, throws such a light upon the ship and rigging as to enable
-sailors to execute their allotted tasks with certainty, and at all
-times points out to the cautious mariner the lurking danger of sunken
-rocks, shoals, and unknown coasts, by the phosphorescent, or snowy
-appearance which it gives to the breakers, so as to render them visible
-at a considerable distance.”
-
-
-THE OPOSSUM SHRIMP, (_Mysis chamæleon_.)
-
-This small species of Shrimp, although it has much the same outward
-appearance as the common shrimp, except that it is considerably
-smaller, is, when duly examined, one of the most singularly-formed
-creatures of the class to which it belongs. It is found in tolerable
-abundance along the British coasts, but the northern seas literally
-swarm with them; there, in spite of their small size, they are destined
-to become the food of the stupendous whale, whose enormous mouth
-encloses myriads at a time.
-
-[Illustration: _Mysis chamæleon._]
-
-The Opossum Shrimp belongs to a group of crustaceous animals which have
-been called fissipeds, (_split-feet_,) on account of each of their
-feet being divided nearly throughout its whole length; the inner limb
-being constructed for progression and the seizing of their prey, and
-the outer for swimming and giving that motion to the water which is
-essential to the organs of breathing, which are, as it were, wrapped
-round the base of each limb, and fully exposed to the action of the
-element. In the other Crustacea, which they most nearly approach, such
-as shrimps, prawns, &c., there is a single row of five feet on each
-side: but the genus we are now describing possesses as many as four
-rows of feet, each containing eight, so that in all, the number of feet
-amounts to as many as thirty-two,—sixteen adapted for swimming, and
-sixteen for seizing their prey. In consequence of this organization,
-the Shrimps seek their food in the sands at the bottom, while the
-present genus frequent the surface.
-
-The most singular portion of their formation, and that to which they
-are indebted for a name, is a kind of pouch which the female possesses,
-fixed beneath the body, and formed of two concave pieces of shell; this
-pouch, which is very capacious, considering the size of the animal, is
-destined to receive the eggs, which are deposited in it, enveloped in
-a kind of jelly-like substance, most probably forming the food of the
-young when first hatched. As fast as the young assume the lengthened
-form of the perfect animals, they are found to arrange themselves in
-this pouch closely and regularly side by side, with their heads towards
-the breast of the mother. After this manner they lie closely compacted
-together, and present a perfectly symmetrical arrangement, easily
-observed from the translucency of the valves of the pouch, and the
-large size and blackness of their eyes. The males of the Opossum Shrimp
-are not so numerous as the females, and are without the singular pouch
-we have described.
-
-We have already noticed the fact of these Shrimps being the food of the
-Greenland whale, in the northern seas, but in these climates they serve
-as food for herrings.
-
-It is in looking closely into the structure of these little animals
-that we see the perfection of the Divine Artist. Nature’s greater
-productions appear coarse indeed to these elaborate and highly-finished
-master-pieces, and in using more and more powerful magnifiers we still
-continue to bring new parts and touches into view. If, for instance,
-after observing one of their members with the naked eye, which has
-informed us that the part we have been examining is composed but of one
-piece, we employ a magnifying glass with a low power, the same part
-appears jointed, or composed of several pieces articulated together.
-Employing a higher magnifier, it appears fringed with long hairs,
-which, on further scrutiny, seem to be themselves fringed with hairs
-still more minute; many of these minute parts also, are evidently
-jointed, and perform sensible motions. But what idea can we form of the
-various muscles which put these parts in movement, of the nerves which
-actuate them, and the vessels which supply them with the nourishment
-necessary for growth and support, and which we know, from comparison
-with other creatures, they must possess!
-
-The Opossum Shrimps, we have seen, are the prey of the larger
-inhabitants of the deep; but they, in their turn, destroy others that
-are smaller than themselves,—seizing upon every animal substance they
-are able to manage that comes within their reach, and, if placed in a
-vessel of sea-water by themselves, devouring each other.
-
-The species represented in the engraving has been called the _Mysis
-chamæleon_, from its colour varying according to the substances on
-which it feeds, through all the gradations of gray, black, brown, and
-pink.
-
-
-_ORDER CRUSTACEA HETEROBRANCHIÆ._
-
-(_Crustacea with Organs of Breathing variously placed, never
-concealed._)
-
-The Crustacea which form this order differ much more from each other
-than those which are arranged in the last order, and consequently we
-find among them some very singular in their outward formation. Few of
-the species appear to be used as food by mankind, but they constitute a
-great portion of the nourishment of fishes and other inhabitants of the
-water. They are at times used by fishermen as bait. Many of them are
-very minute, and form most excellent objects for the microscope. They
-have been divided into several sections, according to their outward
-form; but as so little is known of their habits, we shall confine
-ourselves to a description of some of the best known.
-
-
-THE SPOTTED SQUILL, (_Squilla maculata_.)
-
-The Squill seems to form a connecting link between the last and present
-order. It is the only genus of the heterobranchial Crustacea in which
-the eyes are placed on footstalks; the head, instead of being distinct,
-appears in a great measure drawn into the corslet. It has been called
-the Sea Mantis, from its bearing some resemblance to an insect of that
-name, on account of the singularly-formed hooks with which two of its
-foot-jaws are armed.
-
-The species shown in the engraving is found in the Indian Seas; it is
-the largest of the genus.
-
-The shell with which these creatures are covered has very little
-consistence, more resembling hardened skin than shell. They frequent
-the sandy bottom of the sea.
-
-[Illustration: _Squilla maculata._]
-
-There is a small species which is found in fresh water, in which the
-young, after the eggs are hatched, remain for some time in shelter
-under the plates with which the body of the mother is covered.
-
-
-THE COMMON CLOPORTUS, (_Cloportus ascellus_.)
-
-This animal is very common upon old walls and under stones. It is
-somewhat like the wood-louse, but more flat; it is essentially a
-dweller on the land, but it cannot exist except in damp places, where
-the moisture is sufficient to keep its branchiæ pliable; it belongs to
-a group of small Crustacea known by the name _Oniscus_. Some, as we see
-in the present instance, frequent the land, but the greater portion
-inhabit the water.
-
-[Illustration: _Cloportus ascellus._
-
-(Fig. 1, much magnified; fig. 2, natural size.)]
-
-Among those which inhabit the latter element, there is a minute species
-which is very injurious to timber. It excavates a cylindrical hole for
-its dwelling, and increases in number so rapidly, that in a few years
-timber which is covered with water is rendered useless. The temporary
-wood-work used during the time the Bell-Rock Lighthouse was in the
-course of erection, was destroyed, to a great extent, by this little
-creature. When the wood had been under water for three years, beams ten
-inches square were reduced to seven inches; at the rate of one inch
-a year. Another species, _Cymothoa_, attaches itself to the backs of
-different species of fishes, living upon the juices of their body.
-
-A crustaceous animal nearly allied to this last is described in the
-fifth volume of the _American Philosophical Transactions_; it is
-accompanied by engravings which we have copied, but the animal is
-not drawn with sufficient accuracy to be referable to any particular
-species; by this account it appears that, instead of attaching itself
-to the body of the fish, the parasite makes safe its lodgement on the
-roof of the mouth. The author thus describes it.
-
-[Illustration: _Head of Alewife._
-
-Part of lower jaw removed to show the insect.]
-
-[Illustration: The insect seen from above.]
-
-“Among the fish that at this early season of the year (February) resort
-to the waters of York River, in Virginia, the Alewife, the Oldwife,
-called also the Bay Alewife, arrives in very considerable shoals, and
-in some seasons their number is almost incredible. They are fully of
-the size of a large herring, and are principally distinguished from the
-herring by a bay or red spot, above the gill-fin. They are, when caught
-from March to May, full-roed and fat, and at least as good a fish for
-the table as the herring.
-
-“In this season, each of these Alewifes carries in her mouth an insect
-about two inches long, hanging with its back downwards, and firmly
-holding itself by its fourteen legs to the palate.
-
-“It is with difficulty it can be separated, and never, perhaps, without
-injury to the jaws of the fish. The fishermen, therefore, consider
-the insect as essential to the life of the fish; for when it is taken
-out, and the fish is again thrown into the water, he is incapable
-of swimming, and soon dies. I endeavoured in numerous instances to
-preserve both the insect and the fish from injury, but was always
-obliged, either to destroy the one or injure the other.
-
-“I have sometimes succeeded in taking out the insect in a brisk and
-lively state. As soon as he was set free from my grasp, he immediately
-scrambled nimbly back into the mouth of the fish and resumed his
-position. In every instance he was disgustingly corpulent and
-unpleasant to handle, and it seemed that, whether he had obtained
-his post by force or favour; whether he be a traveller or constant
-resident, or what else may be his business where he is found, he
-certainly fares sumptuously every day.
-
-“The fish whose mouth he inhabits, comes about the same time with the
-shad into the rivers of Virginia from the ocean, and continues to
-travel upwards from the beginning of March to the middle of May. As
-long as they are caught on their passage up the river, they are found
-fat and fall of roe. Every fish which I saw had the Oniscus in his
-mouth, and I was assured, not only by the more ignorant fishermen, but
-by a very intelligent man who came down now and then to divert himself
-with fishing, that in forty years’ observation he had never seen a Bay
-Alewife without the louse.”
-
-The Oniscus itself, as the author states, is not without its enemies,
-many of them being caught with two or three leeches attached to their
-body, and adhering so closely that their removal cost them their heads.
-
-
-THE MOLUCCA CRAB, (_Polyphemus gigas_.)
-
-Why the singular creature here represented should have the name
-Polyphemus given to it, is hard to guess. Polyphemus, as every
-schoolboy knows, was the fabled giant overcome by Ulysses, who is
-represented as having one eye in the centre of his forehead; whereas,
-this creature has two eyes and one horn. It is interesting from its
-being so nearly allied to many very minute species.
-
-The Polyphemus sometimes reaches the length of two feet; there are but
-two species, which only differ from each other in the shape of their
-buckler. That we have represented is found in the Indian Ocean, and has
-been called the Molucca Crab.
-
-The tail, or rather the horn, of the Polyphemus, is greatly dreaded by
-the fishermen, from the idea that its wound is venomous. The natives
-employ it to point their arrows, and as they are in the habit of
-poisoning the points of these weapons, it is most likely from this
-circumstance that the idea we have noticed originated, for there is no
-other ground for the belief.
-
-[Illustration: _Polyphemus gigas._]
-
-During the night-time they lie half out of the water, and are then very
-easily taken, as they appear to take but little notice of anything
-until their danger becomes imminent.
-
-It is but a small portion of their flesh that is considered good for
-food, but the eggs, which are very numerous, are reckoned a delicacy.
-
-These Crabs are in the habit of leaving the water and walking to a
-considerable distance over the wet sands,—but if incommoded by the
-sun, they hurry back as fast as they are able to their native element.
-When walking, none of their legs are visible. Most authors say that, if
-this Crab is laid on its back, it must inevitably perish, unless the
-waters return in time, but one observer asserts that it has the power
-of righting itself with the assistance of its tail.
-
-
-THE CRAB-LIKE LIMULUS, (_Limulus cancriformis_.)
-
-The Limuli are found in deep ditches of fresh water, marshes, &c.; they
-are frequently met with congregated together in great numbers; their
-principal food in the Spring appears to be tadpoles.
-
-[Illustration: _Limulus cancriformis._ (Natural size.)]
-
-“This genus,” says Lamarck, “is almost isolated among the group in
-which it is placed. Its body is covered with a great horny buckler,
-very thin, and made of a single piece, of a roundish oval form. The
-head is confounded with the trunk, and the antennæ are very short. They
-possess three eyes, two in front, and one, very small, further back.
-Their legs are very numerous,—the two in front, much the largest,
-spread out in the form of oars, and furnished at their extremity with
-silky articulated bristles.”
-
-
-THE WATER FLEA, (_Cyclops quadricornis_.)
-
-There are as many as twelve known species of the Water Flea. That
-represented in the engraving is extremely common, and forms a most
-interesting object for the microscope. We have availed ourselves of Mr.
-Pritchard’s popular description of this curious creature.
-
-“The Author of Nature, to whom all things are alike easy of execution,
-as if intending to teach man a lesson of humility, and that no part of
-creation, however minute, is beneath his consideration, has conferred
-on these animals, that are barely perceptible to our unassisted vision,
-more elegance and variety of form, more richness in their colouring,
-and more beauty and exquisite finishing, than on the whale or the
-elephant, which mainly excite our admiration, by the magnitude of the
-mass of living matter they present to us.
-
-[Illustration: _Cyclops quadricornis._
-
-(Fig. 1, highly magnified; fig. 2, natural size.)]
-
-“These little crustaceous animals may be found at all seasons of the
-year, near the surface of the water; they are, however, most abundant
-in July and August. I have collected great numbers of them on a warm
-day in the latter month, with a small cloth net, immersing it about an
-inch below the surface. They are mostly colourless in ponds covered
-with herbage, but in small collections of rain water, on a loamy soil,
-are of a fine rich colour.
-
-“The body of this creature is covered with crustaceous or shelly
-plates, which overlap each other, and admit both of a lateral and
-vertical motion between them. Their ends do not meet on the side, but
-have sufficient space between them for the insertion and play of the
-organs of respiration. The rostrum, or beak, is short and pointed: it
-is a prolongation of the first segment which forms the head. A little
-above the beak, a single eye is imbedded beneath the shell, of a dark
-crimson colour, nearly approaching to blackness. The true form of this
-organ it is difficult to determine. Mr. Baker gives it the shape of two
-kidney-beans placed parallel to each other, and united at their lowest
-extremities. When viewed laterally, it appears round, while in some
-other positions it is square.”
-
-The eggs are curiously placed in two bags, presenting an appearance
-similar to clusters of grapes, and of considerable magnitude, compared
-with the size of the animal. These egg-bags are seen in the engraving,
-(which represents a female,) projecting from each side of the hinder
-portion of the shell. The centre of each egg is of a deep opaque
-colour, which in some specimens is green, in others red.
-
-The young of the Cyclops, when first excluded from the egg, are
-extremely minute, and so different from the mother, that Müller has
-described them as forming two distinct genera.
-
-
-THE SMALL WATER FLEA, (_Cyclops minutus_.)
-
-This species of the Water Flea differs from the last, in having its
-body divided into a greater number of segments; it is also much
-smaller; it is equally active with that last described, but its form
-renders it more graceful in its motions. “These little creatures,” says
-Mr. Pritchard, “seem to possess great discernment and cunning; for, if
-approached, they remain motionless on the plant on which they reside,
-in the apparent hope that they may be overlooked; but when a fit
-opportunity occurs, they suddenly bend the body, and spring away with a
-kind of vaulting leap.”
-
-[Illustration: _Cyclops minutus_, much magnified.]
-
-They inhabit the various species of confervæ, and may often be met
-with in great numbers on the stalks and underside of healthy duckweed,
-growing on the surface of the water. They are most numerous in April
-and May, and disappear as the heat of the season increases. They will
-not live in stagnant water containing much decomposed vegetation, and
-require, therefore, to be kept for observation in a large vessel of
-clean water. They are easily caught after a shower of rain, on the
-under surface of the duckweed, by taking out a little with a basin or
-cloth net. When found, they appear busily engaged in search of prey,
-moving about with great activity, and examining every portion of the
-plant in the most scrutinizing manner. In this pursuit the body is not
-bent as in the magnified representation in the engraving, but is kept
-in a straight crawling position. Their natural length is about the
-three hundredth part of an inch.
-
-The female of the last species has two outward receptacles for the
-eggs; in this there is but one, and that is placed on the under part of
-the animal near the tail.
-
-
-THE HAIRY CYPRIS, (_Cypris pubera_.)
-
-These singular little creatures are found in stagnant fresh water: they
-are very small, and, at first sight, appear like a bivalve shell. The
-animal which is enclosed in this two-valved case, opens and shuts it
-at will; when it does this, it throws out from one end of the shell
-numerous whitish hair-like members; it is by moving these that it is
-enabled to swim with considerable celerity, and it never stops until
-it meets with some object on which it can rest. Its two antennæ, which
-issue from the fore part of the shell, are long, very flexible, and
-bent backwards; their articulations are numerous, which gives them
-great freedom of motion. The movements of these antennæ contribute
-materially to the swimming powers of the creature.
-
-At the place where the head is united to the body, a small black point
-is seen,—this is the eye of the animal.
-
-[Illustration: _Cypris pubera._
-
-(Fig. 1, highly magnified; fig. 2, natural size.)]
-
-The Cypris changes its shell like the rest of the Crustacea; it is
-found in marshes where vegetable substances are growing. Sometimes they
-are so numerous, that the water appears covered with them; they are
-more usually found in Spring and Autumn than at any other part of the
-year; from this it is inferred that there are two broods in the course
-of the year.
-
-The drying up of marshes during the Summer heats, destroys immense
-numbers every season. It appears, however, from observation, that in
-this case, some of these tiny creatures manage to bury themselves in
-the mud, where they hermetically close their shells, and remain in a
-kind of dormant state, until rain or other causes have again filled the
-marshes with water.
-
-A species nearly allied to this, the _Artemia Salina_, the Lymington
-shrimp, or brine-worm, is able to live in the brine of the salt-pans,
-which is so strongly impregnated with salt, as to destroy any other
-Crustaceous animal.
-
-Myriads of these animalculæ are to be found in the salterns at
-Lymington, in the open tanks or reservoirs, where the brine is
-deposited previous to boiling. A pint of this brine contains about a
-quarter of a pound of salt. These tanks are called clearers, as the
-liquor becomes clear in them, an effect which the workmen attribute,
-in some degree, to the rapid and continual motion of the brine-worm,
-or the particles which cloud the liquor serving for its food; but this
-is mere conjecture. So strongly persuaded, however, are the workmen of
-this fact, that they are accustomed to transport a few of the worms
-from another saltern if they do not appear at their own. They increase
-astonishingly in the course of a few days.
-
-It is observable that the brine-worm is never seen in the sun-pans,
-where the brine is made by the admission of sea-water during the
-Summer, and which are emptied every fortnight; but only in the pits and
-reservoirs, where it is deposited after it is taken out of the pans,
-and where some of the liquor constantly remains, when it becomes much
-diluted with rain water. From October till May, (during which time the
-manufacture is at a stand,) a few only of the worms are visible; but at
-the approach of Summer, young ones appear in great numbers.
-
-                         THE END.
-
-                           LONDON:
-              JOHN W. PARKER, ST. MARTIN’S LANE.
-
-
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-
-                              FOOTNOTES:
-
-[1] This is one of the rare exceptions to the usual plan resorted to
-by nature in the formation of a shell, as noticed in the introductory
-chapter.
-
-[2] The insect from which our most beautiful scarlet dyes are prepared.
-
-[3] See Book of Fishes, p. 51.
-
-[4] The skin or shell with which the animal is covered before
-transformation.
-
-[5] It has been quaintly said on the subject of depriving the leech of
-its food, that “Those persons do not consider that blood is the most
-favourite and salutary nourishment of this extraordinary creature; and
-I would ask such inconsiderate persons how they would feel themselves,
-if, immediately after eating a hearty dinner, any person was to give
-them a violent emetic.”
-
-[6] A kind of sea-weed, (_Fucus natans_.)
-
-
-
-
-
-
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-<pre>
-
-The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Book of Shells, by Anonymous
-
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
-other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
-whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
-the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
-www.gutenberg.org.  If you are not located in the United States, you'll have
-to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook.
-
-Title: The Book of Shells
-       Containing the Classes Mollusca, Conchifera, Cirrhipeda,
-              Annulata, and Crustacea
-
-Author: Anonymous
-
-Release Date: December 18, 2019 [EBook #60961]
-
-Language: English
-
-Character set encoding: UTF-8
-
-*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE BOOK OF SHELLS ***
-
-
-
-
-Produced by Chris Curnow, Paul Marshall and the Online
-Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
-file was produced from images generously made available
-by The Internet Archive)
-
-
-
-
-
-
-</pre>
-
-
-<div class="transnote bbox covernote">
-<p class="no-indent">The cover image was created by the transcriber, and is placed in the public domain.</p>
-</div>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/frontis.jpg" alt="Frontispiece" width="600" height="427" />
-    <p class="center"><small>THE</small><br /><big><b>FIVE CLASSES OF INVERTEBRAL ANIMALS</b></big><br />
-                      <small>DESCRIBED IN THIS VOLUME</small></p>
-</div>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-<h1><span class="small_font">THE</span><br />BOOK OF SHELLS;</h1>
-
-<p class="f90 space-above3 space-below3">CONTAINING</p>
-<p class="f110 space-below3"><b>THE CLASSES MOLLUSCA, CONCHIFERA,<br />
-CIRRHIPEDA, ANNULATA, AND<br />CRUSTACEA.</b></p>
-<hr class="r25" />
-<p class="f90">PUBLISHED UNDER THE DIRECTION OF<br />
-THE COMMITTEE OF GENERAL LITERATURE AND EDUCATION,<br />
-APPOINTED BY THE SOCIETY FOR PROMOTING<br />CHRISTIAN KNOWLEDGE.</p>
-<hr class="r25" />
-<p class="f120 space-above3 space-below3">THE SECOND EDITION.</p>
-<p class="f120">LONDON:<br />JOHN W. PARKER, WEST STRAND.</p>
-<hr class="r5" />
-<p class="f90">M.DCCC.XXXVII.</p>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-<div class="chapter">
-<p class="f120"><b>TO THE READER.</b></p></div>
-<hr class="r5" />
-
-<p class="blockquot2 no-indent">In describing that portion of the system of Natural History which
-embraces the <span class="smcap">Vertebral Animals</span>,&mdash;namely, the Mammalia, the
-Birds, the Reptiles, and the Fishes,&mdash;the arrangement of the <span class="smcap">Baron
-Cuvier</span> was adopted. In the present little volume, as well as in
-two others that are to follow, and which, together, will comprise the
-<span class="smcap">Invertebral Animals</span>, the method of <span class="smcap">M. Lamarck</span>
-will be adhered to. It is true, that, since the works of that naturalist were
-published, many deviations from certain parts of his system have taken
-place, some of which have received the sanction of the highest names;
-but still, <i>as a whole</i>, Lamarck’s System remains unrivalled, and
-the young naturalist can readily add to the information it contains,
-by reference to the works of more recent authors, in case he has
-sufficient inclination and industry to follow out the subject.</p>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span></p>
-<div class="chapter">
-<p class="f150"><b>CONTENTS.</b></p></div>
-<hr class="r5" />
-
-<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Table of contents." cellpadding="0" >
-  <tbody><tr>
-      <td class="tdr" colspan="3"><small>Page</small></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_sa1" colspan="2"><b><big>Introductory Chapter</big></b></td>
-      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#INTRO">&nbsp;9</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_sa1" colspan="2"><b><big>Class <span class="smcap">Mollusca</span></big></b></td>
-      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#MOLLUSCA">14</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_sa1" colspan="2">Order <span class="smcap">Heteropoda</span></td>
-      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#HETEROPODA">15</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl" colspan="2">The Glassy Carinaria</td>
-      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#CARINARIA">15</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_sa1" colspan="2">Order <span class="smcap">Cephalopoda</span></td>
-      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#CEPHALOPODA">16</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl" colspan="2">The Cuttle Fish</td>
-      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#CUTTLE_FISH">17</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;&emsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Argonaut</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#ARGO">20</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Pearly Nautilus</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PEARLY">22</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_sa1" colspan="2">Order <span class="smcap">Trachelipoda</span></td>
-      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#TRACHELIPODA">26</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl" colspan="2">The Marble Cone</td>
-      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#MARBLE">27</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Porphyry Olive Shell</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PORPHYRY">28</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Money Cowrie</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#COWRIE">29</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Diadem Whorl Shell</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#DIADEM">31</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Common Columbella</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#COLUMBELLA">31</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Music Harp Shell</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#HARP">32</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Wide-Mouthed Purpura</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PURPURA">33</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Spotted Scorpion Shell</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#SCORPION">37</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Variegated Sea-Trumpet</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#TRUMPET">39</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Caniculated Pear-Shell</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PEAR">40</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Babylonian Split-Mouth</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#BABYLON">40</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Marble Turban-Shell</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#TURBAN">41</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Imperial Top-Shell</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#IMPERIAL">41</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Precious Scalaria</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#SCALARIA">42</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Iris Ear-Shell</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#IRIS">43</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Dusty Neritina</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#NERITINA">44</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Viviparous Paludina</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PALUDINA">44</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Lymnæa Stagnalis</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#STAGNALIS">45</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Horn-shaped Planorbis</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PLANORBIS">46</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Red-mouthed Bulimus</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#BULIMUS">46</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Mummy Puppet Shell</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#MUMMY">47</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Wood Snail</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#SNAIL">47</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_sa1" colspan="2">Order <span class="smcap">Gasteropoda</span></td>
-      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#GASTEROPODA">51</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl" colspan="2">The Red Slug</td>
-      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#SLUG">51</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Woodlike Bulla</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#BULLA">53</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Nail-shaped Crepidula</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#CREPIDULA">54</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Mediterranean Umbrella</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#UMBRELLA">54</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Clouded Fissurella</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#FISSURELLA">54</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Hungarian Bonnet Shell</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#BONNET">55</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Scaly Chiton</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHITON">56</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_sa1" colspan="2"><b><big>Class <span class="smcap">Conchifera</span></big></b></td>
-      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#CONCHIFERA">57</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_sa1" colspan="2">Order <span class="smcap">Unimusculosa</span></td>
-      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#UNIMUSCULOSA">64</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl" colspan="2">The Horse-Foot Bowl Shell</td>
-      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#HORSE">64</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Oyster</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#OYSTER">65</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Great Comb Shell</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#COMB">68</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Pearl Oyster</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PEARL">69</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Hammer Oyster</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#HAMMER">77</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Rough Pinna</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PINNA">77</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Common Mussel</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#MUSSEL">79</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Giant Tridacna</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#TRIDACNA">81</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_sa1" colspan="2">Order <span class="smcap">Bimusculosa</span></td>
-      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#BIMUSCULOSA">82</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl" colspan="2">The Fresh-Water Mussel</td>
-      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#FW_MUSSEL">83</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Heart-shaped Isocardia</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#ISOCARDIA">84</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Wedge-shaped Donax</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#DONAX">85</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Sheath Solen</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#SOLEN">85</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Date-shaped Pholas</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PHOLAS">87</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Ship-Worm</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#SHIP_WORM">89</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_sa1" colspan="2"><b><big>Class <span class="smcap">Cirrhipeda</span></big></b></td>
-      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#CIRRHIPEDA">91</a>
-                <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_sa1" colspan="2">Order <span class="smcap">Cirrhipeda Pedunculata</span></td>
-      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#PEDUNCULATA">92</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl" colspan="2">The Smooth Barnacle</td>
-      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#BARNACLE">92</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_sa1" colspan="2">Order <span class="smcap">Cirrhipeda Sedentaria</span></td>
-      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#SEDENTARIA">94</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl" colspan="2">The Acorn-Shell</td>
-      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#ACORN">94</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_sa1" colspan="2"><b><big>Class <span class="smcap">Annulata</span></big></b></td>
-      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#ANNULATA">97</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_sa1" colspan="2">Order <span class="smcap">Annulata Sedentaria</span></td>
-      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#ANN_SEDENTARIA">98</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl" colspan="2">The Magnificent Amphitrite</td>
-      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#AMPHITRITE">98</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_sa1" colspan="2">Order <span class="smcap">Annulata Antennata</span></td>
-      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#ANTENNATA">100</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl" colspan="2">The Sand-Worm of the Fishermen</td>
-      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#SAND_WORM">100</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Blood-coloured Leodice</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#LEODICE">100</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Spinous Sea-Mouse</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#MOUSE">102</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_sa1" colspan="2">Order <span class="smcap">Annulata Apoda</span></td>
-      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#APODA">102</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl" colspan="2">The Common Earth-Worm</td>
-      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#EARTH_WORM">103</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Medicinal Leech</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#LEECH">106</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_sa1" colspan="2"><b><big>Class <span class="smcap">Crustacea</span></big></b></td>
-      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#CRUSTACEA">115</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_sa1" colspan="2">Order <span class="smcap">Crustacea Homobranchiæ</span></td>
-      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#HOMOBRANCHIAE">115</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl" colspan="2">The Crab Tribe</td>
-      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#CRAB_TRIBE">117</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Land Crab</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#LAND">124</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Hermit Crab</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#HERMIT">127</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Lobster</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#LOBSTER">130</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">River Cray-Fish</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#CRAY_FISH">131</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Phosphorescent Shrimp</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#SHRIMP">132</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Opossum Shrimp</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#OPOSSUM">134</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_sa1" colspan="2">Order <span class="smcap">Crustacea Heterobranchiæ&emsp;&nbsp;</span></td>
-      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#HETEROBRANCHIAE">137</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl" colspan="2">The Spotted Squill</td>
-      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#SQUILL">137</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Common Cloportus</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#CLOPORTUS">138</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Molucca Crab</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#MOLUCCA">142</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Crab-like Limulus</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#LIMULUS">144</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Water Flea</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#FLEA">144</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Small Water Flea</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#SW_FLEA">147</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Hairy Cypris</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#CYPRIS">148</a></td>
-    </tr>
- </tbody>
-</table>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-<div class="chapter">
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span></p>
-<p class="f150"><b><small>THE</small><br /><big>BOOK OF SHELLS.</big></b></p></div>
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<h2><a name="INTRO" id="INTRO"></a>Introductory Chapter.</h2>
-
-<p>In reviewing the first <span class="smcap">Division</span> of the
-animal kingdom, namely, the vertebral animals, we cannot fail to have
-been delighted with the wonderful and appropriate faculties bestowed
-upon each individual; but, beautiful and well adapted to the use of
-their possessors as these faculties may have appeared, our pleasure
-must be still greater in tracing the powers with which those creatures
-are endowed, which constitute what we have been accustomed to call the
-lower orders of animated nature.</p>
-
-<p>When contemplating the graceful form of the horse or the stag, or
-the beautiful plumage of the feathered tribes, or when we notice the
-terrific appearance of the crocodile, or the elaborate finish and
-metallic lustre of the scales of fishes, we are led to expect that
-equal care has been bestowed upon the rest of the organization of the
-different individuals, and that equal attention has been paid to the
-various instincts and powers that are necessary to their preservation;
-but when we observe a snail, or a worm, and compare their more simple
-appearance, and the perfect absence of what we have been accustomed to
-consider the organs of motion, namely, feet and hands, we are apt to
-look on them as having been created for some very subordinate purpose,
-and, therefore, less carefully formed than the vertebral animals. How
-much greater then must be our delight, when we find them possessed of
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span>
-every power necessary to their state of existence, as beautifully
-developed, and as carefully adapted to their necessities, as the
-highest instincts of other classes are to their possessors. Nor is
-their organization to be considered less perfect, because we are unable
-to trace it in all its ramifications; the minute branches of the nerves
-of the human body are, not only invisible to the naked eye, but even
-to the most acute observer when assisted by the magnifying power of
-the microscope, but we are certain that they do exist, from the pain
-we feel when they are injured. Until lately, the <i>Infusoria</i>, those
-microscopic animals that are found in infusions of vegetable substances
-in water, were supposed to be possessed of neither nerves nor stomach,
-and to be fed by absorption; but the ingenious experiments of a learned
-foreigner have proved, that, instead of being without a stomach,
-they are provided with as many as five or six: it is true, that the
-nerves have not yet been detected, but we have a right to infer their
-existence from their effects; so that these minute creatures, which we
-have been accustomed to consider as nearly destitute of organs, are, in
-fact, beautifully formed, and as perfect in their kind as any other of
-the Creator’s works.</p>
-
-<p>The second <span class="smcap">Division</span> of the objects of
-natural history, namely, the <span class="smcap">Invertebral</span>
-animals, which we have now to describe, are placed by themselves, on
-account of their being without an internal skeleton, consisting of a
-series of vertebræ, or bones of the back. This distinction is explained
-in the introductory chapter to the Book of Animals. They have been
-separated, by Lamarck, into Eleven <span class="smcap">Classes</span>, namely:&mdash;
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot1">
-<p class="no-indent">1. <span class="smcap">Mollusca</span>,
-(<i>soft-bodied animals</i>,) in general covered with a shell; as, for
-instance, a snail; or without a shell, as a slug.</p>
-
-<p class="no-indent">2. <span class="smcap">Conchifera</span>,
-(<i>shell-bearing animals</i>,) with a shell, consisting of two valves, as
-an oyster or mussel.</p>
-
-<p class="no-indent">3. <span class="smcap">Cirrhipeda</span>, (<i>with
-feet like cirri, or hairs</i>.) The inhabitant of the acorn-shell, found
-on the back of the larger kind of shell-fish, &amp;c., is an instance
-of this class.</p>
-
-<p class="no-indent">4. <span class="smcap">Annelida</span>, (<i>with
-body formed of rings</i>;) of this class the leech and the earth-worm are
-instances.</p>
-
-<p class="no-indent">5. <span class="smcap">Crustacea</span>,
-(<i>covered with a hard case</i>,) crabs, lobsters, &amp;c.</p>
-
-<p class="no-indent">6. <span class="smcap">Arachnidæ</span>,
-<i>Spiders</i>.</p>
-
-<p class="no-indent">7. <span class="smcap">Insecta</span>, <i>Insects</i>.
-A perfect insect has always six legs.</p>
-
-<p class="no-indent">8. <span class="smcap">Tunicata</span>,
-(<i>enclosed in a case of a leathery consistence</i>.)</p>
-
-<p class="no-indent">9. <span class="smcap">Vermes</span>, <i>Worms</i>.
-With lengthened body without divisions; for instance, worms found in
-the intestines.</p>
-
-<p class="no-indent">10. <span class="smcap">Radiariæ</span>,
-(<i>radiated animals</i>,) with the different parts of which they are formed
-arranged like rays round one common centre; as, for instance, the
-Star-fish.</p>
-
-<p class="no-indent">11. <span class="smcap">Polypi</span>, (<i>many
-feet</i>.) The animal that forms the Coral is a Polypus.</p>
-
-<p class="no-indent">12. <span class="smcap">Infusoria</span>,
-(<i>Infusory animals</i>.) These are found in infusions of vegetable
-substances in water, and are, in general, too small to be visible to
-the naked eye.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p class="space-above2">In the present little book we shall treat of the
-first five of these Classes.</p>
-
-<p>The Molluscous animals are, on account of their organization, placed
-first among the invertebral animals, a few of the species resembling,
-in some respects, the more simply-formed fishes.</p>
-
-<p>The systematic arrangement of the Molluscous animals, considered
-not only as regards their shells, but having reference also to the
-anatomical distinctions of the creatures themselves, is a modern study.
-In ancient authors we merely find a few scattered facts, the beauty of
-the shells attracting their notice more than the value or nature of the animals.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>Although, at the first glance, the inhabitants of shells appear to
-be beings of a very uninteresting nature, a due consideration of the
-valuable properties of many, and the usefulness of all, will enable
-us to perceive, that, regarding them merely in an interested point of
-view, they are worthy of the strictest attention of the naturalist.
-In the first place, the whole of them afford food for the different
-species of fish, and other inhabitants of the deep. The Tyrian dye, the
-royal purple of the ancients, was produced by the inhabitant of a small
-univalve shell, of the genus Purpura. That beautiful ornament in dress,
-the oriental pearl, is the consequence of disease in a species of
-mussel, and the inner portion of the shell of the same animal, is the
-well-known substance, mother-of-pearl. A kind of silk is obtained from
-the beard of the pinna, which, in some places, is made into gloves. As
-an article of food we may mention the well-known oyster, the mussel,
-scallop, &amp;c., and some of the larger kinds form no small portion of
-the subsistence of the natives of the South-Sea Islands, and the Negro
-population in the West Indies.</p>
-
-<p>The <a href="#FIG_89"><i>Teredo navalis</i></a>, or ship-worm, has, by its destructive powers,
-ruined the noblest vessels, and rendered useless the timbers, on which
-many of the constructions in harbours mainly depend for security; on
-this account great attention has been bestowed on its natural history
-and habits. The barnacle, which attaches itself to the bottoms of
-ships, renders the planks so foul, as to interfere materially with
-the rate of sailing of the vessel itself. These are only a few of the
-useful and noxious qualities of these inhabitants of the deep.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span></p>
-
-<p class="space-below2">The shell with which a Molluscous animal is
-covered, is absolutely necessary to protect its delicate body from
-injury; this shell is, in general, composed of much the same substances
-as bone; but the bone of a bird, or quadruped, is formed by the agency
-of the blood, and the particles of which it is composed are deposited
-by that fluid, and again taken up and restored to the circulation, a
-circumstance which does not take place in the substance of a shell. The
-shell is formed by the deposition of layer upon layer, in the course of
-the growth of the animal, and the ridges we perceive on many shells,
-point out their periodical increase.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="SHELLS" id="SHELLS"></a>
-    <p class="center"><b><big><i>Fig 1.<span class="ws18">Fig 2.</span></i></big></b></p>
-    <img src="images/i_013.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="396" />
-</div>
-
-<p>It will be necessary, when describing the distinctions between
-shells of different genera, to use several terms, which will, unless
-properly defined, be, perhaps, unintelligible to young people. The
-annexed diagrams will explain the meaning of those of most frequent
-occurrence among the Mollusca. <a href="#SHELLS">Fig. 1</a>,
-represents a univalve shell; <a href="#SHELLS">fig. 2</a>, another
-shell, of the same division, cut through the middle, for the purpose
-of showing the columella, or pillar. Many shells, as, for
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span>
-instance, the periwinkle, (<i>Turbo vulgaris</i>,) have what is called
-an operculum, (<i>a lid</i>,) which closes the opening, and protects the
-inhabitant from injury. In the case of the periwinkle, this lid is of
-horny nature, but, in many species it is hard and solid, like the shell
-itself.</p>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-<div class="chapter">
-<h2><a name="MOLLUSCA" id="MOLLUSCA"></a>CLASS MOLLUSCA.</h2></div>
-
-<p>In noticing the animal of a univalve shell, the part which more readily
-attracts the attention is the mantle, which covers the head of the
-creature, something like a hood; it varies much in form and size in
-different genera. The eyes, which in the sepia are amazingly large and
-brilliant, are very minute in most of the other tribes, although they
-are frequently visible, and would appear, from their formation, to be
-of little use as organs of sight; indeed, it is supposed, that in the
-snail they are devoted to the sense of smelling.</p>
-
-<p>The organs of motion in the Mollusca, according to their different
-form and position, give names to most of the orders; these consist of
-muscular expansions of the body, by means of which the animal swims or
-drags itself along the ground. The gills, or breathing apparatus, are
-situated internally, and communicate with the air or water, by means of
-a small canal opening outwardly. The mouth is usually concealed from
-view when the creature is at rest; in some, this organ is furnished
-with a hard substance, which supplies the place of teeth, while, in
-others, it is in the form of a projecting tube. The greatest portion of
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span>
-these creatures are produced in the water, the tribes that inhabit that
-element, exceeding by far those that are to be found upon the land.</p>
-
-<p>The Molluscous animals have been separated into the five following
-Orders:&mdash;</p>
-
-<ul class="index">
-<li class="isub0">1. <span class="smcap">Heteropoda</span>, (<i>with feet, or organs of motion,</i></li>
-<li class="isub2"><i>not uniform in all species</i>.)</li>
-<li class="isub0">2. <span class="smcap">Cephalopoda</span>, (<i>with feet, or organs of motion,</i></li>
-<li class="isub2"><i>attached to the head</i>.)</li>
-<li class="isub0">3. <span class="smcap">Trachelipoda</span>, (<i>with feet, or organs of motion,</i></li>
-<li class="isub2"><i>attached to the neck, near the gills</i>.)</li>
-<li class="isub0">4. <span class="smcap">Gasteropoda</span>, (<i>with feet, or organs of motion,</i></li>
-<li class="isub2"><i>attached to the stomach</i>.)</li>
-<li class="isub0">5. <span class="smcap">Pteropoda</span>, (<i>with feet, or organs of motion,</i></li>
-<li class="isub2 space-below2"><i>like wings</i>.)</li>
-</ul>
-
-<h3><a name="HETEROPODA" id="HETEROPODA"></a><i>ORDER HETEROPODA.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The creatures belonging to this order, says Lamarck may be considered
-as the first vestiges of the appearance of a series of marine animals,
-intermediate in their formation between the fishes and the Cephalopods;
-they are all natives of hot climates, and possess a body of a
-jelly-like substance, and so transparent as to be seen with difficulty
-when floating in the water. They do not all possess shells, and are
-less known than they otherwise would be, on account of the great
-difficulty there is in preserving them.</p>
-
-<h4><a name="CARINARIA" id="CARINARIA"></a><span class="smcap">The Glassy Carinaria</span>,
-(<a href="#FIG_16"><i>Carinaria vitrea</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>This singular animal is rarely taken, on account of its delicate and
-perishable substance; it is found in the Southern Ocean. It will be
-seen, on referring to the engraving, that the shell which it bears
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span>
-merely covers a portion of its body, that in which the most material
-organs of the animal are found, namely, the heart and the branchiæ, or
-organs of breathing. These are most curiously placed on the upper part
-of its body, projecting from it and protected by a delicately white
-and transparent shell, shaped like a little cap, and of a substance
-resembling glass. The creature is able to enlarge its body by filling
-it with water, and in swimming the back is undermost. The shell, which
-seldom exceeds an inch in length, has been sought after by collectors
-with great assiduity, and has, at times, fetched as much as ten guineas
-at a sale; a perfect specimen is very rarely met with. There is a wax
-model of one of these shells in the British Museum, nearly two inches wide.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="FIG_16" id="FIG_16"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_016.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="249" />
-    <p class="center space-below2"><small>THE GLASSY CARINARIA</small>,
-                                   (<i>Carinaria vitrea</i>.)</p>
-</div>
-
-<h3><a name="CEPHALOPODA" id="CEPHALOPODA"></a><i>ORDER CEPHALOPODA.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The Cephalopods have been so named by Cuvier, from being furnished with
-a kind of inarticulated arms which surround the head. We find among
-this class some of the most singular productions of the waters; they
-differ materially from each other, and have been separated into three
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span>
-groups; first, those without any external shell, as the Sepia;
-secondly, the inhabitants of a shell without any divisions, as the
-Argonaut; and, thirdly, those whose shell is divided into numerous
-chambers, as the Nautilus.</p>
-
-<h4><a name="CUTTLE_FISH" id="CUTTLE_FISH"></a><span class="smcap">The Cuttle Fish</span>,
-(<a href="#CUTTLE"><i>Sepia officinalis</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>The Cuttle Fish, of which there are many different species, is a native
-of all the temperate and tropical seas. Its body is, in general, of
-an irregular oval shape, and of a jelly-like substance, and usually
-covered with a coarse skin, having the appearance of leather. Unlike
-all other inhabitants of the water which are without a backbone, the
-Sepia possesses two large and brilliant eyes, covered with a hard
-transparent substance.</p>
-
-<p>The <a href="#CUTTLE">Cuttle Fish</a>, figured in the engraving, is furnished
-in front with eight arms or feelers, with which it grapples with its enemy,
-or conveys its prey to its mouth. These arms are most curiously
-constructed, and afford it ample means of defence; they possess in
-themselves a strong muscular power, and this is materially assisted
-by numerous cups or suckers, placed along the whole of their inner
-surface, with which they fasten themselves to any object they come in
-contact with. These feelers appear to be also endued with some peculiar
-power, of a galvanic nature; since the pain which they inflict does not
-cease for a long time after the removal of the animal, leaving a kind
-of stinging sensation, like that produced by nettles, which remains for
-many hours, and is followed by a troublesome irritation and itching.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="CUTTLE" id="CUTTLE"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_018.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="597" />
-    <p class="center"><small>THE CUTTLE FISH.</small></p>
-</div>
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figright">
-    <img src="images/i_019.jpg" alt="" width="150" height="128" />
-    <p class="center"><small>BEAK OF A<br />CEPHALOPOD.</small></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The size to which this creature grows has been variously stated; and,
-although evidently exaggerated by some authors, there can be no doubt
-that it attains a very considerable magnitude. When attacked in its own
-element, it has been known, even in the seas of temperate latitudes,
-capable of overcoming a powerful mastiff. The jaws of all this tribe
-are, likewise, extremely strong, formed like the beak of a parrot, and
-very hard. In addition to these means of defence, it possesses within
-its body a bladder, containing an inky-coloured fluid, which it has the
-power of throwing out at will, and, by thus discolouring the water, it
-escapes the pursuit of its enemies. This inky liquid, when dried, forms
-a very valuable colour, used by artists, and called, after the animal,
-<i>Sepia</i>. The eggs of the female are of an oval form, and joined to each
-other in clusters. They are of the size of filberts, of a black colour,
-and commonly known by the name of <i>Sea Grapes</i>. They are found attached
-to sea-weed, rocks, and other marine substances.</p>
-
-<p>The <a href="#CUTTLE">Cuttle Fish</a> generally remains with its body in some hole
-in a rock, while its arms are extended in every direction, to seize the wanderer
-that may chance to pass its place of ambush. Its appetite is voracious, and
-it seizes as its prey every living thing that it has the power to conquer.</p>
-
-<p>The species figured in the engraving is very common on the English
-coasts, and the bone which is enclosed in its body is frequently found
-on the sands; it is a well-known substance, and much employed in the
-manufacture of tooth-powder. This bone, which, with the exception of
-the jaws, is the only solid part in the Sepia, differs in shape in
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span>
-the different species, but is always somewhat oval in its form, though
-varying considerably in texture.</p>
-
-<h4><a name="ARGO" id="ARGO"></a><span class="smcap">The Argonaut</span>,
-(<a href="#ARGONAUTA"><i>Argonauta argo</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
-<span class="i0">The tender Nautilus that steers its prow,<span class="ws3">&nbsp;</span></span>
-<span class="i0">The sea-born sailor in its light canoe.</span>
-</div></div></div>
-
-<hr class="tb" />
-
-<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
-<span class="i0">He, when the lightning-winged tornadoes sweep</span>
-<span class="i0">The surge, is safe; his home is in the deep.</span>
-<span class="i0">He triumphs o’er the armadas of mankind,</span>
-<span class="i0">That shake the world, but tremble in the wind.</span>
-</div></div></div>
-
-<p>The curious inhabitant of this elegant shell has, from the earliest
-ages, excited the admiration of the student in natural history; and,
-at the same time, its real place in the system has eluded the research
-of the most acute observers. The animal agrees, in many points, with
-the sepia, or cuttle fish, which never possesses a shelly covering, so
-that, had it been found without that beautiful addition, naturalists
-would have referred it, without hesitation, to that particular division
-of the dwellers in the deep; it is, however, always met with along
-with the shell; and, although there appears to be no bond of union
-between the tenant and its dwelling, still the purposes to which it
-applies it, imply, at any rate, a long-continued occupancy, if they do
-not absolutely point out the Nautilus as the original architect of the shell.</p>
-
-<p>The name Argonaut has been applied to this sea-born navigator from its
-resemblance, when floating on the surface of the waves, to a vessel in
-full sail, Argo being the name of the ship, which was supposed to have
-been the first fitted out for commercial adventure.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="ARGONAUTA" id="ARGONAUTA"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_021.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="498" />
-    <p class="center"><small>THE ARGONAUT, OR PAPER NAUTILUS.</small></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>In calm Summer days, these beautiful little creatures may be seen, in
-considerable numbers, steering their little barks on the surface of the
-waters of the Mediterranean. The words of the ancient Roman naturalist,
-Pliny, give a pleasing description of its habits. “Among the principal
-miracles of nature,” says he, “is the animal called Nautilos, or
-Pompilos: it ascends to the surface of the sea, in a supine posture,
-and, gradually raising itself up, forces out, by means of its tube,
-all the water from its shell, in order that it may swim more readily;
-then, throwing back the two foremost arms, it displays between them a
-membrane of wonderful tenuity, which acts as a sail, while, with the
-remaining arms, it rows itself along, the tail in the middle acting as
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span>
-a helm to direct its course, and thus it pursues its voyage; and, if
-alarmed by any appearance of danger, takes in the water and descends.”</p>
-
-<p>Although the Argonaut has never yet been discovered attached to its
-shell, some observations which have been recently made on the Pearly
-Nautilus, which very nearly resembles it, have almost proved that
-such a connexion does really exist. But whether the shell is formed
-by itself, or only used to assist the creature in its movements, the
-instinct displayed is not the less wonderful, or worthy of observation.
-The Mediterranean, and warmer parts of the Atlantic, abound in these
-interesting animals, and one species is also found in the Indian Ocean.</p>
-
-<h4><a name="PEARLY" id="PEARLY"></a><span class="smcap">The Pearly Nautilus</span>,
-(<a href="#POMPILIUS"><i>Nautilus pompilius</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>The inhabitant of this singular shell had long been sought after
-with eagerness by naturalists, and it is only within these few years
-that its true nature has been ascertained. We are indebted for this
-knowledge to the researches of the late Mr. George Bennet, who, while
-engaged in a voyage among the Polynesian Islands, captured a specimen
-containing a living animal, which was brought to England, and is now
-deposited in the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons in London.</p>
-
-<p>The shell of the Nautilus, as may be seen by the engraving, is divided
-into numerous cells. The use of these cells to the animal we are now
-describing, was formerly not well understood, but they were supposed to
-be employed, by their inhabitant, for the purpose of rising or sinking
-in the Water at will. The body of this <i>Cephalopod</i>, it will be seen,
-only occupies the outer cell of its habitation, its increased size
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span>
-having rendered it too large to remain in that preceding it. If, as
-the animal deserted its smaller tenements, one after the other, they
-had been filled, up with solid matter, the shell would have become too
-cumbersome for its owner; so that we have here another proof of the
-providing care of the Creator. We shall describe, in Mr. Bennet’s own
-words, the capture of this interesting object.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="POMPILIUS" id="POMPILIUS"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_023.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="489" />
-    <p class="center"><small>THE PEARLY NAUTILUS,</small></p>
-    <p class="center space-below2">Showing the Animal, and a Section of its Shell.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>“It was on the twenty-fourth of August, 1829, (calm and fine weather,
-thermometer at noon 79°,) in the evening, when the ship Sophia was
-lying at anchor, in Marakini Bay, on the south-west side of the island
-of Erromanga, one of the New Hebrides group, Southern Pacific Ocean,
-that something was seen floating on the surface of the water, at some
-distance from the ship; to many it appeared like a small dead
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span>
-tortoise-shell cat, which would have been such an unusual object in
-this part of the world, that the boat, which was alongside of the ship
-at the time, was sent for the purpose of ascertaining the nature of the
-floating object.”</p>
-
-<p>“On approaching near, it was observed to be the shell-fish, commonly
-known by the name of the <a href="#POMPILIUS">Pearly Nautilus</a>:
-it was captured and brought on board; but the shell was shattered from
-having been struck with the boat-hook, in taking it, as the animal was
-sinking when the boat approached, and, had it not been so damaged, it
-would have escaped. I extracted the fish in a perfect state, which was
-firmly attached to each side of the cavity of the shell.” The hood has
-been stated by Dr. Shaw, as being “of a pale, reddish-purple colour,
-with deeper sports and variegations,” the colour, however, as it
-appeared in this recent specimen, was of a dark reddish-brown.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_024.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="344" />
-    <p class="center space-below2"><small>SHELL OF THE NAUTILUS; AND THE SEA-PEN,<br />
-                                OR INTERNAL SHELL OF THE LOLIGO.</small></p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span>
-Although this is the only instance of the animal itself having been
-brought to this country, there is but little doubt of its having been
-frequently taken, but as the shell was the object of the captors, and
-not its inhabitant the latter has been thrown away as useless. An
-office in his Majesty’s Navy found a Nautilus in a hole in a reef of
-rocks, near an island on the Eastern coast of Africa; the mantle of the
-fish, like a thin membrane, covered the shell, which was drawn in as
-soon as it was touched, and the elegant shell was then displayed. “I
-and others,” says the same informant, “when it was first seen did not
-notice it, regarding the animal, as the membrane enveloped the shell,
-merely as a piece of blubber; but having touched it by accident, the
-membranous covering was drawn in, and we soon secured our beautiful
-prize.”</p>
-
-<p>Rumphius, a German naturalist, appears to have been acquainted with
-its habits; he says, “When he thus floats upon the water, he puts out
-his head, and all his barbs, and spreads them on the water, with the
-poop of the shell above water: but at the bottom he creeps in a reverse
-position, with his boat above him, and with his head and barbs upon the
-ground, making a tolerably quick progress. He keeps himself chiefly on
-the ground, creeping sometimes also into the nets of the fishermen: but
-after a storm, as the weather becomes calm, they are seen in troops
-floating on the water, being driven up by the agitation of the waves.
-This sailing, however, is not of long continuance, for having taken
-in all their tentacles, they upset their boat, and so return to the bottom.”
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span></p>
-
-<h3><a name="TRACHELIPODA" id="TRACHELIPODA"></a><i>ORDER TRACHELIPODA.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The Trachelipodes contain by far the largest portion of the univalve
-shells, and are mostly inhabitants of the waters. They form two
-numerous groups, the feeders on animal food, (<i>Zoophagi</i>,) and those
-that exist on vegetable substances, (<i>Phytophagi</i>.) The animal feeders
-are well distinguished from the other group, by having a mouth without
-jaws, being furnished with a tube which they can retract or advance at
-pleasure, for the purpose of sucking their nutriment from the bodies
-of other inhabitants of the deep. The animal feeders are also known
-from the other section by the possession of a projecting tube called a
-<i>siphon</i>, which conveys the water to the gills. The shell also points
-out to which section its possessor belonged, from the lower part of
-its opening being formed either into a sort of canal, or a groove for
-the reception of its siphon. They are all marine animals, and breathe
-water. The flesh-eating tribes compose five families.</p>
-
-<ul class="index">
-<li class="isub0"><span class="smcap">Family Convoluta</span>, (<i>rolled up like a scroll</i>.)</li>
-<li class="isub0"><span class="smcap">Family Columellaria</span>, (<i>distinguished by a plaited columella</i>.)</li>
-<li class="isub0"><span class="smcap">Family Purpurifera</span>, (<i>yielding a purple colour</i>.)</li>
-<li class="isub0"><span class="smcap">Family Alata</span>, (<i>winged</i>.)</li>
-<li class="isub0"><span class="smcap">Family Canalifera</span> (<i>having a canal at the base of the opening</i>.)</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p class="f120 u"><b><span class="smcap">Family</span> <i>CONVOLUTA</i>.</b></p>
-
-<p>The convoluted shells contain but few genera; but these are very rich
-in species, and furnish us with some of the most beautiful specimens of
-this class.</p>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span></p>
-<div class="chapter">
-<p class="f120"><b>FEEDERS ON ANIMAL FOOD, (<span class="smcap">Zoophagi</span>.)</b></p></div>
-<hr class="r5" />
-
-<h4><a name="MARBLE" id="MARBLE"></a><span class="smcap">The Marble Cone</span>,
-(<a href="#FIG_27"><i>Conus marmoreus</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>Lamarck notices no less than 181 recent species of the Cone shell. The
-Marbled Cone figured below, is found in most of the Asiatic seas, and
-is not uncommon; it is of a dusky colour, and covered with angular
-white spots. The section of this shell points out in a remarkable manner
-the economy and providence of the Creator, so visible in all his works.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="FIG_27" id="FIG_27"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_027.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="301" />
-    <p class="center space-below2"><i>Voluta diadema.<span class="ws4">Conus marmoreus.</span>
-                                   <span class="ws4">Columbella mercatoria.</span></i></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>It will be seen on referring to the engraving, that the shell is much
-thicker in the outward part of its coat than in any other part; and
-this exceeding thickness is necessary for the protection of the soft
-body of its inhabitant. In the course of the growth of the animal the
-shell is enlarged, and that part that was external becomes internal,
-the last made portion of the shell forming the outer wall; if,
-therefore, the inner part of the shell retained its original thickness,
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span>
-its weight would become too great for its possessor. To guard against
-this inconvenience, and this useless waste of material, the creature
-possesses the power of absorbing so much of the substance of what now
-becomes the internal portion of its dwelling as is unnecessary for its
-present use, and of re-depositing the same on the outward wall of its
-mansion, where strength is most required<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a>.</p>
-
-<p>The Cones, says Lamarck, are the most beautiful of all the univalve
-shells; the genus comprises the most valuable and the most remarkable
-specimens of this family, whether we look at the regularity of their
-form or the splendour of their colours. The beauty of many, but,
-above all, the extreme rarity of others, have given them a species of
-celebrity, and have caused them to be much sought after by collectors.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="PORPHYRY" id="PORPHYRY"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_028.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="338" />
-    <p class="center"><i>Oliva porphyria.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The Cones are found in the seas of hot climates, in from ten to twelve
-fathom water. The animal of the Cones has the head furnished with two
-tentaculæ, or horns, with the eyes on the summits; they only inhabit salt waters.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>The genus Oliva is distinguished from the Cones by the groove or canal
-which separates the turns of their spire, and by the wrinkles on the
-columella. The <a href="#PORPHYRY">Porphyry Olive</a> is found in the South American
-Seas, on the Brazilian coast, and is the most beautiful and the largest species
-of the genus; it is of a flesh colour, with numerous lines of a reddish
-brown, forming angular figures of various forms, and covered with
-irregular-formed spots of a red or maroon colour. Its length is nearly
-four inches. There are nearly seventy species of this beautiful shell.</p>
-
-<h4><a name="COWRIE" id="COWRIE"></a><span class="smcap">The Money Cowrie</span>,
-(<a href="#FIG_29"><i>Cypræa moneta</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>The Money Cowrie of Guinea is very common on the Indian and African
-coasts; and is used by many of the inhabitants of Africa as a
-circulating medium; it is also employed for the same purpose in
-Hindoostan, particularly at Calcutta, where great quantities are
-obtained from the inhabitants of the Maldive Islands in exchange for rice.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="FIG_29" id="FIG_29"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_029.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="257" />
-    <p class="center"><i>Cypræa moneta.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Many tons of Cowries are annually shipped from England to Guinea; these
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span>
-having been originally brought from the Maldive Islands to Bengal, and
-from thence sent into this country. The value of these shells as a
-circulating medium depends naturally enough on their greater or less
-abundance.</p>
-
-<p>In Bengal, in general, from 2000 to 2400 are equal in value to a
-shilling. But in Africa they are much dearer, about 250 being valued
-at a shilling.</p>
-
-<p>The <a href="#FIG_29">Cowrie shell</a> is found of three different forms,
-according to its age. First, in its extreme youth, when the shell is extremely
-imperfect, and is like a slender one, without any appearance of the
-usual characters of the genius. Secondly, when half-grown; it then
-begins to assume the form of the perfect shell, but is extremely
-slight, and colourless, and the point of its spire projects. Thirdly,
-when perfect; it has now received a second deposit of shelly matter, in
-which its specific colours appear, and its spire is completely hidden.
-The second deposit with which the shell is covered, is secreted by the
-two membranous wings of the creature’s mantle, which, in the adult
-state of the animal, have rapidly increased and become extremely large,
-so much so, as to be capable of covering the whole of the shell, while
-the deposition of the new matter is taking place.</p>
-
-<p>Lamarck says the observations of the habits of this creature tend to
-prove that, in addition to the power of completing its shell, as we
-have already noticed, it can, when its increased size has caused it to
-require a new habitation, desert its former shell and form a new one;
-from this it happens that the same individual can form successively
-many shells of different sizes, so that we find the same species both
-large and small.</p>
-
-<p>When not in search of food, these animals are found buried in the sand,
-at some distance from the sea-shore, in temperate as well as in hot climates.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span></p>
-
-<p class="f120 u"><b><span class="smcap">Family</span> <i>COLUMELLARIA</i>.</b></p>
-
-<p>This family is distinguished, from the next in having the columella
-plaited, and a notch at its base. It does not include any shells with a
-plaited columella, the opening at the base being entirely smooth, that
-is, without a notch.</p>
-
-<h4><a name="DIADEM" id="DIADEM"></a><span class="smcap">The Diadem Whorl Shell</span>,
-(<a href="#FIG_27"><i>Voluta diadema</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>The Diadem Whorl Shell is a very beautiful specimen of its genus; it
-is marbled with white upon a yellow ground, but the markings become
-nearly obliterated by age: it is as much as seven inches in length, and
-is found in the Asiatic seas. The head of the animal of this shell has
-two pointed tentaculæ, with an eye at the outer base of each. Its mouth
-is a lengthened cylindrical and retractile tube, furnished with little
-hooked teeth; it has also a tube to conduct the water to the branchiæ,
-springing out obliquely behind the head.</p>
-
-<h4><a name="COLUMBELLA" id="COLUMBELLA"></a><span class="smcap">The Common
-Columbella</span>, (<a href="#FIG_27"><i>Columbella mercatoria</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>The common Columbella is found in the Atlantic Ocean near the island
-of Gorée, and in the West India Islands; it is about three quarters of
-an inch in length. It is a sea-shell, and is found upon the coast; it
-possesses a very small oval operculum attached to its foot.</p>
-
-<p class="f120 u"><b><span class="smcap">Family</span> <i>PURPURIFERA</i>.</b></p>
-
-<p>The notch at the base of the shells of this family is a kind of groove
-bent backwards and upwards, but not properly forming a canal, all the
-genera have an operculum. The name Purpurifera has been given to these
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span>
-Trachelipodes, because some of the genera contain in a peculiar
-reservoir the colouring-matter with which the Romans, and other ancient
-nations, dyed their beautiful and well-known purple, which was so much
-in use before the discovery of cochineal.</p>
-
-<h4><a name="HARP" id="HARP"></a><span class="smcap">The Music Harp Shell</span>,
-(<a href="#FIG_32"><i>Harpa musica</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>The Harp shells are found in the Indian seas, and in great abundance
-also in the Red Sea. A very curious fact appears in the history of the
-animal of the Harp which deserves notice. It was observed a long time
-back by a German naturalist named Bon, but had since then been either
-forgotten or disbelieved: a recent traveller has confirmed its truth,
-although he notices it as a new discovery; it is as follows:&mdash;</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-     <a name="FIG_32" id="FIG_32"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_032.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="497" />
-    <p class="center"><i>Harpa musica.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The foot of the animal has the power of dividing itself into two
-portions; and one, namely, the hinder portion, can be separated from
-its body by the animal, when it finds itself suddenly in danger, and
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span>
-wishes to retire into the deepest recess of its shell; on this account
-it is without an operculum, which would evidently be useless, as it
-would be lost at the same time as the foot.</p>
-
-<p>The Harps, says Lamarck, are very beautiful shells, and if they were
-less common, would, on account of their elegant forms and colours,
-become valuable in a collection. Some species, however, are still
-considered rare.</p>
-
-<p>The Harps take their name from the fancied resemblance between the
-regularity and direction of the ribs on the shell, and the strings of a
-harp. The species are not numerous, not exceeding eight in number.</p>
-
-<h4><a name="PURPURA" id="PURPURA"></a><span class="smcap">The Wide-Mouthed
-Purpura</span>, (<i>Purpura patula</i>.)</h4>
-
-<p>This species of Purpura is said to be that which was employed by the
-Romans in dyeing, but many others of the same family yield a purple
-colouring-matter. It is nearly three inches in length, and is found in
-the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean.</p>
-
-<p>The purple colour which this little Molluscous animal produces, was
-discovered by the inhabitants of the ancient city of Tyre, and was
-thence called the Tyrian purple. The circumstances which led to the
-discovery of it are very imperfectly known, but fiction has supplied
-the want of historical facts, and described its origin with sufficient
-minuteness of detail. According to one account, the merit of its
-discovery is due to a dog belonging to a certain Hercules. We are
-informed that when this dog was accompanying his master along the
-sea-shore, who was then following the nymph Tyros, the animal seized
-one of the Purpuræ lying on the sand, and breaking the shell with his
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span>
-teeth, his mouth soon became coloured with the purple juice. The nymph
-having observed the effect, immediately expressed a strong desire to
-have a dress dyed of the same beautiful colour; and her lover, no less
-anxious to gratify her wishes, at last succeeded in discovering a
-method of applying it to cloth.</p>
-
-<p>This colour was so highly valued by the ancients, that it was either
-consecrated to the worship of the Deity, or conceived to be fit only
-for the garments of royalty.</p>
-
-<p>Under the Mosaic dispensation, the stuffs for the service of the altar
-and the habits of the high-priest were enjoined to be of purple. The
-Babylonians devoted this colour to the dress of their idols, and most
-of the other nations of antiquity appear to have done the same thing.
-Pliny informs us that it was used by Romulus and the succeeding kings
-of Rome, as well as by the consuls and first magistrates under the
-republic. The Roman emperors at last appropriated it entirely to their
-own use, and denounced the punishment of death against those who should
-dare to wear it, although covered with another colour. This absurd and
-tyrannical restriction confined the dyeing of the Tyrian purple to a
-few individuals, and, in a short time, the knowledge of the process was
-entirely lost.</p>
-
-<p>In the twelfth century, neither the creature that furnished the dye,
-nor the methods which the ancients employed to communicate to cloths
-the rich and beautiful purple which it afforded, were at all known; and
-on the revival of learning, it was even suspected by many, that the
-accounts which had come down to us respecting this celebrated colour
-were entirely fabulous.</p>
-
-<p>According to Pliny, the Tyrians removed the finest colouring-matter out
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span>
-of the largest shells, in order to possess it in a more pure state,
-and to extract it more effectually, but obtained the colour from the
-smaller by grinding them in mills. He adds, that when the Purpuræ were
-caught, the receptacle which contained the dyeing-liquor was taken out
-and laid in salt for three days; and that after a sufficiency of the
-matter had been collected, it was boiled slowly in leaden vessels over
-a gentle fire, the workman scumming off from time to time the fleshy
-impurities. This process lasted ten days, after which the liquor was
-tried by dipping wool into it, and if the colour produced by it was
-defective, the boiling was renewed.</p>
-
-<p>Other colouring-matters were employed sometimes to economize, and at
-other times to vary the effect of the liquors of the Purpuræ. Among
-these Pliny enumerates <i>Fucus marinus</i>, or Archil, and the <i>Anchusa
-tinctoria</i>, or Alkanet, both of which are still used as dyes. By these
-and other means, the purple colour was made to assume a variety of
-shades, some inclining more to the blue, and others to the crimson.</p>
-
-<p>In modern times several attempts have been made to obtain this dye; but
-the discovery of cochineal has rendered it a matter of little import.</p>
-
-<p>In the year 1683, Mr. William Cole, of Bristol, being at Minehead,
-was told of a person living at a seaport in Ireland, who had made
-considerable gain by marking with a delicate and durable crimson
-colour, fine linen that was sent to him for that purpose, and that this
-colour was made from some liquid substance taken from a shell-fish. Mr.
-Cole, being a lover of natural history, and having his curiosity thus
-excited, went in search of these shell-fish, and, after trying various
-kinds without success, he, at length, found considerable quantities of a
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span>
-species of buccinum on the sea-coasts of Somersetshire, and the
-opposite coasts of South Wales. After many ineffectual endeavours,
-he discovered the colouring-matter, placed in a white vein, lying
-transversely in a little furrow, or cleft, next to the head of the
-fish, “which,” says he, “must be digged out with the stiff point of a
-horse-hair pencil, made short and tapering, by reason of the viscous
-clamminess of the white liquor in the vein, that so by its stiffness it
-may drive in the matter into the fine linen or white silk intended to
-be marked.” Letters or marks, made in this way, with the white liquor
-in question, “will presently appear of a pleasant green colour, and, if
-placed in the sun, will change into the following colours,&mdash;that is, if
-in Winter, about noon, if in the Summer, an hour or two after sunrise,
-or so much before setting, (for in the heat of the day, in Summer,
-the colours will come so fast that the succession of each will scarce
-be distinguishable,) next to the first light green will appear a deep
-green, and in a few minutes this will change into a full sea-green,
-after which, in a few minutes more, it will alter into a watchet blue,
-and from that, in a little time more, it will be of a purplish red,
-after which, lying an hour or two, (supposing the sun still shining,)
-it will be of a very deep purple red, beyond which the sun can do no
-more.”</p>
-
-<p>“But the last and most beautiful colour, after washing in scalding
-water and soap, will (the matter being again exposed to the sun or the
-wind to dry,) be a much different colour from all those mentioned,
-that is, a fair bright crimson, or near to the prince’s colour, which
-afterwards, notwithstanding there is no styptic to bind the colour,
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span>
-will continue the same, if well ordered, as I have found in
-handkerchiefs that have been washed more than forty times, only it will
-be somewhat alloyed from what it was after the first washing.”</p>
-
-<p>Some years after this, Réaumur discovered great numbers of a species
-of buccinum, on the coast of Poitou, and the stones, round which they
-had collected, were covered with small oval masses, some of which were
-white, and others of a yellowish colour; and, having squeezed some of
-them on the sleeves of his shirt, in about half an hour he found it
-stained of a fine purple colour, which he was unable to discharge by
-washing. In repeating his experiment on his return home, he found it
-was necessary that the cloth should be exposed to the direct rays of
-the sun.</p>
-
-<p>The difficulty of procuring and preserving a sufficient number of these
-shell-fish, must always render the use of this dye very limited; but
-Dr. Bancroft is of opinion, that it might still be rendered beneficial
-in staining or printing fine muslins, for which purpose but little
-colouring-matter is required. No substance, he remarks, will afford a
-substantive purple of equal beauty and durability, and capable of being
-applied to linen or cotton with so much simplicity and expedition.</p>
-
-<p class="f120 u"><b><span class="smcap">Family</span> <i>ALATA</i>.</b></p>
-
-<p>This family is distinguished, by having a canal of variable length at
-the base of its opening, and by the fact of the right margin of the
-shell changing its form during the growth of the animal.</p>
-
-<h4><a name="SCORPION" id="SCORPION"></a><span class="smcap">The Spotted
-Scorpion Shell</span>, (<a href="#FIG_38"><i>Pterocera scorpio</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>This curious shell is found in the East Indian seas, and attains a
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span>
-considerable size, as much as six inches. In an early age the
-projecting claws of this shell are very small, so that its appearance
-is materially different from that which it assumes at a more advanced
-period of its growth. It is known as the Spotted Scorpion Shell, and
-is distinguished from other species of the same genus, by the knotted
-and granulated appearance of its surface; the opening of the shell
-is long and narrow, and of a dull violet red, sometimes brownish, on
-which numerous transverse wrinkles are seen, either of a pure white, or
-slightly tinged with yellow.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-     <a name="FIG_38" id="FIG_38"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_038.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="468" />
-    <p class="center space-below2"><i>Pterocera scorpio.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<p class="f120 u"><b><span class="smcap">Family</span> <i>CANALIFERA</i>.</b></p>
-
-<p>The shells belonging to this family agree with those of the last in
-having a canal at their base; but the lip to the right of the opening
-does not change its form through age.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span></p>
-
-<h4><a name="TRUMPET" id="TRUMPET"></a><span class="smcap">The Variegated
-Sea-Trumpet</span>, (<a href="#FIG_39"><i>Triton variegatum</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>The <i>Triton variegatum</i>, or Variegated Sea-Trumpet, a large and
-beautiful shell, sometimes as much as two feet in length, is found
-chiefly in the torrid zones, near the Asiatic coast. The attendants on
-the sea-gods of pagan Rome are frequently represented with this shell
-applied to their mouth by way of a trumpet.</p>
-
-<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
-<span class="i0">Already Triton, at his call, appears<br /></span>
-<span class="i0">Above the waves; a Tyrian robe he wears,<br /></span>
-<span class="i0">And in his hand a crooked trumpet bears.<br /></span>
-<span class="i0">The sovereign bids him peaceful sounds inspire,<br /></span>
-<span class="i0">And give the waves the signal to retire.<br /></span>
-<span class="i0">His writhen shell he takes, whose narrow vent<br /></span>
-<span class="i0">Grows by degrees into a large extent,<br /></span>
-<span class="i0">Then gives it breath; the blast, with doubling sound,<br /></span>
-<span class="i0">Runs the wide circuit of the world around.<br /></span>
-<span class="i0">The sun first heard it, in his early east,<br /></span>
-<span class="i0">And met the rattling echoes in the west;<br /></span>
-<span class="i0">The waters, listening to the trumpet’s roar,<br /></span>
-<span class="i0">Obey the summons, and forsake the shore.<br /></span>
-<span class="i36"><span class="smcap">Dryden.</span><br /></span>
-</div></div></div>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="FIG_39" id="FIG_39"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_039.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="326" />
-    <p class="center space-below2"><i>Dolium perdix.<span class="ws7">Triton variegatum.</span>
-                                   <span class="ws3">Pyrula caniculata.</span></i></p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span></p>
-
-<h4><a name="PEAR" id="PEAR"></a><span class="smcap">The Caniculated
-Pear-Shell</span>, (<a href="#FIG_39"><i>Pyrula caniculata</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>This shell is found in the Icy Sea, and on the coast of Canada, and
-attains the length of seven inches. The animal of the Pyrula is at
-present unknown. There is a kind of keel or ridge along the edge of the
-whorls, which is obliterated in very old specimens. There are as many
-as eight-and-twenty species of this shell.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="FIG_40" id="FIG_40"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_040.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="303" />
-    <p class="center space-below2"><i>Turbo marmoratus.<span class="ws7">Pleurotoma babylonia.</span>
-                                   <span class="ws3">Trochus imperialis.</span></i></p>
-</div>
-
-<h4><a name="BABYLON" id="BABYLON"></a><span class="smcap">The Babylonian
- Split-Mouth</span>,<br />(<a href="#FIG_40"><i>Pleurotoma babylonia</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>The Babylonian Split-Mouth is found in the East Indies and the Molucca
-Islands, and is about three inches and a quarter in length. It is said
-that the animal of this shell, when in motion, has its foot separated
-as it were from its body by a long thick footstalk, which arises from
-the centre of the mantle, which is at this time turned back over the
-shell. This separation of the foot has the effect of causing the
-creature to tumble over frequently, from the great weight it has to support.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<p class="f120"><b>VEGETABLE FEEDERS, (<span class="smcap">Phytophagi</span>.)</b></p></div>
-
-<p>Those genera of the Trachelipods which live on vegetable substances
-have no projecting siphon, but possess a mouth furnished with jaws;
-they are in general land-shells, and consequently, the air which
-they breathe is conveyed directly to their branchiæ. Some of their
-tribes however, live in fresh water, either in running streams or in
-stagnant pools: among these, some breathe water and others air. These
-last are obliged frequently to come to the surface for the purpose of
-breathing,&mdash;others again inhabit salt water, and are unable to exist
-out of that element.</p>
-
-<h4><a name="TURBAN" id="TURBAN"></a><span class="smcap">The Marble
-Turban-Shell</span>, (<a href="#FIG_40"><i>Turbo marmoratus</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>There are as many as thirty or forty species of the Turban-shell.
-The Marble Turban, <i>Turbo marmoratus</i>, is the largest, being as much
-as four inches across; it is found in the Indian Ocean. The colour
-of this shell is of a brownish green, of greater or less intensity.
-It is ornamented by eight or ten narrow transverse belts, consisting
-of a series of white or brownish spots. This is one of those shells
-whose substance, after the outer coat is removed, is of the nature of
-mother-of-pearl.</p>
-
-<p>The <i>Turbo littoreus</i> (the Shore Turban), is the well-known periwinkle,
-with which our rocky coasts abound.</p>
-
-<h4><a name="IMPERIAL" id="IMPERIAL"></a><span class="smcap">The Imperial
-Top-Shell</span>, (<a href="#FIG_40"><i>Trochus imperialis</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>These shells have received their name from their resemblance in form to
-a boy’s top. They are all marine shells, and the apex of their spire is
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span>
-always very sharp-pointed. In some places they are called <i>flat-mouthed
-snails</i>. The greater number of these shells, (and the species are very
-numerous,) are of a beautiful pearly substance, and many of them are
-also elegantly marked with longitudinal ribs; there are as many as
-seventy species,&mdash;the larger and more elegant are only found in the
-seas of hot climates.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="FIG_42" id="FIG_42"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_042.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="295" />
-    <p class="center space-below2">&emsp;<i>Haliotis iris.<span class="ws6">Scalaria pretiosa.</span>
-                                   <span class="ws4">Neritina pulligera.</span></i></p>
-</div>
-
-<h4><a name="SCALARIA" id="SCALARIA"></a><span class="smcap">The Precious
-Scalaria</span>, (<a href="#FIG_42"><i>Scalaria pretiosa</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>This shell is noted for its rarity, and for the singular arrangement of
-its whorls, which do not touch each other, and appear as if they were
-only connected by the ribs with which the shell is adorned. Like the
-turbans, the inhabitants of the Scalariæ are found on the sea-coast,
-on rocks and large stones, between high and low water mark. The native
-place of the Scalaria pretiosa seems to be uncertain; Lamarck, and
-several others, believe it comes from the East Indies, while others
-consider it an inhabitant of the Mediterranean. So great was the rage
-some years back, to possess a perfect specimen of this shell, that as
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span>
-much as twenty or thirty pounds, and even more, has been given for
-a well-preserved specimen. Travellers relate that the Scalariæ are
-much sought after and highly prized by the women on the coast of
-Amboyna, and at Batavia, where they are used as earrings, and in
-forming necklaces. They are, although rarely, as much as four inches
-in length. It is said, that there was a specimen in the cabinet of the
-empress Catherine of Russia, still larger; but the most usual size is
-from one to two inches in length. A fine specimen of this shell ought
-to be semi-transparent like porcelain, of a light brown, tinged with
-rose-colour, and the ribs of a beautiful opaque white.</p>
-
-<h4><a name="IRIS" id="IRIS"></a><span class="smcap">The Iris Ear-Shell</span>,
-(<a href="#FIG_42"><i>Haliotis Iris</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>The <i>Haliotides</i>, or sea-ears, are very splendid shells; the species
-are numerous, and some of them are extremely common. The place in the
-system which this shell ought to occupy, appears to have caused many
-doubts in the minds of modern naturalists, and consequently, we find it
-continually shifted from one part to another in the different works of
-Lamarck and Cuvier. When moving from place to place in search of food,
-the animal and its shell present a very pleasing sight, the slender
-tentacula which appear through the different holes which ornament
-the margin of the shell, gracefully waving in all directions; these
-tentacula are supposed to be breathing-tubes. In the young shell, the
-number of perforations is not so great as in an adult, one being formed
-at each progressive stage of the creature’s growth. Sometimes the holes
-which were first formed become, by age, filled up. The proportions of
-the shell, also, vary materially, so as to render the separation of
-species very difficult and uncertain.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span></p>
-
-<h4><a name="NERITINA" id="NERITINA"></a><span class="smcap">The Dusty
-Neritina</span>, (<a href="#FIG_42"><i>Neritina pulligera</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>This shell is found in the rivers of India, and is about an inch and
-a quarter in length. All the species of this genus are supposed to
-inhabit fresh water only. There is a curious fact attached to the
-history of the Neritina, and of a neighbouring genus, Nerita,&mdash;namely,
-that when found in a fossil state, their colours are always in good
-preservation. The species, which are tolerably numerous, are in general
-natives of hot climates.</p>
-
-<h4><a name="PALUDINA" id="PALUDINA"></a><span class="smcap">The Viviparous
-Paludina</span>, (<a href="#FIG_44"><i>Paludina vivipara</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>The animal of the genus Paludina is an inhabitant of fresh waters: it
-takes its specific name from the fact of the young being hatched within
-the parent shell, and deposited in the waters perfectly formed. In
-nearly the whole of this class the eggs are laid either in water or in
-the earth, and afterwards hatched after a longer or shorter period.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="FIG_44" id="FIG_44"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_044.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="289" />
-    <p class="center"><i>Planorbis corneus.<span class="ws4">Paludina vivipara.</span>
-                                   <span class="ws4">Lymnæa stagnalis.</span></i></p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span>
-These shells are found generally in running streams of fresh water;
-sometimes, however, they are met with in brackish water, at the
-mouths of rivers. The operculum of the Paludina is of a strong horny
-substance. The young, immediately they are hatched, attach themselves
-to the outside of the shell of the mother, where they remain until they
-are sufficiently strong to trust themselves in the water.</p>
-
-<h4><a name="STAGNALIS" id="STAGNALIS"></a><span class="smcap">Lymnæa Stagnalis.</span></h4>
-
-<p>The <a href="#FIG_44"><i>Lymnæa stagnalis</i></a> is found in stagnant waters, particularly narrow
-ditches, in great abundance. As it breathes air, it is necessary for
-its existence that it should frequently resort to the surface of the
-water; and consequently, we find these shells floating about in great
-numbers, with the body partly out of the shell. The least appearance
-of danger causes a Lymnæa to withdraw the whole of its body into
-its shelly covering; and as this increases its specific gravity, it
-instantly sinks to the bottom, where it remains in safety. In order
-to reach the surface again, it is obliged to crawl to the side of the
-ditch, and when it has reached the level of the water, it again trusts
-its little bark to the mercy of the winds and stream, for it has very
-little power to direct its own course.</p>
-
-<p>During the Winter, these creatures remain at the bottom, buried in the
-mud, and in a state of torpor. Although apparently useless to mankind,
-they form part of the subsistence of many water-birds, and of fishes,
-which are extremely fond of them. The species of this shell are not
-easily decided, since they bear so great a resemblance to each other.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span></p>
-
-<h4><a name="PLANORBIS" id="PLANORBIS"></a><span class="smcap">The Horn-shaped
-Planorbis</span>,<br /> (<a href="#FIG_44"><i>Planorbis corneus</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>The <i>Planorbis</i>, although differing in form from the Lymnæa, possesses
-the same habits, and is found in the same localities. The jelly-like
-substance which is frequently found, in the Spring of the year,
-attached to water-cresses and other aquatic plants, and which is
-considered by many to be of a poisonous nature, and looked on as the
-spawn of toads, is merely the covering of the ova of this and other
-inhabitants of fresh-water shells; and, although very disagreeable,
-certainly not poisonous.</p>
-
-<h4><a name="BULIMUS" id="BULIMUS"></a><span class="smcap">The Red-mouthed
-Bulimus</span>, (<a href="#FIG_46"><i>Bulimus hæmastomus</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>The <i>Bulimus hæmastomus</i> is a most beautiful shell; it is a native of
-Guiana, and is frequently as much as four inches in length. The most
-singular part of its natural history is the large size of the egg of
-the animal in comparison with its magnitude; it is said to equal that
-of a moderate-sized pigeon.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="FIG_46" id="FIG_46"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_046.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="288" />
-    <p class="center"><span class="ws14"><i>Bulimus hæmastomus.</i></span>
-                                   <span class="ws3"><i>Pupa mummia.</i></span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span></p>
-
-<h4><a name="MUMMY" id="MUMMY"></a><span class="smcap">The Mummy
-Puppet Shell</span>, (<i>Pupa mummia</i>.)</h4>
-
-<p>The <a href="#FIG_46"><i>Pupa mummia</i></a> is found in the Antilles; it takes its name from the
-singularity of its form, which very much resembles that of a mummy.</p>
-
-<p>The Pupa is essentially a land-shell, living among grass, on stones,
-and sometimes in places much exposed to the heat of the sun. The
-greater number of the species, which are very numerous, are natives of
-tropical countries; there are, however, several found in Germany, and
-other parts of the Continent, but they are extremely small.</p>
-
-<h4><a name="SNAIL" id="SNAIL"></a><span class="smcap">The Wood
-Snail</span>, (<a href="#FIG_48"><i>Helix nemoralis</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>The Snail (<i>Helix</i>) is an animal well-known in every part of the globe,
-and its species are still extremely numerous, although many shells
-which belonged to this tribe, under the Linnæan arrangement, have been
-placed in other divisions. The head of the Snail is furnished with
-two pair of tentacula, or feelers; these, unlike similar appendices
-in other Mollusca, are retractile; that is, they can be withdrawn
-into the body at the will of the animal. The use of these tentacula
-is uncertain. At the top of each of the longest pair we find a black
-spot; these spots have been supposed to be the eyes of the animal,
-and a celebrated anatomist says, that he has discovered in them all
-the component parts of perfect eyes. However this may be, the animal
-appears to use them rather as organs of touch than of sight. Some writers
-suspect that the sense of smell resides in one or both pairs of these appendages.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>The uses to which Snails are applied are not many; some of the larger
-kinds, however, are, in some countries, employed as food. The Romans,
-according to Pliny, consumed large quantities, and considered them in
-the light of delicacies, and considerable pains were taken in fattening
-them for the table. Those from Sicily and the Balearic Islands were in
-great request, and attained a very large size. Some authors say they
-are still used as food in several parts of the Continent.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="FIG_48" id="FIG_48"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_048.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="306" />
-    <p class="center"><i>Helix nemoralis.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>In Paris, London, and many large towns, great numbers of Snails are
-frequently brought to market; but these are not employed as food, but
-used medicinally by persons suffering under consumption, and other
-diseases of the chest.</p>
-
-<p>It was already known that polypi, and some species of worms, could have
-portions of their body cut off, and that the parts removed would be
-afterwards reproduced; and as these animals had no well distinguished
-extremities, such as heads or limbs, the fact, although singular, was
-not disputed; but, when it was asserted by Spallanzani, that Snails,
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span>
-which have a very well defined series of parts, could, after the head
-was removed, reproduce that portion of the body, the scientific world
-became naturally incredulous, and numerous experiments were made,
-and thousands of Snails slaughtered, to ascertain the fact. No one,
-however, for a length of time, could succeed;&mdash;it was then suspected
-that Spallanzani had only removed a portion of the head. At length,
-it would appear, from the experiments of M. G. Tarenne (an account of
-which appeared in 1808), that these creatures could actually reproduce
-a complete head. He gives as a reason of the want of success of others,
-the little precaution taken to provide the mutilated Snails with proper
-nourishment. The new head, according to him, is perfect in about two
-years after the old head has been removed.</p>
-
-<p>M. Tarenne says, that after having cut off the heads of two hundred
-Snails, he threw them all into a moist spot at the end of his garden,
-that they might obtain the nourishment most fitted for them (how they
-could eat without their heads he does not say); at the end of the
-Summer he examined all the mutilated Snails he could find, and he
-discovered that they all had a new head, about the size of a grain
-of coffee; they had four small tentacula, a mouth, and lips; at the
-end of the following Summer, the heads were perfectly reproduced, and
-like the original head, with the exception of the skin, which was more
-delicate. “After this experiment,” says a French author, “we cannot
-doubt that the entire head of a Snail can be regenerated after it has
-been removed; however, I cannot disguise the fact, that I have a kind
-of repugnance at admitting the matter to be entirely beyond dispute.”</p>
-
-<p>If the advantages bestowed on man by Snails are not numerous, the
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span>
-disadvantages, or rather inconveniences, produced by them are very
-considerable; they are particularly destructive in orchards and
-kitchen-gardens. On this account, many methods have been recommended
-for the purpose of destroying them. Although many of these are
-tolerably successful, there is no plan more likely to keep the breed
-of Snails under, particularly in enclosed gardens, than that of early
-rising and gathering them, if we may so express ourselves, while the
-dew is yet on the grass: if the shells are then broken, they become
-excellent food for poultry. Ducks may sometimes be allowed to wander
-in the garden, as they do but little damage to the vegetation, and are
-great destroyers both of Snails and slugs.</p>
-
-<p>A singular account of the instinct of Snails is, perhaps, worth
-recording.</p>
-
-<p>The garden of a small house, by the side of one of the roads leading
-into London, was much infested by a colony of Snails; the proprietor of
-this house, desirous of getting rid of the pest, and yet unwilling to
-kill the Snails, collected them, and threw them unharmed into the road;
-but still, he every morning discovered as many Snails among his pinks
-and tulips as he had removed the previous day; this somewhat puzzled
-him, until once, on leaving his house early, he perceived the Snails
-which he had but an hour before thrown into the dusty road, moving, not
-in a body, but each from the spot on which it was thrown, in a direct
-line from that spot to the low wall which encompassed the garden, as
-if they comprehended the mathematical fact that, “a straight line is
-the nearest way from one given point to another.” How were these Snails
-aware that by moving in that direction, they should arrive at a green
-spot? From the road nothing could be visible to them but dust,&mdash;from the
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span>
-path, nothing but the wall in front,&mdash;but still, although the whole of
-their path was covered with dust, they proceeded steadily on, until
-they had surmounted the wall, and reached their old quarters. By what
-other faculty were they guided but that instinct which supplies the
-place of the higher powers of the mind, and which is imparted with so
-liberal a hand to the meanest creature in nature?</p>
-
-<h3><a name="GASTEROPODA" id="GASTEROPODA"></a><i>ORDER GASTEROPODA.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The Gasteropods are so called from two Greek words, meaning belly and
-foot, because the foot, or organ of motion of the animals of which
-this order consists, is attached to the whole of the under part of the
-creature, or rather, the belly or under part is itself the foot, and is
-for that purpose broad and flat. The Gasteropods are also distinguished
-from the last order by having a straight body, in no case spiral,
-and never possessing a shell capable of enclosing the whole body; in
-some cases, the body is completely naked, and without the protecting
-covering of any shell whatever.</p>
-
-<h4><a name="SLUG" id="SLUG"></a><span class="smcap">The Red Slug</span>,
-(<a href="#FIG_52"><i>Limax rufus</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>The Common Slug is a good example of an individual of this order,
-entirely wanting a shell. The Slugs, like the snails, are found in all
-countries; they are equally destructive to vegetation, but as yet have
-never been used by man for any useful purpose, if we except the fact
-of their sometimes becoming the food of ducks and poultry. The <i>Limax
-rufus</i>, Red, or more properly brown, Slug, for the colour is of a
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span>
-reddish-brown, varying in intensity to such an extent as to render it
-impossible to find two specimens of the same colour, is more commonly
-found in fields than in gardens.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="FIG_52" id="FIG_52"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_052.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="352" />
-    <p class="center"><i>Limax rufus.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>There are many species of the Slug; but they are not well defined, on
-account of the variable nature of their colour; the black and the brown
-kinds are, however, pretty well known: the black, in particular, is
-very destructive in kitchen-gardens, and commits great havoc in fields
-of cabbages and turnips.</p>
-
-<p>In one or two species, the buckler, or smooth space near the head,
-contains a very small oval shell.</p>
-
-<p>There is a very singular species of Slug found in Teneriffe, under
-stones in moist places, it is not more than an inch and a quarter in
-length; it is called <i>Limax noctiluca</i>, the night-shining Slug. The
-buckler, in this species, is very narrow, and covered with pores, which
-exude a kind of viscous substance, which has the property of shining
-with a phosphorescent light, like that of the glow-worm.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>We may have some idea of the rapid increase of Slugs, by a fact
-mentioned by Dr. Leech, that two individuals of a small species have
-laid as many as seven hundred and sixty-six eggs; and these eggs were
-dried in an oven without destroying their vital powers, since, on being
-placed in a damp situation, they were afterwards hatched.</p>
-
-<p>The following plan of taking and destroying Slugs was resorted to by
-a gentleman near Ipswich. Having heard that turnips were employed to
-entice Slugs from wheat, he caused a sufficient quantity to dress eight
-acres to be got together, and then, the tops being divided and the
-apples sliced, he directed the pieces to be laid separately, dressing
-two rows with them, and omitting two, alternately, till the whole field
-of eight acres was gone over. On the following morning, he employed two
-women to examine the tops and slices, and free them from the Slugs,
-which they threw into a measure: and when cleared, they were laid
-on those rows that had been omitted the day before. It was observed
-invariably, that in the rows dressed with the turnips, no Slugs were
-to be found upon the wheat, or crawling upon the land, though they
-abounded upon the turnips; while, on the undressed rows, they were to
-be seen in great numbers, both 011 the wheat and on the ground. The
-quantity of Slugs thus collected was nearly a bushel.</p>
-
-<h4><a name="BULLA" id="BULLA"></a><span class="smcap">The Woodlike
-Bulla</span>, (<a href="#FIG_54"><i>Bulla lignaria</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>The animal of the <i>Bulla</i> is singular, from possessing-within its
-stomach three pieces of a substance resembling bone; these give that
-organ the power of crushing or grinding the food, forming a kind
-of gizzard. The bony portion of this stomach is represented in the
-foreground in the engraving. The Bulla lignaria is about two inches and
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span>
-a half in length, and is found in the European seas; Lamarck mentions
-as many as eleven species.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="FIG_54" id="FIG_54"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_054.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="302" />
-    <p class="center"><i>Bulla lignaria.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<h4><a name="CREPIDULA" id="CREPIDULA"></a><span class="smcap">The Nail-shaped
-Crepidula</span>, (<a href="#FIG_55"><i>Crepidula unguiformis</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>The genus <i>Crepidula</i> takes its name from its hearing some resemblance
-to a little shoe; none of the species are found in Europe. Of these there
-are about six, but they are all confined to the seas of warm climates.</p>
-
-<h4><a name="UMBRELLA" id="UMBRELLA"></a><span class="smcap">The Mediterranean
-Umbrella</span>,<br /> (<a href="#FIG_55"><i>Umbrella Mediterranea</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>The <i>Umbrella Mediterranea</i>, as its name implies, is found in the
-Mediterranean, and in the Gulf of Tarento. The shell of the Umbrella is
-singular, from the lower part of its circumference being surrounded by
-a border of a substance much softer than the shell itself.</p>
-
-<h4><a name="FISSURELLA" id="FISSURELLA"></a><span class="smcap">The Clouded
-Fissurella</span>, (<a href="#FIG_55"><i>Fissurella nimbosa</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>The <i>Fissurella nimbosa</i> is found in various and distant parts of the
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span>
-world,&mdash;in the north of Europe, the western coast of Africa, &amp;c. It is
-rather a handsome shell, which seldom exceeds an inch and a half in
-length.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="FIG_55" id="FIG_55"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_055_a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="252" />
-<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary=" " cellpadding="0" >
-  <tbody><tr>
-      <td class="tdc"><i>Umbrella</i><span class="ws4">&nbsp;</span></td>
-      <td class="tdc"><i>Crepidula</i></td>
-      <td class="tdc"><span class="ws4">&nbsp;</span><i>Fissurella</i></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc"><i>Mediterranea.<span class="ws4">&nbsp;</span></i></td>
-      <td class="tdc"><i>unguiformis.</i></td>
-      <td class="tdc"><span class="ws4">&nbsp;</span><i>nimbosa.</i></td>
-    </tr>
- </tbody>
-</table>
-</div>
-
-<p>The Fissurella very much resembles our limpet, but differs from it by
-having a small, rather oval-formed hole in the summit of the shell,
-affording a passage to a small canal through which the water is
-discharged, after having passed over the branchiæ.</p>
-
-<h4><a name="BONNET" id="BONNET"></a><span class="smcap">The Hungarian
-Bonnet Shell</span>,<br /> (<a href="#FIG_56"><i>Pileopsis Ungarica</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>The <i>Pileopsis Ungarica</i> is extremely elegant both in its form and
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span>
-markings; it is of a delicate white, slightly tinged, internally, with
-rose-colour. The animal attaches itself to rocks, between high and low
-water mark, and very rarely, if ever, changes its situation, unless
-removed by accident, when it is driven about by the waves, until the
-creature, being thrown on a rock in a favourable situation, attaches
-itself firmly to the surface.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="FIG_56" id="FIG_56"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_055_b.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="262" />
-    <p class="center space-below2"><i>Pileopsis Ungarica.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<h4><a name="CHITON" id="CHITON"></a><span class="smcap">The Scaly
-Chiton</span>, (<a href="#FIG_56A"><i>Chiton squamosus</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>The <i>Chitons</i> differ so much from all other shell-bearing animals in
-the arrangement of their shelly covering, that they have been placed
-by different naturalists in various parts of their system. Lamarck,
-in referring to these animals, has placed them near the end of the Mollusca.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="FIG_56A" id="FIG_56A"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_056.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="295" />
-    <p class="center"><i>Chiton squamosus.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>“Although,” says Lamarck, “when we examine this creature, and observe
-the several pieces of which its shell is composed, attached to the
-marginal membrane of the mantle which surrounds them, it appears not a
-univalve, but a multivalve shell; yet these shelly pieces ought not to
-be regarded in any other light than as a lengthened shell of one piece,
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span>
-which Nature had originally broken transversely into several distinct
-moveable pieces, to give greater freedom to the animal in its
-movements.”</p>
-
-<p>The Chitons, like the neighbouring genera, frequent the rocks between
-high and low water mark, but are much more active in their movements.
-Poli, a learned Neapolitan, in describing the anatomy of a Chiton,
-says, that the interior of the mouth or throat of this animal is
-covered with a multitude of teeth,&mdash;some simple, and others with three
-points, and that these teeth are disposed in numerous longitudinal rows.</p>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-<div class="chapter">
-<h2><a name="CONCHIFERA" id="CONCHIFERA"></a>CLASS CONCHIFERA.</h2></div>
-
-<p>The Conchifera differ from the Molluscous animals that bear shells,
-in a very great degree; for, although the substance of the body is
-soft, unlike the Mollusca it is inarticulate, always enclosed in a
-shell of two valves, without head or eyes,&mdash;a mouth, if it may be so
-called, concealed from view, and without any hard parts, and the whole
-body enveloped in a large mantle, or hood, formed of two thin lobes,
-generally perfectly free, but at times united in front; these are the
-principal distinguishing characters of this class.</p>
-
-<p>In earlier systems, when shells were classed without much reference
-to the animals that inhabited them, the only distinction made was the
-number of pieces of which the shell was formed, and they were arranged
-under the heads of <i>univalves</i>, of one piece, <i>bivalves</i>, with two
-pieces, and <i>multivalves</i>, with more than two pieces. This arrangement
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span>
-was inconvenient, as, in some cases, it separated animals that
-otherwise agreed with each other. With respect to the bivalve shells,
-however, this objection does not hold good, as they all contain animals
-belonging to the class Conchifera.</p>
-
-<p>The individuals of this class appear to be deprived of all the senses
-except that of feeling. Their powers of motion have been so well
-described by Dr. Roget, in his <i>Bridgewater Treatise</i>, that we cannot
-do better than extract a portion from that interesting work.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_058.jpg" alt="" width="450" height="360" />
-    <p class="center">Valves of the <i>Unio Batava</i>, with the Connecting Ligament.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The two valves of the shell of the Conchifera are united at the back by
-a hinge-joint, often very artificially constructed, having teeth that
-lock into each other; and the mechanism of this articulation varies
-much in different species. The hinge is secured by a substance of great
-strength.</p>
-
-<p>During the life of the animal, the usual and natural state of its shell
-is, that of being kept open for a little distance, so as to allow of
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span>
-the ingress and egress of the water necessary for its nourishment
-and respiration; but, as a security against danger, it was necessary
-to furnish the animal with the means of rapidly closing the shell,
-and retaining the valves in a closed state. These actions, being
-only occasional, yet requiring considerable force, are effected by a
-muscular power, for which purpose sometimes one, sometimes two, or even
-a greater number of strong muscles are placed between the valves, their
-fibres passing directly across from the inner surface of the one to
-that of the other, and firmly attached to both. They are named, from
-their office of bringing the valves towards each other, the <i>adductor
-muscles</i>.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_059.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="260" />
-    <p class="center">Section of an Oyster, showing the situation of the Hinge, L.,<br />
-                the Adductor Muscle, A, and the transverse direction of its Fibres,<br />
-                with respect to the Valves.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The simple actions of opening and closing the valves, are capable of
-being converted into a means of retreating from danger, or of removing
-to a more commodious situation, in the case of those bivalves which are
-not actually attached to rocks, or other fixed bodies.</p>
-
-<p>Diquemarc long ago observed, that even the <a href="#FIG_66">Oyster</a> has
-some power of locomotion, by suddenly closing its shell, and thereby expelling
-the contained water with a degree of force, which, by the reaction of the
-fluid in the opposite direction, gives a sensible impulse to the heavy
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span>
-mass. He notices the singular fact, that Oysters which are attached to
-rocks occasionally left dry by the retreat of the tide, always retain
-within their shells a quantity of water sufficient for respiration, and
-that they keep the valves closed till the return of the tide; whereas,
-those Oysters which are taken from greater depths, where the water
-never leaves them, and are afterwards removed to situations where they
-are exposed to these vicissitudes, of which they have had no previous
-experience, improvidently open their shells after the sea has left
-them; and, by allowing the water to escape, soon perish.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="FIG_60" id="FIG_60"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_060.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="294" />
-    <p class="center"><i>The Cardium, or Cockle.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Many bivalve Mollusca are provided with an instrument shaped like a
-leg and foot, which they employ extensively for progressive motion. In
-the <a href="#FIG_60"><i>Cardium</i></a>, or cockle, this organ is composed
-of a mass of muscular fibres, interwoven together in a very complex
-manner, and which may be compared to the muscular structure of the
-human tongue; the effect in both is the same, namely, the conferring a
-power of motion in all possible ways; thus it may be readily protruded,
-retracted, or inflected at every point.</p>
-
-<p>The <a href="#FIG_86"><i>Solen</i></a>, or razor-shell fish, has a foot
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span>
-of a cylindrical shape, tapering at the end, and much more resembling
-in its form a tongue than a foot. In some bivalves, the dilatation of
-the foot is effected by a curious hydraulic mechanism; the interior
-of the organ is formed of a spongy texture, capable of receiving a
-considerable quantity of water, which the animal has the power of
-injecting into it, and of thus increasing its dimensions.</p>
-
-<p>The foot of the <a href="#FIG_79"><i>Mytilus edulis</i></a>, or common mussel,
-can be advanced to the distance of two inches from the shell, and applied to any
-fixed body within that range. By attaching the point to such body,
-and retracting the foot, this animal drags its shell towards it, and
-by repeating the operation successively on other points of the fixed
-object, continues slowly to advance.</p>
-
-<p>This instrument is of great use to such shell-fish as conceal
-themselves in the mud or sand, which its structure is then peculiarly
-adapted for scooping out. The cockle continually employs its foot for
-this purpose: first, elongating it, directing its point downwards, and
-insinuating it deep into the sand, and next, turning up the end, and
-forming it into a hook, by which, from the resistance of the sand, it
-is fixed in its position, and then the muscles, which usually retract
-it, are thrown into action, and the whole shell is alternately raised
-and depressed, moving on the foot as on a fulcrum. The effect of these
-exertions is to drag the shell downwards. When the animal is moderately
-active, these movements are repeated two or three times in a minute.
-The apparent progress is at first but small, the shell, which was
-raised on its edge at the middle of the stroke, falling back on its
-side at the end of it; but when the shell is buried so far as to be
-supported on its edge, it advances more rapidly, sinking visibly at
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span>
-every stroke, till nothing but the extremity of the tube can be
-perceived above the sand.</p>
-
-<p>By a process exactly the inverse of this, that is, by doubling up the
-foot, and pushing with it downwards against the sand below, the shell
-may be again made to rise by the same kind of efforts which before
-protruded the foot. By this process of burrowing, the animal is enabled
-quickly to retreat when danger presses, and when this is past, it can,
-with equal facility, emerge from its hiding-place.</p>
-
-<p>The <a href="#FIG_60"><i>Cardium</i></a> can also advance at the bottom of
-the sea, along the surface of the soft earth, pressing backwards with its foot,
-as a boatman impels his boat onwards by pushing with his pole against
-the ground in a contrary direction. It is, likewise, by a similar
-expedient, that the <a href="#FIG_86">Solen</a> forces its way through the sand, expanding
-the end of its foot into the form of a club.</p>
-
-<p>The <a href="#FIG_86"><i>Tellina</i></a> is remarkable for the quickness
-and agility with which it can spring to considerable distances,
-by first folding the foot into a small compass, and then suddenly
-extending it, while the shell is, at the same time, closed with a loud
-snap.</p>
-
-<p>The <a href="#FIG_78"><i>Pinna</i></a>, or marine mussel, when inhabiting the shores of
-tempestuous seas, is furnished, in addition, with a singular apparatus
-for withstanding the fury of the surge, and securing itself from
-dangerous collisions, which might easily destroy the brittle texture of
-its shell. The object of this apparatus is, to prepare a great number
-of threads, which are fastened at various points to the adjacent rocks,
-and then tightly drawn by the animal, just as a ship is moored in a
-convenient station, to avoid the buffeting of the storm. The foot of
-this bivalve is cylindrical, and has, connected with its base, a round
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span>
-tendon, of nearly the same length as itself, the office of which is to
-retain all the threads in firm adhesion with it, and concentrate their
-power on one point. The threads themselves are composed of a glutinous
-matter, prepared by a particular organ. They are not spun by being
-drawn out of the body, like the threads of the silkworm, or of the
-spider, but they are cast in a mould, where they harden, and acquire a
-certain consistence before they are employed. This mould is curiously
-constructed; there is a deep groove which passes along the foot, from
-the root of the tendon to its other extremity, and the sides of this
-groove are formed so as to fold and close over it, thereby converting
-it into a canal. The glutinous secretion, which is poured into this
-canal, dries into a solid thread; and, when it has acquired sufficient
-tenacity, the foot is protruded, and the thread it contains is applied
-to the object to which it is to be fixed, its extremity being carefully
-attached to the solid surface of that object. The canal of the foot is
-then opened along its whole length, and the thread, which adheres by
-its other extremity to the large tendon at the base of the foot, is
-disengaged from the canal. Lastly, the foot is retracted, and the same
-operation is repeated.</p>
-
-<p>Thread after thread is thus formed, and applied in different directions
-around the shell. Sometimes the attempt fails, in consequence of
-some imperfection in the thread; but the animal, as if aware of the
-importance of ascertaining the strength of each thread, on which its
-safety depends, tries every one of them as soon as it has been fixed,
-by swinging itself round, so as to put it fully on the stretch; an
-action which probably also assists in elongating the thread. When once
-the threads have been fixed, the animal does not appear to have the
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span>
-power of catting or breaking them off. The liquid matter, out of which
-they are formed, is so exceedingly glutinous as to attach itself firmly
-to the smoothest bodies. It is but slowly produced, for it appears that
-no <a href="#FIG_78">Pinna</a> is capable of forming more than four, or at most
-five threads, in the course of a day and night. The threads which are formed in
-haste, when the animal is disturbed in its operations, are more slender
-than those which are constructed at its leisure. In Sicily, and other
-parts of the Mediterranean, these threads have been manufactured into
-gloves, and other articles, which resemble silk.</p>
-
-<p>The number of muscles by which the shells are moved have caused this
-Class to be divided into two orders: the Bimusculosa, in which there
-are two pair of muscles to perform this office; and the Unimusculosa,
-with only one pair.</p>
-
-<h3><a name="UNIMUSCULOSA" id="UNIMUSCULOSA"></a><i>ORDER UNIMUSCULOSA.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The Conchiferous animals which possess but one pair of muscles, are
-much more limited in number than those which possess two or more; but
-they contain in their ranks several well-known and useful species, as,
-for instance, the oyster, the mussel, and the animal which produces the
-oriental pearl.</p>
-
-<h4><a name="HORSE" id="HORSE"></a><span class="smcap">The Horse-Foot
-Bowl Shell</span>,<br /> (<a href="#FIG_65"><i>Anomia ephippium</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>The shells of the Anomiæ are exceedingly irregular in their form;
-like the oysters, they remain during the whole of their existence
-attached to one spot, either on a rock, or on the shell of some larger
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span>
-inhabitant of the deep. These shells are more frequently found in the
-same places as the oyster, and very commonly attached to the shell of
-the latter; as an article of food, the Anomia is of little or no value.
-Its organization and manner of living are much the same as those of
-the oyster. The most singular part of its construction consists in
-the use made of one of the muscles with which it is furnished, which,
-instead of being attached to the shell, is fixed to a solid piece of
-shelly substance, in the form of a cone with the top cut off; this
-<i>operculum</i>, or lid, closes a singular opening in one of the valves of
-the shell itself. The animal adheres to the rock, or other substance,
-by means of this lid, and is detached with great difficulty.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="FIG_65" id="FIG_65"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_065.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="269" />
-    <p class="center space-below2"><i>Anomia ephippium.</i><br />[<i>Anomia</i>,
-             a little bowl; <i>ephippium</i>, a horse’s foot.]</p>
-</div>
-
-<h4><a name="OYSTER" id="OYSTER"></a><span class="smcap">The Oyster</span>,
-(<a href="#FIG_66"><i>Ostrea edulis</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>Oysters, like all other creatures that have been destined to become
-food for man, are found in great abundance in most parts of the globe;
-they are inhabitants of salt waters only, and are always found in rocky
-ground, in no great depth from the surface.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>Oysters generally cast their spat, or spawn, in the month of May;
-when first shed it has the appearance of a drop of candle-grease,
-which the dredgers commonly call <i>cultch</i>. The growth of an Oyster is
-tolerably rapid; three days after the spawn is deposited, the shell of
-the young Oyster may be seen, nearly a quarter of an inch in width; in
-three months it is larger than a shilling, in six months bigger than a
-half-crown, and in a year it exceeds a crown piece in size.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="FIG_66" id="FIG_66"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_066.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="301" />
-    <p class="center"><i>Ostrea edulis.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Oysters have been employed as food almost from time immemorial. The
-Greeks, but more especially the Romans, held them in high repute,
-attaching, at the same time, great importance to the places in which
-they were found. Those from the Dardanelles, from Venice, and from
-England, were considered the best, and the prices paid for them by the
-luxurious inhabitants of Rome were enormous. They were transported
-in large vessels, and deposited in the Lucrine Lake, where they were
-fattened for the table. The Romans, it seems, gave a preference to
-those which had the border of their mantle of a dark-brown colour,
-nearly black.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>The English Oyster-fishery is principally carried on at the following
-places:&mdash;Wivenhoe, near Colchester, in Essex, (the beds here are
-generally supplied from Portsmouth;) at Feversham and Milton, in
-Kent, the Swales of the Medway, and at Tenby, on the coast of Wales.
-In Scotland, they are chiefly taken at the island of Inchkeith, and
-at Preston-pans, both in the Firth of Forth. The fishing for Oysters
-is permitted by law, from the 1st of September to the last of April
-inclusive. During the remaining months they are considered unwholesome;
-it is a common saying that Oysters are in season during all the months
-that have the letter <i>r</i> in them.</p>
-
-<p>In France, the chief fishing-station for Oysters is in the Bay of
-Cançal, between the town of that name and Mount St. Michael, or St.
-Malo. The fishery is effected by means of an iron net or dredge; this
-is drawn over the Oyster-bed by hand-labour, or by having the rope
-which is fixed to it attached to the stem of the fishing-boat, which is
-then allowed to run before the wind; frequently, in the course of a few
-minutes, as many as two or three hundred are taken. The Oysters taken
-are sent from the ports of Granville and Cançal, to different places,
-where artificial banks or preserves are established. These banks
-are not only of use in the preservation of the Oysters, but assist
-materially in their improvement. In fact, the Oyster, when first taken
-out of the sea, has frequently a strong muddy taste, and appears in
-what we should call bad condition.</p>
-
-<p>Some of these preserves are a species of tank dug in the sand, or
-sometimes even in stone, near the sea-shore, and communicating by a
-narrow tunnel with the sea-water; the bottom and sides of these tanks
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span>
-are usually strewed with large stones. In France great care is bestowed
-on the management of these preserves; the Oysters are placed by hand
-on the stones, with the largest shell downwards, and at times the
-water is let off, and they are freed from all mud and dirt that may
-have collected, by having large quantities of water poured over them.
-A fashion existed formerly in France of preferring those Oysters which
-had a tinge of green, and great pains were taken to cause this change
-of colour to take place, by placing the animals where they could obtain
-a peculiar kind of green food.</p>
-
-<h4><a name="COMB" id="COMB"></a><span class="smcap">The Great Comb Shell</span>,
-(<a href="#FIG_69"><i>Pecten maximus</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>This shell, although it has the name of the Great Pecten, is not the
-largest of the numerous tribe to which it belongs; it is found in all
-the European seas. The regular nature of the fluting with which it is
-covered, and the elegance of its markings, have brought it much into use
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span>
-among ladies, who employ it in making pin-cushions and other articles
-of fancy-work; there are about sixty recent, and thirty fossil species.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="FIG_69" id="FIG_69"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_068.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="341" />
-    <p class="center"><i>Pecten maximus.<span class="ws3">Malleus albus.</span></i></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The power of locomotion appears to be very considerable in some species
-of the Pectens; it is said the animal can raise itself up in the water,
-and even reach the surface, by moving the two valves of its shell; but
-this is a fact not quite established, as but little is known of its
-habits. It is sometimes used as an article of food; but to render it
-tolerably palatable it requires cooking.</p>
-
-<p>In some countries, the shells of the larger species are used by the
-poorer classes instead of plates. In Paris, the <i>restaurateurs</i> employ
-them for the same purpose when serving up a certain preparation of
-mushrooms; in England, they are employed in cooking scalloped oysters,
-and the shell is consequently known as the Scallop Shell.</p>
-
-<h4><a name="PEARL" id="PEARL"></a><span class="smcap">The Pearl Oyster</span>,
-(<a href="#FIG_70"><i>Meleagrina margaritifera</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>The animal of this shell, although popularly called an oyster, is very
-different in structure, bearing greater resemblance, in some parts of
-its formation, to the mussel, particularly in possessing a <i>byssus</i>, or
-beard; it is the shell in which the famous oriental pearls are found.
-There are but two known species of the Meleagrina, which are chiefly
-found in the Persian Gulf, and at Ceylon, or in some of the seas of
-Australasia.</p>
-
-<p>The cause of the formation of pearl in the shells of this and other
-inhabitants of the water, has been the occasion of considerable
-dispute, but it is now pretty well ascertained.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>The inner portion of the shell of the Meleagrina is lined with a
-pearly substance, which is called mother-of-pearl; this is formed by
-an animal deposit, and is in thin layers. If, by any accident, the
-inner surface of the shell is injured, so as to cause a fracture of the
-mother-of-pearl, the deposit, in that place, becomes for the future
-irregular, and a bump is gradually formed. Accidental circumstances
-cause this bump to assume various shapes; sometimes it is oval,
-sometimes globular, and at others pear-shaped. This kind of pearl is
-always originally found attached to the shell by means of a small neck,
-or footstalk, and the spot at which this neck was placed can always be
-traced on the pearl itself.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="FIG_70" id="FIG_70"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_070.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="302" />
-    <p class="center"><i>Meleagrina margaritifera.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>But pearls are at times found loose in the shell;&mdash;in this case, the
-pearly matter is deposited on some extraneous substance, such, for
-instance, as a grain of sand, and by dissolving the pearl in an acid,
-this nucleus can be traced.</p>
-
-<p>Some of these round pearls are supposed to be formed on a centre,
-consisting of the remains of a diseased <i>ovum</i>, or egg, of the animal.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>Every schoolboy knows the story of Cleopatra having dissolved a
-valuable pearl in vinegar, and afterwards drunk it off, to show her
-ridiculous disregard of expense. But the account may reasonably be
-doubted; for had the acid been strong enough to dissolve the pearl, it
-would have been impossible to drink it, and if it was weak enough to
-drink, it would not have dissolved the pearl, at least not until the
-lapse of a very considerable time.</p>
-
-<p>At the island of Ceylon the fishery for pearls is a matter of great
-moment. The following is an account of the mode in which it is conducted.</p>
-
-<p>The country round Aripo, on the north-western coast of the island of
-Ceylon, is flat, sandy, and barren, presenting nothing to the eye
-but low brushwood, chiefly of thorns and prickly pears (which are
-the plants that nourish the cochineal insect<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a>),
-and here and there some straggling villages with a few cocoa-nut trees.
-But Condatchy, three miles distant, where, in general, nothing is to
-be seen but a few miserable huts, and a sandy desert, becomes, during
-the period of the pearl-fishery, a populous town, several streets of
-which extend upwards of a mile in length (though, as the houses are
-only intended as a shelter from the sun and rain, they are very rudely
-constructed), and the scene, altogether, resembles a crowded fair
-on the grandest scale. The people most active in erecting huts and
-speculating in the various branches of merchandise, are Mohammedans,
-Cingalese (natives of Ceylon), and Hindoos from the opposite coast
-of the continent of India. Apparently, however, from their natural
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span>
-timidity, none of the Cingalese are divers, and scarcely any of them
-engage in the other active parts of the fishery; they merely resort
-hither for the purpose of supplying the markets.</p>
-
-<p>About the end of October, in the year preceding a pearl-fishery,
-when a short interval of fine weather prevails, an examination of
-the banks takes place. A certain number of boats, under an English
-superintendent, repair in a body to each bank, and having, by frequent
-diving, ascertained its situation, they take from one to two thousand
-oysters as a specimen. The shells are opened, and if the pearls
-collected from a thousand oysters be worth three pounds sterling, a
-good fishery may be expected. The “banks,” or beds of oysters, are
-scattered over a space in the Gulf of Manaar, extending thirty miles
-from north to south, and twenty-four from east to west. There are
-fourteen beds (not all, however, productive), of which the largest is
-ten miles long, and two broad. The depth of water is from three to
-fifteen fathoms.</p>
-
-<p>The pearl oysters in these banks are all of one species, and of the
-same form: in shape not very unlike our common English oyster, but
-considerably larger, being from eight to ten inches in circumference.
-The body of the animal is white, fleshy, and glutinous: the inside
-of the shell (the real “mother-of-pearl,”) is even brighter and more
-beautiful than the pearl itself: the outside smooth and dark-coloured.
-The pearls are most commonly contained in the thickest and most fleshy
-part of the oyster. A single oyster will frequently contain several
-pearls, and one is on record, as having produced one hundred and fifty.</p>
-
-<p>Sometimes the English government of Ceylon fishes the banks entirely at
-its own risk; sometimes, the boats are let to many speculators: but,
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span>
-most frequently, the light of fishing is sold to one individual, who
-sub-lets boats to others. The fishery for the season of the year
-1804 was let by government to an individual for no less a sum than
-120,000<i>l.</i></p>
-
-<p>At the beginning of March, the fishery commenced, and upwards of two
-hundred and fifty boats were employed in the fishery alone. These,
-with their crews, and divers, and completely equipped with everything
-necessary to conduct the business of the fishing, come from different
-parts of the coast of Coromandel. After going through various ablutions
-and incantations, and other superstitious ceremonies, the occupants of
-these boats embark at midnight, guided by pilots, and as soon as they
-reach the banks, they cast anchor, and wait the dawn of day.</p>
-
-<p>At about seven in the morning, when the rays of the sun begin to
-emit some degree of warmth, the diving commences. A kind of open
-scaffolding, formed of oars and other pieces of wood, is projected from
-each side of the boat, and from it the diving-tackle is suspended,
-with three stones on one side, and two on the other. The diving-stone
-hangs from an oar by a light rope and slip-knot, and descends about
-five feet into the water. It is a stone of fifty-six pounds’ weight, of
-a sugar-loaf shape. The rope passes through a hole in the top of the
-stone, above which a strong loop is formed, resembling a stirrup-iron,
-to receive the foot of the diver. The diver wears no clothes, except a
-slip of calico round his loins,&mdash;swimming in the water, he takes hold
-of the rope, and puts one foot into the loop or stirrup, on the top of
-the stone.</p>
-
-<p>He remains in this upright position for a little while, supporting
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span>
-himself by the motion of one arm. Then a basket, formed of a wooden
-hoop and net-work, suspended by a rope, is thrown into the water to
-him, and in it he places his other foot. Both the ropes of the stone
-and the basket he holds for a little while in one hand. When he feels
-himself properly prepared and ready to go down, he grasps his nostrils
-with one hand, to prevent the water from rushing in; with the other
-gives a sudden pull to the running-knot suspending the stone, and
-instantly descends: the remainder of the rope fixed to the basket is
-thrown into the water after him, at the same moment: the rope attached
-to the stone is in such a position as to follow him of itself. As soon
-as he touches the bottom, he disentangles his foot from the stone,
-which is immediately drawn up, and suspended again to the projecting
-oar in the same manner as before, to be in readiness for the next
-diver. The diver, arrived at the bottom of the sea, throws himself as
-much as possible upon his face, and collects everything he can get
-hold of into the basket. When he is ready to ascend, he gives a jerk
-to the rope, and the persons in the boat, who hold the other end of
-it, haul it up as speedily as possible. The diver, at the same time,
-free of every incumbrance, warps up by the rope, and always gets above
-water a considerable time before the basket. He generally comes up at a
-distance from the boat, and swims about, or takes hold of an oar or a
-rope, until his turn comes to descend again; but he seldom comes into
-the boat, until the labour of the day is over. When a young diver is
-training to the business, he descends in the arms of a man completely
-experienced in the art, who takes great care of him, and shows him the
-manner of proceeding, and the pupil at first brings up in his hand a
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span>
-single oyster, a stone, or a little sand, merely to show that he has
-reached the bottom. The length of time during which the divers remain
-under water, is rarely much more than a minute and a half; yet, in
-this short period, in a ground richly clothed with oysters, an expert
-man will often put as many as one hundred and fifty into his basket.
-There are two divers attached to each stone, so that they go down
-alternately. The men, after diving, generally find a small quantity
-of blood issue from their nose and ears, which they consider as a
-favourable symptom, and perform the operation with greater comfort
-after the bleeding has commenced. They seem to enjoy the labour as a
-pleasant pastime, and never murmur or complain, unless when the banks
-contain a scarcity of oysters, though their labours are continued for
-six hours.</p>
-
-<p>When the day is sufficiently advanced, the head pilot makes a signal,
-and the fleet set sail for the shore. All descriptions of people hasten
-to the water’s edge to welcome their return, and the crowd, stir, and
-noise, are then immense. Every boat comes to its own station, and the
-oysters are carried into certain paved enclosures on the sea-shore,
-where they are allowed to remain in heaps (of course, well guarded) for
-ten days, that time being necessary to render them putrid. When the
-oysters are sufficiently decayed, they are thrown into a large vessel,
-filled with salt water, and left there for twelve hours to soften their
-putrid substance. The oysters are then taken up, one by one, the shells
-broken from one another, and washed in the water. Those shells, which
-have pearls adhering to them, are thrown on one side, and afterwards
-handed to clippers, whose business it is to disengage the pearls from
-the shells, with pincers.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>When all the shells are thrown out, the slimy substance of the oysters
-remains, mixed with sand and broken fragments of shells, at the bottom
-of the vessel. The dirty water is lifted out in buckets, and poured
-into a sack, made like a jelly-bag, so that no pearls can be lost.
-Fresh water being then added from time to time, and the whole substance
-in the vessel continually agitated, the sand and pearls together, are
-by degrees allowed to sink to the bottom.</p>
-
-<p>As soon as the sand is dry it is sifted; the large pearls, being
-conspicuous, are easily gathered; but the separating the small
-and diminutive (“seed pearls,” as they are called,) is a work of
-considerable labour. When once separated from the sand, washed with
-salt water, dried, and rendered perfectly clean, they are sorted into
-classes, according to their sizes, by being passed through sieves.
-After this, a hole is drilled through each pearl; they are then
-arranged on strings, and are fit for the market.</p>
-
-<p>Pearls have been considered as valuable ornaments from the earliest
-times: they are mentioned in the book of Job (xxviii. 18,) and are
-often alluded to by the classical writers. There have been various
-attempts made to imitate them successfully, one of the most singular
-of which,&mdash;known to have been practised early in the Christian era,
-on the banks of the Red Sea,&mdash;is still carried on in China. A hole is
-bored in the shell of the pearl oyster, a piece of iron-wire inserted,
-and the oyster restored to its place: the animal, wounded by the point
-of the wire, deposits a coat of pearly matter round it: this gradually
-hardens, successive layers are added, till a pearl of the requisite
-size is formed, and the shell is once more brought to land.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>A plan, somewhat similar to this, was employed by Linnæus, who pierced
-the shells of the fresh-water mussel, causing thereby a pearl to be
-formed at the punctured spot; and the Swedish government actually
-established artificial pearleries,&mdash;but these were abandoned after
-a few years; for, although pearls were formed, they were seldom of
-sufficient size to be of much value.</p>
-
-<p>False pearls are made of hollow glass globules, the inside of which is
-covered with a liquid, called pearl-essence, and then filled with white
-wax. This liquid is composed of the silver-coloured particles which
-adhere to the scales of the bleak, (<i>ablette</i>,) and was first applied
-to this purpose, early in the last century, by a Frenchman of the name
-of Jacquin<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a>.</p>
-
-<h4><a name="HAMMER" id="HAMMER"></a><span class="smcap">The Hammer Oyster</span>,
-(<a href="#FIG_69"><i>Malleus albus</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>The singular figure of this shell renders it very remarkable;
-externally its appearance is very rude and irregular, but, on the other
-hand, the inner surface is equally beautiful, being covered with the
-most brilliant mother-of-pearl. The different species of the Malleus
-are all marine, and found in the seas of hot climates, and the rarity
-of some causes them to be very valuable, and much sought after. Like
-the neighbouring genera, the animal is furnished with a byssus, or
-beard, by which it adheres to the rocks.</p>
-
-<h4><a name="PINNA" id="PINNA"></a><span class="smcap">The Rough Pinna</span>,
-(<a href="#FIG_78"><i>Pinna rudis</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>The Pinna is a marine shell; most of the species are large, and the
-shells very thin in proportion to their size. That represented in the
-engraving is found in the American seas, and is sometimes as much as a
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span>
-foot and a half in length; it is by no means rare. There is a species
-found in the Mediterranean, in about five or six fathoms water, which
-is much sought after by the inhabitants of Sicily and Calabria, not
-only as an article of food, but also for the sake of its beard, or
-byssus, of which, in many places, a kind of cloth is made, very
-remarkable for its softness and warmth. The fishermen, to obtain the
-<a href="#FIG_78">Pinna</a>, make use of a kind of iron rake, called a <i>crampe</i>,
-with teeth a foot in length; when the shells are drawn up, the beards are found to
-be torn in some part of their substance. If a sufficient length remains
-attached to the animal, to render the fibres available for the purpose
-of spinning, they are cut off close to the shell: they are then dried
-and spun, and afterwards woven into gloves, stockings, caps, and even
-garments of much larger size.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="FIG_78" id="FIG_78"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_078.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="342" />
-    <p class="center"><i>Pinna rudis.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The threads of which the byssus is formed are extremely fine, and of
-equal thickness throughout their whole length, very strong, and of a
-dark morone colour, which is exceedingly permanent.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>This curious kind of cloth was long since known to the ancients; but
-at present its manufacture is very limited, from the great scarcity of
-the <a href="#FIG_78">Pinna</a>, and the number of beards necessary to make even
-so small an article as a pair of gloves. But it is supposed, that if the shells
-were placed in more favourable circumstances, in preserves, &amp;c., they
-would increase much more rapidly.</p>
-
-<p>These shells are found in the seas of all hot climates, but the British
-shores possess but one species, the <i>Pinna lævis</i> of Donovan; this is
-of a horny colour, clouded with brown, and attains a considerable size.</p>
-
-<h4><a name="MUSSEL" id="MUSSEL"></a><span class="smcap">The Common Mussel</span>,
-(<a href="#FIG_79"><i>Mytilus edulis</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>The Mussels are a well-known and very useful genus of the shell-bearing
-animals: they are generally found attached to rocks between high and
-low water marks.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="FIG_79" id="FIG_79"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_079.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="379" />
-    <p class="center"><i>Mytilus edulis.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>They are sought after in most parts of the world as an article of food;
-and, although not equal to the oyster, make a very palatable dish.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>The Mussel, although usually wholesome, is at times the cause of
-severe, though temporary illness. Different reasons have been assigned
-for this poisonous property, and many signs have been noted, by
-which it is said the unwholesome state of this shell-fish can be
-detected,&mdash;a yellowness of colour, an extremely meagre appearance,
-partial corruption, a diseased state of the animal, a small crab or
-insect found between the valves of its shell. Other observers have
-ridiculously attributed the effects to the change in the phases of
-the moon; but, if we are to believe a French physician, who made many
-experiments, all these guesses are wrong; according to this author,
-the ill effects are caused only after the Mussels have been feeding
-on the spawn of the star-fish; this spawn appears to the eye merely
-a shapeless lump of jelly, but after a few days it is a living mass
-of infant star-fish. The time of the year during which this spawn is
-cast, is from the end of April, or beginning of May, to the end of
-July, or beginning of August; from this, he says, arises the common
-observation, that Mussels are only poisonous during those months in
-which the letter <i>r</i> is not found. This spawn, according to our author,
-is so venomous and caustic, that it causes great pain, swelling, and
-inflammation, even to the hand, if handled at this season; rubbing the
-part with vinegar is recommended as a cure. Small star-fish were rolled
-up in other food, and given to dogs and cats, when the animals suffered
-severely, and in the end generally died. In spite, however, of all
-these experiments, it is still doubtful whether the true cause has been
-discovered. Thus much appears to be certain, that whenever indigestion
-occurs after eating Mussels, some ill effects are experienced, but this
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span>
-has seldom, or very rarely, taken place when they have been eaten with
-vinegar, and they are much more wholesome cooked than otherwise.</p>
-
-<p>When an individual is <i>musselled</i>, the effects are very alarming;
-the body, head, and face swell to a frightful extent; and, in a few
-hours, the skin is covered with a bright scarlet eruption; the cure is
-attempted by means of an emetic, and afterwards some aromatic drink,
-and vinegar and water; this brings on a profuse perspiration, which
-soon relieves the patient.</p>
-
-<p>The Mussel is taken by our fishermen for bait, for which purpose it
-is well adapted.</p>
-
-<p>In some parts of the Mediterranean great attention is paid to the
-multiplication of this animal. At the port of Tarento, in the kingdom
-of Naples, they drive into the sand a number of long poles, to which
-the spawn of the Muscle becomes attached. In the following August,
-when they have attained the size of almonds, they are taken to the
-mouth of the brooks and small streams which fall into the gulf; here
-they are left until October, when they are taken back to the sea, and
-in the following Spring they are considered fit to eat. This change
-from the salt to the fresh water and back again, is said to improve
-their flavour and colour. Near Rochelle they are preserved in tanks,
-preserves in which the salt water remains at rest.</p>
-
-<h4><a name="TRIDACNA" id="TRIDACNA"></a><span class="smcap">The Giant Tridacna</span>,
-(<a href="#FIG_82"><i>Tridacna gigas</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>The <i>Tridacna gigas</i> is the largest of the bivalve shells; it is very
-thick and close in texture, and is said to have been found as much
-as five hundred pounds in weight. In Catholic countries the shells
-have been sometimes used as the receptacles for the holy water in the
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span>
-churches, and formerly they were considered sufficiently valuable to
-form a present to a king; those in St. Sulpice, at Paris, were given
-to Francis the First by the Republic of Venice. They have been found
-in India, as it is related, of so extreme a size, that more than one
-hundred persons have made a meal on the flesh of a single Tridacna
-gigas, but this, no doubt, is an exaggeration. These shells adhere
-to the rocks by their short and strong byssus with so much tenacity,
-as to require the assistance of a mallet and chisels, in the task of
-separating them from the rock.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="FIG_82" id="FIG_82"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_082.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="311" />
-    <p class="center"><i>Tridacna gigas.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-<h3><a name="BIMUSCULOSA" id="BIMUSCULOSA"></a><i>ORDER BIMUSCULOSA,<br />
-(Shells with Two Pairs of Muscles.)</i></h3>
-
-<p>This Order contains by far the greatest portion of the bivalve shells,
-all interesting to the naturalist, from the variety and beauty of their
-structure, but few possessing a claim to notice on account of their
-use as food for mankind, not but that many are equally wholesome
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span>
-with those belonging to the last order, but as they possess two or more
-pairs of muscles, they are much more capable of moving from place to
-place, and, consequently, are seldom found in any great quantities in
-one spot, and being found, as they generally are, in a considerable
-depth of water, they are not so easily obtained.</p>
-
-<h4><a name="FW_MUSSEL" id="FW_MUSSEL"></a><span class="smcap">The Fresh-Water Mussel</span>,
-(<a href="#FIG_84"><i>Anodonta cygnæa</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>Although this shell, and several other species which nearly resemble
-it, are known by the trivial name of <i>Mussel</i>, the only resemblance
-between them consists in their outward appearance, the animals which
-inhabit the shells being very distinct, both in organization and in
-habits. The Mussels, as we have already said, have very little power
-of moving from place to place, while, on the other hand, the Anodonta
-is at times far from being a sluggish animal, and, for the purpose of
-shifting its position, it avails itself of a very strong and broad
-muscular foot. The shell of the Anodonta is sometimes found to contain
-pearls, a circumstance which frequently occurs in all shells which are
-lined with mother-of-pearl.</p>
-
-<p>Some of the Scotch rivers have produced numerous specimens of pearl,
-very large and beautiful, and which used to bear an extremely high price.</p>
-
-<p>A paper in the Philosophical Transactions for 1693, mentions the
-collection of pearls from this shell, in the river Omagh, County
-Tyrone, in Ireland. “The poor people,” he says, “in the Summer months,
-go into the water, and some with their toes, some with wooden tongs,
-and some by putting a sharpened stick into the opening of the shell,
-take them up; and, although, by a common estimate, not above one shell
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span>
-in a hundred may have a pearl, and of these pearls not above one in
-a hundred be tolerably clear, yet a vast number of fair merchantable
-pearls, and too good for the apothecary, are offered for sale by those
-people every Summer assizes. Some gentlemen of the country make good
-advantage thereof, and myself, whilst there, saw one pearl bought for
-50<i>l.</i> that weighed thirty-six carats, and was valued at 40<i>l.</i> A
-miller took out a pearl, which he sold for 4<i>l.</i> 10<i>s.</i> to a man that
-sold it for 10<i>l.</i>, who sold it to the late Lady Glenanly for 30<i>l.</i>,
-with whom I saw it in a necklace; she refused 80<i>l.</i> for it from the
-late Dutchess of Ormond.”</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="FIG_84" id="FIG_84"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_084.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="279" />
-    <p class="center space-below2"><span class="ws8"><i>Isocardia cor.</i></span>
-                                   <span class="ws4"><i>Anodonta Cygnæa.</i></span></p>
-</div>
-
-<h4><a name="ISOCARDIA" id="ISOCARDIA"></a><span class="smcap">The Heart-Shaped Isocardia</span>,<br />
-(<a href="#FIG_84"><i>Isocardia cor</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>This shell, which is very common in the Mediterranean, where it goes by
-the name of the <i>foolscap-shell</i>, and the <i>bullock’s heart shell</i>, is
-rare in the British seas, but it is sometimes found on the Irish coast;
-it is the largest British bivalve shell.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span></p>
-
-<h4><a name="DONAX" id="DONAX"></a><span class="smcap">The Wedge-Shaped Donax</span>,
-(<a href="#FIG_85"><i>Donax cuneata</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>There are nearly thirty species of Donax, all extremely beautiful; that
-represented in the engraving is of a whitish colour with red streaks:
-it is often met with in collections of Indian shells. One of these
-species is found on the English coasts, of a delicate white colour, and
-streaked with pink.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="FIG_85" id="FIG_85"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_085.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="254" />
-    <p class="center"><i>Donax cuneata.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>In following the system of Lamarck, we are gradually led through
-various genera to two species figured on the next page, namely, the
-<a href="#FIG_86">Tellina</a>, or <i>earth-shell</i>, and the Pandora, and, ultimately, to the
-Solen, or <i>razor-shell</i>.</p>
-
-<h4><a name="SOLEN" id="SOLEN"></a><span class="smcap">The Sheath Solen</span>,
-(<a href="#FIG_86"><i>Solen vagina</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>The Solens are singular from the power they possess of burying
-themselves in the sands on the coast, sometimes even to the depth of a
-couple of feet. The foot of the Solen, by means of which it is able to
-penetrate the sand, is equal to one-half of the length of the shell.
-Their movements are confined to rising to the surface of the sand in
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span>
-which they have formed their hole, and in again sinking to the bottom.
-This movement is, no doubt, produced by the action of the foot, which
-forms itself into a sharp point in its descent, and when it remounts is
-enlarged as much as possible, to form a resting-point, for the purpose
-of raising the shell to the surface. It is not supposed that the animal
-ever entirely leaves its hole of its own accord, although it may
-possess the power; but it is certain, according to the observations of
-Réaumur, that if forcibly removed it can re-enter it. The hole it forms
-for its retreat is always perpendicular.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="FIG_86" id="FIG_86"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_086.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="255" />
-    <p class="center space-below2"><i>Tellina.<span class="ws8">Solen vagina.</span>
-                                   <span class="ws4">Pandora rostrata.</span></i></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>One of these creatures, being taken out of its retreat, was laid on
-the sand; it first extended its foot in the form of a wedge, or rather
-cone, and, applying it to the surface of the sand, slightly raised the
-farthest end of its shell; at the next effort the projecting part of
-the foot was buried in the sand, and the shell became more elevated;
-after two or three more attempts the hole had attained a perpendicular
-direction, and the shell was partly buried in it; the shell then began
-to descend, and that with considerable quickness.</p>
-
-<p>The <a href="#FIG_86">Solens</a> are used sometimes, but rarely, for food; but in places
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span>
-where they abound, they are sought after as bait for fishes: the method
-of taking them is very singular. Having discovered the place of retreat
-of the creature, by observing the hole in the sand which leads to its
-chamber, the fisherman throws into its entrance a small quantity of
-salt. Although an inhabitant of salt water, the pure salt produces so
-irritating an effect on the extremity of its body, that it quickly
-mounts to the surface; the fisherman, waiting for its appearance,
-snatches hastily at it, and if he succeeds in seizing it firmly, makes
-good his capture; but if not sufficiently active, and the animal
-escapes, the application of fresh salt produces no further effect;
-either it is not sensible to the additional infusion of salt, or, which
-is most likely, the instinct of self-preservation causes it to put up
-with the inconvenience rather than be taken. In this case, no other
-means are left of securing it, than using an iron instrument to dig it
-out with. The number of species is upwards of twenty.</p>
-
-<h4><a name="PHOLAS" id="PHOLAS"></a><span class="smcap">The Date-Shaped Pholas</span>,
-(<a href="#FIG_88"><i>Pholas dactyloides</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>These creatures have much more powerful means of boring than the
-solens, for not only do they imbed themselves in hard clay, but even in
-stone and lava. In what manner this is effected has been the subject of
-much dispute; it is almost certain that the process is not mechanical,
-for their soft body, and the fragile nature of their shells, seem an
-insuperable bar to such a proceeding. Some authors have asserted that
-the hole is formed by means of an acid secreted by the animal, which
-acts chemically on the stone; but there are two reasons against this
-solution of the difficulty; first, no acid liquid has been discovered
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span>
-in the living animal, and, secondly, although acid would act upon
-stone, it would have no effect whatever on lava.</p>
-
-<p>Another curious part of the history of these shell-fish is their
-phosphorescence, which is so bright, that it has been asserted, if
-eaten in the dark without their being cooked, it appears as if the
-person devouring them was swallowing phosphorus.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="FIG_88" id="FIG_88"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_088.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="384" />
-    <p class="center"><i>Pholas dactyloides.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Although not used as food in this country, they are not uncommonly
-eaten on the shores of the Mediterranean, where some large species are
-found.</p>
-
-<p>The species represented in the engraving is found on the British
-coasts, imbedded in clay; its shell is of a delicate white, beautifully
-carved. The projecting piece at the lower part of the shell in the
-engraving is the long foot of the animal; on the right hand, the hole
-from which a shell has been removed is shown.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span></p>
-
-<h4><a name="SHIP_WORM" id="SHIP_WORM"></a><span class="smcap">The Ship-Worm,</span>
-(<a href="#FIG_89"><i>Teredo navalis</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>Before the anatomy of this destructive creature had been carefully
-examined, there was as much difficulty in guessing at the means it
-employed in penetrating the solid timbers in which it is found, as
-there is with regard to the operations of the Pholas; but subsequent
-observation shows that the hard parts, of which the mouth is formed,
-are fully equal to the task.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="FIG_89" id="FIG_89"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_089.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="295" />
-    <p class="center"><i>Teredo navalis.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Perhaps we may say, with propriety, that this is the only species of
-the shell-bearing tribes that is decidedly injurious to mankind. The
-animal of the Teredo is a long worm-shaped creature, dwelling in a
-tube of a shelly substance, which it forms for itself in its progress
-through the wood; the small pointed shell-like pieces, to the right
-in the engraving, form the jaws of the animal. With the assistance of
-these it cuts its way into the timber, and, at the same time, lines the
-excavation it is making with a shelly substance, which is gradually
-formed into a tube, the animal occupying that part which is most deeply
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span>
-sunken in the timber; in directing its course it generally excavates
-in the direction of the grain of the wood, but in some instances it
-crosses this grain.</p>
-
-<p>In Holland a great part of the country is below the level of high
-water, and, to prevent the irruption of the sea, immense dykes have
-been formed along the coast; these are framed, on the sea-side, of
-large masses of sand, while to the landward they are strengthened by
-means of strong piles driven into the ground and wattled together.
-These piles were once discovered pierced in all directions by this
-destructive worm, to such an extent as to endanger their safety, and
-had it not been for a timely discovery of the mischief, immense tracts
-of country would have been laid under water, and irretrievably lost.</p>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span></p>
-<div class="chapter">
-<h2><a name="CIRRHIPEDA" id="CIRRHIPEDA"></a>CLASS CIRRHIPEDA.</h2></div>
-
-<p>The Cirrhipeds are well known under the names of <i>Barnacles</i> and
-<i>Acorn-shells</i>, being found attached to rocks, ships’ bottoms, and
-pieces of timber which have been under the water for a length of time.
-They also at times fix themselves on the shells of the larger Mollusca,
-and on the backs of whales, tortoises, &amp;c. These creatures, from their
-singular formation, have often proved a stumbling-block in the way of
-the systematic naturalist, who, from their anomalous characters, was
-unable to refer them to any part of his system; and although their
-true nature, which has more recently been discovered by a British
-naturalist, was partially suspected by Lamarck, (without, however, any
-definite idea on the subject,) we have still placed them immediately
-after the Conchifera, although, as we shall presently show, they ought
-more properly to be ranged with the Crustacea, that is, the crab and
-lobster tribes, and in future systems this no doubt will be the case.</p>
-
-<p>After noticing their resemblance in many respects to the Crustacea,
-Lamarck thus expresses himself. “In fact, when I established the
-<span class="smcap">class</span> of Crustacea, I formed the <i>first order</i> of this class,
-(the <i>Cirrhipeds</i>,) under the name of <i>sightless Crustacea</i>, but a
-few years afterwards I separated them and placed them at the end of
-the Mollusca, but this was no better. If, for example, we consider
-those characters which furnish their most important organs, we shall
-find that the Cirrhipeds, without any doubt, most nearly resemble the
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span>
-Crustacea, for they have the same system of nerves, they have jaws
-analogous to those of the Crustacea, and their tentacula resemble the
-antennæ of the shrimps.” To prove that they really were Crustacea, was
-a task that devolved upon a British naturalist, I. V. Thomson, Esq.,
-a surgeon in his Majesty’s forces. The manner in which this discovery
-took place, we shall notice further on.</p>
-
-<p>The Cirrhipeds have obtained their name from the hairy feelers, or
-tentacula, with which they are provided; the name Cirrhipeda being
-derived from two Latin words,&mdash;<i>cirrhus</i>, hair, and <i>pes</i>, the foot;
-these appendages, being figuratively called feet, although they have,
-in reality, but little relation to that organ of motion.</p>
-
-<p>They have been separated into two orders; namely, <i>Cirrhipeda
-pedunculata</i>, which are attached to any object by a tube of a leathery
-nature, as, for instance, the Barnacle,&mdash;and <i>Cirrhipeda sedentaria</i>,
-which are fixed directly to the rock, like the Acorn-shell.</p>
-
-<h3><a name="PEDUNCULATA" id="PEDUNCULATA"></a><i>ORDER CIRRHIPEDA PEDUNCULATA.</i><br />
-(<i>Cirrhipeda with a Footstalk.</i>)</h3>
-
-<h4><a name="BARNACLE" id="BARNACLE"></a><span class="smcap">The Smooth Barnacle</span>,
-(<a href="#FIG_93"><i>Anatifa lævis</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>The curious popular error, that the Barnacle contained the young of
-a species of goose, which was thence called the Barnacle Goose, has
-lasted for many ages, and still prevails among the uneducated, on the
-shores of many of the European seas. One reason of the continuance
-of this error in several Roman Catholic countries, is the permission
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span>
-granted by the priest to its members, to eat this goose on fish-days,
-because it is considered, on account of its supposed watery origin, to
-partake more of the character of a fish than a fowl. To show the extent
-to which an erroneous belief may be carried, we may quote the following
-notice sent by Sir Robert Moray to the Royal Society, and <i>printed</i> by
-them in their <i>Transactions</i>. He says, “The pedicle seems to draw and
-convey the matter which serves for the growth and vegetation of the
-shell and the little bird within it.” “In every shell that I opened, I
-found a perfect <i>sea-fowl</i>; the little bill like that of a <i>goose</i>, the
-eyes marked; the head, neck, breast, wings, tail, and feet formed; the
-feathers everywhere perfectly shaped, and blackish-coloured; and the
-<i>feet</i> like those of other water-fowl, to my best remembrance!” “Nor
-did I ever see any of the little birds alive, nor met with anybody that
-did; only some credible persons have assured me that they have seen
-some as big as their fist!!”</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="FIG_93" id="FIG_93"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_093.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="386" />
-    <p class="center space-below2"><i>Anatifa lævis.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<hr class="r5" />
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span></p>
-<h3><a name="SEDENTARIA" id="SEDENTARIA"></a><i>ORDER CIRRHIPEDA SEDENTARIA</i>,<br />
-(<i>Sedentary Cirrhipeds</i>.)</h3>
-
-<h4><a name="ACORN" id="ACORN"></a><span class="smcap">The Acorn-Shell</span>,
-(<a href="#FIG_94"><i>Balanus</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>Mr. Thomson describes his discovery of the real nature of the
-Cirrhipeds in these words. “On April 28, 1823, which the author
-had devoted to the investigation of some marine productions, he was
-returning home without any addition to his stock of knowledge, when,
-casually throwing out a small muslin towing-net, on crossing the ferry
-at Passage, such a capture of marine animals was made, as furnished a
-treat which few can ever expect to meet, and could hardly be excelled
-for the variety, rarity, and interesting nature of the animals taken.”
-After mentioning the names of several very rare species, he continues
-“and others perfectly nondescript, and incapable of being associated in
-any of our classifications of the Crustacea; of this description is the
-little animal about to be described.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="FIG_94" id="FIG_94"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_094.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="266" />
-    <p class="center"><i>Balanus</i>, (The Acorn-Shell Barnacle.)</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>“There is a small translucent animal one-tenth of an inch long, of a
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span>
-somewhat elliptic form, moderately compressed, and of a brownish hue.
-When in a state of perfect repose, it resembles a very minute mussel,
-and lies upon one of its sides at the bottom of the vessel of sea-water
-in which it is placed. At this time all the members of the animal are
-withdrawn within the shell, which appears to be composed of two valves,
-united by a hinge along the upper part of the back, and capable of
-opening from one end to the other along the front, to give occasional
-exit to the legs. The limbs are of two descriptions; namely, in front a
-large and very strong pair, provided with a cup-like sucker and hooks,
-&amp;c., and at the hinder part of the body, six pair of swimming-members,
-so articulated as to act in concert, and to give a very forcible stroke
-to the water, so as to cause the animal, when swimming, to advance by a
-succession of bounds, after the manner of the water flea.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_095.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="201" />
-</div>
-
-<ul class="index">
-<li class="isub0">Fig. 1. Larva of Barnacle, natural size.</li>
-<li class="isub2">2.&emsp;&nbsp;"&emsp;" <span class="ws2">"</span><span class="ws2">magnified, seen from above.</span></li>
-<li class="isub2">3.&emsp;&nbsp;"&emsp;" <span class="ws2">"</span><span class="ws2">highly magnified, seen from side;</span></li>
-<li class="isub12"><i>a</i>, swimming-members;</li>
-<li class="isub12"><i>b</i>, front limb, with sucker.</li>
-<li class="isub2">4. Eye, much magnified.</li>
-<li class="isub2">5. Perfect Young Barnacle, natural size.</li>
-<li class="isub2">6.&emsp;&emsp;"<span class="ws2">"</span><span class="ws3">"</span>&emsp;&emsp;full grown.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p>“The greatest peculiarity, however, in the structure of this animal,
-is the eyes; which, although constantly shielded by the valves of the
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span>
-shell, are placed on footstalks, as in the crab and lobster, in front,
-at the sides of the body.</p>
-
-<p>“Some of these curious creatures were collected in the Spring of 1826;
-and, in order to see what changes they might undergo, were kept in a
-glass vessel, covered by such a depth of sea-water, that they could be
-examined at any time by means of a common magnifying glass; they were
-taken on May the 1st, and on the night of the 8th, the author had the
-satisfaction to find that two of them had thrown off their <i>exuviæ</i><a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a>,
-and, wonderful to say, were firmly adhering to the bottom of the
-vessel, and changed into young Barnacles! such as are usually seen
-intermixed with grown specimens, on rocks and stones, at this season of
-the year. The eyes were still perceptible, although the principal part
-of the black colouring-matter appeared to have been thrown off with
-the <i>exuviæ</i>. On the 10th, another individual was seen <i>in the act of
-throwing off its shell</i>, and attaching itself, like the others, to the
-bottom of the glass.”</p>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span></p>
-<div class="chapter">
-<h2><a name="ANNULATA" id="ANNULATA"></a>CLASS ANNULATA.</h2></div>
-
-<p>We cannot better describe the Annulose animals than in the words of
-Lamarck; he calls them,</p>
-
-<p>“Animals with soft bodies, lengthened, worm-shaped, naked, or
-inhabiting tubes, with the body divided into segments, or at least
-transverse wrinkles, often without head, without eyes, and without
-antennæ, unfurnished with articulated limbs, but the greater number
-having, instead, small protuberances, bearing spines, and capable of
-being retracted at pleasure, disposed in rows along the sides, though
-not continued quite to the extremity of the body, and assuming various
-forms. They have also red blood circulating by veins and arteries; this
-separates them from the Worms, properly so called, which have white
-blood. This colour of the blood is a singular fact, since the animals
-are much less complex in their organization than the Mollusca, which
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span>
-have colourless blood. The Class of Annulose animals has been separated
-into three Orders, namely, <i>Annulata sedentaria</i>, which are fixed to
-other substances; <i>Annulata antennata</i>, possessing antennæ, or feelers;
-and <i>Annulata apoda</i>, without projecting members answering as feet,
-serving solely to attach the animal to rocks, stones, &amp;c.”</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_097.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="295" />
-    <p class="center space-below2"><i>Shells of various sedentary Annulose Animals.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<h3><a name="ANN_SEDENTARIA" id="ANN_SEDENTARIA"></a><i>ORDER ANNULATA SEDENTARIA</i>,<br />
-(<i>Sedentary Annulose Animals</i>.)</h3>
-
-<p>The creatures which form this order are generally found attached
-to rocks, shells, &amp;c. and are usually of small size. The engraving
-represents a variety of species of these animals. Of the genus Serpula
-there are many species, but as it is in general merely the shell
-that is found in collections, they are but ill defined; some of the
-species are found in almost all climates. The animal of the Serpula has
-great power of contracting its body, but it never leaves its shell or
-tube; this tube is gradually lengthened by the inhabitant, who always
-occupies the most recently-formed portion of it; its <i>operculum</i>, the
-lid with which it closes the opening of its tube, is very prettily
-formed; it is something like the mouth-piece of a trumpet, but of
-course not perforated, and it closes the opening with great accuracy.</p>
-
-<h4><a name="AMPHITRITE" id="AMPHITRITE"></a><span class="smcap">The Magnificent
-Amphitrite</span>,<br /> (<a href="#FIG_99"><i>Amphitrite magnifica</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>This beautiful species is perhaps the largest of the whole tribe as
-yet discovered. It is found in various parts of the coast of Jamaica,
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span>
-adhering to, or rather embedded in, the rocks. Its irritability is
-exceedingly great, and on being approached it instantly retreats into
-its elastic tube; this tube is of a leathery consistence, unlike that
-of the Serpula. Specimens of this elegant species can only be obtained
-by breaking off such parts of the stone as contain them. These, being
-put into tubs of sea-water, may be kept for months in perfect health.
-That part of the body which is so beautifully spread out like an
-umbrella, consists of the <i>branchiæ</i> or organs of breathing; these are
-of a yellowish colour, beautifully marked with pink. The Amphitrite,
-although perhaps it never entirely leaves its tube, is not attached to
-it, and frequently draws out nearly the whole of its body.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="FIG_99" id="FIG_99"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_099.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="458" />
-    <p class="center space-below2"><i>Amphitrite magnifica.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span></p>
-<h3><a name="ANTENNATA" id="ANTENNATA"></a><i>ORDER ANNULATA ANTENNATA</i>,<br />
-(<i>Annulose Animals possessing Antennæ</i>.)</h3>
-
-<hr class="r25" />
-<h4><a name="SAND_WORM" id="SAND_WORM"></a><span class="smcap">The Sand-Worm of
-the Fishermen</span>,<br />(<a href="#FIG_100"><i>Arenicola piscatorium</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>This Worm forms its nest in the sand on the sea-shore, and is much
-sought after by fishermen as bait for fishes. It is found in all the
-European seas. There appears to be but one species, but that is met
-with in great abundance.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="FIG_100" id="FIG_100"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_100.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="397" />
-    <p class="center space-below2"><i>Arenicola piscatorium.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<h4><a name="LEODICE" id="LEODICE"></a><span class="smcap">Blood-coloured
-Leodice</span>, (<a href="#FIG_101"><i>Leodice sanguinea</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>The antennated Annulata differ materially from those which are
-enclosed in a case; they possess, in addition to their antennæ, organs
-of motion, like the false legs of a caterpillar, and two or four
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span>
-well-formed eyes; they are all marine animals, and altogether they bear
-a strong resemblance to the <i>scolopendra</i>, or centipede.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="FIG_101" id="FIG_101"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_101.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="387" />
-    <p class="center"><i>Leodice sanguinea.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The species represented above was taken on the southern coast of
-Devonshire; it is the largest English species, extending sometimes to
-the length of fourteen or fifteen inches.</p>
-
-<p>When the animal was in a glass of sea-water, the circulation of the
-blood through the bristle-like appendages on each side of the body
-was a curious object, and appeared to be effected at the will of the
-animal, but when it became sickly, the circulation was slower, and as
-soon as it expired all the colour from those parts vanished.</p>
-
-<p>The mouth is large, and placed beneath, concealing most formidable
-jaws, or complicated fangs, which were put forward occasionally as the
-animal became sickly, or in the agonies of death. The figure beneath
-the worm shows the shape of this singular apparatus.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span></p>
-
-<h4><a name="MOUSE" id="MOUSE"></a><span class="smcap">The Spinous Sea-Mouse,
-or Sea-Caterpillar</span>,<br />(<a href="#FIG_102"><i>Halithæa aculeata</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>The Sea-Mouse is found in the European seas, and when in its native
-element is singularly beautiful, the hair with which it is partially
-covered being equal in splendour to the colours on the tail of a peacock.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="FIG_102" id="FIG_102"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_102.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="406" />
-    <p class="center space-below2"><i>Halithæa aculeata.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<h3><a name="APODA" id="APODA"></a><i>ORDER ANNULATA APODA</i>,<br />
-(<i>Footless Annulose Animals</i>.)</h3>
-
-<p>The greater portion of the Annulose animals, namely those already
-described, are furnished with small projecting points on the sides of
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span>
-their body, which assist them in their motions, and which may,
-consequently, be considered as supplying the place of feet; but those
-we have yet to notice have no similar appendages, and, therefore, they
-are called footless. They are all very lively in their movements, and
-live either in moist earth, or the mud at the bottom of ponds. We
-find among the footless Annulata two well-known genera, namely, the
-Earth-worm and the Leech.</p>
-
-<h4><a name="EARTH_WORM" id="EARTH_WORM"></a><span class="smcap">The Common
-Earth-Worm</span>,<br />(<i>Lumbricus terrestris</i>.)</h4>
-
-<p>The body of the Earth-worm is composed of a great number of narrow
-rings, and along each side are four rows of very small, short,
-silk-like bristles, of a substance partly horny and partly shell-like.
-These bristles are placed on the edges of the rings, and it is by the
-alternate contraction and expansion of these rings that the worm is
-enabled to move along, the little bristles acting like hooks, and so
-forming various fixed points of resistance or <i>fulcra</i>, upon which the
-animal can rest at each movement forwards. The organization of the
-Earth-worm is very simple, the intestinal canal for the food being a
-simple straight tube, except in one part of its length, where a kind
-of gizzard is found, which answers the purpose of a stomach. It is
-supposed to feed upon the vegetable substances it finds in the earth.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figright">
-    <img src="images/i_104.jpg" alt="" width="75" height="83" />
-</div>
-
-<p>The hole, or burrow, formed in the earth by the worm, always has two
-openings, one by which it enters, and by which it throws out the
-dirt which is removed during the progress of its excavation, and the
-other by which it sometimes leaves its burrow, so that the hole made
-by the animal would be much in this form, descending at <span class="smcap">a</span>,
-and reaching the surface by <span class="smcap">b</span>. It has been said, that the
-Earth-worm, if divided by the spade or otherwise, will unite again and
-live; the foundation for this appears to be the more probable fact,
-that, when divided, that portion of the animal in which the head is
-placed may, perhaps, survive the mutilation, and ultimately again
-become a perfect creature.</p>
-
-<p>Although worms, after wet weather, sadly disfigure our gravel walks,
-they are, at the same time, useful gardeners, loosening the earth round
-the roots of plants, and thus rendering it more capable of receiving
-the small fibres of the roots. During the Winter they penetrate very
-deeply into the ground, and remain, according to Latreille, rolled up
-in a kind of nest, protected from injury by the discharge of <i>mucus</i>,
-which is furnished by the pores of their body.</p>
-
-<p>The Earth-worm appears to have been a considerable favourite with
-the author of the <i>Journal of a Naturalist</i>; among other remarks,
-he observes, “There is another creature, and that a very important
-one in the operations of nature, that is surrounded by dangers,
-harassed, pursued incessantly, and becomes the prey of all; the common
-Earth-worm. This animal, destined to be the natural manurer of the
-soil, and the ready indicator of an approved staple, consumes on the
-surface of the ground, where they soon would be injurious, the softer
-parts of decayed vegetable matter, and conveys into the soil the
-more woody fibres, where they moulder and become reduced to a simple
-nutriment, fitting for living vegetation. The parts consumed by them
-are soon returned to the surface, whence dissolved by frosts, and
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span>
-scattered by rains, they circulate again in the plants of the soil,</p>
-
-<p class="center">Death still producing life.</p>
-
-<p>“Thus eminently serviceable as the Worm is, it yet becomes the prey
-of various orders of the animal creation, and perhaps is a solitary
-example of an individual race being subjected to universal destruction.
-The very emmet seizes it when disabled, and bears it away as its
-prize. It constitutes throughout the year the food of many birds;
-fishes devour it greedily; the hedgehog eats it; the mole pursues it
-unceasingly in the pastures, along the moist bottoms of ditches, and
-burrows after it through the banks of hedges, to which it retires in
-dry seasons. Secured as the Worm appears to be by its residence in the
-earth, from the capture of creatures inhabiting a different element,
-yet many aquatic animals seem well acquainted with it, and prey on it
-as a natural food, whenever it falls in their way: frogs eat it, and
-even the great water-beetle I have known to seize it, when the bait of
-the angler, and it has been drawn up by the hook. Yet notwithstanding
-this prodigious destruction of the animal, its increase is fully
-commensurate to its consumption, as if ordained the appointed food of all.</p>
-
-<p>“Worms, generally speaking, are tender creatures, and water remaining
-over their haunts for a few days, drowns them. They easily become
-frozen, when a mortification commences at some part, which gradually
-consumes the whole substance, and we find them on the surface a mass
-of jelly. Their retiring deeper into the soil is no bad indication of
-approaching cold weather; but no sooner is the frost out of the ground,
-than they approach the surface.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>“Earth-worms do considerable mischief to the floriculturist by drawing
-the young plants, immediately after they are transplanted, into
-the earth. In the drainage of lands they are of essential service,
-penetrating the clay that lies beneath the vegetable mould in every
-direction, and thus forming numerous small canals to carry off the
-water into the deep trenches dug by the agriculturist.” The author we
-have already quoted, after concluding this account of the Worm, says,
-“I would advocate the cause of all creatures, had I the privilege of
-knowing the excellency of them; not willingly assigning vague and
-fanciful claims to excite wonder, or manifesting a base pride by any
-vaunt of superior observation; but when we see, blind as we are, that
-all things are formed in justice, mercy, truth, I would tell my tale
-as a man, glory as a Christian, and bless the gracious Power that
-permitted me to obtain this knowledge.”</p>
-
-<h4><a name="LEECH" id="LEECH"></a><span class="smcap">The Medicinal
-Leech</span>, (<a href="#LEECHES"><i>Hirudo medicinalis</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>The medicinal utility of the Leech seems, even in very remote times, to
-have been acknowledged by mankind, and accordingly we find it noticed
-in the writings of many ancient physicians. It was not simply applied
-to the cases in which it is at present employed, but was recommended
-to be used in many singular ways: a paste made of the ashes of a burnt
-leech was said to have the property of removing the hair from any
-part of the body. It was also employed to suck the blood from a wound
-occasioned by a mad dog, or any other rabid animal.</p>
-
-<p>At present the employment of this useful creature is confined to the
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span>
-operation of drawing blood from inflamed parts of the surface of the
-body, for which use it is eminently adapted.</p>
-
-<p>There are as many as twelve or fifteen species of these creatures,
-but only two have been employed in medicine, namely, the <i>Hirudo
-medicinalis</i>, which may be known by having six yellowish lines, or
-striæ, on its back, while the under part is of a grayish hue spotted
-with black, but, as we shall presently see, these markings are not
-uniformly found; and the <i>Hirudo troctina</i>, of a brownish colour,
-the upper part of the body marked with black spots, each of which is
-surrounded with a golden-coloured ring, the sides of a dingy yellow,
-and the under part of a yellowish green with black spots.</p>
-
-<p>The first of these species, the medicinal leech, is common throughout
-the whole of Europe, but is much more abundant in the Southern parts;
-it is generally about three inches in length. Formerly it was very
-abundant in Great Britain, but the improvements in agriculture,
-and the consequent drainage of the land, together with the great
-use made of it in medicine, have of late years rendered it of less
-frequent occurrence. On this account great quantities of leeches are
-imported; these chiefly come from Bourdeaux and Lisbon. On a moderate
-calculation, it appears that, in England, on an average, out of every
-hundred leeches employed, ninety-nine may be considered of foreign
-production; these differ from the English leech in being somewhat
-larger, and having the under part of a uniform colour, without spots.
-Some idea may be formed of the number of leeches used in medicine by
-the statement, that in the hospitals of Paris alone, 300,000 were
-employed in one year. The prevailing colour of the medicinal leech
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span>
-appears to vary according to the nature of the soil on which it is
-found. In Winter the leech retires to waters of considerable depth, and
-seeks shelter in the mud at the bottom; but in the Summer it appears
-to delight in shallow pools, basking, as it were, in the warmth of the
-sun: but if the water it frequents is in danger of being dried up by
-the Summer-heat, the leech buries itself in the mud at a considerable
-depth. Just before a thunder-storm, leeches appear much agitated,
-and rise frequently to the surface of the water; this, therefore, is
-considered by the <i>leech-gatherers</i> as a favourable time for collecting
-them.</p>
-
-<p>The property by which a leech anticipates thunder, has induced some
-persons to employ it as a species of barometer; for this purpose a
-leech is enclosed in a glass vessel half-filled with water, and the
-following is supposed to be the result. When the weather is about to be
-serene and pleasant, the leech will remain at the bottom of the vessel
-without the least movement; secondly, if it is about to rain, the
-animal will rise to the surface, and there remain until the approach of
-fine weather; thirdly, before boisterous weather, it will appear in a
-state of great agitation; fourthly, on the approach of thunder, it will
-remain out of water for several days, appearing agitated and restless,
-and so on.</p>
-
-<p>This natural barometer <i>appears</i> to answer tolerably well, if there
-is sufficient belief in its virtues on the part of the possessor, and if
-one leech only is employed; but when several of these creatures are
-enclosed in the same vessel, they do not appear to obey the same laws,
-and, consequently, their movements do not correspond with sufficient
-accuracy to render their indications of the weather of much use.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>The medicinal leech appears during its whole life to exist on the blood
-or other juices of the creatures on whose body it fixes itself; this is
-not the case with the horse-leech, which lives entirely on the <i>larvæ</i>
-of aquatic insects, worms, &amp;c., so that the common idea of the danger
-of the bite of the horse-leech is without foundation.</p>
-
-<p>The horse-leech is exceedingly voracious, not only swallowing worms,
-tadpoles, &amp;c., but even preying upon its own species. Sixty-five
-horse-leeches were placed in a glass vessel, and in five days the
-number was reduced to fifty-two, and not a vestige of those that were
-missing was to be discovered.</p>
-
-<p>The usual slowness of action of the digestive powers in all animals of
-cold blood, was curiously illustrated in the case of a horse-leech,
-which, after swallowing two small leeches of a different species,
-disgorged one of the two at the end of three days, in a living state,
-and apparently not much injured from its sojourn in so unusual a
-lodging; but it enjoyed its liberty only for a few hours, its more
-powerful companion swallowing it a second time at the end of that
-period.</p>
-
-<p>A number of this species of leech, inhabiting the water that supplied a
-trough in which a tench had been placed, fixed themselves to different
-parts of the body of the fish, and so effectually was the poor tench
-annoyed, that it was soon deprived of life. “The leeches then tore it
-(previously breaking the line of connexion between the various parts of
-the body, by inflicting a vast number of bites or wounds,) into such
-pieces as they could readily receive into the stomach, and so diligent
-were they, that in a few days nothing remained of the fish but the mere
-skeleton.”</p>
-
-<p>From these habits it would appear, that the name of Hirudo
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span>
-<i>sanguisuga</i>, (the blood-sucking leech,) has been improperly applied to
-the horse-leech; on this account a recent author has suggested the name
-of Hirudo <i>vorax</i>, (the voracious leech,) as being more suitable to its
-nature.</p>
-
-<p>Leeches are supposed to be very long-lived; two were preserved in
-confinement for eight years before they died, and the well-ascertained
-slowness of their growth seems to place their length of life beyond a
-doubt.</p>
-
-<p>On the head of the medicinal leech ten points are arranged in the form
-of a horse-shoe, thus&mdash;</p>
-
-<div class="figright">
-    <img src="images/i_110.jpg" alt="" width="75" height="81" />
-</div>
-
-<p>These are considered, by some authors, to be organs of sight, or
-eyes, while, on the other hand, it is stated by others, that they are
-merely tubercles. Lamarck was of this opinion, and, consequently, in
-describing their character, says they are without eyes.</p>
-
-<p>The teeth, or rather piercers, with which the leech is furnished, are
-three in number, of a hard gristly substance, and so placed, with
-regard to each other, as to meet in the centre at equal angles; these
-piercers are thrust into the skin when the animal attaches itself; not
-by one plunging effort, but by constantly scratching or sawing upon the
-surface (assisted at the same time by the sucking action of the lips);
-in this manner they gradually become buried in the skin, and there
-remain as long as the creature retains its hold; this movement of the
-piercers occasions the gnawing pain felt for the first two or three
-minutes after the leech has commenced operation.</p>
-
-<p>Leeches are at times so scarce and valuable, that great care has been
-taken in preserving them in a healthy state and fit for use. The
-principal art in managing them consists in placing them in vessels
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span>
-sufficiently large, keeping the water clear, and in removing those
-which are unhealthy as soon as they are discovered.</p>
-
-<p>Leeches, when applied to the skin, frequently show little inclination
-to bite, and many plans have been resorted to, to induce them to
-commence operations, such as bathing the part with milk, &amp;c.; but
-these methods may be considered useless, and the best plan appears
-to be, to wash the part clean, and this is the more necessary when
-any embrocation has been previously applied; but the surest way is to
-puncture the place slightly, so as to cause the blood to appear. If the
-little surgeon, before it is fully gorged, appears lazy and unwilling
-to proceed, it can be usually roused by being sprinkled with a little
-cold water.</p>
-
-<p>After a leech has fallen off, it is usual to sprinkle salt on it to
-induce it to disgorge the blood it has swallowed; but as the salt
-frequently blisters its body, it has been recommended by Dr. Johnson of
-Edinburgh, from whose work on the Leech, we have obtained most of the
-preceding information, to apply a small portion of vinegar to the head
-of the leech instead of salt.</p>
-
-<p>The necessity for obliging the leech to dislodge the blood it has
-swallowed, arises from the fact that it would remain in the body of
-the animal for some months before it could be all digested; but the
-most singular thing is, that, during the whole of this time, the blood
-remains in nearly as fluid a state as when it was newly swallowed<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a>.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span>
-The stomach of this creature is very curiously formed, being composed
-of a number of chambers, each chamber having a separate connexion with
-the intestinal canal, in such a manner that, at the will of the animal,
-the contents of each chamber can be emptied singly into that canal,
-through a distinct opening.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="LEECHES" id="LEECHES"></a>
-    <p class="center"><b>Fig. 1. <span class="ws16">Fig. 2.</span><span class="ws4">&nbsp;</span></b></p>
-    <img src="images/i_112.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="237" />
-</div>
-
-<p>It was long a matter of dispute as to whether leeches were produced
-from eggs or born alive, but it is now ascertained that the ova are
-developed in a singular case, having some resemblance to the cocoon
-of a silkworm. The following engraving represents this case, of its
-natural size: <a href="#LEECHES">fig. 1</a>, shows the perfect case or
-cocoon, and <a href="#LEECHES">fig. 2</a>, the same opened, with the
-young leeches contained within it; it is said that, at times, there
-are as many as thirteen or fourteen in one case. This cocoon is formed
-by the parent animal, and by it deposited in the mud or clay, which
-composes the bed of the pool it inhabits.</p>
-
-<p>The fact of the young leech being produced from these cocoons, although
-only latterly ascertained by naturalists, was long since well-known to
-the dealers in leeches on the French coast, who avail themselves of
-this knowledge of their habits, to multiply them for the purpose of sale.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span>
-“It was by these means the leech-dealers of Bretagne, and particularly
-in Finisterre, replenished the ponds in which they preserved those
-leeches which were intended for the Paris market.</p>
-
-<p>“About the month of April or May, according to the nature of the
-season, they send out labourers, provided with spades and baskets, to
-the little muddy marshes, where they are known to exist in abundance.
-These workmen then set about removing those portions of mud that are
-known to contain cocoons, which are afterwards deposited in sheets of
-water previously prepared for their reception; here the young leeches
-quit the cocoons, and are allowed to remain for six months, when they
-are removed to larger ponds.” While they remain in these ponds, the
-cattle and other animals are driven to the water, for the purpose of
-allowing the young to feed upon them, as it is supposed that they grow
-much more rapidly after having partaken of blood.</p>
-
-<p>There is a small species of leech in the island of Ceylon, which is
-more dreaded, and, from its great numbers, produces more evil, than
-even the venomous reptiles which are found in the island, including the
-terrible hooded snake itself.</p>
-
-<p>The largest of these leeches are seldom more than half an inch in
-length, and the smallest are minute indeed. This leech is a very active
-animal; it moves with great rapidity, and is even said occasionally
-to spring. It is supposed to have an acute sense of smelling, for no
-sooner does a person stop where leeches abound, that they appear to
-crowd eagerly to the spot from all quarters. In rainy weather, it is
-shocking to see the legs of men on a long march thickly beset with
-these creatures, gorged with blood, and the blood itself trickling down
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span>
-in streams. It might be supposed there be little difficulty in keeping
-them off; but they crowd to the attack, and fasten on more quickly
-than they can be removed. Their bites are much more troublesome than
-would be imagined, being very apt to fester and become sores, and, in
-persons of a bad habit of body, to degenerate into extensive ulcers,
-and ultimately cause the loss of a limb, if not that of life itself.</p>
-
-<p>Many plans have, of course, been resorted to, to avoid this pest, such
-as anointing the legs with tobacco-water, grease, &amp;c., but all to very
-little purpose, the only successful mode appearing to be, the enclosing
-the lower part of the legs in boots and pantaloons, fitting very
-closely to the limb, a very unpleasant dress in so sultry a climate.</p>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span></p>
-<div class="chapter">
-<h2><a name="CRUSTACEA" id="CRUSTACEA"></a>CLASS CRUSTACEA.</h2></div>
-
-<p>The arrangement of the Crustacea in systems of natural history
-has undergone numerous changes; they were placed by Linnæus among
-the insects:&mdash;others considered them to have more analogy to the
-spiders. Lamarck was the first who made the Crustacea an independent
-<span class="smcap">CLASS</span> forming two <i>orders</i>, which he
-has named after the arrangement of the branchiæ, or gills, by which
-they breathe, namely,&mdash;the <i>Crustacea homobranchiæ</i>, the
-distinguishing marks of which he describes in this manner: branchiæ
-hidden under the lateral margins of a kind of cuirass, covering the
-body of the animal, with the exception of the tail; the mandibles
-always furnished with feelers, the eyes placed on footstalks, the head
-not distinct from the trunk, and possessing ten feet to assist them in
-their movements. Secondly, the <i>Crustacea heterobranchiæ</i>, in which
-the branchiæ are external, in various situations, but never under the
-lateral margin of a cuirass; they are either under the belly or the
-tail, adhering to the feet, or confounded with them: the eyes are in
-general fixed, <i>sedentary, not on footstalks</i>.</p>
-
-<h3><a name="HOMOBRANCHIAE" id="HOMOBRANCHIAE"></a><i>ORDER CRUSTACEA HOMOBRANCHIÆ</i>,<br />
-(<i>Shell-Fish with concealed gills.</i>)</h3>
-
-<p>The first of these orders, the <i>homobranchial</i> Crustacea, includes most
-of the larger kinds of shell-fish, as, for instance, crabs, lobsters,
-and cray-fish; shrimps and prawns are also in this division.</p>
-
-<p>Their organization is much more perfect than that of the other order,
-and, according to Lamarck, it is among these animals that the last
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span>
-appearance of the organ of hearing is seen, in tracing the animal
-kingdom from the most perfect animals to those whose formation is
-apparently less complex.</p>
-
-<p>The body of these creatures appears to be composed of only two
-principal parts, the body and the tail; for the head is so intimately
-united and confounded with the trunk, as to appear to be merely a
-portion of it. The two eyes are fixed at the top of two moveable
-supports, and are placed in a hollow prepared for their reception, on
-each side of a projecting portion of the shell that covers the head.
-The antennæ, which are usually four in number, are placed about this
-spot; they are inserted beneath the stems that support the eyes. The
-two outermost of these antennæ are generally the longest.</p>
-
-<p>The branchiæ, or organs by which they breathe, assume a form somewhat
-pyramidical, arranged like a series of leaves, or the web of a feather;
-they are placed in the interior of the shell along each side, and are
-so arranged as to adhere to the roots of the feet, so that each of
-these feet has a hidden branchia attached to its base.</p>
-
-<p>The mouth is composed of a fleshy lip, projecting between the
-mandibles; of two hard triangular mandibles, more or less notched at
-their extremity, and each having a kind of feeler inserted on the upper
-part; they also possess a little tongue between these mandibles, at
-the root of which is the opening to the stomach: they have besides two
-pair of jaws, like leaves, the borders of which are fringed, and six
-other members, which Lamarck calls <i>foot-jaws</i>, from their bearing
-some resemblance to legs, or feet. From this it appears that the
-parts of the mouth in the Crustacea form a complicated apparatus, and
-accordingly we find the whole tribe exceedingly voracious, the Crabs in
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span>
-particular, feeding upon any animal substance, putrid or not, that may
-come within their reach. Some of the species are well known as articles
-of food, but they are not equally wholesome at all seasons of the year.</p>
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<p class="f150 u"><a name="CRAB_TRIBE" id="CRAB_TRIBE"></a><b><i>THE CRAB TRIBE.</i></b></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The genera of the Crustacea are so extremely numerous, and the
-knowledge we possess of their natural history is so scanty, being
-generally confined to their form and colour, that we shall limit
-ourselves to a description of some of the best known and most useful
-species.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="ZOEA" id="ZOEA"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_117.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="474" />
-    <p class="center"><small>THE ZOEA OF THE COMMON CRAB.</small></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The Crabs are a very numerous tribe, and contain many singular species,
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span>
-as far as regards their form, which assumes an endless variety of
-curious shapes, sometimes elegantly decorated with the most brilliant
-colours; this more particularly applies to those which are found in the
-seas of hot climates.</p>
-
-<p>The singular little animal represented in the preceding page, was
-placed by naturalists among the <i>Crustacea</i>, and considered a perfect
-animal of a distinct species; it was named <a href="#ZOEA">Zoea</a>. Mr. Thomson,
-the experienced naturalist we have already noticed, was the first to
-discover the real nature of this little creature. We cannot do better
-than to introduce the subject by the following observations of the
-author of this discovery, showing the reason so little is known
-respecting these inhabitants of the deep.</p>
-
-<p>“The sea (which is the habitation of the greater part of the
-<i>Crustacea</i>) to the casual observer offers nothing but an immense body
-of water, here and there presenting a solitary whale, or a vagrant
-troop of some of the smaller cetaceous animals; the appearance of a
-fish of almost any other kind in the track of a vessel over a vast
-expanse of the open ocean, is regarded, even by the mariner, as a
-kind of phenomenon, and creates an interest not to be appreciated by
-those who have not engaged in distant voyages. The fathomless parts
-of the ocean certainly do not offer the same profusion of inhabitants
-with the shores of islands and continents, or those parts where the
-bottom is within reach of the sounding-line, or where the surface is
-interspersed with fields of Sargosa<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a>.
-On due examination, however, we shall not fail to find it everywhere
-peopled by a considerable variety of animals, either of small size, or
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span>
-possessed of such a degree of translucency as to render them invisible,
-or scarcely perceptible, even when on or near to its surface; that it
-should possess its share of the organized beings which we see spread
-over every other part of the surface of our globe, is a conclusion we
-might arrive at indirectly, from the consideration of oceanic fishes
-and birds being observed in those parts of the ocean most distant from
-the land, and the provident care of the Deity, which we invariably
-witness throughout the domain of nature, to furnish food for all, even
-the meanest of his creatures; the more minute and invisible inmates of
-the sea, then, must constitute the food of oceanic fishes and birds.</p>
-
-<p>“Few of these marine animals, except some of the larger and most
-conspicuous, have as yet been observed, so that the investigation of
-them holds out a promise of a rich harvest to the naturalist, and
-a vast field of exploration, replete with novelty and interest; to
-accomplish this, however, he must use the greatest diligence, seizing
-every opportunity, when the way of a ship does not exceed three or
-four miles per hour, to throw out astern a small towing-net of gauze,
-bunting, or other tolerably close material, occasionally drawing it
-up, and turning it inside out into a glass vessel of sea-water, to
-ascertain what captures have been made. When a ship goes at a greater
-rate, and in stormy weather, a net of this kind may be appended to the
-spout of one of the <i>sea-water</i> pumps, and examined three or four times
-a day, or oftener, according to circumstances.”</p>
-
-<p>Although naturalists were decided in calling the <a href="#ZOEA">Zoea</a> a crustaceous
-animal, they were still far from agreeing as to the place in the system
-it ought to occupy, for the different species were so unlike each
-other: but it will be no longer a matter of surprise, when it is known,
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span>
-that this singular creature is not a perfect animal, but merely the
-larva, or imperfect state of the Common Crab. This fact is perfectly
-new, and interesting in a double point of view, not only proving their
-real nature, but also that the Crustacea are not, as described in most
-systems, animals undergoing no metamorphosis, and on that account to be
-separated from the insects, but that they do undergo a metamorphosis,
-and that of a most wonderful nature.</p>
-
-<p>It was in the Spring of 1822 that Mr. Thomson first met with Zoeæ,
-in the harbour of Cove, and that in considerable abundance; the year
-following, at the same season, one of considerable size occurred;
-this was considered a fit object for experiment, and was carefully
-supplied with fresh sea-water, from May 14th to June 15th, when it died
-in the act of changing its skin. That portion of its new form which
-it had been able to disengage was sufficient to show that it bore a
-great resemblance to the division of the Crustacea, in which the crabs
-and lobsters are placed. “This proof,” says the author, “might be
-considered incomplete, if I had not had the good fortune to succeed in
-hatching the <i>ova</i> of the Common Crab, during the month of June, which
-presented exactly the appearance of the <i>Zoea taurus</i>.”</p>
-
-<p>The Common Crab, <i>Cancer major</i>, is so well-known, that any description
-of its appearance would be useless.</p>
-
-<p>One singular part of the history of these creatures is, the power that
-is possessed by them, of changing their shell once in every year; this
-power is providentially bestowed upon them, to enable them to increase
-in size, a thing that would otherwise be utterly impossible, from the
-peculiar nature of the hard coat in which they are enclosed.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>The Crab, in order to prepare for the extraordinary change it is about
-to undergo, when shifting its shell, chooses a close and well-secured
-retreat, in the cavities of rocks, or under great stones, where it
-creeps in and remains during the operation. The time of the year
-when this occurs is about the beginning of the Summer, at which time
-their food is in plenty, and their strength and vigour in the highest
-perfection. But soon all their activity ceases; they are seen forsaking
-the open parts of the deep, and seeking some retired situation among
-the rocks, or some outlet where they may remain in safety from the
-attacks of their enemies. For some days before their change, the animal
-discontinues its usual voraciousness; it is no longer seen laboriously
-harrowing up the sand at the bottom, or fighting with others of its
-kind, or hunting its prey; it lies torpid and motionless, as if in
-anxious expectation of the approaching change. Just before casting
-its shell, it throws itself upon its back, strikes its claws against
-each other, and every limb seems to tremble; its feelers are agitated,
-and the whole body is in violent motion; it then swells itself in an
-unusual manner, and at last the shell is seen beginning to divide at
-its junctures, particularly at those of the belly, where it was before
-seemingly united. It also seems turned inside out; and its stomach
-comes away with its shell. After this, by the same operation, it
-disengages itself of its claws, which burst at the joints; the animal,
-with a tremulous motion, casting them off, as a man would kick off a
-boot that was too big for him.</p>
-
-<p>Thus, in a short time, this wonderful creature finds itself at liberty;
-but in so weak and enfeebled a state that it continues for several
-hours motionless. Indeed, so violent and painful is the operation, that
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span>
-many of them die under it; and those which survive, are in such a
-weakly condition for some time, that they neither take food, nor
-venture from their retreats. Immediately after this change, they have
-not only the softness, but the timidity of a worm. Every animal of
-the deep is then a powerful enemy, which they can neither escape nor
-oppose; and this, in fact, is the time when the dog-fish, the cod,
-and the ray, devour them by thousands. But this state of weakness
-continues for a very short time; the animal, in less than two days, is
-seen to have the skin that covers its body almost as hard as before;
-its appetite appears to increase; and, strange to behold! the first
-object, it is said, that tempts its gluttony, is its own stomach, which
-it was lately disengaged from. This it devours with great eagerness.
-In about forty-eight hours, in proportion to the animal’s strength,
-the new shell is perfectly formed, and as hard as that which was but
-just thrown aside. Previous to the time of moulting or changing their
-skin, a flat chalky stone is found on each side of the stomach; this
-is believed to form a store of earthy matter for the renewal of the
-shell. These stones, popularly known as <i>crabs’ eyes</i>, were long
-highly esteemed for their medicinal properties, but in reality are not
-superior to so much chalk.</p>
-
-<p>When completely equipped in its new dress, the dimensions of the
-old shell being compared with those of the new, it will be found
-the creature has increased in size nearly one-third, and it appears
-wonderful how the old shell could have contained it.</p>
-
-<p>Many of the cold-blooded animals have the power of reproducing a limb,
-or a portion of one, if by any accident it has been lost. This faculty
-of reproduction is possessed by the Crab in great perfection; but it has
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span>
-also a surprising power in itself, voluntarily to break off its own
-legs and claws. It seems this takes place when any serious injury, by
-bruising, has happened to any of its members. After it has received the
-hurt it bleeds, and gives signs of pain, by moving the wounded limb
-from side to side, but afterwards holds it quite still, in a direct and
-natural position, without touching any part of its body or its other
-legs with it. Then, on a sudden, with a gentle crack, the wounded part
-of the leg drops off at the next joint to the one injured; this appears
-to be more easily done with respect to the smaller legs, than in the
-case of an injury occurring to those which bear the pincers.</p>
-
-<p>When the leg has dropped off, a mucus, or jelly, is discharged on
-the remaining part of the joint next the body, which, as a natural
-styptic, instantly stops the bleeding; this gradually hardens and grows
-callous, becoming a new leg in miniature, which at every change of the
-creature’s shell increases rapidly in size.</p>
-
-<p>Crabs are naturally very quarrelsome, and with their claws fight and
-kill each other; and if by chance any of their limbs should be so
-bruised, as to have taken away from the creature the power of breaking
-off its claws, the protecting jelly is not produced, and the animal
-bleeds to death. An experiment was made to give some idea of the
-tenacious disposition of this creature, by obliging a Crab, with one
-of its great claws, to lay hold of one of its smaller ones; the silly
-creature did not distinguish that itself was the aggressor, but exerted
-its strength, and soon cracked the shell of its own small leg, which
-bled freely; but feeling itself wounded it succeeded in breaking off
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span>
-its limb in the usual manner,&mdash;still, however, holding fast for a
-length of time the part of the wounded leg which had come away.</p>
-
-<p>The curious shuffling walk of the Crab is well known, but it does not,
-as it is said, walk exactly backwards.</p>
-
-<h4><a name="LAND" id="LAND"></a><span class="smcap">The Land Crab</span>,
-(<a href="#FIG_124"><i>Gecarcinus ruricola</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>Although nearly all the Crab tribe are inhabitants of the water, there
-is a species found in the West Indies, a native of the Bahama Islands,
-whose habits are unlike those of the rest of its class, and highly
-curious in themselves.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="FIG_124" id="FIG_124"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_124.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="424" />
-    <p class="center"><small>THE LAND CRAB,</small> (<i>Gecarcinus ruricola</i>.)</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Land Crabs do not, like most other crustaceous animals, live near
-salt water, but take up their abode for the greatest part of the year
-in holes in the ground, hollow trunks of trees, and other places of the
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span>
-same description, and inhabit the mountainous districts of the islands,
-many miles from the sea-shore; but, although they make these places
-their usual haunt, it is necessary for them, once a year, to repair to
-the sea, for the purpose of depositing their spawn. They prepare for
-their annual migration about the month of April or May, and, having
-mustered in immense numbers, the procession sets forward, with all the
-regularity of an army, under the guidance of an experienced commander.</p>
-
-<p>Their destination being the sea, they instinctively move in a direct
-line to the nearest coast; no obstacle which they can possibly
-surmount will induce them to turn from their course; for if even a
-house stands in their way, they endeavour to scale its walls, in which
-they sometimes succeed; and should a window remain open, they are not
-unlikely to direct their march over the bed of some heedless sleeper.
-If, however, a large river crosses their track, they continue to follow
-its course without attempting to cross it.</p>
-
-<p>It is said, that they are commonly divided into three battalions, of
-which the first consists of the strongest and boldest males, who, like
-pioneers, march forward to clear the route. They are often obliged
-to halt for want of rain, and go into the most convenient encampment
-till the weather changes. The main body consists of females, who never
-leave the mountains till the rain has set in for some time; they then
-descend in regular order, formed into columns of the breadth of fifty
-paces, and three miles in length, and so close that they almost cover
-the ground. Three or four days after this, the rear-guard follows, a
-straggling undisciplined tribe, consisting of males and females, but
-neither so robust nor vigorous as the former parties. The night is
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span>
-their chief time of proceeding. When terrified, they march back in a
-confused manner, holding up their nippers and clattering them loudly,
-to intimidate their enemies. Their general food consists of vegetables;
-but if any of their companions should become maimed, and unable to
-proceed, they are greedily devoured by the rest.</p>
-
-<p>After a march of two, and sometimes three months, in this manner,
-they arrive at their destined spot on the sea-coast; they immediately
-enter the water, and after the waves have washed over them several
-times, retire to holes in the rocks, and other hiding-places, where
-they remain until the period of spawning. They then once more seek
-the water, and, shaking off their eggs, leave them to the chance of
-being hatched, or devoured by tribes of hungry fish, who have already
-repaired to the spot in countless shoals, in expectation of their
-annual treat. The eggs that escape are hatched under the sand; and,
-soon after, millions at a time of the little Crabs are seen quitting
-the shore, and slowly travelling up to the mountains. The old ones,
-however, are not so active to return: they have become so feeble and
-lean, that they can hardly crawl about. Most of them, therefore, are
-obliged to continue in the flat parts of the country till they recover;
-making holes in the earth, into which they creep, and cover themselves
-up with leaves and dirt; here they throw off their old shells, and
-continue almost without motion for about six days, during which time
-they become so fat, as to be considered delicious food. In about six
-weeks, the new shell has become tolerably hard, and the creatures may
-be seen slowly returning to their mountain-haunts. In some of the
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span>
-sugar-islands, it is said they form no inconsiderable portion of the
-food of the negroes, who are extremely dexterous in their mode of
-seizing them, so as to avoid their nippers.</p>
-
-<h4><a name="HERMIT" id="HERMIT"></a><span class="smcap">The Hermit, or Soldier Crab</span>,<br />
-(<a href="#FIG_127"><i>Pagurus bernhardus</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>This singular species of Crab has obtained its name from its habit of
-remaining, as it were, secluded, in any empty shell, or hole of a rock,
-it may fancy.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="FIG_127" id="FIG_127"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_127.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="340" />
-    <p class="center"><small>THE HERMIT CRAB,</small> (<i>Pagurus bernhardus</i>.)</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The hinder part of its body, particularly the tail, being constantly
-secure from injury, has its covering reduced to almost a membranous
-state, while the tail, which assists the other species in swimming, is
-almost obliterated; but in those which have chosen a shell for their
-hermitage, some hook-like appendages are observed, which enable them to
-maintain a secure hold of their borrowed dwelling. When the body has
-grown too large for the shell occupied by the animal, it is obliged to
-seek another of a larger size. The numerous combats they enter into
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span>
-when seeking a new dwelling, have caused this animal to receive the
-additional name of the Soldier Crab.</p>
-
-<p>“The <a href="#FIG_127">Soldier</a> when about to seek a new habitation,
-is still seen,” says an amusing writer, “in its own shell, which it appears
-to have considerably outgrown; for a part of the naked body is seen at the
-mouth of it, which the habitation is too small to hide. A shell,
-therefore, is to be found, large enough to cover the whole body;
-and yet not so large as to be unmanageable and unwieldy. To answer
-both these ends is no easy matter, nor the attainment of a slight
-inquiry. The little Soldier is seen busily parading the shore, along
-that line of pebbles and shells that is formed by the extremest wave;
-still, however, dragging its old incommodious habitation at its tail,
-unwilling to part with one shell, even though a troublesome appendage,
-till it can find another more convenient. It is seen stopping at one
-shell, turning it and passing it by, going on to another, contemplating
-that for a while, and then slipping its tail from its old habitation,
-to try on a new. This, also, is found to be inconvenient; and it
-quickly returns to its old shell again. In this manner, it frequently
-changes, till at last it finds one light, roomy, and commodious: to
-this it adheres, though the shell be sometimes so large as to hide the
-body of the animal, claws and all.”</p>
-
-<p>Yet it is not till after many trials, and many combats also, that the
-Soldier is thus completely equipped; for there is often a contest
-between two of them for some well-looking favourite shell, for which
-they are rivals. They both endeavour to take possession; they strike
-with their claws; they bite each other, till the weakest is obliged to
-yield, by giving up the object of dispute. It is then that the victor
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span>
-takes possession, and parades in his new conquest three or four times
-back and forward, upon the strand, before his envious antagonist.</p>
-
-<p>When this animal is taken, it sends forth a feeble cry, endeavouring
-to seize the enemy with its nippers; which if it fasten upon, it will
-sooner die than quit the grasp. The wound is very painful, and not
-easily cured.</p>
-
-<p>On the English coasts the Hermit Crab is generally found in the shell
-of the whelk, or when of a small size in that of the periwinkle; they
-not unfrequently, however, remain in some cranny of a rock, or under
-the protecting cover formed by a group of pebbles, in the interstices
-of which they hide themselves.</p>
-
-<p>The ancients were well acquainted with the <a href="#FIG_127">Soldier Crab</a>,
-as is evident from the following translation of the lines of one of their poets:</p>
-
-<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
-<span class="i0">The Soldier Crabs unarmed by nature, left</span>
-<span class="i0">Helpless, and weak, grow strong by harmless theft.</span>
-<span class="i0">Fearful they crawl, and look with panting wish</span>
-<span class="i0">For the cast crust of some new-covered fish;</span>
-<span class="i0">Or such as empty lie, and deck the shore,</span>
-<span class="i0">Whose first and rightful owners are no more.</span>
-<span class="i0">They make glad seizure of the vacant room,</span>
-<span class="i0">And count the borrowed shell their native home;</span>
-<span class="i0">Screw their soft limbs to fit the winding case,</span>
-<span class="i0">And boldly herd with the crustaceous race.</span>
-<span class="i0">But when they larger grow they fill the place,</span>
-<span class="i0">And find themselves hard-pinched in scanty space,</span>
-<span class="i0">Compelled, they quit the roof they loved before,</span>
-<span class="i0">And busy search around the pebbly shore,</span>
-<span class="i0">Till a commodious roomy seat be found,</span>
-<span class="i0">Such as the larger shell-fish living owned.</span>
-<span class="i0">Oft cruel wars contending soldiers wage,</span>
-<span class="i0">And long for the disputed shell engage;</span>
-<span class="i0">The strongest here the doubtful prize possess,</span>
-<span class="i0">Power gives the right, and all the claim confess.</span>
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span>
-</div></div></div>
-
-<h4><a name="LOBSTER" id="LOBSTER"></a><span class="smcap">The Lobster</span>,
-(<i>Astacus europæa</i>.)</h4>
-
-<p>The well-known and delicious shell-fish, the Lobster, is found in great
-abundance in all the northern parts of Europe. The north of Scotland
-is famous for the Lobster, but it is still more plentiful on the coast
-of Norway. The crab is more frequently found in shallow water, but the
-Lobster prefers those spots where the water is of considerable depth.
-The methods of taking Lobsters are various,&mdash;the most usual is by means
-of what are called Lobster-pots; these are a sort of trap, formed of
-twigs, and baited with garbage; they are made like a wire mouse-trap,
-so that when the Lobsters get in there is no possibility of returning.
-These pots are fastened to a cord, and sunk in the sea, their place
-being marked by a buoy. Another method of taking them is by means of a
-kind of bag-net, baited with animal substances. This fishery is only
-carried on in the night. They are brought in vast quantities to the
-London market from the Orkneys and from the Norway coast.</p>
-
-<p>Lobsters are much alarmed at the noise of thunder, or any other
-sudden shock; the consequence of which is, that in their fright, they
-frequently cast their claws. This also often happens when the poor
-creatures are thrown into the boiling-pot. As these animals frequent
-clear water, their habits have been more noticed than those of the
-crab. Their mode of feeding is sufficiently curious. In general, the
-pincers of one of the large claws are furnished with knobs, while the
-other large claw is more like a saw on its edge; holding, then, its
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span>
-food in the knobbed claw, it dexterously pulls it to pieces with the
-other. Their movements in the water are exceedingly graceful and
-lively, and they are capable of darting forward to a considerable
-distance with the rapidity of the flight of a bird. Their colour, when
-in their native element, is not black as might be imagined, but a
-beautiful deep blue.</p>
-
-<p>A whimsical idea of the horror Lobsters are said to have of pigs, seems
-to have prevailed in some parts of the Continent. It is said that in
-Brandenburgh, where the fishery is very abundant, the wagoners who
-transport them by land are obliged to keep watch during the night, to
-prevent swine from passing the wagon, for if one only was to go by,
-they say, not a single Lobster would be alive in the morning!</p>
-
-<h4><a name="CRAY_FISH" id="CRAY_FISH"></a><span class="smcap">The River Cray-Fish</span>,
-(<i>Potamobius fluviatilis</i>.)</h4>
-
-<p>The fresh-water Cray-fish very much resembles the lobster in
-appearance, but is considerably broader in its proportions. It is
-commonly found in the tributary streams of large rivers, inhabiting the
-banks, in which it burrows, and feeding on any animal substance that
-may happen to come in its way.</p>
-
-<p>The Cray-fish is taken in various ways, sometimes by the hand, which
-is thrust into the holes in which they burrow. Another method is thus
-described:&mdash;</p>
-
-<p>Procure a dozen little rods, about five feet in length, and the
-thickness of the thumb,&mdash;split them at the smallest end, and by way of
-bait, place a frog, or a piece of putrid flesh in the cleft; take then
-the rods by their thickest end, and hold the bait at the entrance of
-the little holes where you suspect your prey to be; if they are there,
-they will generally come out to seize the bait. As soon as you perceive
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span>
-them, hold a small landing-net underneath, and raise the bait suddenly,
-and the Cray-fish will either be brought up along with the bait, or
-will fall back into the net.</p>
-
-<p>Another method noticed, consists in first burying a dead cat, or a
-hare, in a dunghill, for eight days, and then placing it in the midst
-of a bush of tangled thorns and brambles, which is thrown into the
-water, in the place frequented by the Cray-fish. After it has remained
-there a few hours it may be drawn up, when the shell-fish will be found
-partaking of their delicate fare, and the tangled bush will effectually
-prevent their escape.</p>
-
-<h4><a name="SHRIMP" id="SHRIMP"></a><span class="smcap">The Phosphorescent
-Shrimp.</span></h4>
-
-<p>The luminous appearance of the ocean at night is a fact well-known to
-all who have been a voyage by sea; and it has been ascertained, that
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span>
-the causes of this beautiful phenomenon are the phosphorescent
-properties which are possessed by many of the smaller inhabitants
-of the deep. Among these, the little animal, figured above, is very
-frequently met with.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_132.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="356" />
-    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Noctiluca Banksii</span> magnified.</p>
-    <p class="center space-below2">The line above shows the natural length.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The light of this creature, which is very brilliant, appears to issue
-from every part of the body; but in another crustaceous animal, found
-by Captain Tuckey, in the Gulf of Guinea, the luminous property resided
-in the brain, which, when the animal was at rest, resembled a most
-brilliant amethyst, about the size of a large pinhead; from this there
-started, when it moved, flashes of a brilliant silvery light.</p>
-
-<p>The author we have lately quoted, says,&mdash;</p>
-
-<p class="blockquot2">“Meditating upon this subject, I think it not improbable,
-that the Deity, who has done nothing in vain, and whose omniscience extends to
-every epoch, foreseeing that man would invent the means of tempting the
-trackless ocean, and explore the most distant regions of our planet,
-has given it as one means of rendering his nights less gloomy, and
-of diminishing the number of his dangers; especially, if we consider
-that this luminosity is seen only in the night-season,&mdash;is vivid in
-proportion to the darkness, disappearing even before the feeble light
-of the moon,&mdash;and also that it increases with the agitation of the sea,
-so that, during the prevalence of storms, it greatly diminishes the
-dense gloom which at such times is often impenetrable to the moon, and
-the stars, throws such a light upon the ship and rigging as to enable
-sailors to execute their allotted tasks with certainty, and at all
-times points out to the cautious mariner the lurking danger of sunken
-rocks, shoals, and unknown coasts, by the phosphorescent, or snowy
-appearance which it gives to the breakers, so as to render them visible
-at a considerable distance.”</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span></p>
-
-<h4><a name="OPOSSUM" id="OPOSSUM"></a><span class="smcap">The Opossum Shrimp</span>,
-(<a href="#FIG_134"><i>Mysis chamæleon</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>This small species of Shrimp, although it has much the same outward
-appearance as the common shrimp, except that it is considerably
-smaller, is, when duly examined, one of the most singularly-formed
-creatures of the class to which it belongs. It is found in tolerable
-abundance along the British coasts, but the northern seas literally
-swarm with them; there, in spite of their small size, they are destined
-to become the food of the stupendous whale, whose enormous mouth
-encloses myriads at a time.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="FIG_134" id="FIG_134"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_134.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="461" />
-    <p class="center"><i>Mysis chamæleon.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span>
-The Opossum Shrimp belongs to a group of crustaceous animals which have
-been called fissipeds, (<i>split-feet</i>,) on account of each of their
-feet being divided nearly throughout its whole length; the inner limb
-being constructed for progression and the seizing of their prey, and
-the outer for swimming and giving that motion to the water which is
-essential to the organs of breathing, which are, as it were, wrapped
-round the base of each limb, and fully exposed to the action of the
-element. In the other Crustacea, which they most nearly approach, such
-as shrimps, prawns, &amp;c., there is a single row of five feet on each
-side: but the genus we are now describing possesses as many as four
-rows of feet, each containing eight, so that in all, the number of feet
-amounts to as many as thirty-two,&mdash;sixteen adapted for swimming, and
-sixteen for seizing their prey. In consequence of this organization,
-the Shrimps seek their food in the sands at the bottom, while the
-present genus frequent the surface.</p>
-
-<p>The most singular portion of their formation, and that to which they
-are indebted for a name, is a kind of pouch which the female possesses,
-fixed beneath the body, and formed of two concave pieces of shell; this
-pouch, which is very capacious, considering the size of the animal, is
-destined to receive the eggs, which are deposited in it, enveloped in
-a kind of jelly-like substance, most probably forming the food of the
-young when first hatched. As fast as the young assume the lengthened
-form of the perfect animals, they are found to arrange themselves in
-this pouch closely and regularly side by side, with their heads towards
-the breast of the mother. After this manner they lie closely compacted
-together, and present a perfectly symmetrical arrangement, easily
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span>
-observed from the translucency of the valves of the pouch, and the
-large size and blackness of their eyes. The males of the Opossum Shrimp
-are not so numerous as the females, and are without the singular pouch
-we have described.</p>
-
-<p>We have already noticed the fact of these Shrimps being the food of the
-Greenland whale, in the northern seas, but in these climates they serve
-as food for herrings.</p>
-
-<p>It is in looking closely into the structure of these little animals
-that we see the perfection of the Divine Artist. Nature’s greater
-productions appear coarse indeed to these elaborate and highly-finished
-master-pieces, and in using more and more powerful magnifiers we still
-continue to bring new parts and touches into view. If, for instance,
-after observing one of their members with the naked eye, which has
-informed us that the part we have been examining is composed but of one
-piece, we employ a magnifying glass with a low power, the same part
-appears jointed, or composed of several pieces articulated together.
-Employing a higher magnifier, it appears fringed with long hairs,
-which, on further scrutiny, seem to be themselves fringed with hairs
-still more minute; many of these minute parts also, are evidently
-jointed, and perform sensible motions. But what idea can we form of the
-various muscles which put these parts in movement, of the nerves which
-actuate them, and the vessels which supply them with the nourishment
-necessary for growth and support, and which we know, from comparison
-with other creatures, they must possess!</p>
-
-<p>The <a href="#FIG_134">Opossum Shrimps</a>, we have seen, are the prey of the larger
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span>
-inhabitants of the deep; but they, in their turn, destroy others that
-are smaller than themselves,&mdash;seizing upon every animal substance they
-are able to manage that comes within their reach, and, if placed in a
-vessel of sea-water by themselves, devouring each other.</p>
-
-<p class="space-below2">The species represented in the engraving has
-been called the <i>Mysis chamæleon</i>, from its colour varying according to
-the substances on which it feeds, through all the gradations of gray,
-black, brown, and pink.</p>
-
-<h3><a name="HETEROBRANCHIAE" id="HETEROBRANCHIAE"></a><i>ORDER CRUSTACEA HETEROBRANCHIÆ.</i></h3>
-
-<p class="center">(<i>Crustacea with Organs of Breathing variously<br />
-placed, never concealed.</i>)</p>
-
-<p>The Crustacea which form this order differ much more from each other
-than those which are arranged in the last order, and consequently we
-find among them some very singular in their outward formation. Few of
-the species appear to be used as food by mankind, but they constitute a
-great portion of the nourishment of fishes and other inhabitants of the
-water. They are at times used by fishermen as bait. Many of them are
-very minute, and form most excellent objects for the microscope. They
-have been divided into several sections, according to their outward
-form; but as so little is known of their habits, we shall confine
-ourselves to a description of some of the best known.</p>
-
-<h4><a name="SQUILL" id="SQUILL"></a><span class="smcap">The Spotted Squill</span>,
-(<a href="#FIG_138"><i>Squilla maculata</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>The Squill seems to form a connecting link between the last and present
-order. It is the only genus of the heterobranchial Crustacea in which
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span>
-the eyes are placed on footstalks; the head, instead of being distinct,
-appears in a great measure drawn into the corslet. It has been called
-the Sea Mantis, from its bearing some resemblance to an insect of that
-name, on account of the singularly-formed hooks with which two of its
-foot-jaws are armed.</p>
-
-<p>The species shown in the engraving is found in the Indian Seas; it is
-the largest of the genus.</p>
-
-<p>The shell with which these creatures are covered has very little
-consistence, more resembling hardened skin than shell. They frequent
-the sandy bottom of the sea.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="FIG_138" id="FIG_138"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_138.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="427" />
-    <p class="center"><i>Squilla maculata.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>There is a small species which is found in fresh water, in which the
-young, after the eggs are hatched, remain for some time in shelter
-under the plates with which the body of the mother is covered.</p>
-
-<h4><a name="CLOPORTUS" id="CLOPORTUS"></a><span class="smcap">The Common Cloportus</span>,
-(<a href="#FIG_139"><i>Cloportus ascellus</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>This animal is very common upon old walls and under stones. It is
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span>
-somewhat like the wood-louse, but more flat; it is essentially a
-dweller on the land, but it cannot exist except in damp places, where
-the moisture is sufficient to keep its branchiæ pliable; it belongs to
-a group of small Crustacea known by the name <i>Oniscus</i>. Some, as we see
-in the present instance, frequent the land, but the greater portion
-inhabit the water.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="FIG_139" id="FIG_139"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_139.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="283" />
-    <p class="center"><i>Cloportus ascellus.</i></p>
-    <p class="center">(Fig. 1, much magnified; fig. 2, natural size.)</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Among those which inhabit the latter element, there is a minute species
-which is very injurious to timber. It excavates a cylindrical hole for
-its dwelling, and increases in number so rapidly, that in a few years
-timber which is covered with water is rendered useless. The temporary
-wood-work used during the time the Bell-Rock Lighthouse was in the
-course of erection, was destroyed, to a great extent, by this little
-creature. When the wood had been under water for three years, beams ten
-inches square were reduced to seven inches; at the rate of one inch
-a year. Another species, <i>Cymothoa</i>, attaches itself to the backs of
-different species of fishes, living upon the juices of their body.</p>
-
-<p>A crustaceous animal nearly allied to this last is described in the
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span>
-fifth volume of the <i>American Philosophical Transactions</i>; it is
-accompanied by engravings which we have copied, but the animal is
-not drawn with sufficient accuracy to be referable to any particular
-species; by this account it appears that, instead of attaching itself
-to the body of the fish, the parasite makes safe its lodgement on the
-roof of the mouth. The author thus describes it.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_140_a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="411" />
-    <p class="center"><i>Head of Alewife.</i></p>
-    <p class="center">Part of lower jaw removed to show the insect.</p>
-</div>
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_140_b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="195" />
-    <p class="center">The insect seen from above.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span>
-“Among the fish that at this early season of the year (February) resort
-to the waters of York River, in Virginia, the Alewife, the Oldwife,
-called also the Bay Alewife, arrives in very considerable shoals, and
-in some seasons their number is almost incredible. They are fully of
-the size of a large herring, and are principally distinguished from the
-herring by a bay or red spot, above the gill-fin. They are, when caught
-from March to May, full-roed and fat, and at least as good a fish for
-the table as the herring.</p>
-
-<p>“In this season, each of these Alewifes carries in her mouth an insect
-about two inches long, hanging with its back downwards, and firmly
-holding itself by its fourteen legs to the palate.</p>
-
-<p>“It is with difficulty it can be separated, and never, perhaps, without
-injury to the jaws of the fish. The fishermen, therefore, consider
-the insect as essential to the life of the fish; for when it is taken
-out, and the fish is again thrown into the water, he is incapable
-of swimming, and soon dies. I endeavoured in numerous instances to
-preserve both the insect and the fish from injury, but was always
-obliged, either to destroy the one or injure the other.</p>
-
-<p>“I have sometimes succeeded in taking out the insect in a brisk and
-lively state. As soon as he was set free from my grasp, he immediately
-scrambled nimbly back into the mouth of the fish and resumed his
-position. In every instance he was disgustingly corpulent and
-unpleasant to handle, and it seemed that, whether he had obtained
-his post by force or favour; whether he be a traveller or constant
-resident, or what else may be his business where he is found, he
-certainly fares sumptuously every day.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>“The fish whose mouth he inhabits, comes about the same time with the
-shad into the rivers of Virginia from the ocean, and continues to
-travel upwards from the beginning of March to the middle of May. As
-long as they are caught on their passage up the river, they are found
-fat and fall of roe. Every fish which I saw had the Oniscus in his
-mouth, and I was assured, not only by the more ignorant fishermen, but
-by a very intelligent man who came down now and then to divert himself
-with fishing, that in forty years’ observation he had never seen a Bay
-Alewife without the louse.”</p>
-
-<p>The Oniscus itself, as the author states, is not without its enemies,
-many of them being caught with two or three leeches attached to their
-body, and adhering so closely that their removal cost them their heads.</p>
-
-<h4><a name="MOLUCCA" id="MOLUCCA"></a><span class="smcap">The Molucca Crab</span>,
-(<a href="#FIG_143"><i>Polyphemus gigas</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>Why the singular creature here represented should have the name
-Polyphemus given to it, is hard to guess. Polyphemus, as every
-schoolboy knows, was the fabled giant overcome by Ulysses, who is
-represented as having one eye in the centre of his forehead; whereas,
-this creature has two eyes and one horn. It is interesting from its
-being so nearly allied to many very minute species.</p>
-
-<p>The Polyphemus sometimes reaches the length of two feet; there are but
-two species, which only differ from each other in the shape of their
-buckler. That we have represented is found in the Indian Ocean, and has
-been called the Molucca Crab.</p>
-
-<p>The tail, or rather the horn, of the Polyphemus, is greatly dreaded by
-the fishermen, from the idea that its wound is venomous. The natives
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span>
-employ it to point their arrows, and as they are in the habit of
-poisoning the points of these weapons, it is most likely from this
-circumstance that the idea we have noticed originated, for there is no
-other ground for the belief.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="FIG_143" id="FIG_143"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_143.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="294" />
-    <p class="center"><i>Polyphemus gigas.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>During the night-time they lie half out of the water, and are then very
-easily taken, as they appear to take but little notice of anything
-until their danger becomes imminent.</p>
-
-<p>It is but a small portion of their flesh that is considered good for
-food, but the eggs, which are very numerous, are reckoned a delicacy.</p>
-
-<p>These Crabs are in the habit of leaving the water and walking to a
-considerable distance over the wet sands,&mdash;but if incommoded by the
-sun, they hurry back as fast as they are able to their native element.
-When walking, none of their legs are visible. Most authors say that, if
-this Crab is laid on its back, it must inevitably perish, unless the
-waters return in time, but one observer asserts that it has the power
-of righting itself with the assistance of its tail.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span></p>
-
-<h4><a name="LIMULUS" id="LIMULUS"></a><span class="smcap">The Crab-like Limulus</span>,
-(<a href="#FIG_144"><i>Limulus cancriformis</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>The Limuli are found in deep ditches of fresh water, marshes, &amp;c.; they
-are frequently met with congregated together in great numbers; their
-principal food in the Spring appears to be tadpoles.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="FIG_144" id="FIG_144"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_144.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="221" />
-    <p class="center"><i>Limulus cancriformis.</i> (Natural size.)</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>“This genus,” says Lamarck, “is almost isolated among the group in
-which it is placed. Its body is covered with a great horny buckler,
-very thin, and made of a single piece, of a roundish oval form. The
-head is confounded with the trunk, and the antennæ are very short. They
-possess three eyes, two in front, and one, very small, further back.
-Their legs are very numerous,&mdash;the two in front, much the largest,
-spread out in the form of oars, and furnished at their extremity with
-silky articulated bristles.”</p>
-
-<h4><a name="FLEA" id="FLEA"></a><span class="smcap">The Water Flea</span>,
-(<a href="#FIG_145"><i>Cyclops quadricornis</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>There are as many as twelve known species of the Water Flea. That
-represented in the engraving is extremely common, and forms a most
-interesting object for the microscope. We have availed ourselves of Mr.
-Pritchard’s popular description of this curious creature.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>“The Author of Nature, to whom all things are alike easy of execution,
-as if intending to teach man a lesson of humility, and that no part of
-creation, however minute, is beneath his consideration, has conferred
-on these animals, that are barely perceptible to our unassisted vision,
-more elegance and variety of form, more richness in their colouring,
-and more beauty and exquisite finishing, than on the whale or the
-elephant, which mainly excite our admiration, by the magnitude of the
-mass of living matter they present to us.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="FIG_145" id="FIG_145"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_145.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="464" />
-    <p class="center"><i>Cyclops quadricornis.</i> (Fig. 1, highly magnified; fig. 2, natural size.)</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>“These little crustaceous animals may be found at all seasons of the
-year, near the surface of the water; they are, however, most abundant
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span>
-in July and August. I have collected great numbers of them on a warm
-day in the latter month, with a small cloth net, immersing it about an
-inch below the surface. They are mostly colourless in ponds covered
-with herbage, but in small collections of rain water, on a loamy soil,
-are of a fine rich colour.</p>
-
-<p>“The body of this creature is covered with crustaceous or shelly
-plates, which overlap each other, and admit both of a lateral and
-vertical motion between them. Their ends do not meet on the side, but
-have sufficient space between them for the insertion and play of the
-organs of respiration. The rostrum, or beak, is short and pointed: it
-is a prolongation of the first segment which forms the head. A little
-above the beak, a single eye is imbedded beneath the shell, of a dark
-crimson colour, nearly approaching to blackness. The true form of this
-organ it is difficult to determine. Mr. Baker gives it the shape of two
-kidney-beans placed parallel to each other, and united at their lowest
-extremities. When viewed laterally, it appears round, while in some
-other positions it is square.”</p>
-
-<p>The eggs are curiously placed in two bags, presenting an appearance
-similar to clusters of grapes, and of considerable magnitude, compared
-with the size of the animal. These egg-bags are seen in the engraving,
-(which represents a female,) projecting from each side of the hinder
-portion of the shell. The centre of each egg is of a deep opaque
-colour, which in some specimens is green, in others red.</p>
-
-<p>The young of the Cyclops, when first excluded from the egg, are
-extremely minute, and so different from the mother, that Müller has
-described them as forming two distinct genera.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span></p>
-
-<h4><a name="SW_FLEA" id="SW_FLEA"></a><span class="smcap">The Small Water Flea</span>,
-(<a href="#FIG_147"><i>Cyclops minutus</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>This species of the Water Flea differs from the last, in having its
-body divided into a greater number of segments; it is also much
-smaller; it is equally active with that last described, but its form
-renders it more graceful in its motions. “These little creatures,” says
-Mr. Pritchard, “seem to possess great discernment and cunning; for, if
-approached, they remain motionless on the plant on which they reside,
-in the apparent hope that they may be overlooked; but when a fit
-opportunity occurs, they suddenly bend the body, and spring away with a
-kind of vaulting leap.”</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="FIG_147" id="FIG_147"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_147.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="379" />
-    <p class="center"><i>Cyclops minutus</i>, much magnified.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>They inhabit the various species of confervæ, and may often be met
-with in great numbers on the stalks and underside of healthy duckweed,
-growing on the surface of the water. They are most numerous in April
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span>
-and May, and disappear as the heat of the season increases. They will
-not live in stagnant water containing much decomposed vegetation, and
-require, therefore, to be kept for observation in a large vessel of
-clean water. They are easily caught after a shower of rain, on the
-under surface of the duckweed, by taking out a little with a basin or
-cloth net. When found, they appear busily engaged in search of prey,
-moving about with great activity, and examining every portion of the
-plant in the most scrutinizing manner. In this pursuit the body is not
-bent as in the magnified representation in the engraving, but is kept
-in a straight crawling position. Their natural length is about the
-three hundredth part of an inch.</p>
-
-<p>The female of the last species has two outward receptacles for the
-eggs; in this there is but one, and that is placed on the under part of
-the animal near the tail.</p>
-
-<h4><a name="CYPRIS" id="CYPRIS"></a><span class="smcap">The Hairy Cypris</span>,
-(<a href="#FIG_149"><i>Cypris pubera</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>These singular little creatures are found in stagnant fresh water: they
-are very small, and, at first sight, appear like a bivalve shell. The
-animal which is enclosed in this two-valved case, opens and shuts it
-at will; when it does this, it throws out from one end of the shell
-numerous whitish hair-like members; it is by moving these that it is
-enabled to swim with considerable celerity, and it never stops until
-it meets with some object on which it can rest. Its two antennæ, which
-issue from the fore part of the shell, are long, very flexible, and
-bent backwards; their articulations are numerous, which gives them
-great freedom of motion. The movements of these antennæ contribute
-materially to the swimming powers of the creature.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>At the place where the head is united to the body, a small black point
-is seen,&mdash;this is the eye of the animal.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="FIG_149" id="FIG_149"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_149.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="218" />
-    <p class="center"><i>Cypris pubera.</i> (Fig. 1, highly magnified; fig. 2, natural size.)</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The Cypris changes its shell like the rest of the Crustacea; it is
-found in marshes where vegetable substances are growing. Sometimes they
-are so numerous, that the water appears covered with them; they are
-more usually found in Spring and Autumn than at any other part of the
-year; from this it is inferred that there are two broods in the course
-of the year.</p>
-
-<p>The drying up of marshes during the Summer heats, destroys immense
-numbers every season. It appears, however, from observation, that in
-this case, some of these tiny creatures manage to bury themselves in
-the mud, where they hermetically close their shells, and remain in a
-kind of dormant state, until rain or other causes have again filled the
-marshes with water.</p>
-
-<p>A species nearly allied to this, the <i>Artemia Salina</i>, the Lymington
-shrimp, or brine-worm, is able to live in the brine of the salt-pans,
-which is so strongly impregnated with salt, as to destroy any other
-Crustaceous animal.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>Myriads of these animalculæ are to be found in the salterns at
-Lymington, in the open tanks or reservoirs, where the brine is
-deposited previous to boiling. A pint of this brine contains about a
-quarter of a pound of salt. These tanks are called clearers, as the
-liquor becomes clear in them, an effect which the workmen attribute,
-in some degree, to the rapid and continual motion of the brine-worm,
-or the particles which cloud the liquor serving for its food; but this
-is mere conjecture. So strongly persuaded, however, are the workmen of
-this fact, that they are accustomed to transport a few of the worms
-from another saltern if they do not appear at their own. They increase
-astonishingly in the course of a few days.</p>
-
-<p>It is observable that the brine-worm is never seen in the sun-pans,
-where the brine is made by the admission of sea-water during the
-Summer, and which are emptied every fortnight; but only in the pits and
-reservoirs, where it is deposited after it is taken out of the pans,
-and where some of the liquor constantly remains, when it becomes much
-diluted with rain water. From October till May, (during which time the
-manufacture is at a stand,) a few only of the worms are visible; but at
-the approach of Summer, young ones appear in great numbers.</p>
-
-<p class="f150 space-above2"><b>THE END.</b></p>
-<p class="center"><span class="smcap">London:</span></p>
-<p class="center"><span class="smcap">John W. Parker, St. Martin’s Lane</span>.</p>
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-  <p class="center"><b>[<span class="smcap">List No. 1.</span>]</b></p>
-  <p class="f150"><b>APPROVED BOOKS FOR SCHOOLS<br /> AND FAMILIES.</b></p>
-</div>
-<hr class="r25" />
-<p class="neg-indent">Those to which a * is prefixed, are published
-under the Direction of the Committee of General Literature and
-Education of the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge.</p>
-<hr class="r25" />
-
-<p class="neg-indent"><b><span class="larger">* ENGLISH GRAMMAR</span></b>.
-By the <b><span class="larger">Rev. Dr. RUSSELL</span></b>,
-late Head Master of Charter-House School.&emsp;1<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p>
-
-<p class="no-indent blockquot2">No language can be more simple and intelligible
-than that in which the Rules of this Grammar are expressed. The
-construction of Sentences, and the force of the Prepositions and
-Conjunctions, are illustrated by examples. Emphasis is treated very
-perspicuously; and the Grammar closes with most useful Questions on the Rules.</p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">A PRACTICAL INTRODUCTION</span></b> to
-<b><span class="larger">ENGLISH COMPOSITION</span></b>;
-adapted to the education of both sexes, by the <b><span class="larger">Rev. J. EDWARDS</span></b>,
-M.A., one of the Masters of King’s College School, London.&emsp;2<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p>
-
-<p class="no-indent blockquot2">In addition to other pursuits and
-studies, the cultivation of a knowledge of English Literature is daily
-gaining ground. This, it must be acknowledged, is very desirable, but
-it is assuredly of great importance, that it should be upon a plan
-which will tend to give a vigorous and healthy tone to the mind.</p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">* THE CLASS READING
-BOOK</span></b>; adapted for Schools, and particularly designed to
-furnish Youth with Practical Information on a variety of Interesting
-Subjects. By <b><span class="larger">GEORGE LUDLOW</span></b>, one of
-the Masters of Christ’s Hospital.&emsp;3<i>s.</i></p>
-
-<p class="no-indent blockquot2">This work consists of nearly Two
-Hundred Reading Lessons, adapted either for classes or individuals.
-They are selected with a view to the communication of popular but
-sound information, on various branches of knowledge, and there is a
-department consisting of carefully selected Poems.</p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">ABBOTT’S
-READER</span></b>; a Series of Familiar Pieces, in Prose and Verse,
-calculated to produce a Moral Influence on the Hearts and Lives
-of Young Persons. By the Authors of <span class="smcap">The Young
-Christian</span>; <span class="smcap">The Corner-Stone</span>;
-<span class="smcap">The Teacher</span>, &amp;c. 3<i>s.</i></p>
-
-<p class="no-indent blockquot2">The design of this <span
-class="smcap">Reader</span> is, to exert a direct and powerful moral
-influence upon the hearts of children; such an influence as shall
-make them faithful and industrious in the improvement of their time,
-obedient and affectionate to their parents, kind towards their
-playmates, and upright and honest in their intercourse with others.
-The compilers have honestly endeavoured to exclude everything which
-they supposed would be unacceptable to any of the friends of piety and
-morality, of whatever name.</p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">* ARITHMETIC
-TAUGHT BY QUESTIONS.</span></b>&emsp;1<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p>
-
-<p class="no-indent blockquot2">The principal novelty of this
-Arithmetic consists in the <span class="smcap">Questions</span>, by
-which the learner may be enabled to examine and teach himself. At
-the same time, it is thought that many Teachers may profit by the
-facilities which the questioning affords, and learn to ground those
-whom they have been in the habit of teaching by rote.</p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">* A FIRST
-BOOK</span> on <span class="larger">GEOMETRY</span></b>, including Plane
-and Solid Geometry, and an Introduction to Trigonometry.&emsp;1<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p>
-
-<p class="no-indent blockquot2">In this work will, it is believed, be
-found all the essential Propositions of Plane and Solid Geometry. The
-method of demonstration which has been followed is that of Euclid; but,
-throughout, an attempt has been made to give it a character of greater
-simplicity, and thus to render it more generally available.</p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">THE FIGURES OF EUCLID</span>;
-with <span class="larger">QUESTIONS</span>, and a <span class="larger">PRAXIS</span> of
-<span class="larger">GEOMETRICAL EXERCISES</span></b>.
-By the <b><span class="larger">Rev. J. EDWARDS, M.A.</span></b>, of
-King’s College School, London.&emsp;3<i>s.</i></p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">* OUTLINES of GEOGRAPHY</span></b>.
- By <b><span class="larger">G. HOGARTH</span></b>.&emsp;10<i>d.</i></p>
-
-<p class="no-indent blockquot2">A comprehensive Manual of the leading
-facts in this branch of Education, carefully condensed from the best
-sources. It contains Tables of the Situations and Heights of the
-principal Mountains, and of the Lengths of the principal Rivers, a Map
-of the World, Five other Maps, and Four Plates of Costumes.</p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">* OUTLINES
-of the HISTORY of ENGLAND</span></b>. By <b><span class="larger">GEORGE
-HOGARTH.</span></b>&emsp;1<i>s.</i> 3<i>d.</i></p>
-
-<p class="no-indent blockquot2">The leading events of English History
-are related with simplicity, and their connexion traced with clearness.
-The narratives are confined to the most memorable and important events;
-and those circumstances particularly marked which have led to the
-gradual formation of the British system of government. The work is
-illustrated with many Engravings of Costumes, Views, &amp;c.</p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">* OUTLINES of ROMAN HISTORY</span></b>.
-By <b><span class="larger">GEORGE HOGARTH</span></b>.&emsp;10<i>d.</i></p>
-
-<p class="no-indent blockquot2">A complete and popular epitome of the
-History of the Rise, Progress, and Fall of the Roman Empire. It is
-embellished with a handsome Print of a Roman Triumph, and numerous
-Figures of Costumes, &amp;c.</p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">OUTLINES of GRECIAN HISTORY</span></b>.
-By the <b><span class="larger">Rev. BARTON BOUCHIER, M.A.</span></b>
-With <span class="smcap">Maps</span> and <span class="smcap">Views</span>.&emsp;1<i>s.</i></p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">* OUTLINES of SACRED HISTORY</span></b>;
-from the Creation of the World to the Destruction of Jerusalem.&emsp;3<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p>
-
-<p class="no-indent blockquot2">The design of this Work is to afford
-a condensed view of the History of both the Old and New Testaments,
-together with a brief account of the Jewish History in the interval
-between the Babylonish Captivity and the Birth of Christ, and in the
-period between Christ’s Ascension and the fulfilment of his awful
-Prophecy of the Destruction of Jerusalem and the Dispersion of the Jews.</p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">A MANUAL of ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY</span></b>,
-in which the Modern Names of Places are attached to the Ancient, and the Words
-marked with their proper quantities. By the <b><span class="larger">Rev. WILLIAM HILDYARD, M.A.</span></b>
-&emsp;2<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p>
-
-<p class="no-indent blockquot2">Geography and Chronology are, as
-it has been quaintly but truly remarked, the eyes of History, and
-the Editor’s experience in teaching (which has not been small,) has
-convinced him of the great importance of making boys perfectly familiar
-with the division of countries, and the relative situation of places,
-if ever they are expected to read the classic authors, especially the
-historians, with advantage.</p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">* OUTLINES of ASTRONOMY</span></b>.
-By the <b><span class="larger">Rev. T. G. HALL, M.A.</span></b>, Professor of Math.,
-King’s Coll., London.&emsp;10<i>d.</i></p>
-
-<p class="no-indent blockquot2">An elementary Work, intended to
-instruct, in the sublime facts of Astronomy, those who are unacquainted
-with mathematical reasoning; and to explain to them, in familiar
-language, the principal phenomena of the Heavens. The Lessons are
-illustrated by numerous Engravings.</p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">* THE ELEMENTS of BOTANY</span></b>.
-New Edition, with many Cuts.&emsp;2<i>s.</i></p>
-
-<p class="no-indent blockquot2">The principles of this beautiful and
-important science are explained in a clear and simple manner, so
-as to render the acquisition of them comparatively easy. The book
-is illustrated by numerous cuts of the different parts of plants,
-&amp;c., and the examples, when possible, are selected from our own
-wild flowers, or from those cultivated in all gardens or fields, and
-they are cited by their familiar names. A Glossary of most of the terms
-usually employed is subjoined, and an alphabetical List of the most
-useful Plants, with their botanical names, &amp;c.</p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">* MANUAL of INSTRUCTION
-in VOCAL MUSIC</span></b>, chiefly with a view to Psalmody.
-By <b><span class="larger">JOHN TURNER, Esq.</span></b>&emsp;4<i>s.</i></p>
-
-<p class="no-indent blockquot2">The author offers this work not as
-an experiment now for the first time to be tried, but as the result
-of long experience. Though chiefly designed for the use of children
-collected in large numbers, it may, with equal advantage, be adopted
-in smaller assemblages, and in the domestic circle: and may also be
-rendered serviceable to adults.</p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">EASY LESSONS
-IN MECHANICS</span></b>; with Familiar Illustrations, showing the
-practical Application of the various Mechanical Principles.&emsp;3<i>s.</i></p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">* ON the EDUCATION
-and TREATMENT of CHILDREN</span></b>.&emsp;2<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p>
-
-<p class="no-indent blockquot2"><span class="smcap">Contents</span>:&mdash;On
-the means of developing the Bodily Senses in Infancy; Early Development
-of the Affections; Early Cultivation of the Intellect; Management
-in Childhood; Amusements and Employments; Sunday; Views of Death;
-Supernatural Appearances; Politeness; Dress; Gentility; Management
-during the Teens; Views of Matrimony.</p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">* INSTRUCTIONS for
-TEACHING ARITHMETIC to LITTLE CHILDREN</span></b>.
-By the <b><span class="larger">Rev. T. V. SHORT, B.D.</span></b>&emsp;6<i>d.</i></p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">* A LITTLE READING
-BOOK for YOUNG CHILDREN</span></b>. With many Cuts.&emsp;4<i>d.</i></p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">SCRIPTURE HYMNS IN PROSE</span></b>.
-With Cuts.&emsp;6<i>d.</i></p>
-
-<p class="no-indent blockquot2">The experience of some persons inclines
-them to prefer compositions in prose, to those in verse, for the
-exercise of the infant memory. There is at least no disadvantage in
-having a choice of both.</p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">* A COLLIERY TALE,
-or VILLAGE DISTRESS</span></b>.&emsp;4<i>d.</i></p>
-
-<p class="no-indent blockquot2">The object of this little narrative is, by God’s help, to
-draw some profit from a recent calamity, which, in its
-immediate pressure upon the limited community through
-which it extended, has been most awfully severe.</p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">* VILLAGE ANNALS</span></b>;
-or, the Story of <span class="smcap">Hetty Jones</span>.&emsp;9<i>d.</i></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot2">
-<p class="no-indent">I have written this story in the
-simplest style, for the use of the children in my own neighbourhood; as
-in all the little publications of this kind I have hitherto met with,
-the language and ideas are far above the comprehension of many of the
-classes for whom they are designed.</p>
-<p class="author">C. B.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">PRETTY LESSONS
-for GOOD CHILDREN</span></b>; to which are added, <b><span class="larger">EASY
-LESSONS in LATIN</span></b>.&emsp;2<i>s.</i></p>
-
-<p class="no-indent blockquot2">The design of this little work is,
-by means of easy rhymes, to attract the attention of young children,
-and to impress upon their memories various elementary facts and moral
-sentiments which they would not otherwise remember; for, “What will a
-child learn sooner than a song?”</p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">EASY POETRY
-FOR CHILDREN</span></b>.&emsp;1<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above1"><b><span class="larger">SIMPLE STORIES
-FOR YOUNG CHILDREN</span></b>. By a <b><span class="larger">LADY</span></b>.
-With Cuts.&emsp;1<i>s.</i></p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above1"><b><span class="larger">THE CHILD’S
-VERSE-BOOK OF DEVOTION</span></b>. With Cuts.&emsp;1<i>s.</i></p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above1"><b><span class="larger">SONGS for
-CHILDREN</span></b>. With <span class="smcap">Engravings</span>.&emsp;4<i>d.</i></p>
-
-<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
-<span class="i0">In this little book you’ll find,</span>
-<span class="i0">Lessons for the infant mind;</span>
-<span class="i0">Truth conveyed in easy verse,</span>
-<span class="i0">Which the nursling may rehearse,</span>
-<span class="i0">And thus be led, by simple lays,</span>
-<span class="i0">To walk with God, and sing his praise.</span>
-</div></div></div>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">READING LESSONS</span></b>
-from the Books of Proverbs and Ecclesiastes; with Questions and Answers upon them.&emsp;4<i>d.</i></p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above1"><b><span class="larger">DAILY READINGS
-from the PSALMS</span></b>.&emsp;6<i>d.</i></p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">FAMILIAR LECTURES
-to CHILDREN</span></b>; in which the <b><span class="larger">IMPORTANT TRUTHS
-of the GOSPEL</span></b> are engagingly set forth. Edited by the
-<b><span class="larger">Rev. J. HOBART CAUNTER, B.D.</span></b>&emsp;2<i>s.</i></p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">FAITH AND PRACTICE</span></b>;
-or, The Application of Christian Principles to the Practical Duties of Life. Fourth
-Edition, improved.&emsp;1<i>s.</i></p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above1"><b><span class="larger">THE RITE of CONFIRMATION
-EXPLAINED</span></b>. By the <b><span class="larger">Rev. D. I. EYRE, M.A.</span></b>&emsp;6<i>d.</i></p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above1"><b><span class="larger">CONFIRMATION</span></b>.
-An <b><span class="larger">ADDRESS</span></b> from a <b><span class="larger">CLERGYMAN</span></b>
-to his <b><span class="larger">PARISHIONERS</span></b>.&emsp;2<i>d.</i></p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above1"><b><span class="larger">A FEW WORDS ON THE SIN
-OF LYING</span></b>. By <b><span class="larger">A LAYMAN</span></b>.&emsp;3<i>d.</i></p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">* EASY LESSONS on MONEY MATTERS</span></b>,
-for the Use of Young People.&emsp;1<i>s.</i></p>
-
-<p class="no-indent blockquot2">In this little book, care has been
-taken to convey elementary knowledge in such simple language, that,
-it is hoped, these <span class="smcap">Lessons</span> will be found
-easily intelligible even to such as have but the ordinary advantages in
-point of education; and there are few subjects on which it is, for all
-classes of people, more important to inculcate correct principles, and
-to guard against specious fallacies.</p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">* PERSIAN STORIES</span></b>;
-illustrative of <b><span class="larger">EASTERN MANNERS</span></b> and
-<b><span class="larger">CUSTOMS</span></b>.&emsp;1<i>s.</i> And,</p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent"><b><span class="larger">* PERSIAN FABLES</span></b>,
-for Young and Old. By the <b><span class="larger">Rev. H. G. KEENE, M.A.</span></b>&emsp;1<i>s.</i></p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">FIVE HUNDRED CHARADES</span></b>,
-from History, Geography, and Biography. Third Edition, revised and improved.&emsp;1<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">* INSECTS</span></b>
-and their <b><span class="larger">HABITATIONS</span></b>. A Book for Children.&emsp;1<i>s.</i></p>
-
-<p class="no-indent blockquot2">We may learn many useful lessons from
-the History of Insects; and, by observing their habits, we shall find
-that they set us an example of various good qualities.</p>
-
-<p class="no-indent"><b><span class="larger"><br />* The BOOK of ANIMALS</span></b>.
-&emsp;<b><span class="larger">* The BOOK of FISHES.</span></b><br />
-<b><span class="larger">* The BOOK of BIRDS</span></b>.
-<span class="ws3"><b><span class="larger">* The BOOK of REPTILES.</span></b></span><br />
-<b><span class="larger">* The BOOK of SHELLS</span></b>.
-<span class="ws3">Price 1<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> each.</span></p>
-
-<p class="no-indent blockquot2">The nature, habits, and uses of the
-Animals described, are presented in a correct, though simple and
-attractive form, and the little volumes will be found useful additions
-to the books for young persons, and acceptable introductions to works
-of a higher class.</p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">THE STUDENT’S
-MANUAL OF ANCIENT HISTORY</span></b>; containing Accounts of
-the <span class="smcap">Political Condition</span>,
-<span class="smcap">Geographical Situation</span>, and
-<span class="smcap">Social State</span> of the principal
-<span class="smcap">Nations Of Antiquity</span>; carefully digested from the
-Ancient Writers, and illustrated by the Discoveries of Modern Scholars
-and Travellers. By <b><span class="larger">W. C. TAYLOR, LL.D., M.R.A.S.</span></b>&emsp;10<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">* THE FAMILY HISTORY
-OF ENGLAND</span></b>, by the <b><span class="larger">Rev. GEORGE ROBERT GLEIG, M.A.</span></b>,
-with a series of <span class="smcap">Pictorial Illustrations of the
-Costumes, Architecture, Shipping</span>, &amp;c., of the successive
-periods of British History. In Eighteen Parts, at 1<i>s.</i> each,
-or in Three Volumes,&emsp;6<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> each.</p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">A POPULAR HISTORY
-OF THE REFORMATION</span></b>, in <span class="smcap">Germany</span>,
-<span class="smcap">Switzerland</span>, and <span class="smcap">Great Britain</span>;
-and of its chief Promoters, Opposers, and Victims.
-By <b><span class="larger">THOMAS FOX</span></b>.&emsp;3<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">HISTORY OF THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH</span></b>;
-from <span class="smcap">the Ascension of Jesus Christ to the Conversion of Constantine</span>.
-By the late <b><span class="larger">Dr. BURTON</span></b>. Second Edition,&emsp;6<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">THE EARLY CHRISTIANS</span></b>;
-their <b><span class="larger">MANNERS</span></b> and <b><span class="larger">CUSTOMS, TRIALS</span></b>
-and <b><span class="larger">SUFFERINGS</span></b>.
-By the <b><span class="larger">Rev. W. PRIDDEN, M.A.</span></b>&emsp;4<i>s.</i></p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">HISTORY OF THE CRUSADERS</span></b>;
-by <b><span class="larger">THOMAS KEIGHTLEY, Esq.</span></b> Two Volumes, with Engravings.&emsp;11<i>s.</i></p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">HISTORY OF MOHAMMEDANISM</span></b>,
-and the <b><span class="larger">PRINCIPAL MOHAMMEDAN SECTS</span></b>.
-By <b><span class="larger">W. C. TAYLOR, LL.D., M.R.A.S.</span></b>, &amp;c.&emsp;5<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">LIVES OF EMINENT CHRISTIANS</span></b>.
-By the <b><span class="larger">Rev. R. B. HONE, M.A.</span></b>, Rector of Hales Owen.
-Volumes I. and II., with Portraits,&emsp;4<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> each.</p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">* READINGS IN ENGLISH PROSE LITERATURE</span></b>;
-containing choice Specimens of the Works of the best English Writers; with
-<span class="smcap">Essays on English Literature</span>.&emsp;4<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above1"><b><span class="larger">* READINGS IN POETRY</span></b>;
-Selections from the Works of the best English Poets; with Specimens of the American Poets;
-Notices of the Writers; and Notes.&emsp;4<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">* READINGS IN BIOGRAPHY</span></b>;
-a Selection of the Lives of the most Eminent Men of all Nations.&emsp;4<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above1"><b><span class="larger">* READINGS IN SCIENCE</span></b>;
-being familiar <b><span class="larger">EXPLANATIONS</span></b> of Appearances and Principles
-in <b><span class="larger">NATURAL PHILOSOPHY</span></b>. With many Engravings.&emsp; 5<i>s.</i></p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">VENTOUILLAC’S RUDIMENTS</span></b>
-of the <b><span class="larger">FRENCH LANGUAGE</span></b>; or,
-<b><span class="larger">FIRST FRENCH READING BOOK</span></b>. New Edition, Revised and Corrected
-by <b><span class="larger">F. J. WATTEZ</span></b>, First Assistant French Master in King’s
-College, London.&emsp;3<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">LIVRE DE CLASSE</span></b>;
-with <b><span class="larger">ENGLISH NOTES</span></b>, by the late <b><span class="larger">L. T. VENTOUILLAC</span></b>,
-Professor of French Literature in King’s College, London.&emsp;5<i>s.</i></p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above1"><b><span class="larger">FRENCH POETRY</span></b>;
-with <b><span class="larger">ENGLISH NOTES</span></b>, by the late <b><span class="larger">L. T. VENTOUILLAC</span></b>,
-Professor of French Literature in King’s College, London.&emsp;2<i>s.</i></p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above1"><b><span class="larger">LE BOUQUET LITTERAIRE</span></b>.
-Recueil de Beautés Religieuses et Morales, de divers Auteurs. Par feu
-<b><span class="larger">L. T. VENTOUILLAC</span></b>, Professeur de Littérature Française
-au Collège Royale à Londres.&emsp;3<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">BRASSEUR’S EXERCISES</span></b>
-on <b><span class="larger">FRENCH PHRASEOLOGY</span></b>; with a Lexicon of
-<b><span class="larger">IDIOMATIC VERBS</span></b>. By the French Professor of King’s
-College, London.&emsp;3<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">The FRENCH SCHOOL CLASSICS</span></b>.
-Edited and Abridged by <b><span class="larger">MARIN DE LA VOYE</span></b>,
-French Master in the East India College, at Addiscombe.</p>
-
-<p class="no-indent blockquot2">While the necessity of introducing the
-best standard French works into our schools and families is universally
-acknowledged, serious doubts are entertained as to the propriety of
-placing the writings of some among the French authors in the hands of
-Christian youth. In order to remove all difficulties on this subject,
-the Editor has been induced to undertake a careful Abridgment of such
-works as are in most general use; and he has made it his object to
-extract from the original every word and sentence relating either
-to religion, politics, or philosophical speculation, respecting
-which Christian parents or teachers can have the least difference of
-opinion.</p>
-
-<p class="no-indent blockquot2">A purified text of the best French
-Classical Works is, therefore, now offered for the use of young
-persons of both sexes, in a state which, it is trusted, will be found
-altogether unobjectionable.</p>
-
-<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary=" " cellpadding="0" rules="cols" >
-  <tbody><tr>
-      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Telemaque.</span>&emsp;2<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></td>
-      <td class="tdl">&emsp;<span class="smcap">Pierre le Grand.</span>&emsp;2<i>s.</i></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Voyages de Cyrus.</span>&emsp;2<i>s.</i>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl">&emsp;<span class="smcap">Charles XII.</span> 2<i>s.</i></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Belisaire.</span>&emsp;1<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></td>
-      <td class="tdl">&emsp;<span class="smcap">Gil Blas Desantillane.</span>&emsp;<i>In the Press.</i></td>
-    </tr>
- </tbody>
-</table>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-<div class="chapter">
-  <p class="center">Six Volumes, at 2<i>s.</i> each, with Wood-Cuts,</p>
-</div>
-<p class="f150"><b>* THE INSTRUCTOR;</b></p>
-<p class="f90">OR,</p>
-<p class="f110"><b>PROGRESSIVE LESSONS IN GENERAL KNOWLEDGE</b></p>
-<p class="f90">A SERIES OF<br />ELEMENTARY BOOKS, ESPECIALLY ADAPTED<br />
-FOR SCHOOLS AND FAMILIES.</p>
-
-<p class="no-indent blockquot2">Under the general title of <span
-class="smcap">The Instructor</span>, is comprised a series of little
-books, by means of which children may be led through a progressive
-course of Exercises in various branches of Elementary Knowledge. These
-books may be put into the hands of such children as can readily spell
-common words, and read easy lessons.&mdash;The object of the work
-is not only to furnish reading lessons, but also to carry the pupil
-<i>forward</i>,&mdash;to impart <i>information</i>, and exercise the mind.</p>
-
-<p class="blockquot2">The first Six Volumes, in Thirty-six Numbers, contain the
-following subjects, with numerous Engravings:</p>
-
-<p class="center"><big><b>VOLUME I.</b></big> (or in Nos. 1 to 6.)<br />
-<span class="larger">TALES</span> and <span class="larger">CONVERSATIONS</span> on Familiar Subjects.</p>
-<hr class="r5" />
-<p class="center"><big><b>VOLUME II.</b></big> (or in Nos. 7 to 12.)<br />
-The <span class="larger"> HOUSE</span>. <span class="larger">MATERIALS</span>
-used in <span class="larger">BUILDING</span>.<br /><span class="larger">FURNITURE</span>.
-<span class="larger">FOOD</span> and <span class="larger">CLOTHING.</span></p>
-<hr class="r5" />
-<p class="center"><big><b>VOLUME III.</b></big> (or in Nos. 13 to 18.)<br />
-The <span class="larger">UNIVERSE</span>. The <span class="larger">THREE KINGDOMS of NATURE</span>.
-<span class="larger">THE HUMAN FORM</span>. <span class="larger">LESSONS on HEALTH.</span></p>
-
-<p class="center"><big><b>VOLUME IV.</b></big> (or in Nos. 19 to 24.)<br />
-The <span class="larger">CALENDAR</span>; The Year, Months, Weeks, Days.<br /> The <span class="larger">SEASONS</span>.
-<span class="larger">APPEARANCES</span> of <span class="larger">NATURE.</span></p>
-
-<p class="center"><big><b>VOLUME V.</b></big> (or in Nos. 25 to 30.)<br />
-<span class="larger">DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY</span>: The various Divisions of the World;
-their People and Productions; with <span class="larger">MAPS</span>.</p>
-
-<p class="center"><big><b>VOLUME VI.</b></big> (or in Nos. 31 to 36.)<br />
-<span class="larger">ANCIENT HISTORY.</span></p>
-
-<p class="center">London: JOHN W. PARKER, <span class="smcap">Publisher, West Strand</span>.</p>
-
-<hr class="full" />
-<p class="f150 u"><b>FOOTNOTES:</b></p>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
-<a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a>
-This is one of the rare exceptions to the usual plan resorted to by
-nature in the formation of a shell, as noticed in the introductory
-chapter.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
-<a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a>
- The insect from which our most beautiful scarlet dyes are prepared.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
-<a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a>
-See Book of Fishes, p. 51.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
-<a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a>
-The skin or shell with which the animal is covered before transformation.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
-<a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a>
-It has been quaintly said on the subject of depriving the leech of
-its food, that “Those persons do not consider that blood is the most
-favourite and salutary nourishment of this extraordinary creature; and
-I would ask such inconsiderate persons how they would feel themselves,
-if, immediately after eating a hearty dinner, any person was to give
-them a violent emetic.”</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
-<a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a>
-A kind of sea-weed, (<i>Fucus natans</i>.)</p></div>
-
-<hr class="full" />
-<div class="transnote bbox">
-<p class="f120 space-above1">Transcriber's Notes:</p>
-<hr class="r5" />
-<p class="indent">The illustrations have been moved so that they do not break up
-                  paragraphs and so that they are next to the text they illustrate.</p>
-<p class="indent">Old or antiquated spellings have been preserved.</p>
-<p class="indent">Typographical errors have been silently corrected but other variations
-    in spelling and punctuation remain unaltered.</p>
-</div>
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-<pre>
-
-
-
-
-
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